86305 LATIN AMERICA & CARIBBEAN REGION Restoring the Coastal Environment & Water Resources Environment in OCCASIONAL PAPER SERIES Cartagena, Colombia © 2014 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. 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Emilia Battaglini The Environment & Water Resources Occasional Acting Sector Manager Paper Series, a publication of the Environment Environment Unit Unit of the Sustainable Development Department Sustainable Development Department in Latin America and Caribbean Region (LCSEN) Latin America and Caribbean Region i ACKNOWLEDGMENTS........................................................................................................................... iii RESTORING THE COASTAL ENVIRONMENT IN CARTAGENA, COLOMBIA CONTENTS Cartagena: A Dynamic Cultural and Industrial City...................................................................................... 2 Confronting a Coastal Environmental Crisis................................................................................................. 3 Resetting the Institutional Framework for Wastewater Management........................................................ 4 Developing New Environmental Institutions................................................................................................. 4 Financing Infrastructure Investments........................................................................................................... 5 Implementing a Phased Infrastructure Development Program.................................................................. 5 Summary of ACUACAR’s Achievements........................................................................................................ 7 Coastal Environmental Improvements.......................................................................................................... 8 Future Challenges in Coastal Environmental Restoration........................................................................... 9 Summary of Key Lessons.............................................................................................................................. 9 BOXES Box 1 Global Partnership for the Oceans................................................................................................ 2 Box 2 Cartagena Convention.................................................................................................................... 4 Box 3 Submarine Outfalls....................................................................................................................... 11 FIGURES Figure 1 Map of Cartagena....................................................................................................................... 3 Figure 2 Wastewater Facilities and Indicative Water Quality Data....................................................... 10 TABLES Table 1 Summary of ACUACAR’s Achievements: Key Service Indicators............................................... 8 ii This publication was prepared jointly by the Water Supply and Sanitation Unit (LCSWS) and the Environment Unit (LCSEN) in the Latin America and Caribbean Region of the World Bank in collaboration with the Cartagena Water Company (ACUACAR) and the Colombian Ministry of Environment, Direction of Marine Affairs. The Global Partnership for the Oceans (GPO) provided technical advice related to marine and coastal issues for the report. The authors wish to express their thanks for the support provided by the ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Cartagena Regional Environmental Authority (CARDIQUE). The primary authors are Greg Browder (Lead Water and Sanitation Specialist, World Bank) and Ricardi Duvil (Consultant, World Bank), with extensive support provided by Luis Alfonso Pinzón and José Zapata Pinedo (ACUACAR), and Evelyn Paola Moreno Nieto (Ministry of Environment). Senior Editor: Maria L. Madrid. Assistant Editors: Elvira C. Broeks and Barbara Minguez Garcia (World Bank). Special thanks are extended to the many other colleagues who have commented on earlier drafts. An initiative from the World Bank for integrated urban water management iii The beach in Cartagena. 6 Restoring the Coastal Environment in Cartagena, Colombia BOX 1 Restoring the Coastal Environment Global Partnership for the Oceans in Cartagena, Colombia The Global Partnership for the Oceans is a new and powerful approach to restoring ocean health. It Cartagena, the historic city where the “1983 Cartagena Convention for the Protection of the mobilizes finance and knowledge to activate proven Caribbean” was signed, is meeting its responsibilities to protect the public health of its citizens as solutions at an unprecedented scale for the benefit well as the costal marine environment through improved wastewater management. Cartagena’s of communities, countries and global well-being. The experience can serve as an inspiration to the wider Caribbean region and provide a model for other GPO is a growing alliance of over 140 governments, developing coastal cities. international organizations, civil society groups, and Water pollution control is a key issue for the world’s coastal cities. Pollution emanating from private sector interests committed to addressing domestic and industrial wastewater can not only contaminate the ocean environment but also the threats to the health, productivity and resilience damage highly productive estuaries and bays that provide a critical ecological connection to of the ocean. The Partnership aims to tackle the marine environment. Inadequate wastewater management can also pollute urban beaches, documented problems of overfishing, pollution, potentially threatening public health and undermining tourism. and habitat loss. Together these problems are contributing to the depletion of a natural resource This technical note summarizes Cartagena’s experience in wastewater management for bank that provides nutrition, livelihoods and vital international dissemination and was jointly prepared by the World Bank, the Colombian Ministry ecosystem services. For more information refer to: of Environment and Sustainable Development, the Cartagena water utility (ACUACAR), and the http://www.globalpartnershipforoceans.org/about Global Partnership for the Oceans (GPO), which is described in Box 1. Cartagena: A Dynamic Cultural and Industrial City The District of Cartagena has a population of around one million inhabitants and has experienced rapid growth with the population doubling over the last two decades. Due to its history and spectacular natural scenery, Cartagena is Colombia’s largest tourist area, with an annual influx of around one million visitors. In 1984, UNESCO declared the key landmarks of Cartagena as a World Cultural Heritage Site. Cartagena also has a thriving industrial sector with important petrochemical, beverage, and seafood processing industries. In 2012, the Port of Cartagena was Colombia’s main container port and the third busiest port for transportation of grain. The socio-economic structure of Cartagena is complex and the city suffers from high levels of poverty. Thirty-five percent of the population is classified as extremely poor, or “Strata 1” in the Colombian system, implying that they cannot meet their basic needs. Another 30% falls under the Restoring the Coastal Environment in Cartagena, Colombia 2 Figure 1: Map of Cartagena IBRD 40435 “Strata 2” classification, implying that their basic needs are not met in a satisfactory manner. Households classified as Strata 1 or 2 pay subsidized rates for utility services, such as water and sanitation. A significant percentage of the population is composed of recently arrived residents from rural areas seeking better economic opportunities and fleeing violence in the countryside. As shown in Figure 1, Cartagena is surrounded by water on all sides: the Caribbean Sea to the north, Cartagena Bay to the west, and a lagoon known as the Ciénaga de la Virgen to the east. Recognizing the importance of the marine environment for Cartagena, as well as its standing as a leading city in the region, the Convention for s che the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment in the Wider Caribbean Bea Region, known as The Cartagena Convention, was signed in 1983 in Cartagena and is discussed in Box 2. Confronting a Coastal Environmental Crisis By the mid-1990s, rapid population growth, unplanned urban development, and poor wastewater management had severely deteriorated Cartagena’s rich coastal resources, generating a public health crisis. At this time, less than half of the households had s he connections to a wastewater disposal system and none of the wastewater was treated. ac Untreated wastewater flowed into coastal waters carrying organic waste and nutrients Be which destroyed rich fisheries in the Bay and the Lagoon. Disease-causing bacteria and Cienaga parasites from untreated wastewater flowed through streets and into water courses, de la amplifying public health risks, particularly for the numerous low-income and vulnerable Virgen communities living around the Lagoon. Cartagena’s famous beaches were frequently closed due to microbiological contamination. In addition to the pollution generated from poor household wastewater management, industries further contributed to the contamination of Cartagena’s environment by discharging wastewater with impunity into the nearest water body. The environmental crisis confronting Cartagena in the mid-1990s was undermining the city’s long-term sustainability by threatening its world-class tourism industry, posing public health risks and lowering the quality of life. Furthermore, the rich eco- Cartagena systems in the Bay, the Lagoon, and along the coast--including mangrove forests, Bay highly productive and diverse fisheries, sea-grasses and coral reefs, were in ecological This map was produced by the Map Design Unit of The World Bank. The boundaries, colors, denominations and any other information decline with no prospects for recovery in the absence of a comprehensive and effective water pollution control program. shown on this map do not imply, on the part of The World Bank GSDPM Map Design Unit Group, any judgment on the legal status of any territory, or any endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. JANUARY 2014 3 Restoring the Coastal Environment in Cartagena, Colombia Resetting the Institutional Framework for Wastewater Management Prior to 1995, Cartagena’s water and sanitation service suffered with an inefficient water utility that was owned and controlled by the municipal government. Due to low tariffs and inefficient operations, the lack of cost recovery on behalf of the water utility contributed to financial problems, BOX 2 ultimately resulting in the delivery of inadequate services to its users. Major portions of the The Cartagena Convention population, particularly those with lower incomes, were forced to rely on water provided by private vendors and even those with connections to the water system frequently experienced such low The Convention for the Protection and Development water pressure that their service was essentially nonexistent. Unable to recover its costs due to its of the Marine Environment in the Wider Caribbean inefficiency, the system operated with substantial financial losses and had insufficient funding for Region (WCR) is a comprehensive umbrella maintenance or improvement of the system. agreement for the protection and development of the marine environment. This regional environmental The situation in Cartagena was not an isolated case in Colombia during this time period, and as a convention provides the legal framework for result in 1994 the Colombian government passed the Public Services Law that expanded the role of cooperative regional and national actions. The specialized operators in pubic water utilities and created national tariff and service regulatory agencies. Convention was adopted in Cartagena, Colombia, on To address its environmental and socio-economic problems, the District of Cartagena was one of the 24 March 1983 and entered into force on 11 October first municipalities in Colombia to introduce private participation in the water and sanitation sector. 1986, for the legal implementation of the Action Plan for the Caribbean Environment Programme. In 1995 the Cartagena District Council and the City Mayor liquidated the municipal utility and The Cartagena Convention has been ratified by created a “mixed-capital” company for the operation of the water and wastewater system, called 25 national governments in the Wider Caribbean ACUACAR. A private company from Barcelona, Spain (AGBAR) was selected as the specialized Region. The Convention is supplemented by three operator and owns 46% of ACUACAR’s shares. Cartagena District retained 50% of the shares, with Protocols which entered into force with the following the remaining 4% owned by private shareholders. Although this model is commonly used in Spain, dates: i) Combatting Oil Spills (1986); ii) Protected this was the first time such an arrangement had been tried in Latin America. Areas and Wildlife (2000); and iii) Pollution from Land-Based Sources (2010). For further information The ACUACAR contract included various performance targets to improve the quality of service and see the Carribean Environment Programme Web maintenance, reduce leakages in the distribution system, and improve the collection rate. The District page: www.cep.undp.org originally retained primary responsibility for financing future capital investments, while ACUACAR was responsible for implementing the capital works program. However, the contract has evolved over time and ACUACAR now self-finances a significant share of capital works through its tariff revenue. Developing New Environmental Institutions In 1993, a new National Environmental Law created the Ministry of Environment, formulated a framework for environmental management, and established autonomous regional environmental authorities which are responsible for implementing national environmental policies at the local level. The regional environmental authorities in Colombia are governed by a combination of national, regional, and local government representatives, as well as stakeholders from the business community, non-governmental groups, and indigenous peoples. While the regional environmental authorities have a steady funding stream based mainly on a 15% environmental property tax Restoring the Coastal Environment in Cartagena, Colombia 4 surcharge to implement projects and cover operating costs,it is often Implementing a Phased Infrastructure Development not sufficient funding to cover all costs, especially in the case of coastal Program regional environmental authorities which now have marine jurisdiction and Tackling Cartagena’s severe coastal environmental degradation required a hence increased responsibilities and higher operating costs. long-term and incrementally phased approach, grouped into the following components: The environmental authority for the region surrounding Cartagena is called CARDIQUE. This institution is responsible for setting water quality Improving Water Supply Service: ACUACAR’s highest priority during the standards, municipal and industrial discharge standards, as well as issuing period from 1995 to 2000 was to improve water service to customers environmental licenses. In Colombia, large cities such as Cartagena also by rehabilitating and upgrading the existing water supply system. have their own municipal agencies which are responsible for environmental Improvements included increasing the treated water supply, stabilizing management and are entitled to half of the environmental property tax water pressure, improving the electrical supply system, and improving surcharge from the City. commercial practices such as billing, collection, and customer service. These interventions allowed ACUACAR to enhance its financial stability, cost Financing Infrastructure Investments recovery and secure the confidence of its customers and the Cartagena In the late 1990s, the financing needs for upgrading Cartagena’s water District government, thus paving the way for large-scale wastewater supply system, and essentially constructing a new wastewater collection, investments. treatment, and disposal system were daunting—requiring over $150 million Improving Drainage in High-Value Economic Areas: Prior to 2000, the for wastewater infrastructure alone. Fortunately, the Colombian national key tourism and commercial areas in Cartagena, particularly in the low-lying government and the District of Cartagena were committed to providing most, Bocagrande zone where the high-end beaches are located, were subject but not all, of the required financing. International development institutions, to frequent flooding and sewer overflows into the streets and surrounding such as the World Bank, and the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) also beaches. With the help of an IDB loan of US$40.5 million, ACUACAR improved provided long-term low-interest loans, coupled with technical assistance, to the wastewater system draining into Cartagena Bay and essentially eliminated help Cartagena achieve its environmental objectives. sewage discharges in key touristic areas. City of Cartagena. Improving Water Circulation in the Ciénaga de la Virgen: While ACUACAR focused on water supply and high-priority drainage issues in the late 1990s and early 2000s, the District of Cartagena and CARDIQUE developed an innovative project to improve water quality in the Lagoon. The Lagoon originally had numerous outlets to the sea and its brackish waters supported a diverse and highly productive aquatic-ecosystem. However, the construction of a road along the coastline in the late 1980s sealed off most of the natural outlets, thus severely curtailing tidal circulation in the estuary. By 2000, the Lagoon was receiving around 60% of Cartagena’s untreated wastewater and the combination of high pollution loads with poor water circulation had created an environmental disaster. The District of Cartagena and CARDIQUE, with the financial and technical support of the Government of the Netherlands, constructed a stabilized tidal inlet entrance known as “La Bocana Project” in the early 2000s. The project consists of an enlarged canal entrance to the Lagoon, self-actuating tidal gates to increase flow into the Lagoon, and a long seawall within the estuary to route the tidal flows through the Lagoon and help flush out the pollution. The project helped to significantly improve the water quality in the Lagoon and halted the environmental decline until ACUACAR could complete its wastewater master plan. Collecting, Treating, and Disposing of Cartagena’s Wastewater: By the early 2000s, ACUACAR, with the support of a US $85 million loan from the World Bank, was poised to fully implement its wastewater master plan. The plan, which is summarized in Figure 2, consists of the following components: n Convey the wastewater from the Cartagena Bay drainage area to the new central pump station; n Complete the wastewater collection system in the Laguna drainage area, particularly in the poor, low- lying squatter neighborhood along the Lagoon, and convey the wastewater to the new central pump station; n Pump all of Cartagena’s collected wastewater from the central pump station to a new treatment plant located 19 kilometers to the north; and n Treat the wastewater at a new wastewater treatment plant, and then discharge the effluent through a 4.3 kilometer long, 2 meter diameter, submarine outfall into the Caribbean Sea at a depth of approximately 20 meters. A submarine outfall, coupled with preliminary wastewater treatment was the selected alternative due to its relatively low costs and the adequate natural conditions close to Cartagena’s coast. The preliminary treatment plant was designed to remove floatable material such as oils and plastic bags, as well as sand and grit particles. The submarine outfall technology efficiently reduces organic material and suspended solids, producing up to a 99% reduction in the concentration of these key pollutants outside the designated mixing zone around the outfall diffusers. Extensive modeling was done with international experts to confirm the feasibility of a submarine outfall and the plan was approved by CARDIQUE. The treatment plant layout also allows for upgrading the treatment process in the future if so required. The Castle San Felipe, the historic fortress originally constructed in 1536. However, the selection of a submarine outfall option, combined with preliminary treatment, was not without controversy. The fishing village located near the start of the 4 km long marine outfall pipe, composed mainly of people of Afro-Caribbean desent, were concerned that the outfall would affect their livelihoods. Local property developers also initially opposed the plan because of fears of odor and seawater quality problems. Finally, a group of technical experts preferred other technical alternatives consisting of large wastewater treatment lagoons. The marine outfall approach was contested in the Colombian environmental regulatory system, and in 2002 the Ministry of Environment ratified the environmental license originally approved by CARDIQUE. Opponents of the outfall option also appealed to the World Bank’s Inspection Panel in 2004, which after a lengthy and extensive review endorsed the outfall alternative as an acceptable solution. In late 2010, an accident occurred in the towing of the outfall pipe which resulted in delay of over two years; the accident was accompanied by a scandal as the responsible contractor fled leaving ACUACAR to complete the installation with its own financing while the matter is addressed in the Colombian legal system. Commissioning of Cartagena’s Wastewater System: In spite of many complications, the wastewater treatment system was commissioned in early 2013. Recognizing the importance of this achievement, President Juan La Bocana is a water control structure at the inlet to the Ciénaga de la Virgen Manuel Santos of Colombia inaugurated the system on March 20, 2013; his that improves water quality in the estuary by promoting water circulation. translated comments are presented below: Credit: Google Earth. Image @2014 TerraMetrics, @2013 Google, Image @2014 Digital Globe “This is an extremely important project, a project that has great significance for the development of the country, Cartagena, and the Summary of ACUACAR’s Achievements thousands of people which in one way or another will benefit from As a result of improvements in utility management, moderate increases no longer having a contaminated Bay or a contaminated Ciénaga in tariffs, and infrastructure investments, ACUACAR has been able to de la Virgen. With this project, Cartagena becomes the first city in significantly improve the quality and efficiency of water and sanitation the country to have a comprehensive sanitation program with 100% services and achieve sustainability. Potable water, which meets the national wastewater treatment. This is the project that you have been waiting quality standards, is provided on a continuous basis to all households— for 20 years, and after 20 years of much effort and challenges, finally even to the poorest neighborhoods. Based on its tariff revenues, ACUACAR today it is a reality. How marvelous!” is able to cover all operating and maintenance costs, and help contribute 7 Restoring the Coastal Environment in Cartagena, Colombia to infrastructure investments. ACUACAR’s mixed capital model has become Pollution Free Coastal Beaches: Cartagena’s Caribbean beaches are institutionalized in Cartagena, and the combination of local political control essentially free of contamination from sewage and the “red-flag” days of of the company combined with professional private sector management has beach closures are now history. Coliforms are a broad class of bacteria performed remarkably well. Table 1 presents key indicators. found in our environment, including the feces of man and other warm- blooded animals. The presence of coliform bacteria in water may indicate a Coastal Environmental Improvements possible presence of harmful, disease-causing organisms. The Colombian In addition to improved water services, the completion of the wastewater standard for safe bathing is 1000 MPN/100 ml and was frequently system has generated spectacular environmental improvements that were exceeded in the past. Figure 2 shows how total coliform concentrations hardly imaginable two decades ago. Although there is less than one year of have declined dramatically after the wastewater treatment system has been extensive water quality monitoring to date after the commissioning of the new commissioned. wastewater treatment system, the results are evident. Initial opposition to the Significant Improvements in Cartagena Bay Water Quality: The wastewater preliminary treatment with the marine outfall solution have dissipated and generated in the western part of the city, accounting for approximately 35% there is a consensus that the approach is working well. of the total pollution load, is now conveyed to the wastewater treatment Figure 2 provides a summary of key water quality indicators “before” and “after” plant and disposed through the submarine outfall. Pollution levels in the Bay, the commissioning of the wastewater treatment system in mid-2013. Figure 2 particularly alongside Cartagena in the “Inner Bay,” are now significantly also compares the water quality data with the regulatory requirements contained reduced. There are still challenges, however, in achieving a full Bay clean- in ACUACAR’s environmental license. Since the wastewater treatment system up including contaminated stormwater run-off, industrial pollution, and was only commissioned in March 2013, the results are presented as indicative pollution from the “Canal del Dique” in the southern part of the Bay which and preliminary, but nonetheless highly encouraging. ACUACAR and CARDIQUE discharges untreated effluent from numerous small municipalities. have a comprehensive and continuous water quality monitoring program. The Restoration of the Ciénaga de la Virgen: The removal of wastewater discharges impacts can be qualitatively described as follows: into the Lagoon, coupled with improved water circulation produced by the La Table 1: Summary of ACUACAR’s achievements: Key Service Indicators. Water Supply Water Supply Length Water Continuity of Water Unaccounted for Year Coverage Customers Network Service Water 1995 73% 92,572 700 kms 14 hours 45% 2013 99.9% 233,412 1,480 kms 24 hours 33% Sewerage Length Sewage Revenues Sewerage Coverage Wastewater Treated Customers Network COP-Million 1995 61% 77,553 500 kms 0% 25,592 2013 90.3% 211,022 1,062 kms >90% 165,889 Source: ACUACAR Restoring the Coastal Environment in Cartagena, Colombia 8 Bocana project, has transformed the estuary. All key parameters, including n land-use management, particular with respect to maintaining riparian coliforms, dissolved oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand, and suspended areas along beaches, estuaries, and rivers; and solids are now within regulatory standards and odor problems have been eliminated. Cartagena residents can now enjoy the Lagoon through boating n managing fisheries and natural resource exploitation to ensure and fishing activities, and CARDIQUE is planning to transform the Lagoon and sustainable use of resources. its surrounding area into a protected ecological park. Summary of Key Lessons Water Quality Around the Submarine Outfall: ACUACAR, under the Cartagena’s rich experience can be summarized into the following key points: regulatory supervision of CARDIQUE, has undertaken extensive water quality monitoring around the outfall discharge area. The monitoring An efficient and sustainable water utility is crucial for effective wastewater program follows international standards and indicates that outside of the management—which is fundamental for coastal cities. The creation of prescribed mixing zone there is no discernible impact on the seawater ACUACAR in 1995 was a key component of Cartagena’s success. quality. Outside of the 500 meter mixing zone around the outfall diffuser, BOD and suspended solid concentrations are equal to ambient seawater Partnerships at the local, national, and international levels can facilitate quality levels, and total coliform levels are less than 5 MPB/100 ml—an and expedite environmental improvements. The Colombian national extremely low level and considered suitable for human contact. government formulated the policy framework for private participation in the water sector and enhanced environmental management, as well as providing significant financial support for Cartagena’s infrastructure. Future Challenges in Coastal Environmental Restoration Strong partnerships at the local level between CARDIQUE, the District of Cartagena has passed through the first and perhaps most important stage: Cartagena, and ACUACAR were indispensable to program continuity and the collection, treatment, and safe disposal of its wastewater. International coherence. International institutions, such as the World Bank, provided experience has shown, however, that this first phase must be complemented financial support and technical assistance. with additional initiatives to protect the coastal environment, including: n ensuring all households are connected to the sewerage system and that sewer overflows are eliminated; n achieving full compliance with industrial discharge standards; n reducing stormwater related pollution; n dealing with non-traditional pollutants including nutrients, heavy metals, pesticides, and pharmaceutical waste; n high quality and continuous water quality monitoring to assess progress in pollution control and help determine the need to upgrade the level of wastewater treatment; Cartagena’s wastewater treatment plant. 9 Restoring the Coastal Environment in Cartagena, Colombia Figure 2: Wastewater Facilities and Indicative Water Quality Data Restoring the Coastal Environment in Cartagena, Colombia 10 BOX 3 Submarine Outfalls Public relations, community outreach and building consensus among local stakeholders is critical to planning and implementing wastewater programs. There is usually no obvious “best technical solution,” rather in consultation with all stakeholders and taking into account all dimensions A marine outfall is a pipeline or tunnel that a “preferred alternative” often emerges. The challenge is then to implement this approach in an discharges wastewater under the sea’s surface. For expeditious manner to avoid further environmental degradation. municipal wastewater, effluent is often discharged after only preliminary treatment, with the intent Comprehensive wastewater management is a long-term process and can take a decade or longer. of using the assimilative capacity of the sea for In Cartagena, it took around five years (1995-2000) to ensure the proper policy, institutional planning further treatment. The siting and design of a and financial arrangements were in place before the construction could commence, and then over submarine outfall through sophisticated modeling ten years (2000-2013) before the wastewater treatment system could be fully constructed and and oceanographic studies is critical to ensuring commissioned. that the receiving seawater has sufficient dilution capacity. High quality construction is required Long-term, incrementally phased and prioritized programs are necessary for water pollution control to avoid leakage in the outfall pipe or tunnel, and environmental restoration. With the commissioning of the wastewater management system, and continuous monitoring under independent Cartagena has completed the first phase of its long-term program to restore the coastal environment. regulatory supervision is indispensable to confirm that the outfall performs as planned. Submarine outfalls, combined with preliminary treatment, can be an appropriate solution for Submarine outfalls, combined with preliminary protecting coastal areas such as beaches, bays, and estuaries, while providing flexibility for future treatment tend to be less expensive than advanced upgrades as necessary and when affordable. The feasibility of an outfall approach depends, of course, wastewater treatment plants, using the natural on the capacity of the receiving water body to assimilate the discharges and must be accompanied by assimilative capacity of the sea instead of energy- extensive environmental, engineering, and social studies. intensive treatment processes in a plant. The costs of preliminary treatment are about one tenth that of secondary treatment, and preliminary treatment also requires much less land than advanced wastewater treatment. Preliminary treatment, however, typically does not remove nutrients such as nitrogen or phosphorous which is a concern in some marine environments. Submarine outfalls are common throughout the world and probably number in the thousands. More than 200 large outfalls alone have been listed in a single international database maintained by the Institute for Hydromechanics at Karlsruhe University for the International Association of Hydraulic Engineering and Research (IAHR) / International Water Association (IWA) Committee on Marine Outfall Systems. ACUACAR managed the technically complex process of installing the submarine outfall. 11 Restoring the Coastal Environment in Cartagena, Colombia Publications from the LCSEN Occasional Paper Series Environment & Water Resources n Climate Change Impacts on Water Resources and Adaptation in the Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Sector in Nicaragua (2013) (Available in English and Spanish) n Climate Change Impacts on Water Resources Management: Adaptation Challenges and Opportunities in Northeast Brazil (2013) n El Futuro del Riego en el Perú: Desafíos y Recomendaciones (Volumen I: Informe de Síntesis y Volumen II : OTHER PUBLICATIONS Informe Principal) (2013) n Empowering Women in Irrigation Management: The Sierra in Peru (2012) n Environmental Health in Nicaragua: Addressing Key Environmental Challenges (Originally Published in 2010, Republished in 2012) (Available in Spanish and English) n Expanding Financing for Biodiversity Conservation: Experiences from Latin America and the Caribbean (2012) (Available in English and Spanish) n Overcoming Institutional and Governance Challenges in Environmental Management. Case Studies from Latin America and the Caribbean Region (2012) n Policy and Investment Priorities to Reduce Environmental Degradation of the Lake Nicaragua Watershed (Cocibolca) (Originally Published in 2010, Republished in 2012) (Available in Spanish and English) n Uncertain Future, Robust Decisions; The Case of Climate Change Adaptation in Campeche, Mexico (2012) To find copies of these publications, please visit our Web site: www.worldbank.org/LCSENSeries The Blue Water Green Cities Initiative The case study was supported by the World Bank LAC Blue Water Green Cities Initiative, which aims to provide financing and technical assistance to promote Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM). To date, the initiative has produced case studies for the following cities: Buenos Aires (Argentina), Bogotá (Colombia), São Paulo (Brazil), Tegucigalpa (Honduras), Aracaju (Brazil) and Asunción (Paraguay). For more information about the initiative and its publications, please visit our Web site: http://go.worldbank.org/309NTNZHX0 An initiative from the World Bank for integrated urban water management BAC K C OV E R INTERIOR LATIN AMERICA & CARIBBEAN REGION Environment & Water Resources OCCASIONAL PAPER SERIES