75727 v2 Executive Summary Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin Reconciling Economic Growth and Forest Protection ii Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin Acknowledgments Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin: Reconciling economic growth and forest protection is the output of a two-year exercise implemented at the request of the COMIFAC (regional commission in charge of forestry in Central Africa) to strengthen the understanding of deforestation dynamics in the Congo Basin. The report was written by Carole Megevand with contributions from Aline Mosnier, Joël Hourticq, Klas Sanders, Nina Doetinchem and Charlotte Streck. The modeling exercise was conducted by a team from the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), led by Michael Obersteiner and composed of Aline Mosnier, Petr Havlík and Kentaro Aoki. The data collection campaign in the six Congo Basin countries was coordinated by ONF-International under the supervision of Anne Martinet and Nicolas Grondard. The executive summary was edited by Flore de Préneuf. Maps and illustrative graphs were prepared by Hrishikesh Prakash Patel and Jeff Lecksell. The team is grateful for useful guidance provided by numerous experts and colleagues including Raymond Mbitikon, Martin Tadoum Joseph Armaté Amougou, Igor Tola Kogadou, Vincent Kasulu Seya Makonga, Deogracias Ikaka Nzami, Rodrigue Abourou Otogo, Georges Boudzanga, Kenneth Andrasko, Christian Berger and Gotthard Walser. Special thanks go to Idah Pswarayi-Riddihough, Jamal Saghir, Ivan Rossignol, Giuseppe Topa, Mary Barton-Dock and Gregor Binkert who, at different stages, helped make this initiative yield its full results. The study was coordinated by the World Bank and benefited from financial support from various donors, including the Program on Forests, the Norwegian Trust Fund for Private Sector and Infrastructure, the United Kingdom Government, the Trust Fund for Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development and the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility. The views expressed in this material, however, do not necessarily reflect the official policies and positions of the funders. Cover Photo: Andrew McConnell / Panos Executive Summary Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin Reconciling Economic Growth and Forest Protection This page intentionally left blank. Foreword 1 Foreword As global networks of trade, migration, technology, information and finances have grown in strength, speed and density over the last decades, so have our understanding and awareness of the connections that shape the world’s physical landscapes and economies. We know that policy decisions in one country can affect the way land is managed thousands of miles away. We know that greenhouse gases emitted in different sectors and in different economies influence the pace of climate change for all. And we know that vicious cycles of poverty, land degradation and food insecurity can be transformed into virtuous cycles of sustainable intensification and shared prosperity with the right interventions and incentives. Development challenges and solutions are all connected, at the local, regional and global level. Those far-reaching connections come to the fore in a new and timely study that looks at deforestation trends in the Congo Basin across sectors and beyond national borders. The study, led by the World Bank’s Africa Region Environment team with the participation of key Congo Basin country stakeholders and support from multiple donors, was informed by economic modeling complemented with sectoral analysis, as well as interactive simulations and workshop discussions. This innovative approach has already deepened our understanding of the multiple drivers of deforestation in the Congo Basin beyond the usual suspects (commercial logging) and opened political space to discuss the role of sectors such as agriculture, energy, transport and mining, in shaping the future of the Basin’s forests. This analysis, combined with recommendations which policy makers can now further refine and flesh out at the country level, could potentially help Congo Basin countries overcome some of the more severe trade-offs between growth and forest protection. If Congo Basin countries are able to minimize forest loss as their economies develop, they could “leapfrog” the steep drop in forest cover that has historically accompanied development in many countries, and make an important global contribution to climate change mitigation by reducing emissions associated with deforestation. The time is now ripe to move ahead with some of the sound “no-regrets” recommendations made by study participants and experts. Jamal Saghir Director Sustainable Development Department Africa Region World Bank Main Messages The countries of the Congo Basin face the dual challenge such as small-scale agriculture and fuelwood collection are of developing local economies and reducing poverty while currently the main causes of deforestation and degradation in limiting the negative impact of growth on the region’s natural the Basin, new threats are expected to emerge. capital, and forests in particular. A two-year study was conducted to analyze deforestation Development needs are great. Despite abundant natural dynamics in the Congo Basin and resulting greenhouse assets, between one-third and two-thirds of the population gas emissions by 2030. This study combined a modeling in different countries of the Basin hover beneath the national exercise with a qualitative analysis of trends in different poverty line, access to food is significantly inadequate, sectors, as well as a dialogue with experts from the region. and undernourishment is highly prevalent. Transportation Main results suggest that infrastructure is among the most deteriorated in the world, ƒƒDeforestation rates are likely to increase in the future to creating essentially landlocked economies within the region sustain development and poverty reduction. that considerably accrue farmers’ vulnerability to poor ƒƒIncreasing agricultural productivity is not sufficient to limit harvests. Looking ahead, the Congo Basin population is pressure on forests. expected to double between 2000 and 2030, leading to a total of 170 million people by 2030—people in need of food, ƒƒWood extraction for domestic fuelwood or charcoal energy, shelter and employment. production will continue to grow for the next few decades and could create a massive threat to forests in densely At the same time, natural assets have so far been largely populated areas. preserved, and deforestation rates in the Congo Basin ƒƒThe development of much-needed transportation are among the lowest in the tropical rainforest belt and infrastructure could lead to major deforestation by are significantly below rates in most other African regions. changing economic dynamics in newly accessible areas. The canopy has benefitted to some extent from “passive ƒƒThe pressure from formal logging is limited, but informal protection” provided by political instability and the lack of chainsaw logging is expected to progressively degrade transportation infrastructure. forests. However, this situation may change. Local and regional ƒƒMining—a largely untapped source of income and development, population increases and global demand for growth—could also lead to significant impacts when the commodities are likely to increase deforestation and forest sector develops. degradation in the Congo Basin. While subsistence activities Main Messages 3 Congo Basin countries are now at a crossroad—they are their forests. But there are already a number of “no-regrets” not yet locked into a development path that will necessarily actions that countries can take to grow along a sustainable come at high cost to forests. They can define a new path development path. toward “forest-friendly” growth. The question is how to match ƒƒParticipatory land use planning could help clarify trade- economic change with smart measures and policy choices offs among different sectors, encourage the development so that Congo Basin countries sustain and benefit from their of growth poles and corridors, and direct destructive extraordinary natural assets over the long term—in other activities away from forests of great ecological value. words how to “leapfrog” the dip in forest cover frequently ƒƒUnlocking the potential of the Congo Basin for agriculture observed in the forest transition curve (see figure 1). will not necessarily take a toll on forests: the Congo Basin This study on Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin: could almost double its cultivated area without converting Reconciling economic growth and forest protection highlights any forested areas. Policy makers should seek to target options to limit deforestation while pursuing inclusive, green agricultural activities primarily towards degraded and non- growth. Emerging environmental finance mechanisms, forested land. such as reducing emissions from deforestation and forest ƒƒIn the energy sector, putting the woodfuel supply chain degradation (REDD+) under the climate change negotiations, on a more sustainable and formal basis should stand as may provide additional resources to help countries protect a priority. More attention should be paid to responding to growing urban needs for both food and energy through intensified multi-use systems (agroforestry). Figure 1: Forest transition theory. Where Congo Basin countries stand. ƒƒBetter planning at the regional and national levels could help contain the adverse effects of transportation Congo Basin countries development, through a multi-modal and more spatially High Forest Cover/Low Deforestation efficient network. Forest-friendly growth ƒƒExpanding sustainable forest management principles to the booming and unregulated informal logging sector Forest cover would help preserve forest biomass and carbon stocks. ƒƒSetting “high standard” goals for environmental Stage 1: Undisturbed/ Stage 2: Forest frontiers Stage 3: Forests mosaics with Stage 4: Increasing forest cover through management of the mining sector could help mitigate little disturbed (high deforestation) stabilized cover (low or afforestation and reforestation adverse effects as the sector develops in the Congo forests zero deforestation) Basin. Time Source: Adapted from Angelsen, 2008. The dotted line illustrates what “forest-friendly” growth could look like. SECTION ONE Photo: Boleslaw Kubica Congo Basin Forests at a Glance 5 Congo Basin Forests at a Glance The Congo Basin spans six countries: Cameroon, the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic BOX 1: Hunger in a Land of Plenty of Congo (DRC), Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and the Although most Congo Basin countries are richly endowed with natu- Republic of Congo. It contains about 70 percent of ral resources and abundant rainfall, hunger is a serious to extremely alarming concern in all countries except Gabon (IFPRI Global Hunger Africa’s forest cover: Of the Congo Basin’s 530 million Index, 2011). Agriculture is still dominated by traditional low-input, hectares (ha) of land, 300 million are covered by low-output subsistence systems and there are tremendous gaps forest. More than 99 percent of the forested area is between actual and potential yields. Poor infrastructure isolates farm- primary or naturally regenerated forest, as opposed to ers from potential markets and growth opportunities, thereby cutting plantations, and 46 percent is lowland dense forest. off a significant proportion of the Congo Basin’s active population from the broader economy. Industrial logging represents an extensive land use Agricul- Access in the area, with about 44 million ha of forest under Poverty Nutrition tural Land Employment to Food concession (8.3 percent of the total land area), and Population at Children Agricul- Economically contributes significantly to revenues and employment. purchasing under tural land active Paved power parity age five area as population in roads as Unlike in other tropical regions, where logging activities $1.25 a day underweight % of total agriculture % of total usually entail a transition to another land use, logging in Countries % % land area % roads the Congo Basin is highly selective and extensive, and Cameroon 9.6 16.6 19.8 46.4 8.4 production forests remain permanently forested. Central African Republic 62.8 21.8 8.4 62.3 ... The Congo Basin forests are home to about 30 Congo, million people and support livelihoods for more Democratic than 75 million people from more than 150 ethnic Republic of 59.2 28.2 9.9 56.7 1.8 groups who rely on local natural resources for Congo, Republic of 54.1 11.8 30.9 31.2 7.1 food, nutritional, health, and livelihoods needs. Equatorial These forests provide crucial protein sources to Guinea ... 10.6 10.9 63.8 ... local people through bushmeat and fisheries. Gabon 4.8 8.8 19.9 25.2 10.2 Forest products, whether directly consumed or Sub- traded for cash, provide a substantial portion of Saharan local peoples’ income. Forests also constitute an Average 47.5 21.3 52.6 58.2 23.8 important safety net in countries where poverty and Source: UNDP (2012). undernourishment are highly prevalent (see box 1). 6 Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin IBRD 39552 10° 20° CENTRAL AFRICA NIGER Lake CONGO BASIN COUNTRIES Chad CHAD BOUNDARY OF THE HIGHLY FORESTED SUDAN CONGO BASIN COUNTRIES CONGO BASIN FOREST ECOSYSTEM Maiduguri Kano N'DJAMENA CITIES NATIONAL CAPITALS Maroua MAJOR ROADS 10° INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES 10° NIGERIA Garoua Sarah 30° Moundou Wau SOUTH SUDAN CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC CAMEROON R. nag a JUBA Sa Douala YAOUNDE BANGUI R. Ue Gemena l e R. gi Isiro an Lisala Bumba Ub i R. EQUATORIAL Aru wim GUINEA M LIBREVILLE ar ing KAMPALA 0° R. Mbandaka a R. Kisangani Butembo UGANDA 0° uÈ oo Og GABON CONGO Sal ong a Lo me L R. la Victoria om Goma Lake R. ami R T s hu DEMOCRATIC RWANDA apa R. KIGALI REPUBLIC Bukavu . L Luk okoro R. R. Kindu e Bandundu n i e R. OF CONGO go BUJUMBURA BURUNDI on K BRAZZAVILLE Sankuru R. Lu C w Kasongo ilu am R. Mweka a R Pointe Noire KINSHASA Kikwit . Ins u a R . Boma Matadi Kananga TANZANIA Kalemie Lake R. ATLANTIC Tanganyika K we Mbuji-Mayi K wa Con ua go nge n go Lo v Wa OCEAN Mwene-Ditu R. R. mb R. R. ni a a Lom R. Chium b e R. Lu l u a R LUANDA K as a i R Malanje . 10° R. . 10° i Lubud Likasi Kasama Kolwezi Mansa CONGO ANGOLA Lubumbashi BASIN Chililabombwe Benguela COUNTRIES Chingola Mufulira Huambo Ndola Kitwe 0 100 150 200 Kilometers Luanshaya Lubango This map was produced by the Map Design Unit of The World Bank. The boundaries, colors, denominations and any other information shown on this map do not imply, on the part of The World Bank ZAMBIA Group, any judgment on the legal status of any territory, or any 0 100 150 200 Miles endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Mongu Kabwe 20° LUSAKA 30° 10° SEPTEMBER 2012 Congo Basin Forests at a Glance 7 These forests perform valuable ecological services at local, FIGURE 2: Deforestation rates in the Congo Basin have doubled regional, and global levels. Local and regional services include recently maintenance of the hydrological cycle and important flood control in a high-rainfall region. Other important regional 0.20 0.17 benefits include regional-scale climate regulation and 0.15 cooling through evapotranspiration and buffering of climate variability. The forests also house an enormous wealth of 0.10 0.09 0.09 plant and animal species, including threatened animals such 0.05 0.05 as the lowland gorilla and chimpanzee. Globally, Congo Basin forests represent about 25 percent of the total carbon 0.00 Net Deforestation Net Degradation stored in tropical forests worldwide, mitigating anthropogenic emissions (de Wasseige et al. 2012).  1990–2000  2000–2005 Source: Average annual deforestation and forest degradation rates measured by satellite Deforestation and forest degradation have been minimal imagery, as reported in de Wasseige et al. (2012). in the Congo Basin. Africa as a whole is estimated to have contributed only 5.4 percent to the global loss of humid tropical forest over 2000-05, compared to 12.8 percent for Indonesia and 47.8 percent for Brazil alone (Hansen et al. 2008) However deforestation in the Congo Basin has accelerated in recent years (see figure 2). Deforestation and forest degradation have been largely associated with expansion of subsistence activities (agriculture and energy) and concentrated around densely populated areas. SECTION TWO Photo: Jean-François Hellio and Nicolas Van Ingen What Will Drive Deforestation in the Congo Basin? A Multi-sectoral Analysis 9 What Will Drive Deforestation in the Congo Basin? A Multi-sectoral Analysis The Congo Basin forests may be at a turning point, heading toward higher deforestation and forest degradation rates. The Box 2: An Interactive Awareness Raising Exercise Congo Basin forests have been mainly “passively” protected In 2009 the six Congo Basin countries, along with donors by chronic political instability and conflict, poor infrastructure, and partner organizations, agreed to collaborate to analyze major drivers of deforestation and forest degrada- and poor governance. Congo Basin countries thus still fit tion in the region. A modeling approach was chosen the profile of high forest cover/ low deforestation (HFLD) because the HFLD profile of the Congo Basin countries countries. However, there are signs that Congo Basin forests justified using a prospective analysis to forecast defor- are under increasing pressure from a variety of sources, estation; historical trends were considered inadequate including mineral extraction, road development, agribusiness, to capture the future nature and amplitude of drivers of and biofuels, in addition to subsistence agricultural expansion deforestation. The approach built on an adaptation of and charcoal collection. the GLOBIOM model set up by the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis and tailored to the Congo region (CongoBIOM) to investigate drivers of deforesta- The primary goal of the study was to tion and resulting greenhouse gas emissions by 2030. It raise awareness and build knowledge also strongly relied on inputs from three regional multi- stakeholder workshops held in Kinshasa and Douala in of deforestation dynamics. 2009–10, as well as in-depth analysis of trends in the agriculture, logging, energy, transport, and mining sectors. Causes and drivers of tropical deforestation are complex and The CongoBIOM was used to assess the impacts of a cannot easily be reduced to a few variables. The interplay series of “policy shocks” identified by the Congo Basin of several proximate as well as underlying factors drives country representatives. Various scenarios were devel- deforestation in a synergetic way. Expansion of subsistence oped in order to highlight internal drivers of deforesta- activities (agriculture and fuelwood collection) is the most tion—improved transportation infrastructure, improved commonly cited proximate cause of deforestation in the agricultural technologies, and decreased fuelwood Congo Basin. This is supported by demographic trends and consumption—as well as external drivers—increased accelerated urbanization, which form the most important international demand for meat and for biofuel. underlying cause of current deforestation. The Congo Basin region has so far not witnessed the expansion of large-scale plantation experienced in other tropical regions; however, larger macroeconomic trends could change this situation. 10 Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin Agriculture about 20 percent of the land available for agricultural expansion in Sub-Saharan Africa and 9 percent worldwide (Deininger et al. 2011). Second, the region has unconstrained Agriculture is a vital yet neglected sector in the Congo Basin. water resources, which gives it an edge over other areas Agriculture remains by far the region’s largest employer. In that may face water scarcity as a result of climate change. Cameroon, the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central Third, Congo Basin countries unsurprisingly rank among African Republic, and Equatorial Guinea, more than half of the the countries with the greatest potential in the world for economically active population is still engaged in agricultural increasing yields. Last, the rapidly urbanizing populations as activities. Agriculture is also a significant contributor to GDP, well as increasing international demands for food and energy particularly in the Central African Republic, the Democratic could drive a dramatic demand for agricultural products from Republic of Congo, and Cameroon. Despite its importance, the the Congo Basin. These factors combine to make agriculture a agriculture sector has so far been neglected and underfunded very promising sector (see for example box 3). for much of the past few decades. Most agriculture is small scale and the sector is dominated by traditional subsistence Future agricultural developments may, however, be at the systems with a few large commercial enterprises, focused expense of forests. Unlocking the agriculture potential in the mainly on palm oil and rubber. Agricultural productivity in the Congo Basin could increase pressure on forests, particularly region is very low compared with other tropical countries, if investments in road infrastructure remove a long-lasting with overall very low fertilizer use. As a result, reliance on food bottleneck to market access. The CongoBIOM was used imports is substantial and increasing. to identify the potential impacts of specific changes, both internal (such as agricultural productivity) and external There is great potential to both expand (international demand for meat or palm oil) on Congo cultivation and increase existing yields. Basin forests. It highlights that an increase in agricultural productivity, often seen as a win-win solution to increase production and reduce pressure on forests, could turn out to The potential for agricultural development in the Congo drive more deforestation. Basin is significant for many reasons. First, Congo Basin countries are endowed with much suitable and available land: Despite its marginal contribution to global markets, the Altogether, Congo Basin countries represent about 40 percent Congo Basin could be affected by global trends in agricultural of the non-cultivated non-protected low-population-density commodity trade. The CongoBIOM tested two scenarios land suitable for cultivation in Sub-Saharan Africa and 12 dealing with international commodity demand—Scenario 1: percent of the land available worldwide; if only non-forested increase in global meat demand by 15 percent by 2030, and suitable areas are included, the Congo Basin still represents Scenario 2: doubling of first-generation biofuel production by What Will Drive Deforestation in the Congo Basin? A Multi-sectoral Analysis Agriculture 11 2030. Under both scenarios, the CongoBIOM highlights that Although meat production in the Congo Basin is hampered the Congo Basin is unlikely to become a large-scale producer by the prevalence of the tse-tse fly and the absence of a of meat or biofuel (in the short/medium term) but that it will reliable feed industry, it could still be affected by a global be indirectly affected by changes in other parts of the world. increase in meat demand. According to the CongoBIOM, an increase in meat production (associated with increased land areas devoted to pasture and feed crops) in other regions of the world would reduce the production of other crops BOX 3: Palm Oil Potential in Cameroon traditionally imported by the Congo Basin countries (for Demand for palm oil, the number one vegetable oil glob- example maize); this would trigger a substitution of imports ally, is projected to rise as the world.s population looks for by more locally grown products that could potentially lead to affordable sources of food and energy. In 2011, Malaysia increased deforestation in the Congo Basin (see figure 3). and Indonesia dominated the production of palm oil, but strong consumption trends have made it an attractive sector for investors seeking to diversify supply sources across the tropics, including in the Congo Basin. A case in point is Cameroon, where at least six companies are FIGURE 3: Effects of global meat demand on deforestation in the reported to be trying to secure more than 1 million Congo Basin. ha of land for the production of palm oil (Hoyle and Levang 2012). In 2010, Cameroon produced 230,000 Rest of the World Meat demand (+) tons of crude palm oil across an estate of 190,000 ha Livestock (+) Feed crop demand (+) (independent smallholdings accounted for 100,000 ha; supervised smallholder plantations and agro-industrial Pasture area (+) Domestic production of feed crop (+) plantations accounted for the balance) and was the Substitution of other crops (-) world’s thirteenth largest producer. Compared with other crops in the Congo Basin, where productivity tends to trail Exports of other crops (-) far behind other countries’ performance, palm oil yields in Cameroon are among the highest in the world (on Price (+) par with Malaysia’s). Because of its potential in terms of Congo Basin growth, employment, and poverty reduction, industrial Imports of other crops (-) palm oil production is a national priority, with plans to increase production to 450,000 tons by 2020. Some of Substitution import / production (+) the proposed plantation sites pre-identified in emerging Domestic production (+) land deals could be problematic because they appear to be in high conservation value forests or near biodiversity Crop productivity (+) Cultivated land expansion (+) hotspots. Risk of deforestation (+) 12 Energy Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin Energy witnessing a shift from fuelwood to charcoal consumption because charcoal is cheaper and easier to transport and store. It is estimated that more than 90 percent of the total volume of wood harvested in the Congo Basin is for woodfuel and Charcoal production in the Congo Basin increased by about that on average 1 m3 of woodfuel is required per person 20 percent between 1990 and 2009—from 1,094,000 per year (Marien 2009). In 2007, Congo Basin countries’ to 1,301,000 metric tons—according to the UN Energy total production of fuelwood exceeded 100 million m3. The Statistics Database. In contrast to China, India, and much biggest producers were the Democratic Republic of Congo, of the developing world, where the use of wood-based with 71 percent of total regional fuelwood production, and biomass energy has peaked or is expected to peak in the Cameroon, with 21 percent, reflecting the countries’ shares near future, consumption of wood-based biomass energy is of the regional population. likely to remain at very high levels in the Congo Basin and even continue to increase for the next few decades, based Consumption of woodfuel is likely to remain at on population growth, urbanization, and the relative price change of alternative energy sources for cooking (liquefied very high levels for the next few decades. petroleum gas or others). That said, energy profiles vary from one country to another based on wealth, access to electricity and the relative costs of FIGURE 4: Number of people relying on the traditional use of biomass (millions) wood and fossil fuel energy. In Gabon, for example, reliance 1000 on woodfuel is significantly lower, thanks to an extensive Number of People (in millions) electricity network and subsidized gas for cooking. 800 600 The urban lifestyle tends to be more energy intensive 400 because households in urban areas tend to be smaller, 200 leading to less efficient per capita fuel use for cooking. In addition, charcoal is often the primary cooking fuel for many 0 Sub-Saharan India China Rest of Latin America small-scale roadside restaurants and in kitchens of larger Africa Developing Asia  2004*  2009  2015  2030 public institutions, such as schools and universities, hospitals, and prisons, as well as small-scale industries. With an average Source: IEA World Energy Outlook 2010. (*= IEA World Energy Outlook 2006). urban growth of 3 to 5 percent per year and even more Note: The projections for 2015 and 2030 are part of the IEA “New Policies Scenario,” which assumes that recent government commitments are implemented in a cautious manner, (5 to 8 percent) for already large cities such as Kinshasa, and primary energy demand increases by one-third between 2010 and 2035, with 90 Kisangani, Brazzaville Pointe Noire, Libreville, Franceville, Port percent of the growth in economies outside the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. Gentil, Douala, Yaounde, and Bata, Congo Basin countries are What Will Drive Deforestation in the Congo Basin? A Multi-sectoral Analysis Energy 13 In rural areas the impact of woodfuel collection may be offset by natural forest regeneration, but it can become Box 4: Feeding Cities: Mixing Charcoal and Cassava near a severe cause of forest degradation and eventual Kinshasa deforestation when demand comes from concentrated Kinshasa, a megacity of 8 to 10 million inhabitants, is located in a forest-savannah mosaic environment on the Batéké Plateau in markets such as urban households and businesses. the Democratic Republic of Congo. The city’s wood energy sup- Basins that supply a growing urban demand extend ply of about 5 million m3 per year is mostly informally harvested over time and can radiate as far as 200 km from the from degraded forest galleries within a radius of 200 km of city centers, gradually degrading natural forests. The Kinshasa. With gallery forests most affected by degradation from peri-urban area within a radius of 50 km of Kinshasa, for wood harvesting, even forests beyond the 200 km radius are ex- example, has been largely deforested (see box 4). periencing gradual degradation, while the peri-urban area within a radius of 50 km of Kinshasa has suffered total deforestation. Wood biomass energy is supplied by an inefficient However, there have been several attempts to develop planta- sector. Charcoal is mostly produced using traditional tions around the mega-city to help provide wood energy on a techniques, with low transformation efficiencies (earth more sustainable basis. About 8,000 ha of plantations were pit or earth mound kilns). The organization of the established in the late 1980s and early 1990s in Mampu, in charcoal supply chain is also notoriously inefficient, the degraded savannah grasslands 140 km from Kinshasa to relying on poorly designed regulatory frameworks that meet the city’s charcoal needs. Today the plantation is managed eventually lead to massive informality in the sector. The in 25 ha plots by 300 households in a crop rotation that takes advantage of Acacia trees’ nitrogen-fixing properties and the pricing structure of woodfuel sends perverse signals, as residue from charcoal production to increase crop yields. The it incompletely accounts for the different costs along plantations produce about 10,000 tons of charcoal per year, or the value chain. In most cases, the primary resource 1.6 percent of Kinshasa’s estimated charcoal demand (Peltier et (wood) is taken as a “free” resource. Inadequate al. 2010). economic signals in the woodfuel supply chain do Another scheme, run by a Congolese private company called not allow the producer to apply sustainable forest Novacel, intercrops cassava with Acacia trees in order to management techniques. generate food and sustainable charcoal, as well as carbon credits. To date, about 1,500 ha out of a projected 4,200 have However, experience in other countries (for example, been planted. The trees are not yet mature enough to produce Rwanda) suggests that the scarcity of wood products charcoal, but cassava has been harvested, processed, and sold increases the economic value of remaining forests, for several years. The company has also received some initial thereby creating incentives for better forest management carbon payments. The project has been producing about 45 and the establishment of woodlots and tree plantations. tons of cassava tubers per week and generates 30 full-time jobs, plus 200 seasonal jobs. Novacel reinvests part of its revenue As a result, forest ecosystems begin to recover—albeit from carbon credits into local social services, including the with a great loss in biodiversity—and transition to more maintenance of an elementary school and health clinic. artificially planned plantations and monocultures. 14 Transportation Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin Transportation infrastructure holds back extractive sectors (such as logging and mining) and sectors that rely on mobility of people and goods. The agriculture sector is particularly affected, with a Transportation infrastructure in the Congo Basin is woefully severe connection gap between producers from rural areas inadequate to support development and poverty reduction. and consumers in growing urban centers. Road networks are sparse and poorly maintained, often as a result of recent civil conflicts. The paved road density Lack of connectivity prevents the modernization of local in the Congo Basin is among the lowest in the world with farming practices, with farmers unable to rely on markets only 25 km of paved road for each 1000 km2 of arable for either inputs or outputs and forced to rely on self- land, compared with an average of 100 km in the rest subsistence. In the Democratic Republic of Congo, it is of Sub-Saharan Africa. A legacy of the colonial era, the estimated that only 33 percent (7.6 million out of 22.5 railways system was designed to facilitate the extraction of million ha) of all non-forested suitable arable land is less natural resources rather than to support the movement of than six hours from a major market; that proportion is as people and goods. Railways are poorly maintained, with low as 16 percent in the Central African Republic (Deininger more than a third of the total network not fully operational. et al. 2011). (By contrast, 75 percent of the non-forested The river transportation networks of the Congo Basin hold suitable land in Latin America is within 6 hours of a market great potential (25,000 km of navigable waterways) but town.) As a result, growing domestic markets are mostly fed remain marginal because of outdated infrastructure, lack of by food commodity imports which deteriorate the national investment, and poor regulatory frameworks. agriculture trade balance. Together with poor governance and high political risks, this lack of infrastructure helps explain why Improved transportation could unlock the the Congo Basin has not seen the type of large-scale land development potential of the Congo Basin acquisitions witnessed in other parts of the developing world. but threaten its forest cover. The isolation created by poor infrastructure also represents a significant risk in terms of people’s vulnerability to climatic Lack of transportation infrastructure has hampered economic shocks: Even a modestly unsatisfactory growing season can growth in the Congo Basin by creating barriers to trade not jeopardize food security, because people have no way to only with international markets but also internally in domestic benefit from surpluses in other parts of the country. markets. For example, domestic transport costs, at about $3,500 to $4,500 per container, account for more than 65 The infrastructure gap in the Congo Basin is widely percent of the total cost of importing goods to the Central acknowledged. Most Congo Basin countries have set African Republic (Domínguez-Torres and Foster 2011). This ambitious infrastructure goals to drive economic growth and has created multiple landlocked economies within a single development. In Republic of Congo, where the transportation country, with limited to no exchanges among them. Deficient system is by far the most deteriorated, public financing to What Will Drive Deforestation in the Congo Basin? A Multi-sectoral Analysis Transportation 15 the transport sector increased by a third between 2006 and 2010 (African Development Bank, 2011). Significant Box 5: Simulating Changes Resulting from Improved progress has also been made to mobilize external funding Infrastructure to support the reconstruction of the road network. The The CongoBIOM was used to compute the likely impact of all the road and railways projects for which financing Democratic Republic of Congo for instance has secured has already been secured. It simulated changes in major financial commitments from multilateral and bilateral average travel time to the closest city along with changes sources, including China. At the regional level, various entities in internal transportation costs, and took into account are drafting plans and strategies to fill the infrastructure population density and urbanization trends. While the gap, including the Program of Infrastructure Development direct impact of road construction in rainforests is often in Africa from the African Union/New Partnership for limited, indirect and induced impacts could represent Africa’s Development, the Consensual Road Network from a major threat by significantly changing economic Economic Community of Central African States, and the River dynamics—particularly in the agriculture sector—in newly Transportation plan from CICOS (Commission Internationale accessible areas. du Bassin Congo-Oubangui-Sangha). A reduction in transport costs can lead to significant changes in the equilibrium of rural areas along the Transport infrastructure is one of the most robust predictors of following causal chain: tropical deforestation. Of all the different scenarios tested by Improved infrastructure  Increased agriculture production the CongoBIOM, a scenario modeling improved transportation  Increased pressure on forests infrastructure is by far the most damaging to forest cover. Most of the impacts do not result from the but from indirect The model showed that when agricultural products reach impacts associated with higher connectivity (see box 5). urban markets at a lower price because of lower transpor- tation costs, consumers tend to buy more domestically grown products through import substitution. This in The Congo Basin’s inadequate transportation infrastructure turn encourages producers to increase their production. has by and large protected its forests. The challenge now is Additionally the price of inputs such as fertilizers tends to strike the appropriate balance between forest protection to go down, increasing agricultural productivity. A new and the development of a rural road network that would equilibrium is reached with a larger volume of regionally unlock the Congo Basin’s economic potential (particularly in grown agricultural products and lower prices compared agriculture). with the initial situation—a change that presumably improves food security and human wellbeing but creates incentives for clearing forest land for agriculture. The reduction of domestic transportation costs also improves the international competitiveness of agricultural and forestry products—including products derived from uncon- trolled logging along the newly opened roads. 16 Logging Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin Logging impacts are further limited by the adoption of Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) principles as well as the high selectivity of logged species. The trend toward SFM has been Industrial logging represents an extensive land use in the momentous: As of 2010, 25.6 million ha were managed Congo Basin, with about 44 million ha of forest under under state-approved plans. Wood extraction rates are very concession—a fourth of the total dense lowland forest low: on average less than 0.5 m3 per ha. Of the more than area (see figure 5). The formal logging sector produces 100 species generally available, fewer than 13 are usually an average of 8 million m3 of timber annually, with Gabon harvested. as the largest producer. Logging also contributes about 6 percent of the GDP in Cameroon, the Central African Although the footprint of formal logging operations is Republic and Republic of Congo, and is an important source considered low, the informal artisanal sector presents a of employment in rural areas. The formal sector accounts different story. for about 50,000 full-time jobs and much more indirect employment in the six countries. Employment created by private FIGURE 5: Land, dense forest and logging areas in the Congo Basin sector operators in the formal Congo, Democratic Republic of Equatorial Gabon Republic of Congo Cameroon Central African Republic forestry sector is particularly Guinea important in Gabon and the Central African Republic where timber is the largest source of jobs after the public sector. Contrary to the popular impression, logging is not uniformly a cause of deforestation and forest degradation: Ecosystem services and other land uses coexist with logging concessions. Unlike in other 232,822,500 2,673,000 26,253,800 34,276,600 46,544,500 62,015,200 tropical regions, logging in the 101,822,027 2,063,850 22,324,871 17,116,583 18,640,192 6,915,231 Congo Basin usually does not 12,184,130 –* 9,893,234 12,669,626 6,381,684 3,022,789 result in conversion to other land Total land area (ha) Total lowland dense forest area (ha) Commercial logging concessions (ha) uses, such as cattle ranching or * In Equatorial Guinea, all logging concessions were cancelled in 2008. plantations. Industrial logging’s Source: Prepared from data in: Wasseige et al. (2012). What Will Drive Deforestation in the Congo Basin? A Multi-sectoral Analysis Logging 17 The artisanal sector, while long overlooked, is now recognized performing and unsustainable informal sector. This trend is as a major segment of the logging sector. There are few unlikely to wane as most Congo Basin countries experience a reliable data about informal logging which is mostly oriented strong urbanization process. In addition, demand for informal to domestic markets, but experts believe that it is at least as timber emanates from other African countries (such as Niger, large as the formal sector and has more serious impacts on Chad, Sudan, Egypt, Libya, and Algeria), where demographic forest loss by progressively degrading forests close to highly growth and urbanization are booming. populated areas. Left unregulated, this segment of the forest sector may In Cameroon and the Democratic Republic of Congo, severely undermine forest biomass and erode carbon stocks. informal timber production already surpasses formal timber production, and in the Republic of Congo, domestic timber There are also opportunities to improve the competitiveness production represents more than 30 percent of total timber of the formal logging sector so that it becomes a greater production (Lescuyer et al. 2012). source of employment and growth. Despite the high value of their timber and gains in sustainable forest management, Congo Basin countries remain relatively small players A booming informal logging sector may in terms of timber production at the international level: lead to increased forest degradation. Timber from Central Africa represents less than 3 percent of the global production of tropical roundwood, far behind the other two major tropical forest regions (OFAC 2011). The informal sector supplies markets that are less selective Their contribution to the trade of processed timber is even than export markets; chainsaw operators are less efficient in smaller. Processing capacities are essentially limited to their use of trees to produce timber; and informal activities primary processing (sawnwood, peeling, and slicing for the tend to over-log the most accessible areas, surpassing production of plywood and veneer). Investing in modernized regeneration rates. On the plus side, the informal sector is processing capacities along the secondary and tertiary stages a larger source of direct and indirect local employment than could generate more added value and employment from the formal sector, with benefits more equally redistributed at existing forest resources and tap regional demand for higher- the local level. end furniture. Domestic demand for construction timber is booming and is currently quasi-exclusively supplied by the unregulated, under- 18 Mining Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin Mining In the context of rising demand and high prices, mineral reserves that used to be considered financially unviable are now receiving much attention. Heightened interest The Congo Basin is home to mineral resources worth from investors is directly reflected in increased exploration billions of dollars on world markets, but that wealth has activities in the Congo Basin, including in densely forested been largely untapped. Among these resources are valuable areas. Historically, the majority of mining operations in the metals (copper, cobalt, tin, uranium, iron, titanium, coltan, Congo Basin has occurred in non-forested areas, but that is niobium, and manganese) and non-metals (precious stones, projected to change. phosphates, and coal). With the exception of the Democratic Republic of Congo, the mineral wealth of the Congo Basin The past few years have also seen the emergence of new has been underexploited in part because of civil unrest and types of deals in which investors have offered to build conflict over the past two decades, lack of infrastructure, a associated infrastructure (including roads, railways, power poor business climate, and heavy reliance on oil for some plants, ports, etc.) in exchange for security of supply. The countries in the region. Armed groups have often used burden of the infrastructure investments is thus taken off the mineral wealth to fund their activities, perpetuating a cycle of countries’ shoulders, which theoretically alleviates one of the instability that discourages investment. major constraints to mining development. At the same time, the decline of oil reserves is pushing countries like Gabon Positive prospects for the development and Cameroon to develop other extractive industries to offset the revenue gap from declining oil wealth. of the mining sector carry both growth promises and environmental risks. The mining sector could become an engine of growth in the Congo Basin. At its height in the mid-1980s, the mining World demand for mineral resources increased significantly sector contributed 8 to 12 percent of the Democratic after 2000, driven by global economic development and Republic of Congo’s GDP. Given the Democratic Republic of particularly China’s strong growth. While the world recession of Congo’s extensive copper, cobalt, gold, diamond, cassiterite, 2008 affected the mining sector, economic recovery in some and coltan reserves, mining could contribute to significant emerging countries led to a rapid revival of demand for raw revenue increases and sustain growth in the economy as a materials in 2009. Growth in the technology, transportation, whole, including through employment. and construction sectors will likely continue fueling greater demand for aluminum, cobalt, copper, iron ore, lead, Compared with other economic activities, mining has a fairly manganese, platinum metals, and titanium in the future. limited direct impact on forest cover. Indirect impacts can What Will Drive Deforestation in the Congo Basin? A Multi-sectoral Analysis Mining 19 be more important and are tied to the larger infrastructure developments that tend to occur in a mining region, such Box 6: In Search of Green Gold as building power plants (including dams) and more roads. Both artisanal miners (who operate with little mechanized Induced impacts may include impacts associated with a large aid) and small-scale miners (who use more organized and more productive methods but produce less than a influx of workers, such as subsistence agriculture, logging, certain tonnage of minerals per year) have responded poaching, and other activities. Finally, cumulative impacts to international demand for minerals by increasing relate more to artisanal mining, where many small individual activity in the Congo Basin in recent years. Some of the mining sites add up to significant impacts (see box 6). environmental concerns associated with artisanal and small-scale mining stem from practices that can include Poor land use management can potentially amplify the primary forest clearance, dam construction, the digging adverse impacts of mining operations (both exploration of deep pits without backfilling, and resulting impacts on and exploitation). Numerous conflicts have been noted water levels and watercourses. Forest degradation is also between and among conservation priorities, mining and associated with the arrival of large numbers of migrant diggers spread out over a large area of forest. In Gabon, logging concessions, and the livelihoods of local populations. for example, artisanal miners suffer from a fragile legal For example, in the Sangha Tri-National Park (shared by status that gives them little incentive to pursue environ- Cameroon, the Central African Republic, and Republic of mentally responsible mining (WWF 2012). Congo), projected logging and mining concessions overlap with the region’s protected areas and agro-forestry zones Strategies to respond to these issues include the setting up of socially responsive and environmentally sustainable (Chupezi, Ingram and Schure 2009). supply chains, and measures to professionalize and for- malize artisanal and small-scale mining activities so that risks are managed and minimum standards introduced. These initiatives are partially inspired by the success of a third-party certification scheme called “Green Gold—Oro Verde,” born in 1999 in Colombia to stop the social and environmental devastation caused by poor mining practices in the lush Chocó Bioregion, and to supply select jewelers with traceable, sustainable metals. SECTION THREE Photo: Andrew McConnell / Panos How to Reconcile Growth and Forest Protection — Policy Options and Recommendations 21 How to Reconcile Growth and Forest Protection Policy Options and Recommendations The countries of the Congo Basin face the dual challenge of urgently developing their economies to BOX 7: A Fair Baseline reduce poverty while limiting the negative impact on International negotiations on forests and climate change have the region’s natural resources. Growing international been positive for Congo Basin countries. The Congo Basin contains an estimated 25 percent of the total carbon stored in recognition of the importance of forests to stem tropical forests worldwide and has received wide attention as climate change provides new opportunities for Congo a result. Congo Basin countries have received support from a Basin countries to reconcile these objectives, by variety of bilateral and multilateral funds including the Forest leveraging climate finance and creating momentum Carbon Partnership Facility, UN-REDD, Global Environment Facility for policy change. and the Forest Investment Program. For now, financing resources fall under Phase 1 of the REDD+ mechanism, which deals with Congo Basin countries have the opportunity the “readiness” process (including capacity building and plan- ning). The core provision of finance is expected to come later on, to embark on development pathways that in a phase that rewards measured, reported and verified results. “leapfrog” severe deforestation. This could be particularly tricky in the Congo Basin context. One of the most important challenges for Congo Basin countries Since 2007, parties to the UN Framework Convention relates to the development of “reference levels,” or the base- on Climate Change (UNFCCC) have deliberated lines against which their success in reducing emissions will be on a framework that would create incentives for measured. For HFLD countries, using historic baselines may not capture the effort and economic sacrifice required to combat reducing emissions from deforestation and forest future deforestation risks. degradation (REDD+) by rewarding tropical countries that preserve and/or enhance the carbon locked In December 2008, countries agreed that REDD+ reference lev- in forests. International, regional, and national els should “take into account historic data, and adjust for national discussions on the future REDD+ mechanism have circumstances.” This appears to suggest that countries, such as those in the Congo Basin, with low historic rates of deforesta- given rise to a better understanding of the multiple tion—but potentially high future rates—could consider factoring drivers of deforestation and a more holistic view of this into a proposed reference level. But credible data that would low-carbon development in which different sectors justify adjustments to historical trends could be difficult to come play a role. While many elements of REDD+ remain by. Although the modeling approach used in this study was an at- unknown (see box 7), countries can focus on tempt to use existing, limited data to offer an initial description of “no-regrets” measures that should yield benefits future deforestation trends, it was not designed to provide robust regardless of the shape of a future mechanism under quantitative information for setting reference levels in a financing the UNFCCC. mechanism such as REDD+. 22 Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin This study highlights options to limit deforestation while Restoration estimates more than 400 million ha of degraded pursuing economic growth in an inclusive and sustainable land in Sub-Saharan Africa offer opportunities for restoring or way. It outlines both cross-cutting and sector-specific enhancing the functionality of “mosaic” landscapes that mix recommendations. These recommendations are intended forest, agriculture, and other land uses. as general guidelines that should spur more detailed policy discussions at the country level. One output of land use planning could be the identification of growth poles and major development corridors that could be developed in a coordinated manner, with the involvement of all government entities along with the private sector and Cross-cutting recommendations civil society. In the Congo Basin, this approach would likely Invest in participatory land use planning be driven by natural resources and provide upstream and downstream linkages around extractive industries. While a Participatory land use planning should be used to maximize land use planning exercise definitely needs to be conducted economic and environmental objectives and reduce at the country level (and even at the provincial level), the problems resulting from overlapping usage titles and corridor approach has also been adopted by the Economic potentially conflicting land uses. Trade-offs among different Community of Central African States at the regional level to sectors and within sectors need to be clearly understood foster synergies and economies of scale among member by the stakeholders so that they can define development states. strategies at the national level. This requires robust socio- economic analysis as well as strong coordination among Improve land tenure schemes ministries and some form of high level arbitrage. Once completed, this land plan would determine the forest areas Effective systems of land use, access rights, and property that need to be preserved, the areas that can coexist with rights are essential to improve the management of natural other land uses, and those which could potentially be resources. Improving these systems is a priority for providing converted to other uses. farmers, especially women, with the incentives needed to make long-term investments in agricultural transformation. While planning for economic development, particular Likewise, there is strong evidence that community-based attention should be given to protecting high-value forests forest management approaches can expand the supply of in terms of biodiversity, watershed, and cultural values. fuelwood and relieve natural forests from unsustainable Optimally, mining, agriculture, and other activities should withdrawals, provided communities are given enough be directed away from forests of great ecological value. In visibility on land/tree tenure issues to invest in the long- term particular, agriculture development should primarily target sustainability of forests, woodlots, and agroforestry systems. degraded lands. The Global Partnership on Forest Landscape How to Reconcile Growth and Forest Protection — Policy Options and Recommendations 23 Current land tenure schemes are not conducive to grassroots sustainable forest management in Congo Basin countries. BOX 8: An emerging cross-sectoral agenda Outside of commercial logging concessions, forests are By looking at opportunities to mitigate greenhouse gas considered “free access” areas under state ownership and emissions at the landscape level, REDD+ could emerge as a development planning approach to coordinate are not tagged with property rights. Moreover, tenure laws forests and other land uses. National REDD+ readiness in most Congo Basin countries directly link forest clearing committees have been set up in most Congo Basin (mise en valeur) with land property recognition and thus countries and are typically composed of representatives create an incentive to convert forested lands into farmland. from different ministries. Although cross-sectoral coordi- Current land tenure laws should be adjusted to separate land nation is still weak, the REDD+ agenda has benefitted property recognition from forest clearing. from political support that transcends divisions between sectors. That support was evident in October 2011, Strengthen institutions for example, when a high-level Forum on Forests and Climate Change for the Sustainable Development of Without strong institutions able to enforce rules and build the Democratic Republic of Congo drew speakers from alliances within a complex political economy, neither land the Ministry of Environment, Conservation and Tourism; use planning nor tenure reform will yield real change. the Ministry of Planning; the Ministry of Energy; and the Administrations face expectations—in terms of planning, Ministry of Agriculture. monitoring and controlling forest resources—that they cannot adequately meet when they are weak. Properly staffed and equipped institutions are necessary to fight illegal activities Finally, for strategic planning purposes, synergies should be but also to undertake the difficult tasks of formalizing built with existing processes such as the Comprehensive artisanal logging, the woodfuel/charcoal value chain, and Africa Agriculture Development Plan (CAADP) and the Forest artisanal mining in critical ecosystems. New technologies Law Enforcement Governance and Trade (FLEG-T) initiatives. (based on geographic and information technology systems) CAADP provides an excellent and timely opportunity to should be more widely available to administrations to thoroughly analyze agricultural potential, develop or update improve their performance. national and regional agricultural investment plans aimed at increasing agricultural productivity on a sustainable basis, Monitoring efforts are ideally performed by regulatory and strengthen agricultural policies. For the forest sector, agencies. In practice, strategic partnerships can be set up the FLEG-T approach, backed by the European Union in all to improve monitoring activities: Local communities can be Congo Basin countries except Equatorial Guinea, provides an trained and engaged in helping regulators monitor activities effective vehicle for improving forest governance, including in on the ground; nongovernmental organizations can provide the domestic arena. additional monitoring via field projects, for example near mining sites. 24 Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin Agriculture of these crops and improve their resistance to disease and tolerance to climatic events has also been untapped. Increase productivity and prioritize non-forested Partnerships need to be established with international lands research centers (for example among members of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research) ƒƒPrioritize agricultural expansion on non-forested to stimulate agricultural research in the Congo Basin and areas. There is an estimated 40 million ha of suitable progressively strengthen national capacities. non-cropped, non-forested, non-protected land in the Congo Basin. This corresponds to more than 1.6 ƒƒPromote a sustainable large-scale agribusiness times the area currently under cultivation. Utilizing industry. Large agribusiness operations, especially rubber, these available areas, along with an increase in land oil palm, and sugarcane plantations, have the potential productivity, could dramatically transform agriculture in to sustain economic growth and generate considerable the Congo Basin without taking a toll on forests. Decision- employment for rural populations. Given weak land makers must prioritize expanding agriculture on non- governance, there is a risk that investors will acquire land forested lands. almost for free, interfere with local rights and neglect their social and environmental responsibilities. Governments ƒƒEmpower smallholder farmers. With about half the should establish stronger policies on future large land population active in agriculture in most countries of investments, including requiring land applications to be the Congo Basin, there is a need to foster sustained oriented toward abandoned plantations and suitable agricultural growth based on smallholder involvement. non-forested land. Efforts to put palm oil production on Experience in other tropical regions shows this is possible. a more sustainable footing, such as the Roundtable on Thailand, for example, considerably expanded its rice Sustainable Palm Oil founded in 2004, may help mitigate production area and became a major exporter of other some of these environmental issues by setting standards commodities by engaging its smallholders through a that aim to prevent further loss to primary forests or massive land titling program and government support for high conservation value areas and reduce impacts on research, extension, credit, producer organizations, and biodiversity. rail and road infrastructure development. ƒƒFoster win-win partnerships between large-scale ƒƒReinvigorate research and development (R&D) toward operators and smallholders. Such partnerships could sustainable productivity increase. R&D capacities in the become an engine for transforming the agricultural sector. Congo Basin, with the exception of Cameroon, have been While this has not yet materialized in the Congo Basin, dismantled over the past decades. Research has largely there are many examples in the world where meaningful neglected the most common staple food crops such partnerships between smallholders and large-scale as yams, plantains, and cassava, usually referred to as operators have yielded successful results and promoted a “neglected crops.” The potential to increase productivity well-balanced development of agriculture. How to Reconcile Growth and Forest Protection — Policy Options and Recommendations 25 Energy ƒƒDiversify supplies. The charcoal value chain in the Congo Basin currently relies exclusively on natural Organize the informal value chain forests. Although natural forests are expected to ƒƒPut woodfuel energy higher on the political agenda. continue supplying much of the raw material for Despite its undisputed importance as a major source charcoal production, they will be unable to meet growing of energy, woodfuel is still getting very little attention demand in a sustainable manner. Policy-makers should in the policy dialogue and therefore is poorly featured consider diversifying the sources of wood, by increasing in the official energy policies and strategies. There is a sustainable wood supply through tree plantations and need to change the policy makers’ perception of wood agroforestry, and maximizing the potential supply from energy as “traditional” and “old-fashioned.” Lessons could natural forests, with special attention to timber waste be drawn from Europe and North Africa where wood management. energy is emerging as a cutting-edge renewable energy ƒƒFoster community involvement through devolution source. Congo Basin countries should seize technical of rights and capacity building. Community-based breakthroughs and climate finance opportunities to put woodfuel production schemes in Niger, Senegal, this energy resource on a more modern and efficient Rwanda and Madagascar have shown promising results footing. when long-term rights to forest land and devolution of ƒƒOptimize the fuelwood/charcoal value chain. management have motivated communities to participate Formalizing the sector would break the oligopolistic in woodfuel production. Pilots have been launched in structure of the value chain and create a more the Congo Basin (Batéké plantations) and could be transparent marketplace. The economic value of the replicated. resources would thus be better reflected in the pricing ƒƒRespond to growing urban needs in terms of both structure and appropriate incentives could be established. food and energy. Deforestation and forest degradation Such formalization should be supported by the revision mostly occur around urban centers in the Congo Basin and modernization of the regulatory framework. To do countries, as a result of ad hoc agricultural expansion so, the Congo Basin countries would have to understand to respond to rising demand for food and energy. the political economy of the fuelwood/charcoal value An integrated, multi-use approach to meeting urban chain. A multi-stakeholder dialogue would be critical to needs would address the various driving forces of help overcome difficult trade-offs between sustaining forest degradation. If well organized, it could not only rural livelihoods based on informal activities and enforcing secure the food and energy needs for a growing urban production standards and trade restrictions that would population, but could also provide sustainable solutions come with the formalization of the sector. to unemployment and waste management. 26 Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin Transportation ƒƒFoster multi-modal transport networks. As countries plan for transport development, it is important that they Better plan to minimize adverse impacts consider the pros and cons of roads and alternative ƒƒImprove transportation planning at local, national and transport modes such as navigable waterways and regional levels. railroads, in terms not only of economic returns but also of environmental impacts. For instance, with more than Locally: Areas that are directly served by improved 25,000 kilometers of navigable network, the Congo transportation facilities will become more competitive for Basin could benefit from a potentially highly competitive various economic activities—such as agricultural expansion waterway system. including palm oil plantations. Local participation in transportation planning will help ensure that economic ƒƒProperly assess the impacts of transportation opportunities are maximized. Mitigation measures at investments before they occur. Transportation the local level may include clarifying land tenure or development (be it new infrastructure or rehabilitation of integrating the transportation projects into a broader existing assets) will re-shape the economic profile of the local development plan. Such plans may include the areas served by transportation and increase pressure on protection of forest banks along roads, rivers, or railways forest resources. Currently, most environmental impact to avoid unplanned deforestation. Defined up front and in studies or safeguard reviews fail to fully capture the long- a participatory manner, these restrictions would get more term indirect effects on deforestation. New assessment backing from the different stakeholders. methods, based on economic prospective analysis, could help prioritize infrastructure investments with low Nationally and regionally: The corridor approach shows foreseen impacts on forests. that improving transportation services (for example freight management in harbors) or infrastructure (facilitating river or rail transportation) may have a wider macro-economic impact at the regional level. Planning at the national and regional levels, through a corridor approach could help identify adequate mitigation measures, such as zoning reforms (establishing permanent forest areas), law enforcement (ensuring the respect of zoning decisions), land tenure clarification, and controlling the expansion of agriculture. How to Reconcile Growth and Forest Protection — Policy Options and Recommendations 27 Logging ƒƒFoster the involvement of communities in forest management. Although the concept of community Expand sustainable forest management to the forestry has been embraced by most Congo Basin informal sector countries and entered their legal framework, shortfalls ƒƒPursue progress on sustainable forest management such as time-bound management contracts continue to in commercial logging concessions. Although the constrain effective community forest management of Congo Basin already has vast concession areas under state-owned forests. Revisiting the concept and clarifying management plans, further progress can be made community rights over forests could provide a window through ensuring adequate implementation; adjusting of opportunity to revitalize The implementation of SFM standards and criteria to reflect climate change and community forestry on the ground. advances in reduced-impact logging techniques; moving away from single-use, timber-oriented management models; encouraging certification schemes; and supporting the FLEG-T process. ƒƒFormalize the informal timber sector. To ensure a sustainable supply of timber for domestic markets and spread SFM principles to the domestic timber market, numerous small and medium forest enterprises will need to be supported by appropriate regulations. For the fuelwood/charcoal value chain, such aformalization would rely on an in-depth understanding of the political economy of the sector and would require an open dialogue with various stakeholders. In addition, domestic and regional timber markets will have to be better understood to help decision makers respond to market opportunities without jeopardizing natural forest assets. ƒƒModernize processing capacities to set up an efficient timber value chain in the Congo Basin with less wastage and more domestic value added. The development of the secondary and tertiary processing industry would allow Congo Basin countries to use secondary tree species to respond to domestic growing needs. 28 Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin Mining facilitate the use of environmentally-friendly technologies and encourage the development of a sustainable supply Set “high standard” goals for environmental chain. The Alliance for Responsible Mining has developed management a certification system for small-scale mining cooperatives that includes consideration of both environmental and ƒƒProperly assess and monitor impacts of mining social concerns. The Green Gold approach (discussed in activities. Proper environmental impact assessments and box 6) is another example. social impact assessments have to be prepared for all stages of mining operations (from exploration to mine ƒƒPromote innovative mechanisms to offset negative closure); management plans also need to be of good impacts of mining operations. Conservation groups quality and their implementation regularly monitored to have advocated for biodiversity offsets for extractive mitigate the associated risks. projects for at least a decade. Financial instruments, such as financial guarantees, could also be options to mitigate ƒƒLearn from international best practices and foster adverse impacts, particularly to ensure mine reclamation risk mitigation. If mining is to result in minimal negative and restoration at the closure of mining sites. impacts on the forests of the Congo Basin, companies will need to follow best international practices and standards designed to meet the mitigation hierarchy (Avoid—Minimize—Restore—Compensate). International standards for responsible mining have been developed by various organizations, including the International Council on Mining and Metals, the Responsible Jewelry Council, the International Finance Corporation, and the Initiative for Responsible Mining Assurance. Lessons can be learned from these innovative approaches as governments adjust their national regulations on mining activities and their environmental monitoring and management. ƒƒUpgrade the artisanal and small-scale mining sector. Efforts should focus on putting small-scale miners on a more secure footing and adjusting regulatory frameworks so that they can better respond to the specific needs of this segment of the mining sector. Governments should How to Reconcile Growth and Forest Protection — Policy Options and Recommendations 29 This page intentionally left blank. 30 Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin References Angelsen, A. (ed.) 2008. Moving Ahead with REDD+: Issues, Domínguez-Torres, C. and V. Foster. 2011. The Central African options and implications. Bogor, Indonesia: Center for Republic’s Infrastructure: A Continental Perspective. International Forestry Research. Africa Infrastructure Country Diagnostic. Washington, DC: African Development Bank. 2011. Développement des World Bank. infrastructures au Congo: Contraintes et priorités à Hansen, M., S. Stehman, P. Potapov, T. Loveland, J. moyen terme. Département régional centre (OCRE). Townshend, R. Defries, K. Pittman, B. Arunarwati, F. Tunis, Tunisia: African Development Bank. Stolle, M. Steininger, M. Carroll, and C. DiMiceli. 2008. Chupezi, T.J., V. Ingram, and J. Schure. 2009. Study on “Humid Tropical Forest Clearing from 2000 to 2005 artisanal gold and diamond mining on livelihoods Quantified by Using Multitemporal and Multiresolution and the environment in the Sangha Tri-National Park Remotely Sensed Data.” Proceedings of the National landscape, Congo Basin. Yaounde, Cameroon: Center Academy of Sciences of the United States Of America for International Forestry Research/International Union 105 (27): 9439-9444. for Conservation of Nature. Hoyle, D. and P. Levang. 2012. “Oil Palm Development Deininger, K. and D. Byerlee, with J. Lindsay, A. Norton, H. in Cameroon.” Ad Hoc Working Paper. World Wildlife Selod, and M. Stickler. 2011. Rising Global Interest Fund, in partnership with Institut de Recherche pour le in Farmland: Can It Yield Sustainable and Equitable Développement and Center for International Forestry Benefits? Washington, DC: World Bank. Research. de Wasseige, C., D. Devers, P. de Marcken, R. Eba’a Atyi, and International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). 2011. P. Mayaux. 2009. The Forests of the Congo Basin—State 2011 Global Hunger Index. Washington, DC: IFPRI. of the Forests 2008. Luxembourg: Publications Office of Available at http://www.ifpri.org/publication/2011-global- the European Union. hunger-index de Wasseige C., P. de Marcken, N. Bayol , F. Hiol Hiol, P. Lescuyer, G., P. O. Cerutti, E. Essiane Mendoula, R. Eba’a Atyi, Mayaux, B. Desclée, R. Nasi, A. Billand, P. Defourny, and and R. Nasi. 2012. ”An Appraisal of Chainsaw Milling in R. Eba’a Atyi. 2012. The Forests of the Congo Basin— the Congo Basin.” In The Forests of the Congo Basin— State of the Forest 2010. Luxembourg: Publications State of the Forest 2010, ed. by C. de Wasseige et al. Office of the European Union. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. References 31 Marien, J-N. 2009. “Peri-Urban Forests and Wood Energy: and Sustainable Development in Agriculture and Food What Are the Perspectives for Central Africa?” In The 2010 (ISDA 2010) in Montpellier, France. Forests of the Congo Basin—State of the Forest 2008, Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity and ed. by C. de Wasseige et al. Luxembourg: Publications Central African Forests Commission. 2009. Biodiversity Office of the European Union. and Forest Management in the Congo Basin. Montreal: Observatory for the Forests of Central Africa (OFAC). 2011. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity. National Indicators. Kinshasa: OFAC. Available at http:// United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). 2012. www.observatoire-comifac.net. (accessed December The Africa Human Development Report 2012: Building 2011). a food secure future. New York: UNDP. Peltier, R., F. Bisiaux, E. Dubiez, J-N. Marien, J-C. Muliele, World Wildlife Fund (WWF). 2012. Gabon Case Study P. Proces, and C. Vermeulen. 2010. “De la culture Report. Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining in and around itinérante sur brûlis aux jachères enrichies productrices Protected Areas and Critical Ecosystems Project (ASM- de charbon de bois, en Rep. Dem. Congo.” In Innovation PACE). Washington, DC: WWF. 32 Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin Summary of Recommended “No-Regrets” Actions Sector Recommendations Cross-cutting  Invest in participatory land use planning Issues  Improve land tenure schemes  Strengthen institutions Agriculture  Prioritize agricultural expansion on non-forested areas  Empower smallholder farmers  Reinvigorate R&D towards sustainable productivity increase  Promote a sustainable large-scale agribusiness industry  Foster win-win partnerships between large-scale operators and smallholders Wood-Based  Put woodfuel energy higher on the political agenda Biomass  Optimize the fuelwood/charcoal value chain Energy  Diversify supplies  Foster community involvement through devolution of rights and capacity building  Respond to growing urban needs in terms of both food and energy Transportation  Improve transportation planning at local, national, and regional levels  Foster multi-modal transport networks  Properly assess the impacts of transportation investments before they occur Logging  Pursue progress on sustainable forest management  Formalize the informal timber sector  Modernize processing capacities  Foster the involvement of communities in forest management Mining  Properly assess and monitor impacts of mining activities  Learn from international best practices and foster risk mitigation  Upgrade the artisanal and small-scale mining sector  Promote innovative mechanisms to offset negative impacts of mining operations Deforestation rates in the Congo Basin are among the lowest in the tropical rainforest belt and are significantly below rates in most other African regions. However, this situation is projected to change. Local and regional development, population increases and global demand for commodities are likely to increase deforestation and forest degradation in the Congo Basin. The countries of the Congo Basin face the dual challenge of developing local economies and reducing poverty while limiting the negative impact of growth on the region’s natural capital, and forests in particular. Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin: Reconciling economic growth and forest protection analyzes the current and future pressures exerted by different sectors of the economy on Congo Basin forests, and highlights policy options to limit deforestation while pursuing inclusive green growth. “This study shows that a transition to a low and degraded forest cover is possible, but not a fatality. We have tools at our disposal to act in a targeted, forest-friendly way, by reconciling economic growth and forest preservation. Now is the time to make a strong stand in favor of sustainable development.” – Mr. Raymond Mbitikon, Executive Secretary, COMIFAC