74234 Contents 1. INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................... 1 2. UWM IN AFRICA: STATE OF THE ART REVIEW ......................................................... 4 2.1 Review of UW Systems in Africa ....................................................................................... 4 2.1.1 Evolution of UWM in Africa ....................................................................................... 4 2.1.2 Current state of UWM in Africa ................................................................................ 6 2.2 Future pressures................................................................................................................ 10 2.3 The Case for Integrated Urban Water Management in Africa .................................... 12 3. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR INTEGRATED UWM ......................................... 18 3.2 The Concept of IUWM ..................................................................................................... 18 3.2.1 Understanding IUWM ............................................................................................... 18 3.2.2 Dimensions of IUWM ................................................................................................ 20 3.2.3 Framework for IUWM .............................................................................................. 21 3.2 Global experiences of IUWM ........................................................................................... 24 3.3 Future drivers for IUWM in Africa ................................................................................ 26 3.4 Game Changing Technologies and Approaches............................................................. 27 3.4.1 Innovative Technology................................................................................................... 27 3.4.2 Innovative Approaches and Strategies .................................................................... 29 3.4.3 Best practices of IUWM in Africa ............................................................................ 33 4. WAY FORWARD – IUWM IN AFRICA ............................................................................ 35 4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 35 4.2 Cases studies ...................................................................................................................... 35 4.2.1 Masindi Town in Uganda .......................................................................................... 35 4.2.2 Cape Town, South Africa .......................................................................................... 40 4.2.3 Accra, Ghana .............................................................................................................. 45 4.3 Summary of case studies .................................................................................................. 51 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 52 ii List of Figures Figure 2.1 Stages of UWM development framework……………………………….………4 Figure 2.2 Urban water supply and sanitation coverage in Sub Saharan Africa…… ……6 Figure 2.3 Rate of urban population growth in Africa and other regions…………………..10 Figure 2.4 Typology of cities for IUWM intervention………………………………...……14 Figure 3.1 Integrated urban water cycle model…………………………………………….22 Figure 3.2 Integration of different urban services………………………………………….23 Figure 3.3 Framework for institutional integration…………………………….…………..23 List of Tables Table 2.1 Average annual growth rate (1990-2006) of selected cities in Africa…….……11 Table 3.1 Comparison of conventional and integrated approaches to UWM……………..19 Table 3.2 Innovative technologies and their benefits to IUWM approach…………….…..29 Table 4.1 Comparison of business as usual and IUWM approach for the development of Masindi Town…………………………………………………………………....39 Table 4.2 Comparison of business as usual and IUWM approach for the development of Cape Town……………………………………………………………………….45 Table 4.3 Comparison of business as usual and IUWM approach for the development of Accra……………………………………………………………………………..50 iii 1. INTRODUCTION It is widely accepted that one of the major challenges of the 21st century is to provide safe drinking water and basic sanitation for all. Currently, close to 1 billion people lack access to improved water sources, and over 2.6 billion people lack access to basic sanitation – nearly all of these people live in developing countries. According to the Joint Monitoring Program (JMP) report (WHO/UNICEF, 2010), Sub Saharan Africa with, water supply coverage of about 60% is lagging behind in progress to achieve the MDG target. Sanitation coverage in developing countries (49%) is only half that of the developed world (98%). The number of deaths attributable to poor sanitation and hygiene alone may be as high as 1.6 million a year. Statistics on wastewater treatment reveal that almost 85% of global wastewater is discharged without treatment leading to serious impacts on public health and the receiving water’s ecosystems. In Sub-Saharan Africa the coverage is a mere 36%, and over half of those are without improved sanitation. With the current coverage of about 31% the region is not expected to meet the sanitation target by 2015 (WHO/UNICEF, 2010). On the other hand wastewater collection, storm water drainage and solid waste collection services are inadequate in most of the developing countries. Africa’s urban water systems are either poorly planned and designed, or operated without adequate maintenance, which means that the existing services are often of poor quality. The situation is even worse in the area of low- income settlements. Septic tanks and feeder networks regularly discharge effluent into street gutters, open streams or drainage canals. This creates unpleasant living conditions, public health risks and environmental damage (GHK, 2002). Achieving environmentally acceptable water and sanitation solutions is a major technical challenge, particularly in urban and peri-urban areas. The physical availability of water resources on a sustainable basis (and access to technologies suited to that environment) limits efforts to increase sustainable access to water and sanitation. For example in the past 20 years, available fresh water resources in Africa have greatly reduced due to severe and prolonged droughts (Donker and Wolde, 2011). A sharp decline in availability of fresh water supply due to hydrologic, climatic and environmental changes is visible even in the Congo-Zaire basin, which accounts for 50% of the water resources on the continent. In addition, the provision of continuity of service and its reliance on good operation and maintenance is technically challenging for most cities in Africa. The design of water distribution systems in general has been based on the assumption of continuous supply however, in most of the cities; the water supply system is intermittent. Many studies have revealed that water losses in those cities are at levels of between 40-60% of water supplied (Mutikanga et al.2010). Any reduction in water losses requires coherent action to address not only technical and operational issues but also institutional, planning, financial and governance issues (Farley, 2001). Most of the technologies available are centralized and highly sophisticated end-of-pipe technologies. Lack of appropriate institutions at all levels and the chronic dysfunction of institutional arrangements is yet another challenge. Institutions responsible for service provision need technical, financial, managerial and social intermediation capacity that is lacking in most African cities. The result of this has been lack of adequate policy and sound regulatory system which have generally constrained good performance by public as well as private sector operators (Lenton & Wright, 2004). 1 Poverty is a principal impediment to increasing access to services, from the household to the national level. Expanding access to water supply and sanitation requires funding - whether from national and sub-national government tax revenues; user charges; cross subsidies from users who can afford to pay; private-sector investment; and official development assistance. Funds must be available not simply to construct new water and sanitation facilities, but also to support their operation and maintenance over the long term (WSO, 2009). Hence, without financial sustainability, investments made in pursuit of water supply and sanitation will likely yield only temporary benefits. Africa’s ability to provide effective water supply and sanitation is further impeded by a range of dynamic global and regional pressures. Climate change is predicted to cause significant changes to precipitation and temperature patterns. It will affect different cities in different ways with some experiencing more frequent droughts and water shortage while others will have more intense storm events with subsequent flooding issues. In some of the African cities, combined sewers are still in use and excess storm flows may damage the sewer infrastructure, flood urban areas and aggravate pollution of recipient water bodies. Population growth and urbanization are enforcing rapid changes leading to a dramatic increase in high-quality water consumption. Africa is the fastest urbanizing continent and will have more urban population than rural by 2030 (UN-HABITAT and UNEP, 2010).The urban population in Africa is expected to grow to 1.23 billion in 2050 and about 60% will be living in cities. The unplanned urbanisation leading to the informal settlement (the highest annual slum growth rate of 4.53% per year and is expected to have the largest number of slums by 2020) is creating additional pressures for Urban Water Management (UWM) (WaterAid, 2008). Existing infrastructure is aging and deteriorating. In most of the cities, infrastructure for urban water systems (storage, treatment, transport and distribution) have exceeded their design periods and have not received the priority for maintenance and replacement. It is a technological and financial challenge to maintain and upgrade it such that quality of water can continue to be delivered to all sectors and wastewater can be adequately collected and treated (Khatri & Vairavamoorthy, 2007; Vahala, 2004). To ensure a more sustainable future there is a need to do things differently. This should be based on key concepts of integrated urban water management (IUWM) that include: interventions over the entire urban water cycle; reconsideration of the way water is used (and reused); and greater application of innovative approaches and the integration of institutions. In addition there is a need to recognize the high-level relationships among water resources, energy, and land use in an urbanizing world. More is needed than simply improving the performance and efficiency of the component parts of the built environment – change is needed at a system-wide level as well. To this end, the IUWM approach has advanced sufficiently and recognises possibilities to satisfy the water needs of a community at the lowest cost whilst minimising adverse environmental and social impacts. In addition, it enables understanding the interactions that take place between different components of the urban water system. Therefore, it is important to consider these interactions in order to maintain an effective, efficient and safe service of water and sanitation (e.g. this can help in developing control measures to minimize the risks associated with pollution of drinking water, and improve management of water quality in water distribution systems). Hence an integrated approach to urban water management (IUWM) is necessary and involves 2 managing freshwater, wastewater, and storm water as links within the resource management structure, using an urban area as the unit of management (Vairavamoorthy et al., 2007). The primary objective of this report is to provide a coherent and comprehensive review on IUWM approach to assist public authorities to identify and address the future challenges of urban water supply, sanitation and flood management in African cities. This report presents the existing and future challenges in Africa, the possible options for innovative technologies and approaches for their breakthrough and a way forward to achieve the objectives of IUWM. It highlights technical and institutional constraints of the IUWM in Africa. It presents the global and African best practices and trends in IUWM which are linked to urban development and which have very good lessons learnt that can be shared within and among the cities in Africa. The report consists of four chapters. Chapter 2 reviews the existing condition, future challenges and opportunities in UWS in Africa. The review covers the current situation of urban water systems and their management approaches; the major future change pressures (climate change, population growth and urbanization, deterioration of infrastructure systems) and their impacts on UWS; and opportunities for implementing the IUWM approach in Africa. Chapter 3 introduces the key concepts and conceptual framework of IUWM. The framework has been supplemented by appropriate technologies and innovative approaches of IUWM that will be suitable for cities in Africa. This chapter also presents the global experiences and best practices of IUWM that can be shared within the Africa cities. Chapter 4 presents case studies to demonstrate how the IUWM framework can be operationalized and to select the appropriate technologies and approaches as discussed in chapter 3 based on the different typologies of the cities and development stages in Africa. The typologies include an emerging town in Uganda (Masindi), a city with partially developed infrastructure in Ghana (Accra) and fully developed city in South Africa (Cape Town). Based on the cases, a few recommendations (road map) for the implementation of IUWM approach for other cities in Africa have been presented in chapter 4. 3 2. UWM IN AFRICA: STATE OF THE ART REVIEW 2.1 Review of UW Systems in Africa 2.1.1 Evolution of UWM in Africa UWM in Africa has historically followed developmental stages that have been shaped by the social, institutional and technological structures existing in the urban regions. Brown et al. (2008) categorized the transitional stages of UWM development in six distinct typologies (Figure 2.1): the water supply city, the sewered city, the drained city, the water ways city, the water cycle city, and the water sensitive city. These transitional stages have evolved out of a counter play of urgent urban water problems, objectives of the society and available technologies and resources and are common to all urban areas globally. Although the developmental stages are represented as a model of linear progression, cities can follow trajectories across the continuum in both directions and may leapfrog some of the stages based on circumstances. The transitional stages provide a useful benchmarking tool for assessing the current state of the UWM in African cities through inter-city comparison. Figure 2.1 Stages of UWM development framework (Brown et al., 2008) Some parts of UWM infrastructure and management practice in African cities are still inherited from the colonial period where municipal water services were developed in urban centers. Comparable with the transition stage of ‘water supply city’ the water services were focused on the provision of safe drinking water in the interest of hygiene and social status. This led to the development of water supply infrastructures such as storage, treatment and distribution facilities that were managed and operated by municipalities. The second transition stage the ‘sewered city’ emerged, because unregulated discharges of wastewater flows started to contaminate the water sources and create public health concerns such as epidemic outbreaks of waterborne diseases. In the most colonial cities in Africa the establishment of sewerage systems for the discharge of waste water was limited to city centers due to the high sewer infrastructure cost. 4 Furthermore, systems were developed mainly to discharge the waste water away from the city, which did not include treatment. In most cases in Africa, sanitation issues were resolved by on- site systems such as simple and ventilated pit latrines and septic tanks. It is clear that during the colonial period some African cities were transitioning to the sewer city, although this was not the case for most cities as some cities were not completely covered by a sewerage system. As the urban centers in Africa developed and expanded, built up areas increased run off, which started to create flooding problems necessitating cities to drain urban storm water as quickly as possible. Storm water was often allowed to flow in natural drainage systems and streets in African cities. In some urban areas combined sewer systems were also developed. The development of drainage infrastructure of combined and separated sewers (to discharge the water flows in the receiving water bodies) was not implemented in most African cities during the colonial period. After the colonial period national bodies in Africa were entrusted to run UWM with limited human and institutional capacity and financial constraints which have limited the capacity of utilities to expand their coverage and to cope with the rapid urban growth (due to rural urban migration). As a result a huge backlog of services is observed and as human capacity was not adequately developed, infrastructure was rapidly deteriorating. Urban areas in Africa grew in a haphazard manner, where infrastructure developments (including urban water infrastructure) occurred on ad hoc basis as they lacked proper planning and documentation. Institutions that dealt with the different urban water sectors were operating independently without coordination and integration. During this period, most African cities made no progress in the transition process towards the completion of the ‘sewered city’ or ‘drained city’ stage. Mounting public health concerns and impacts on economic developments initiated global efforts for intervention. Such initiatives include the international decade of Water Supply and Sanitation (1980-1990) and the Millennium Development Goals (MDG, 2005-2015). The first water and sanitation decade focused on safe water and sanitation for everybody by 1990. It was able to provide water to over 1 billion people and sanitation to more than 700 million. However, it was not possible to achieve the objectives due to high rate of population growth, lack of stakeholders participation and low level of public awareness (not demand driven). Despite the failures, lessons were learned to adopt case specific rather than general approaches, to develop capacity and improve public awareness in order to sustain the achievements. The second water decade (2005- 2015) is the international decade for action- Water for life- which emphasized broader participation of women in water management and aimed to halve by 2015 the proportion of people who are unable to reach or afford safe drinking water and who do not have access to basic sanitation. Based on the JMP reports this action has achieved good progress, however, more needs to be done to improve the coverage and to sustain the gained achievements. Although the initiatives have achieved good progress in terms of expanding coverage they addressed water supply and sanitation separately and they focused on expanding coverage without considering water quality improvements and other aspects of urban water components. Most African cities are at the stage of the ‘water supply city’ and are still at the stage t o transition to the ‘sewered and drained city’. Only few African cities (e.g. Cape Town or Johannesburg) have developed to the level of the ‘waterways city’ where the worsening environmental degradation of water bodies and the increased level of awareness of society started a movement to protect the environment and clean up the water bodies. Furthermore there are only few African examples of ‘water cycle city’ where the UWM is driven by the limits of the natural water resources and focus in concepts of water conservation, water reclamation 5 cascade use of water and diversifying of water sources. Only some cities in Southern Africa like Durban or Windhoek can be cited as examples where they have reached the level of water cycle city through the transition pathways discussed above. A detailed description of the current state of UWM in African cities is provided below. Most cities in the developed world have followed a linear transition process. Nevertheless in Africa as new towns/cities are emerging and many cities still only have a basic infrastructure, there is a window of opportunity to identify efficient development trajectories that will enable to leapfrog some of the transition steps. This would increase the speed of the transition process and could make it would be possible to avoid some problems and drawbacks associated with the different transition steps. 2.1.2 Current state of UWM in Africa According to JMP report (WHO/UNICEF, 2010), the world is on track to meet or even exceed the drinking-water target of the MDG. However, regional disparities are observed and the Sub Saharan Africa with only about 60% water supply coverage is lagging behind in progress to achieve the MDG target. At country levels, the water supply and sanitation coverage ranges between 67-99% with wide disparity in different cities. For example, water supply coverage of utilities ranges from 11% in Quilimane (Mozambique) to more than 99% coverage in Mbeya (Tanzania) and several cities in South Africa and Namibia. Progress in sanitation is even worse with an average of 31% coverage with high disparity at country level from 18-74%. Coverage of sewerage of utilities on city level range from 7% in Dar Es Salaam to more than 99% in South Africa and Namibia. It is expected that the Sub Saharan Africa will not meet the sanitation target by 2015 (WHO/UNICEF, 2010). 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 Sanitation 20 Water supply 10 0 Liberia Kenya Angola Benin Lesotho Brundi Chad Mali Eritrea Niger Gabon Senegal Nigeria Ethiopia Ghana Namibia Congo Botswana Djibouti D. Rep Congo Rwanda Central African Burkina Faso Gambia Malawi Cote d'Ivor Cote d'Ivor Figure 2.2 Urban water supply and sanitation coverage in Sub Saharan Africa based on JMP 2010 report. The state of UWM in Africa in terms of technical, institutional, financial and political situations is discussed in the following section. 6 Technical: Centralized water and wastewater systems are typically the technologies of choice in most of the current UWM systems in African cities. Most of the technical expertise and capacity development programmes are still focused on conventional systems despite major drawbacks such as high investment cost, inflexibility, high freshwater and energy consumption and limited reuse/recycle options. In African cities there are only few advanced water treatment and supply technologies. Some cities in Southern and North Africa are tapping into alternative sources (such as sea water and used water). For example, according to the 2010 report of the General Electric Company, Algeria has implemented the largest sea desalination plant in Africa with a capacity of 200,000 m3/d in response to the increasing urban population and scarce water sources. Windhoek, Namibia is using advanced membrane treatment to reuse about 26, 000 m3/d of water from wastewater. In South Africa, greywater is being reused for gardening and urban agriculture. Further examples of best practice of UWM in Africa are mentioned in chapter 3. The existing water services in many African cities and towns are characterized by intermittent supplies, frequent breakdowns, inefficient operations, poor maintenance, and depleted finance (Mutikanga et al., 2010; Vairavamoorthy et al., 2007). Large proportions of the cities in Africa do not have water supply services for 24 h. In terms of technical conditions, UWM in Africa faces common challenges such as: high leakage rates, poor wastewater treatment and drainage, cross contamination of portable water, flooding of urban areas and inappropriate solid waste management. Many African cities have aged water distribution infrastructure resulting in high leakage levels of 30-50% and huge amount of portable water is wasted (Chowdhury et al., 2002). A report by WOP, (2009) indicates that while some utilities have managed to maintain low non-revenue water (NRW) such as Saldanha in South Africa (5%), Windhoek in Namibia (11%), Niger (17%), Dakar (Senegal, 20%) and Tanga (Tanzania 21%), many utilities have not been able to lower the NRW below 25%. Some of the severely affected utilities include Beira in Mozambique (61%) and Liberia (70%). Considering a conservative figure of 35% average water loss, the World Bank estimates that utilities lose approximately 26.7 billion m³ every year. Reducing this amount by halve would enable supplying an additional 90 million people in developing countries (Kingdom et al., 2006). Foster and Briceno-Garmendia (2010) reported that in Africa combinations of distribution losses, under collection of revenues and overstaffing render water utilities inefficient with an estimated cost of $ 1 billion annually. None of the water utilities in Africa provide a sufficient sewerage coverage and treatment of waste water. The highest sewerage services (more than 80% coverage) are provided by the utilities in Southern Africa, Namibia and Senegal. In other parts of Africa the highest coverage of 44% is provided in Moshi, Tanzania and some utilities in the Western region such as in Cote d’lvoire and Anambra State, Nigeria. Still the majority of Africa’s urban residents depend on on- site sanitation such as pit latrines and septic tanks (WOP, 2009). Solid waste management is not coordinated with UWM and not adequately addressed and poses serious risks to drainage and sewer lines as well as water sources. Due to limitations of water availability actual flows in sewers are often below the design flow, which have resulted in silt deposition in pipes and deterioration of the infrastructure. These very low levels of wastewater services with an average coverage of 31%, the nearly non-existent treatment of wastewater (with the exception of some cities in Southern Africa) and the insufficient attention on urban drainage and solid waste management are having high negative impacts on receiving water bodies. 7 The low quality of water services and the missing integration between the different urban water components results in a cross-contamination of portable water. In the most African cities an adequate water treatment is provided at the treatment plant, but the portable water is contaminated in the distribution system. As a result of stepwise development of the urban water infrastructure, many distribution pipes are located below sewer lines or drainage structure or go even through foul water bodies exposing them to the risk of cross contamination. Furthermore intermittent supplies and low pressures encourage stagnancy and ingress of contaminants which deteriorate the microbiological and chemical water quality. The resulting contamination of the portable water creates huge public health risks. These statistics indicate that in most of the water utilities, with the exception of some such as in Namibia and South Africa, the water supply and sanitation services are inadequate and the infrastructure is dysfunctional due to lack of enough investment to appropriately build and maintain them. Expansion of services, maintenance, and replacement activities followed incremental and non-coordinated approaches that aimed at satisfying urgent demands but did not take the whole system into consideration. The need for transformation of UWM for better performance and coverage is required. Aims could be to reduce NRW to below 25%, to improve water supply and sanitation coverage to bench mark values of above 90 and 85% (Bartram et al., 2009). Institutional: Institutional structures of water utilities in Africa range from national-level utilities to those with limited jurisdictions. Generally, they are public entities managed and owned by government institutions with very limited private sector participation (Bartram et al., 2009). Based on an assessment of 134 water operators, the report indicated that about 49% were state owned enterprises operating under commercial law, about 24% operate as statutory organizations following state requirements and a small number (5%) are privately owned companies operating under commercial law. Performance based contracts with the central or local governments are also practiced, commonly mentioned examples of which are NWSC of Uganda and SDE of Senegal. Still many state owned utilities follow inefficient practices of top-down hierarchical management system resulting in a chronic dysfunction of existing institutional arrangements. The institutions lack technical, financial, managerial, and social intermediation capacity. Absence of a sound regulatory system and a strong regulator are generally held to be constraints to good performance by public as well as private sector operators (Lenton & Wright, 2004). During the last decade, African states have advocated and made tangible efforts towards institutional reforms. Banerjee and Morella (2011) reported that utilities that adopted decentralized approach and private sector management systems made efficiency gains compared to those which did not introduce change. On the other hand Post (2011) reported that reforms such as decentralization of services and changes of governance structures did not solve service problems. With respect to changes of government structures, electoral pressures impeded effective utility management and in many cases decentralization has yielded complex systems of shared governance rather than clarifying responsibilities. UWM institutions in Africa can be generally described as fragmented and non-coordinated entities. In most cases separate institutions are responsible for different urban water components. In Sub Saharan Africa, for example only half of the countries have utilities that jointly provide water and sewerage service (Banerjee and Morella, 2011). Based on the assessment of 134 water 8 operators in 35 countries in Africa, WOP, (2009) also reported that only 44% provided both water supply and sewerage service. Furthermore often an integration and coordination with urban planning, housing and other infrastructure services is missing. The existing institutional frameworks lack the potential for integrating and optimizing planning and operations of the different urban water components. Because of lack of coordination between institutions plans for water treatment, distribution and collection may not be arranged optimally to avoid impacts and to use resources efficiently. In addition the lack of coordination between different institutions has resulted in isolated management programmes and disintegrated data bases that are owned and managed by separate institutions. Most of the current managers, engineers and operators have been trained with conventional methods that hamper innovative technologies and new integrated approaches. Finally the existing institutional structures do not encourage stakeholder participation, which is one of the main principles of IUWM. Nevertheless there is some best practice in Africa. A good example is the case of Accra, Ghana which aimed to improve city level communication, provide platform for strategic planning and improve linkage between research and practice to facilitate IUWM (Darteh et al. 2010). Political: One of the major constraints of proper UWM in Africa is a lack of political will, by which we mean a lack of political leadership or government commitment to allocate national resources to the sector or to undertake reforms necessary to attract investment to the sector. At the national level, many governments in Africa do not provide policy to advocate for IUWM while others do not include basic water supply and sanitation among their expenditure priorities. Experience also shows that where political leadership and commitment have been accompanied by social marketing, significant progress has been made not only in access to water supply, but also to sanitation (DFID, 2005). Financial: Expanding access to water supply and sanitation requires financial resources - whether from national and sub-national government tax revenues; user charges; cross subsidies from users who can afford to pay; private-sector investment; and official development assistance. Funds must be available not simply for infrastructure development, but also to support their operation and maintenance over the long term (Birchenhall et al., 1997). They are powerful reminders that, without this concern for financial sustainability, investments made in pursuit of UWM will likely yield only temporary benefits. As investments on capacity development have been very limited, in most cases cities and town operate with few engineers or just technicians. Public utilities used to have good access to finances; as a result they were able to expand services with main focus on new installations in a centralized approach. Operation and management aspects (cost recovery) were not considered seriously. Political interference and low tariff policies have led to inefficiency and chronic financial weakness (Cross and Morel, 2010). As revenue became increasingly insufficient, national agencies were not able to continue to subsidize utilities. Briceño-Garmendia et al., (2008) reported that with annual water supply and sanitation infrastructure spending need of $ 21.9 billion, African countries are facing a financial gap of about $ 11.4 billion, which is close to 3% of GDP. Operating deficits and debts have restricted water utilities from expanding their services and from offering acceptable level of services reliably. This has led to situations where subsidized services are in fact reserved to those privileged to have a network connection, while most of the poor have to rely on more costly and lower-quality alternatives. In most African cities, the poor end up paying higher for water supply services compared to the high income residents. In Ghana, for example, the populations without network connection are forced to use water from tankers and distributed sachet water. These are 9 7 and 150 times more expensive than tap water supplied by the Ghana Water Company Limited, respectively (Nyarko et al., 2008). 2.2 Future pressures Unprecedented global transformations in the last two decades have resulted in significant changes in urban water systems. The water resources sector is among the most affected by the future change pressures. Varying pressures from global and regional changes impact the way urban water systems are managed, the most important of which are urbanization as well as population growth, climate change, aging of infrastructure and emerging contaminants. As described above in many African countries, access to basic water services is already constrained, future pressures are expected to exacerbate the situation. Urbanization and population growth Currently, more than one billion people live in Africa, almost 40%, live in urban areas (UN- HABITATA and UNEP, 2010). The urban population is expected to grow to 1.23 billion in 2050 and about 60% will be living in cities. Africa is the fastest urbanizing continent and will have more urban population than rural by 2030 (UN-HABITAT and UNEP, 2010). In only 8 years African urban population (569 million) will be larger than the total urban population in Europe (552 million). The urban population trend of Africa and other regions as shown in Figure 2.3 indicated that the urban growth for low-income economies is expected to be much higher than for high-income communities. Urbanization and urban growth, combined with socio-economic problems, is expected to exert huge pressure on the UWM in Africa. 7 Africa Average Low-income economies 6 High- income economies Population growth in percent 5 4 3 2 1 0 Figure 2.3 Rate of urban population growth in Africa and other regions (UNDP, 2011) Some of the historical growth rates for selected fast growing cities in Africa are shown in Table 2.1. These statistics and trends reflect the challenges of UWM and require prompt interventions to contain the urban growth. UWM must start focusing on both reducing affluent water demand in serviced areas, facilitating water provision in un-serviced areas and improving the level of awareness of water scarcity in general as a precautionary measure. 10 Table 2.1 Average annual growth rate (1990-2006) of selected cities in Africa (UN-HABITAT, 2010) Nakuru, Dire Fès, Yaoundé, Lagos, Lomé, Khartoum, Nairobi, Addis Kampala, Kenya Dawa, Morocco Cameroon Nigeria Togo Sudan Kenya Ababa, Uganda Ethiopia Ethiopia 13.3 7.8 7.4 5.7 5.7 5.5 5.1 4.9 4.1 4.0 According to the State of African Cities 2010 report there are 48 urban areas with more than a million inhabitants of which two (Cairo and Lagos), have become mega-cities (UN-HABITAT & UNEP, 2010). In most cases urbanization is out pacing the UWM progress and the growth of informal settlements have complicated service provisions. Of the urban residents about 60% live in slum areas where water supply and sanitation are severely inadequate (UNEP and UN- HABITAT, 2011). Africa has the highest annual slum growth rate of 4.53% per year and is expected to have the largest number of slums by 2020 (WaterAid, 2008). Growing demand for water coupled with scarcity is putting daunting pressure on the water resources, the water supply and the wastewater treatment. As a result of urban growth, the changing urban landscapes (increasing built up areas) are impacting local hydrological cycle and environment by reducing the natural infiltration opportunity, producing rapid peak storm water flows, increased wastewater discharges and solid waste generation. Ageing and deterioration of existing infrastructure In most African cities, infrastructures for urban water systems (storage, treatment, transport and distribution) have exceeded their design periods. Due to lack of regular maintenance schedules, lack of knowledge of specific classes of assets, insufficient database on the value (and extent) of the infrastructure asset and lack of an efficient support tool to managers and decision makers, the assets have not received the needed attention for maintenance and replacement (Misiunas, 2005). In particular there has been little or no replacement and maintenance of the underground infrastructure. Water loss of more than 30-50% (Choudery et al., 2002), constant customer complaints (of insufficient pressure and poor water quality), high pumping energy cost due to corroded pipes and accessories are among the manifestations of aged infrastructure. Deteriorated infrastructure pose unacceptable risk to human health and the environment, damage public and private properties and impact state and local economies. Customers have, in some cases, resorted to unsafe sources of water or boil their tap water for consumption losing confidence in the utilities. Foster and Briceno-Garmendia (2008) estimated that annual infrastructure spending needs of $ 14.9 billion for water supply and sanitation in sub Saharan Africa is about twice that for transport. Spending needs for operation and maintenance of WSS are estimated at $ 7 billion annually. This figure is expected to increase due to the combined effect of infrastructure ageing, urbanization and climate change. Climate change Climate change impacts the urban water systems in African cities both in terms of distribution of quantities and qualities. In many of the water scare areas, droughts may increase the stress. On the other hand excess precipitation may generate higher loads of water and pollutants that will endanger the use of the available sources. 11 Water scarcity, which is one of the outcomes of climate changes, is a challenge because most of the existing sources are exhausted and possible new sources are allocated. About 45% of Africa is arid or extremely arid, 22% is semi-arid, leaving only 33% as sub-humid or humid (Oyebande, 2008). In the past 20 years, available fresh water resources in Africa have greatly reduced due to severe and prolonged droughts (Donker and Wolde, 2011). A sharp decline in availability of fresh water supply due to hydrologic, climatic and environmental changes is visible even in the Congo-Zaire basin, which accounts for 50% of the water resources on the continent. Donker and Wolde (2011) reported that some parts of the continent are facing water crisis at different levels. Some water crises are permanent because demand is outstripping available resources such as Southern and North Africa. Other water crises are on seasonal basis such as Ghana during dry season. In addition some crises are due to natural water resources deficiency like in Namibia. Finally some crises are due to persistent drought such as Chad and Ethiopia. The 1993 Population Action International Study projects that by 2025, fifteen countries in Africa will face water scarcity and another eleven countries will be water stressed. Emerging contaminants With advances in science and technology, knowledge of new contaminants and their consequences on human health and the environment has developed. Several emerging contaminants (EDCs, PhACs, personal care products and disinfectant resistant microorganisms) have been identified, which are thought to cause public and environmental health concerns. As the knowledge of emerging contaminants and their impacts are expected to advance, more stringent water quality standards will be put in place and will increase the pressure on water utilities. Most countries in Africa are following the WHO guidelines and in view of new threats, they may have to update their standards to face the new realities. The conventional treatment technologies, which are currently in practice, are not able to remove most of the emerging contaminants. Advanced treatment technologies such as advanced oxidation and disinfection processes, (ozonation, peroxide oxidation, and combinations of UV/ozone/peroxide), membrane based technologies (micro-, ultra-, nano-membranes and reverse osmosis) and natural treatment systems alone or in combination with advanced technologies need to be considered. Although these technologies have become trademarks of the developed world some countries in Africa (For example Namibia and South Africa) have already introduced advanced water and wastewater treatment technologies. Whenever possible, these approaches could be used in developing countries to improve the conventional technologies. In summary, cities in Africa are already struggling to address the existing challenges of UWM. The future change pressures will increase the challenge in further. The current conventional UWM approaches will not be able to address the anticipated future change pressures. Hence there is a need to think differently to develop a new approach to address future challenges. So the future challenges open opportunities to reassess existing UWM practices and to adopt innovative approaches for reuse, and recycling options (Biswas, 2006). 2.3 The Case for Integrated Urban Water Management in Africa This section analyzes the existence of opportunities and need to implement the new approach of IUWM in Africa. On the one hand it is assessed, if the current problems of UWM in Africa could be traced back to a lack of integration and if the options offered by IUWM can help to solve the problems. 12 To analyze the potential for IUWM, it is required to categorize the African cities in different typologies, which describe the geographical location, socioeconomic condition, availability of water resources and institutional setup of the cities. Existing city typologies to describe UWM mainly base on characteristics like the size of population (e.g., rural area, town, city, megacity), level of infrastructure services and gross income level (Vorosmarty et al., 2000). Furthermore cities are classified according to their water resources availability (water stress and water abundance). Nevertheless these conventional typology approaches are not sufficient to cover the multiple dimensions of IUWM. Khatri et al. (2011) propose an index (based on a multi-criteria analysis) to assess the level of urban water management in a city and highlight the areas where improvements are necessary. Recently Carden et al. (2009) proposed an index approach for measuring the sustainability of integrated urban water management in five dimensions: social/culture, institutional, political, environmental and economic. This approach could be applied to develop a city typology for the potential of IUWM. However, many indicators used in the analysis need sufficient data, which at this stage, may not be readily available for African cities. Furthermore the World Bank LCR IUWM group (World Bank 2010) proposed an IUWM index tailored for the rapid review of urban water management practices and potential of IUWM solutions. The index is based on aggregating different defined indicators for the physical, institutional and social attributes of a city. As result a typology of cities with good or bad potential for IUWM is provided. The index was already successfully implemented to assess the potential of IUWM for cities in Latin America and the Caribbean. The analysis is very simple and can be operationalized in data scarce situations. Hence this city typology is proposed to analyze the potential of IUWM in African cities. The details of the index are described below. The indicators used for calculating the physical attribute are: annual fresh water resources availability in a city per person (m3); water quality in a country that has been proposed by the United Nations Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS) Water Program; water supply and sanitation service coverage (in percentage); and flood risk index developed by the University of Tokyo for each country. A score of 0 to 5 is assigned to represent the condition from worst to the best condition. The values are simply aggregated and plotted in Y-axis (Figure 2.4). Similarly, the indicators used to measure the social and institutional attributes are the institutional strength of water utility; existence and practices of urban management plan; GDP per capit; and existence and status of river basin agency in a city respectively. A score was assigned for each indicator and the aggregated values are plotted in X-axis (see Figure 2.4). Further details on the calculation procedures and data sources are available in (World Bank, 2010). The two indices are plotted in a two dimensions graph (Figure 2.4). The plotted position of a city is used to review the existing practices of urban water management and its potential opportunities of IUWM intervention. The typologies of a city and its potential for IUWM provided by the IUWM index are presented below.  Limited potential for IUWM (top left corner): Cities in this category are characterized by weak institutional and economic attributes but face only few physical challenges (sufficient fresh water resources). There is no urgent need for IUWM in these cities. Furthermore not the right institutional basic conditions for the implementation of IUWM exist.  High hurdles for IUWM (bottom left corner): Cities of this category have high physical challenges like water scarcity combined with significant institutional and economic weaknesses. These cities require urgent actions of IUWM for improving the water systems 13 but the current institutions are ill-equipped to address the challenges. With a combination of both technical and institutional improvement investments IUWM solutions could be implemented.  High Potential for IUWM (bottom right corner): These types of cities have a strong economic and institutional capacity but are confronted with many physical challenges of their urban water management. These cities represent good opportunities to develop good practice projects, due to their strong institutional capacity combined with pressing needs. The cities in this category have a strong potential for IUWM interventions and leapfrogging.  Good practices of UWM (top right corner): This category of cities combines both strong institutional and economic capacities with an overall low level of physical challenges. These cities have developed good practices in managing their urban water systems. This category is describing the best practice of UWM. Nevertheless the index does not indicate if in these cities a conventional UWM approach or already an IUWM approach is implemented. There is the potential to provide a transition process from a conventional UWM approach to an IUWM approach. Figure 2.4 Typology of cities for IUWM intervention Based on the city typologies described above the need for IUWM and existing opportunities for its adoption in Africa will be discussed in the following section. The need for IUWM An illustration of the missing integration in current UWM practice in Africa presents the progress in regard to the MDG. According to the JMP report sanitation is lagging behind while drinking water supply is on track to meet the MDG targets. One of the main reasons is that sanitation has been neglected and the interactions between water supply and sanitation has not been considered and exploited adequately. Less than half of the water utilities in Africa provide combined water supply and wastewater services. Most of the utilities deal with water supply only. The disparity affects not only the progress of sanitation but also it compromises quality of water at the source and in distribution pipes (through disposal to recipient water bodies and cross 14 contamination), it leads to overflowing drainage and sewer pipes and sever contamination and flooding (by disposal of solid wastes in conveyance structures), it increases pollution loads to waste handling facilities (discharge of untreated industrial effluents to sewers and drainage pipes) and it deteriorates public and environmental health. Furthermore the urban development pathways in Africa have created very complex systems of infrastructure and institutional framework that are difficult to manage. They have evolved to existing situations of poor services and lack the resilience to cope with future pressures. Hence UWM in Africa is still struggling to cope with a huge service backlog and unsustainable practices. In addition strategies to build global change resilient urban water systems must adopt a broader perspective that recognizes the interdependence of the different water systems and strategies that account for the relationship between multiple use sectors. The bottom line is, that many problems in African cities are caused because the current UWM practices looks at each of the components separately and the institutions responsible for the different urban water components do not interact with each other. It is realized that the approach of the traditional UWM is inefficient, expensive and unsustainable. The description of the current and future problems for UWM in African cities made it obvious that it is not possible to continue the same way. It is not possible to solve the problems by the conventional approaches that are currently practiced. There is a need for change and to embrace IUWM. Adoption of IUWM would enable to address many of the problems like: high level of intermittency, low coverage of sanitation, poor treatment systems, problems of contaminant ingress and ineffective institutional arrangements. IUWM would enable to take advantage of the synergies (complementarity) of the sub systems for an effective and efficient performance. The fragmented institutions would be able to coordinate their efforts, and adopt a holistic approach to UWM. This helps to realize prioritization of investments and reduce cost by employing new approaches such as decentralized systems and reclamation options. By coordinating the water supply and sanitation systems, most of the contamination issues can be avoided. In urban areas where competitions for water sources are sever (for example by industries) IUWM allows cascade use of water for different purposes by integrating reuse options. Failure to embrace IUWM, will lead to more complicated and more serious situation that will compromise social and economic developments of urban areas. Opportunities for IUWM in Africa The opportunities for IUWM in African cities are analyzed, based on the city typology presented above.  Cities with limited potential for IUWM: These cities are characterized by weak institutional and economic attributes but only have few physical challenges for their urban water system. Only few cities in Africa are falling in this category. So most of the cities are facing huge physical challenges for their urban water system. In this typology of cities the implementation of IUWM is not so urgent. Nevertheless the establishement and improvement of effective institutions for IUWM should be targeted.  Cities with high hurdles for IUWM: The most African cities fall in this category. Cities of this category are facing high physical challenges for their water system as well as have significant institutional and economic weaknesses. These types of cities will required both technical and institutional improvement investments to achieve IUWM. This category combines already existing cities, which have a legacy infrastructure (with a low level of 15 service) as well as the numerous new emerging towns and villages in Africa. The existing cities have higher need for the implementation of IUWM, because no legacy infrastructure nor institution exist, which handicap the implementation. The potential of emerging towns is described in detail in the text below.  Cities with high potential for IUWM: Cities in this category are characterized by a strong economic and institutional capacity but are confronted with many physical challenges for their urban water system. Those are cities having established institutional structure. These cities represent good opportunities to develop good practice projects, due to their strong institutional capacity combined with pressing needs. The cities of this category have a strong potential for IUWM interventions and leapfrogging.  Cities with good practices in UWM: This category of cities combines both strong institutional and economic capacities with an overall low level of physical challenges and good practice in UWM. In these cities already a good practice in UWM is established. Unfortunately only few cities in Africa fall in this category. In these cities conventional UWM (example Cape Town) as well as IUWM (e.g. Windhoek, Durban) could be established. If there is already IUWM these cities can be considered as regional good practice and can serve as centre for good learning and knowledge exchange. If only UWM is established, these cities have the potential to transition to IUWM. The transitioning to IUWM is supported by the good institutional basic conditions, but there is the disadvantage of the path dependencies of the already existing conventional UWM infrastructure. In the following one of the most important opportunities for IUWM in Africa is described in detail, the potential of the emerging towns. As much as mega cities have developed, a number of new town and villages are rapidly forming and transforming to big urban centers, many of which do not have well developed infrastructure. Pilgrim (2007) reported that for every large town there are an estimated ten small towns, which is expected to increase four-fold in 30 years. It is a challenge to transform existing UWM in mega cities or established towns. Although new urban regions provide unique opportunities for doing things differently and for adopting innovative as well as sustainable UWM transitions. The evolving new urban areas are just starting to build their infrastructure and to establish new or extend existing utilities. New development plans can also open possibilities for institutional arrangements that integrate separate state bodies that deal with urban water management and other infrastructures such as housing and transport. Development paths that incorporate lessons learnt from OECD countries as well as innovative and sustainable approaches that have been tested elsewhere can be considered (Binz and Truffer, 2009). Development plans in emerging cities, may allow direct implementation of radically different system configurations in building their infrastructure. In new urban regions decentralized and alternative solutions can be readily introduced, which can be competitive alternatives to centralized systems as they provide opportunities to separate wastes at sources and implement reclamation options effectively. In water scarce areas decentralized systems such as water saving sanitation, rainwater harvesting, gray water reuse, wastewater recycling and nutrient as well as energy recovery schemes are increasingly becoming important. They have the potential to be readily integrated into development planning in new urban regions such as the case of storm water management in Seoul (see section 2.1) Informal settlements have overshadowed progresses made in UWM. Controlling and ultimately removing informal settlements from urban areas and establishment of new developments can 16 provide ground for introducing new approaches. In the last few decades, declines in uncontrolled growth of informal settlements have been observed in some regions. In Northern Africa, for example, significant progresses have been made in reducing number of slum dwellers. The State of Africa 2010 report indicated that Egypt, Tunisia, Libya and Morocco have collectively reduced their slum dwellers by half from 1990 to 2010 and Tunisia has totally eradicated urban slums. And in Sub Saharan Africa, slum dwellers have decreased by 5% (or about 17 million). 17 3. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR INTEGRATED UWM 3.2 The Concept of IUWM The IUWM approach is widely discussed in the technical literature. The foundation for IUWM is the concept of Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM), which gained attention in the 1990, and aspires to achieve an integrated management of available water resources within a catchment. A critical review on IWRM is provided by Biswas (2004). Since the beginning 2000 the concept of IUWM has been implemented in Australia as a result of the water reform initiative to address the increasing water scarcity (Anderson and Iyaduri, 2003; Coombes, and Kuczera, 2002). A review on the practice and implementation of IUWM in Australia, focusing on the total water cycle integration aspect is provided by Mitchell (2004). The result shows that IUWM could achieve more sustainable solutions and could provide cost savings. The approach of IUWM (also named total water management) was also discussed in Brazil where a modern water resource management system was established. Braga (2000) reported the successful implementation of integrated water resources management and planning in an urban watershed considering decision support systems as well as stakeholder participation. An integrated approach for urban water management was also developed in the recently completed EU 6th framework of SWITCH project ‘SWITCH - Managing water for the city of the future’. The concept of SWITCH approaches the design and management of the urban water system on an analysis and optimization of the entire urban water system (Institutional arrangements and infrastructure such as water supply, sanitation, stormwater, etc.) that will lead to more sustainable solutions than optimization of separate elements of the system. The concept was verified based on the results from research and demonstration activities in the 8 cities around the globe with two African examples Alexandria and Accra (van der Steen & Howe, 2009; Visscher and Verhagen, 2011). First experiences with IUWM implementation in South Africa are reported by (Carden et al., 2009). Many problems in service provision and water resource management in South Africa are caused by neglecting the interactions in UWM, so that IUWM is increasingly considered as strategy even if still not been fully adopted on the ground. A detailed definition of IUWM and the key principles of IUWM based on the existing experiences are presented in the following section. 3.2.1 Understanding IUWM There is so far no generally accepted definition of the term IUWM. In the following four definitions are provided, showing the range of understanding. ‘Integrated urban water planning is a structured planning process to evaluate concurrently the opportunities to improve the management of water, sewerage and drainage services within an urban area in ways which are consistent with broader catchment and river management objectives.’ (Anderson and Iyaduri, 2003) IUWM is ‘the practice of managing freshwater, wastewater, and storm water as components of a basin-wide management plan. It builds on existing water supply and sanitation considerations within an urban settlement by incorporating urban water management within the scope of the entire river basin’ (Tucci, et al., 2009). 18 ‘Integrated Urban Water Management is a flexible, participatory and iterative process which integrates the elements of the urban water cycle (water supply, sanitation, storm water management, waste management) with both the city’s urban development and the surrounding basin’s management to maximize economic, social and environmental benefits in an equitable manner’ (ICELI, 2011). IUWM is, ‘the practice of managing freshwater, wastewater and storm water as links within the resource management structure, using an urban area as the unit of management’ (UNEP, 2003). In summary, IUWM is a new approach for UWM that provides guidance to planning and management of urban water systems that takes environmental, economic and social interactions into account. IUWM incorporates all parts of the water cycle and recognizes them as integrated systems while considering water demands for residential, industrial, agricultural and ecological consumptions. Furthermore IUWM is an iterative process that integrates institutional bodies, different water sector infrastructure systems, water quality and quantity aspects during the decision making process. The approach of IUWM emerged based on experience that sub-optimal outcomes have been achieved by the traditional approach. In comparison to the conventional approach Integrated Urban Water Management takes a comprehensive perspective to urban water services, viewing water supply, storm water and wastewater as components of an integrated physical system and recognizes that the physical system sits within an organizational framework and a broader natural landscape (Mitchell 2004). The main differences between conventional and integrated urban water management are listed in the Table 3.1. Table 3.1 Comparison of conventional and integrated approaches to UWM (Pinkham, 1999) Criteria Conventional Approach Integrated Approach Overall approach Integration is by accident. Water supply, Physical and institutional integration wastewater and stormwater may be is by design. Linkages are made managed by the same agency as a matter between water supply, wastewater and of historical happenstance but physically stormwater, as well as other areas of the three systems are separated. urban development, through highly coordinated management. Collaboration with Collaboration = public relations. Other Collaboration = engagement. Other agencies and the public are approached agencies and the public search stakeholders when approval of a pre-chosen solution is together for effective solutions. required. Choice of infrastructure Infrastructure is made of concrete, metal Infrastructure can also be green or plastic. including soils, vegetation and other natural systems. Choice of technological Complexity is neglected and standard Diverse technological and ecological engineering solutions are employed to solutions as well as new management solutions individual components of the water cycle. strategies are explored that encourage coordinated decisions between water management, urban design and landscape architecture. 19 3.2.2 Dimensions of IUWM The IUWM refers to different dimensions of integration, all providing a new field to optimize the efficiency of UWM. Basically, IUWM aims to achieve integration in relation to the following aspects:  Integration of all parts of the urban water cycle: IUWM considers all subsystems in the urban water cycle water resourcessuch as stormwater, water supply, wastewater collection and treatment system, including natural and constructed systems, surface and sub-surface structures and solid waste management. The different parts are considered as an integrated system to avoid the problems and solutions encountered in one subsystem of the urban water cycle may adversely impact in other parts. If the different parts and subsystems are designed and managed in integrated manner opportunities for a more efficient and sustainable use of resources occurs. So IUWM aims to take advantage of the interactions and relationships between the different subsystems of the urban water systems in order to maximize synergies and minimize negative impacts. It aspires to close the water, energy and nutrient flow cycles in the urban space (van der Steen & Howe, 2009). IUWM promotes a holistic (systems) approach to managing the whole urban water cycle in an effort to optimize them.  Integration of all water uses: IUWM takes all water uses into account both anthropogenic and ecological. The objective is to provide water services to the community like water supply, public hygiene and flood protection, while at the same time ensuring ecological integrity of the natural environment (Shiroma, 2010). Different anthropogenic uses like industry, agriculture and domestic are considered. IUWM aspires integration across all social, economic and environmental dimensions, looking for approaches to optimize water use between different sectors. By considering cascade water use principles, IUWM attempts to efficiently allocate available water sources (including reclaimed water) to the different users.  Integration of all institutions, stakeholders and water users: IUWM is characterized by complex and flexible governance arrangements, increased inter-organisational interaction and wide stakeholder participation. It aspires institutional integration which enhances communication, collaborative organizational relationship, community participation and engagement and information sharing. It embraces sectorial integration which builds inter- agency collaboration between water resource management, water supply, drainage, sewerage and solid waste management (GWP, 2003). It also addresses the integration of water-related policies across sectorial divides. Integration is recognized as a dynamic element as it involves both organizational patterns and the state of mind of participants, both of which are subject to continual flux (de Boe, 1999). The other aspect of organizational integration concerns disciplinary/stakeholder integration, which is intended to encourage a cooperative state of mind between participants. Bringing together a wide range of professional disciplines and skills is one of the critical features of IUWM.  Integration across time: IUWM tackles current issues while working towards a long term vision for urban water management so that planned actions do not result in negative future impacts (Mitchell, 2006). It aims to balance the needs of UWM in the short, medium and long term by taking future pressures and related uncertainties into account. IUWM bases on strategic planning that address future pressures and global dynamics adequately. So IUWM promotes the planning and design of flexible and adaptive systems, which provide the 20 capacity to adjust UWM for expected and unexpected future changes. Furthermore IUWM as an iterative process that enables planning to adjust to the new challenges and events.  Integration of all urban services: IUWM address the complex interactions of urban infrastructure systems, physical environment, level of services and social factors. Urban services like water supply, sewerage, drainage, transport, housing, communication and other utilities are interdependent and the interactions between these different infrastructures like physical, logical, or functional connection are important in terms of urban planning. Failure of some of the structures, for example sewerage and drainage will have major effect on the other systems, for example housing, transport and water supply. Hence there is a need for integration between these different areas of public policy and infrastructures (GWP, 2003). IUWM recognizes the synergies and conflicts between different elements of urban management in a systematic way (SWITCH Training Kit Module 1, 2011). It encourages integration of existing infrastructure and enhances their capacity/life for desired performance and services. The interactions have to be considered in all stages of the decision making process (planning, design, implementation and monitoring) in order to prevent unwanted impacts and to facilitate the incorporation of certain solutions with little or no extra cost. In addition it considers how urban form (density, network structure, land use, size etc.) interact with urban water management. The urban form could enable or limit the implementation of different UWM solutions. By means of integration the optimal urban form for the reduction, recovery and reuse of urban resources should be achieved.  Integration of different spatial scales: IUWM considers different spatial levels from the whole region down to the single site to address the complex interactions of the urban water system (Mitchell 2004). So the concepts of the single sites have to fit as incremental parts in the IUWM strategy of the catchment. The consequences of UWM decision on the upstream water cycle have to consider the impacts downstream and vice versa. Furthermore the institutional arrangement may take different forms to suite the political and governance set up and the scale may vary depending on whether the catchment boundaries fall within a basin or involve catchment of multiple basins.  Integration of innovative solutions: IUWM facilitates and promotes the implementation of innovative approaches that are not accommodated by the conventional UWM. Innovations include but are not limited to water conservation and efficiency, utilization of non- conventional water sources including rainwater (stormwater), greywater and wastewater, the application of fit-for-purpose principles, stormwater and wastewater source control and pollution prevention, the use of mixtures of soft (ecological) and hard (infrastructure) technologies and non-structural tools such as education, pricing incentives, regulations and restriction regimes. 3.2.3 Framework for IUWM An important part of IUWM is to provide a new framework for the planning, design and management of urban water systems. The holistic framework of IUWM enables all stakeholders to look on the urban water system in an integrated way and provides the capacity to predict the impacts of interventions throughout the urban water system. By doing so the framework facilitates the development of innovative solutions for urban water management. Furthermore it provides the opportunity to optimize the whole urban water system to minimize water 21 consumption, costs and energy. Moreover, IUWM facilitates the prioritization of resources and supports informed decision making. The framework for IUWM is based on an integrated urban water cycle model including approaches of system engineering. An integrated urban water cycle model is presented in Figure 3.1. It includes both “standard” urban water flows (potable water, wastewater and runoff) as well as their integration through recycling schemes (greywater, reclaimed water and rainwater harvesting). Furthermore linkages between different urban resource streams like the water, energy and nutrients nexus have to be considered in the integrated model (see Figure 3.2). The systems approach is not limited to the physical characteristics of the urban water cycle, but also includes institutional, financial and policy structures (see Figure 3.3). So humans and their various organization forms are integral element of the urban water system (van der Steen and Howe, 2009). The boundaries of the system model for IUWM should be wide enough, to avoid that important effects are externalized. Too narrow system boundaries could result in a harmful sub- optimization of individual subsystems. Figure 3.1 Integrated urban water cycle model (SWITCH, 2011) 22 Figure 3.2: Integration of different urban services. (SWITCH , 2011) Figure 3.3 Framework for institutional integration (Brown et al. 2006) The framework emphasizes the linkages within the urban water cycle. When ignored, the interactions between the different elements of the urban water cycle can impact each other negatively, while at the same time, positive synergies can be missed. To capture the complex interactions and linkages modeling tools for IUWM are required to predict the impacts of possible interventions throughout the system. Hence to support IUWM different decision support and scoping models are provided (CITY WATER, AQUACYCLE, UVQ UWOT, MULINO, HARMONIT, DAYWATER), which enable the assessment of the dynamic balances of water, energy and pollutants at the city scale. The tools are designed to provide guidance on the potential short and long-term impacts of innovative technologies and systems for urban water 23 management (Bates et al. 2010). Furthermore the tools provide the opportunity for optimization using multi-objective algorithms to propose system configurations that minimize water consumption, costs and energy. 3.2 Global experiences of IUWM In the last ten years several cities in developing as well as developed countries have gained experiences with IUWM approaches. These cities realized the need for an integrated and holistic approach to UWM to address the complexities of urban set up. Some of the global experiences are described in the following section. In the case of Sao Paolo in Brazil, the concept of total urban water management was used. The total water management concept addresses technical, institutional and governance aspects of those services with directly involved (such as water, sanitation, drainage, solid waste) and indirectly involved (such as housing and transport). Braga, et al (2006) illustrates that the emphasis given to non-structural measures in Sao Paolo has resulted in positive outcomes. Sao Paolo has now established a highly institutionalized water management structure and progressive integrated land and water management policies. The new approach is seen as a success story in the IUWM in mega cities with complex institutional arrangements (where the different entities such as water sources and land uses are managed by different institutions) and where the water users and non-water users have come together for a common purpose. Based on this, Sao Paolo was able to gain a huge reduction of NRW of more than 45 M m3 over three years. The contribution of IUWM for conflict resolution is presented in the case of micro-tanneries in Bogota - Villapinzòn, Colombia (Sanz, M. et al, 2010). The project addressed the highly polluted Rio Bogota flowing through the city, focusing specifically on preventing pollution by small-scale and unofficial tanneries upstream. These tanneries have settled along the Bogotá river for decades where they discharge their waste effluents. Forcing the tanneries to stop their continued pollution of the river had not been possible because they were not aware of any affordable alternative for dealing with their wastewater. The tanneries were supported in building their own professional association and exploring different technical solutions to reduce the pollution load to the river in compliance with legal requirements. The project had a number of positive outcomes. Unofficial small enterprises, which generate almost half of the pollution load, have now implemented cleaner production principles, removing 90% of their contribution to pollution through improved treatment processes and recycling. The project demonstrated the feasibility of alternatives to a solely punitive and legalistic approach based on fining polluters (which was failing with the informal sector). The regulatory body is now pursuing and supporting such approaches as offering options as conflict resolution, capacity building, and dialogue. The case study illustrates how the inclusion of stakeholders can contribute to an integrated management of water quality. The World Bank LCR IUWM initiative has implemented a case study in Tegucigalpa ,Honduras. In Tegucigalpa a stakeholder forum including institutions and civil society organizations was established to develop a shared strategy to address the urban water challenges. The discussion initially focused on the development of a new reservoir to solve the lack of water supply. Analysis based on IUWM principles illustrated, the reservoir itself is not suitable to solve the water supply crisis but that strategies like improved water demand management and better leakage control are required. Furthermore in Tegucigalpa a short to medium-term strategy for IUWM was developed focusing on investments, studies and institutional strengthening measures 24 with links to programs of water supply, sanitation and water resources management. The implementation of the short-term strategy is currently in progress. Additional case studies of the World Bank LCR IUWM initiative in Monterrey and Medellin (Honduras) can also be cited as examples of stakeholder engagement for IUWM. Singapore is an example where IUWM improved the efficient use of limited water resources. The water supply system effectively utilizes combinations of rainwater harvesting and reuse of wastewater. The brand name NEWater has become an icon of water supply in Singapore. NEWater is reclaimed wastewater that has been treated by a combination of conventional and advanced technologies (such as microfiltration, reverses osmosis and UV disinfection). NEWater is used both for potable and non-potable applications such as in industries. Currently there are five NEWater facilities which supply about 30% of the water requirements in the country (PUB annual report, 2010). The largest facility has a capacity of about 1.4 M m3/year. PUB intends to increase the NEWater production to about 50% of the water demand by 2060. Seoul (South Korea) provides a case study for IUWM with a focus on stormwater management. Rainwater is considered as one of the main source of water, to be managed on decentralized basis in order to save water and energy and at the same time to improve flood control and prevent pollution (Han, 2007). In 2004, the approach has been supported by a regulation in Seoul City which enabled the installation of reservoirs for rain water storage and subsequent discharge. The regulation applies to all public buildings (compulsory for new buildings and recommended for existing ones), private buildings (recommended for floor areas more than 3000 m2), new public facilities, and large development plans (new towns). The approach provides temporary storage of localized high flows at several detention structures. Water levels, discharging and filling procedures in the detention structures are monitored and coordinated centrally with the involvement of the communities. Water from the detention structures is used locally for different domestic and municipal uses. A case study of IUWM which emphasize the integration of the whole urban water cycle is the City of Melbourne, Australia. In response to severe drought and a fast rising population the city of Melbourne has committed itself to a ‘total water cycle management’. Based on IUWM principles, the council has developed policies and guidelines that consider all components of the urban water cycle, including water consumption, stormwater management, wastewater and the natural water environment. Based on this analytical framework, objectives for water efficiency, wastewater reduction and stormwater quality have been developed. The overall aims are to reduce the reliance on vulnerable water supplies, to improve the quality of the water bodies and to adapt the city on the expected impacts of climate change. The approach is accompanied by a broad stakeholder engagement including the city council, the local water services operators, the commercial sector and the general public (SWITCH Training Kit Module 1, 2011). Additional case studies for the implementation of IUWM in Australia are presented by Mitchell (2004). Lessons learned from this diverse set of case studies for IUWM in Africa include:  The case studies illustrate that the new paradigm of IUWM was operationalized by different cities around the world. A major achievement is that innovative approaches are no longer considered separately but rather new total system solutions are discussed (Niemczynowicz, 1999). The UWM in Africa should be oriented towards this new paradigm. 25  All case studies demonstrated that specific needs and pressures are the drivers for implementing IUWM. This experience can be used to implement IUWM in Africa where several challenges and opportunities for UWM are identified (see chapter 2).  The IUWM solutions in the case studies are tailored to the specific characteristics and requirements of the different cities. It is possible to adapt the concept of IUWM to the specific requirements in Africa.  The case studies illustrate that so far no city has implemented IUWM in its totality. In all case studies there is still the potential to improve the integration of the institutional and infrastructure aspects of the key players and urban water components.  The case studies show, that the integrated approach facilitates the identification of solutions and opportunities that are not apparent in the conventional sectoral perspective. The different global experiences with IUWM show that significant economic, social and environmental benefits could be achieved. This potential should be exploited for Africa. 3.3 Future drivers for IUWM in Africa The major drivers for the traditional UWM in Africa were basically the need to improve public health and hygiene of urban areas. With respect to these drivers, the traditional approach has achieved significant progress through provision of water supply. However, the approach resulted in increased wastewater generation (that was not managed properly), which raised public health concerns and environmental pollution. The practice of traditional UWM was focused on relocating the problem downstream, and it did not observe the interactions between the different components of the urban water sectors. Hence, it was found to be unsustainable and it was necessary to revisit the principles and practices of UWM in order to incorporate the emerging concerns. The drivers for urban water management in Africa are increasingly becoming more complex in the same manner as urban developments. The major drivers have expanded beyond those of the traditional UWM and include: protection of public health and urban hygiene, environmental protection (and preservation of ecological integrity), efficient use of scarce resource and potential markets and products (water, nutrients and energy).  Protection of public health and maintaining urban hygiene: This was the first driver in urban water management in Africa and still remains one of the major drivers. Water borne diseases are among the most causes of public health hazard in Africa, which are mainly attributed to the lack of proper management of the urban water system. Emergence of resistant microorganisms and toxic/carcinogenic chemicals have triggered the introduction of advanced technologies and improved management of wastewater and storm water flows. Heightened risks of flooding due to urban developments (increased built up areas) with corresponding increased pollution loads have forced the practice of sound urban drainage management.  Protection of the environment and preservation of ecological integrity: Expansion of urban centers and unregulated waste disposal have deteriorated the natural environment and endangered ecological integrity. Most of the cities in Africa do not have wastewater treatment plants or at most they have the basic primary treatment. Industries discharge their untreated waste to sewers and recipient water bodies. Recipient water bodies are 26 increasingly impacted by the pollution loads and their ecological values (fauna and flora) are deteriorating. Increasing pressures from environmental protection agencies followed by stringent effluent standards are leading to improved wastewater and stormwater management practice.  Efficient use of scarce resources: Increasingly growing water uses per capita by the different sectors (agriculture, industry and domestic) have created stress on the depleting finite resource and require urban areas to rethink how to live within the limits of their means. Despite the dominant tropical conditions, more than 75% Africa’s continental area is classified as arid and semi-arid (Vörösmarty et al., 2005). According to the 2010 Maplecroft report of water security risk index, there are 15 countries in Africa in the high risk category. In addition to increased efficiency in water use, improved efficiency in Management and governance are needed to address the challenges. Diversification of potential sources reclamation and cascade use of water are becoming important to address the issue of limited resources. It is important to consider the value attached to each component of water streams and to matched with end uses in terms of the required quality. Every drop of water can be used at least twice before it is sent out of the loop. The wastewater streams are treated and the recycled water is kept in the loop and used in appropriate applications.  Potential markets and products from water management: All components of urban water (drinking water, wastewater, storm water including solid waste) could be viewed as economic goods and their proper handling and utilization has cost implications. As much as costs are incurred in managing them, recovery plans must be incorporated. It is therefore important to embrace a holistic view of UWM to reduce costs of operation and to maximize benefits by exploiting the opportunities for reclamation and reuse. Some of the resources that can be tapped from waste streams include energy (from solid biomass and liquid waste) and nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen). In Africa it is expected that by 2030, biomass resources will replace 30% of imported oil, provide 20% of transportation fuels produce 5% of electric power demand, and 25% of chemical needs (Fenton, 2011). Being a finite resource, phosphorus has taken center stage in recent years and current global reserves may be depleted in 50-100 years (Cordell et al., 2009). Its demand for sustained food production is projected to increase and hence alternative and more sustainable sources such as recovery from urine and waste water is becoming increasingly important. Treating phosphorus as a finite resource shifts the management paradigm from mitigating a noxious substance (due to its negative impacts on aquatic ecology by eutrophication) to recovering and reuse a precious element. 3.4 Game Changing Technologies and Approaches 3.4.1 Innovative Technology IUWM aims to make use of innovative technological solutions for urban water systems. Practical applications of a variety of new innovative technologies, such as membrane filtration systems including membrane bioreactors, advanced oxidation, hybrid systems of natural and advanced treatment, microbial fuel cells, electrochemical processes and source separation of different waste streams (separation of greywater, black and yellow waters) have led to new ways of managing urban water systems. The potential of more efficient reuse of water and nutrients and the recovery of energy is a major advantage of the new treatment technologies (Bieker et al. 27 2010). The new technologies are, in many cases, instrumental in the concept of integrated management approaches. The technologies most important for the African context are discussed below. Membranes: Advanced treatment technologies are increasingly becoming the preferred choices for water, wastewater and storm water treatment in order: to cope with stringent standards, to enhance capacities (hence reduce their footprints) and to address contaminants that cannot be dealt with conventional technologies. Due to their better capabilities and performances, membrane based technologies and membrane bioreactors are coming into the market in many water scarce regions to enable recycling of wastes and use alternative sources (such as brackish and sea water). The cost of membrane systems have dropped dramatically in the last decade, robust as well as durable membrane materials are being produced and low energy membranes systems (in some cases gravity driven) are being developed . Other technologies such as photovaltic systems that require small power source (solar driven) and oxidation processes that can be enhanced with catalytic processes in combination with membrane systems are coming into the market. The trend will enable utilities in Africa to upgrade their systems. Nano technology and microbial fuel cells: Nanotechnology concepts are being investigated for higher performing membranes with less fouling properties, improved hydraulic conductivity, and more selective rejection/transport characteristics. Microbial fuel cells, a potential breakthrough technology, that will enable to capture electrical energy directly from organic matter present in the waste stream in the process of microbial activities are emerging. Although these technologies are still in the early stages of development and significant advances in process efficiency and economics are necessary, they have the potential to enhance treatment processes performances and to improve efficiency of resources use. Natural treatment systems: The fundamental understanding in natural treatment systems (NTSs) is also improving. These technologies use the natural processes to improve water quality, to maintain the natural environment and to recharge depleting groundwater sources. For example, NTSs are increasingly being used to treat and retain storm water, wastewater and drinking water flows. NTS have the advantage of being able to remove a wide variety of contaminants at the same time, which make them total treatment system on their own and they are increasingly being used for water reclamation Source separation of waste streams: Key for the application of the most of the new treatment technologies is the separation of the different flows of wastewater according to their pollution load. Most of the contaminants of concern in wastewater are contained in black water. For example most of the organic and microbial contaminants are generated from faecal matter which accounts for only 25 % of the domestic waste, most of the nitrogen and the emerging contaminants such as Pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs), Endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) are present mainly in urine. New technologies such as vacuum sewage systems, urine separation toilets, which reduce most of the nitrogen and trace organic contaminants, have made it possible to handle a small and concentrated waste. These technologies have created opportunities for reuse of greywater at the sources, for recovery and reuse of nutrients, reduced cost of extensive sewer systems and minimized (even avoided) use of clean water to carry waste. An overview about innovative technologies that enhance the development of IUWM is provided in Table 3.2: 28 Table 3.2 Innovative technologies and their benefits to IUWM approach Innovative Technology Benefit to IUWM 1 Natural treatment system • Multi- functional (Integrated treatment and environment functions) • Improve environmental quality • Utilize natural element, features and process (Soil, vegetation, microorganism, water courses etc.) • Robust and flexible/adaptive • Minimize the use of chemicals and energy • Promote water reuse and nutrient recovery 2 Nano technology and microbial • Provide access to a cheap “green” energy source (enable to capture fuel cells electrical energy directly from organic matter present in waste stream) 3 Membrane bioreactors • Enhance new strategy for water management and to move towards (wastewater) water reuse • Reducing plant footprint • Can easily retrofit wastewater treatment processes for enhanced performances • Operational flexibility (Amenable to remote operation) • Environmental issues (visual amenity, noise and odour) 4 Membrane technologies (both • Promote decentralized system which minimize environmental foot water and wastewater) print • Enhance contaminants removal and encourage water recycle • Minimize the use of chemicals • Improve system flexibility- Small scale treatment system 5 Source separation • Promote water reuse and nutrient recovery • Promote small (decentralized) systems that can be easily managed • Avoids the complications and cost of dealing with mixed wastes 6 Anaerobic fermentation (UASB) • Production of biogas • Promote the recovery of energy from waste water 3.4.2 Innovative Approaches and Strategies IUWM offer different innovative approaches to cope with the challenges for UWM in Africa. By applying the principles of IUWM and using the innovative technologies listed above, it is aspired to satisfy the water needs of a community at the lowest cost while minimizing adverse environmental and social impacts. IUWM ensures that the technology innovations in urban water management are coupled with comprehensive system changes of the urban water system. In the following it is presented how approaches and strategies of IUWM provide solutions for the current and future challenges of UWM in Africa. New water resources and cascading use of water With increased urbanization and diminishing resources, many urban areas in Africa are struggling to provide sufficient quality and quantity of water to meet the particular needs of the community. Water scarcity is increasing and expanding which makes water a binding constraint on the sustainable future economic and social development. The approach of IUWM can help to 29 address the challenge in African cities of servicing more people with higher needs, with scarcer water resources. IUWM promotes the combination of supply-side measures with demand management, which aims at promoting efficiency of water use and prioritizing demands. Respective instrument of demand management include reducing water losses by rehabilitating infrastructure, adopting innovative technologies, and providing incentives for water saving. Several African utilities have made progress in the reduction of NRW such as Saldenha (South Africa), CWWS Windhoek (Namibia), UNEA (Bukina Faso) and SDE (Senegal). Improved efficiency in water use should be combined with strategies of supply management. IUWM approaches can help reduce the dependency on surface and ground water as the only sources of water supply. It allows the provision of water from diverse sources to areas facing scarcity. Locally available sources such as rainwater and reclaimed used water are promoted. For example reuse of reclaimed water is already practiced in Durban (South Africa) and Windhoek (Namibia). Furthermore IUWM promotes the approach of matching water quality and water use to improve the water efficiency based on assumption 'All water is good water'. The technological innovations mentioned above, which promote the increased recycling of wastewater ensure that water can be used multiple times, by cascading it from higher to lower-quality needs. So as already mentioned above the greywater from residential and commercial use could be treated and used as reclaimed water for irrigation purposes. African examples for cascading water use include the reuse of wastewater for the irrigation of urban agriculture in Accra (Ghana) and the use of reclaimed water from mining waste for municipal water supply in Emalahleni Municipality (South Africa). Based on the available technologies different local tailored water reuse approaches that permit safe and productive re-use of urban water within domestic, industrial and (urban) agriculture systems could be developed. These approaches for new water sources, using the synergies between different water uses can only be identified and optimized within the framework of IUWM. The approaches require an integrated perspective on water supply and wastewater treatment as well as integrated management of different water users. Furthermore the combination of new treatment technologies with an advanced systems design for supply and collection of different water qualities is required. The approach of matching water quality and water use can help to maximize the benefits of water services while minimizing the usage water resources. The approach has the potential to increase the available water resources for UWM. In addition the approach helps to solve conflicts between conflicting water demands by encouraging cascading use. Semi-central systems – Water machine IUWM promotes a paradigm shift from centralized to semi-centralized urban water systems. In such semi-centralized systems, the water is abstracted, used, treated, reused and discharged within short distances. The semi-central systems encourage new advanced treatment technologies for wastewater, which enable grey water recycling as well as closing the black water loop and are more suitable for decentralized applications (Otterpohl et al. 2003). Different treatment technologies like membrane bioreactors or natural treatment systems are available some of which are more suitable for urban areas and others for rural settings. Key for the application of most of the new treatment technologies is the separation of the different flows of wastewater according to their pollution load. For domestic users brown water (fecal matter), yellow water (urine), black water (urine and fecal matter) grey water (wastewater from kitchen, 30 sink shower, washing machine etc.) and stormwater (runoff from rainfall) are managed separately. It is agreed that there is the need for more decentralized systems compared to the conventional centralized approach (Otterpohl et al. 2003, Bieker et al. 2010). Nevertheless there is the concern that qualified operators are required to guarantee reliability for public health as well as environmental protection. The available new treatment technologies enable integrated management approaches and provide the possibility to reduce fresh water demand by substitution with reclaimed water. Semi- centralized systems have an enormous water saving potentials of up to 80% of fresh water consumption (Bieker 2010, Otterpohl et al., 2003). Hence semi-centralized systems can help to address the problems arising from water scarcity in some African cities. In addition the technologies that enable minimize the energy demand for water transport, the recovery of energy from wastewater such as heat recovery from greywater and the production of biogas from brown water can be employed. The African initiative “Biogas for better life” already conducted feasibility studies in Burkina Faso and Tanzania (Rued and Muench, 2008). Furthermore the technologies enable the recovery of nutrients in particular nitrates and ammonia from urine. Examples for urine separation in Africa include eTheKwini Municipality (South Africa) and Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso) (Rued and Muench, 2008). In addition with the separation of different water flows and reducing the extent of dilution, the costs of treatment are minimized and a more efficient treatment is provided, which could help to address the water quality problems. Semi-central systems facilitate the concept of beneficiation in water management as discussed in South Africa. The idea is to maximize the benefit, which can be achieved by the use of one resource unit. In this regard semi-central systems could be described as water machines. So a raw product (water of different qualities) is flowing into this water machine, and it generates many products – nutrients and other chemicals, energy, and water – as resources. There is a potential for an African green economy, with small businesses harvesting different benefits from water. The semi-central approach provides alternatives to the costly completion of the conventional centralized systems, which would require high investment costs. The semi-central system could be implemented in an incremental manner, which reduces the investment costs and makes the project easier to manage. Centralized systems have been unable to cope with the challenges caused by rapid urbanization like high growth rates for water consumption, diminishing water resources, rising amount of wastewater, sewage sludge and solid waste, pollution of receiving water bodies etc. (Bieker et al. 2010). Central urban water systems are difficult to adjust at rapidly changing and unpredictable growth patterns because of their long planning and implementation horizons. The new treatment technologies in particular membrane technologies enable scalable and compact treatment units. Such semi-central systems could be implemented quicker than conventional systems, and provide the chance to better cope with the dynamics of urban development. Flexible urban water systems IUWM promotes strategic planning and the concept of flexible design to address short and long terms pressures affecting the performance of the urban water system. The projections of future global change pressures are plagued with severe uncertainties which cause difficulties when developing urban water management strategies that are sensitive to these global change pressures. IUWM promotes strategic planning which takes the future variability’s into 31 consideration that allows re-visiting the plan to accommodate the dynamics. It follows an iterative process that enables planning to adjust to the new challenges and events. Aspired is to design the urban water systems in a way so that they meet the present as well as possible future demands. For example strategic planning processes for IUWM were successfully implemented in Accra (Ghana) and Alexandria (Egypt). The concept of flexible design has been cited by many scholars as an approach for dealing with uncertainty in urban drainage (Ashley et al., 2007; Schmitt, 2006) as well as for water supply and sewerage (Zimmermann, 2006; Kluge, Libbe, 2006). Flexible urban water systems should guarantee a permanent provision of the infrastructure performance even for uncertain future conditions. In addition to the prevention of future damages the utilization of future opportunities to improve the performance of the system is explored. For example, flexible urban drainage systems should have the possibility to deal with changing runoff volume. This could be provided by decentralized drainage systems with a modular design, which could be adapted with low effort on altering basic conditions. So the problem of adapting drainage systems in African cities to possible consequences of climate change could be addressed. For water supply systems flexible design could provide a network design, which provides a good performance in the case of regular supply as well as intermitted supply. So for regular water supply a centralized supply system will have the option to be changed to a more decentralized system in cases of intermittent situation. So the pressure differences in the network can be reduced and the equity of supply for all water users can be improved. Hence flexible systems can provide tailored solutions to deal with African specific problems like intermitted supply. Integrated approach to water quality and quantity management IUWM promotes an integrated water quality management for the entire river basin, to ensure desirable and achievable water quality targets in receiving water bodies, which may serve as water resources for drinking water supply. The approach should include a sound strategy for wastewater collection and treatment to target point pollutions and stormwater management to reduce non-point pollutions. To achieve this objectives semi-central treatment systems for wastewater including innovative treatment approaches like membranes or natural treatment systems etc. should be employed. Also a decentralized stormwater management based on the principles of SUDS / LID should be implemented. Such integrated water resource management are promoted by three regional initiatives - WaterNet, WARFSA and the Southern African chapter of the Global Water Partnership. (van der Zaag, 2005). The approach could deal with the problem in African cities of continuous deterioration of water quality in water resources resulting in reduced availability of resources, the associated severe public health issues and the impact on ecosystems. Moreover, an integrated water quality management should address the interactions of the water supply system with the sewerage system and foul water bodies which result in a cross contamination of the drinking water in the pipe system leading to outbreaks of water borne diseases (Lee and Schwab, 2005). The problems of cross contamination increases when there is a high leakage in pipes or when there is intermittent supply with periods of low pressure allowing contaminations to enter the pipes. Furthermore, in many African cities the water pipes are located below the sewage and drainage system, which increases the potential of cross contamination. To address the problem, an interdisciplinary perspective and interdisciplinary institutions are required. So interdisciplinary institutions have the potential to prioritize between 32 strategies like the avoidance of intermittent supply, reduction of leaking pipes, the reduction of foul water bodies near pipes etc. and should provide a multi barrier concept. A common problem in African cities is the weak performance of sewerage systems. Many problems can be traced back to design of the sewerage system. So the sewerage systems are often designed based on continuous water supply and associated high and continuous discharge of wastewater. Nevertheless many African cities only have an intermittent water supply, which results in a low discharge in the sewerage system than the design values. As result, the required low flows in the sewers system are result in sedimentation and blocking problems. This problem could only be avoided by an interdisciplinary perspective. So both the water supply and the sewerage system should be designed for a more realistic water demand, which really could be provided by the available water resources. Resource management, water supply and wastewater management have to be coordinated. Another integrated solution could be the provision of alternative sanitation concepts (like vacuum toilets, decentralized treatment of greywater etc.) which require less water for a good performance. Such an approach would reduce the water demand as well as solve the problem of dysfunctional sewerage system. 3.4.3 Best practices of IUWM in Africa Although no city in Africa has implemented an IUWM approach in its totality, there are some best practices in urban water management in Africa that can be considered for potential application. In the following section case studies in Africa are presented, the experience of which can be used to address a broader IUWM. Windhoek (Nambia) is facing the challenge of securing their water supply due to a lack of permanent natural water bodies and rapid urbanization. Driven by these pressures Windhoek has introduced a comprehensive water demand management programme in an effort to efficiently used available resources. Windhoek is one of the few systems, in the world, that reuse treated wastewater for drinking purposes. Reclaimed water accounts for about 26% of the drinking water supply to the city (Lahnsteiner and Lempert, 2007). Furthermore reclaimed water from industry is used for irrigation purposes in sport fields and golf courses. In addition Windhoek introduced policy and legislative measures to reduce water consumption, invested in water efficient technologies and reduced the non-revenue water. So the city has a leakage rate of less than 10%. With this measures Windhoek is one of the best examples of closing the urban water cycle in Africa (Lahnsteiner and Lempert, 2007). A recycling of wastewater is also provided in the city of Durban. Based on the scarcity of water, the Council’s eThekwini Water Services (EWS) developed the strategy to recycle treated wastewater. A wastewater treatment plant and a recycling plant provide reclaimed water tailored specifically to meet the water quality requirements of the primary clients (a paper mill and a refinery). This allows the industry customers to reduce their costs by purchasing reclaimed water rather than portable water. Considering the costs and technical complexity the water recycling project is implemented in a Public Private Partnership. Durban Water Recycling includes the eThekwini Water Services and Veolia Water Services responsible for the management of the technology and the process. It is one of the first private water recycling projects. At operational capacity the reclamation plant meets 7% of Durban’s water demand and reduces the wastewater discharge by 10%. This enabled potable water to be freed, which is now used for previously unserviced domestic households (IWA Water Wiki, 2011). Furthermore the environmental impact caused by discharged wastewater is reduced. Another example for reclaim water use in 33 South Africa is the Anglo thermal coal mining, which provides sufficient water for its own needs and 20% of the potable water demand of Emalahleni Municipality (Anglo American, 2011). Recently National Water and Sewerage Cooperation Uganda NWSC has become an example of good management practice in Africa. NWSC is one of the few stated-owned utilities that register consistent profit and one of the major success factors is attributed to a transparent and rewarding management approach. It has been transformed from a loss making to a profit making utility through changes in management and governance. Water supply service coverage through networks increased from 48 % in 1998 to 74 % in 2009 (through new connection policy which reduced connection fees) and supply continuity improved from 18 hours to 23 hours in the same period (NWSC annual report, 2009/2010). The management introduced a number of measures: i) to maintain an effective workforce, ii) to reduce unaccounted for water and iii) to increase revenue through improve billing system and increased rate of collection. At the same time, community awareness campaigns were launched, aimed at raising and mobilizing public support. With the improved capability of the institution NWSC developed a foundation on which concepts of IUWM could be implemented. Senegal provides best practice in private sector participation in urban water management. With a connection program, which was sponsored by donors, public sector and the surplus generated by private operators the water access was expanded. About 75% of the new connections were provided for poor households supported by a social connection program. Furthermore the operational efficiency of the water supply was increased by reducing the rate of NRW to 20% (Marin 2009). This was achieved because of contractual innovations, which increase the private operator’s incentives to perform efficiently. The contract included targets for NRW reduction enforced by financial penalties for non-compliance. IWRM has been advocated seriously for quite some time in Africa and has been included in government policies. Based on a study of 17 countries across the continents, (ANEW, 2011) reported that a growing shift from sectoral orientation towards more integrated approaches (IWRM) for water and sanitation provision is leading to institutional reforms. The Nile river riparian countries, under the Nile basin initiative, are attempting to address IWRM at river basin level. It has made significant achievements in developing integrations among the various institutions, infrastructures and stakeholders participations, which can be used for IUWM. Fundamentally, IWRM is applied at catchment level and recognizes the catchment or watershed as the basic hydrological unit of analysis and management. Cities are often dominant features in a catchments and success in IUWM will contribute to the practice of IWRM. In the context of urban areas, there is a growing conviction that IUWM should be pursued as a core component of IWRM. The above best practices as such do not give a full picture of IUWM and they are all driven by specific needs. For example in the case Windhoek water scarcity and in South Africa both water scarcity and environmental protection were the drivers. In Uganda cost recovery was the main driver. However, positive experiences from these and other practices can be combined to build an IUWM approach that can be applied in other places in Africa. 34 4. WAY FORWARD – IUWM IN AFRICA 4.1 Introduction This chapter presents the way forward to implement IUWM in Africa based on discussion of desk case studies. Three desk case studies, representing the different typologies, are considered:  An emerging small town in Uganda (Masindi), that represents new infrastructure and institutional development  A city in transition to IUWM in South Africa (Cape Town), that represents a completed infrastructure in the conventional approach  A city with partially developed infrastructure in Ghana (Accra). The three cases will follow different development trajectories towards IUWM:  The emerging city provides the ground for new thinking and the development trajectory will enable the town to adopt sustainable approaches  In the case of Cape Town, transitioning approaches from the conventional UWM to an integrated approach will be required. Transition paths for the infrastructure and institutional frameworks will be discussed  Accra presents a situation where a combined approach of transitioning and new development paths can be incorporated. 4.2 Cases studies 4.2.1 Masindi Town in Uganda Masindi is one of the emerging small towns in Uganda located in the North Western part of the country about 215 km from Kampala, the capital city. The population of the town was estimated at 45,400 people with a growth rate of 5.4% per annum (UBOS 2011). Masindi has a favorable climate and receives an annual long-term average of 1,304 mm of rainfall (MDLG 2009). The town is one of the 23 towns under National Water and Sewerage Corporation (NWSC). NWSC is an autonomous public utility established in 1972 to supply water and sewerage services to large urban centers in Uganda on commercially viable basis (NWSC 2010). There is no sewerage system in the town and on-site sanitation is the main means of wastewater disposal. The raw water source for the town is Lake Kiyanja. The Lake Kiyanja catchment area is about 345 km2 and is characterized by low, rolling hills interspersed with wetlands and much of the catchment is settled. About two-thirds of Masindi Town lies within the catchment (Quin 2006). The catchment is being degraded due to poor cultivation practices, use of fertilizers and pesticides, overgrazing, indiscriminate tree cutting for charcoal with consequences of lake water quality degradation and siltation. A recent study investigating the contaminant transport from waste disposal sites within the Lake Kiyanja watershed has indicated that there is contamination of adjacent shallow groundwater sources and flow of leachate contaminant towards the lake (Tauhid-ur-Rahman 2009). The design capacity of the water treatment plant is 2,500 m3/d, however, the average water production is only 1,448 m3/d, which is about 58% of the plant capacity. The water distribution system is about 5 years old and that probably explains the relatively low levels of non-revenue water (NRW) estimated at about 13% (NWSC 2010). The water service coverage in the area is estimated at 42%, with about 17,640 people having access to piped water supply. With the 35 projected population size of 123,000 by 2030, the discovery of oil within the region, increasing industrial and agricultural water demands (e.g. Kinyara Sugar Works), the water supply from the treatment plant will not be able to meet the demand. This is likely to be exacerbated by aging infrastructure with impact of increased leakage in the water distribution system. Storm water management as well as land use is inadequate. The institutional framework is rather fragmented with different institutions managing different components of the water cycle e.g. NWSC is in charge of water and sewerage while Masindi Town Council is in charge of stormwater and solids waste management. Since no single organization is in control of all aspects of the urban water cycle, there is limited freedom and flexibility in implementation of IUWM concepts. In terms of the transition stages of UWM development, Masindi town can be categorized as ‘the water supply city’ where only water supply is adequately developed with conventional treatment and distribution system without any development of sewerage and urban drainage infrastructures. There are opportunities to intervene at the earliest stage of its development to make sure that IUWM is embraced that would enable the town to reach the stage of “water cycle city” in the best possible development trajectory such as by leapfrogging the conventional UWM development stages. Future developments of the town can follow either the conventional path in the case of ‘business as usual’ model or it can follow a development trajectory in the framework of IUWM. Case 1 - Conventional path of development –Business as usual approach Based on the observed trends in the town conventional development path is likely to be followed. Each of the institutions such as the NWSC, the Town council and the Ministry of Water and Environment are addressing the UWM policies and operations in a fragmented way to address the urban water management, town planning and environmental considerations. The NWSC is focusing on water supply and deferring the development of sewerage system. The expected plan of actions and outcomes of the conventional approaches will probably lead Masindi town to develop in the pattern of most cities in Uganda and will be expected to face the same challenges witnessed by many cities. Water sources The prospects of rapid development and urban growth are expected due to the discovery of new oil in the area and subsequent industrial development. This will exert high water demand which may grow from the current 40 L/c/c to about 120 L/c/d based on possible growth patterns. As the lake has sufficient water for the projected population it will remain the major water source. However, as the town population grows, the city proper will expand and settlements around the lake will increase. The very high rate of population growth will lead to the mushrooming of informal settlements within the city and around the Lake. In addition, small industries are expected to flourish. In the ‘business as usual’ model, wastewater does not get the needed attention and with the increasing water supply, the amount of wastewater generation will significantly increase and will be discharged to the Lake, which is the closest recipient water body. In the absence of stringent regulations and enforcements of standards, industries will discharge their waste to the nearest drainage locations (such as sewers) or the lake. Town development around the lake will result in the clearing of vegetation and destruction of natural barriers such as wetlands. All these activities will pose huge threats to the health of the lake and will ultimately affect the operation of NWSC, which depends on the Lake as the only source of water for the Town. 36 Treatment plant and distribution As the pipe water connections are expected to grow, driven by financial needs of NWSC, the treatment plant will need to operate at full capacity and based on an assumed water demand of 120 L/cd, the water supply from the treatment plant need to be 14,760 m3/d and the plant needs to be expanded. By focusing on increasing the capacity of the treatment, the town will depend only on one treatment plant, which will limit the flexibilities of water supply options and create security concerns. As the treatment becomes very big, operational aspects become complex. The scenario of the ‘business as usual’ approach will consider the Lake as the only source and will address the increasing water demand by increasing the capacity of the existing treatment plant. Issues of deteriorated water quality in the Lake would be addressed by incorporating modifications to the treatment processes such as introducing advanced water treatment technologies or other natural treatment methods such as Lake Bank filtration. Using the conventional thinking of water distribution planning, the utilities will expand the existing distribution to create a big network of pipes to reach the ever expanding town. This will result in a very complex and chaotic water distribution network that create huge burdens on operation and maintenance. Although, highly interconnected water distribution networks are more reliable, they are not suitable for leakage management. Urban drainage and solid waste management The responsibilities of urban drainage and solid waste management lie on the Town council and are not likely to be coordinated with the water supply and sewerage plans. From the perspective of town planning drainage infrastructures are designed to avoid flooding by draining storm water from the city as fast as possible to the nearest recipient. This leads to high rates of erosion (and hence siltation of the lake) and will damp all the pollutants from the town into the lake. This will exacerbate the pollution threat of the lake. Increased solid waste generation will aggravate the leachate problem that is already presented and will put the lake`s water quality at risk. Unregulated disposal of solid waste from settlements around the lake and other informal settlements will heavily pollute the lake and block drainage systems leading to flooding problems. The approach and the possible outcomes discussed above, illustrate that the business as usual model will lead to a complex and unsustainable UWM system that will require more financial and intellectual resources to rectify (undo) the problems that are being created. Infrastructure developments for sewerage and drainage will focus on transporting large flows to a central treatment or disposal locations which would incur high investment and operational costs. Lack of coordinated infrastructures planning will cost more because synergies of the different UW components would not be exploited. For example decentralized approaches to wastewater and the drainage approach, minimize the need to build huge conveyance structures. Due the varying interest of the NWSC and Town council and overlapping responsibilities, their programs may result in unhealthy relations and will impact their individual programs negatively. For example the responsibilities for drainage and sewerage infrastructures, which interact heavily, lie among all of the institutions and their undesired interactions become sources of conflict between them. Case 2 - IUWM approach 37 Realization of the need for IUWM by all the concerned institutions is the first step in parting from the business as usual approach. In their historical development, most of the current cities in Uganda and other Africa cities have followed the conventional approaches to UWM and have attempted to solve the problems of water supply, sanitation, drainage and solid waste independently without success. The cities are now found in a situation where transition to IUWM has become difficult or impossible. The IUWM approach to Masindi Town needs to be framed on the following aspects: 1. Based on the fact that the Lake is the major (or only) water source for the town it needs to be fully protected to ensure good quality and sufficient quantities of water. 2. In order to minimize the risks of relying on only one water source, alternative sources of water need to be explored 3. As the rate of population growth is very high all efforts should be made to prepare urban space planning that controls the flourishing of informal settlement 4. The synergies that exist between the different urban water components: water supply, wastewater, drainage and solid waste need to be exploited and at the same time negative impacts of their interactions should be minimized 5. As various stakeholders have vested interest in the different components of the urban area, their coordination and integration is necessary. Responsibilities of the relevant institutions and cooperation arrangements should be laid out. As the pressure for water supply is expected to mount with the urban area and population growth, securing reliable systems becomes an important responsibility of not only NWSC but, of all the stakeholders. Protection of the lake from all possible pollution sources will require that all institutions and users take responsibility. If possible, provisions should be made to preserve or purchase parts of the catchment that are considered important in protecting the lake from pollution threats. For example, city development plans should include protection of wetlands, and in order to implement lake-bank filtration some areas around the lake should be preserved for such purposes. This requires the collaboration and joint planning of NWSC, Town council, the District and others such as the tribal leader (if the land belongs to the Bunyoro’s kingdom). There are several options for the diversification of water sources to enhance security and to lessen the burden of treatment plant:  Since the town is endowed with abundant rainwater throughout the year, rainwater harvesting can be seriously considered as an alternative source for different uses. Based on the assumption of built up area of 50km2 and an average rainfall of 1300 mm per year, potentially an amount of 178,000 m3 water can be harvested that can provide water for 1.5million people.  Introduction of building and plumbing code that encourage separation of grey water from black water, a potential exists to reuse grey water for gardening and other non- potable uses. Grey water accounts for about 60% of the domestic wastewater and based on a water demand projection of 120 L/c/d, an amount of 8,856 m3/d greywater can be collected and reused. 38  Industries would be required to treat their waste and reclaim water for different uses within their premises and possibly outside. This can free up a large amount of water from the municipal source. These measures will reduce the pressure on NWSC to meet the ever growing water demand of the town. Based on the estimated reuse of grey water and rainwater harvesting (186,938 m 3/d), the need for expanding the existing treatment plant could be avoided. By integrating water indicators into city planning, development programs officials can use to utilize urban space for effective urban drainage management, and use natural treatment and detention structures. Urban planning will allow settlements aimed at protecting the lake with stringent standards in terms of wastewater treatment and discharge, stormwater and solid waste management. The IUWM approach will attempt to integrate the functions and responsibilities of the various stakeholders such as the NWSC, Town council, Ministry of Water and Environment, the industries (such as sugar industry, oil exploration and processing industry and others) and other relevant stakeholders. NWSC and Masindi District Local Government are keen to implement IUWM as part of the wider integrated water resources management as highlighted in the NWSC strategic corporate plan (NWSC 2009), the District’s Environment Policy (MDLG 2009) and the Ministry of Water and Environment’s long-term sustainability plans for the environment and natural resources (MWE 2010). The infrastructural and institutional plans, and their consequences under the conventional (business as usual approach) and the IUWM approach, are compared in Table 4.1 Table 4.1 Comparison of business as usual and IUWM approach for the development of Masindi Town Business as usual approach IUWM approach Infrastructure • Water supply would be developed • Planning for all the UW components would be planning first followed by sewerage and prepared simultaneously development drainage • Synergies of the interactions are extracted and used • The development stage will be for better planning based on approaches to rectify • Decentralized systems of water and waste damage done by an earlier management would be considered development • Centralized systems of water and wastewater Water sources • Lake • Lake • Rainwater • Greywater • Reclaimed industrial waste Water supply • The existing treatment plant would • The existing treatment plant does not require be expanded expansion • Cost of treatment will increases as • Improved water quality of the lake would improve a result of deteriorating quality of performance of the plant the lake water • Augmentation with lake bank filtration would • Complex, expensive and enable to handle emerging contaminants inefficient water distribution • Small and manageable water distribution system system based on zoning principles. This would improve 39 water accounting and operational aspects • Water demand management implemented to reduce wasteful practices of water uses • Reduced NRW to improve financial status of NWSC, improve water quality at taps and energy costs. Sewerage and • Very costly centralized wastewater • Decentralized approaches for separation, treatment Wastewater treatment and disposal treatment • High cost of sewer installation and • Small bore simplified sewer designs operation Urban drainage • Urban drainage is planned based • Urban drainage planning would be based on flood and solid waste solely on the objective of flood protection, reuse options upstream, recharge of management protection ground water through better urban planning of • Solid waste is to be collected and infiltration areas disposed in a landfill • Storm water treatment in wetlands before discharge • Uncontrolled disposal impacts to the lake drainage and sewer lines, lake and • Solid waste management considers the 3R city hygiene principles (reduce, resue, recycle) Settlements • Possible mushrooming of informal • Control informal settlement settlement • Strict city planning protocols for settlements near • Unregulated settlements round the the lake lake • Reserve areas on the perimeter of the lake • Protected areas for settlements around wetlands Institutional • NWSC and Town Council seen as • NWSC and Town Council integrate their planning arrangements competitors and implementation activities • Independent planning of each • All relevant stakeholders involved institution and each UW • Large water consumers and polluters become part component of the solution 4.2.2 Cape Town, South Africa The City of Cape Town is the provincial capital of the Western Cape Province and the legislative capital of South Africa. The City covers an area of 2,455 square kilometres and has a population of 3.5 million which makes it the second most populous city in South Africa (City of Cape Town, 2008). Cape Town is an important driver of regional and national development and contributes 11% to national gross domestic product. This city is a case that represents the pressures faced by a large city in Africa with a largely completed conventional urban water system with large coverage and good standards, which faces numerous physical constraints due to its high growth rates and mature infrastructure. Cape Town is an emerging megacity that is characterized by high growth rates driven by migration and natural growth, much of which occurs in informal settlements. The city grew by almost 1 million people from 2.56 to 3.5 million between 1996 to 2006, and since 1985 its spatial footprint has grown by 40% (City of Cape Town, 2008). Much of the recent growth has contributed to urban sprawl and low-density suburban residential development. Furthermore a large percentage of Cape Town’s inhabitants reside in informal settlements. This population growth and urbanization has led to a dramatic increase in water consumption that cannot be satisfied by the locally available water resources. In the near future, the population 40 living in the urban area will face acute water problems. The average per capita water use stands at 230 ℓ/c/d. Since the water quantity available for supply is generally is not sufficient to meet the demands of the population, there is a water demand management to match supply. For instance water restrictions implemented in 2001 and 2004/5 moderately reduced water demands, however, this was not sustained after the restrictions were removed. Furthermore the discharge of insufficiently treated wastewater had detrimental effects on the aquatic systems. Whilst almost all the formal housing in Cape Town has access to the full suite of water related services – water supply, sanitation provision and drainage, this is not the case for the informal settlements. In particular the provision of sanitation facilities has lagged behind in informal settlements – it is estimated that at least 30,000 households have no access to basic sanitation. Limited availability and suitability of land, the high unit cost of facilities and the current housing policy are constraints to progress. The institutions for urban water management in Cape Town are fragmented. So the Catchment, Storm water and River Management (CSRM) department which, is responsible for the storm water system (including surface water bodies), is housed in a different department from water and sanitation services, which are interconnected. Provision and management of adequate urban water systems in Cape Town is becoming more challenging than ever. With high-quality infrastructure in place the challenge has shifted to coping with the need for the renewal of ageing systems, dealing with obsolescence where the installed infrastructure no longer meets regulatory requirements or changing service expectations. These existing infrastructure systems have been gradually deteriorating due to environmental action and ageing -non revenue water of the water distribution system currently stands at 23%; in many cases significantly exceeding the designed life and failing to meet the minimum level of services. The other, growing, focus of Cape Town is responding to the increased and changing demands for services. There is the need to recognize the different global and regional change pressures, which affect the operational and infrastructure performance of existing urban water systems. There is an urgent need to change and adapt the urban water management infrastructure in Cape Town, to maintain the high standard of the service, to prevent ad increasing risk to environmental health, and to avoid a threatening water crisis. Two development paths for Cape Town are described and the comparisons of the two possible development trajectories are presented in Table 4.2. 41 Case 1 - Conventional path of development –Business as usual approach In the following a scenario is described, how the urban water system in Cape Town will develop if the conventional UWM approach is implemented. The current trend will continue and the growing population and the increasing average per capita water use (caused by the upgrading of informal settlements) will result in a step increase of the water demand of Cape Town. It is expected that conventional water demand management measures (mainly asking for a voluntary reduction of water consumption) will not be very successful. Hence Cape Town will face the urgent need to explore additional water resources. Following the conventional approach a new big reservoir and a big desalination plant will be developed. In addition for the water supply system ageing pipes will be replaced and the capacity of the supply system will be adapted to the increasing water demand. For this renewal and adaptation of the water supply system huge investment will be required, to guarantee that system will maintain its good performance in future. Furthermore the water resources and the water supply will require a high energy demand. Cape Town aspires to provide basic sanitation for all inhabitants. The gap of the coverage of the sewerage system in informal settlements will be closed. Because of the huge required investment costs it is not expected, that sufficient treatment capacity can be provided for the whole waste water. In combination with the increasing water demand the pollution load in Cape Town will increase dramatically with negative effects on the fragile coastal ecosystem and public health. The current conventional urban drainage practice in Cape Town will remain. For the whole city at least a basic drainage is provided. The non-point source pollution from the drainage system will contribute to the increasing pollution load on the coastal ecosystem. The institutional setup in Cape Town will remain like it is at the moment. There will be still a different department for water supply / sewage and stormwater management. This institutional framework will limit the possible solutions e.g. to solve the problem of increasing pollution load from point as well as non-point sources. Also other urban services related to urban water management like energy, urban planning etc. will be still separated. This missing institutional integration will limit the possible combined solutions strategies. With the current conventional trajectory, Cape Town will sustain a well-functioning but unsustainable system. On the one hand it is expected, that for nearly all inhabitants a sufficient water service are provided. On the other hand the system is not sustainable because of the high energy demand of the urban water system, the loss of valuable nutrients like nitrates and the negative impacts on the ecosystem caused by the pollution load. Furthermore the future system will not be very resilient against natural and man-made crisis. So increasing energy prices can significantly increase the costs of the water services, in particular if the high energy demand for the desalination plant and the high pumping cost for the extended supply system are considered. The increasing costs can result in a water crisis in particular for poor inhabitants. Also natural shocks like extreme droughts can result in an increasing water crisis. Case 2 - IUWM approach The current and future challenges of UWM in Cape Town could be addressed with an IUWM approach. So IUWM solutions are already discussed in Cape Town, however its implementation at city scale is still in its infancy. Because of the existing extensive urban water management infrastructure Cape Town cannot easily SWITCH to an IUWM approach. Rather the constraints 42 and path dependencies of the existing infrastructure have to be taken into account. Hence the implementation of IUWM in Cape Town is described as a step-wise transition process. In the following the options for the transitioning to an IUWM in Cape Town are described. In the first transition phase the weaknesses and problems of the existing UWM infrastructure will lead to the invention and testing of new solutions for IUWM. In Cape Town there is already a first understanding of the need to change the approach for UWM. Nevertheless it is unknown, which options of IUWM can contribute to the solution. Thus, different IUWM options will be tested in small case studies and demonstration projects. For different settings like low density outskirt developments, downtown redevelopment or the upgrading of informal settlements and former townships different technological options of IUWM like ecosanitation, semi-central treatment systems, natural treatment systems, SUDS / LID solutions, the use of reclaim water for irrigation etc. will be tested. After the initial phase the most suitable technical options for IUWM in Cape Town will be identified bigger strategic demonstration projects will be implemented. The demonstration projects will illustrate to the practitioners as well as the general public how the IUWM options could be implemented and that they could provide a good long-term performance. Furthermore IUWM options are implemented in different 'niche markets'. Niche market could be the provision of water services to informal settlements or the development of gated eco communities for rich but sustainable inhabitants. When the options of IUWM are proven in several case studies and in niche markets there will be the chance to extend the implementation of the new IUWM options. So the implementation of IUWM options for all new development sites or major redevelopment projects will be made mandatory. IUWM will be established as state of the art for all new-buildings and sites. At this stage further development of the conventional UWM system will be stopped. Then no additional big investments in the conventional system will be made anymore. When this stage of the transition process in Cape Town could be achieved within only a few years, it will be possible to dispense and stop some major new investment in conventional UWM systems. So the increase of the water supply system or the development of new water resources like the desalination plant will not be longer required to meet the increasing demand. The Cape Town water utility will be interested in effective water demand management strategies, so that the existing system could serve more people without major investment in the infrastructure. The demand management strategies like leakage control, water restrictions, metering water efficient plumbing etc. are of high economic value for the utility, because they save big new investment. Nevertheless beside the implementation of IUWM in new development sites there will still be no direct competition between the existing conventional infrastructure and the IUWM options. When a critical threshold of IUWM solutions in new development sites will be reached, the spreading of the IUWM solutions will lead to a conversion of the existing UWM infrastructure. During this final step of the transitioning process a new IUWM for the whole city of Cape Town will be developed. Tailored IUWM options for different types of urban settings will be implemented because of the highly fragmented and clustered structure of Cape Town. To facilitate the implementation of the IUWM options synergies with other on-going spatial developments like the redevelopment of districts, the upgrading of informal settlements etc. will be used. IUWM will be a driver for the redevelopment of Cape Town instead of the spatial redevelopment processes being the driver for the transition of the IUWM system. 43 In the central city and other areas with a high density semi-central treatment systems will be provided. The semi-central system will base on the existing pipes and sewers of the conventional system, but are divided into smaller units. Furthermore in the semi-central treatment centers advanced treatment technologies like membrane bio-reactors will be implemented, which enable the recovery and reuse of energy, nutrients and water. In the outskirts with a lower density mainly decentralized and close loop systems for water supply and wastewater treatment will be developed. In the transition process the existing water supply and sewerage system is broken down into smaller units oriented on the shape of small catchments. Still using the existing pipes and sewers the transition will mainly focus on the provision of new treatment technologies and if required new pipes for the collection of different wastewater streams and the distribution of reclaim water. Each decentralized treatment unit will be tailored to the treatment and reuse needs of the small catchment. In the treatment units a much better treatment of the wastewater will be guaranteed, because of the tailored treatment of different wastewater streams (in particular also of industrial wastewater). Furthermore reclaim water will be produced according to the needs of the catchment so that the fresh-water will be reduced drastically. In addition a local harvesting of energy and nutrients from wastewater will be provided. For urban drainage a decentralized management of the storm water management (based on SUDS and LID options) and for the whole city a blue-green network along the receiving water bodies will be developed. The blue- green network will have a multifunctional purpose. The green areas along the water bodies will be used for the retention and infiltration of stormwater. Furthermore the remaining wastewater of the semi-central treatment units and the stormwater management will be discharged in the small water bodies. In addition the blue-green network will serve for purposes of landscape design, recreation and amenity. The transitioning of the technical infrastructure will be accompanied with a change of the institutional set up. The combined management of water supply, sewerage and stormwater will be reflected in an integrated institution. Furthermore a close connection with the urban planning department will be guaranteed, to achieve synergies with the spatial development process. In Cape Town in a stepwise transitioning process the implementation of IUWM options is possible. Nevertheless because of the path dependencies of the existing UWM infrastructure the implementation of innovative solutions takes a long time. So it could not be estimated how long the different steps of the transition process will take. Furthermore even if one step of the transition process is finished it could not be guaranteed that the next step will be addressed. Hence the transitioning of UWM into an IUWM system is associated with huge uncertainties. 44 Table 4.2 Comparison of business as usual and IUWM approach for the development of Cape Town Business as usual approach IUWM approach Infrastructure • The water supply and sanitation for • All water services water supply, sewerage and planning informal settlements will be drainage will be developed simultaneously development developed first, the development of • De- and semi-centralized systems of water and wastewater treatment and urban waste management will be implemented drainage will be delayed. • The development of the semi-centralized system • Centralized systems of water will be step-wise for single districts and supply and wastewater development sites Water sources • Reservoirs • Reservoirs • Desalination plant • Ground water • Ground water • Rainwater harvesting • Reclaimed water Water supply • The current water supply system • The existing water supply system will not be will be expanded expanded • The cost and energy demand for • For new development sites and redevelopment sites water supply will increase as a an own semi-centralized water supply system will result of the high pumping cost, be provided. and expensive new water sources • The existing centralized water supply system will be separated in smaller units • In the water supply system water of different quality (water with quality fit for purpose) will be provided Sewerage and • Costly centralized wastewater • De- and semi-centralized treatment units tailored Wastewater collection and treatment for the requirements of the catchment. treatment • Problems to provide sufficient • Recovery, recycling and reused of energy, nutrients treatment capacity for the and water from wastewater increasing wastewater discharge • Increasing pollution load will affect receiving water bodies and ecosystem Urban drainage • Urban drainage is provided • Urban drainage included in urban water independently from other water management concept. services • Decentralized SUDS / LID solutions with focus on • Conventional drainage approach, harvesting, infiltration and retention of stormwater with focus on quick discharge of • Development of city-wide blue/green network along water of small receiving water bodies: multifunctional use • Increasing non-point source for drainage, recreation, amenity etc. pollution of receiving water bodies Institutional • Separation between water supply / • An integrated institution for all urban water services arrangements wastewater and urban drainage • Close cooperation urban water management and concepts urban planning 4.2.3 Accra, Ghana Ghana`s capital Accra, has a current population of about 2 million. It covers an area of approximately 200 km2 and is the largest city in the country. It is the most populated and the fastest growing metropolis in Ghana with an annual growth rate of 4.3 % (National Population 45 Census, 2000). In addition, Accra has a functional population of 2.5 to 3 million people in terms of socio-economic activities besides the residential dimensions and this has put much pressure on the existing water supply system which is already constrained. In Accra the water supply is undertaken by the Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL) which supplies water from two sources, that is the Weija Waterworks and the Kpong Waterworks. The water production does not meet the demands of city and therefore most suburbs of Accra and newly developed areas are not connected to the distribution networks, which is intermittent. The water distribution network is deteriorated with about 30% water loss through leakage. Water supply coverage to the city is 82% but this does not imply house connections. Only 45% of the population have in house connection or at best yard connection. The water supply company implicitly manages demand by supplying water intermittently. The majority who live in the low income settlements depends on water vendors for their daily needs. Per capita domestic water supply is said to vary between 60 and 120 liters per day (in the well served areas only) and 25 to 60 liters per day when poor households buy water from vendors. About 60% of the population lives in low income settlements. It is estimated that about 100000 m3 per day of wastewater is generated, based on an average per capita daily consumption of 76 liters (MoWRWH, 1998), and a wastewater return flow of 80%. However a small portion of residents and institutions are connected to the city sewerage network. It is established as well that less than 5% of the households in Accra are connected to sewer lines, while 21 % use flood drains (gutters) as open sewers that discharge to a nearby water bodies. According to Agodzo et al. (2003), the total amount of annual domestic wastewater (grey and black water) currently produced in Ghana has been estimated at 280 million m3. As Ghana’s industrial development is concentrated along the coastline, treated and untreated was wastewater are discharged into the ocean. A portion of the wastewater from city is used as a potential “resource” of water (and nutrients) for irrigated urban agriculture, which is estimated to provide up to 90% of the vegetable needs of the city. Thus there is a need for more productive and safe water in urban agriculture addressing social inclusion, improved income, and nutrition for the urban poor. Solid waste collection is erratic or non-existing, there are few communal rubbish containers, which are not emptied regularly, open landfills (rubbish dumps) are common (WB, UESP, 1995). Solid waste management in the main urban centers in Ghana developed during the 1990 when financial support from several international organizations like the World Bank, GTZ of Germany, and VNG of Netherlands, was made available. But as population has grown at a very high rate, difficulties to provide adequate services of SWM have become a huge challenge. Many of the storm drainage lines are clogged, which result in flooding of large part of the city even after moderate rain. A large portion of the population lives in slum (informal) settlements across the city. It is estimated that approximately 7 out of 10 people live in slum (ICLEI, 2011). Most of the poor live in these low-lying area, which are prone to flooding. Institutional arrangements of the key players for urban water management are fragmented and ill-equipped to deal with the ever increasing challenges (ICLEI, 2011). Urban water management functions do not reside with one institution or ministry and up until the decentralization process started, it was not a core function of the city authorities. Currently water resources management and water supply have not been fully decentralized to the MMDAs. 46 In general, the UWM in Accra can be described as follows:  Developed water supply system with distribution network  Sewer lines covering only some parts of the city  Few wastewater treatment plants that do not function properly  Erratic solid waste management  Urban drainage systems not developed  Fragmented urban water institutions that lack coordination  Urban agriculture that supplies about 90% of the vegetable demand of the city  The source of water for urban agriculture is wastewater which has of poor quality Future development of UWM of Accra is likely to follow the conventional approach with some concepts of IUWM, especially after the SWITCH demonstration projects has introduced some elements of integration. In this section alternative development paths will be discussed Case 1 - Conventional path of development –Business as usual approach The pressures on the city from rapid population growth will build up as the coverage for water supply and sewerage will expand. The per capita water demand is also expected to increase as a result of improving quality of life and industrial developments. In the conventional development trajectory, traditional thinking of expanding water and waste water facilities (treatment, sewer and distribution systems) will lead to costly infrastructure both in investment and operation. Water supply: In conventional thinking, the development path will lead to the expansion of the water supply coverage with more in house connections and increased supply. As a result, the distribution network becomes more complex, which will affect the operation and maintenance aspects. This will also require expanding the treatment infrastructure. As the wastewater systems are lagging behind, its impact on the water sources will require costly treatment options by the water treatment plant. As the lack of proper sewer and wastewater treatment facility are already impacting the water sources, the city will have to depend on either advanced technologies to cope with the deteriorating water quality or opt for alternative sources. Aging infrastructure and high level of NRW will further exacerbate the operation and source availability for the city. Wastewater management: Based on the needs to provide basic sanitation for all, the wastewater management will attempt to expand the sewer connection and that will result in the need to expand the wastewater treatment facilities. This will create an enormous cost implication on infrastructure development, energy cost and waste disposal. Urban agriculture as the major recipient of the waste water, will continue to depend on the poorly treated wastewater and pose major public health risks. Coastal cities face special problems due to intensified urbanization, industrialization and growth of tourism which put additional burden on the limited water resources. They are vulnerable to flooding and contribute to the pollution of the sea by direct discharge of untreated domestic and 47 industrial sewage effluents. In Accra as the sewerage coverage expands, this issue will manifest and affect the health of the beaches and development of tourism. Urban drainage and solid waste management: Due to the high rate of population growth, Accra will struggle with the expansion of informal settlement. This will directly affect the drainage and solid waste management practices. The lack of coordination of drainage and solids waste management with the water supply and sewerage systems, the anticipated challenges of the expanding water supply and sewerage will get worse. Flooding problems, littering of the beaches and streets and contamination of water supply sources and cross contamination in distribution systems will be common occurrences. The approach and the possible outcomes discussed above illustrate that the business as usual model will lead to a complex and unsustainable UWM system that will require more financial and intellectual resources. Infrastructure developments for sewerage and drainage will focus on transporting large flows to a central treatment or disposal locations which would incur high investment and operational costs. Institutional structure: Although there has been some progress made towards integrated institutional arrangement through the SWITCH project, it is at an early stage and has been focusing on improving inter sectoral collaboration and communication. The need to integrated the institutions in terms of policies and implementation strategies will have to be strengthened. In the business as usual approach the fragmented planning and implementation practices will lead to chaotic infrastructure development where the synergies of the different components are not exploited and the impacts of the interactions are not addressed. Case 2 - IUWM approach Despite the challenges, Accra has shown progress and has more potential opportunities to find innovative ways of managing the urban water system. For example, SWITCH project has set multi-stakeholder learning platforms with horizontal and vertical learning structures to encourage innovative solutions for IUWM (which involve uninterrupted access to water, reduce physical loss, efficient water use, waste reclamation, acceptable level of sanitation facility etc). A strategic plan for IUWM in Accra has been developed through an integrated participatory process. Accra has also developed City Water Model, which identified different component of the urban water cycle. The tool is used to examine the interdependency between components of urban water cycle, the existing deficiencies within the system and the possible alternative solutions. Future development of Accra will have to address the different urban water components differently. As the water supply is fairly established, the development path needs to address the transition from the existing system to a more efficient system. The sewerage, drainage, solid waste management systems and institutional structure will require new development paths that will provide opportunities to employ new thinking. Water supply: Expansion of the water supply coverage for the city will consider the use of alternative sources in addition to the municipal supply. Use of rainwater harvesting and greywater reuse can lessen the burden of the water sources and treatment facilities. Through the introduction of new regulations for new developments, accessibilities for rainwater collection, greywater separation and usage of such resources locally would avoid the need for high investments sewer and drainage systems. Based on the principles of cascade water use, adopting 48 used water reclamation for washing vehicles, gardening, toilet flushing at decentralized levels would be considered as means to reduce the pressure on the municipal water supply. Wastewater: With only 5% sewer coverage and only few wastewater treatment plants that do not operated properly, the sewerage system of the city can follow a path that introduces alternative systems instead of continuing with the expansion of sewers with a centralized wastewater treatment concept. It is anticipated that some of the project (such as ASIP) will improve access to sewer connections the population in the older parts of the city, therefore a tailor-made approach is suggested for the remaining neighborhoods. For the treatment of the wastewater from the connected neighborhoods one may adapt a strategic to treat wastewater in satellite treatment plants whenever possible. This will limit the required treatment capacity in the coastal treatment plants (such as the Jamestown plant). Most likely the required land area to treat all wastewater in natural systems will not be available, especially not close to the coast, therefore it will be necessary to use eventually more compact technologies, such as UASB + trickling filter or even activated sludge. In the newly urbanized areas improved sanitation should be accessible for all categories in society. Where the population cannot afford a sewer system or advanced-Ecosan, KVIPs can be constructed in the short to medium term. The KVIPs will be designed such that they can be upgraded at a later stage to an Ecosan Toilet or flush toilet. Where the population can afford a sewer system, such systems may be put in place, provided that sufficient water for flush toilets is available and that using water for flushing toilets does not deprive other citizens from access to drinking water. The urban agriculture, which is the major recipient of the wastewater from the city, will require better water quality. Water has various productive uses in Accra, including the use of waste water for urban agriculture which is important to the livelihoods of many poorer people, but use of polluted water for irrigation poses risks to human health. There is an ongoing research work on demonstration of low cost on-farm water treatment technology (pond systems). Example case is the use of AquaCycle in the Kpeshie Catchment in Accra. The demonstration focuses on the waste water quality and related health, nutrition and social inclusion issues. Drainage and solid waste management: In Accra the drainage and solid waste management have not developed sufficiently and there is an opportunity to adopt IUWM to develop these systems in a sustainable manner. To prevent increased storm water flows and downstream flooding, storm water management (retention, storage and infiltration) in the newly urbanized areas and in a greenbelt, located to the north and north-west of the current city is required. This may combine multiple functions, for urban agriculture, reuse of treated wastewater, recreation and storm water infiltration. In addition upstream prevention of flooding is recommended to achieve an improved quality of life for the citizens of Accra. Institutional arrangements: The city level learning alliance (LA), which was developed by SWITCH project, has been instrumental in improving communication between stakeholders. Institutional maps has provide an overview of institutional and governance structures for the management of urban water; focussing on the key actors or players and their interactions, where power is located, who has the ability to influence decisions, and who makes decisions. There is also a need for more institutional adjustments. For instance national and city level institutions that deal with water quality regulation, industry regulation, urban planning, sanitation, health and hygiene, and private sector design and construction engineers would all need to work together to 49 develop an integrated solution. A comprehension and coordination between institutions and individuals requires a paradigm shift. Such a shift can occur only when the right learning climate is established. A summary of the comparisons between the two approaches (business as usual and IUWM) are presented in Table 4.3. Table 4.3 Comparison of business as usual and IUWM approach for the development of Accra Business as usual approach IUWM approach Infrastructure • The water supply and sanitation for • All water services water supply, sewerage and planning informal settlements will be drainage will be developed simultaneously development developed first, the development of • Decentralized and semi-centralized systems of wastewater treatment and urban water and waste management will be drainage will be delayed. implemented • Centralized systems of water supply and wastewater Water sources • River • River • Ground water • Ground water • Rainwater harvesting • Reclaimed water Water supply • The current water supply system • Semi-centralized water supply system will be will be expanded provided for new developments. • Complex, expensive and • The existing centralized water supply system inefficient water distribution will be separated in smaller units system • End side demand management practices will • High pumping cost, and expensive be exercised new water sources • Different quality of water will be used for different purposes. Sewerage and • Costly centralized wastewater • Decentralized and semi-centralized treatment Wastewater collection and treatment units treatment • Reuse of poor quality water for • Recovery, recycling and reused of energy, urban agriculture nutrients and water from wastewater • Problems to provide sufficient • Low cost on-farm water treatment technology treatment capacity for the (pond systems- AquaCycle) for urban increasing wastewater discharge agriculture. • Increasing pollution load will affect receiving water bodies and ecosystem Urban drainage • Urban drainage is planned based • Urban drainage planning would be based on and Solid waste conventional approach with an flood protection, reuse options upstream, objective of flood protection recharge of ground water through better urban • Increasing non-point source planning of infiltration areas pollution of water supply • Development of city-wide blue/green network • Solid waste is to be collected and along of small receiving water bodies: disposed in a landfill multifunctional use for drainage, recreation, amenity etc. • Uncontrolled disposal impacts drainage and sewer lines and water • Solid waste management considers the 3R bodies principles (reduce, resue, recycle) 50 Settlements • Illegal settlements across the city • Improved urban infrastructure system in informal settlement areas ( Slum upgrading) • Control informal settlement Institutional • Fragmented institutional structure • An integrated institutional and governance arrangements (planning of each institution and structures for the management of urban water each UW component separately) • Close cooperation urban water management and urban planning 4.3 Summary of case studies Three case studies in Africa have been used to demonstrate how IUWM could be adopted in practice. The case studies were Masindi Town in Uganda, City of Cape Town in South Africa and Accra city in Ghana. The case studies have highlighted the need of incorporating the following IUWM concepts into the IUWM-based strategic planning: engagement of key stakeholders in the whole planning exercise;  urban planning;  risks, resilience and uncertainties of system components and how they may impact the whole system;  Sustainability dimensions (technical, economic, environmental and social). Based on the case studies the following preliminary conclusions can be made  Development trajectories for IUWM in African cities depend on the typology of the specific city  Demonstration projects for each of the typologies discussed in this section would provide more insight and experiences gained based on such demonstrations can be upscaling in other cities and regions 51 REFERENCES Anderson, J., Iyaduri, R. (2003) Integrated urban water planning: big picture planning is good for wallet and the environment, Water Science and Technology Vol. 47 No. 7-8 pp 19- 23, IWA Publishing ANEW (African Civil Society Network on Water and Sanitation ), (2011). Analysis of Water and Sanitation Policies and Status of IWRM in Africa & Advocacy capacity assessment of African civil society on water supply and sanitation, http://www.anewafrica.net/Files/capacity_assesment_report_summary.pdf, (Accessed on Aug 5, 2011) Anglo American (2011) Emalahleni water reclamation plant: case study, http://www.angloamerican.co.za/sustainable-development/case-studies/emalahleni-water- reclamation-plant.aspx (Accessed on July 26, 2011) Banerjee, SG. And Morella, E (2011) Africa’s Water and Sanitation Infrastructure : Access, Affordability, and Alternatives. AICD report, World bank, Washington DC Bahri, F (2002) Water resue in Tnisia: Stakes and prospects. Serge Marlet et Pierre Ruelle (éditeurs scientifiques), 2002. Vers une maîtrise des impacts environnementaux de l’irrigation. Actes de l’atelier du PCSI, 28-29 mai 2002, Montpellier, France. CEMAGREF, CIRAD, IRD, Cédérom du CIRAD. Bieker,S., Cornel, P. and Wagner, M (2010) Semicentralised supply and treatment systems: integrated infrastructure solutions for fast growing urban areas. Water Science & Technology – WST, 61 (11):2905-2913 Binz, C. and Truffer, B (2009) Leapfrogging in infrastructure - identifying transition trajectories towards decentralized urban water management systems in China. DRUID conference, Copenhagen, Denmark, June 17-19, 2009 Biswas, AK (2006) Water Management for Major Urban Centres. Water Resources Development, 22( 2):183–197 Biswas, A. K., and Tortajada, C. (2009). "Water Supply of Phnom Penh: A Most Remarkable Transformation." Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, Singapore. Braga, B.P.F., Jr. 2000. The management of urban water conflicts in the Metropolitan Region of Sao Paulo. Water International, 25, 2, 208-213. Braga, B. P. F, Porto, M. F. A & Silva, R. T (2006) Water Management in Metropolitan Sa˜o Paulo. Water Resources Development, 22( 2): 337–352 Brown, R., Keath, N. and Wong, T (2008). Transitioning to water sensitive cities: Historical, current and future transition states. Proceedings of the 11th International conference on urban drainage, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK Brown R. R. and Farrelly M. A. (2009). Delivering Sustainable Urban Water Management: A Review of the Hurdles we Face. Water Science and Technology. 59(5):839-846. Cabrera, E., Pardo, M. A., Cobacho, R., and Cabrera Jr, E. (2010). "Energy Audit of Water Networks." Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 136(6), 669-677. 52 Chowdhury, M. A. I., Ahmed, M. F. & Gaffar, M. A. (2002) Management of nonrevenue water in four cities of Bangladesh. J. Am. Wat. Wks Assoc. 94(8), 64–75. Coombes, P.J. and Kuczera, G. (2002) Integrated Urban Water Cycle Management: moving towards system understanding, 2nd National Conference on Water Sensitive Urban Design, 2-4 September, Brisbane. Cordell, D., Drangert, J-O and White, S (2009). The story of phosphorus: Global food security and food for thought, Global Environmental Change, 19(2):292-305 Darteh, B., Adank, M. and Manu, K. S (2010). Integrated urban water management in Accra: Institutional arrangements and map, SWITCH report of institutional mapping in Accra Ghana. Daigger, G (2011) The Bridge: Linking Engineering and Society, Urban Sustainability (http://www.nae.edu/File.aspx?id=43182 accessed on July 22, 2011) Donkor, SMK, and Wolde, Y.E (2011). Integrated Water Resources Management in Africa: Issues and options, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, www.gdrc.org/uem/water/iwrm/iwrm-africa.pdf (Accessed on August 5, 2011) Ellen J. Lee and Kellogg J. Schwab 2005 Deficiencies in drinking water distribution systems in developing countries, in: Journal of Water and Health | 3.2 | 2005 pp105 Fenton, DL (2011) Biomass Feedstock from MSW Backbone for the Biorefining Industry, Missouri Recycling Association (MORA) Annual conference, June 8, 2011 GHK, PSI,IEEP,CE., (2002) National Evaluators. 2002. The Contribution of the Structural Funds to Sustainable Development: A Synthesis Report to DG Regio, EC. 2002. Volume 1-2. London, Brussels. Han, M (2007) Innovative Rainwater Harvesting and Management in the Republic of Korea, Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Rain Water Catchment Systems, Sydney, Australia http://www.melbourne.vic.gov.au/Environment/WhatCouncilisDoing/Pages/CityCatchment.a spx ICLEI (2011) SWITCH Training kit module 1. SWITCH J. Lahnsteiner and G. Lempert, 2007 ‘Water Management in Windhoek, Namibia’, W ater Science & Technology Vol 55 No 1–2 pp 441–448, , IWA Publishing Karim, M. R., Abbaszadegan, M., and LeChevallier, M. (2003). "Potential for Pathogen Intrusion During Pressure Transients." Journal American Water Works Association, 95(5), 134-146. Kingdom, B., Liemberger, R. and Marin, P. (2006). The Challenge of Reducing Non- Revenue Water (NRW) in Developing Countries. World Bank, Washington, USA K. Carden, K. Winter & N. Armitage, (2009) South Africa Sustainable urban water management in Cape Town, South Africa: Is it a pipe dream? 34th WEDC International Conference, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 2009 53 Khatri, K., Vairavamoorthy, K., and Porto, M. (2007) Challenges for Urban Water Supply and Sanitation in the Developing Countries. In G.J. Alaerts & Dickinson N.L. (Eds.), Water for Changing World, Developing Local Knowledge and Capacity. Delft, Netherlands Khatri, K. B., Vairavamoorthy, K., and Akinyemi, E. (2011) A Framework for Computing a Performance Index for Urban Infrastructure Systems Using a Fuzzy Set Approach. Journal of Infrastructure Systems, 1, 33. Lahnsteiner, J and G. Lempert. (2007) Water management in Windhoek, Namibia. Water Science & Technology. 55 (1-2):441-448 Maeng, S. K. (2010). "Multi-objective Treatment Aspects of Bank Filtration ", PhD Thesis, Delft University of Technology/Unesco-IHE Institute for Water Education, Delft, The Netherlands. MDLG. (2009). "District Environment Policy." Masindi District Local Government (MDLG) Uganda. Magnusson, TS and Merweb, Van der (2005) Context driven policy design in urban water management. A case study of Windhoek, Namibia, Urban Water Journal, 2(3): 151 – 160 Marin, Philippe. 2009. Public-Private Partnerships for Urban Water Utilities: A Review of Experiences in Developing Countries. Washington, DC: Public-Private Infrastructure Advisory Facility and World Bank. Misiunas, D. (2005). Failure Monitoring and Asset condition assessment in water supply systems. PhD Thesis, Lund University, Lund, Sweden Mitchell, V. G. (2004) Integrated Urban Water Management – A review of current Australian practice, CSIRO & AWA report CMIT-2004-075. http://www.clw.csiro.au/awcrrp/stage1files/AWCRRP_9_Final_27Apr2004.pdf Muhairwe, T.A (2010) Making public enterprises work: From despair to promise- a turn around account, IWA publishing. MWE. (2010). "Water and Environment Sector Performance Report." Ministry of Water and Environment (MWE), Kampala, Uganda. Niemczynowicz, J. (1999) Urban Hydrology and water management – present and future challenges, Urban Water 1(1999) 1-14. NWSC. (2009). "Corporate Plan (2009-2012): "maximizing the cash operating margin"." National Water and Sewerage Corporation, Kampala, Uganda. NWSC (2010), National Water and Sewerage Corporation of Uganda: Annual report 2009/2010. NWSC. (2010). "NWSC Annual Performance Report for Financial Year 2009-2010." National Water and Sewerage Corporation, Kampala, Uganda. Nyarko, KB, Odai, SN, Owusu, PA and Quartey EK (2008) Water supply coping strategies in Accra. 33rd WEDC International conference, Accra, Ghana 54 Otterpohl, R., Braun, U and Oldenburg, M (2002) Innovative technologies for decentralised wastewater management in urban and peri-urban areas. IWA 5th Specialized Conference on Small Water and Wastewater Treatment Systems Istanbul-Turkey, 24-26 September 2002 Peter van der Steen & Carol Howe Managing water in the city of the future; strategic planning and science Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2009) 8:115–120 Peter van der Steen, Hervé Labite, Ewinur Machdar, Isabelle Lunani and Piet Lens (2011) The SWITCH experience with strategic planning for Sustainable and Integrated Urban Water Management, using Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment in Accra, SWITCH Scientific Meeting 2011 Pieter van der Zaag (2005) Integrated Water Resources Management: Relevant concept or irrelevant buzzword? A capacity building and research agenda for Southern Africa, in Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C Volume 30, Issues 11-16, 2005, Pages 867- 871 Pilgrim N R (2007) Water working notes: principles of town water supply and sanitation, Part 1: water supply. Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Board of the Infrastructure Network, World Bank Group Pinkham, R. (1999) 21st Century Water Systems: Scenarios, Visions and Drivers, Rocky Mountain Institute, Snowmass, Colorado Post, A (2011) Shifting Governance Models in Urban Water and Sanitation, “The 21st Century Indian City: Developing an Agenda for Urbanization in India” March 23‐24, 2011. PUB (2010) PUB Annual report http://www.pub.gov.sg/annualreport2010/ . Accessed on July 1, 2011. Quin, A (2006). "Mapping water supply coverage: A case study from Lake Kiyanja, Masindi District, Uganda." Proceedings of the first international conference on Advances in Engineering and Technology, Entebbe, Uganda, 176-184. SCP De Carvalho, KJ Carden, NP Armitage (2009) Application of a sustainability index for integrated urban water management in Southern African cities: case study comparison – Maputo and Hermanus. Water SA (Online): 35:2 Services Delivery in Africa. http://www.wsp.org/wsp/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/329200725014_afProPoorStrategies UrbanWSSSDeliveryAfrica.pdf, Accessed on July 5, 2011. Sharp, P, Cikurel, H, Aharoni, A, Ddror-ehre, A, and Adin, A (2010) Influencing urban water management through learning alliances: A second reflection on the process in Tel Aviv, Israel 5th SWITCH Scientific Conference on “Sustainable Water management Improves Tomorrow’s Cities’ Health: achievements and way forward” Lodz, Poland Shwarz, J (2011) Water resources development and management, http://www.biu.ac.il/Besa/waterarticle5.html (Accessed in July 2011) S. Rüd and E. v. Münch ECOLOGICAL SANITATION PROJECTS FROM AROUND THE WORLD AND THEIR LINKS WITH THE SOLID WASTE SECTOR in ORBIT2008 – 13th - 15th Oct. 2008, Wageningen, The Netherlands. 55 Tauhid-ur-Rahman. (2009). "An investigation of the contaminant transport from waste disposal site, using FEMLAB." Journal of Applied Sciences in Environmental Sanitation, 4(2), 79-88. Tucci, C., Goldenfum J.A, Parkinson, J.N (2010) Integrated Urban Water Management: Humid Tropics, Urban Water Series, UNESCO-IHP, Tailor and Francis, CRC Press UBOS. (2011). "Mid-Year Projected Population for Town Councils ", Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS), Kampala, Uganda. UNDP, (2011) presentation on UN-HABITAT book… UN_HABITAT and UNEP (2010) The state of African Cities 2010: Governance, Inequality and Urban land markets http://www.unhabitat.org/documents/SOAC10/SOAC-PR1- en.pdf ,Accessed on July 5, 2011 United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), 2003. Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM), International Environmental Technology Centre, UNEP. http://www.unep.or.jp. UNEP and UN-HABITAT, (2011) Green Hills, Blue Cities: An Ecosystems Approach to Water Resource Management for African Cities (http://www.grida.no/files/publications/blue- cities/RRA_GHBC_screen.pdf, accessed July 11, 2011) UN-HABITAT (2010) State of the world’s cities 2010/2011: bridging the urban divide. UN- HABITAT report. UN-HABITAT (2008), 2nd African Ministerial Conference on Housing and Urban Development, July 2-5, Abuja, Nigeria (http://www.unhabitat.org/downloads/docs/amchud/bakg11.pdf, Accessed July 1, 2011 Vairavamoorthy, K (2011) New urban leaders for sustainable cities of the future. NARST Annual international conference, 3-6 April, Orlando, Florida Vörösmarty, C. J., E. M. Douglas, P. A. Green, and C. Revenga. 2005. Geospatial indicators of emerging water stress: an application to Africa, Ambio, 34 (3): 230-236. Water Aid (2008). Turning slums around: the case for water and sanitation: discussion paper, http://www.wateraid.org/documents/plugin_documents/turning_slums_around.pdf accessed on July 21, 2011 Water Aid (2010) Small town water and sanitation delivery: Taking a wider view, A 2010 report (http://www.wateraid.org/documents/plugin_documents/small_towns_synthesis_reportfinale ng.pdf) Accessed July 12, 2011 WHO/UNICEF (2010) Progress on sanitation and drinking-water–2010 update. Geneva and New York: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation. World Bank (2008). Reducing Water Loss in Developing Countries Using Performance- Based Service Contracting. Water P-notes: issue 4 (June 2008). Water Sector Board of the Sustainable Development Network of the World Bank Group Xiaojiang Yu (2008) Use of low quality water: an integrated approach to urban stormwater management (USM) in the Greater Metropolitan Region of Sydney (GMRS International Journal of Environmental Studies, 65 (1):119–137 56 57