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() , , , , . , , «» () , . iii , , . , , , , , , . - , , , . : «» . , , , , . ­ . - , , . ­ , , , ­ . 20 40-50 , , , , . ( 1). 1. 80 Apartment & hostel buildings Non ow ner-occupied tenure 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hungary Serbia Romania Armenia Slovakia Rep Czech Lithuania Poland Russia . ( ), , . . , , , - . iv ­ . , . , , , «» , , . - , , , . , - , , , , , , , . , , , «» , , . «» , , . , , - «» , - , . - . , - , , , : 1. ­ , , ( ) ­ , - , . 2. ­ , , ­ , . 3. ­ «», , ­ , . v - , , , . «» « » , . , , , , , . - , , . - , , , , , , , . , , , , , . , ­ . ­ , ; , , , , .1 , , , . , , , . , , . , , - , . , , , , 1 , . vi , , «» . . (, ), , . - . - , (, , ) . , . , , , , . , , , , , , . , , - () . , , , ; ; , ; , , . , , , , « », ( ), « », . , vii . , , , , . : , - ; , , , , . , . . , , , . , , , . , , , . , , , , , . , , , . , , .2 , , : (i) ; (ii) . 2 . 2, , . viii . . , , . , , ; , , «», . - , - , . «» , , . , , , « » . , . . ix 1. 1989 1991 . «» , . , . , «» , , . -, , . , 10-12 , - . -, , , 1990- , , , , , , , . -, , ­ , « ». - , , , « » , - - - , . , , , . , , , , , , . , , , 1 , , . , , , , .3 , , , , , , , « , » (World Bank, 2001). , , , , , . « » .4 , . , , . ­ , . , , , , , 3 (-) , 2003 , , « 30 , . , « , , , , - ». 4 , , , . 2 . , , , , , , , , . , , . ­ , . : , ? : , , ; , , . , , , , . , , . , , , , , . - , , , . - - . , (, , , 3 , ).5 ­ , () (). , ,6 . . , . 2 , , , , . , , , .7 3 . , , 2. 4 , , : · -, , ; · -, - , 5 : ­ ; ­ , ; ­ , ; ­ , ; ; , - , . 6 . . , , . 7 1. 4 , ; · -, , , , , , «» , . 5 , . . , . : (1) , (2) . 5 2. ( 1) , , , . ; , , , . , 3 55 . , . . , , , , ( ), , . , , « », , , . , ( , , , ) (. 1). ? , . , , : · ; - , ;8 8 , . 6 · , , , ; · , ;9 · , , , ; · , ; · ; · 10. , , . , . , , , , . , , ( 2). , , , . , , , , . , , , , , . ? , , 11 9 , , .. 10 , , , , . 11 , , . 7 , ­ , . , , (Tirole, 1990; Fujita, Krugman, and Venables, 1999). , , , . - (, , , ) . 5-10 , . . : , , «» ? «» ? , , , - ­ . , , , - , , . - , ? , , ? , , « », ? 8 2. 70 Apartment & hostel buildings Non ow ner-occupied tenure 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Ireland UnitedKingdom NetherlandsUnitedStates Denmark France Germany Spain . (): (2003), (UN-ECE, 2004a), (2004). . - , , (, ), (, )? - , , ­ . , , 1989 . 20 , . , - . , , (- ) , ( ). , , , . , , , . , , 9 , . , . - . , , , , , , , , , . , : (i) ; (ii) . , , , , . ( 1) . «» « » ; , « », ( ) , , . , . . , . , .12 ­ , , «» , , . ; . ( 1) , 12, , , , , . 10 , . , , , , . , , , , · , ; · ; · , ; · , , ; · , , , , -; · , , , ; · , , ; · «» , , , « »; · «» , , , . , , , , , , , ? , , . , , 11 , , , « ». 3. 90 80 70 %etaR 60 pihsrenwO 50 40 e moH30 United States France 20 10 United Kingdom Germany 0 25-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 Age Group : Chiuri and Jappelli (2000). . -, ( 2).13 , , , , , 13 ­ ­ , - , . , . , , - , . Eastaway and Varo (2002) . 12 , , , . . -, (Chiuri and Jappelli, 2000), () , 20 30 .14 , , . , , ( 3). - : ? : (i) ; (ii) / . , , , , .. , , . ; , ( , ). , , , , , . , , , , , , , . , , , , , , , . , - ( , 2003). 14 13 50- 59 53 82%, 30-39 33-70%, 25-29 ­ 11-59%. 13 (-) (2003) , .15 , , , , , , . .16 , . , , , (, ), - , , , . . : , , , , .17 , , , . / . . ­ / /? ? (, - ) 15 , , 10 2,2 . 16 8 . 17 Bertraud and Renaud (1993) , , , - . 14 ? , . , , ­ , , , , , « » , . « ». « » « » , . 19 . «» , , . 20 «» , . , , , , «», . , . , , , , . , , , , , ( ), . . ­ , , . , , , , , , . 15 1980- , , . , , . , , , : , , , , . , , , , . 16 3. , , 1, () (). , .18 , ; , - . , , , , , , .19 , , , . , 2002 . , , .20 1. - / - / . - 2001 4 037 1 738 2002 6 386 1 063 2002 / 32 285 11 053 2003 44 493 25 223 2000 / 31 847 20 297 2002 / 3 000 / 18 , -: http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/EXTPA/0,,contentMDK:20204084 ~menuPK:443282~pagePK: 148956~piPK:21 661 8~theSitePK:430367,00.html (. 2004; 2003; 2003; 2004). http://www.worldbank.org.ru/ECA/Russia.nsf/0/385AA5BB7DB68980C3256E53004B6F14. (Lithuanian Free Market Institute, 2002). 19 , . 20 : http://www.am.lt/EN/VI/rubric.php3?rubric_id=134. 17 59374 , , . 50 . . . , , - , . , : ( 16 29 ), ( 30 44 ), ( 45 59 ) , , ( 60 ). , : , (1), , (2), , (3), (4). ( 2). 2. 1= ; (, ) , , ; , 2= : ; 3= , : , 4= , ; , ; 18 , , , , . -, « » , . , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . , , , , , , , , , , , . : . , .21 , , , , . , , . 21 . , 2001 , . , 2002 , , 1992 . ; 2002 . . , . 19 , , - , . , , « » , , , . , , . 3 , , , , , . 4,3 36,2 . , 1990- . , , , ( ). (16,8 ) (12,2 ), (4 ), (3,6 ) (3 ). , , , : 30,6 , (16,8 ) (13,8 ), 35 , (31,4 ) (3,6 ). , . , , , , . , (31,4 ), , , . , . 20 3. , , * % 92.7 93.6 90.2 94.1 82.6 81.0 / / 7.3 6.4 9.8 5.9 17.4 19.0 / / . 5.8 3.6 8.3 5.5 3.8 4.1 / / . 1.5 2.8 1.6 0.4 12.2 13.6 / / . / / / / 1.4 1.3 / / 66.4 48.7 56.4 87.8 95.7 94.8 94.3 97.4 33.6 51.3 43.7 12.3 4.3 5.2 5.7 2.6 . 13.8 20.6 20.1 2.2 1.3 1.9 2.0 0.5 . 16.8 27.8 21.6 5.7 1.1 1.8 1.8 0.2 . 3.0 2.9 2.0 4.4 1.9 1.6 1.9 1.9 63.8 44.5 62.8 78.7 88.7 88.9 88.7 88.5 36.2 55.5 37.2 21.3 11.3 11.1 11.3 11.5 . 31.4 53.0 32.6 14.6 2.3 2.5 2.1 2.4 . 3.6 1.8 4.0 4.0 4.0 3.6 4.0 4.2 . 1.1 0.7 0.6 2.7 5.1 5.0 5.1 5.0 . 1. * (2002). / ­ . . «» - . , . , , . ­ ­ : 13,6 16,8 , . ­ , . ­ , , «» , . , . , , , , . , , , , ( , ­ ). , , 21 . : · ( ) - ; , , ; · - ; , , ; , , ; · , «» , , ; · , « »; , , , ; · , - ; · , , , . , , , . , , . 2. - ( 4): · , 7,3 , (5,8 ) , . , 2001 22 . , 1,3 , , , , , - . . , , - , , , . , . · , 2002 . ,22 17,4 , . 10,5 , ; 3,8 ­ ; 1,7 ­ , , , . , , , , , . .23 · , , , . 2002 , 31 , ( , , ), (, , , , ). 40 . , / (, 600 . ), , . (27,8 ) 22 , , , . 23 , , 19 , 4 - , 13,6 ­ . . 23 (21,6 ). · , , 2,4 . 2002 , , ( - , , 24). , , (), , , , , , . , 2003 , 5 , 2,5 , ( 2-3 ). , 2 , . · , , (3,6 ). ( 2004) 5 ; (2002) , . , , , , . . , « » , « » , . , ( ), . , , . 24 - , , 2002 . 1,5 . 212 . , 1,3 . . (, 700 .), . 24 · -, . , 7 , 5 . , « », .25 , , , , . 4. Denmark Luxembourg France Poland Belgium Finland Lithuania Netherland UK Ireland Serbia Russia Armenia Romania 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Private Public Owner-occupied Free or other . . 1 ( ) Sak and Raponi (2002) , , . 1990- , , , . 25. Zivanovich (2003). 25 , , , , , , . , , / , , 100%. , , , . , , - , .26 , ( 4). · , . , 5 ( ). 2002 . 40 ; , , .27 , , , ­ , . - , - ; , . , , 26 . World Bank (2004a) 27 . Hamilton and Vecvagare (2003) Desilets and Vanoyan (2003). 26 , .28 · ( ), , . , , , 10 . 15 , ; , . , , , , - . - , , . , , .29 · ­ , , , () . , , , . .30 , / , - , . · , , 34 42 ( ).31 . 28. UN-ECE (2004c). 29. Morkunaite et al. (2003). 30 1997 . . , , , . 31. UN-ECE (2001). 27 , , 20 . , , . - , . 4. , , % % * 45.2 62.0 71.2 42.8 71.4 29.9 5.8 3.8 13.8 1.3 31.4 2.3 39.4 58.2 57.4 41.5 40.0 27.6 - 5.9 8.7 5.8 20.7 5.0 / <5% <5% ~60-65 <5% <15% <5% * >33% >50% <5% >20% >50% >25% >5% >10% 14.5 36.0 >5% * . : . : , , . : , (UN-ECE); Morkunaite, R., et al. (2003); , ; , Ellis (2003). : . : , ; , Ellis (2003); . * , , , . · , , , , , . , 7 32; . - , 70 - , , 32 . UN-ECE Skyner (2004). 28 , , , . - , - .33 - - 60%, .34 · , , , - . , , -, . , . , , , , , , , . , , .35 , , . (Skyner, 2004) , - de jure . , , . , «» , de facto, , - . . «», ? 33 , - . 34. Ellis (2003). 35 , , Ellis (2003). 29 : , , , , ( ). , , , , , , , , . , , , . - . , , , , , , , / , , . , , : , , . , , : , , .36 , , .37 , (UN-ECE, 2001), , - 20 , 80%. (UN-ECE, 2004b) , , , , , , 20 . , 40 . , , 5 , .38 36 . Desilets and Vanoyan (2003). 37 . Dübel (2004), HypoVereinsbank Polska. 38 2004 . 30 , 2004 . , , , , 20 , , . , , , . , , , , , , , . . , , , , , . , , , .39 , , , «» . · , , , , - , - , , . - , , , , . (2004) «». · , . , . - , , - , . , , , 39 , 2005 , . 31 - . , -, , , , , , . , , , , «», , , , . 5. , - - - - - 10.05 0.62 28.41 1.64 16.73 1.05 15.96 / 24.88 0.95 . 9.59 0.60 20.25 1.33 14.51 0.90 13.62 / 21.81 0.89 . 9.23 0.58 2.40 1.27 17.92 1.04 12.57 / 21.47 0.81 / / / 25.04 1.49 18.01 1.09 14.59 / 20.89 0.86 . ( 1). . . . . , - , . , ( 5). , , , .40 . , , , , . 40 (2004) , . 32 , , . , , .41 : (i) , , ; (ii) , , , ; (iii) «» - . , , , . , , (4 . ), , .42 : 1989 . , , . , : (i) ; (ii) ; (iii) , . , , , , , . 41. Lithuania Free Market Institute (2002), Morkunaite et al. (2003) . 42 , , , , . 33 , , . , 1999 . (Lowe, 2003), 60 , , 45 . , , . , , , , , , . , , , . - , , , «» , .43 , () (), .44 , , 1990- , , , , , . -, , , , , , . , . 43 , , . 44 Lowe (2003) , : 12 , , - , . 34 2000 , . , , , , , 2004 . , . , . , (Lowe, 2003): , , 36 , , , 22 . , , - ( ) . - , , . , , « », , , , . , , , . , . . , , , , , . 35 , , . ( , - , , , , ). .45 . , , , . , - . 2002 . - ( ) 8 . - , «» , (, ) .46 ( , ). - , . . , , . , , 45 Lowe (2003) , 2,1 ­ , . 46 « », . 36 . , , . , , , , ( , , ), , . . , , ; , , , . : 47 ­ «» , , ( 5). , , 16 29 , 30 44 , , .48 , .49 , , , 24 , , . , , , 12 , , . , 34 , , , , ; , , , . 47 , , , , , , , , . , . 48 - , , , . 49 . Chiuri and Jappelli (2000). 37 , , , , , , 2,6- 6,5 , . , , , . , , , , (. ). 50 ( 6 5), 30 44 , , , ; - , 5 27 . , , , , , , , , . 6. , * % / / / / 91.6 68.2 85.8 82.6 60.4 83.0 8.4 31.8 14.2 17.4 39.6 17.0 . 5.9 17.1 9.0 3.8 4.0 4.5 . 2.5 14.7 5.2 12.2 33.9 11.4 . / / / 1.4 1.6 1.1 55.4 43.9 50.0 95.2 79.2 94.6 44.6 56.1 50.0 4.8 20.8 5.4 . 20.9 32.0 22.7 1.5 1.9 1.8 . 23.7 24.2 27.3 1.9 11.9 1.9 . 1.4 7.0 1.7 56.0 47.7 51.7 84.7 73.9 86.8 44.0 52.3 48.3 15.3 26.2 13.2 . 40.7 32.6 43.1 3.9 5.8 . 3.0 19.4 4.7 7.1 18.1 4.9 . 0.4 0.4 0.6 4.4 8.1 2.5 50 , , , , , . 38 . ( 1). * (2002). . , ( ). , , . : , («»): 16-29 ; : 30­ 44 (, , ). : («»): 20 ; : 30­39 ( ). 5. , , 35.0 30.0 25.0 Poland 20.0 Lithuania Serbia Russia 15.0 Armenia Romania 10.0 5.0 0.0 Total Housing Starters Young Households . ( 1). , , , , , ( 6). : , - (. ), 39 , , . , , «» . , , .51 , , , . , ? , , 52 , ( 6). : · , , , , , . , , , . - ( , , , ). · , , , . (. 2) , . , , , 51 , , . 52 , , . . 40 «» , . , , , , .53 , , , , , , , , « » . : : , ( 7). , . 7 , , , ( ). (. 6) . (. 7). , , , , . «» , , de facto , - .54 , (. ), , . 53 - , . 54. Ellis (2003). 41 7. , * . . . . I 20.8 28.3 20.0 / / / II 18.9 16.5 18.9 / / / III 18.9 23.7 22.3 / / / IV 19.2 15.3 13.1 / / / V 22.2 16.3 25.7 / / / I 9.9 16.4 21.2 8.9 32.9 9.2 II 15.5 21.1 20.6 14.3 25.1 9.8 III 19.5 21.8 21 20 18.4 16.4 IV 24.7 21.3 19.6 25 11.5 21.6 V 30.3 19.4 17.7 31.9 12.2 43.1 I 10.9 13.1 17.6 21.5 14.6 27.5 II 17.6 17.8 15 19.2 20.5 20.2 III 20.8 20.9 16 19 24 14.6 IV 23.1 24.1 17.9 19.1 26.6 21.1 V 27.7 24.1 33.6 21.3 14.3 16.6 . ( 1). . , - ( 1). / ­ . , , 55 (. 8 ). , , . , , , «» . 55 2002 , , . , , . , , . 42 6. Poland 35 30 25 20 Owners Public Rental 15 Private Rental 10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 . ( 1). 7. Russia 35 30 25 20 Owners Public Rental 15 Private Rental 10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 . ( 1). 43 8. Romania 35 30 25 20 Owners Public Rental 15 Private Rental 10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 . ( 1) : / , , , , ? , ? - , , . , , , , , . , , . , , (Fidrmuc, 2002), , , ( ) , . 44 , , , , . (Kallai, 2003) , . . , , , . ( 9): 100 ­ , . , , , ( 7). 9. : 45 40 35 30 egatnecreP25 Bucharest Urban areas 20 Rural areas 15 10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 Income quintiles . ( 1). (2004a) . , , , , , . , , 45 , . - : , , , () , . , , , , , , , , . , , , «» , . «» , , , , .56 , , , , : «» , , , . , , , , , . . , , , . , 1980- , . 56 , , , , , «» , , . , , - . 46 8. ~1980 0.85 1982 0.89 1977 0.77 1979 0.86 1981 ~1990 0.80 1992 0.86 1992 0.735 1989 0.85 1001 2002 0.81 2002 0.87 2002 0.735 2002 0.84 2002 . , . . : ln ( ) = + * ln ( ). : = 100, = 70, = 109, = 49. , : R2 0.95. - . , , , . , (Zipf's Law), .57 , , 1980- , , , 1990- . , - ( 8). , ( = 1), . (Deichmann and Henderson, 2000) , , , . , - , , .58 , , , . , : 57. Fujita, Krugman, and Venables (1999), 12. 58 , (2004b, Executive Summary, Page ii) , «-, «» ( 1 » ( ). 47 - , , , «» .59 / , , , ? , , . , , , , , /. « », . «» . ( ­ , , ) , , , . , , . , , , , . , , . , , , , , . «» , , «» , . , , , , , - , 59, , , , - . 48 «», , , . , , , , / , . · . , . , « », , , . , , , «». , . , , , . · , , . , , , , , . , . « », . , , . , , . 49 , : - . , - (), (HLM, Habitation à Loyer Modéré). - , 1990- , . , : , « » . , , , . , , , (. ). ? , , «» . . , .60 , . , , $50 () $100 , $250 . . 60 . , , . 50 9. , , , * - 11000 154 200188 381 - 15044 124 799487 646 4645 / 136.8% 80.5% 399.4% 169.6% n.m. /** - 23.1% 8.3% 4.7% 5.7% - 27.1% 7.3% 8.9% 9.7% 18.8% / 117.5% 87.7% 188.1% 172.4% n.m. / *** - 11.0% / 13.2% 17.4% 9.1% - . 34.3% / 16.8% 17.6% 10.1% - 35.5% / 21.6% 19.4% 27.6% / 103.4% / 128.9% 110.1% 273.4% . ( 1). . , /. ** , - . *** ( / + ), - . ( 9) « » . «» , , ( ) . , . , . , , , , , ( ) ( 9). , 3 , . 51 , . , , , , , , .61 , . , , . , , , , , «» , , . , , , , . · , , . , , 2004 . . · , , , . , , , (Kalinina and Klepikova, 2002). : · , , , . - , 61 . 52 , . · , , , . , , . . , . , . , , , , . , . , , , . . , , , (4,6 ), , , (3,8 ). . , , . , , . , . , , , , . , , , «» . , « », , , «» . , 53 , 15-20 ( ). , , (. ), . ( 1). - . , , , , , , . , , . , : , , 2001 - , . , , , . - . 1. $50 . ­ , 50 . 20 , . , , . , , , $400 , $50, $350 . , , . , . 10 , 80 . 54 , , , , . - - . 55 4. , : -«», ; «» , ; , . , , . , , , . - , , , , , . , , . , , . , . , , .62 -. , 1990- . , , , , . , , , , , , . 62, , . 56 , , ; , , . , (. ). «» , , , . , ( ). . , , ( ). . , , - , . «» , . . , , , ; . 2 , . , , . , , . , , , , . . ( ) , 57 . - . , , , , , . - ­ , . , . , , , , , ( , , ), . - , (), , , , , 15-20 . , . , , , , . 2. , , , , (PZU) , . (). , . . , , , . . «», .63 , , , 63 , , ( ), ( ). 58 .64 , , , , , . , (, , ). , , , . 10. , , , , , , () ( ) , , . , , ( 1). 64, . 59 , / () , , , , , . , , - , 65 ; , . , , , , , , . , , . - , , , . 10 . /, 3, , . - , . . - , , , - . , , , , , . , , , , 65 «» «» , . , ­ . 60 .66 - , . , , . , , .67 , . , , , . , , , . , , , (, ) (, ). , , , . , , , , , , . , , , . , , , .68 , , , , , . , , , , , . . . 66 1. 67 , . 68 : ; : . 61 . : ; , , ; , , , . , , . , , , , , . - , . , , , , , . , , , , .69 . -, , , . , , ( , , ). , , , . . , . : 6 12 .70 69 , . 70 - , , . 62 , ( ). , . , (, : ), , (: ). , , . , , , , . , , , (, ). ( , ) . , . , , / , , , . . , , . , , , ( , ). , , , , , , (, , ). , , (). . , . , , 63 . , , . . - , «». . . , , , (, ). , . ( ), . (, ). . , . . ( , ) ( ). , , . . () , , - , . , , ­ . , ; , , , , (), . 64 , , . , , . - (, , ), , , , «» . , (), 2004 10 .71 - , , , , , , , . , , «» . , , , , . , , , , (). , , , , , , , . , -. (). , (1-1,5 ) , (4 ). , (). , , , , 71 , , , , . 65 , , . , (, , ), ( ) . (), (), 100- (). , , , . ­ . «-», , , , , ( ). , , .72 , (, ). , () . , ( ). de facto , , , - ( ) . , 72 (, , ) . , . 66 , .73 ­ .74 , , , , . . , , , . , ; . 11. , , , , , , , , . , , . 11. , , ( ) 73 , , . 74 , . 67 \ \ / / / ( / ) - - - - - - , , , , - - - , / / / / / ( / / (- ) ) ( ( ) () ) ? , , , , , , , ? ; ; ­ ( ) . . . . . . ­ , , , , , . 1 , 68 , . , , , ( 10). , , .75 10 , . , , ( ) . , ( , ), ( , , ). , , , . , , . , . . , , . , . ­ , , 75 1. 69 . 10. Tenure Neutral* Consistent within Sector Homeowners Landlords Homeowners Landlords Rent/imputed rent T T Rent/imputed rent NT T Costs of capital T T Costs of capital NT T Lithuania Poland Homeowners Landlords Homeowners Landlords Rent/imputed rent NT T Rent/imputed rent NT T Costs of capital T NT Costs of capital T T Romania Russia Homeowners Landlords Homeowners Landlords Rent/imputed rent NT T Rent/imputed rent NT T Costs of capital T NT Costs of capital T NT . . . = / , NT = / . * « » / . , 2001 , , , - , . 19 , , . , 70 , .76 , , , (). , , , ( - ; , ). () (, ) (). . , , . ­ , , , . , , , - . , , , , , , , , . , « » 1850 . 19 20 70 ( 90 ). ; 76 () , , , . , . 71 . . , , . , . , , , , . 1917 1922 . . , , , , , , , , , . , . 1917 . , 1945 . . : , , , (, , ), , (, , ). , . , , . , , , , (, , ), , , 72 - . , - , , . , 1989/91 . 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Dübel and Freinkman (1999) UN-ECE (2004c). 77 · , .97 , 2002 , , 2004 , , 18 2020 ( 10 2003 ). , , , ( , , , , , ), , . , , . ,98 , . , - , - . . · , , ­ , . , .99 97 2004 « », 60. 13 , «... », 45 ­ « ». 98 , , , . 99 , - . - . 78 , , , . 1997 , . : - , , ; « », , , , , . ( , , , , ). · , .100 : , , () , . . , , , . , . (20 , , 50 ), . · , , , - . 2004 . , . , . , 100. , (Ministry of Transport, Construction, and Tourism, 2004). 79 , . , () , , , . . . , , , , , . , , , , , , . , : . · - . , , , , . . , - . 80 5. - , 1990- , , . , , , , , . , , . , , , , , , , , . , , . , , ( 11). 11. 80 Apartment & hostel buildings Non ow ner-occupied tenure 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hungary Serbia Romania Armenia Slovakia Rep Czech Lithuania Poland Russia . 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(Deaton and Muellbauer, 1980). , , , 93 1 , ­ . : Q = q(Y, Ph, Po,T) , Q ­ « », Y ­ , Ph - , Po - , T ­ . , , . ­ , , « » () . - , , («») , , . , , , ; , , . , , , . , (Blinder, 1974, Beach et al., 1981). . , , , , . , , , , . , , . . , «», , (Becker, 1965; Lancaster, 1966). , ­ , , . , (Rosen, 1974), 94 1 . . . (Smith et al., 1988, p. 37) , « , ». , (Quigley, 1979). , , . , , , , . (Fujita, Krugman and Venables, 1999) . , , , , , , , . , , , ( ) ( ). , , 19 , . , , . , , (Arnott, 1987). , , « », , , . . 95 1 , - . , , , , (Henderson and Ioannides, 1989; Plaut, 1987). , . , , , , , . , , , , , . , (, , ) , (. ). , - , - - (Clark and Dieleman, 1996). , (Deurloo et al., 1987) , - , . , , , (Deurloo et al. 1987), , , , . , . ) , - , , . , , , , . (Rothenberg et al., 1991), : , , . 96 1 . , , , - . , , , , (Houthakker, 1951), . , . , (DeLeeuw and Ekanem, 1971). (Arcelus and Meltzer, 1973), 0,94. , . , (Hansen et al.,1996) , . , , 0,1 (Kain and Quigley, 1975). (Mayo, 1981) , , 0,25 0,70 0,36 0,87 . , (Goodman and Kawai, 1984), . . , (Ihlanfeldt,1982) , , , . , 0,14 0,62; 0,72 1,1. , (Mayo and Sheppard, 1996) , 0,5 1 . , , . , , , . . , , , . , , ­ , . 97 1 (McFadden, 1978), . (Ioannides and Zabel, 2003) , - . , 0,19 0,65. . , , , , , (Rosen and Rosen, 1980; King, 1980). , , , (Titman 1982; Narwold 1992; Wood 2001). , , , - , . , (Jones, 1989, 1995; Linneman and Wachter, 1989; Haurin, Hendershott, and Wachter, 1997; Rosenthal, 2002). , , (Coulson, 1999). (Frogner, 2002) , . , , . . 70 , , , . 84 , . , , , 98 1 . . - (Diaz-Serrano, 2004) , , . , , , , , , , , . . , (Barcelo, 2003) : , , . ­ , , , , . (Painter and Redfearn, 2002) . , , . , , . , , . , , , , . - , . 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