70264 v1 M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY i Economics of Adaptation to Climate Change MOZAMBIQUE ii E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E EACC Publications and Reports 1. Economics of Adaptation to Climate Change: Synthesis Report 2. Economics of Adaptation to Climate Change: Social Synthesis Report 3. The Cost to Developing Countries of Adapting to Climate Change: New Methods and Estimates Country Case Studies: 1. Bangladesh: Economics of Adaptation to Climate Change 2. Bolivia: Adaptation to Climate Change: Vulnerability Assessment and Economic Aspects 3. Ethiopia : Economics of Adaptation to Climate Change 4. Ghana: Economics of Adaptation to Climate Change 5. Mozambique: Economics of Adaptation to Climate Change 6. Samoa: Economics of Adaptation to Climate Change 7. Vietnam: Economics of Adaptation to Climate Change Discussion Papers: 1. Economics of Adaptation to Extreme Weather Events in Developing Countries 2. The Costs of Adapting to Climate Change for Infrastructure 3. Adaptation of Forests to Climate Change 4. Costs of Agriculture Adaptation to Climate Change 5. Cost of Adapting Fisheries to Climate Change 6. Costs of Adaptation Related to Industrial and Municipal Water Supply and Riverine Flood Protection 7. Economics of Adaptation to Climate Change-Ecosystem Services 8. Modeling the Impact of Climate Change on Global Hydrology and Water Availability 9. Climate Change Scenarios and Climate Data 10. Economics of Coastal Zone Adaptation to Climate Change 11. Costs of Adapting to Climate Change for Human Health in Developing Countries 12. Social Dimensions of Adaptation to Climate Change in Bangladesh 13. Social Dimensions of Adaptation to Climate Change in Bolivia 14. Social Dimensions of Adaptation to Climate Change in Ethiopia 15. Social Dimensions of Adaptation to Climate Change in Ghana 16. Social Dimensions of Adaptation to Climate Change in Mozambique 17. Social Dimensions of Adaptation to Climate Change in Vietnam 18. Participatory Scenario Development Approaches for Identifying Pro-Poor Adaptation Options 19. Participatory Scenario Development Approaches for Pro-Poor Adaptation: Capacity Development Manual M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY i Economics of Adaptation to Climate Change MOZ AM BIQU E Ministry of Foreign Affairs Government of the Netherlands ii E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E © 2010 The World Bank Group 1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org E-mail: feedback@worldbank.org All rights reserved. This volume is a product of the World Bank Group. The World Bank Group does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of the World Bank Group concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. RIGHTS AND PERMISSIONS The material in this publication is copyrighted. Copying and/or transmitting portions or all of this work without permission may be a violation of applicable law. The World Bank Group encourages dissemination of its work and will normally grant permission to reproduce portions of the work promptly. For permission to photocopy or reprint any part of this work, please send a request with complete information to the Copyright Clearance Center Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA; telephone 978-750-8400; fax 978-750-4470; Internet: www.copyright.com. All images © The World Bank Photo Library, except Pages 36, 58 and 68 © Shutterstock Pages xiii, xxii, 4 and 46 © iStockphoto M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY iii Contents Acronyms ix Acknowledgments xi Executive Summary xiii Approach xiii Adaptation Options xix Adaptation priorities: local-level perspective xxi Lessons and recommendations xxi 1 Introduction 1 Background 1 Scope of the report and collaboration 1 2 Overview of the Mozambican economy 5 Background 5 Current growth policies 6 Vulnerability to climate 7 3 Climate forecasts using four different General Circulation Model outputs 11 4 Agriculture 15 Background 15 Modeling the sectoral economic impacts 16 Adaptation options 19 5 Roads 25 Background 25 Modeling the sectoral economic impacts 25 Adaptation options 30 iv E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E 6 Hydropower 37 Background 37 Modeling the sectoral economic impacts 38 Adaptation options 43 7 Coastal Zone 47 Background 47 Modelling the Impact 48 Adaptation Options 50 8 Cyclone assessment 59 Background 59 Modeling the impact 62 Conclusion 66 9 Social dimensions of climate change 69 Background 69 Methodology 69 Adaptation options 73 Conclusion 77 10 CGE Model description 79 Model description 79 Strategic options 82 Adaptation Options 90 11 Discussion 97 12 References 100 Annexes (available on line at www.worldbank.org/eacc) I. Social dimensions II. River basin and hydro power modeling III. The Comprehensive Mozambique Water Resource Model (CMWRM) IV. WEAP21 model description V. Crop modeling VI. Detailed description of the CGE model M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY v Figures ES-1. Mozambique Wet and Dry Temperature in 2050 xv ES-2. Mozambique Wet and Dry Precipitation in 2050 xvi ES-3. Climate Change Effects on Yield for All Major Crops xvi ES-4. Impact on Hydropower—Annual Generation, 2005–50 xvii ES-5. Decomposition of impact channels from a macroeconomic perspective xix ES- 6. Present value of reduction in climate change damages, 2030–50 xix 1. GDP growth in Mozambique, 2001–09 6 2. GDP composition in Mozambique 6 3. Flow chart of project model sequencing 13 4. Change in Cassava Yield for Northern Mozambique, 2001–50 18 5. Change in Cassava Yield for Central Mozambique, 2001–50 19 6. Change in Cassava Yield for Southern Mozambique, 2001–50 20 7. Decade average cost increase for maintaining gravel and earth roads 29 8. Decade average cost increase for maintaining paved roads 29 9. Schematic representation of a large-scale hydropower facility 38 10. Power Generation Master Plan, facility location 39 11. Existing and planned transmission lines in Mozambique 40 12. Assumed temporal distribution of project costs 42 13. Assumed timeline of project investment schedule 43 14. Comparison of hydropower energy production in Mozambique (GW-hrs/year) 44 15. Two-land zoning (coastal and other land area) of Mozambique, the coastal area 48 being defined as the area within 30m contour of mean sea level, and the rest being above 30m mean sea level. 16. Observed annual mean sea level records at the Maputo station, 1960–2001 49 (INAHINA, 2008; INGC, 2009) 17. Global mean sea level rise scenarios used (relative to 1990 levels) 51 18. Total annual land loss (erosion) due to sea level rise from 2010 to 2050 in Mozambique 53 for the High, Medium, Low, and No SLR scenarios studied with no adaptation measures employed (Cases 12, 13, 14 & 15 of Table 8) 19. Total annual land loss (erosion) due to sea level rise from 2010 to 2050 in Mozambique 53 for the High, Medium, Low, and No SLR scenarios studied with adaptation measures employed (Cases 1, 2, 3 & 7 of Table 8). 20. Total annual land loss (submergence) due to sea level rise from 2010 to 2050 54 in Mozambique for the High, Medium, Low, and No SLR scenarios studied with no adaptation measures employed (Cases 12, 13, 14 & 15 of Table 8) 21. Total annual land loss (submergence) due to sea level rise from 2010 to 2050 in 54 Mozambique for the High, Medium, Low, and No SLR scenarios studied with adaptation measures employed (Cases 1, 2, 3 & 7 of Table 8) 22. Cumulative forced migration since 2000 due to sea level rise in Mozambique for the 55 High, Medium, Low, and No SLR scenarios studied with no adaptation measures employed (Cases 12, 13, 14 & 15 of Table 8). vi E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E 23. Cumulative forced migration since 2000 due to sea level rise in Mozambique for the 55 High, Medium, Low, and No SLR scenarios studied with adaptation measures employed (Cases 1, 2, 3 & 7 of Table 8) 24. Total residual damage costs due to sea level rise from 2010 to 2050 in Mozambique 56 for the High, Medium, Low, and No SLR scenarios studied with no adaptation measures employed (Cases 12, 13, 14 & 15 of Table 8). 25. Total residual damage costs due to sea level rise from 2010 to 2050 in Mozambique for 56 the High, Medium, Low, and No SLR scenarios studied with adaptation measures employed (Cases 1, 2, 3 & 7 of Table 8). 26. Total adaptation costs due to sea level rise from 2010 to 2050 in Mozambique for the 57 High, Medium, Low, and No SLR scenarios (Cases 1, 2 and 3 of Table 8 for beach nourishment costs and Cases 4, 5 and 6 of Table 8 for dike costs for the High, Medium, and Low scenarios, respectively, and Case 7 of Table 8 for both costs for No SLR scenario). 27. Beira’s Populous Areas Are at Low Elevation 60 28. Map of tropical cyclone historical event tracks and intensity in the South Indian Ocean 61 for 1980 to 2008 by Saffir-Simpson scale categorization 29. SLOSH Model Setup for BEIRA 63 30. Storm Tracks 65 31. Return times 65 32. SLOSH-estimated storm surge exceedance curve, with and without SLR 66 33. Estimated Change in Effective Return Time for the 100-year Storm as a result of SLR 67 34. Map of study sites in Mozambique 70 35. PSD workshop steps 72 36. Proportion affected by climatic hazards and receiving early warning 74 37. Average annual real per capita absorption growth rate, 2003–50 83 38. Average annual value of absorption, 2046–50 84 39. Real absorption, 2003–50. 85 40. Deviation in average annual real per capita absorption growth from baseline, 2003–50 86 41. Decomposition of total climate change growth rate losses, 2003–50 87 42. Possible additional declines in agricultural technology accumulation, 2003–50 88 43. Deviation in sector and regional GDP growth from baseline, 2003–50 89 44. Cumulative discounted losses in real absorption, 2003–50. 90 45. Cumulative discounted losses in real absorption by decade, 2003–50. 91 46. Reduction in national absorption losses under the adaptation scenarios, 2003–50 94 47. Household Consumption: Coefficient of Variation of Year-to-Year Growth Rates 95 M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY vii Tables ES-1. Percentage change in the stock of roads (measured in kilometers) relative to base xviii 1. GCM/emission scenarios for EACC 12 2. Total yield of each crop under study for Mozambique (tons) 15 3. Areas of the main irrigated crops according to the inventory from 2002 16 4. Average of the percent change in yield for Mozambique 21 5. 10th percentile of the percent change in yield for Mozambique 21 6. Median of the percent change in yield for Mozambique 23 7. 90th percentile of the percent change in yield for Mozambique 23 8. Base classified and urban road networks (km) 25 9. Unit maintenance cost rates (US$) and return periods 26 10. Dose-response descriptions for maintenance costs 27 11. Maintenance cost increases for different types of roads (in US$) 29 12. Cost impacts per policy approach (in US$) 32 13. Treatment cycles and cost (in US$) 34 14. Attributes of existing primary hydropower generation in Mozambique 37 15. Generation Scenarios Developed in the Energy Master Plan for Mozambique 41 16. Projects included in the baseline hydropower simulation. 42 17. Land area distributions of the ten provinces of Mozambique, divided 47 into three zones in table. 18. Adaptation options considered in the DIVA analysis. 50 19. The sea level rise scenarios used in this study for the beach erosion/nourishment and port 52 upgrade (no proactive adaptation), and for flooding and dike costs (with proactive adaptation over 50 years). 20. Historic tropical cyclone (Categories 1-4, Storms (TS), and Depressions (TD)) incidents 61 which have caused landfall at different parts of the coast of Mozambique during 1984-2008. 21. Overview of select adaptation options identified in Mozambique 75 22. Average real per capita absorption growth rates ( percent) 92 23. Percentage change in the stock of roads (measured in kilometers) relative to base 93 Boxes 1. Improved Crop Yield Estimates: INGC and World Bank Collaboration 17 viii E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY ix Acronyms ANE National Roads Agency PEDSA Strategic Plan for the Development CGE Computable general equilibrium of Agricultural Sector CRU Climate Research Unit PPCR Pilot Program for Climate Resolution CV Coefficient of variation PQG Programa Quinquenal do Governo DIVA Dynamic Interactive Vulnerability (Government of Mozambique five- Assessment year plan) DNA Department of Water Affairs PRA Participatory rural appraisal EACC Economics of Adaptation to Climate PSD Participatory scenario development Change SADC Southern African Development FAO Food and Agriculture Organization Community of the United Nations SCF Strategic Climate Fund FEMA Federal Emergency Management SLOSH Sea, lake, and overland surge from Unit hurricanes (US National Weather GCM Global circulation model Services Model) GDP Gross domestic product SLR Sea level rise GFFDR Global Facility for Disaster Reduction TFESSD Trust Fund for Environmentally and and Recovery Socially Sustainable Development GRDC Global Runoff Data Center TIA Trabalho de Inquerito Agricola GTZ German Development Coop- TPC Tropical Prediction Center eration (Gesellschaft für Technische UNDP United Nations Development Zusammenarbeit) Programme HDI Human Development Index WEAP Water Evaluation and Planning IMPEND Investment Model for Planning System Ethiopian Nile Development INGC National Institute for Disaster UNITS OF MEASURE Management Agl Above ground level IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate AMWS Annual mean wind speed Change gW gigawatt JTWC Joint Typhoon Warning Center ha hectares MPD Ministry of Planning and km kilometers Development km2 square kilometers NAPA National Adaptation Programme of kW kilowatt Action m meters NGO Nongovernmental organization mW megawatt PARPA Action Plan for the Reduction of Absolute Poverty (Government of USD/US$ United States Dollar Note: Unless otherwise noted, all dollars are U.S. dollars. Mozambique) x E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY xi Acknowledgments Kenneth Strzepek, Channing Arndt, Paul The World Bank task team was lead by Jean- Chinowsky, Anne Kuriakose (World Bank), James Christophe Carret (World Bank). Neumann, Robert Nicholls, James Thurlow, and Len Wright with support from Carina Bachofen The Mozambique Economics of Adaptation to (World Bank), Sally Brown, Charles Fant, Adèle Climate Change (EACC) case study was conducted Faure, Susan Hanson, Abiy Kebede, Jean-Marc by a partnership among the World Bank (leading Mayotte, Michelle Minihane, Isilda Nhantumbo, its technical aspects), the Trust Fund for Environ- and Raphael Uaiene (all Consultants except as mentally and Socially Sustainable Development noted) authored the report. Inputs were also (TFESSD); the governments of The Netherlands, provided by World Bank staff including Aziz the United Kingdom, and Switzerland (funding Bouzaher, Raffaello Cervigni, Sergio Margulis the study); and the government of Mozambique, (team leader of the overall EACC study), in particular the Ministry of Planning and Devel- Stephen Mink, Antonio Nucifora, and Kiran opment (MPD), the National Institute for Disaster Pandey (Coordinator EACC country studies). Management (INGC), the Department of Water Robert Livernash provided editorial services, Affairs (DNA), and the National Roads Agency Jim Cantrell contributed editorial input and (ANE). The team would like to thank the partner- coordinated production, and Hugo Mansilla ship that initiated, funded, and actively engaged provided editorial and production support. with the study team through its multiyear journey. xii E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY xiii Executive Summary This report is part of a broader global study, the Approach Economics of Adaptation to Climate Change (EACC), which has two principal objectives: (a) to The three studies in Africa use similar methodolo- develop a global estimate of adaptation costs for gies. In accordance with the broader EACC meth- informing international climate negotiations; and odology, climate change impacts and adaptation (b) to help decision makers in developing coun- strategies were defined with regard to a baseline tries assess the risks posed by climate change and (without-climate change) development trajectory, design national strategies for adapting to it. designed as a plausible representation of how Mozambique’s economy might evolve in the period The first part of the study—the “global track�— 2010–50 on the basis of historical trends and cur- was aimed to meet the first objective. Using sev- rent government plans. The baseline is not a fore- eral climate and macroeconomic models, the cast, but instead it provides a counterfactual—a global track (World Bank 2009) concludes that by reasonable trajectory for growth and structural 2020, the annual costs of adaptation for devel- change of the economy in the absence of climate oping countries will range from $75 billion to change that can be used as a basis for comparison $100 billion per year; of this amount, the average with various climate change scenarios. annual costs for Africa would be about $18 billion per year. Impacts are thus evaluated as the deviation of the variables of interest (economic welfare, sec- In order to meet the second objective, the study tor development objectives, etc.) from the base- also commissioned a “country track� consisting line trajectory in priority sectors. Adaptation is of seven country-specific case studies. Mozam- defined as a set of actions intended to reduce or bique was one of three African countries selected eliminate the deviation from the baseline develop- for the “country-track� study, along with Ghana ment path caused by climate change. and Ethiopia. The objective of the country track was both “ground-truthing� the global study and The impacts of climate change, and the merits helping decision makers in developing countries of adaptation strategies, depend on future cli- understand climate risks and design effective mate outcomes, which are typically derived from adaptation strategies. global circulation models (GCMs) and are uncer- tain, both because the processes are inherently xiv E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E stochastic and because the GCM models differ the assessment did not include climate change in how they represent those processes. Since sci- impacts on ecosystem services or on the prevalence entists are more certain of likely patterns of tem- of malaria. The EACC study also did not consider perature increase than of changes in precipitation, a number of key adaptation strategies. Excluded the work describes for Mozambique a “wet� and were improved public awareness and communi- a “dry� scenario. In order to enable comparison cations; insurance mechanisms; wider access to with other countries, this report utilizes the two weather information (that is, not related to the sec- “extreme� GCMs used in the global track of the tors mentioned), improved land use planning and EACC (labeled “global wet� and “global dry�). management, such as improved building codes, However, a globally wet scenario is not necessarily not building on flood plains; regional watershed wet in Mozambique. In fact, the global wet sce- management; forest and woodland conservation; nario projects a slight drying and the global dry is and mangrove and wetland conservation. These in fact somewhat wetter in Mozambique. Hence, options have potentially very high returns. Never- two additional models—labeled “Mozambique theless, the study does provide interesting results. wet� and “Mozambique dry�—were selected in order to represent the range of possible outcomes When identifying potential resilience measures to for Mozambique. adopt, both “hard� infrastructure—such as sea walls, irrigation systems, and power generation The Mozambique EACC study selected four sec- and distribution—and “soft� policy options were tors that are believed to be vulnerable to climate considered. For example, road redesign proved to change: (1) agriculture, which employs over 70 be one of the most powerful adaptation options percent of the population; (2) energy, particularly considered. The study makes the point that, in the hydropower generation, which is dependent on long run, adaptation strategies should not be lim- water runoff; (3) transport infrastructure, notably ited to the sectors studied. The results of the study roads; and (4) coastal areas, which do not conform have to be qualified because of these limitations. to a “sector� but characterize specific geographi- cal areas vulnerable to floods and storm surges Climate Change imPaCtS directly and indirectly related to sea level rise. Changes in precipitation and temperature from The analysis developed growth paths “with cli- the four GCMs (the two global scenarios plus two mate change� incorporating climate shocks on extreme scenarios for Mozambique) were used to priority sectors under alternative climate projec- estimate (a) the changes in yield each year for both tions. The economic impact of climate change irrigated and rain-fed crops, as well as irrigation was assessed by comparing with a baseline trajec- demand for six cash crops and eight food crops; tory labeled “without climate change.� Finally, (b) flow into the hydropower generation facili- costs of adaptation measures required to offset ties and the consequent changes in generation the negative impacts of climate change were cal- capacity; and (c) the impact on transport infra- culated both at the sectoral and economy level. structure and the increased demand and costs of The study also considered the social dimensions road maintenance. Simulations of sea level rise of climate change. were constructed independently of the climate scenarios.1 Two approaches were undertaken. While this study is one of the most comprehensive studies looking into the implications of climate 1 The study of sea level rise in Mozambique considers three sea change for a low-income country to date, some level rise scenarios—termed low, medium, and high, ranging between 40cm and 126cm by 2100—following the approach impact channels were not considered. For example, used in the global study. M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY xv Figure eS.1 MOZAMBIQUE WET AND DRY TEMPERATURE IN 2050 First, an integrated model of coastal systems was Precipitation will either increase or decrease used to assess the risk and costs of sea level rise depending on the models, again with regional dif- in Mozambique. Second, focused analyses of the ferences. The main message here is that climate interactions between cyclone risk and sea level will become increasingly variable and uncertain, rise were undertaken for Beira and Maputo, the and that people and decision makers need to plan two largest cities in Mozambique. for this uncertainty. As illustrated in Figure ES.1, by 2050, Mozam- agriCulture bique will see an increase in temperature of 1–2 degrees Celsius no matter what the scenario; more Agriculture in Mozambique accounts for 24 per- precisely, temperatures will increase by 1.15 to 2.09 cent of GDP and 70 percent of employment. In degrees Celsius, though with regional variations. all scenarios, the net average crop yield for the entire country is lower relative to baseline yield Comparing Figure ES.1 with Figure ES.2, it without climate change. The impact of climate becomes clear that regional variation in tem- change over the next 40 years would lead to a perature is not as significant as variation in pre- 2–4 percent decrease in yields of the major crops, cipitation. As shown in the maps below, regional especially in the central region, as shown in Fig- variation in precipitation continues to be signifi- ure ES.3. This, combined with the effects of more cant between northern and southern Mozam- frequent flooding on rural roads, would result in bique—no matter what the climate scenario. an agricultural GDP loss of 4.5 percent (conser- However, depending on the scenario, precipita- vative) and 9.8 percent (most pessimistic). tion in the southern region is projected to either decrease relatively little (in the dry scenario) or Mozambican agriculture is primarily rain-fed, increase dramatically (in the wet scenario). with only 3 percent of farmers using fertilizer. xvi E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E Figure eS.2 MOZAMBIQUE WET AND DRY PRECIPITATION IN 2050 Figure eS.3 CLIMATE CHANGE EFFECTS ON YIELD FOR ALL MAjOR CROPS Moz. Wet Moz. Dry SOUTH CENTRAL Global Wet NORTH Global Dry -6.0% -4.0% -2.0% 0.0% 2.0% 4.0% Note: The crops modeled are cassava, sorghum, soybeans, sweet potatoes and yams, wheat, groundnuts, maize, millet, and potatoes. M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY xvii “Slash and burn� techniques are widely used, and The graph in Figure ES.4 illustrates that under these methods, combined with uncontrolled fires, all scenarios except the most pessimistic, the result in soils that are poor in vegetative cover and impact of climate change on energy supplies vulnerable to erosion—and hence to further losses would be only modestly negative (1.4 percent in productivity from floods and droughts. less electricity generated than “without� climate change). This is because the plans for new energy energy generation plants have largely already taken into account changing patterns of temperature and Only 7 percent of Mozambicans have access to precipitation. The most significant impact would electricity. The primary source is hydropower be from increased evapotranspiration (and hence from barrages in the Zambezi Basin. There are less water available for electricity) from the reser- plans to develop hydropower further, both for voirs. Although the EACC study did not model export to Southern Africa and to increase supplies this, the operators of the hydropower generation for the population. Given the economic poten- plants will need to pay particular attention to tial of hydropower, the EACC study undertook the timing of water releases to ensure sufficient an analysis of the potential impacts of climate downstream flow at times of low water availabil- change on hydropower generation. The potential ity and to avoid interference with port activities. energy deficit due to climate change relative to the The EACC study did not consider other forms baseline’s generation potential, from 2005–50, is of energy (fuelwood, coal). of approximately 110,000 GWh. Figure eS.4 IMPACT ON HYDROPOWER—ANNUAL GENERATION 2005–50 3500 3000 Energy (GW-hrs/yr) 2500 2000 1500 BASE (no CC) Variation due to CC 1000 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060 Year xviii E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E tranSPort CoaStal zoneS Mozambique already has one of the lowest road Regarding coastal zones, the study examined the densities per person of any African country. The effect of sea level rise on coastal populations. The EACC study modeled the impact of severe rain- results from the integrated models of coastal sys- fall events on roads. The economic impact would tems (DIVA) show that in the 2040s, if there is no result from loss of access from damage to roads, adaptation, Mozambique could lose up to 4,850 culverts, and bridges. The overall losses would be km2 of land from today (or up to 0.6 percent of substantial, in part because of the importance of national land area) and a cumulative total of current and required investments in the sector. 916,000 people could be forced to migrate away from the coast (or 2.3 percent of the 2040s popula- Table eS.1 PERCENTAGE CHANGE IN THE tion). In the worst case, the total annual damage STOCk OF ROADS (MEASURED IN costs are estimated to reach $103 million per year in kILOMETERS) RELATIvE TO BASE the 2040s, with the forced migration being a large Scenario No Adaptation Adaptation contributor to that cost. These damages and costs (%) (%) are mainly concentrated in Zambezia, Nampula, Baseline 0 1 Sofala, and Maputo provinces, reflecting their low- Global dry -22 -19 lying topography and relatively high population. Global wet -16 -14 Moz dry -2 -2 The analysis of the interactions between cyclone Moz wet -12 -9 risk and sea level rise performed for Beira and Maputo illustrate that relatively small levels of sea level rise dramatically increase the probability Figure eS.5 DECOMPOSITION OF IMPACT of severe storm surge events. This is under the CHANNELS FROM A MACROECONOMIC PERSPECTIvE assumption of no change in the intensity and fre- quency of cyclone events. Results are more dra- CHANGE IN PER CAPITA ABSORPTION GROWTH RATE FROM BASELINE (%-POINT) matic for Beira as opposed to Maputo City. The probability of a cyclone strike in Maputo is lower Global Dry Global Wet Moz Dry Moz Wet due to its latitudinal positioning. (CSIRO) (NCAR) (UKMO) (IPSL) 0.0 eConomy The estimated impacts on agriculture, transport, -0.1 hydropower, and coastal infrastructure2 were fed into a macroeconomic model—a dynamic com- -0.2 putable general equilibrium (CGE) model—that complements the sector models by providing a complete picture of economic impacts across all -0.3 sectors within a coherent analytical framework. The CGE model looks at the impact of climate change on aggregate economic performance. As -0.4 indicated in Figure ES.5 below, climate change 2 The CGE model takes into account the full transportation sec- FALLING CROP YIELDS AND RISING SEA LEVEL tor, including coastal infrastructure. Coastal adaptation options DETERIORATING TRANSPORT SYSTEM are studied and presented separately. DECLINING HYDROPOWER GENERATION M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY xix has potential implications on rates of economic Figure eS.6 PRESENT vALUE OF REDUCTION IN CLIMATE CHANGE DAMAGES, 2030-2050 growth. These growth effects accumulate into sig- DISCOUNTED US $ BILLION (CONST.2003) nificant declines in national welfare by 2050. In the worst case scenario, the net present value of 8 damages (discounted at 5 percent) reaches about 7 $7.6 billion dollars, which is equivalent to an annual payment of a bit more than $400 million. 6 GDP falls between 4 percent and 14 percent rela- tive to baseline growth in the 2040–50 decade if 5 6.1 6.1 adaptation strategies are not implemented. 4 Figure ES.5 decomposes the climate change shocks into three groups: (1) crop yields, includ- 3 ing land loss from sea level rise, (2) the transpor- tation system, and (3) hydropower. The graph 2 0.6 illustrates the dominant role played by trans- port system disruption, principally as a result 1 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 of flooding. The global dry scenario is in fact a very wet scenario for the Zambezi water basin 0 Transport Expanding Agriculture Primary as a whole, and thus causes significant damage Infrastructure Irrigation R&D Education to roads. By contrast, the local dry scenario is (3) (4) (5) (6) a very dry scenario for Mozambique and causes AGRICULTURE R&D OR EDUCATION greater damages for agriculture. IRRIGATION SEALING UNPAVED ROADS Adaptation Options Sealing unpaved roads reduces the worst-case climate change damages substantially, restoring After calculating the impacts, the CGE then consid- approximately a fifth of lost absorption, and with ers potential adaptation measures in three sectors— little additional cost (i.e., it is a no-regret action hydropower, agriculture, and transportation.3 Four advisable even under the baseline). The study adaptation strategies are introduced in the model considered a number of options for “climate- to minimize the damages: (1) transport policy proofing� roads, given resource constraints and change,4 and then the transport policy change plus the trade-offs between improving “basic access� (2) increased agricultural research and extension, and having “fewer but stronger� roads. The con- (3) enhanced irrigation, and (4) enhanced invest- clusion is that Mozambique would be advised to ment in human capital accumulation (education). focus investments on climate-proofing highly tar- Figure ES.6 shows the present value of the reduc- geted areas, such as culverts, to ensure that designs tion in climate change damages over the 2030–50 minimize broader erosion risks, and to set aside time period (using a 5 percent discount rate). some funds from the investment budget for addi- tional maintenance so that “basic access� roads 3 The CGE model takes into account the full transportation sec- can be quickly repaired following heavy rainfall. tor, including coastal infrastructure. Coastal adaptation options are studied and presented separately. 4 Options include both hard and soft infrastructural components Remaining welfare losses could be regained with (e.g., changes in transportation operation and maintenance, new improved agricultural productivity or human capi- design standards, transfer of relevant technology to stakeholders, and safety measures). tal accumulation. Currently, only 125,000 hectares xx E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E are developed for irrigation in Mozambique, lost could be reduced by a factor of more than though only 40,000 ha of this area are actually 80 to 61km2, and the number of people forced operational due to operational and maintenance to migrate could be reduced by a factor of 140 problems. However, the model results suggest that to 7,000 people. Hence, the total annual residual irrigation investments are a poor alternative: 1 mil- damage cost is reduced by a factor of four to $24 lion ha of new irrigation land would only slightly million per year. However, the total investment reduce climate change damages. Given the poverty required to achieve these adaptation options is of most farmers and the fact that the vast major- estimated at $890 million per year in the 2040s ity of Mozambique’s cultivated area (22 million for the high sea level rise scenario, which appears ha) is rainfed, less costly approaches such as water much higher than the benefits of the adaptation harvesting, soil/moisture conservation, and agro- in terms of damages avoided. At the same time, forestry and farm forestry must play a key role in more targeted investments in high value and more climate resilience. Improved woodland and forest vulnerable locations can provide positive returns. management will also have broad impacts on the The range of costs of more economically viable resilience of land and on water absorption capac- adaptation options in the 2040s varies from $190 ity. Other, “softer� strategies include support for million to $470 million per year depending on the improved access to markets and inputs, support to sea level rise scenario. Note that the adaptation increased value addition, and reduction of post- strategy we evaluated, a large-scale sea dike system harvest losses. Improved livestock and fisheries for Mozambique focused on urban areas, would productivity and value addition are as important be more costly than the estimated benefits of $103 as cropped agriculture in this strategy. milllion that accrue through 2050, but as long-term capital assets this dike system would also yield long- In terms of these softer adaptation measures, rais- term benefits in the form of avoided land-loss pro- ing agricultural productivity by an additional 1 tection and avoided population displacement well percent each year over baseline productivity trends beyond the 2050 scope of this analysis, and in fact offsets remaining damages to agriculture; for through 2100, as SLR and storm surge risks accel- example, a further 50 percent maize yield increase erate. Those long-term benefits of adaptation, by 2050. Providing primary education to 10 per- while outside the scope of the current study, are cent of the 2050 workforce also offsets damages. considered in the modeling of the choice of coastal Lastly, investment costs required to restore welfare adaptive strategies, and could reasonably be far in losses are subject to debate, but are reasonably less excess of the reported benefits through 2050. than $400 million per year over 40 years. The superior resilience option is likely to include With respect to specific coastal adaptation mea- a phased approach to protection of key coastal sures, the integrated coastal system analysis exam- economic assets (e.g. ports and cities) combined ined two protection measures:5 beach/shore with improved land use planning and “soft� infra- nourishment and sea and river dike building and structure. Dikes should be installed where abso- upgrading (including port infrastructure). When lutely necessary to protect current, immobile, these are applied, the physical impacts are signifi- vital infrastructure (like the port of Beira), but cantly reduced. For instance, the total land area new infrastructure located behind the dike should be avoided to prevent catastrophic costs if the 5 The study did not examine tradeoffs between “hard� and “soft� dikes are breached. The rule of thumb is simple: infrastructure options, nor did it explicitly consider indirect impacts such as saline intrusion into groundwater and low-lying to the extent possible, install valuable new capi- agricultural areas; these are limitations. It also did not consider tal in safer locations. “Hard� adaptation options, the impact of climate change on fisheries (fish spawning grounds, migration patterns, safety of fishermen) or on tourism. particularly expensive ones, should be subjected M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY xxi to serious scrutiny before being undertaken, as Lessons and the associated costs are potentially large. Recommendations The analysis of the interactions of cyclone risk and sea level rise for Beira and Maputo provides Rather than climate change eclipsing develop- more impetus for investment in the near term, ment, it is important to think of socioeconomic particularly for Beira. While the full cost of the development as overcoming climate change. The necessary infrastructure for protecting Beira city best adaptation to climate change is rapid devel- and port has not been estimated to date, the dra- opment that leads to a more flexible and resilient matic fall in return periods for sea inundation due society. In this sense, the adaptation agenda largely to sea level rise strongly suggests that protection reinforces the existing development agenda. schemes should be reassessed. The following lessons emerge from the EACC Adaptation Priorities: Mozambique country case study: Local-level Perspective ■■ Adaptation entails increasing the climate resilience of current development plans, with particular attention to transport systems and Climate change poses the greatest risk to livelihoods agriculture and coastal development. based on agriculture. Rainfed agriculture takes the hardest hit from climate hazards, and subsistence ■■ Changes in design standards, such as sealing farmers, as well as economically and socially mar- unpaved roads, can substantially reduce the ginalized individuals (elderly, orphans, widows, impacts of climate change even without addi- female heads of households, and the physically tional resources. handicapped), are the most vulnerable. Education ■■ The imperative of increasing agricultural pro- and overall knowledge about climate events are ductivity and the substantial uncertainties of needed so that these groups can expect disasters climate change argue strongly for enhanced to be a recurrent feature in the future. Specifically, investments in agricultural research. more technical assistance for improving land man- agement practices and access to real-time weather ■■ Investments to protect the vast majority of forecasts—effective early warning—will be crucial coastal regions of Mozambique from sea level to enhancing their adaptive capacity. rise may not be cost effective; however, high value and vulnerable locations, such as cities and The most frequently mentioned approach for ports, merit specific consideration, especially reducing climate impacts was the construction of those at risk for severe storm surge events. irrigation systems, and the most frequently listed ■■ “Soft� adaptation measures are potentially pow- barrier to this was lack of finance. In terms of strat- erful. Because the majority of the capital stock in egies, local populations prioritized improved access 2050 remains to be installed, land use planning to credit, better health care and social services, that channels investment into lower risk loca- as well as programs that enhance the capacity of tions can substantially reduce risk at low cost. community associations to manage local resources effectively and support livelihood diversification. ■■ Viewed more broadly, flexible and more resil- Integrating rural areas into markets—including a ient societies will be better prepared to con- great deal of attention to improving transportation front the challenges posed by climate change. infrastructure and diversification away from agri- Hence, investments in human capital contrib- culture— will be important activities, even if costly ute both to the adaptation agenda and to the and difficult to achieve in rural areas. development agenda. xxii O NE E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 1 Introduction Background Under the country track, impacts of climate change and adaptation costs are established by The Economics of Adaptation to Climate Change (EACC) sector, but only for the major economic sectors study has two specific objectives. The first is to in each case study country. In contrast with the develop a “global� estimate of adaptation costs global analysis, however, vulnerability assessments to inform the international community’s efforts and participatory scenario workshops are being to help those developing countries most vulner- used to highlight the impact of climate change able to climate change to meet adaptation costs. on vulnerable groups and to identify adaptation The second objective is to help decision makers strategies that can benefit these groups. Further- in developing countries to better understand and more, macroeconomic analyses using Comput- assess the risks posed by climate change and to bet- able General Equilibrium (CGE) modeling are ter design strategies to adapt to climate change. being used to integrate the sector level analyses and to identify cross-sector effects, such as relative The EACC study comprises a ‘global track’ to price changes. meet the first study objective and a country spe- cific case study track to meet the second objective. The ‘country track’ comprises of seven countries: Scope of the Report Ethiopia, Mozambique, Ghana, Bangladesh, and Collaboration Vietnam, Bolivia and Samoa. Under the global track, adaptation costs for all The purpose of this study is to assist the Gov- developing countries are estimated by major eco- ernment of Mozambique in its efforts to under- nomic sectors using country-level datasets that stand the potential economic impacts of climate have global coverage. Sectors covered are agri- change and to support its efforts to develop culture, forestry, fisheries, infrastructure, water sound policies and investments in response to resources, coastal zones, health, and eco-system these potential impacts. Adaptation options and services. Cost implications of changes in the their costs were estimated in four economic sec- frequency of extreme weather events are also tors: agriculture, transport infrastructure, hydro- considered, including the implications for social power, and coastal impacts; and compared with protection programs. costs of inaction. 2 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E To facilitate this study, collaboration was estab- agree that the EACC could well complement the lished in April 2009 with the Institute for Calami- INGC study by costing the impacts and some ties Management (INGC) on the biophysical adaptation options. modeling and with the Ministry of Planning and Development (MPD) on the adaptation options. The second study, the Disaster Vulnerability and This collaboration facilitated information shar- Risk Reduction Assessment (World Bank 2009a), ing, understanding of critical issues and owner- which is funded by the Global Facility for Disaster ship of the study. Reduction and Recovery (GFFDR) and executed by the World Bank, calculated the historical eco- This study complements three other important nomic impacts of climate shocks, droughts and studies on climate change. The first of these is the floods. Specifically, the study made two new meth- Impact of Climate Change on Disaster Risk study odological contributions: one related to cyclone that was financed by Denmark, UNDP and GTZ analysis (river flooding and storm surge flooding and executed by INGC. It downscaled climate are taken into account), and one on flood plains models to provide information on cyclone activity modeling (digital elevation model with a resolu- and sea level rise, river hydrology and agriculture tion of 90X90 meters). The EACC used the study land use resulting from further climate change. results on extreme events as a baseline scenario to The INGC modeling is a world-class biophysical compare with the impacts of climate change on study about the possible impact of climate change extreme events. (especially extreme events). However, it did not produce precise recommendations about possible The third study (World Bank 2009b), Making adaptation options or any costs of climate change Transport Climate Resilient for Mozambique, impacts and adaptation options. INGC and MPD which is funded by the TFESSD and executed by M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 3 the World Bank, is part a Sub-Saharan Africa ini- demonstrate ways to integrate climate risk and tiative to respond to the impact of climate changes resilience into core development planning and on road transport. Using the same four scenarios support a range of investments to scale-up climate than the EACC Mozambique country case study, resilience. The investments are expected to be: the third study is a detailed engineer assessment of the impact of climate change on roads infrastruc- ■■ Climate resilient budgeting and planning at ture and of different adaptation options. central and local level, including adjustment of investment programs and capacity building; The results of the EACC Study should also pro- vide some guidance for the investment plan of ■■ Climate resilient investments in agriculture, the Pilot Program for Climate Resilience (PPCR). water and transport infrastructure in the two The PPCR is the first program under the Stra- rural areas, including erosion and wildfire con- tegic Climate Fund (SCF) of the Climate Invest- trol, soil conservation, small scale irrigation, ment Funds (comprised of the Clean Technology water resources management, roads, road Fund and the SCF). In early 2009, the PPCR maintenance planning and hydromet, with Sub-Committee agreed, on the basis of the rec- related capacity building; ommendations presented by the PPCR Expert Group, to invite Mozambique (as well as Niger, ■■ Climate resilient investments in one coastal Zambia, Tajikistan, Bolivia, Cambodia, Bangla- city including coastal erosion control, storm desh and Nepal) to participate in the program as water drainage and local capacity building in pilots. These programs are designed to pilot and development planning 4 T WO E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 5 Overview of the Mozambican Economy Background the world. Life expectancy remains dismally low at 47.8 years—166th out of 172 ranked countries— and Mozambique places 169th for per capita Mozambique is widely considered to be a success- GDP, with purchasing power parity of $802/year ful example of post-conflict economic recovery in (UNDP 2009). Poverty is relatively higher in rural Sub-Saharan Africa. The country’s 16-year civil areas, and rural households are exceptionally war, which ended in 1992, cost over a million vulnerable to natural disasters, notably droughts lives, stunted economic growth, and destroyed and floods, which Mozambicans have acutely suf- much of its infrastructure. Starting from this fered from in the past. In particular, the south- admittedly very low base, Mozambique has seen ern region of the country is the poorest—in large average annual growth rates of 8 percent between part a result of its drier climate, less productive 1993 and 2009. Mozambique’s high growth rates soils, and proneness to natural disasters. Factors were accompanied by a decrease in poverty lev- contributing to these high poverty rates are a lack els, which, according to household survey data, of infrastructure (especially road access to goods declined from 69 percent in 1997 to 54 percent and services), distant markets to sell agricultural in 2003.6 In particular, extensive agricultural products, low-yielding agricultural techniques, growth in the last two decades, achieved primar- and lack of basic services (such as health care and ily through expansion in the area farmed and low education rates), among many others. increases in labor input, drove this reduction in poverty levels. Mozambique’s Human Develop- The reforms credited for spurring this poverty ment Index (HDI), a measure of development reduction began in 1987 when the government of and poverty, has increased steadily over the years Mozambique initiated pro-growth economic poli- since the end of the civil war. cies such as measures to decrease inflation and the costs of doing business, a value-added tax, removal However, Mozambique remains extremely poor, of price controls and import restrictions, and the with HDI levels still well below the average Sub- privatization of many state-owned-entities. Due Saharan African level, much less than the rest of to the country’s tight monetary and fiscal policy during this time, inflation was reduced to single- digit levels (from 70 percent at the end of the civil 6 World Bank. available at war), providing a stable environment for rapid 6 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E Figure 1 GDP GROWTH IN MOZAMBIQUE, Figure 2 GDP COMPOSITION 2001–09 IN MOZAMBIQUE 14.0% 12.0% 24% 10.0% 45% 8.0% 6.0% 4.0% 31% 2.0% 0% 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 SERVICES INDUSTRY AGRICULTURE Source: World DataBANK, 2009 Source: CIA World Factbook, 2009 economic growth. This growth was bolstered coking coal, and significant reserves of non-fuel by a significant influx of foreign investment into minerals. Most of these natural resources are the country and high levels of donor support— (and will continue to be) exported, as is the elec- approximately equivalent to 12 percent of GDP, tricity generated by the country’s enormous and relative to the African average of 4 percent. to-be-expanded hydropower dam, Cahora Bassa. Mozambique has four major hydropower sta- Mozambique’s economy is largely dominated by tions, of which Cahora Bassa is the largest; how- the agricultural sector, at least as far as employ- ever, there is significant scope to further develop ment is concerned, with at least 70 percent of the Mozambique’s hydropower potential, with Elec- labor force employed in this sector.7 However, the tricidade de Mozambique estimating feasible sector only represents 24 percent of GDP, as illus- capacity at 13,000 MW (World Bank 2007). trated below in Figure 2. The industrial sector accounts for such industries Current Growth Policies as aluminum, petroleum products, chemicals, food, and beverages. Agricultural exports include PARPA II is the government’s second Action Plan cotton, cassava, cashew nuts, sugarcane, citrus for the Reduction of Absolute Poverty (2006–09), fruits, corn, coffee, beef, and poultry, among which describes the social and economic policies others; fisheries (shrimp and prawn) are also an to reduce poverty and achieve economic growth. important source of exports. PARPA II aims to reduce absolute poverty and promote growth through three “pillars�: (1) pro- Mozambique also boasts abundant resources of moting good governance, (2) investing in human fossil fuels, including natural gas, thermal and capital, and (3) stimulating economic growth by promoting rural development and improving the 7 The CIA World Factbook sets this number at 81 percent in 2007. Available at: pillar is the agricultural sector, with the broad aims M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 7 of increasing productivity and access to world include further expansion of the Mozal smelter markets, notably with emphasis on agriculture, and the Cahora Bassa hydropower plant. In par- optimal natural resource use, and local economic ticular, due to the increasing demand for electric- development. However, poor infrastructure and ity in Mozambique and in the Southern African limited access to markets are a major impediment Development Community (SADC) region in gen- to growth in this sector. eral, the development of water resources along the Zambezi River is a government priority. This agriCulture “boom� in mega-projects, provided it is accompa- nied by further infrastructure development, could The government’s second phase of the National potentially generate huge economic growth, Agricultural Programme (ProAgri II) ran from though social and environmental considerations 2005 to 2009. During this time, the govern- must be taken into account. ment approved a Green Revolution Strategy for Mozambique, directly targeting smallholders, as touriSm well as larger-scale farmers, and is credited with having increased crop production and infrastruc- Mozambique’s tourism industry plummeted dur- ture development. Following this, a Food Produc- ing the civil war. However, this fact means that tion Action Plan for 2008–11 was approved. Now, Mozambique’s natural assets—for instance, its a ten-year Strategic Plan for the Development of 2,700 km coastline—are mostly undeveloped. the Agricultural Sector (PEDSA) is under prepa- These pristine beaches are thus potentially highly ration to define what the Ministry of Agriculture attractive to tourists. Yet the current contribution should do over the coming decade to increase of tourism to GDP is relatively low—data from agricultural production (so as to reverse the coun- 2003 establish tourism as responsible for 1.2 per- try’s agricultural deficit and improve food secu- cent of national GDP (Republic of Mozambique rity). PEDSA implementation will occur in two 2004). The government of Mozambique, recog- phases: the first phase, from 2009–11, would nizing the sector’s potential value, established a involve immediate anti-hunger actions (focusing separate Ministry for Tourism in 2000 and devel- on halting the increase in food prices), while the oped a Strategic Plan for the Development of second phase (2011–18) would be more of a long- Tourism in 2004. The government’s current tour- term focus on achieving the Millennium Devel- ism strategy is to promote areas of high value, low- opment Goals (MDGs). To support this plan, a volume ecotourism based on the country’s wildlife National Irrigation Programme is currently being parks and beach resorts. Its stated vision for 2020, prepared with the aims of maintaining existing however, is to host 40 million annual visitors. irrigation schemes, rehabilitating formerly opera- tional irrigation equipment, and supporting pri- vate sector irrigation projects. vulnerability to Climate megaProjeCtS Mozambique is subject to extreme weather events that can ultimately take the form of drought, Mozambique is on the cusp of intense natu- flooding, and tropical cyclones, and ranks third ral resource development underpinned by an among the African countries most exposed to unprecedented scale of mega-project investment, risks from multiple weather-related hazards especially energy mega-projects: about five or six (UNISDR 2009). During the past 50 years, the are completed or in various stages of construc- country has suffered from 68 natural disasters, tion, while about 13 more are planned. These which have killed more than 100,000 people and 8 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E affected up to 28 million. As much as 25 percent and impacts on the poor. Economic impacts of of the population is at risk from natural hazards. drought seem to be most significant in Zambezi The country’s economic performance is already Province, where production losses could range highly affected by frequent droughts, floods, and between $12 and $170 million for maize alone, rainfall variability. depending on the severity of the drought. Drought is the most frequent disaster. Droughts Floods in Mozambique are caused by a number contributed to an estimated 4,000 deaths between of geographical factors and can prevail for sev- 1980 and 2000. Droughts occur primarily in the eral months, occurring most frequently in the southern and central regions, with a frequency southern and central regions, along river basins, of 7 in 10 and 4 in 10 years, respectively. There in low-lying regions, and in areas with poor drain- are areas in these regions classified as semi-arid age systems. They are linked not only to heavy and arid (Gaza, Inhambane, and Maputo), where rainfall but also to water drainage from rivers in rain—even when above average—is inadequate upstream neighboring countries. Water from nine and results in critical water shortages and limited major river systems—from vast areas of south- agriculture productivity. An estimated 35 percent eastern Africa—finds its way to the Indian Ocean of the population is now thought to be chronically through Mozambique. In fact, 50 percent of the food insecure. Disaster costs to the national econ- water in Mozambique’s rivers originates from omy have been estimated at $1.74 billion during outside the country. In 2000, Mozambique expe- 1980–2003, but this largely underestimates losses rienced its worst floods in 50 years, killing about M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 9 800 people and displacing 540,000. Mozambique to coastal infrastructure as they can temporarily is also subject to three or four cyclones every year, raise sea level as much as 5 meters. While many which travel up the Mozambique Channel due to of the major coastal cities of Mozambique have monsoonal activity in the Indian Ocean, particu- infrastructure in place to stem the effects of such larly from January to March. an extreme event, many are in need of serious maintenance. Furthermore, Mozambique is sub- More than 60 percent of Mozambique’s popu- ject to three or four cyclones every year. In addi- lation of 22 million live in coastal areas, and is tion to the extreme wind and rainfall caused by therefore highly vulnerable to seawater inun- these cyclones, they can exacerbate seawater inun- dation along its 2,700 km coastline. Seawater dation threats, especially that of storm surge. inundation includes saline intrusion of coastal aquifers and estuaries, beach erosion, and short A regression analysis over the period 1981–2004 extreme rises in sea level due to tropical storms suggests that Mozambique’s GDP growth is cut and cyclones. Saline intrusion of the coastal aqui- by an average of 5.5 percent when a major water fers and estuaries holds serious implications for shock occurs. Assuming a major disaster occurs coastal agriculture and fishery production. every five years, an average 1 percent of GDP is lost every year due to the impacts of water The issue of beach erosion is very serious, threaten- shocks World Bank 2007). In regional projec- ing coastal infrastructure such as roads and hous- tions, climate change is expected to only increase ing. In some portions of Beira, 30 to 40 meters of the frequency and magnitude of shocks and beach have been eroded in the past 15 to 20 years, rainfall variability. As a result, droughts, floods, destroying natural mangroves and encroaching on and cyclones are likely to pose large threats to homes and roads. Storm surges pose a huge threat Mozambique’s growth. 10 TH REE E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 11 Climate Forecasts Using Four Different General Circulation Model Outputs Mozambique’s climatic characteristics are region- Both historic and future climate inputs specific specific, with major differences between its north- to Mozambique and its international river basins ern and southern regions. In the northern and (such as monthly temperature and precipitation) central regions, the climate can be classified as will be used to drive the river basin and water tropical and subtropical; in contrast, steppe and resource model. Historic inputs will be gathered dry arid desert conditions exist in the south. There using the Climate Research Unit’s (CRU) global is also a strong coastal-to-inland orographic, or monthly precipitation and temperature data, elevation gradient, effect on weather patterns in while future inputs will be taken from five general Mozambique. Weather patterns change as they circulation models (GCMs) forced with different move west from the southeastern, low-elevation, CO2 emission scenarios. coastal belt into the central and north-central pla- teau regions of the country. The five GCM/emission scenario pairings have been chosen to represent the total possible vari- Mozambique has a distinct rainy season lasting ability in precipitation. The NCAR-CCSM from October to April, with an annual average sres_a1b represents a “global wet� scenario; precipitation for the whole country of around CSIRO-MK3.0 sres_a2 represents the “global 1,032 mm. Along the coast, annual rainfall is gen- dry� scenario; ukmo_hadgem1 sres_a1b repre- erally between 800 to 1,000 mm and decreases to sents the “Mozambique dry� scenario; cnrm_cm3 400 mm at the border with South Africa and Zim- sres_a1b represents the “Mozambique medium� babwe. In the southern mountains, rainfall aver- scenario; and ipsl_cm4 sres_a2 represents the ages between 500 and 600 mm. Inland central and “Mozambique wet� scenario. Precipitation and northern regions experience annual rainfall typi- temperature data acquired from these simulations cally ranging from 1,000 to 2,000 mm, resulting will be used to estimate the availability of water at from a combination of the northeast monsoon and a sub-basin scale. high mountains. Average annual evapotranspira- tion ranges from 800 mm along the Zimbabwean Historical climate data for each basin will be gath- border to more than 1,600 mm in the middle of ered using precipitation and temperature data the Mozambican portion of the Zambezi basin. when available along with the Climate Research Coastal evapotranspiration is consistently high, Unit’s 0.5° by 0.5° global historical precipitation ranging between 1,200 and 1,500 mm annually. and temperature database. 12 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E Table 1 GCM/EMISSION SCENARIOS FOR EACC Scenario Characteristics Used in Global Track? Used in INGC Study? NCAR-CCSM sres_a1b Global Wet Yes CSIRO-MK3.0 sres_a2 Global Dry Yes Yes ukmo_hadgem1 sres_a1b Mozambique Dry cnrm_cm3 sres_a1b Mozambique Medium ipsl_cm4 sres_a2 Mozambique Wet Yes The flow of information through the integrated flow calculated in WEAP may change what was river basin and water resource model is gener- previously put into IMPEND, thus requiring the ally linear, as shown in Figure 3. Climate data are net benefits to be recalculated and their implica- entered into CLI_RUN and CLI_CROP in order tions re-modeled in WEAP. to produce stream-flow runoff estimates and crop irrigation demand estimates, respectively. Figure 3 shows all data flowing to the CGE, which implies that all useful outputs will be a product of CLI_RUN is a two-layer, one-dimensional infiltra- the CGE. This is misleading. Every process lead- tion and runoff estimation tool that uses historic ing up to the CGE provides important outputs runoff as a means to estimate soil characteristics. that are relevant to ongoing studies in the region. The 0.5° by 0.5° historic global runoff database Outputs from the GCMs, such as precipitation generated by the Global Runoff Data Center and temperature, are important to any process or (GRDC) will be used to calibrate CLI_RUN. study involving climate change. Runoff outputs CLI_CROP is a generic crop model explained in from CLI_RUN will provide information about the next chapter. runoff changes related to changes in precipita- tion and temperature caused by climate change. Inflows calculated using CLI_RUN are passed to Moreover, IMPEND can estimate the monetary IMPEND (Investment Model for Planning Ethio- tradeoffs between using water for agriculture or pian Nile Development), where storage capacity water for hydropower at a given time. and irrigation flows are optimized to maximize net benefits. The outputs from IMPEND, along These findings will be very important to ongo- with the irrigation demands estimated from CLI_ ing studies in Mozambique, most notably the CROP, are then passed to the Water Evaluation INGC study on the “Impacts of Climate Change and Planning System (WEAP), where water stor- on Disaster Risk in Mozambique: Main Report age and hydropower potential are modeled based Phase II.� Previous work by INGC during Phase on their interaction with the climate and the I of the report suggests areas of Mozambique demands in the river basins being modeled. where climate has the potential to impact the country’s water resources. The data accrued in Finally, this information is passed to the CGE all the steps leading up to the CGE can be used model, where the economic implications of the to quantitatively estimate these potential impacts, modeled data are assessed. Within the river basin thereby providing very valuable information that model there is, however, one interaction with can be used by INGC. In addition, a crop model the potential for nonlinearity. The interaction specific to Mozambique will be developed in between IMPEND and WEAP will be an itera- CLI_CROP using over 50 soil compositions as tive process depending on the scenario. Reservoir well as climate data consistent with Phase I of the M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 13 Figure 3 FLOW CHART OF PROjECT MODEL SEQUENCING GENERAL CIRCULATION MODELS (GCM) TEMPERATURE PRECIPITATION FLOODS RIVER BASIN MODELS (CLIRUN) RUNOFF WATER RESOURCE MODELS (WRM) IRRIGATION STREAMFLOW WATER DEMAND EVAPOTRANSPIRATION CROP MODELS HYDROPOWER INFRASTRUCTURE (CLICROP) MODELS (IMPEND) MODEL (CLIROAD) ENERGY ROAD NETWORK CROP YIELDS SUPPLY LENGTHJ ECONOMY-WIDE LAND INUNDATION MODEL (DCGE) FROM SEALEVEL RISE (DIVA) report. The final model will provide INGC with agriculture (chapter 4), roads/transportation a more robust estimate for irrigation demand and (chapter 5), hydropower (chapter 6), and the crop yield potential in Mozambique as tempera- coastal zones (chapter 7). Chapter 8 looks into ture, water stress, and CO2 load change with the cyclone assessment. Each chapter presents future climate. an overview of the potential climate change impacts these sectors will be subjected to, the The following chapters examine four key sec- techniques used to model them, and potential tors in the Mozambican economy, notably adaptation options. 14 FO UR E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 15 Agriculture Background Table 2 TOTAL YIELD OF EACH CROP UNDER STUDY FOR MOZAMBIQUE (TONS) Mozambique’s major cash crops are sugar cane, Maize 1,326,513 cotton, coconuts, sesame, tobacco, and cashews; Sorghum 507,409 its major food crops are maize, sorghum, millet, Millet 108,217 rice, beans, groundnuts, vegetables, and cassava. Food Rice 173,673 Crops Beans 416,750 Table 28 shows the distribution (by yield in tons) of Groundnuts 285,910 these eight food crops and six cash crops from the 2002 inventory, which will be modeled by CliCrop. Cassava 1,024,324 Horticulture 525,564 Table 3 shows the distribution of irrigation by Sugar Cane 1,940,799 crop for the three regions of Mozambique in Cotton 102,786 2002. The amount of irrigated cropland is esti- Tobacco 42,568 Cash mated to be less than 0.5 percent of the total crops Sesame 13,855 cropland, almost all of which is used for sugar Cashews 13,119 cane production; however, a portion is used to grow rice and vegetables. Coconut 44,285 The Ministry of Agriculture plans to focus in the near future on increasing the productivity of In Mozambique, an estimated 3.3 million ha of food crops in order to increase both the volume land is available for irrigation. However, only of food within the country and the commercial about 50,000 ha is currently irrigated. In accor- and export values of these crops. The Ministry of dance with the Ministry of Agriculture’s existing Agriculture is also interested in the production of budget to increase irrigation and the progress biofuels from excess food production. made in recent years, the EACC study estimates that approximately 50,000 ha will be converted 8 these data are drawn from surveys implemented by the agricul- from rainfed to irrigated cropland. The team is ture offices in each province and are available for at least ten also estimating an increase in maximum crop consecutive years; the latest available are from the 2006–07 season. production (irrigated) by about 1–2 percent. 16 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E Table 3 AREAS OF THE MAIN IRRIGATED CROPS ACCORDING TO THE INvENTORY FROM 2002 Crops North Center South Total (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) Sugarcane 0 0 13,799 84.9 10,059 43.4 23,858 59.6 Horticulture 301 100 210 1.3 6,500 28.1 7,011 17.5 Rice 0 0 480 3.0 3,650 15.6 4,130 10.3 Tobacco 0 0 445 2.7 0 0 445 1.1 Citrus 0 0 370 2.3 0 0 370 0.9 Non-specified 0 0 953 5.9 3,036 13.1 4,249 10.6 Total 301 100 16,257 100 23,145 100 40,063 100 Modeling the Sectoral CliCrop-Mozambique, which uses the CliCrop Economic Impacts methodology but is specific to Mozambique. The model includes the effects of existing strategies, also specific to Mozambique. Some CroP moDel DeSCriPtion of these strategies may include expansion or reduction of rainfed or irrigated agriculture in CliCrop is a generic crop model used to calculate order to supply water to the most efficient eco- the effect of changing daily precipitation patterns nomic sectors, including nonagricultural sec- caused by increased CO2 on crop yields and irri- tors (i.e. power, municipal, industrial), as well gation water demand. The model was developed as useful water management practices adapted in response to the available crop models, which to the Mozambican context. The following use monthly average rainfall and temperature to box provides an overview of INGC’s Study on produce crop outputs. These monthly models do the Impact of Climate Change on Disaster Risk in not capture the effects of changes in precipitation Mozambique, its crop yield modeling methodol- patterns, which greatly impact crop production. ogy, and the collaborative effort between the For example, most of the International Panel for World Bank and INGC to improve crop yield Climate Change (IPCC) GCMs predict that total predictions using CliCrop. annual precipitation will decrease in Africa, but rain will be more intense and therefore less fre- CliCrop input. The inputs into CliCrop- quent. In contrast to the existing models, CliCrop Mozambique are weather (temperature and pre- is able to produce predicted changes in crop yields cipitation), soil parameters (field capacity, wilting due to climate change for both rainfed and irri- point, saturated hydraulic conductivity, and satu- gated agriculture, as well as changes in irrigation ration capacity), historic yields for each crop by demand. Since CliCrop was developed to study province, crop distribution by province, and cur- the effects of agriculture on a global or continent rent irrigation distribution estimates by crop. The scale, it is a generic crop model. monthly weather input for the baseline come from the CRU of the University of East Anglia. The The Mozambique EACC study, with the help weather inputs into CliCrop for future scenarios of MPD and INGC, developed a new model, are extracted directly from the five GCMs used in M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 17 box 1 IMPROvED CROP YIELD ESTIMATES: INGC AND WORLD BANk COLLABORATION INGC’s Study on the Impact of Climate Change on Disaster Risk in Mozambique examines Mozambique’s crop yield vulnerability by directly modeling crop yield percentages and their sensitivity to climate variability. The study uses FAO’s CropWat model to estimate crop yield as a percentage of the maximum potential crop yield possible for a given crop. The model takes into account basic soil and crop proper- ties and applies a zero-dimensional water balance to simulate crop water availability. These values are then used to classify the country’s current suitability for production of specific crops. Once crop suitabil- ity is established as a baseline for comparison, the model is run with future climate scenarios. Vulnerability is then assessed by examining the change in suitability for crop production and presented as a risk for increase or decrease in suitability. This analysis is done for three models (IPSL, ECHAM, and GFDL under the SRES A2 emissions scenario) and six crops (cassava, maize, soy, sorghum, cotton, and groundnut). Conclusions from the analysis provide a detailed look into what areas of Mozambique are at signifi- cant risk for a reduction in suitable cropland; however, the analysis may be dramatically underesti- mating the risk posed by a changing climate. The CropWat model uses a very simple water balance that neglects the effects of excess water in the system. Excess water in the form of “ponding� and soil saturation can also reduce crop yields by drowning the crop and stunting its growth. The Crop- Wat model does not take this into account and may predict high yields where there is excess water because the crop’s water demand is fulfilled. Extreme rainfall events can cause excess water, and all three GCMs examined in the INGC study suggest that both average rainfall and rainfall variability are increasing in Mozambique. A new crop model must be used in order to account for the negative effects of excess water. A collaborative effort between the World Bank and INGC is attempting to improve crop yield pre- dictions and fix the “excess water� problem by using CliCrop. CliCrop’s basic structure is essentially that of CropWat. It uses the same inputs and produces the same outputs as CropWat and, among many other improvements, CliCrop dramatically improves the water accounting. CliCrop uses a one- dimensional, dynamic soil profile where water can accumulate and can negatively affect crop yields if soil saturation occurs. CliCrop allows the full spectrum of the risk profile to be examined and provides a better estimate of land suitability changes in lieu of climate change (Fant 2008). The INGC risk analysis will be repeated verbatim but with two significant improvements: improved water accounting and a more robust risk profile achieved by modeling a total of seven potential climate scenarios. Currently, the collaborative effort is concentrating on implementing a nationwide soil profile into CliCrop and adapting the local station data to a 1º by 1º grid resolution. All simula- tions with CliCrop will be done at this resolution. 18 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E Figure 4 CHANGE IN CASSAvA YIELD FOR NORTHERN MOZAMBIQUE, 2001–50 NCARC_A2 GLOBAL WET CSIRO30_A2 GLOBAL DRY IPSL_A2 MOZ. WET UKMO1_A1B MOZ. DRY the other sectors.9 The daily distributions of pre- CliCrop-Mozambique is also used in the WEAP cipitation and temperature will be derived from model, which calculates the changes in irrigation the NASA POWER data set for both the baseline demand on the reservoir water supply. and the future scenarios. All required soil param- eters come from the FAO Soils Database. The his- The results of this study complement the previous toric yields and crop distribution by province, as study on agriculture produced by INGC, pub- well as irrigation distribution by region, originated lished in June 2009. (See Box 1 on INGC’s study from Trabalho de Inquerito Agricola (TIA). and its models used.) The effects of the GCMs are reported as a percent of the area to have a Clicrop output. The output of CliCrop- certain category of risk (significant reduction, Mozambique (rainfed yield, irrigated yield, and slight reduction, no change, slight increase, and irrigation demand) are then to be used as input to significant increase in risk). the CGE model as shocks/stressors caused by the predicted weather change from the GCMs. The Climate Change imPaCt CGE model includes details about Mozambique’s agricultural crops and livestock commodities, as The CliCrop and the changes in precipitation well as capital, land, and other infrastructural and temperature from the five GCMs were used stocks. The CGE model is used to study and eval- to estimate the changes in yield each year for both uate impacts of climate change adaptation strate- irrigated and rainfed crops as well as irrigation gies in the agricultural sector and consequently to demand (mm/ha) for six cash crops and eight the other sectors of the economy. The output of food crops. The yields produced reflect the reduc- tions in yield both due to the lack of available 9 these consist of: nCar-CCSm sres_a1b, global Wet; CSiro- water and to the overabundance of water that mK3.0 sres_a2, global Dry; ukmo_hadgem1 sres_a1b, mozam- causes waterlogging. These results for each crop, bique Dry; cnrm_cm3 sres_a1b, mozambique medium; and ipsl_cm4 sres_a2, mozambique Wet. year, and scenario are presented in the Tables 4, M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 19 Figure 5 CHANGE IN CASSAvA YIELD FOR CENTRAL MOZAMBIQUE, 2001–50 NCARC_A2 GLOBAL WET CSIRO30_A2 GLOBAL DRY IPSL_A2 MOZ. WET UKMO1_A1B MOZ. DRY 5, 6, and 7 showing the changes in irrigation and projection can represent a future that promises yield for each province in Mozambique. Maps either good food production (resulting in export) have also been produced showing descriptive sta- or famine (resulting in import or starvation) for a tistics of these changes at a 0.5° by 0.5° scale. The specific crop. Table 5 provides the average per- raw data output has been provided to the country cent change in yield, averaged over the 50-year for future study. run. Table 5 provides the 10th percentile, or the 1:10 year famine for each crop and each scenario. ConCluSion Table 6 provides the median (to get a sense of the skewness in comparison to the average), and Since the climate projection changes from the Table 7 provides the 90th percentile, or the 1:10 four GCMs were applied directly to the 50-year year abundance. These percentile tables help daily weather sequence generated from the illustrate the variability of crop production. NASA POWER data set, a percent change in the yield of rainfed crops was calculated for the results presented below. In this case, the percent Adaptation Options change in yield was calculated such that “10 per- cent� means a 10 percent increase of the baseline The primary adaptation strategy studied in this yield, and “-10 percent� means a decrease of 10 report is to increase or decrease the amount of percent of the baseline yield. As an example, the cropland that is irrigated, based on the available yield changes for cassava are shown below as a water and crop demand. Two water management time series for the northern, central, and south- techniques are also modeled in CliCrop: zai holes ern regions of Mozambique. Figures 4 through (or planting holes) and organic mulching tech- 6 show how the cassava yield varies for each cli- niques. The CGE model optimizes an adapta- mate projection from year to year and region to tion strategy that involves investing in agricultural region. These figures also show how each climate research and development (see chapter 10). 20 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E Figure 6 CHANGE IN CASSAvA YIELD FOR SOUTHERN MOZAMBIQUE, 2001–50 NCARC_A2 GLOBAL WET CSIRO30_A2 GLOBAL DRY IPSL_A2 MOZ. WET UKMO1_A1B MOZ. DRY M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 21 Table 4 AvERAGE OF THE PERCENT CHANGE IN YIELD FOR MOZAMBIQUE North Central South csiro30_ ncarc_ ukmo1_ ipsl_ csiro30_ ncarc_ ukmo1_ ipsl_ csiro30_ ncarc_ ukmo1_ ipsl_ a2 a2 a1b a2 a2 a2 a1b a2 a2 a2 a1b a2 Global Global Moz. Moz. Global Global Moz. Moz. Global Global Moz. Moz. Crop Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Average Cassava -3.44% 2.01% -6.51% -0.09% -6.24% -4.75% -6.21% -3.10% -3.27% -9.36% -3.20% 0.36% -3.65% Sorghum -0.99% 0.66% -6.08% -1.59% 0.25% -0.74% -0.66% -1.97% 0.55% -1.57% 1.33% -0.68% -0.51% Soybeans -0.40% 0.06% -2.58% -1.00% -0.52% -3.63% -5.81% -1.46% -1.32% -6.06% 5.91% 1.47% -1.28% Sweet 0.29% 0.58% -5.70% -1.39% -1.45% -4.05% -6.70% -5.70% -0.32% -3.69% -4.45% -0.63% -2.77% Potatoes and Yams Wheat -2.18% -2.31% -5.11% -3.20% -0.93% -4.33% -3.03% -2.93% -1.64% 5.11% 2.48% 0.20% -2.10% Ground- 0.71% 1.65% -3.23% -1.84% 1.17% -0.08% -4.73% -3.66% -1.66% -2.90% -3.72% 0.58% -1.48% nuts Maize -1.32% 1.27% -1.87% -2.92% 0.64% 0.34% -2.59% -3.04% 6.37% 3.49% -3.95% -4.36% -0.66% Millet -6.82% 10.03% -17.38% -8.40% -1.35% -3.45% -1.78% -6.29% -2.78% -10.07% 7.85% 0.29% -3.34% Potato -0.36% 4.15% -5.87% -1.10% -3.20% -1.15% -8.05% -1.46% -4.09% -6.78% -3.10% 1.29% -2.69% Average -1.61% 2.01% -5.44% -2.07% -1.29% -2.43% -4.40% -3.29% -0.91% -4.67% -0.09% -0.45% -2.05% Table 5 10TH PERCENTILE OF THE PERCENT CHANGE IN YIELD FOR MOZAMBIQUE North Central South csiro30_ ncarc_ ukmo1_ ipsl_ csiro30_ ncarc_ ukmo1_ ipsl_ csiro30_ ncarc_ ukmo1_ ipsl_ a2 a2 a1b a2 a2 a2 a1b a2 a2 a2 a1b _a2 Global Global Moz. Moz. Global Global Moz. Moz. Global Global Moz. Moz. Crop Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Average Cassava -5.52% -2.00% -10.20% -4.43% -10.59% -8.55% -12.07% -7.64% -6.29% -13.29% -12.63% -4.66% -8.16% Sorghum -1.93% -0.48% -1.57% -3.44% -0.44% -1.82% -2.06% -4.14% -0.49% -3.97% -2.38% -2.05% -2.06% Soybeans -0.03% -0.91% -4.53% -2.61% -3.66% -6.62% -10.87% -5.85% -3.95% -11.85% 0.68% -1.98% 4.43% Sweet -1.23% -1.55% -9.96% -4.46% -4.56% -7.95% -9.74% -10.88% -4.56% -7.80% -10.72% -5.47% -6.57% Potatoes and Yams Wheat -4.30% 4.59% -11.26% -5.80% -2.94% -7.03% -5.86% -5.85% -4.07% -9.43% -1.57% -1.21% 5.33% Ground- -0.89% -0.68% -7.10% -4.08% -0.51% -2.20% -8.78% -6.14% -4.21% -5.20% -6.98% -3.18% 4.16% nuts Maize -2.47% -0.47% -3.94% -4.62% -0.94% -2.19% -6.67% -7.64% 0.45% -3.77% -18.61% -16.59% -5.62% Millet -11.56% 2.66% -28.96% 15.07% -3.37% -6.21% -7.02% -12.89% -9.59% -19.88% -0.24% -4.24% -9.70% Potato -2.36% 1.70% -10.94% -3.32% -5.37% -3.47% -13.61% -5.78% -5.68% -8.80% -7.22% -5.26% -5.84% Average -3.47% -0.70% -9.83% -5.32% -3.60% -5.12% -8.52% -7.42% -4.27% -9.33% -6.63% -4.96% -5.76% 22 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 23 Table 6 MEDIAN OF THE PERCENT CHANGE IN YIELD FOR MOZAMBIQUE North Central South csiro30_ ncarc_ ukmo1_ ipsl_ csiro30_ ncarc_ ukmo1_ ipsl_ csiro30_ ncarc_ ukmo1_ ipsl_ a2 a2 a1b a2 a2 a2 a1b a2 a2 a2 a1b a2 Global Global Moz. Moz. Global Global Moz. Moz. Global Global Moz. Moz. Crop Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Average Cassava -3.44% 1.75% -5.92% 0.08% -6.47% -5.08% -5.33% -3.77% -3.31% -7.70% -3.02% 0.05% -3.51% Sorghum -0.83% 0.56% -0.54% -1.36% 0.11% -0.72% -0.53% -1.70% 0.47% -1.03% 1.84% -0.82% -0.38% Soybeans -0.30% 0.24% -2.01% -0.64% -0.98% -3.63% -5.32% -1.79% -1.08% -5.55% 5.39% 1.24% -1.20% Sweet 0.03% 0.16% -5.13% -1.78% -0.88% -4.04% -6.65% -5.30% -0.17% -3.33% -3.66% -0.46% -2.60% Potatoes and Yams Wheat -1.65% -1.81% -3.97% -0.04% -1.17% -4.30% -2.45% -2.94% -1.67% -4.56% 2.58% 0.23% -1.81% Ground- 0.58% 1.31% -3.10% -2.15% 1.23% -0.24% -4.23% -3.10% -1.70% -2.91% -3.88% 0.84% -1.45% nuts Maize -1.48% 0.76% -1.50% -2.81% 0.33% -0.61% -1.91% -2.36% 3.35% 0.80% 0.19% -2.57% -0.65% Millet -7.23% 10.06% -16.67% -7.93% -1.56% -3.91% -1.14% -5.36% -1.83% -7.33% 6.49% 0.32% -3.01% Potato -0.68% 3.97% -5.71% -1.44% -3.62% -1.41% -7.39% -1.71% -3.97% -7.49% -3.39% -0.89% -2.81% Average -1.67% 1.89% -4.95% -2.01% -1.44% -2.66% 3.88% -3.11% -1.10% -4.35% 0.28% -0.23% -1.94% Table 7 90TH PERCENTILE OF THE PERCENT CHANGE IN YIELD FOR MOZAMBIQUE North Central South csiro30_ ncarc_ ukmo1_ ipsl_ csiro30_ ncarc_ ukmo1_ ipsl_ csiro30_ ncarc_ ukmo1_ ipsl_ a2 a2 a1b a2 a2 a2 a1b a2 a2 a2 a1b a2 Global Global Moz. Moz. Global Global Moz. Moz. Global Global Moz. Moz. Crop Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Average Cassava -1.09% 6.68% -3.56% 3.30% -1.64% -0.68% -2.72% 2.80% 0.31% -3.43% 5.88% 6.33% 1.01% Sorghum -0.23% 2.13% -0.01% -0.42% 1.10% 0.37% 0.44% -0.47% 1.99% 0.04% 4.35% 1.13% 0.87% Soybeans 0.30% 1.46% -1.02% -0.01% 2.51% -0.89% -0.86% 3.91% 1.50% -1.19% 11.52% 5.57% 1.90% Sweet 2.35% 3.30% -2.55% 2.11% 0.91% -0.30% -3.01% -1.35% 3.67% -0.66% -0.20% 4.25% 0.71% Potatoes and Yams Wheat -0.52% -0.55% -0.46% 5.76% 0.82% -1.83% -0.60% -0.29% 0.41% -1.51% 5.81% 1.71% 0.73% Ground- 3.05% 4.11% 0.06% 1.28% 2.69% 2.24% -1.41% -0.92% 0.58% -0.39% -0.10% 3.43% 1.22% nuts Maize 0.08% 3.05% -0.23% -1.25% 2.71% 4.46% 0.32% 0.40% 18.93% 14.10% 5.63% 2.33% 4.21% Millet 0.05% 17.88% -10.66% -1.62% 0.84% -0.31% 1.79% -1.70% 1.85% -1.86% 18.10% 4.06% 2.37% Potato 2.62% 7.21% -1.28% 2.14% -0.93% 2.00% -4.26% 4.07% -2.34% -3.85% 1.06% 1.47% 0.66% Average 0.74% 5.03% -2.19% 1.25% 1.00% 0.56% -1.15% 0.72% 2.99% 0.14% 5.78% 3.36% 1.52% 24 F Iv E E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 25 Roads Background Table 8 BASE CLASSIFIED AND URBAN ROAD NETWORkS (kM) Class Unpaved Paved Total Mozambique’s strategy for the road sector stated Primary 1,407 4,459 5,866 that the total road length in the country was Secondary 3,983 809 4,792 32,348 km as of April 2006. Unpaved roads rep- resent a little over 80 percent of the total road Tertiary 11,645 516 12,161 length (26,035 km), while paved roads represent Vicinal 6,500 30 6,530 about 20 percent (6,314 km). The sector strat- Subtotal Classified 23,535 5,814 29,348 egy also estimated that 65 percent of the paved urban 2,500 500 3,000 roads were in good condition, 23 percent in fair grand total 26,035 6,314 32,348 condition, and 11 percent in poor condition. The Source: Road Sector Strategy 2007-2011 (ANE, 2007) quality of unpaved roads was less favorable with 17 percent, 35 percent, and 48 percent in good, fair, and poor condition respectively. Assessment of the road usage measured in vehicle-kilometers This is a significant amount in the Mozambican indicates that the paved road network carries the context, representing about 12 percent of total largest share (85 percent) of traffic (ANE 2006). government spending (recurrent plus investment) Table 8 illustrates the Mozambican road network in 2006. in 2006 by class of road, with a further subdivi- sion between paved and unpaved roads. Modeling the Sectoral Table 9 provides estimates of unit maintenance Economic Impacts costs for the existing road network. An estimate of per year cost can be obtained by dividing the total cost by the return period. By using this calcula- The stressor-response methodology used in this tion (and assuming that the rehabilitation return report is based on the concept that exogenous fac- period for unpaved roads is 20 years) and then tors, or stressors, have a direct effect on and sub- multiplying by the size of the road network for sequent response by focal elements. In the context each type, one ends up with an average annual of climate change and infrastructure, the exog- maintenance cost of about $250 million per year. enous factors are the individual results of climate 26 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E Table 9 UNIT MAINTENANCE COST RATES ($) AND RETURN PERIODS Type of Maintenance Transitability Routine Periodic Rehabilitation Road Class Unpaved Unpaved Paved Unpaved Paved Unpaved Paved Primary N/A 1,500 1,100 35,000 55,000 80,000 300,000 Secondary N/A 1,200 880 28,000 44,000 50,000 240,000 Tertiary 300 750 660 10,000 44,000 25,000 200,000 Vicinal 200 350 660 2,500 44,000 17,500 175,000 Return period Annual Continuous Continuous 5 8 20 (years) Notes: Values in US$ per km per year for transitability and routine Source: Road Sector Strategy 2007-2011 (ANE, 2007) change, including changes to precipitation levels However, when these data were not available, and temperatures. Therefore, a stressor-response response functions were extrapolated based on value is the quantitative impact that a specific performance data and case studies from sources stressor has on a specific infrastructure element. such as Departments of Transportation or gov- For example, an increase in precipitation level will ernment ministries. have a specific quantitative impact on an unpaved road in terms of the impact on its life span based To provide a contextual boundary for the func- on the degree of increase in precipitation. In this tion derivation, two primary climate stressors manner, the methodology diverges from the focus were included: temperature and precipitation. on qualitative statements to an emphasis on quan- Cost data for the general study were determined titative estimates. based on both commercial cost databases and specific country data where available. Variation in these relationships by infrastructure type reflects, among other factors, differences in Finally, the stressor-response factors presented the materials with which different types of infra- below are divided into two general categories: structure are constructed and the ways in which impacts on new construction costs and impacts different types of infrastructure are used (e.g., on maintenance costs. New construction cost fac- buildings often provide heating and cooling). In tors are focused on the additional cost required to addition, variation in the stressor-response rela- adapt the design and construction of a new infra- tionship by country reflects inter-country varia- structure asset, or rehabilitate the asset, to changes tion in labor and materials costs as well as terrain in climate expected to occur over the asset’s life (e.g., varying degrees of flat versus mountainous span. Maintenance cost effects are those that terrain). In this analysis, stressor-response factors either increase or decrease and are anticipated to were developed based on multiple inputs. A com- be incurred due to climate change to achieve the bination of material science reports, usage stud- design life span. In each of these categories, the ies, case studies, and historic data were all used underlying concept is to retain the design life span to develop response functions for the infrastruc- for the structure. This premise was established as a ture categories. Where possible, data from mate- baseline requirement in the study due to the pref- rial manufacturers were combined with historical erence for retaining infrastructure for as long as data to obtain an objective response function. possible rather than replacing the infrastructure M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 27 Table 10 DOSE-RESPONSE DESCRIPTIONS FOR MAINTENANCE COSTS Class Precipitation Temperature Paved roads—existing Change in annual maintenance costs per Change in annual maintenance costs km per 10 cm change in annual rainfall pro- per km per 3° C change in maximum of jected during life span relative to baseline monthly maximum temperature projected climate during life span Unpaved roads Change in annual maintenance costs per Not estimated; impact likely to be minimal 1 percent change in maximum of monthly maximum precipitation projected during life span on a more frequent basis. Achieving this goal may design of the asphalt mix. In this approach, the require a change in the construction standard for impact is based on potential life-span reduction new construction or an increase in maintenance that could result from climate change if main- for existing infrastructure. As documented, this tenance practices are not adjusted to meet the strategy is realized individually for the various increased climate stress. infrastructure categories. As indicated by Equation 1, implementation of Climate Change imPaCtS this approach involves two basic steps: (1) estimat- ing the life-span decrement that would result from The dose-response relationship between climate a unit change in climate stress and (2) estimating change and the cost of maintaining road networks the costs of avoiding this reduction in life span. is a central concern for climate change adapta- For example, if a climate stressor is anticipated tion. To determine the costs of climate change to reduce the life span by 2 years or 10 percent, impact, two different elements are considered: and the cost to offset each percent of reduction is (1) costs to maintain existing roads, and (2) costs equal to a percentage of the current maintenance to adapt roads by improving the roads at regular cost, then the total would be (10 percent)*(current design life intervals. maintenance cost) to avoid decreasing the current design life span. PaveD roaD maintenanCe equation 1: MTerb = (lerb)(Cerb) In determining the climate-change-related Where MTerb = Change in maintenance costs for costs for paved roads, the underlying focus is to existing paved roads associated with a unit change in climate stress maintain the road network that is in place by Lerb = Potential percent change in life increasing spending on maintenance to retain span for existing paved roads associated with a unit change in the 20-year design life cycle. The 20-year life climate stress cycle is based on the assumption that roads are Cerb = Cost of preventing a given life- repaved at the end of each 20-year life cycle in span decrement for existing paved roads a standard maintenance cycle. To determine the increased impact of climate change stressors on this maintenance cycle, the impact of temper- To estimate the reduction in life span that could ature and precipitation is applied to the road. result from an incremental change in climate stress These two factors are the significant factors for (LERB), we assume that such a reduction is equal to road maintenance, as precipitation impacts both the percent change in climate stress, scaled for the the surface and the roadbed, while tempera- stressor’s effect on maintenance costs, as shown in ture impacts the asphalt pavement based on the Equation 2. 28 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E DS unPaveD roaD maintenanCe equation 2: lerb = (SMT) BaseS Where Lerb = Potential percent change in life To estimate dose-response values for unpaved span for existing paved roads associated with a unit change in road maintenance costs, an approach is adopted climate stress that associates costs with a unit change in climate DS = Change in climate stress (i.e., pre- stress as a fixed percentage of maintenance costs, cipitation or temperature) as illustrated by Equation 3.10 BaseS = Base level of climate stress with no climate change SMT = Percent of existing paved road maintenance costs associated with equation 3: MTurr = M x burr a given climate stressor Where MTurr = Change in maintenance costs for (i.e., precipitation or temperature) unpaved roads associated with a unit change in climate stress10 Also as indicated in Equation 2, the potential M= Cost multiplier change in life span is dependent on the change in Burr = Baseline maintenance costs climate stress. For precipitation effects, a reduc- tion in life span is incurred by existing paved roads The stressor-response relationship represented by with every 10 cm increase in annual rainfall. For Equation 3 is applied as the change in mainte- temperature, a life-span reduction is incurred with nance costs associated with a 1 percent change every 3-degree change in maximum annual tem- in maximum monthly precipitation. Research has perature for existing paved roads (FDOT 2009a; demonstrated that 80 percent of unpaved road FEMA 1998; Miradi 2004; Oregon DOT 2009; degradation can be attributed to precipitation, Washington DOT 2009). while the remaining 20 percent is due to traffic rates and other factors (Ramos-Scharron and Equation 2 also illustrates that the estimate of the MacDonald 2007). Given this 80 percent attribu- potential reduction in life span associated with a tion to precipitation, maintenance costs increase given change in climate stress reflects the contribu- by 0.8 percent with every 1 percent increase in tion of that stressor to baseline maintenance costs the maximum of the maximum monthly pre- (i.e., variable SMT). For paved roads, precipita- cipitation values projected for any given year. tion-related maintenance represents 4 percent of Published data indicate that the baseline cost of maintenance costs and temperature-related main- maintaining an unpaved road is approximately tenance represents 36 percent (Miradi 2004). $960 per km (Cerlanek et al 2006). Therefore, for every 1 percent increase in maximum precipita- After assessing the potential reduction in life span tion, a maintenance cost increase of $7.70 per km associated with a given climate stressor, the cost can be assumed. of avoiding this reduction in life span is estimated. To estimate these costs, it is assumed that the roaD tranSPort maintenanCe imPaCtS change in maintenance costs would be approxi- mately equal to the product of (1) the potential The stressor equations introduced above provide percent reduction in life span (LERB) and (2) the the basis for determining the maintenance impact base construction costs of the asset. Therefore, a of climate change on paved and unpaved roads. 10 percent potential reduction in life span is pro- Based on the road inventory in Mozambique and jected and the change in maintenance costs is esti- the climate projections provided to the team, it is mated as 10 percent of base construction costs. In 10 The readily available data suggest that temperature has no effect this way, the base construction cost for a primary on paved road maintenance costs and that precipitation has no paved road is estimated at $500,000 per km. effect on the cost of maintaining railroads. M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 29 Table 11 MAINTENANCE COST INCREASES FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF ROADS THROUGH 2050 ($) ncar_ccsm3_0_a2 csiro_mk3_a2 ipsl_cm4_a2 ukmo_hadgem1_a1b Cumulative cost increase for main- 40.3 million 66.0 million 30.7 million 8.9 million taining paved roads Cumulative cost increase for main- 87.3 million 180.5 million 67.4 million 50.8 million taining gravel and earth roads Total cumulative maintenance costs 127.6 million 246.5 million 98.1 million 59.7 million from climate change estimated that maintenance on paved roads that Figure 7 DECADE AvERAGE COST is directly attributable to climate change ranges INCREASE FOR MAINTAINING GRAvEL AND EARTH ROADS from $0.5 million to $5 million per year depend- $6,000,000 ing on the climate model used for the projection. As illustrated in Figures 9 and 10, maintenance $5,000,000 costs on paved roads are the highest in the first decades as climate change impacts are realized on $4,000,000 existing road inventory not designed for increased $3,000,000 temperature and precipitation. These mainte- nance costs drop off over time as new inventory $2,000,000 is assumed to be adapted to the future climate change impacts with enhanced design standards. $1,000,000 $- 2020 2030 2040 2050 Similarly, the increased maintenance cost for unpaved roads is estimated between $0.5 million IPSL_CM4_A2 CSIRO_MK3_A2 and $5 million per year, depending on the climate NCAR_CCSM3_0_A2 UKMO_HADGEM1_A1B model used. In contrast to paved roads, which see reductions in maintenance costs due to enhanced design standards, unpaved roads continue to see Figure 8 DECADE AvERAGE COST INCREASE FOR MAINTAINING PAvED increases in maintenance costs depending on the ROADS climate scenario due to limited options for making $6,000,000 unpaved roads resistant to climate change effects. $5,000,000 Overall, the total increase in maintenance costs due to climate change is therefore estimated to $4,000,000 be between $2 million and $11 million per year, $3,000,000 depending on the climate model used. Within Mozambique, these impacts are consistent over $2,000,000 the time frame due to the consistent impact of the climate change effects. The significant costs asso- $1,000,000 ciated with unpaved road maintenance should be $- considered in the overall policy impact, as chang- 2020 2030 2040 2050 ing some unpaved roads to paved roads may be economically beneficial. IPSL_CM4_A2 CSIRO_MK3_A2 NCAR_CCSM3_0_A2 UKMO_HADGEM1_A1B 30 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E Adaptation Options allocation algorithm created for the Mozambique case study, the total required investment in roads and bridges will be reported for the different cli- Adaptation options for roads include chang- mate change scenarios. ing transportation operation and maintenance; developing new design standards that consider DeSign Strategy aDaPtation for projected climate changes; transferring relevant PaveD roaDS transportation technology to stakeholders; and enhancing transportation safety measures. Work- The adaptation approach for paved roads is ing on a climate change impact study for the based on the premise that continuous research is World Bank, Neumann and Price (2009) pro- conducted into safer design standards for specific posed a specific set of climate change adapta- infrastructure types. This approach is derived tion strategies for roads and bridges. These were from standard practices in earthquake and hur- categorized as follows: operational responses, ricane mitigation. Following this practice, the design strategies, new infrastructure investment, design standard approach focuses on the concept monitoring technologies, new road construction that new structures such as paved roads will be materials, decision-support tools, and new orga- subject to code updates if it is anticipated that a nizational arrangements. These are described in significant climate change stressor will occur dur- greater detail below. ing their projected life span. Historic evidence provides a basis that a major update of design Operational responses to the impacts of climate standards results in a 0.8 percent increase in con- change would entail responding to increased pre- struction costs (FEMA 1998). The readily avail- cipitation in routine, periodic, and rehabilitation able data suggest that such code updates would maintenance operations. The Mozambique roads occur with every 10 centimeter (cm) increase in strategy includes these three types of operations in precipitation or 3 degree Celsius maximum tem- the budgeted costs for 2007–10 and beyond. The perature increase for paved roads (Blacklidge result of the EACC study will show the required Emulsions 2009; Whitestone Research 2008). higher levels of maintenance in response to the The general dose-response relationship for paved different climate change scenarios. roads is expressed as follows: The category of “design strategies� includes the equation 4: CP,bHP = 0.8% (bbHP) creation of higher design standards for roads and Where CP,bHP = change in construction costs bridges such that these new designs consider the risk associated with a climate stressor of increased precipitation. These design strategies BbHP = base construction costs for paved roads encourage building infrastructure with enhanced materials and technologies that are able to with- stand the increased climate stressors. The EACC A cost of $500,000 per kilometer (km) is assumed report’s final results will show the total additional for construction of a new paved road in Mozam- investment in construction of roads and bridges bique, which represents the average cost per km of based on the design strategy approach. constructing a 2-lane collector road in rural areas based on in-country data, and a cost of $117,700 The new infrastructure investment strategy sug- per km is assumed for re-paving a road (World gests using the funds left, if any, after the fund- Bank 2009c; Washington DOT 2009; Oregon ing requirements for maintenance operations DOT 2009). These numbers can be adjusted for are fulfilled. Using a transportation investment specific instances where data are available, or can M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 31 be adjusted to represent a composite or average for unpaved roads increase by 80 percent of the value of roads within a specific location. Using total percentage increase in maximum monthly this approach, the total additional cost for adap- precipitation. For example, if the maximum tation is determined based on the number of monthly precipitation increases by 10 percent in a stressor thresholds that are achieved during the given location, then 80 percent of that increase is projected 20-year design life span. For example, used (8 percent) as the increase in base construc- it is estimated that precipitation will increase 11 tion costs. The readily available data suggest no cm over the next 20 years and temperature will relationship between temperature and the cost of increase 4 degrees, so one precipitation thresh- building unpaved roads. old and one temperature threshold has been exceeded. The adaptation cost for this threshold aDaPtation aPProaCheS in increase is 0.8 percent of the construction costs a PoliCy Context for precipitation and 0.8 percent of construction costs for temperature. Thus, a total increase of The approaches to maintenance and new con- 1.6 percent of construction costs is noted, trans- struction for paved and unpaved roads described lating into $8,000 per km, which will be required above can be implemented in a number of ways to adapt to the projected change in climate. depending on the policy approach implemented by government ministries. DeSign Strategy aDaPtation for unPaveD roaDS Paved road alternatives—non-policy change approach. Once the cost per kilometer impact For unpaved roads, the adaptation approach costs is determined for maintaining paved roads based are directly related to specific changes in climate on the climate stressors and dose-response values, or infrastructure design requirements. In general it is necessary to determine how to apply these terms, this approach is summarized by Equation 5. values to the existing road network maintenance program. The simple approach is to apply the equation 5: CurbT = M x burbT increase in maintenance costs to the kilometer Where CurbT = change in construction costs for of road throughout the remainder of the time unpaved roads span in question. To illustrate, if a road was last associated with a unit change in climate stress or design repaved in 2005 and the 3° C threshold is reached requirements in 2015, then the road will incur the increase in M= cost multiplier annual maintenance costs per kilometer for the BurbT = base construction costs for unpaved roads remainder of the 10-year life span (2015–25) until the scheduled repaving. At that point, using The stressor-response relationship represented the non-policy change approach, the road will by Equation 5 associates the change in construc- be paved to the existing design standard, result- tion costs with a 1 percent change in maximum ing in a continued $17,500 annual maintenance monthly precipitation. Research findings have surcharge (based on in-country costs) due to the demonstrated that 80 percent of unpaved road temperature increase. This additional cost will degradation can be attributed to precipitation then be incurred annually until 2050, totaling (Ramos-Scharron and MacDonald 2007). The $612,500 per kilometer in additional mainte- remaining 20 percent is attributed to factors nance costs due to temperature increase. such as the tonnage of traffic and traffic rates. Given this 80 percent attribution to precipita- Policy change approach: new paving. An tion, we assume that the base construction costs alternative to the previous approach is to adopt 32 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E Table 12 COST IMPACTS PER POLICY APPROACH (IN $) Annual temperature One-time tempera- Design standard Total climate change based cost Increase ture-based increase cost increase per increase through for maintenance for repaving climate threshold 2050 Non-Policy Approach 17,500 4,000 612,500 Policy Change at 17,500 4,000 179,000 New Paving Policy Change at 55,000 4,000 59,000 Immediate Paving Representative comparison of the three approaches to paved road maintenance and climate change adaptation. The compari- son is based on a 3° C temperature increase by 2015. The road is a primary road with a base construction cost of $500,000 per kilometer. a policy where, when the road is repaved at the $110,000. Using this as a base cost and a con- end of its 20-year life span, it is repaved accord- stant cost perspective, if a road is repaved ten ing to a design standard that compensates for the years earlier than scheduled, then the kilometer change in climate. Using the same scenario as the of road incurs a one-time 50 percent climate “non-policy change approach,� the road contin- change charge (10 years early repaving / 20 ues to incur the $17,500 increase for temperature years standard repaving cycle) plus the $4,000 in annual maintenance costs per kilometer from increase in design standard costs. In this case, 2015 to 2025 when it is scheduled for repaving. At that amount would equal a one-time climate this point, the road is repaved as per standard pro- charge of $59,000. It should be noted that this cedure, but with a design standard that is appro- approach is highly dependent on the ability of priate for the new climate scenario. The increased the Ministry of Transportation to repave roads cost for the design standard is $4,000 per kilome- when the threshold is reached. ter. In this case, climate change has resulted in a total cost increase of $179,000 per kilometer Paved road maintenance summary. In sum- (the $175,000 for maintenance prior to repav- mary, the impact of climate change on paved ing and the $4,000 at repaving), reflecting the ten road maintenance can vary depending on the years of maintenance increases prior to repaving. approach adopted. Table 12 summarizes the cost However, no further additional costs are incurred impacts of the three scenarios outlined above that unless further climate change is encountered. can occur for a specific road type. Policy change requiring immediate repav- Unpaved road policy alternatives. The ing. A final option that can be considered to policies and costs associated with unpaved road account for climate change impact is to repave maintenance differ from those of paved roads: the road immediately after the climate change unpaved roads are directly affected in terms stressor threshold is reached. In this case, as soon of life-span reduction when increased main- as the 3° C or the 10 cm in precipitation increase tenance is not provided. This is illustrated in is reached, the road is immediately repaved two possible scenarios: delayed response to cli- to avoid the annual increase in maintenance mate change and immediate reaction to climate charges. Using the previous scenario once again, change. Both scenarios are described below in the road would immediately be repaved in 2015 greater detail. when the 3° C increase threshold is reached. The additional cost for this increase is based on Delayed reaction. In the delayed reaction sce- a base cost for repaving a kilometer of road at nario, it is assumed that no increased maintenance M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 33 is done on the unpaved road until the end of the retreatment is scheduled. In this case, the increased 5-year grading and sealing cycle. In this case, costs are incurred due to reduced road capacity. the effect of increased precipitation has a direct Specifically, the percentage reduction in treatment impact on the life span of the road surface. As cycle time is equated to the increase in costs for the indicated above, 80 percent of road degradation is unpaved road due to climate change. For example, due to precipitation on unpaved roads. However, in a scenario where a 5 percent maximum precipi- unpaved road degradation tends not to be linear. tation increase is reached 2.5 years into the treat- As the road begins to deteriorate, additional stress ment cycle and the threshold is exceeded seven on the road compounds the existing problem. times during the next year, the remaining treatment Although this degradation is very site-specific cycle of the road will be reduced by 35 percent, or and is contingent upon severity and frequency of 10.5 months (5 percent X 7 occurrences). As the precipitation events, a simple assumption can be 5-year cost for treating a secondary road in-country made that degradation effects increase based on is $28,000, a 10.5 month reduction in cycle time is the length of time that the precipitation increase equal to a 17.5 percent overall reduction in cycle is incurred. time, which has an equivalent value of $4,900 (17.5 percent of the $28,000 five-year cost). Using this degradation scenario as a basis, a delayed reaction approach can be considered where it This concept can be expanded to consider impacts is decided to not increase maintenance until a through 2050 by examining the effect of reduced 34 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E Table 13 TREATMENT CYCLES AND COST ($) Total # of percent CC cost cycles per Total # of cy- reduction in Actual end incurred 20-year life cles through Total CC cost Cycle cycle life of cycle per cycle span 2050 through 2050 Standard Treatment 0 60 months 0 4 8 $0 Cycle Climate Change-Based 17.5 50 months 4,900 per 4.8 10.8 $53,000 per Treatment Cycle km km treatment cycles due to not increasing maintenance. ConCluSion To illustrate, changing the example slightly to a scenario that the 5 percent maximum is exceeded In developing countries, maintenance—as well seven times per every 5-year treatment cycle, the as increasing design standards when new roads following becomes the actual change in treatment are constructed or existing roads are repaved cycles and the associated costs (Table 13). or resealed—is a key concern for alleviating the worst aspects of climate change. The following Immediate reaction. The second option two points are key for policy makers to consider for responding to climate change impacts on for climate impacts on the road sector: unpaved roads is to increase maintenance imme- diately upon the precipitation exceeding existing Relative impact on unpaved roads. Develop- maximum levels. Continuing with the previ- ing countries have a greater susceptibility to cli- ous scenario, if a new maximum of 5 percent mate change in the road sector than developed precipitation increase is reached with 2.5 years countries for a single primary reason: the relative remaining in the life span, then an increase in amount of more unpaved to paved roads. In con- maintenance can be applied of $7.70 per kilo- trast to developed countries, where primary and meter per percent increase for a total of $38.50 secondary paved roads are the primary means of for the 5 percent increase. However, by treating transportation, developing countries rely heav- the road immediately, no loss of design life is ily on rural, unpaved roads to connect outlying incurred. Therefore, if the same seven occur- and rural communities. Unfortunately, these are rences happen during the next year, a total of the same roads that are impacted to the greatest $270 will be expended in maintenance per kilo- extent with climate change. Increases in precipi- meter, but no life-span loss is incurred. The sig- tation account for 80 percent of the degradation nificant reduction in costs in this scenario is due of unpaved roads. Therefore, in countries that to the elimination of the compounding effects are experiencing increases in precipitation, the from the erosion that occurs when the maximum rate of degradation for unpaved or gravel roads precipitation threshold is reached. significantly increases. In response, these coun- tries will need to make a focused effort to mitigate Taking the “increasing maintenance� approach damages through actions such as sealing unpaved out to 2050, assuming the same seven occur- roads to mitigate the rate of degradation caused rences each five-year cycle, the total climate by increased precipitation. change-based cost is $270 per five-year cycle x 8 cycles, or $2,160. A significant decrease from Maintenance on paved roads. In many parts the $53,000 per kilometer occurs if no immediate of the developed world, maintenance of paved action is taken. roads is considered a necessity and maintenance M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 35 cost is part of the standard operating budget and the maintenance issues with pavement. There- is undertaken on a daily basis. However, in devel- fore, as the temperature increases due to climate oping economies, this maintenance is often sub- change, if roads are not maintained, significant sumed by the need to put money into new roads or cracking and degradation will occur, resulting in other government priorities of the moment. With reduced life span and the need for repaving in an the introduction of climate change, this lack of earlier timeframe. In response, developing coun- maintenance will be highlighted as temperature tries must focus on policy changes that anticipate increases over time will result in reduced life span climate change and design roads accordingly to of asphalt road pavement. Specifically, increases anticipate the harsher climate conditions that will in temperature account for over 30 percent of occur during the design life span. 36 S IX E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 37 Hydropower Background Table 14 ATTRIBUTES OF EXISTING PRIMARY HYDROPOWER GENERATION IN MOZAMBIQUE Power Turbine Discharge Location Large-scale hydropower generation relies on a (MW) Head (m) (m3/sec) (Province) River combination of flow and elevation drop of water Cahora 2075 120 2000 Tete Zambeze Bassa to generate electricity by turning turbines. Tur- Chicamba 34 50 60 Manica Buzi bines are the mechanical inverse of a pump, con- Mavuzi 48 160 23 Manica Buzi verting hydraulic energy (in the form of water Corumana 16.6 36 25 Maputo Incomati flow and head11) to electricity, whereas a pump Source: World Bank, 2007 converts electricity to hydraulic energy. A sche- matic representation of a hydropower facility is shown below in Figure 11. and solar energy (Republic of Mozambique Min- There are four existing large-scale hydroelectric istry of Energy 2009). generating facilities in Mozambique. Attributes of these facilities are listed below in Table 14. Planned and existing generation facilities— including hydropower, thermal, and renewable The total annual electrical demand in Mozam- sites—in relation to land use are shown below in bique in 2007 was 2,099 GWh. Demand is Figure 12. expected to grow to 8,290 GWh by 2030 based on an average growth in annual electrical demand The electrical transmission system is an impor- of 6.2 percent. The peak load increases from 364 tant and costly component of power generation MW in 2007 to 1.352 GW in 2030, based on an planning. Because efficient hydropower is geo- average annual growth in peak demand of 5.9 graphically “fixed� due to specific conditions of percent. Current demand is being met by a mix flow and terrain, transmission costs can be espe- of thermal and hydroelectric generation. Future cially high. Conversely, thermal options have the demand is expected to be met by expanded ther- flexibility to be located near the energy source (i.e. mal and hydroelectric capacity, as well as wind “mouth of mine generation�) or near the demand centers of population and/or industry, allowing 11 the pressure exerted by the weight of water above a given for trade-offs between fuel transport and electric level. transmission costs to minimize costs. Renewable 38 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E Figure 9 SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF A LARGE-SCALE HYDROPOWER FACILITY Source: Norconsult, Ministry of Energy, 2009 options may or may not be geographically fixed Ethiopia. It is a water accounting and optimi- to a location, depending on the fuel source. zation program written in the general algebraic modeling system software (GAMS 2005) and Mozambique is connected to the regional trans- requires measurements or estimates of monthly mission grid via international power connections stream flow, net evaporation at each reservoir, with South Africa, Swaziland, Malawi, Zambia, and discount rate, along with reservoir attributes and Zimbabwe. These transmission lines allow for including surface area of each reservoir, design power sharing between countries and allow for a head, and peak energy output. Output includes more reliable energy source. Existing and planned a time series of energy generation and associated transmission lines, showing locations of interna- project costs. tional connections, are shown in Figure 13. The Ministry of Energy recently completed the Modeling the Sectoral “Energy Master Plan for Mozambique.� This report contains nearly all the relevant informa- Economic Impacts tion pertaining to planned thermal, hydropower, and renewable capacity expansion from 2010 Potential future hydropower generation in to 2030. The information from this report was Mozambique was simulated for five time peri- used to define the baseline condition used in ods: one historic 20th century estimate of cli- IMPEND, as well as to inform potential adapta- mate (1951–2000) and four 21st century potential tion strategies. While the Ministry of Energy, as climates (2000–50). Hydropower simulation of September 2009, has no formal policy related was done using a hydropower planning model to climate change adaptation, the scenarios, costs, originally developed for Ethiopia, the IMPEND and revenue from hydropower generation were model (Block and Strzepek 2009). IMPEND was used to evaluate potential adaptation strategies. developed to plan reservoirs and power genera- These policy adjustments include defining alter- tion facilities on the Upper Blue Nile River in native generation sources that may be used to M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 39 Figure 10 POWER GENERATION MASTER PLAN, FACILITY LOCATION Source: Norconsult, Ministry of Energy, Energy Master Plan for Mozambique, 2009 40 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E Figure 11 EXISTING AND PLANNED TRANSMISSION LINES IN MOZAMBIQUE Source: Norconsult, Ministry of Energy, Energy Master Plan for Mozambique, 2009 M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 41 make up potential hydropower losses due to cli- least on thermal generation options (zero coal mate change, along with altering the scale and generation) and contained the largest number of sequencing of already-planned projects. feasible hydro projects. The IMPEND simulation required estimates of The baseline scenario used in IMPEND con- monthly flow and net evaporation from the hydro- sisted of all “extended hydro� projects from the logic model “CliRun,� which is described in greater Master Plan, plus four additional projects. These detail in Annex 2. Tributary sub-basins were iden- four additional projects were added because the tified for each existing and potential hydropower Master Plan did not cover projects beyond 2030. site, and coded into IMPEND. CliRun output However, the EACC report required additional files were accessed by IMPEND for historical and projects beyond the extent of the Master Plan, future climate simulations, and in turn used to cal- from 2030 to 2050. These four additional proj- culate electric power generation potential. ects were from a set of projects that were not included in the final “extended hydro� scenario Seven electric power generation scenarios were in the Master Plan because hydrologic data from developed in the Energy Master Plan to compare the river basins fell short of the 38 years deemed the costs and benefits of various energy strate- necessary for the Master Plan. For this report, gies of interest to Mozambique. The attributes however, it was assumed that by 2030 sufficient of these scenarios are shown in Table 15. All data would have been collected in these basins to contain a mix of new thermal, hydropower, and plan reservoirs, so these projects were selected to renewable generation sources. Of these scenar- augment the ten projects in the “extended hydro� ios, the baseline hydropower generation scenario scenario from the Master Plan. for this report was developed primarily from the “extended hydro� option shown in Table 16. The hydro projects included in the “extended hydro� scenario, as well as the four additional The “extended hydro� scenario was used as projects, are shown in Table 16. The IMPEND the basis to estimate climate change impacts on model was used to simulate the potential hydro- hydropower in Mozambique because it relied power generated from these 18 projects. Table 15 GENERATION SCENARIOS DEvELOPED IN THE ENERGY MASTER PLAN FOR MOZAMBIQUE Mphanda “Least- Mphanda Mphanda Nkuwa + Cost� Extended Nkuwa – Reference Nkuwa CBNB* Coal Backbone Hydro no RE Installed Hydro 0 1500 2330 0 2745 3461 1500 Capacity (MW) Thermal Ga 705 705 705 705 705 705 705 Thermal Coal 0 0 0 4400 4400 0 0 Renewable 160 160 160 160 160 160 0 Total Capacity 865 2365 3195 5265 8010 4326 2205 Costs Generation $1,709 $3,344 $3,816 $10,799 $13,103 $7,247 $2,645 (MUS$) Cost Transmission $57 $777 $1,051 $2,003 $2,778 $1,544 $777 Cost Total Cost $1,766 $4,121 $4,867 $12,802 $15,881 $8,791 $3,422 * CBNB: Cahora Bassa North Bank project. Source: Ministry of Energy, 2009 42 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E Table 16 PROjECTS INCLUDED IN THE BASELINE HYDROPOWER SIMULATION “Extended Baseline IMPEND Installed Earliest year Hydro� year Simulation year Plant Name River Basin Capacity (MW) online online online Cahora bassa Zambezi 2075 Existing Existing existing Chicamba Buzi 38.4 Existing Existing existing Corumana Incomati 16.6 Existing Existing existing Mavuzi Buzi 52 Existing Existing existing Massingir Limpopo 40 2012 2019 2012 Muenezi Revue 21 2015 2021 2021 Tsate Revue 50 2015 2023 2023 Pavua Pungwe 60 2015 2020 2020 Cahora bassa–Nb Zambezi 850 2015 2016 2015 7:11 Zambezi 62 2016 N/A 2029 7:6 Zambezi 280 2016 N/A 2035 Nphanda Nkuwa Zambezi 1500 2015 2015 2015 boroma Zambezi 160 2018 2019 2019 5:8+9 Zambezi 120 2016 2040 2040 lupata Zambezi 650 2018 2020 2020 Mugeba Licungo 100 2014 2023 2023 alto Malema Lurio 60 2014 2022 2022 lurio 2 Lurio 120 2015 N/A 2045 Figure 12 ASSUMED TEMPORAL The timing of project construction is important DISTRIBUTION OF PROjECT COSTS to hydropower planning. Construction timing depends on energy demand as well as the avail- ANNUAL PERCENT OF TOTAL CONSTRUCTION COST ability of capital resources. As shown in Table 16, hydro project timing varies in the Master Plan. 40% The “earliest online� represents the most opti- mistic view, while the dates associated with the 35% “extended hydro� use a more delayed approach. 30% Based on information from the World Bank Mozambique country office, at least three proj- 25% ects were under way or close to under way: Mass- 20% ingir, Cahora Bass North Bank, and Nphanda Nkuwa. The model therefore uses the “earliest 15% online� time (as shown in Table 16) only for these three projects. The remaining “extended hydro� 10% projects used the later completion time, and the 5% four additional projects were sequenced over the 20-year period from 2030 through 2050. 0% 1 2 3 4 5 The temporal project cost distribution was YEAR assumed to follow a 5-year sequence, as taken M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 43 Figure 13 ASSUMED TIMELINE OF PROjECT INvESTMENT SCHEDULE ANNUAL HYDROPOWER COST (M 2010 USD / YEAR) 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 2003 05 07 09 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 2049 from the Master Plan. Each project cost was dis- The “base historical� run is the energy generated tributed over five years, ending in the “online� if the future climate follows historical trends. The year shown above in Table 16. This distribution is other four runs represent four different future cli- shown below in Figure 14. The total cost (in 2010 mate realizations expressed as deviations from the $) in Table 16 was multiplied by the vector (0.15, historical. It is evident from these estimates that 0.20, 0.35, 0.25, 0.05) to obtain the project cost the historical simulation provides the maximum for years 1 through 5. hydropower energy production of the five simula- tions; all four future climate scenarios tended to Climate Change imPaCt diminish the volumes of energy generated. The CliRun model was used to estimate flow The cumulative annual project costs (the sum over into the eighteen hydropower generation each year of all project costs incurred that year) facilities for four future climate realizations as and the expected energy output were then sent to described above. These flow estimates were used the CGE model to estimate the economic impact in IMPEND to estimate the potential power of climate change vis-à-vis changes in river flow. generation available under these hydrologic con- ditions. All other assumptions and conditions were identical with the historic run; operating Adaptation Options assumptions and surface areas of the reservoirs, among others, were all held constant. Only influ- Hydropower generation capacity diminishes ent flow changed. under all four future climate scenarios simulated for this study when compared with the historic The IMPEND modeling provided an estimate of hydrological trends using identical hydropower the potential change in hydropower generation investment schedules. Since the vast majority of capability for these plants under the above invest- energy generated in Mozambique is exported to ment schedule. The results of these comparisons the regional grid, the drop in electric potential are shown in Figure 16. represents lost revenue to Mozambique. 44 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E Figure 14 COMPARISON OF HYDROPOWER ENERGY PRODUCTION IN MOZAMBIQUE (GW-HRS/YEAR) BASE HISTORICAL CSIRO IPSL NCAR UKMO One adaptation strategy to mitigate this lost rev- Fuel sources that are less sensitive to climate enue would be to make up for “lost� generation change may be an attractive alternative or sup- capacity. Additional capacity could come from plement to large-scale hydropower generation. additional hydropower investment (large or small These include thermal sources (coal and gas), scale), traditional thermal energy (coal and gas), renewable sources (bio-fuel, solar, and wind or through renewable fuel sources that are less power) and micro-hydropower. While thermal sensitive to climate than hydropower. sources are generally discouraged due to atmo- spheric carbon releases, there is currently no car- The above strategy of “making up the difference� bon surcharge or penalty for Mozambique to use ignores the possibility that decreased energy pro- these sources. From a climate change perspective, duction will adversely affect the economic fea- it is in Mozambique’s best long-term interest to sibility of the hydropower generation facility by promote sustainable energy sources. decreasing the net benefits over the life cycle of the facility. Because the climate models show that the Wind. Wind is a complex energy source, energy capacity will be something less than planned strongly affected by terrain and tending to be due to decreased flow in the river, the benefit-cost intermittent. Commercial wind generators are analysis underlying the feasibility of the project will available up to 5MW each and are typically be incorrect and should be reviewed. grouped in “wind farms� of approximately twenty generators spaced five to ten rotor diam- A climate change adaptation strategy may include eters apart. Therefore, a typical wind farm may more hydropower projects. There are a number of require 3–4 square kilometers of space, while potential projects in Mozambique that were not only occupying 1 percent of this area, the considered in the final planning scenarios in the remainder of which may be farmed in a con- Master Plan because of insufficient hydrological ventional manner. The Energy Master Plan for data. Over time, these small, medium, and large- Mozambique states: scale hydropower projects may yet take place. M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 45 “The net energy output of a typical 600 kW Solar. There are several technologies available to machine operating in a wind farm would be harness solar power. The two primary technologies around 1,600 MWh/year on a site with an are photovoltaic and concentrated solar power. annual mean wind speed (AMWS) of 7.5 meters Photovoltaic materials generate direct current per second (m/s) at a height 45 m above ground when exposed to solar radiation, and concentrated level (AGL) and 2,050 MWh/year on a site solar power uses direct sunlight, “concentrated� with an AMWS of 9.0 m/s at 45 m.� several times by mirrors or lenses to reach higher energy densities. The heat is then used to operate a conventional power cycle through a steam turbine, which drives an electrical generator. 46 S Ev EN E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 47 Coastal Zone Background Dasgupta et al. 2009). Sea level rise, as a direct consequence of human-induced climate change, Human-induced climate change presents many has significant implications for low-lying coastal global challenges, with the coastal zone being areas and beyond, including the major direct a particular focus for impacts and adaptation impacts—inundation of low-lying areas, loss of needs. The coastal zone contains unique ecosys- coastal wetlands, increased rates of shoreline ero- tems and typically has higher population densi- sion, saltwater intrusion, higher water tables, and ties than inland areas (Small and Nicholls 2003; higher extreme water levels, which lead to coastal McGranahan et al. 2007), and contains signifi- flooding. Hence, coastal areas are highly vulner- cant economic assets and activities (Bijlsma et able and could experience major impacts associ- al. 1996; Sachs et al. 2001; Nicholls et al. 2008; ated with the changing climate and its variability, Table 17 LAND AREA DISTRIBUTIONS OF THE TEN PROvINCES OF MOZAMBIQUE (DIvIDED INTO THREE ZONES) Land Area in the Coastal Zone (CZ)* No. Zones Provinces Land Area (km2) Total (km2) Percentage (%) 1 North Cabo Delgado 79,033 3,495 4.4 2 Nampula 79,121 5,067 6.4 3 Niassa 129,090 — — 4 Central Manica 62,808 — — 5 Sofala 67,349 16,003 23.8 6 Tete 100,922 — — 7 Zambezia 103,094 16,267 15.8 8 South Gaza 75,512 5,342 7.1 9 Inhambane 68,107 4,732 6.9 10 Maputo – Capital 23,657 4,654 19.7 TOTAL FOR MOZAMBIQUE: 788,693 55,560 7.0 *The Coastal Zone (CZ) is defined here as the land area within 30m of mean sea level. 48 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E Figure 15 TWO-LAND ZONING dunes, and inland lagoons, coastal lakes, banks (COASTAL AND OTHER LAND AREA) OF MOZAMBIQUE and coral reefs, marine weed, and swamps (Che- mane et al. 1997; NAPA 2007; INGC 2009a). These ecosystems present important habitats of ecological importance and economic value. The morphology of the coastal areas is characterized by low lands rising above 200m in elevation at dis- tances between 15 and 140 kilometers from the shore (Ruby et al. 2008). Observed historic sea level change measurements during the period of 1960–2001 (medium-length) from the Maputo station (25o58’S; 32o34’E) in Mozambique and the regional measurements (as marked in red lines) are shown in Figure 18. The linear best fit trend line shows a positive slope of approximately (2.17 ± 0.76) mm/year. Although Maputo’s sea level change record is admittedly poor, it is consistent with regional trend estimates (Church et al. 2004), and recent global sea level rise trends (IPCC 2007). Modeling the Impact This national assessment uses an improved form of the DIVA (dynamic interactive vulnerability Note: The coastal area is defined as the area within 30m con- assessment) model based on selected climate (such tour of mean sea level; the rest is above 30m mean sea level. as sea level rise) and [??] (such as population and GDP) scenarios combined with two planned adap- as well as sea level rise. For over 60 percent of the tation options. The DIVA model includes flood nation’s population (of 21 million, 2008 estimate) and erosion simulation algorithms that estimate living in coastal areas (World Bank 2009), future both the damage and associated costs of planned climate change and sea level rise could only exac- adaptation options. Adaptation options include erbate existing coastal risks, highlighting the need dike construction (and upgrade) and beach/shore for coastal adaptation measures and improved nourishment. Dike operation and maintenance coastal management. costs, port upgrade, and the potential for a retreat policy via land use planning are also considered. The country has 10 administrative units (termed Collectively, these results quantify the potential provinces), seven of which are coastal, predomi- costs of a range of plausible adaptation scenarios nantly with maritime climate. The coastline is the and hence provide some indicative costs for sub- third longest (about 2,700 kilometers) in Africa, sequent interpretation. and is characterized by low-lying areas (Fig- ure 17) and a vast variety of ecosystems such as The DIVA model is an integrated model of coastal sandy beaches, estuaries, mangrove forests, recent systems that assesses biophysical ?? and impacts of M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 49 Figure 16 OBSERvED ANNUAL MEAN SEA LEvEL RECORDS AT THE MAPUTO STATION, 1960–2001 Source: INAHINA 2008;INGC 2009. sea level rise due to climate change and develop- The social and economic consequences of the ment (DINAS-COAST Consortium 2006; Vafeidis physical impacts of sea level rise are also estimated et al. 2008; Hinkel et al. 2009). DIVA is based on using DIVA. The social consequences are expressed a model that divides the world’s coast into 12,148 in terms of a selected indicator of the cumulative variable length coastal segments based on political number of people forced to migration. This repre- and physical characteristics. It associates up to 100 sents the total number of people that are forced to data values with each segment (DINAS-COAST migrate either from the dry land permanently lost Consortium 2006; Vafeidis et al. 2005, 2008).In due to erosion or they are flooded more than once the DIVA model, the coast of Mozambique is rep- per year. On the other hand, the economic conse- resented by 50 coastal segments. quences are expressed in terms of residual damage DIVA is driven by climate and scenarios. The costs (e.g., costs of land loss and floods) and adap- main climate scenario in DIVA is sea level rise, tation costs (e.g., costs of dike construction and while coastal population change and GDP upgrade, and beach/shore nourishment). growth represent the primary scenarios. DIVA down-scales the sea level rise scenarios by com- Adaptation costs are estimated for the two bining global sea level rise scenarios due to global planned adaptation options considered: (1) warming with an estimate of the local vertical dike (sea or river) building and upgrade, and (2) land movement. These local components vary beach/shore nourishment. Dike costs are taken from segment to segment and are taken from the from the Global Vulnerability Assessment car- global model of glacial-isostatic adjustment of ried out by Hoozeman et al. (1993), which is the Peltier (2000). For segments that occur at deltas, most recent global assessment of such costs. The additional natural subsidence of 2mm/year is costs of nourishment were derived by expert con- assumed. Note that human-induced subsidence sultation, based primarily on the project experi- associated with ground fluid abstraction or drain- ence of Delft Hydraulics (now Deltares) in the age may be much greater in deltas and susceptible area of beach nourishment. Different cost classes cities than considered here (e.g., Nicholls 1995; are applied that depend on how far the sand for Ericson et al. 2006; Syvitski et al. 2009). nourishment needs to be transported, as this is a significant determinant of such costs. 50 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E Adaptation Options terms of avoided damages) of adaptation is used in these analyses. Adaptation has costs but it comes with benefits: the The specific adaptation assessment options con- costs for planning, facilitating, and implementing sidered in this analysis are described in Table adaptation measures, and the benefits expressed in 18. Apart from port upgrade costs (which are terms of avoided damages (e.g. reducing potential developed independently), all the impact and cost climate change impacts) or the accumulated bene- estimates are developed within the global DIVA fits (positive consequences) following the implemen- model of impacts and adaptation to sea level rise. tation of adaptation measures. DIVA implements The adaptation measures considered in this study the different adaptation options according to vari- focus on reducing flood risk by raising the exist- ous complementary adaptation strategies. The sim- ing and constructing new flood defense dikes, and plest strategy is no adaptation, in which DIVA only reducing beach erosion through nourishment. computes potential impacts in a traditional impact analysis manner. In this case, dike heights (in 1995) are maintained (but not raised), so flood risk rises imProvementS for the mozamBique with time as relative sea level rises. Beaches and national aSSeSSment shores are not nourished. With adaptation, dikes are raised based on a demand function for safety In the Mozambique national assessment, four (Tol and Yohe 2007), which is increasing in per improvements/extensions have been made directly capita income and population density, but decreas- or indirectly to the DIVA model as follows: ing in the costs of dike building (Tol 2006). Dikes are not applied where there is very low population ■■ Improvements following the World Bank density (< 1 person/km2), and above this popu- global assessment (see Nicholls et al. 2010): lation threshold, an increasing proportion of the ■■ Considerations of the costs of port upgrade demand for safety is applied. Half of the demand due to sea level rise. for safety is applied at a population density of 20 ■■ Consideration of dike maintenance and persons/km2, and 90 percent at a population den- operating costs, as DIVA only considers sity of 200 persons/km2. Hence, this is not a cost- capital costs. benefit approach but rather illustrates scenarios of response based on the demand for safety function. ■■ Additional improvements in this national For nourishment, a cost-benefit adaptation (CBA) assessment. strategy that balances the costs and the benefits (in Table 18 ADAPTATION OPTIONS CONSIDERED IN THE DIvA ANALYSIS Effects of Sea level Rise Physical Impacts Adaptation Modes With Adaptation No Adaptation Land loss; Beach Erosion Beach Nourishment Infrastructure loss No increase in flood defense Land loss; Flood Protection dike heights from baseline Land Submergence Infrastructure loss (e.g. dikes) No nourishment Flood protection Infrastructure damage Flooding due to storm surges (e.g. dikes) and the backwater effect Port damage (not Port raising Not evaluated evaluated) M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 51 Figure 17 GLOBAL MEAN SEA LEvEL RISE SCENARIOS USED (RELATIvE TO 1990 LEvELS) GLOBAL MEAN SEA-LEVEL RISE (cm) 140 LOW SCENARIO 120 MEDIUM SCENARIO HIGH SCENARIO 100 80 60 40 20 0 1990 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060 2070 2080 2090 2100 TIME (YEARS) Source: World Bank 2010. ■■ Use of improved elevation data by changing of plausible future conditions and known science. from the GTOP30 dataset to the SRTM dataset Four sea level rise scenarios based on the IPCC by using the DIVA Database [1.7.2] version. AR4 Report (Meehl et al. 2007) and the Rahm- storf (2007) analysis are used to capture a range ■■ Estimates of river dike costs were improved of possible changes, as listed below: by considering six additional major rivers in Mozambique that were not included in ■■ High scenario—derived from the Rahmstorf the DIVA Database [1.7.2] and the number (2007) maximum trajectory of distributaries at river mouths. Both capi- tal and operation and maintenance costs are ■■ Medium scenario—derived from the Rahm- considered. storf (2007) A2 temperature trajectory Sea level rise and scenarios. Sea level rise ■■ Low scenario—derived from the midpoint of impacts throughout the 21st Century are depen- the IPCC AR4 A2 range in 2090-2099 dent upon the sea level scenarios, and the adap- tation measures employed. A scenario is not a ■■ No SLR scenario—no climate-induced sea prediction, but represents a plausible future. level rise is a reference case. This allows esti- The purpose of exploring a range of scenarios mates of the incremental costs of climate as analyzed in this report is to elucidate a range change. of possible sea level changes resulting from a set 52 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E Table 19 SEA LEvEL RISE SCENARIOS USED IN THIS STUDY FOR THE BEACH EROSION/NOURISHMENT AND PORT UPGRADE (NO PROACTIvE ADAPTATION), AND FOR FLOODING AND DIkE COSTS (WITH PROACTIvE ADAPTATION OvER 50 YEARS) SEA LEVEL RISE SCENARIOS (in cm relative to 1990 levels) Flooding, Beach/Shore Erosion/Nourishment and Port Upgrade Sea/River Dike Costs YEAR Predicted SLR Scenarios Projected SLR Scenarios No SLR Low Medium High No SLR Low Medium High 2010 0.0 4.0 6.6 7.1 0.0 4.0 6.6 7.10 2020 0.0 6.5 10.7 12.3 0.0 13.1 26.8 36.9 2030 0.0 9.2 15.5 18.9 0.0 22.1 46.9 66.7 2040 0.0 12.2 21.4 27.1 0.0 31.2 67.1 96.5 2050 0.0 15.6 28.5 37.8 0.0 40.2 87.2 126.3 These scenarios give a global mean sea level rise 1. Residual Damage (non-monetary): com- of 16–38cm by 2050, and 40–126cm by 2100 prising total land loss (due to erosion or sub- (Table 19). For flooding, beach erosion/nourish- mergence) and cumulative forced migration ment and port upgrade scenarios from 2000 to 2050 are used, while for dike costs, sea level from 2. Total Residual Damage Costs (mon- 2050 to 2100 is used, assuming a 50 year times- etary): comprising land loss costs, forced cale proactive adaptation. migration costs, sea flood costs, and river flood costs As accepted in engineering practice; the sea and 3. Adaptation Costs (monetary): comprising river dikes scenario is based on anticipated future total river dike costs, total sea dike costs, total sea level heights in 50 years; that is, based on beach/shore nourishment costs, and total port the assumption that expected extreme sea levels upgrade costs. in 2100 determine the dike height built in 2050. Again as per accepted engineering practice, other Residual damage. The residual damages are (a) adaptation measures such as beach/shore nour- loss of land area due to erosion and submergence, ishment are not assumed to be implemented in an and (b) number of people forced to migrate. Fig- anticipatory manner. ures 20 to 23 show the distribution of the loss of land areas under different sea level rise scenar- imPaCtS of Sea level riSe anD ios along with the two adaptation modes. With aDaPtation CoStS no adaptation, the total loss of land area ranges between 102 and 106 km2/yr in the 2010s, and This section summarizes the physical impacts and between 23 and 42 km2/yr in the 2040s across adaptation costs of climate change and sea level all the scenarios. More than 98 percent of these rise in Mozambique. Predictions are presented damages are caused by submergence. for decades from 2010 to 2050, taking the 2010s, 2020s, 2030s, and 2040s to be the mean values The potential land area lost to erosion with and of the results for 2015 and 2020, 2025 and 2030, without adaptation is shown in Figures 20 and 21. 2035 and 2040, and 2045 and 2050, respectively. If no adaptation measures are considered, a total The results are discussed under the following land area of ranging between 1 and 3.3 km2/yr three sections. could be lost to erosion in the 2040s across the M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 53 range of the sea level rise scenarios (Figure 20). Figure 18 TOTAL ANNUAL LAND LOSS (EROSION) DUE TO SEA LEvEL RISE The cumulative land lost by 2050 ranges between FROM 2010 TO 2050 IN MOZAMBIQUE 39 and 106 km2. These damages are distributed FOR THE HIGH, MEDIUM, LOW, AND NO SLR SCENARIOS STUDIED, WITH across the coastal provinces—about 27 percent in NO ADAPTATION MEASURES EMPLOYED Inhambane, 18 percent in Zambezia, 17 percent LAND LOSS (EROSION) (KM²/YR) in Nampula, 14 percent in Sofala, 11 percent in 3.5 Cabo Delgado, 8 percent in Maputo, and about 5 percent in Gaza. 3.0 2.5 The potential total land losses due to submer- gence under the two (i.e., “with� and “without�) 2.0 adaptation modes are shown in Figures 22 and 1.5 23. Results show that under the no-adaptation high sea level rise scenario, a total land area as 1.0 high as 105 km2/yr in the 2010s and more than 0.5 38 km2/yr in the 2040s could be lost to submer- gence (Figure 22). As a reference scenario for a 0.0 no climate-induced sea level rise, a total land area -0.5 loss of about 1.1 km2/yr could still be expected 2010s 2020s 2030s 2040s in the 2040s. This demonstrates that while there HIGH SLP + NO ADAPTATION will be some losses even without climate change, MEDIUM SLR + NO ADAPTATION about 98 percent of these losses are linked to LOW SLR + NO ADAPTATION climate change. The cumulative land loss due NO SLR + NO ADAPTATION to submergence by 2050 ranges between 2,655 and 4,744 km2 without adaptation (or up to 0.6 Figure 19 TOTAL ANNUAL LAND LOSS (EROSION) DUE TO SEA LEvEL RISE percent of national land area). Associated with FROM 2010 TO 2050 IN MOZAMBIQUE their low-lying nature, the estimated damages are FOR THE HIGH, MEDIUM, LOW, AND mainly concentrated in the Zambezia (about 49 NO SLR SCENARIOS, WITH ADAPTATION MEASURES EMPLOYED percent), Nampula (about 25 percent) and Sofala (about 20 percent) provinces. LAND LOSS (EROSION) (KM²/YR) 1.0 However, when appropriate adaptation measures in terms of protection via dikes are considered, the total land area that could be lost to submer- gence is significantly reduced by a factor more 0.5 than 50 to 2 km2/yr in the 2010s, and no loss thereafter (Figure 23). If land is lost, the people dwelling on the land will 0.0 be forced to migrate. In this study, it is assumed that people who are flooded more often than once a year, or who lose their land to erosion, will be forced to migrate. Results show that for the -0.5 2010s 2020s 2030s 2040s high sea level rise scenario combined with future population growth, between 44,000 and 90,000 HIGH SLP + ADAPTATION MEDIUM SLR + ADAPTATION LOW SLR + ADAPTATION NO SLR + ADAPTATION 54 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E Figure 20 TOTAL ANNUAL LAND LOSS migrants will be forced to leave their dwellings due (SUBMERGENCE) DUE TO SEA LEvEL RISE FROM 2010 TO 2050 IN MOZAMBIQUE to flooding and land area lost to erosion (Figure FOR THE HIGH, MEDIUM, LOW, AND NO 24). This number grows to 916,000 displaced per- SLR SCENARIOS, WITH NO ADAPTATION MEASURES EMPLOYED sons by the 2040s. These migrants are distributed as follows: 52 percent in Zambezia, 23 percent LAND LOSS (SUBMERGENCE) (KM²/YR) in Nampula, and 16 percent in Sofala provinces. 180 Maputo, Inhambane, and Cabo Delgado prov- 160 inces collectively account for the remaining 8 per- cent of damages. 140 120 However, considering adaptation measures in 100 terms of protection via dikes and nourishment, the 80 cumulative number of people forced to migrate could be dramatically reduced by a factor of 30 to 60 about 3,000 (in the 2010s) and by a factor of 140 40 to 7,000 (in the 2040s) for the high SLR scenario, 20 and down to effectively no migrants under a no sea-level rise scenario (Figure 25). 0 2010s 2020s 2030s 2040s Total residual damage costs. The total residual HIGH SLP + NO ADAPTATION damage costs are estimated on four components: MEDIUM SLR + NO ADAPTATION LOW SLR + NO ADAPTATION (1) land loss costs, (2) forced migration costs, (3) NO SLR + NO ADAPTATION sea flood costs, and (4) river flood costs. The total damage costs under different sea level rise scenar- Figure 21 TOTAL ANNUAL LAND LOSS ios and for the two adaptation modes considered (SUBMERGENCE) DUE TO SEA LEvEL RISE FROM 2010 TO 2050 IN MOZAMBIQUE are shown in Figures 26 and 27. These damage FOR THE HIGH, MEDIUM, LOW, AND costs significantly increase with time. NO SLR SCENARIOS, WITH ADAPTATION MEASURES EMPLOYED Without adaptation and assuming future popula- LAND LOSS (SUBMERGENCE) (KM²/YR) tion growth, the total damage costs with sea level 2.5 rise are estimated to range between $8.9 and $11.2 million per year in the 2010s across the 2.0 range of sea level rise scenarios considered. In the 2040s, the damage costs range between $31.6 and 1.5 $87.0 million per year (Figure 26). For the refer- ence scenario of no climate-induced sea level rise considered with future population growth, the 1.0 damage costs are estimated at $6.6 million per year in the 2010s, rising to $25.7 million per year 0.5 in the 2040s (Figure 26). These show that about 70 percent (in the 2040s) of these total damage costs could occur even without climate change. 0.0 2010s 2020s 2030s 2040s However, the damage cost is considerably HIGH SLP + ADAPTATION reduced when adaptation measures in the form of MEDIUM SLR + ADAPTATION LOW SLR + ADAPTATION NO SLR + ADAPTATION M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 55 nourishment and dike construction and upgrades Figure 22 CUMULATIvE FORCED MIGRATION SINCE 2000 DUE TO SEA are considered. For instance, for the high sea level LEvEL RISE IN MOZAMBIQUE FOR THE rise scenario with population growth, the total HIGH, MEDIUM, LOW, AND NO SLR SCENARIOS, WITH NO ADAPTATION damage cost is reduced by a factor of 2 to $6 mil- MEASURES EMPLOYED lion per year in the 2010s, and by a factor of about CUMULATIVE FORCED MIGRATION (THOUSANDS) 4 to $24 million per year in the 2040s (Figure 27). 1000 Even further reduction of these potential damage costs can be achieved by controlling future popu- 900 lation growth and hence development as shown 800 in Figure 28, in which for the high sea level rise 700 scenario the costs are reduced by a factor of 3 to 600 $3.9 million per year in the 2010s, and by a factor 500 of 9 to $9.9 million per year in the 2040s. 400 Considering the distribution of the total damage 300 costs across the coastal provinces, it is estimated 200 that in the 2010s approximately 45 percent (about 100 $5 million per year) is in Sofala, 30 percent (about 0 $3.3 million per year) in Zambezia, and 12 per- 2010s 2020s 2030s 2040s cent (about $1.3 million per year) in Nampula HIGH SLP + NO ADAPTATION provinces. MEDIUM SLR + NO ADAPTATION LOW SLR + NO ADAPTATION Adaptation costs. The protection options con- NO SLR + NO ADAPTATION sidered are (1) dike construction and upgrade, including operation and maintenance, (2) nour- Figure 23 CUMULATIvE FORCED MIGRATION SINCE 2000 DUE TO SEA ishment, and (3) port upgrade. They assume a LEvEL RISE IN MOZAMBIQUE FOR THE proactive response to sea level rise that is antici- HIGH, MEDIUM, LOW, AND NO SLR pating future risks up to 50 years. The component SCENARIOS, WITH ADAPTATION MEASURES EMPLOYED costs of adaptation options are made up of the CUMULATIVE FORCED MIGRATION (THOUSANDS) following: (a) annual sea dike costs (sea dike capi- tal costs and maintenance and operation costs), 7 (b) annual river dike costs (river dike capital costs 6 and maintenance and operation costs), (c) annual beach/shore nourishment costs, and, (d) total port 5 upgrade costs by 2050. These component costs are presented in detail in Annex VI, but overall 4 the adaptation costs presented in Figure 28 are 3 dominated by the first component—that is, sea dike capital and maintenance costs, which make 2 up at least 75 percent of the total adaptation costs in all scenarios. Beach nourishment costs also 1 make up a significant component of total adap- 0 tation costs, followed by port upgrade and river 2010s 2020s 2030s 2040s dike costs. HIGH SLP + ADAPTATION MEDIUM SLR + ADAPTATION LOW SLR + ADAPTATION NO SLR + ADAPTATION 56 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E Figure 24 TOTAL RESIDUAL DAMAGE Figure 25 TOTAL RESIDUAL DAMAGE COSTS DUE TO SEA LEvEL RISE FROM COSTS DUE TO SEA LEvEL RISE FROM 2010 TO 2050 IN MOZAMBIQUE FOR THE 2010 TO 2050 IN MOZAMBIQUE FOR HIGH, MEDIUM, LOW, AND NO SLR THE HIGH, MEDIUM, LOW, AND NO SLR SCENARIOS, WITH NO ADAPTATION SCENARIOS, WITH ADAPTATION MEASURES EMPLOYED MEASURES EMPLOYED TOTAL RESIDUAL DAMAGE COSTS (M USD / YEAR) TOTAL RESIDUAL DAMAGE COSTS (M USD / YEAR) 120 30 100 25 80 20 60 15 40 10 20 5 0 0 2010s 2020s 2030s 2040s 2010s 2020s 2030s 2040s HIGH SLP + NO ADAPTATION HIGH SLP + ADAPTATION MEDIUM SLR + NO ADAPTATION MEDIUM SLR + ADAPTATION LOW SLR + NO ADAPTATION LOW SLR + ADAPTATION NO SLR + NO ADAPTATION NO SLR + ADAPTATION The protection cost with no global sea level rise dike system would also yield long-term benefits (i.e. relative sea level rise due to subsidence only) in the form of avoided land-loss protection and is estimated at more than $112 million per year avoided population displacement well beyond the in the 2040s. Assuming global sea level rise, the 2050 scope of this analysis, and in fact through total costs of adaptation for Mozambique are 2100, as SLR and storm surge risks accelerate. estimated to range between $316 and $682 mil- Those long-term benefits of adaptation, while lion per year in the 2010s across all the range of outside the scope of the current study, are con- the sea level rise scenarios considered. These costs sidered in the modeling of the choice of coastal could rise to between $342 and $893 million per adaptive strategies, and could reasonably be far in year in the 2040s (Figure 26). These costs are dis- excess of the reported benefits through 2050. tributed across the coastal provinces as follows: 22 percent in Inhambane, 20 percent in Nampula, PoliCy oPtionS 17 percent in Zambezia, 15 percent in Sofala, 15 percent in Cabo Delgado, 7 percent in Maputo, Since the baseline option, in this case, is to not and 5 percent in Gaza provinces respectively. Note implement or build anything that would reduce that the adaptation strategy we evaluated, a large- the costs of a cyclone or flood event, the costs in scale sea dike system for Mozambique focused the baseline scenario will be the cost of either on urban areas, would be more costly than the a flood or a cyclone event occurring, with the estimated benefits of $103 milllion that accrue added probability of their occurrence. With this through 2050, but as long-term capital assets this as a baseline, the project team feels that “hard� M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 57 Figure 26 TOTAL ADAPTATION COSTS DUE TO SEA LEvEL RISE FROM 2010 TO 2050 IN MOZAMBIQUE FOR THE HIGH, MEDIUM, LOW, AND NO SLR SCENARIOS TOTAL ADAPTATION COSTS (MILLIONS US$/YR) 1050 900 750 600 450 300 150 0 2010s 2020s 2030s 2040s HIGH SLP + ADAPTATION MEDIUM SLR + ADAPTATION LOW SLR + ADAPTATION NO SLR + ADAPTATION cyclone mitigation strategies (sea barriers, dikes, and so forth) are unlikely to be feasible from a risk management perspective; the probability of a cyclone striking any particular coastal zone is small and the costs of protecting large coastal zones will be exorbitant. With this low probabil- ity, it is economically and socially more effective to focus on soft measures when they become nec- essary. Thus, planning for a coastal event needs to be a priority at these early stages. 58 EIGH T E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 59 Cyclone Assessment Background cyclone events that have struck different parts of the coast of Mozambique. Although cyclones The geographical location of the country, being due to tropical depressions originating from the in the preferred path of potentially deadly tropi- Indian Ocean normally affect the coastal regions cal cyclones, and the low-lying nature of the of the country, the impacts sometimes extend to coastal zone have made Mozambique one of the interior regions of the country as well. Figure 30 most vulnerable countries to natural disasters shows the extent of the cyclones and zones that (INGC 2009). This chapter presents an analysis are often affected. It has also been reported that of the economic and spatial effect of sea level rise, devastating flooding incidents due to massive storm surge, and cyclone damage based on data precipitation accompanied by tropical cyclones from some sites in Mozambique. during the rainy season of 2000 affected approx- imately 4.5 million people and destroyed vast Mozambique’s coastal area is home for nearly areas of agricultural land and other infrastruc- two-thirds of its total population, with many tures throughout the central part of the country more migrating toward the towns and villages in and along its coastline in the south (INGC 2009). the coastal zone and a strong urbanizing trend. This was reported as the worst event in the coun- Figure 29 illustrates the confluence of population try in 50 years (Africa Recovery 2000). Earlier, in density and low-lying coastal land in Beira, one 1994, tropical cyclones had also affected about of the more vulnerable coastal cities. 2 million people along the coast in the central region of the country (INGC 2009). Records Historically, Mozambique has been hit by about and historic trends in the period 1950–2008 13 intense tropical cyclones,, killing approxi- show floods to have occurred on average every mately 700 people and affecting nearly 3 million 1.6 years in the Limpopo and Pungue, 2.6 years people during the period 1956–2008. These have in the Licungo and Umbeluzi, 2.8 years in the caused significant negative social and economic Maputo, and 4.8 years in the Incomati rivers consequences, mainly in the central and south- (INGC 2009). Although it is difficult to associate ern provinces such as Zambezia, Manica, Sofala, these with climate change, extreme events like Maputo, Gaza, and Inhambane (INGC 2009). these clearly show the high vulnerability of the Table 20 presents a list of historic (1984–2008) country to climate variability. 60 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E Figure 27 BEIRA’S POPULOUS AREAS ARE AT LOW ELEvATION Flooding and tropical cyclones pose major threats account for more than half (9,600km2) of the to Mozambique. Previous studies have identified total increase in the region’s storm surge zones. potentially vulnerable sites and impacts of cli- It is also estimated that Mozambique alone could mate change and sea level rise in Mozambique experience an incremental impact loss of 3,268 (Nicholls and Tol 2006; Boko et al. 2007; Brown km2 of land area (over 40 percent of the coastal et al. 2009; Dasgupta et al. 2009). total), over 380,000 people (over 51 percent of the coastal total), over $140 million in GDP (over 55 percent of the coastal total), 291 km2 of agri- Dasgupta et al. (2009) did a comparative study cultural land (about 24 percent of the coastal on the impacts of sea level rise with intensified total), 78 km2 of urban extent (over 55 percent storm surges on developing countries globally in of the coastal total), and 1,318 km2 of wetland terms of impacts on land area, population, agri- area (over 45 percent of the coastal total). culture, urban extent, major cities, wetlands, and local economies, based on a 10 percent future Moreover, according to Nicholls and Tol, (2006), intensification of storm surges compared to extending the global vulnerability analysis of 1-in-100-year current storm surges. They found Hoozemans et al. (1993)—on the impacts of and that Sub-Saharan African countries will suffer responses to sea level rise with storm surges over considerably from the impacts. The study esti- the 21st Century—shows East Africa (including mated that Mozambique, along with three other small island states and countries with extensive countries (Madagascar, Nigeria, and Mauritania) coastal deltas) as one of the problematic regions M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 61 Table 20 HISTORIC TROPICAL CYCLONES (CATEGORIES 1-4), STORMS (TS), AND DEPRESSIONS (TD) STRIkING THE COAST OF MOZAMBIQUE, 1984-2008 Recorded Wind Date and Year Category and Name Landfall Location Strength Speed (km/hr) January 28, 1984 TS – Domoina South TS 102 January 9, 1986 TS Central TS 83 March 2, 1988 Category 2 – Filao Central Category 1 121 November 25, 1988 TS North TS 74 March 24, 1994 Category 4 – Nadia North Category 1 139 January 22, 1995 TS – Fodah Central TD 37 January 14, 1996 Category 4 – Bonita Central Category 1 130 March 2, 1997 Category 1 – Lisette Central TS 111 January 17, 1998 TS North TD 56 February 22, 2000 Category 4 – Eline Central Category 4 213 April 8, 2000 Category 4 – Hudah Central Category 1 148 March 2, 2003 Category 4 – Japhet South Category 2 167 November 13, 2003 TS – Atang North TD 46 January 1, 2004 TS – Delfina Central TS 93 February 22, 2007 Category 4 – Favio South Category 3 185 March 8, 2008 Category 4 – Jokwe North Category 3 180 Source: INGC 2009 Figure 28 MAP OF TROPICAL CYCLONE HISTORICAL EvENT TRACkS AND INTENSITY IN THE SOUTH INDIAN OCEAN, 1980 TO 2008 (SAFFIR-SIMPSON SCALE CATEGORIZATION) 62 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E that could experience major land loss. These find- induced SLR on surge risk from cyclones. The ings demonstrate Mozambique’s high exposure to overall method involves four steps: impacts of tropical cyclones, the high vulnerabil- ity of long stretches of its coastline, and its low 1. Simulate storm generation activity over adaptive capacity due to the low wealth of the the 21st century. The method generates country. A recent study—based on human losses 3,000 “seeded� events, and estimates which to climate-related extreme events as an indica- of these events become cyclones and where tor of vulnerability and the need for adaptation they might track. assistance—showed vulnerability may rise faster in the next two decades than in the three decades 2. Use wind fields as inputs to a storm surge thereafter (Patt et al. 2010). model. The U.S. National Weather Service’s SLOSH (which stands for Sea, Lake, and Modeling the Impact Overland Surge from Hurricanes) model is used to estimate how wind-driven water dur- ing a cyclone event generates a storm surge The effects of climate change on cyclones can over coastal land. include changes in the intensity, frequency, and track of individual storms. Changes in tempera- 3. Generate a cumulative distribution func- ture are a potentially important factor in altering tion of storm surge height for selected storm patterns, but because cyclones are rela- key locations in the SLOSH domain. tively rare events, differences in storm generation SLOSH results generated for each of the activity that might be experienced by 2050 are simulate events provide a “base case� of difficult to discern with current methods. In par- surge heights for future storms when there is ticular, because historical data on storm surges in no rise in sea level. Mozambique are sparse, extrapolation of trends in past storm activity is generally not useful. 4. Estimate effect of SLR on return time of Another important effect of climate change on the storms. Using the distribution of storm surge damage that could occur as a result of cyclones in the base case, the study estimates how SLR is the effect of sea level rise. Higher sea level pro- effectively increases the frequency of damag- vides storm surge with a higher “launch point� ing storm surges for three scenarios of future for the surge. This increases both the areal extent SLR magnitude in 2050. of surge, all else equal, and the depth of surge in areas already vulnerable to coastal storms. In addi- These steps are described briefly in the remain- tion, future sea level rise, while uncertain, is more der of this section. reliably forecast to 2050 than future storm activ- ity. In general, even if it was assumed that there is Storm generation. Existing event-set genera- no change in storm activity as a result of climate tion techniques begin with historical compila- change, the increase in sea level would make exist- tions of hurricane tracks and intensities, such ing storms more damaging. The method focuses as the so-called “best track� data compilations on this more reliable forecast, marginal effect of maintained by forecasting operations such as the SLR on the extent and effective return period of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis- these already damaging storms. Using a simulated tration’s Tropical Prediction Center (TPC) and data set for storms and surges, and three alter- the U.S. Navy’s Joint Typhoon Warning Center native forecasts for future SLR in Mozambique, (JTWC). The records typically contain storm this study estimates the effect of climate change center positions every six hours, together with a M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 63 Figure 29 SLOSH MODEL SETUP FOR BEIRA single intensity estimate (maximum wind speed interest. A clear drawback of this extrapolation and/or central pressure) every time period. Early of past history approach is that estimates of the risk assessments ( Georgiou et al. 1983; Neumann frequency of high intensity events are sensitive to 1987) fit standard distribution functions, such as the shape of the tail of the assumed distribution, log-normal or Weibull distributions, to the distri- for which there is very little supporting data. bution of maximum intensities of all historical storms coming within a specified radius of the Many wind risk assessment methods rely directly point of interest, and then, drawing randomly on historical hurricane track data to estimate the from such distributions, use standard models frequency of storms passing close to points of of the radial structure of storms, together with interest, and must assume that the intensity evolu- translation speed and landfall information, to esti- tion is independent of the particular track taken by mate the maximum wind achieved at the point of the storm. Moreover, the relative intensity method 64 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E must fail when storms move into regions of small For each point of interest, the intensity model is or vanishing potential intensity, as they often do run several thousand times to produce desired in higher latitude areas, which have experienced statistics such as wind speed exceedance prob- infrequent but enormously destructive storms but abilities for that point. Both of the synthetic track for which the historical record is sparse. generation methods and the deterministic model are fast enough that it is practical to estimate As a step toward circumventing some of these exceedance probabilities to a comfortable level of difficulties, team member Dr. Kerry Emanuel has statistical significance. developed a technique for generating large num- bers of synthetic hurricane tracks, along each of SLOSH model. SLOSH is a computerized which we run a deterministic, coupled numerical model developed by the Federal Emergency Man- model to simulate storm intensity. The method is agement Agency (FEMA), United States Army based on randomly seeding a given ocean basin Corps of Engineers (USACE), and the National with weak tropical cyclone-like disturbances, and Weather Service (NWS) to estimate storm surge using an intensity model to determine which one depths resulting from historical, hypothetical, of these develop to tropical storm strength or or predicted hurricanes by taking into account greater. A filter is applied to the track generator to a storm’s pressure, size, forward speed, forecast select tracks coming within a specified distance of track, wind speeds, and topographical data. a point or region of interest (e.g. a city or county). In filtering the tracks, a record is kept of the num- Graphical output from the model displays color- ber of discarded tracks and this is used to calcu- coded storm surge heights for a particular area late the overall frequency of storms that pass the in feet above the model’s reference level, the filter. In this work, two locations in Mozambique National Geodetic Vertical Datum (NGVD), were selected as focal points, the city centers of which is the elevation reference for most maps. port cities Maputo and Beira. Figure 31 illustrates one of the graphical outputs from SLOSH that shows storm surge above sea Once the tracks have been generated, a coupled level at a simulated point in time when a storm hurricane intensity model is then run along each generated by the above-described method is off- of the selected tracks to produce a history of storm shore of Beira. Wind field output from the storm maximum wind speed. This model uses monthly generation step described above is one of the key climatological atmospheric and upper ocean inputs to the SLOSH model. thermodynamic information, but is also affected by ambient environmental wind shear that var- Storm surge generation calculations are applied ies randomly in time according to the procedure to a specific locale’s shoreline, incorporating the described in the previous paragraph. The coupled unique bay and river configurations, water depths, deterministic model produces a maximum wind bridges, roads, and other physical features. These speed and a radius of maximum winds, but the aspects of the SLOSH grid were coded by our detailed aspects of the radial storm structure are analytic team and are among the most time- not used, owing to the coarse spatial resolution intensive components of the overall method. of the model. Instead, we use an idealized radial wind profile, fitted to the numerical output, to The SLOSH model is generally accurate within estimate maximum winds at fixed points in space plus/minus 20 percent variation. For example, if away from the storm center. The overall method the model calculates a peak 10-foot storm surge has been described in several published sources for the event, users can expect the observed peak (for example, Emanuel et al. 2008). to range from 8 to 12 feet. The model accounts for M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 65 Figure 30 STORM TRACkS Beira maPuto Figure 31 RETURN TIMES 150 120 140 110 130 WIND SPEED (KNOTS) WIND SPEED (KNOTS) 120 100 110 90 100 90 80 80 70 70 60 60 10 100 1000 10000 100000 10 100 1000 10000 100000 RETURN PERIOD (YEARS) RETURN PERIOD (YEARS) astronomical tides (which can add significantly to that it is a forecast, adds uncertainty to the land- the water height) by specifying an initial tide level, fall location. Where the precise landfall location is but does not include rainfall amounts, river flow, uncertain, the SLOSH model developers state that or wind-driven waves (only wind-driven “stillwa- the SLOSH model is best used for defining the ter� flood heights). potential maximum surge for a location. The point of a hurricane’s landfall is crucial to Slr overlay anD effeCt on Storm determining which areas will be inundated by the return timeS storm surge. This information is also available from the storm generation step of the analysis, but The base case (no SLR) storm surge results provide the synthetic nature of those results, and the fact a probabilistic representation of the likelihood of 66 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E Figure32 SLOSH-ESTIMATED STORM SURGE EXCEEDANCE CURvE, WITH AND WITHOUT SLR BEIRA MAPUTO 1 1 0.9 0.9 CUMMULATIVE PROBABILITY CUMMULATIVE PROBABILITY 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 HEIGHT ABOVE SEA LEVEL (METERS) HEIGHT ABOVE SEA LEVEL (METERS) Control Scenario High Scenario (0.378m) Medium Scenario (0.285m) Low Scenario (0.156m) storm surge height at a particular point on the coast Conclusion over a future period, in our case over the 21st cen- tury. This storm surge exceedance curve can then The results of this four-step process are presented be modified to reflect the effects of sea level rise on here. Figures 32 and 33 illustrate the results of the surge height, and the effect of SLR on the effective storm generation step for Beira and Maputo in return time can be identified. The modification of two forms: (1) the tracks for the ten highest wind- the exceedance curve is done for three future SLR speed storms at either Beira or Maputo; and (2) scenarios through 2050, consistent with those sce- the exceedance curve for wind speeds. The tracks narios used in the main SLR analysis. traced in Figure 32 also indicate storm intensity, with blue being the least intense and red being the A function for the effect of SLR on effective most intense. Although the storm tracks illustrated return time is generated through the following in Figure 32 might suggest comparable risks in the procedure. First, the storm surge height for a two locations, the data in Figure 33 provide an particular “reference storm� in the base case interesting result, that wind risks in Beira are much data is identified– in the example results pre- higher than in Maputo. This difference is attrib- sented below, the no-SLR 100-year storm surge utable to two factors. First, Maputo has higher height was chosen as the reference. Then the latitude, so storms dissipate energy to a greater modified exceedance curves for SLR scenar- extent before they make landfall. Second, Maputo ios were examined to determine the modified is more effectively “shielded� by the Madagascar return period for that storm surge height under land mass, which also tends to dissipate cyclone each of three SLR scenarios. Finally, a curve is energy. As a result, the probability of intense wind estimated, using regression techniques, for the events is much higher in Beira than in Maputo. relationship of the return period with SLR mag- nitude. Typically this relationship is not linear Wind risks correlate well with storm surge risks, as but exponential in form. estimated by the SLOSH model. The exceedance M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 67 Figure 33 ESTIMATED CHANGE IN EFFECTIvE RETURN TIME FOR THE 100-YEAR STORM AS A RESULT OF SLR MAPTO BEIRA 120 120 RETURN TIME FOR CURRENT 100 YEAR FLOOD RETURN TIME FOR CURRENT 100 YEAR FLOOD 100 100 80 80 y=105.65e-3.272x R²=0.9948 60 60 y=90.138e-5.0683x R²=0.9749 40 40 20 20 0 0 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 LOW MEDIUM HIGH LOW MEDIUM HIGH SLR (METERS) SLR (METERS) curves for storm surge, with and without SLR, are under the low-SLR scenario, every 40 years under shown in Figure 34. These results further support the medium-SLR scenario, and every 33 years the conclusion that, while storms of high intensity under the high-SLR scenario. We see similar may strike Maputo with significant frequency, the reductions in expected return periods for storms risks of intense storms in Beira are much greater. with other base case return periods as well. As noted in the figure, in Beira storm surges of over 1 meter are at the 90th percentile in the base The results in Maputo show similar, and even case (meaning they are estimated to be a roughly more dramatic, changes in the return period of 1-in-10-year event, see the dark blue line), but the 1-in-100-year storm, with a reduction to a with the highest scenario of SLR (the red line) 1-in-20-year event along the medium-SLR sce- they are at the 60th percentile, which suggests nario. As shown in Figure 34, however, the current they could become a roughly 1-in-2.5-year event. 100-year storm surge in Maputo (about 1 meter) In Maputo, by contrast, a 1-meter storm surge is is much less than in Beira (where it is almost 2 very rare in the base case, and becomes a 1-in-10- meters). It is important to keep in mind that risk year event only along the highest SLR scenario. levels incorporate both frequency and severity of extreme events, with the former characterized in Finally, Figure 35 provides the estimates of the Figure 35 and the latter characterized in terms changes in effective return time for the current of the height of storm surge in Figure 34. Ulti- 100-year storm surge event, as affected by the mately, the expected physical and dollar damages height of SLR in 2050. As shown, in Beira, the from storm surge require a third element: esti- 100-year event in the base case can be expected mates of the vulnerability and value of Beira and to occur more frequently with SLR. Rather than Maputo’s low-lying areas. We hope to explore every 100 years with no SLR, it can be expected those aspects of storm surge risk associated with to occur approximately every 60 years by 2050 climate change and SLR in future works. 68 NINE E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 69 Social Dimensions of Climate Change Background ■■ What factors make particular individuals, The social component adopted IPCC definitions households, or subnational regions more of vulnerability as comprising physical exposure, vulnerable to the negative impacts of cli- socioeconomic sensitivity, and adaptive capac- mate change? ity components (including skill and asset bases, institutional “thickness,� and degree of market ■■ What are people’s experiences of climate events integration).� to date and what adaptation measures have they taken (both autonomous and planned)? Methodology ■■ How do different groups and local and national representatives judge various adapta- The vulnerability assessment included a literature tion options and pathways? review, identification of select “hotspots� (repre- senting both physically exposed and ally vulnera- ■■ How do identified adaptation priorities align ble areas), and fieldwork in 17 districts across eight with existing development strategies and pol- provinces (including 45 focus group discussions, 18 icy emphases? institutional stakeholder interviews, and a survey of 137 households). The identification of adapta- Preparation for fieldwork included a first phase of tion options consisted of a series of two participa- reviewing existing data and literature to identify tory scenario development (PSD) workshops at the “sociogeographic zones� for the country (i.e., agro- local/regional level (Xai-Xai and Beira), and one ecological zones with a social and hazard overlay). at the national level (Maputo) in order to deter- mine local stakeholders’ development visions for Six zones in Mozambique were identified based the area, their assessment of livelihood and other on secondary literature and poverty and disasters impacts of climate change in the area, and pre- data on vulnerable populations. These were: ferred adaptation options for investment. ■■ Coastal urban areas, most importantly The investigation aimed to answer the following Maputo and Beira. This zone is marked by research questions: highly differential vulnerability across income 70 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E Figure 34 MAP OF STUDY SITES IN MOZAMBIQUE groups, with large peri-urban areas vulnerable ■■ Limpopo River valley districts to flooding from both rivers and the ocean. upstream of Xai-Xai. This zone is unique in being highly exposed to two very different ■■ Non-urban coastal strip. This zone is threats: river flooding and drought. It has rela- marked by high vulnerability to coastal flood- tively high population density, and thus high ing and storm surges from tropical cyclones, as numbers of poor people. Further, this region well as threats of erosion. It is relatively food has been studied extensively and significant secure, with low rates of poverty. baseline data are available. M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 71 ■■ Other flood-prone river valleys (less sus- well as key informant interviews with local gov- ceptible to droughts). These zones, in particu- ernment officials, NGOs, and traditional lead- lar in the Buzi and Zambezi river valleys, are ers. PRA examines village history, creates impact highly susceptible to floods (especially those diagrams of climate events and community risk caused by tropical cyclones), but less so to mapping, and involves wealth-ranking exercises droughts. The Buzi River region has also been and focus group discussions of men, women, extensively studied as part of German-funded and different age groups. Household interviews activities, so there is no shortage of baseline were also carried out: ten per site from different data. income tiers, with questionnaire modules cover- ing household composition, income sources, agri- ■■ Drought-prone inland areas (especially in cultural practices, household shocks and coping the South). These areas are highly susceptible strategies, past climate adaptation practices, and to drought: adequate rainfall to support agri- perceptions about climate change. culture is an exception rather than the rule. Inhabitants of this region are often dependent Results were synthesized to identify livelihood on remittances for survival. Population densi- strategies for different income tiers and zones, ties are low. including adaptation practices in relation to household and area assets, determinants and ■■ Inland areas of higher agricultural household/local criteria for adopting particular productivity, including the highly produc- adaptation strategies, and preferred adaptation tive and populated areas in Zambézia. These and development investments. In parallel, the areas are perhaps the least vulnerable in PSD workshop process identified local develop- Mozambique, facing adequate rainfall most ment visions, expected impacts of climate change years, and no extreme risks from flooding or on these visions, and preferred adaptation options tropical cyclones. They are somewhat hetero- and combinations of options over time. Results geneous in terms of poverty rates and food regarding adaptation practices and preferences security. The highly productive regions stand were shared to identify effective investments and out for their high population density and rela- program approaches at the national level. tively low vulnerability. PartiCiPatory SCenario Following zone identification, a further vulner- DeveloPment ProCeSS ability mapping exercise was conducted wherein the team delineated the zones in terms of districts, The national PSD workshop began with presen- and identified districts constituting risk hotspots tations by local experts to characterize current (by mapping different levels of risk, overlaid with climate and projections for the coming decades population figures). Figure 36 shows the locations as inputs to participants creating visions of a of the study sites selected, which by design cov- “preferred future� for 2050. After this, partici- ered multiple administrative posts. pants considered the specific impacts of climate change on their future vision, and then identified fielDWorK adaptation options necessary to reach it (Figure 37). Finally, participants created an adaptation Fieldwork was undertaken at sites shown in Fig- pathway showing diverse priorities for adaptation ure 36, using qualitative and quantitative tools. actions over time. They also identified prerequi- The EACC social component team conducted sites, synergies and trade-offs among their adapta- participatory rural appraisal (PRA) exercises as tion options and with other known development 72 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E Figure 35 PSD WORkSHOP STEPS 2 1 Boundary Introduction Conditions: and Overview Socioeconomic C U R R E NT S I TU A TI O N and Climate & FU TU R E VI S I O NI NG 3 Climate 7 EN GA G E MENT A ND Change Reflection PARTI C I PA TI O N Impacts and Wrap Up 4 6 Adaptation Adaptation Options 5 Pathway Adaptation Review Pathways priorities. The PSD workshops drew from down- in training on development of visualizations and scaled climate and poverty scenarios offered as scenarios (ESSA and IISD 2009). graphic “visualizations� used in handouts, pre- sentations, and posters. They also helped identify Climate impacts. Results suggest that rain- locally relevant paths of autonomous and planned fed agriculture takes the hardest direct hit from adaptation in the context of development choices climate hazards. Across the field and workshop and informed local actors on potential tradeoffs sites, participants mentioned climate impacts and consequences of adaptation actions. affecting a variety of livelihood activities, includ- ing agriculture, fishing, and forestry and charcoal The process allowed for a joint assessment of production. In all cases, however, the most fre- required interventions and distribution of ben- quent and severe impacts were listed for rainfed efits, and also pointed to key politico-economic agriculture, due to the severity of droughts. As issues in adaptation planning and implementa- a result, irrigation infrastructure was a key pre- tion. Local-level PSD workshops followed similar ferred adaptation investment. approaches, with some modification of materials and exercises depending on the audience. The As identified by the team, impacts of climate haz- PSD approach was particularly effective in iden- ards include water scarcity, reduced crop produc- tifying multicausal linkages and drivers of vul- tivity, food insecurity, and migration. Respondents nerability in climate-affected regions. The PSD at field sites reported decreases in rainfall and component of the study had a capacity-building groundwater availability. Floods were identified emphasis from the start, including participa- as causing damage to infrastructure, settlements, tion of national teams in workshop design and and household assets, and also contributing to M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 73 disease outbreaks. Soil degradation and desertifi- strategy in which they engaged. Since almost all cation were understood by respondents to result in respondents listed drought as a major concern, increased pressure on alternative livelihood sources this could simply indicate that they did not see (e.g., farmers joined the fisheries sector). Finally, options available. Among strategies, the most wildfire was understood to result in loss of vegeta- common were planting crops in the wetter (and tion as well as loss of timber for shelter and fuel. sometimes irrigated) lowlands, planting shorter season (i.e. more drought-tolerant) crop varieties, Subsistence farmers and the economically and and improving their buildings. The latter could socially marginalized were identified as the most include the construction of granaries in order vulnerable groups. Economically and socially to store more surplus harvest. An additional ten marginalized individuals include the elderly, different strategies were mentioned, but in each orphans, widows and female heads of households, case only by one or two respondents: these consti- and the physically handicapped. Most communi- tute “other.� These included preparing for fires, ties lack support networks for these people, either hunting rats, engaging in more weeding, and formally through the government or informally engaging in religious practices. During and after through well-functioning social networks. Formal the droughts, the three most common strategies social protection offerings were reported to be less were to plant any new crops in the wetter low- than $4 per month, per person, deemed wholly lands, manage forest resources carefully in order inadequate to withstand the impacts of extreme to obtain income from those forests as a safety weather events over time. net, and manage past surplus harvests and cash receipts carefully. The majority of respondents, however, suggested that they did nothing. Adaptation Options A larger fraction of respondents do not prepare The survey investigated households’ adaptation for floods, likely because many of them do not coping practices in the past. Two open-ended face a flood risk in their district. Of those who questions asked respondents to list their primary do prepare, the most common preparations were coping strategies for a range of climatic hazards. to plant in the highlands, to fortify their houses, About 25 percent of surveyed households did not and to plant short-season varieties. In the flood- identify any ex ante coping strategy for managing plain, these varieties are more likely to be har- drought and 45 percent of households did nothing vested before the flood hits. During and after a in preparation for floods or cyclones. In addition, flood, most people answered there was nothing during or after these climate events, the majority they could do. The only common strategy listed of respondents reported to have not taken action was to plant in the highlands, while a number of ex-post—about 55 percent, 70 percent, and 75 other strategies—like building canoes, or keeping percent of respondents did nothing to manage belongings in safe places—enlisted the support of droughts, floods and cyclones, respectively. When only one or two respondents. asked what they would do if the climate hazards in their regions became more severe, the majority of The pattern of preparation for cyclones was very responses (70 out of 120) indicated that they would similar to that for floods, albeit with fewer addi- do nothing differently, suggesting lack of informa- tional strategies covered by the “other� category, tion or sufficient assets to adapt (see Annex 1). and more people listing the planting of shorter season crop varieties to improve the chances To prepare for drought, about a quarter of of gathering a rainy season harvest before the the people did not identify any ex ante coping cyclone. Over three-quarters of respondents 74 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E indicated there was nothing they could do during soft options. Key hard adaptation options were and immediately after the cyclone. The two most centered on infrastructure investments, including frequently listed strategies were to plant short- road construction, dams, flood protection and season crops in the highlands and gather wild drainage investments, small-scale water storage, fruits to make up for the lack of a harvest. silos, housing, and coastal protection. Identi- fied soft measures included the development of The survey asked people what, if anything, they early warning systems, improvement of local would do if the climate hazards in their regions and regional planning capacity, and promotion were to become significantly more severe. The of participatory approaches to natural resource most common answers were: management. The early warning system option is particularly striking given fieldwork results in ■■ Nothing (70 respondents) Figure 38 below, which show how few people ■■ Move to a safer or more productive area reported receiving early warning announcements (23 respondents) during disasters. ■■ Seek help from others (9 respondents) ■■ Raise and sell animals (7 respondents) In looking at adaptation pathways, workshop ■■ Improve the durability of the house participants examined the synergies and tradeoffs (6 respondents) among different adaptation options identified ■■ Practice drought-resistant cultivation and the extent to which particular options met (5 respondents) the needs and interests of poor and vulnerable groups. Key synergies identified among adapta- Preferred options. The PSD workshops elic- tion options included (a) mainstreaming climate ited participants’ considered analyses of pre- change in decentralized approaches to sector ferred adaptation options. Preferred adaptation planning; (b) strengthening institutional capac- options identified included a mix of hard and ity and the use of risk management committees; Figure 36 PROPORTION AFFECTED BY CLIMATIC HAZARDS AND RECEIvING EARLY WARNING NO NO YES YES Note: The circle on the left represents the relative numbers of respondents saying that they have been affected by a climatic hazard. The right-hand circle represents the numbers who reported receiving early warning of those hazards. n = 117. M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 75 and (c) undertaking simultaneous investments improve food security. Key soft adaptation options in smallholder agricultural support, including identified also included training and extension sup- extension and credit services, soil conservation, port for non-farm livelihoods diversification and and water infrastructure investments. Sample other forms of capacity building, such as rural tradeoffs identified among the adaptation options extension services, improved natural resource man- included ecosystem health impacts of dike con- agement skills, and support to local institutions. struction; possible forced resettlement caused by dam construction; and the potential for reduced In the PSD workshops, soft, centralized adapta- access to agricultural or pasturelands given over tion options—such as improvements to exist- to reforestation projects. On the latter, a design ing government programs and practices—were modification was proposed that would help viewed by local populations as important in ensure tenure access for smallholders and those building resilience. Participants also prioritized engaged in livestock production. improved access to credit, better health care and social services, as well as programs that enhance Overall, the PSD results indicated broad support the capacity of community associations to man- for investment in the hard infrastructure adaptation age local resources effectively and support liveli- options suggested by the economic analyses (i.e., hood diversification (Table 21). Integrating rural road infrastructure, flood management structures, areas into markets—including a great deal of and irrigation), with the caveat that these need to attention to improving transportation infrastruc- be complemented by soft adaptation measures, ture and diversification away from agriculture— including early warning systems and social protec- will also be important activities, even if costly and tion such as formal safety nets, food price monitor- difficult in rural areas. Livelihood diversification is ing, and use of local storage options (such as silos) to patently not just about human capital investments Table 21 OvERvIEW OF SELECT ADAPTATION OPTIONS IDENTIFIED IN MOZAMBIQUE Planned Autonomous Hard Flood control dikes and levies More robust buildings Coastal flood control gates Farm-scale water storage facilities Dams and irrigation channels Deep wells to provide drinking water for people and animals Improved roadways Grain storage facilities Improved communication infrastructure Improved food processing equipment Improved hospitals and schools Soft Improved early warning of climatic hazards, and Better utilization of short-season and drought- of dam releases resistant crops to prepare for drought, floods, and cyclones Better planning and management of forest, fish, and other natural resources Diversification of flood and drought risk by main- taining fields in both highland and lowland areas. Resettlement of populations to lower risk zones Better household and community management More credit and financial services for small and use of natural resources, including wild fruits businesses and rural development Practice of soil conservation agriculture Better education and information for the rural areas Migration to lower risk areas Improved health care, social services, and social support for all people Diversification of livelihoods away from agriculture Better planning of how much grain to save for personal consumption, and how much to sell for income generation Note: The items appearing in plain text directly respond to anticipated climate hazards, while those in italics respond to the need for improved adaptive capacity. 76 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E with individuals, but also broader economic shifts, It is important to foster a shift from support for including integrating rural areas into markets and coping strategies for climate shocks at the house- improving transport infrastructure. hold level to transformative adaptation strategies that can increase resilience at both the house- Discussions also revealed that policies and insti- hold and area levels. The poorest are particularly tutions should enforce sustainable resource vulnerable to climate shocks as they do not have management. In many cases, participants in the stored assets upon which to rely during times of discussions and workshops suggested that the stress. A pro-poor approach to climate change harvesting of forest resources—such as wood adaptation would not only look at reducing shocks for charcoal production—as well as fishing were to households but also engage in transformative important income-generating activities, which adaptation strategies that increase resilience and often helped to buffer shocks to agricultural pro- overcome past biases in subnational investment. ductivity. But these activities are suffering due to deforestation and overfishing. Technical assis- Geographically targeted, multisectoral interven- tance concerning better land management, such tions are needed to reduce the “development def- as conservation agriculture, is also needed. This icit� of vulnerable regions. Poverty and sensitivity can include enforcing existing laws and govern- to climate-related hazards are increasingly con- ment policies as well as improving the capac- centrated in particular regions within countries. ity of community associations to manage local In many cases, poor communities (such as recent resources effectively. urban in-migrants) are relegated to the most mar- ginal areas of the city. Adaptation policies at the Social protection, particularly given the expected national level must take into account the diverse increase in extreme events, is a key need of the socioecological settings within the country, and poorest persons in the country. Land use plan- devise area-specific interventions that can support ning and policy and institutional support to sus- the livelihoods of these vulnerable populations. tainable natural resource management were also Multisectoral interventions that aim to improve highlighted as priority areas. Finally, education area resilience through reducing the development and training to support livelihoods diversification gap are particularly effective forms of investment, over time remains crucial. In sum, results from the including programming in education, social pro- social component in Mozambique were remark- tection and health, roads, market services, natural ably consistent with the economic analyses from resource management, and skills training. the other sectors and with adaptation priorities identified in the Mozambique NAPA (National Information-sharing and training are needed to Adaptation Programme of Action). improve adaptive capacity for responding to cli- mate hazards. Basic knowledge about climate PoliCy oPtionS change and expected trends is lacking at the local level. More specific, actionable information, Complementary investments in both hard and soft including real-time weather forecasts—effective adaptation options are needed to ensure effective early warnings—are necessary to mitigate losses use of infrastructure and to meet the needs of the to floods and cyclones. In some cases, populations poorest. Adaptation investments in hard infra- also need information about when upstream dam structure without complementary investments operators will be releasing water, so they can pre- in policy, service, and extension support will not pare for the local flooding that is caused. Adap- operate in an optimally efficient manner. tation, even when undertaken by households themselves, requires support from the state and M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 77 other actors, in terms of extension, training, or and investments that meet the needs of the poor- greater investment in improving area character- est. Second, stakeholder consultations supported istics such as road connectivity or weather station the NAPA priorities of early warning systems, monitoring. smallholder agriculture support, coastal protec- tion, and water resources management, with an Enabling policies require attention alongside additional focus on investments needed in social specific sectoral interventions (e.g. land policy, protection and training. Third, the social com- decentralization, natural resource management, ponent results supported those arising from the technology). Climate change adaptation portfo- CGE model on the importance of human capi- lios within countries cannot only be stand-alone tal accumulation and flexible public and private investments in infrastructure and services, but institutions. Fourth, careful attention to the policy also require attention to support for enabling environment and regulatory regimes is required, environmental policies and mainstreaming of cli- including such areas as land use planning and mate concerns in specific sectoral frameworks. zoning, social policy (e.g., support for migrants, drought-prone areas, and those forcibly displaced by extreme events). Fifth, study findings pointed Conclusion to the importance of good governance and decen- tralized approaches to adaptation planning and Key policy messages derived from the social com- support in Mozambique. Finally, results suggest ponent are the following. First, there is a need for that use of an “adaptive management� approach both hard and soft adaptation measures in order can help ensure continuous course correction and to ensure effective utilization of infrastructure fine-tuning in a context of model uncertainty. 78 TEN E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 79 CGE Model Description The dynamic CGE model complements the Mozambique to import food. These imports sector models by providing an evaluation of require foreign exchange earnings. CGE models economic impacts across all sectors within track the balance of payments and require that a coherent analytical framework. The CGE a sufficient quantity of foreign exchange is avail- model looks at the impact of climate change on able to finance imports. Finally, CGE models aggregate economic performance and considers contain detailed sector breakdowns and provide a potential adaptation measures in four sectors “simulation laboratory� for quantitatively exam- (hydropower, agriculture, transportation, and ining how various impact channels influence the coastal infrastructure). performance and structure of the economy. In CGE models, economic decision making is Model Description the outcome of decentralized optimization by producers and consumers within a coherent Dynamic CGE models are often applied to issues economy-wide framework. A variety of substitu- of trade strategy, income distribution, and struc- tion mechanisms occur in response to variations tural change in developing countries. They have in relative prices, including substitution between features that make them suitable for such analy- labor types, capital and labor, imports and ses. First, they simulate the functioning of a mar- domestic goods, and between exports and domes- ket economy, including markets for labor, capital tic sales. The Mozambique CGE model contains and commodities, and provide a useful perspec- 56 activities/commodities, including 24 agricul- tive on how changes in economic conditions are tural and seven food-processing sectors (Thurlow mediated through prices and markets. Secondly, 2008). Five factors of production are identified: their structural nature permits consideration of three types of labor (unskilled, semi-skilled and new phenomena, such as climate change. Thirdly, skilled), agricultural land, and capital. The agri- they ensure that all economy-wide constraints are cultural activities and land are distributed across respected. This is a critical discipline that should the three regions of Mozambique (North, Center, be imposed on long-run projections, such as and South). This detail captures Mozambique’s those necessary for climate change. For instance, economic structure and influences model results. suppose climate change worsens the conditions A more complete description of the model can be that are necessary for growing food, forcing found in Annex VI. 80 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E Climate change is expected to influence the growth 3. Infrastructure maintenance and upkeep. and development of Mozambique through a Changes in temperature and precipitation series of mechanisms. Five principal mechanisms can influence maintenance requirements that are likely to alter growth and development for infrastructure, particularly roads. Rain- are considered. These mechanisms are: fall or temperature realizations outside of the band of design tolerances are likely to 1. Productivity changes in dry-land agri- require more frequent or more expensive culture. The influence of climate variables maintenance costs. In the CGE model, these on agricultural productivity will be obtained greater maintenance requirements result in from the crop models (CLI-CROP). Specifi- either less rapid expansion in the road net- cally, the CGE model determines how much work for a given level of spending on roads land, labor, capital, and intermediate inputs or an actual shrinkage in the network if the are allocated to a crop as well as an estimated resources necessary to maintain the network level of production under the assumption are unavailable. of normal climatic conditions. CLI-CROP determines deviations from this level as a con- 4. Extreme events. Rare but costly events may sequence of realized climate. The resource become more frequent under climate change. allocations determined in the CGE and the For example, most models predict that the deviations obtained from CLI-CROP jointly probability of cyclone strikes on the Mozam- determine the level of production. bican coast is likely to rise. In addition, the probability of severe flooding may rise due to 2. Water availability. There are three princi- greater intensity of rainfall. pal sources of demand for water: municipal needs, hydroelectric power, and irrigation. 5. Rising sea levels. Rising sea levels caused The river basin models described earlier will by climate change will significantly increase track water availability under alternative the risk of coastal impacts, particularly in climates. Available water will be allocated low-lying and subsiding areas. Long-term according to a hierarchy of use. First, the effects of rising sea levels include increased municipal demand will be satisfied. Second, shoreline erosion, saltwater intrusion, and flow will be used to generate hydroelectric loss of coastal crop lands. Immediate effects power from available dams. Third, flow will also include damages to capital assets situated be used to irrigate crops. The river basin along coastlines, effectively leading to higher models will pass their results to hydroelectric rates of capital depreciation as a result of power planning models, which estimate power coastal inundation and storm surges. output given available flow. In addition, these models can assess the implications of con- Other potential impacts are recognized but struction of more or fewer dams for electric- not explicitly considered. For example, climate ity output and for flow further downstream. change may alter the incidence of malaria within The CGE model will directly incorporate the Mozambique, with potential implications for the fluctuations in hydropower production due pattern of economic activity and rates of eco- to variation in river flow. River flow will only nomic growth. Health-related implications are affect agricultural production if the irrigated not considered at this stage. area available for planting is greater than the maximum potential area that could be irri- It is important to highlight that climate change gated given water availability constraints. is projected to take place over the course of the M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 81 next century. This effort will only consider the Mozambican economy over about 50 years (the implications of climate change up to 2050 even period 2003–50 is modeled) that can be used as though climate change is expected to be most a basis for comparison. While the impacts of severe toward the end of the century. Neverthe- climate change are many, the analytical objec- less, the relatively long time frame considered (40 tive is to isolate these impacts within the context years into the future) means that dynamic pro- of a market economy. cesses are important. Economic development is in many ways about the accumulation of factors The CGE model provides the simulation labo- of production such as physical capital, human ratory that allows us to estimate the economic capital, and technology. These factors, combined impacts of climate change. Once a baseline path with the necessary institutional frameworks to has been determined, we can, for example, run make them productive, determine the material the CGE model forward imposing the implica- wellbeing of a country. tions of future climate on dry-land agricultural productivity. Within the model, the decisions It is therefore important to note that the dynamic of consumers, producers, and investors change CGE model captures these processes. To the in response to changes in economic conditions extent that climate change reduces agricultural driven by a different set of climate outcomes. or hydropower output in a given year, it also For example, if climate change is responsible for reduces income and hence savings. This reduc- a precipitous decline in the productivity of crop tion in savings translates into reduced investment, A but no decline or maybe even an increase in which translates into future reduced production the productivity of crop B, then, holding every- potential. In the same vein, increased infrastruc- thing else constant, farmers could be expected ture maintenance costs imply less infrastructure to plant more of crop B and less of crop A. This investment, which further implies fewer infra- is labeled “endogenous adaptation.� In this sim- structures both now and in the future. Extreme plified example, external choices and factors— events, such as flooding, can wipe out economic such as underlying rates of productivity growth, infrastructure; that infrastructure is gone, both world prices, foreign aid inflows, tax rates, and in the period in which the event occurs and all government investment rules—remain constant future periods. Generally, even small differences (i.e., no exogenous adaptation). By compar- in rates of accumulation can lead to large differ- ing results from the baseline path with those ences in economic outcomes over long time peri- of the revised path, the CGE model provides ods. The CGE model employed is well-positioned an estimate of the economywide impact of cli- to capture these effects. mate change under the assumption that climate change only impacts dry-land agricultural pro- BaSeline ductivity and that all other factors influencing the growth path remain constant. In order to estimate costs imposed by global warming on Mozambique, it is necessary to This example is not particularly realistic in that specify a baseline path that reflects development climate change will not uniquely impact dry- trends, policies, and priorities in the absence land agriculture and one expects that some of climate change. The objective of specify- external policies, such as government policies, ing such a path is not to forecast the future in are likely to be altered in response to a changing a world without climate change. Rather, the climate. However, the example does illustrate baseline path provides a reasonable trajec- the utility of the CGE model as a simulation tory for growth and structural change of the laboratory and the role of the baseline path. 82 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E The CGE model permits us to impose specific Strategic Options aspects of climate change within a coherent economic framework. The baseline path pro- vides the frame of reference for evaluating the An initial temptation in confronting climate changes imposed. In this sense, the principal change is to direct resources to prevent damage goal in developing a baseline is to present a from climate change. However, this may not be credible counterfactual. Because comparisons an economically sensible strategy over the long are made with specific changes imposed and term. For example, the previous discussion on everything else held constant, the interesting risks to coastal infrastructure due to a combina- results—the differences in outcomes between tion of sea level rise and elevated cyclone inten- the experiment and the baseline—are likely to sity and frequency highlights both the expected be relatively consistent across a fairly broad fam- costs posed by climate change and the extremely ily of baseline paths. In sum, we do not, in most high costs associated with countering these cases, expect enormous sensitivity of results to impacts with hard investments such as dikes and the specification of the baseline path. seawalls. As discussed, a more sensible strategy is likely to take a soft approach whereby valuable Results will be somewhat more sensitive to the investments are zoned away from vulnerable trajectory of baseline variables that are also areas to the greatest extent possible. Rather than policy variables. In the next section, potential build dikes or sea walls, Mozambique should strategic options for adapting to climate change employ its scarce available resources to foster are presented. Augmenting irrigated area fig- development of a wealthier, more flexible, and ures among these options. If the baseline plan more resilient society. were to expand irrigation up to the limits of land or water availability, then a potential pol- For Mozambique, three basic strategic options icy option would be to consider a less aggressive will be considered, including a baseline path. In irrigation expansion policy. From this example, all strategic options, a fixed resource envelope it follows that one should take particular care in equivalent to the baseline will be considered. The the selection of the baseline path for potential difference between the baseline path and the cli- policy variables. mate change scenarios provides a rough resource envelope for adaptation options. The principal Policy documents, such as the Medium Term Fis- strategic options will include: cal Framework, the PARPA, and the PQG (the government’s five-year plan), as well as sectoral 1. Investment in irrigated agriculture with planning documents, can be helpful. However, complementary investments in other rural there are two key limitations in the extent to infrastructure. which these documents can inform the baseline. First, very few planning documents in Mozam- 2. Investment in dry-land agriculture with bique provide orientations for longer than a five- complementary investments in other rural year period, while the baseline path must stretch infrastructure. to 2050. Second, the main policy documents are very close to the end of their five-year terms. To 3. Investment in non-climate-sensitive sectors counter this, the study developed baseline paths with greater emphasis on urban infrastructure in collaboration with senior staff from the Min- and education (i.e., economic development as istry of Planning and Development in order to an adaptation strategy). generate a viable counterfactual. M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 83 Finally, some adaptation options can be consid- absorption is the broadest measure of welfare avail- ered in isolation from other sectors of the econ- able in an economy. It tracks the economy’s use of omy. For example, the partial equilibrium analysis goods for household consumption (C), investment of the hydro sector finds that the proposed dam (I), and government expenditure (G). Absorption construction program remains economically via- is often tightly related to GDP growth. Formally, ble (or very nearly so) under all climate scenarios. absorption (A) is equal to: A=C+I+G, recalling that Therefore the same base hydroelectric investment GDP=C+I+G+X-M where X is exports and M is plan remains in place across all strategic options. imports. One can therefore write that A = GDP This is also true for decisions on road infrastruc- + M - X. In words, absorption equals the volume ture. The strategy of sealing unpaved roads per- of goods produced by the economy plus the goods forms mildly better than the current strategy of that foreigners supply to the economy (imports) constructing unpaved roads even under base cli- less the goods sent out to foreigners (exports). In mate. With climate change, the relative benefits the Mozambican context, the focus on absorp- of the strategy increase even more. Therefore, tion is preferred because large foreign investments the revised infrastructure policy is applied to all have the potential to add significantly to GDP but strategic options. little to absorption. For example, mozal accounts for around 10 percent of GDP; however, because imPaCtS of Climate Change mozal is capital-intensive and profits are remitted, mozal adds relatively little to absorption. The same The impact of climate change is considered first. is potentially true for hydropower expansion if the Figure 39 illustrates the growth rate of real per majority of hydropower revenues are expatriated capita absorption over the simulation period. Real to cover dam construction costs. Figure 37 AvERAGE ANNUAL REAL PER CAPITA ABSORPTION GROWTH RATE, 2003–50 GROWTH IN PER CAPITA ABSORPTION (%) 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 BASELINE GLOBAL DRY GLOBAL WET MOZ DRY MOZ WET (CSIRO) (NCAR) (UKMO) (IPSL) Source: Results from the Mozambique DCGE model 84 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E Figure 38 AvERAGE ANNUAL vALUE OF ABSORPTION, 2046–50 AVERAGE ANNUAL TOTAL REAL ABSORPTION BETWEEN 2046-50 (US$BIL.) 17 16 15 14 13 12 BASELINE GLOBAL DRY GLOBAL WET MOZ DRY MOZ WET (CSIRO) (NCAR) (UKMO) (IPSL) Source: Results from the Mozambique DCGE model Consistent with the projections employed in the of 2.02 percent. It may seem counterintuitive that global track analysis of the economics of climate the driest global scenario produces worse results change, the growth rate of per capita absorption than the driest local scenario. However, as will be for Mozambique is about 2.1 percent per annum seen below, the global dry scenario is in fact a very over the period 2003–50. This is much slower than wet scenario for the countries within the Zambezi actual growth rates recorded by Mozambique water basin. As such, there are large damages from since 1992. However, for the purposes of remain- flooding, which dominate overall economic losses ing consistent with the Global Track assessment from climate change in Mozambique. Similarly it of climate change, the lower growth rate has been might also seem counterintuitive that the global dry adopted. Nevertheless, as emphasized above, qual- scenario, for being so wet, is in fact not the wettest itative results are likely to remain fairly constant local scenario. However, this highlights the impor- across a range of baseline paths. Hence, the results tance of taking a regional perspective when assess- are of interest even though the baseline growth ing climate change impacts. In this case it is the rate is not consistent with recent experience. climate patterns in the countries upstream of the Zambezi that determines major floods in Mozam- All climate change scenarios register declines in bique, rather than the climate patterns within absorption growth rates relative to the base (no Mozambique itself. The most severe flooding dam- climate change scenario). The worst performing ages do not occur in the local wet scenario. “global dry� scenario registers an annual growth rate of 1.73 percent compared with 2.11 percent in As mentioned above, climate change reduces the base. The best performing “Mozambique dry� average annual absorption growth rates by at scenario yields an annual absorption growth rate most 0.38 percentage points. However, even M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 85 Figure 39 REAL ABSORPTION, 2003–50 REAL ABSORPTION ON (US $ BIL.) 19 17 15 13 11 9 7 5 3 2003 05 07 09 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 BASELINE MOZ DRY (UKMO) GLOBAL DRY (CSIRO) MOZ WET (IPSL) GLOBAL WET (NCAR) Source: Results from the Mozambique DCGE model small reductions in rates of growth over a nearly Over relatively shorter periods of time, small dif- 50-year period eventually accumulate to result in ferences in growth rates are less material. The dif- fairly significant differences in levels of absorp- ferentials in growth rates associated with climate tion (or GDP) in 2050. Figure 40 shows the aver- change will become much more apparent after age level of absorption in the period 2046–50 in 40 years than after 20. Second, climate change the base and the four climate change scenarios. impacts tend to become larger with time. In the worst performing scenarios (CSIRO), the level of total absorption is only 84 percent of the This tendency for climate change impacts to become level obtained in the base. In the best performing larger with time is illustrated in Figure 42. The fig- scenario (UKMO), absorption attains more than ure shows the average deviation in the growth rate 96 percent of the level achieved in the base. between the base and the four climate change sce- narios for various periods. For example, the global Figure 41 provides a view of the performance dry scenario reduces the growth rate of per capita of the economy through time. It shows that out- absorption by somewhat more than 0.38 percent comes remain very consistent between the base over the period 2003–50. However, the impact of and the climate change scenarios through at least climate change (as modeled by CSIRO) becomes the next decade and likely through two decades. more pronounced with time. By the 2041–50 There are two reasons for this. The first is the period, the differential in growth rates between the inverse of the rule that even small differences two scenarios attains approximately 0.46 percent. in growth rates accumulate to large differences The other climate scenarios illustrate the same gen- in absolute outcomes over long periods of time. eral trend, though not as monotonically as CSIRO. 86 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E Figure 40 DEvIATION IN AvERAGE ANNUAL REAL PER CAPITA ABSORPTION GROWTH FROM BASELINE, 2003–50 DEVIATION IN PER CAPITA ABSORPTION ON GROWTH RATE FROM BASELINE (%-POINT) GLOBAL DRY (CSIRO) GLOBAL WET (NCAR) MOZ DRY (UKMO) MOZ WET (IPSL) -0.0 -0.1 -0.2 -0.3 -0.4 -0.5 2003-50 2010s 2020s 2030s 2040s Source: Results from the Mozambique DCGE model Nearly all climate models predict a pronounced yields and sea level rise (the latter is very small), aggravation of climate change impacts after about the transportation system, and hydropower. The 2050. While the time horizon for this analysis ends graph clearly illustrates the dominant role played in 2050, there is little doubt that, if the time frame by transport system disruption, principally, but not were extended, the tendency for later periods to exclusively, as a result of flooding. As mentioned exhibit progressively stronger impacts would cer- earlier, the global dry scenario is in fact a very wet tainly remain in place and highly likely strengthen. scenario for the Zambezi water basin as a whole, This highlights the importance of the development and thus causes significant damage to transport agenda in the first half of the 21st century. Failure infrastructure. By contrast, the local dry scenario to register significant development progress in the is a very dry scenario for Mozambique and causes next 40 years may imply serious difficulties in the greater damages for agriculture, as estimated by latter half of the 21st century. the crop models described in earlier sections. As indicated above, a principal advantage of CGE The impacts of flooding on transportation modeling is the ability to decompose impacts across infrastructure are strong. A drought in year “t� shocks in order to determine the relative impor- may reduce agricultural output dramatically in tance of different shocks.12 Figure 43 decomposes a crop season with strong implications for the the climate change shocks into three groups: crop welfare of households. However, in year t+1, experience indicates that agricultural produc- tion typically returns to normal levels if the 12 Formally, CGE models are path dependent, implying that the results of the decomposition can depend upon the exact way in rains return. An increase in the variance of which the decomposition procedure is designed. In many cases, agricultural production will have little impact including this one, qualitative results are the same regardless of the decomposition procedure employed. on long-run growth as long as underlying rates M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 87 Figure 41 DECOMPOSITION OF TOTAL CLIMATE CHANGE GROWTH RATE LOSSES, 2003–50 CHANGE IN PER CAPITA ABSORPTION GROWTH RATE FROM BASELINE (%-POINT) Global Dry (CSIRO) Global Wet (NCAR) Moz Dry (UKMO) Moz Wet (IPSL) 0.0 -0.1 -0.2 -0.3 -0.4 Falling crop yields and rising sea level Deteriorating transport system Declining hydropower generation Source: Results from the Mozambique DCGE model of factor accumulation and technical improve- endures. Once a road is washed away, the negative ment remain relatively constant. shock endures until the road is rebuilt. However, with constant resources allocated to roads, recon- The same applies for hydroelectric power. struction of a section of road washed away due to Reduced river flow leads to reduced energy out- heavy rainfall or flooding implies fewer resources put. However, when the river flow returns, so available for construction of new roads or regular does energy production. Hydroelectric power rehabilitation of existing roads. The large distances also has limited impact on absorption because of and dispersed nature of production in Mozam- the important role of foreign financing in dam bique reinforce the importance of the road net- construction. The model remits 80 percent of work. Earlier analyses have highlighted the large hydroelectric power net revenues abroad in order differences between farm/factory gate prices and to cover dam construction costs. This assump- prices paid by final users (Tarp et al. 2002), as well tion provides a reasonable risk-adjusted return as the substantial gains to the economy that can be to investors. At the same time, it implies that obtained from reduction in these margins (Arndt hydroelectric power investments have a relatively et al. 2000). Damage to road infrastructure works muted impact on total absorption, at least over in an inverse sense, increasing the implicit distance the repayment period. between producer and final user. Flood-induced destruction of infrastructure is Given the magnified implications of persistent different from the other shocks in that the shock impacts, some consideration of the underlying 88 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E Figure 42 POSSIBLE ADDITIONAL DECLINES IN AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY ACCUMULATION, 2003–50 DEVIATION IN PER CAPITA ABSORPTION GROWTH RATE FROM BASELINE (%-POINT) Global Dry (CSIRO) Global Wet (NCAR) Moz Dry (UKMO) Moz Wet (IPSL) 0.0 -0.1 -0.2 -0.3 -0.4 -0.5 Direct CC impacts (yields, sea level, transport and hydropower) Additional declines agricultural technology accumulation Source: Results from the Mozambique DCGE model rate of technical change is worthwhile. Figure 44 not dominant. The result highlights the need to shows the implications if the underlying rate of maintain or even accelerate (see the adaptation Hicks-neutral technical advance in agriculture is options) underlying technical progression in agri- reduced from 0.8 percent per annum to 0.3 per- culture in the context of climate change. cent per annum.13 Because climate change on the order of what will happen over the next 40 years The sectoral and regional impact of climate has never occurred on a broad scale before, it is change is illustrated in Figure 45. Note that in all impossible to know what will happen to under- scenarios, including the base, agriculture grows lying rates of technical change in agriculture. much more slowly than industry or services. Given Because of the speculative nature of this effect, the higher concentration of industry and services it is not included in the base climate runs. How- in the central regions and especially the south, this ever, it is not unreasonable to be concerned that translates into relatively less rapid growth rates in resources allocated to adapting plants to an evolv- the north and relatively more rapid growth rates ing climate will imply fewer resources allocated to in the south. All sectors and regions are negatively generalized technical advance and hence a much affected by climate change. The largest declines in lower rate of technical advance in agriculture. growth rates relative to the baseline are in agricul- The implication of a slowdown in the underly- ture and in the northern region of Mozambique, ing rate of technical advance is strong though where agriculture dominates the local economy. As the large metropolitan center of Maputo is 13 The model also contains factor-embodied rates of technical in the south, it means that a larger share of this advance in human capital, which remain in place for all sectors. region’s economy is relatively insulated from the M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 89 Figure 43 DEvIATION IN SECTOR AND REGIONAL GDP GROWTH FROM BASELINE, 2003–50 PER CAPITA GDP GROWTH RATES (%) 3.5 3.0 2.5 BASELINE GLOBAL DRY (CSIRO) 2.0 GLOBAL WET (NCAR) MOZ DRY (UKMO) 1.5 MOZ WET (IPSL) 1.0 TOTAL GDP AGRICULTURE INDUSTRY SERVICES PER CAPITA GDP GROWTH RATES (%) 3.5 3.0 BASELINE 2.5 GLOBAL DRY (CSIRO) GLOBAL WET (NCAR) 2.0 MOZ DRY (UKMO) MOZ WET (IPSL) 1.5 1.0 TOTAL GDP NORTH CENTER SOUTH Source: Results from the Mozambique DCGE model 90 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E Figure 44 CUMULATIvE DISCOUNTED LOSSES IN REAL ABSORPTION, 2003–50 DISCOUNTED DEVIATION FROM BASELINE (US $BIL.) 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 20... 05 07 09 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 GLOBAL DRY (CSIRO) MOZ DRY (UKMO) GLOBAL WET (NCAR) MOZ WET (IPSL) Source: Results from the Mozambique DCGE model direct effects of climate change. For example, the Figure 47 summarizes the main results on the government sector is disproportionately located impact of climate change in Mozambique. First, within the capital city and is not directly affected all future climate scenarios reduce national welfare. by climate. As such, the south experiences smaller The largest losses occur under the global dry sce- declines in GDP than elsewhere in the country. nario and, after discounting, amount to $7.5 billion (in 2003 $) over the period 2003–50. Secondly, eco- Finally, Figure 46 considers the costs of climate nomic losses caused by climate change grow over change. These are presented as cumulative dis- time, as shown by the cumulative decadal costs in counted losses as a result of climate change. A 5 the figure. Finally, while agriculture is adversely percent annual discount rate is used. In the fig- affected by climate change, it is major flooding and ure, the horizontal axis represents the period over the damage it causes to transport infrastructure which the discounted losses in real absorption that dominates overall welfare losses. (relative to the base) are calculated. For example, for the global dry (CSIRO) scenario, discounted losses over the full period, 2003–50, amount to Adaptation Options $7.5 billion in real 2003 US$. This is roughly equivalent to current GDP for the country. In As explained above, the CGE model employed the mildest scenario, Mozambique dry (UKMO), contains endogenous adaptation. Resources are discounted total losses still amount to $2.4 billion reallocated to areas of greater returns. If climate real 2003 US$ over the full period. change has particularly strong impacts on one sector, the model will respond in accordance with M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 91 Figure 45 CUMULATIvE DISCOUNTED LOSSES IN REAL ABSORPTION BY DECADE, 2003–50 DISCOUNTED US $ BILLION (CONSTANT 2003 PRICES) 8 7 2.5 6 5 2040s 4 1.8 2030s 2.1 1.4 3 2020s 1.5 1.2 2010s 2 1.6 0.7 0.6 1.0 2000s 1.1 1 0.5 1.1 0.7 0.6 0.4 0 GLOBAL DRY (CSIRO) GLOBAL WET (NCAR) MOZ DRY (UKMO) MOZ WET (IPSL) price signals. However, the model simulations presentation is somewhat complex and requires a described above do not contain any adaptation in few words of explanation. The first column, base- terms of basic policy frameworks. For example, line, reproduces the results from the “no climate we have seen that damage to road infrastructure change� simulation, and is therefore the same accounts for the largest share of economic dam- for all climate scenarios. In the second column, ages of climate change. Despite this, there have climate change impacts by climate scenario are not yet been any attempts in the model to modify reproduced, and the results correspond to Figure transport policy or basic infrastructure arrange- 39. The remaining columns show the results from ments in order to reduce these costs. Various various simulated adaptation investments. Col- options exist, however. Railways, for instance, umn (3) shows results for transport policy change. tend to be less sensitive to precipitation and can This column contains all of the shocks applied often withstand a more severe flood than roads— to the result from column (2) plus the change though a sufficiently severe flood will destroy a in transport policy. The remaining columns (4), rail line at large cost. Coastal shipping is also less (5), and (6) contain the transport policy as well exposed to flooding, though it is subject to other as either (a) increased agricultural research and phenomena such as cyclones. extension (R&E) to increase the rate of technical progress in agriculture; (b) expanded irrigation This section explores a range of adaptation invest- investment; or (c) enhanced investment in human ments to offset the national welfare losses caused capital accumulation. It is important to note that by the most severe climate change scenario: global the final three adaptation policies are undertaken dry (CSIRO).Table 22 presents the adaptation separately. Hence, results column (6) contains options considered and the implications of those enhanced investment in education and should be options for the growth rate of absorption. The compared to the results in column (3). 92 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E Table 22 AvERAGE REAL PER CAPITA ABSORPTION GROWTH RATES (%) Baseline Impact Adaptation scenarios No climate With climate Transport Agriculture Irrigation change change infra-structure R&E expansion Education (1) (2) (3) = (2+) (4) = (3+) (5) = (3+) (6) = (3+) Global dry 2.11 1.73 1.81 2.11 1.84 2.11 Global wet 2.11 1.85 1.92 2.22 1.95 2.23 Moz dry 2.11 2.02 2.04 2.32 2.07 2.35 Moz wet 2.11 1.91 1.97 2.27 2.00 2.28 We consider the transportation sector first. Results roads that are sealed, the dose response coefficients from the simulation model for the transport sector (flooding, precipitation, and temperature) applied described above indicate that flooding incurs sub- to paved roads are also applied to the sealed (for- stantial damages, especially for unpaved roads. In merly unpaved) roads. It is worthwhile to note that Mozambique, approximately 10 percent of the this policy provides a mild increase in road cover- road infrastructure public budget is set aside for age in 2050 even under base climate. In addition, the reconstruction of washed-out roads. Under properly maintained, sealed roads provide a higher climate change, this allocation would have to level of service than unpaved roads. Hence, the increase. However, as indicated earlier, allocating policy yields a somewhat larger network that offers more to reconstruct roads washed out by flooding better service even under base climate. Advocates implies, under constant budgets, allocating less for this policy exist within the transport sector with- to new road construction and regular road reha- out consideration of climate change. bilitation/maintenance. This has implications for the growth of the road stock. Under the CSIRO Climate change substantially reinforces the case scenario, total kilometers of road are 22 percent put forward by these advocates. Table 23 illustrates lower in 2050 than in the baseline in the same the percentage change in the size of the road net- year. The implications of more intense rainfall work (measured in kilometers) in 2050 relative to and associated flooding are particularly strong the base. The adaptation policy described above for unpaved roads (though large floods do impact increases the stock of roads under all climate paved roads). change scenarios (and under the base as empha- sized above). The table illustrates the principal rea- The adaptation option explored is to seal the son why the global dry (CSIRO) scenario provides unpaved roads such that they operate like paved the worst economic outcome and the Mozam- roads in terms of precipitation. Discussions in bique dry (UKMO) scenario the most relatively Mozambique indicated that these kinds of sealed favorable. It is important to emphasize that these roads cost about $100,000 per kilometer to con- changes in road stocks are attained with no change struct new. According to the available data, the cost in real resource allocations to the road sector. of new unpaved tertiary roads is about $70,000, unpaved secondary roads about $100,000, and In the CGE model, these differentials in road unpaved primary roads cost about $150,000. We stocks are translated to the economy via the pro- assumed that sealed roads could be constructed ductivity of the transport sector. In particular, we new for a 10 percent increment in cost or converted assume that decreases in the stock of roads result to sealed at the regular 20-year rehabilitation for a in proportional reductions to the rate of total fac- 10 percent increment in rehabilitation costs. For tor productivity (TFP) growth in the transport M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 93 Table 23 PERCENTAGE CHANGE IN scenario (the largest climate change impact). For THE STOCk OF ROADS (MEASURED IN agricultural technology, an improvement of 1.2 kILOMETERS) RELATIvE TO BASE percentage points in the rate of agricultural tech- Scenario No Adaptation Adaptation nical advance returns growth of absorption to the Baseline 0 percent 1 percent base rate in the global dry scenario and pushes the Global dry -22 percent -19 percent growth of absorption above the base rate in all Global wet -16 percent -14 percent of the other scenarios. Given the relatively high Moz dry -2 percent -2 percent potential and relatively low achievement to date Moz wet -12 percent -9 percent of Mozambican agriculture, this rate of technical advance appears to be achievable within a rea- sonable budget envelope (likely considerably less than the maximum of $400 million). Moreover, sector. In addition, we assume that sealed roads increasing crop yields is entirely consistent with are more efficient, providing a further impetus to the government’s existing development goals. transport productivity. The results reinforce both the strength of the effect of the transport sec- For human capital, the rate of growth of highly tor in contributing to losses from climate change skilled labor increases by 1.3 percentage points, and the potential power of alternative policies to from 2 percent per annum to 3.3 percent per offset these losses. For example, in the global dry annum. For medium skilled labor, the growth (CSIRO) scenario, about a quarter of the decline increment is 1.1 percent, bringing the acceler- in the rate of absorption is offset by the shift in ated growth rate to 2.6 percent per annum. The transport sector policy, which required no addi- growth rate in low skilled labor declines by 0.6 tional resources. percent in order to keep the total number of work- ers in the economy constant over the simulation The remaining adaptation policies described in period.14 These increments are consistent with an columns (4), (5), and (6) differ from the trans- estimated transition matrix for the Mozambican port sector policy in that they require additional education system. In addition, these increments resources. The maximum resource envelope is appear to be plausible within a budget parameter derived from the cumulative discounted adapta- considerably less than the maximum figure of tion costs presented in the global dry scenario. $400 million. The present value of $7.5 billion in damages is converted to an annual resource transfer (with For irrigation, an increment in irrigated area of a discount rate of 5 percent). This provides a slightly more than 1 million ha by 2050 relative to maximum resource envelope of a bit more than the base was assumed. This is equivalent to eventu- $400 million per year. We then consider whether ally irrigating about one sixth of cultivated land in improved agricultural technology (4), irrigation Mozambique by 2050. However, expanding irriga- (5), or human capital investment (6) is capable, on tion is found to have only a small impact on real its own, of making up the difference in absorp- absorption. This is because, as additional lands tion between the climate change scenarios with come under irrigation, the returns to agricultural transport sector adaptation (3) and the base no land and capital decline significantly (i.e., there are climate change scenario (1). diminishing returns to investing in agriculture). We find that increases in agricultural productiv- 14 The actual rate of human capital accumulation, particularly ity and human capital accumulation can plausi- for highly skilled labor, is faster than the values modeled. These reduced values are necessary to attain the relatively slow growth in bly make up the gap for the global dry (CSIRO) per capita absorption required to match the global track analysis. 94 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E Figure 46 REDUCTION IN NATIONAL ABSORPTION LOSSES UNDER THE ADAPTATION SCENARIOS, 2003–50 DISCOUNTED US $ BILLION (CONST. 2003) 8 7 6 5 6.1 6.1 4 3 2 0.6 1 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 0 TRANSPORT EXPANDING AGRICULTURE PRIMARY INFRASTRUCTURE (3) IRRIGATION (4) R&D (5) EDUCATION (6) Without access to foreign markets, the decline in They derive an expected impact of growth of 0.1 agricultural prices caused by rapidly expanding assuming that aid has no impact on productivity irrigation and agricultural production limits the growth. In other words, if aid volumes increase gains from these investments. Overall, irrigation by 1 percent of GDP, the growth rate of GDP investments reduce the damages caused by cli- increases by 0.1 percent. Arndt, Jones, and Tarp mate change by $600 million over 2003–50 (con- (2009) estimated the relationship and found an stant 2003 prices discounted at 5 percent). This is average rate of return to aid of 0.16. In other shown in Figure 48. While this is sufficient to off- words, aid contributes to both investment (even set the total damages from climate change under though some aid is invariably consumed) and the Mozambique dry scenario (Figure 47), it is far productivity growth. Using these parameters, the smaller than the additional $4.6 billion required incremental volume of foreign assistance required to offset the total damages in the global dry sce- to replace the expected growth deficit under the nario after the changes in transport sector policy CSIRO scenario is about $140 million (real 2003 have been introduced. As shown in Figure 48, this US$) per year over 47 years, or a net present value additional $4.6 billion can be made up through of $2.55 billion. enhanced agricultural research and extension or through more rapid human capital accumulation. equity iSSueS An alternative method for considering the cost of The incidence of impacts from climate change adaptation involves using an average estimated between households categorized as poor and non- rate of return to foreign assistance. Rajan and poor in the base year are approximately similar. Subramanian (2007) developed a theoretical The same holds true for adaptation measures— growth model that considers the impact of aid poor and non-poor households both benefit from as a share of GDP on the growth rate of GDP. the adaptation measures, and the incidence of M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 95 Figure 47 HOUSEHOLD CONSUMPTION: COEFFICIENT OF vARIATION OF YEAR-TO-YEAR GROWTH RATES COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION (SD/MEAN) 0.8 0.70 0.71 0.7 0.63 0.63 0.6 0.56 0.56 0.51 0.51 0.49 0.51 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 POOR NON-POOR POOR NON-POOR POOR NON-POOR POOR NON-POOR POOR NON-POOR BASELINE GLOBAL DRY GLOBAL WET MOZ DRY MOZ WET Note: Coefficient of Variation (CV) is the standard deviation (SD) divided by the mean of the year-to-year growth rates. these benefits is not substantially different. Poor consumption to which households must adjust. A and non-poor do appear to differ in terms of value of 0.56 in the baseline indicates that poor their vulnerability to shocks. Figure 49 shows the households must manage annual swings in the impact of the extreme wet and dry scenarios, change in consumption of 56 percent. In all sce- with and without road network adaptation invest- narios, the CVs for poor households are slightly ments, on the coefficient of variation (CV) of higher than those for non-poor households—poor the year-to-year growth rates of total household households must deal with more income variabil- consumption. The mean of the baseline year-to- ity than the non-poor. The impact of the climate year growth rates for poor and non-poor house- change scenarios on the CVs is significant—rising holds is 2.9 percent and 3.4 percent, respectively. to about 0.70 in the two global scenarios. How- The CVs range from a low of 0.49 to a high of ever, it either remains constant or falls in the two 0.71. They represent the year-to-year changes in Mozambique scenarios. 96 EL Ev EN E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 97 Discussion The following lessons emerge from the EACC the next 40 years will complicate the already con- Mozambique Country Case study: siderable challenges faced by Mozambique. This study shows that it will be particularly true for 1. Adaptation entails increasing the climate agriculture, transport, and coastal cities. resilience of current development plans, with particular attention to transport 2. Viewed broadly, flexible and more resil- systems and agriculture and coastal ient societies will be better prepared to development. confront the challenges posed by climate change. Hence, investments in human Climate change is likely to complicate the devel- capital contribute both to the adaptation opment challenge in Mozambique. However, agenda and to the development agenda. based on the best available understanding of the climate system and the downstream implica- Rather than climate change eclipsing develop- tions of climate realizations for biophysical and ment, we need to think of development over- economic systems, these complications are not coming climate change. The best adaptation to likely to be so severe that they greatly dim devel- climate change is rapid development that leads opment prospects through 2050. It is possible, to a more flexible and resilient society. As such, but not likely, that climate in the first half of the the adaptation agenda, in significant measure, 21st century will be more amenable to develop- reinforces the existing development agenda. In ment than the climate of the second half of the particular, the vast uncertainties associated with 20th century. The chances of a more favorable climate change underscore the importance of outcome increase substantially if carbon fertiliza- two already prominent items on the develop- tion stimulates crop growth in the real world as ment agenda. The first of these is human capital it does in controlled experiments. It is also pos- accumulation. The powerful effects of improved sible, but not likely, that climate over the next 40 human capital accumulation were shown in the years will prove highly unfavorable to develop- CGE simulations of this report. ment prospects, with devastating implications for the welfare of the Mozambican population—a The second issue is flexible and competent public sobering prospect. Nevertheless, the best current and private institutions. As discussed earlier in the understanding indicates that climate change over report, future climate worldwide is highly likely to 98 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E be, on average, warmer, wetter (in terms of total than non-cooperative behavior or outright rivalry. precipitation) and more severe than it is today. Access to water is widely acknowledged as a Whatever changes do occur will have differential potential flashpoint for regional conflict; climate implications across the economy; particular sec- change raises the already considerable stakes. tors or regions may be negatively affected, while Unfortunately, effective international river basin other sectors or regions may be stimulated. A management has to date proven difficult to more educated populace, supported by flexible achieve. The onset of a shift in climate patterns and competent public and private institutions, may accentuate these difficulties, highlighting the will be better able to react to these differential need for the establishment of robust cooperative implications as they present themselves. Better frameworks as soon as possible. functioning institutions would manifest them- selves quantitatively (in a growth accounting 4. The imperative of increasing agricul- sense) through enhanced productivity growth. tural productivity and the substantial uncertainties of climate change argue Climate change also further highlights the imme- strongly for enhanced investments in diacy of the development task. At some point agricultural research. in the middle of the 21st century, vastly more wrenching shifts in climate will begin to take place Agriculture must adapt to the challenges posed by than are likely to be observed in the next 30–40 climate change while maintaining average annual years. This is especially true if the global commu- rates of productivity advance. The latter clause is nity fails to develop a fair and effective mitigation critical. If, by redirecting resources to coping with policy. If Mozambique reaches the middle of the a new environment, climate change indirectly 21st century with large shares of its population results in a reduced underlying rate of technical engaged in subsistence agriculture, with substan- improvement in agriculture, there will likely be tial illiteracy, and with inefficient institutions, it large negative impacts. may face grim prospects indeed. 5. Changes in design standards, such as At the same time, while the bulk of good adaptation sealing unpaved roads, can substantially policy involves advancing the existing development reduce the impacts of climate change agenda, there are some specific policies, beyond even without additional resources. the continued focus on human capital accumula- tion mentioned above, that emerge as important The prospect of more intense precipitation has responses to climate change. These are: implications for unpaved roads, the bulk of which are located in rural areas. Increased intensity 3. Cooperation in regional river basin man- of rainfall is highly likely to wash out a greater agement will be needed. share of rural roads with negative implications for rural development. Single-lane sealed rural roads For downstream countries, the implications of cost more to construct but are likely to provide policy choices by upstream countries are poten- a much more reliable all-weather network than tially profound. As such, in terms of river flow, the unpaved roads. In addition, properly constructed, reactions of upstream countries to the prospect sealed rural roads should cost less over time due of climate change could easily be more important to reduced maintenance requirements. to downstream countries than the implications of climate change. It is well-known that cooperative 6. “Soft� adaptation measures are poten- river basin management is vastly more efficient tially powerful. Because the majority of M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 99 the capital stock in 2050 remains to be Hard adaptation options, particularly expen- installed, land use planning that chan- sive ones, must be subjected to serious scrutiny nels investment into lower risk locations before being undertaken. A reasonable rejoinder can substantially reduce risk at low cost. to the preceding point on land use is that some capital must be allocated in vulnerable areas. For Over the next 40 years, the value of the capital that example, ports and beachfront hotels manifestly will be installed is likely to be much greater than must sit near the ocean, making them more vul- the value of capital currently installed. In addition, nerable to cyclones and sea level rise. Even so, the value of the current capital stock will have sig- hard options to protect these vulnerable assets, nificantly depreciated. Land use planning is thus a such as dikes and sea walls, should be subjected potentially extremely powerful tool for dealing with to careful consideration. Construction of a dike rising probabilities of extreme events over the 21st is followed, almost by definition, by accumula- century, especially flooding and sea inundation due tion of physical capital in the shadow of the dike to cyclones combined with sea level rise. The rule because it is considered “safe.� However, as the of thumb is simple: to the extent possible, install city of New Orleans dramatically illustrated in valuable new capital in safer locations. 2005, a sufficiently extreme event will breach a dike. The combination of increasing probabili- 7. It is unlikely to be cost effective to pro- ties of extreme events, high costs of construc- tect the vast majority of coastal regions tion of hard protectors, and the accumulation of of Mozambique from sea level rise; how- capital behind the protectors can mean that the ever, high value and vulnerable locations, expected value of loss, including an accounting such as cities and ports, merit specific for human suffering, declines little, remains con- consideration, especially those at risk for stant, or even increases following construction of severe storm surge events. the hard protector. 100 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E References Administração Nacional de Estradas (ANE). 2006. Road Sec- Boko, M., et al. 2007. “Africa.� In M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. tor Strategy, 2007–2011. Final Report. Ministry of Public Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden, and C.E. Hanson, eds. Climate Works and Housing, Republic of Mozambique, Maputo, Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contributions Mozambique. of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambidge, Africa Recovery. 2000. “Mozambique: Country in Focus.� Unied UK: Cambridge University Press. Nations, New York. Africa Recovery 14 (3). Brown, S., A.S. Kebede, and R.J. Nicholls. 2009. “Sea-Level Rise Allen, R. G., L. S. Pereira, D. Raes, and M. Smith. 1998. “FAO and Impacts in Africa, 2000 to 2100.� Unpublished report to Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 56.� Rome: Food and Stockholm Environment Institute, Oxford, pp. 215. Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Buerkle, Teresa. “FAO Newsroom.� September 14, 2006. Arndt, C., H.T. Jensen, S. Robinson, and F. Tarp. 2000. “Agri- Accessible at: http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/ cultural Technology and Marketing Margins in Mozam- news/2006/1000394/index.html (accessed November 12, bique.� Journal of Development Studies 37:12–137. 2008). Arndt, C., E.S. Jones, and F. Tarp. 2009. “Aid and Growth: Have Bureau of Reclamation. 1993. Drainage Manual: A Water Resources We Come Full Circle?� World Institute for Development Technical Publication. Denver, CO: Bureau of Reclamation. Economics Research (WIDER) Discussion Paper 2009/05. Helsinki: UNU-WIDER. Center for Rural Affairs. 2007. Climate Change and Agriculture: Report of a Center for Rural Affairs Task Force . Lyons, NE: Cen- Batjes, N.H., 2002. “A Homogenized Soil Profile Data Set for ter for Rural Affairs. Global and Regional Environmental Research.� Wageningen: International Soil Reference and Information Centre, 38. Cerlanek , W. D., C.M. Zeigler, and S.E.Torres. 2006. “Main- tenance of Paved and Unpaved Roads in Alachua County.� Blacklidge Emulsions, Inc., 2009. “SHRP Performance Graded Alachua, FL: Department of Public Works. Asphalt Binders.� Accessible at: http://www.blacklidgeemul- sions.com/shrp.htm (viewed May 31, 2009). Chemane, D., Motta, H. and Achimo, M., 1997. Vulnerability of coastal resources to climate changes in Mozambique: a Bijlsma, L., C. Ehler, R. Klein, S. Kulshrestha, R. McLean, N. call for integrated coastal zone management. Ocean & Coastal Mimura, R. Nicholls, L. Nurse, H. Pérez Nieto, E. Stakhiv, Management, 37(1):63-83. R. Turner, R.K. and R. Warrick. 1996. Coastal zones and small islands. In: R.T. Watson, M.C. Zinyowera and R.H. Church, J.A., White, N.J., Coleman, R., Lambeck, K. and Moss (eds), Climate Change 1995-Impacts, Adaptations and Mitiga- Mitrovica, J.X., 2004. Estimates of the regional distribu- tion of Climate Change: Scientific-Technical Analyses, Contribution of tion of sea-sea rise over the 1950 to 2000 period, J.Clim., Working Group II to the Second Assessment Report of the Intergovern- 17:2609-2625. mental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cline, William. “Science: How Climate Change Impacts Agri- Cambridge, pp. 289–324. culture.� Interview, The Washington Post, November 17, 2007. Block, P., and K. Strzepek, 2010: Economic Analysis of Large- Compass International Consultants, Inc. 2009. Global Construction scale Upstream River Basin Development on the Blue Nile Costs Yearbook. Morrisville, PA: Compass International. in Ethiopia Considering Transient Conditions, Climate Variability, and Climate Change, Journal of Water Resources COWI. 2009. “Making Transport Climate Resilient.� Mozam- Planning and Management 136(2): 156-166. bique Country Report. Lyngby: COWI. M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 101 Dasgupta, S., B. Laplante, S. Murry, and D. Wheeler. 2009. Easterling, William, et al. 2007. “Food, fibre and forest prod- Sea-Level Rise and Storm Surges: A Comparative Analysis of Impacts ucts.� In M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der in Developing Countries. World Bank Policy Research Working Linden, and C.E. Hanson, eds. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Paper 4901. Washington, DC: World Bank. Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Dastane, N. G. 1978. Effective Rainfall in Irrigated Agriculture. Rome: Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. University Press. Dimaranan, B.V., 2006. Global Trade, Assistance, and Produc- Ericson, J.P., Vörösmarty, C.J., Dingman, S.L., Ward, L.G. tion: The GTAP 6 Data Base, Center for Global Trade and Meybeck, M., 2006. Effective sea-level rise and deltas: Analysis, Purdue University, Indiana. Causes of change and human dimension implications. Global DINAS-COAST Consortium, 2006. DIVA 1.5.5. Postdam and Planetary Change, 50: 63-82. Institute for Climate Impact Research, Postdam, Germany, ESSA Technologies Ltd and International Institute for Sustain- CD-ROM. Available at http://www.pik-postdam.de/diva. able Development (IISD). 2009. Capacity Development Manual: DSSAT Development Team. 2004. DSSAT Version 4.0. Honolulu, How to Prepare and Deliver a Participatory Scenario Development HI: ICASA. Workshop. Report prepared for World Bank under Participa- tory Scenario Development for Costing Climate Change du Toit, A. S., M.A. Prinsloo, B.M. Wafula, and P.K. Thornton. Adaptation – Climate Visioning. Washington, DC: World 2002. “Incorporating a Water-logging Routine into CERES- Bank. Maize, and Some Preliminary Evaluations. WaterSA Vol. 28(3), 323-328. Emanuel, K., R. Sundararajan, and J. Williams. 2008. “Hur- ricanes and global warming: Results from downscaling IPCC AR4 simulations.� Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc 89: 347–367. 102 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E Fant, Charles. 2008. Modeling the Effects of Climate Change on INGC (National Institute for Disaster Management). 2009a. Agriculture. MS Thesis. Department of Civil, Environmental, and Main Report: INGC Climate Change Report: Study on the impact Architectural Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO. of climate change on disaster risk in Mozambique. (K. Asante, G. Brundrit, P. Epstein, A. Fernandes, M.R. Marques, A. FDOT. 2009. “Generic Cost Per Mile Models.� Florida Depart- Mavume, M. Metzger, A. Patt, A. Queface, R. Sanchez del ment of Transportation. Accessible at: (viewed bique: INGC. May 31, 2009). INGC (National Institute for Disaster Management). 2009b. FEMA. 1998. Promoting the Adoption and Enforcement of Seismic Build- Synthesis Report. INGC Climate Change Report: Study on the impact ing Codes. Federal Emergency Management Agency, FEMA of climate change on disaster risk in Mozambique. (B. van Logchem 313. Washington, DC: FEMA. and R. Brito, eds.) Maputo, Mozambique: INGC. Fischer, Gunther, Mahendra Shah, and Harrij van Velthuizen. International Consortium for Agricultural Systems Applications. 2002. Climate Change and Agricultural Vulnerability. Laxenburg, 1998. Understanding Options for Agricultural Produc- Austria: International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis. tion. (Gordon Y. Tsuji, Gerrit Hoogenboom, and Philip Fraedrich, Klaus, H. Jansen, K. Edilbert, U. Luksch, and F. K. Thornton, eds.) Dordrecht/Boston/London: Kluwer Lunkeit. 2005. The Planet Simulator: Towards a user friendly model. Academic Publishers. Hamburg, Germany: Gebruder Borntraeger. IPCC, 2007. Climate change 2007: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability: Frumhoff, P.C., J.J. McCarthy, J. M. Melillo, S.C. Moser, and D.J. contribution of working group II to the fourth assessment report of the Wuebbles. 2007. Confronting Climate Change in the U.S. Northeast: IPCC, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Science, Impacts, and Solutions. Synthesis report of the Northeast Jones, James W., Gerrit Hoogenboom, Kenneth J. Boote, and Climate Impacts Assessment (NECIA). Cambridge, MA: Cheryl H. Porter. 2003. DSSAT v4: Crop Model Documenta- Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS). tion. Honolulu: International Consortium for Agricultural Funk, Chris, et al. 2003. “The Collaborative Historical African Systems Applications,. Rainfall Model Description and Evaluation.� International Kinsella, Y., and F. McGuire. 2005. “Climate Change Impacts Journal of Climatology (Wiley InterScience) 23: 47–66. on the State Highway Network: A Moving Target.� Pro- GAMS. 2005. “General Algebraic Modeling System.� Accessible ceedings of the NIZHT Conference, Christchurch, New at: < http:www.gams.com>. Zealand, November 2005. Gardener, W. R. 1965. “Dynamic Aspects of Soil-Water Mavume, A., L. Rydberg, and J.R.E. Lutjeharms. 2009. “Clima- Availability to Plants.� Annual Review of Plant Physiology 16: tology of tropical cyclones in the South-West Indian Ocean; 323–342. landfall in Mozambique and Madagascar.� The Western Indian Ocean Journal of Marine Science 8 (1): 15-36. , Georgiou, P. N., A. G. Davenport and P. J. Vickery (1983). Design wind speeds in regions dominated by tropical McCool, C., J. Thurlow, and C. Arndt. 2009. “Documentation cyclones. J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 13, 139-152. of Social Accounting Matrix (SAM) Development.� In C. Arndt and F. Tarp, eds. Taxation in a Low-Income Economy: the Hargreaves, George, and Richard G. Allen. 2003. “History and Case of Mozambique. London: Routledge. Evaluation of Hargreaves Evapotranspiration Equation.� Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Enigneering 129 (1): 53–63. McGranahan, G., Blak, D. and Anderson, B., 2007. The ris- ing tide: assessing the risks of climate change and human Hatfield, J. L. 2008. The Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture, settlements in low elevation coastal zones. Environment and Land Resources, Water Resources, and Biodiversity. Washington, Urbanisation, 19(1):17-37. DC: The U. S. Climate Change Science Program. Meehl, G.A., Stocker, T.F., Collins, W.D., Friedlingstein, P., Hinkel, Jochen and Richard J.T. Klein. “DINAS-COAST: Devel- Gaye, A.T., Gregory, J.M., Kitoh, A., Knutti, R., Murphy, oping a Method and a Tool for Dynamic and Interactive J.M., Noda, A., Raper, S.C.B., Watterson, I.G., Weaver, A.J. Vulnerability Assessment.� Accessible at: . Averyt, M. Tiger and H.L. Miller (eds.), Climate Change 2007: Hoefsloot, Peter. 2008. LEAP version 1.2 for Ethiopia Users Manual. The Physical Science Basis. Contributions of Working Group I to the Washington, DC: World Bank and World Food Program. Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Hoozemans, F.M.J., M. Marchand, and H.A. Pennekamp. 1993. Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.Miradi, M. 2004. “Artifi- A Global Vulnerability Analysis: Vulnerability Assessment for Popula- cial neural network (ANN) models for prediction and analysis tion, Coastal Wetlands and Rice Production on a Global Scale. 2nd of ravelling severity and material composition properties.� In edition. Delft, Netherlands: Delft Hydraulics Software. M. Mohammadian, ed. CIMCA 2004 Proceedings, July 12-14, INE (National Institute of Statistics). 2004. “Household 2004, Gold Coast, Australia. consumption survey 2002–03 electronic data.� Maputo, Mohanty, B. P., U.S. Tim, C.E. Anderson, and T. Woestman. Mozambique: INE. 1995. “Impacts of Agricultural Drainage Well Closure on Crop Production: A Watershed Case Study.� Middleburg, VA: American Water Resources Association. M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 103 NAPA (National Adaptation Programme of Action). 2007. “Min- Ritchie, J. T. 1998. Soil Water Balance and Plant Water Stress. Lon- istry for the co-ordination of environmental affairs.� Report don: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Approved by the Council of Ministers at its 32nd Session, RMSI. 2009. Mozambique: Economic Vulnerability and Disaster Risk December, 04, 2007, Maputo, Mozambique. Assessment. (Draft Final Report) Washington, DC: RMSI, Neitsch, S. L., Arnold J. G., J. R. Kiniry, and J. R. Wil- World Bank. liams.,2005. Soil and Water Assessment Tool Theoretical Rosenzweig, C., and A. Iglesias. 1998. The use of crop models for Documentation. Model Description, Temple, Texas: Grass- international climate change impact assessment. London: Kluwer land, Soul and Water Research Laboratory: Agricultural Academic Publishers. Research Services; Blackland Research Center: Texas Agricultural Experiment Station. Ruby, J., Canhanga, S. and Cossa, O., 2008. Assessment of the impacts of climate changes to sea-level rise at Costa do Neumann, C. J. (1987). The national hurricane center risk analy- Sol beach in Maputo – Mozambique, INAHINA-National sis program (HURISK). NOAA Tech. Memo. Institute of Hydrography and Navigation. Report for Neumann, James C., and Jason C. Price. 2009. Adapting to Climate United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Maputo, Change: The Public Policy Response. Cambridge, MA: Industrial Mozambique. Economics Inc. Sachs, J.D., Mellinger, A.D. and Gallup, J.L., 2001. The Geogra- Nicholls, R.J., 1995. Coastal megacities and climate change. phy of Poverty and Wealth. Scientific America, 284(3): 70-75. Geojournal, 37(3): 369-379. Small, C. and Nicholls, R.J., 2003. A Global Analysis of Human Nicholls, R.J., and R.S.J. Tol. 2006. “Impacts and responses to Settlement in Coastal Zones. Journal of Coastal Research, 19(3): sea-level rise: a global analysis of the SRES scenarios over 584-599. the twenty-first century.� Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. A Syvitski, J.P.M., Kettner, A.J., Overeem, I., Hutton, E.W.H., 364:1073–1095. Hannon, M.T., Brakenridge, G.R., Day, J., Vörösmarty, Nicholls, R.J., Hanson, S., Herweijer, C., Patmore, N., Hal- C., Saito, Y., Giosan, L. and Nicholls, R.J., 2009. Sink- legatte, S., Corfee-Morlot, J., Chateau, J. and Muir-Wood, ing deltas due to human activities. Nature Geoscience, Vol.2, R., 2008. Ranking Port Cities with High Exposure and Vulnerability DOI:10.1038/NGEO629. to Climate Extremes: Exposure Estimates. OECD Environ- Smith, M., D. Clarke, and K. El-Askari. 1998. “CropWat for ment Working Papers, No. 1, OECD publishing, doi: Windows Version 4.2.� Rome: Food and Agriculture Organi- 10.1787/011766488208. sation of the United Nations. Oleson, Keith W., et al. 2004. Technical Description of the Community Tarp, F.,C. Arndt, H.T. Jensen, S.R. Robinson, and R. Heltberg. Land Model (CLM) . Boulder: National Center for Atmo- 2002. Facing the Development Challenge in Mozambique: A General spheric Research (NCAR). Equilibrium Perspective. International Food Policy Research Oregon Department of Transportation. Budget. Accessible at: Institute, Research Report 126. Washington, DC: IFPRI. http://www.co.columbia.or.us/roads/budget.php (accessed Thurlow, J. 2008. “Options for Agricultural Growth and Poverty July 1, 2009). Reduction in Mozambique.� Working Paper 20, Regional Patt, A.G., M. Tadross, P. Nussbaumer, K. Asante, M. Metzger, J. Strategic Analysis and Knowledge Support System. Acces- Rafael, A. Goujon, and G. Brundrit. 2010. “Estimating least- sible at: www.resakss.org. developed countries’ vulnerability to climate-related extreme Tol, R.S.J., 2006. The DIVA model: socio-economic scenarios, events over the next 50 years.� PNAS 107(4):1333–1337. impacts and adaptation and world heritage. In: DINAS- Peltier, W.R., 2000. Global glacial isostatic adjustment. In: B.C. COAST Consortium 2006. DIVA 1.5.5, Potsdam Institute Douglas, M.S. Kearney and S.P. Leatherman (eds.), Sea-Level for Climate Impact Research, Potsdam, Germany, CD- Rise: History and Consequences, Academic Press, San Diego, CA, ROM. Available at http://www.pik-potsdam.de/diva USA, 65-95. Tol, R.S.J. and G. W. Yohe, 2007. The weakest link hypothesis Rahmstorf, Stefan. 2007. “A Semi-Empirical Approach to Pro- for adaptive capacity: An empirical test. Global Environ- jecting Future Sea-Level Rise.� Science 315 (5810): 368–370. mental Change. 17:218-227. Rajan, R. G., and A. Subramanian. 2008. “Aid and Growth: Uehara, G., and G.Y. Tsuji. 1998. Overview of Ibsnat. London: What Does the Cross-Country Evidence Really Show?� The Kluwer Academic Publishers. Review of Economics and Statistics 90 (4): 643–665. UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). 2009. Human Ramos-Scharron, C. E. and L.H. MacDonald. 2007. “Run- Development Reports: Mozambique. Accessible at: http://hdrstats. off and suspended sediment yields from an unpaved road undp.org/en/countries/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_MOZ. segment, St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands.� Hydrological Processes html 21(1): 35–50. UNISDR (United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Republic of Mozambique Ministry of Energy. 2009. Generation Reduction). 2009. Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Master Plan for the Power Sector. Final Report, Volume 1, Main Reduction. Geneva: UNISDR. Report. , Sandvika, Norway: Norconsult Consultants. U.S. National Weather Service. “Sea Lake, and Overland Surge Republic of Mozambique, Ministerio do Turismo (2004). from Hurricanes (SLOSH) model home page.� Accessible at: “Strategic Plan for the Development of Tourism in Mozam- . bique (2004 – 2013).� Republic of Mozambique, Maputo, Mozambique. 104 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E Vafeidis, A.T., Boot, G., Cox, J., Maatens, R., McFadden, L., Whitestone Research (2008). Building Maintenance and Repair Nicholls, R.J., Spencer, T., and Tol, R.S.J., 2005. The DIVA Cost Reference 2008-2009. Whitestone Research, Santa Database Documentation. - On DIVA CD and Barbara, CA. www.dinas-coast.net. Wilkens, Paul W., Gerrit Hoogenboom, Cheryl H. Porter, James Vafeidis, A.T., Nicholls, R.J., McFadden, L., Tol, R.S.J., Hinkel, W. Jones, and Oxana Uryasev, 2004. DSSAT v4 Data J., Spencer, T., Grashoff, P.S., Boot, G. & Klein, R.J.T., 2008. Management and Analysis Tools. International Consortium A new global coastal database for impact and vulnerability for Agricultural Systems Applications, Honolulu. see earlier analysis to sea-level rise. Journal of Coastal Research, 24: 917- DSSAt entry 924. World Bank, AFTWR. 2007. “Mozambique Country Water Wahaj, Robina, Florent Maraux, and Giovanni Munoz. 2007. Resources Assistance Strategy: Making Water Work for “Actual Crop Water Use in Project Countries.� Policy Sustainable Growth and Poverty Reduction.� Washington, Reseach Working Paper. Washington, DC: The World Bank. DC: World Bank. Washington State Department of Transportation, WSDOT World Bank. 2009a. “Disaster Vulnerability and Risk Reduction Projects: Common Questions, http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/ Assessment�. Washington DC World Bank. Projects/QuieterPavement/CommonQuestions.htm. World Bank. 2009b. “Making Transport Climate Resilient for Accessed July 1, 2009. Mozambique.� Washington, DC: World Bank. Watson, R., M.C. Zinyowera, R. H. Moss, and D.J. Dok- World Bank. 2009c. “Internal World Bank cost data on for ken.,1997. “The Regional Impacts of Climate Change: Bank-funded repaving projects.� Washington, DC: World An Assessment of Vulnerability.� IPCC Working Group Bank. II, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Geneva: IPCC. World Bank. 2009c. “Internal World Bank cost data on for Bank- funded repaving projects.� Washington, DC: World Bank. M OZA M B I Q U E CO U N T RY ST U DY 105 106 E C O N O M I C S O F A D A P TAT I O N T O C L I M AT E C H A N G E Ministry of Foreign Affairs Government of the Netherlands the World Bank group 1818 h Street, nW Washington, D.C. 20433 uSa tel: 202 473 1000 fax: 202 477 6391 www.worldbank.org/eacc