World Bank. 2018 Closing the Gender Gap in Natural Resource Management programs in Mexico. Washington, DC. Table of Content Acknowledgements.............................................................................................................6 Abbreviations.............................................................................................................................8 Executive Summary................................................................................................................10 Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 16 Report Approach...................................................................................................................18 Qualitative Field Work Background.......................................................................18 Socioeconomic Analysis of the Communities Visited............................. 19 Participants’ Description................................................................................................ 19 Report Structure..................................................................................................................20 Chapter 1: Forests, Landscapes, and REDD+ in Mexico............................ 23 Forests and Forest Use in Mexico........................................................................... 25 Land Tenure Schemes and Landownership in Mexico......................... 26 REDD+ in Mexico................................................................................................................. 26 World Bank Support in Mexico for the Forest and Climate Change Agenda........................................................ 29 Chapter 2: Structural barriers to women’s participation in REDD+.......................................................................................................... 31 Institutional Barriers and Recommendations.............................................. 33 Legal Barriers and Recommendations..............................................................43 Economic Barriers and Recommendations................................................... 47 Chapter 3: Behavioral barriers to women’s participation in REDD+..........................................................................................................57 Automatic Decision Making........................................................................................60 Mental Models and Decision Making..................................................................66 Social Decision Making...................................................................................................70 2 Chapter 4: Gender Action Plan: How to Design Gender-Informed REDD+ Related Activities With a Behavioral Science Lens............79 Summary of the Report.................................................................................................. 81 Goal 1: Facilitate application processes and accommodate time lines to community decision-making procedures.......................83 Goal 2: Mainstream gender at all policy and government levels...............................................................................................................................................84 Goal 3: Enhance policy coherence across programs, institutions, and levels of government.............................................................................................84 Goal 4: Distribute legal land tenure more equally throughout the population and change customary laws................................................84 Goal 5: Promote women’s representation and participation in decision-making processes......................................................................................... 85 Goal 6: Fight the poverty traps resulting from women’s time burdens, economic marginalization, and blunted aspirations.............................. 85 Goal 7: Provide accessible information on programs............................ 85 Goal 8: Mitigate scarcity scenarios by reducing complexity and access barriers through simplification, improved choice architecture, and nudging...........................................................................................86 Goal 9: Expand women’s self-concept through role models...........86 Goal 10: Target influencers to reframe social norms.............................. 87 Appendix: Journey for forest landscape programs in Mexico: Identifying women’s behavioral bottlenecks ...................................................... 92 Glossary.............................................................................................................................................94 Bibliography.................................................................................................................................96 4 Acknowledgements (listed in alphabetical order), all with Jorge Castillo, CONAFOR Forestry Promoter in Quintana Roo; Antonio Lazcano Soto, the World Bank. CONAFOR Operative Supervisor in Chiapas; Margarita Gomez García and Gonzalo Novelo Quijano, CONAFOR The project was led and managed by her team from CIDE (Daniela Jimenez, Operative Manager in Yucatan; Luis Enrique Katharina Siegmann and Zeina Afif. The Axel Medina, and Eréndira Gónzalez) Sosa, CONAFOR Forestry Promoter in core team also included Dorothee Georg, were responsible for the preparation Tekax, Yucatan; Mineth Medina, Mexico Fabiola Hernandez, Julia Lendorfer, and and innovative analysis of the behavioral REDD+ Alliance (MREDD+) in Quintana Roo; Graciela Reyes-Retana, all with the World science field diagnostics. Lucia Madrid, Director of the Consejo Civil Bank, as well as Margarita Gómez García, Mexicano para la Silvicultura Sostenible; Elsa Behavioral Specialist and Head of the Hugo Cardenas, World Bank Consultant, Esquivel from Ambio; Carolina Camacho and Innovation, Behavioral and Experimentation supported the fieldwork in Chiapas and Víctor López Saavedra from the International Unit (UCEx) of the National Laboratory Yucatan and provided valuable cultural, Maize and Wheat Improvement Center of Public Policy (LNPP) at the Centro de environmental and social insights on the (CIMMYT); and Lorena Aguilar and Itzá Investigación y Docencia Económicas (CIDE)1. field regions. Castañeda from the International Union for The Forest Carbon Partnership Facility We thank Carlos Gutiérrez Fieres, Alicia Conservation of Nature (IUCN). (FCPF) greatly contributed to this report Alcala Guerrero, Adan Jimenez, and The team thanks Maynor Morales Roblero with financing, time and intellectual Céline Gonzalez with the Observatorio de from Chiapas and Basilio Velazquez Chi support. The team thanks Ellysar Baroudy Desarrollo Regional y Promoción Social, A.C. from Yucatán for translating and interpreting and Tamara Bah. (ODP), a Mexican nonprofit organization. during the field missions. ODP provided support for the stakeholder The team thanks Valeria Hickey, Practice consultations and data analysis, and also Infinite thanks go to the ejidos in Tekax Manager of the World Bank Group’s implemented the fieldwork and qualitative (Yucatan), Yaxcaba (Yucatan), Benemérito Environment and Natural Resources Global data collection. de las Américas (Chiapas), and Maravilla Practice, for her support and comments to de Tenejapa (Chiapas) for the time, space, the report; as well as Jutta Kern, Operations The team thanks the National Forestry and effort they provided to the research Manager of the World Bank Mexico Office; Commission (CONAFOR) for providing data, team during field work in June and July and Gregor Wolf from the World Bank insights into gender and forestry projects, 2017. Especially, the following community Mexico Country Management Unit, for comments on ideas and drafts and their and ejido members were involved in focus their support. overall support and endorsement of this groups and interviews: in Chiapas—Maynor report. Specifically, comments were received Valuable inputs were received from Angela Morales Roblero, Roberto del Carmen from Francisco Quiroz Acosta, Berenice Armstrong, Senior Natural Resource Garcia Cancino, Marycruz Ruiz Alvarado, and This document was edited by Michael Alwan, and Hernandez, Diana Nacibe Chemor Salas, designed by Lorena Guedes. Management Specialist; Franka Braun, Angel Mazariegos Gutierrez; in Yucatan— José Armando Alanis de la Rosa, Fabiola Senior Carbon Finance Specialist; Carlos Yessica Rocio Cima Salazar, Jaynet Gonzalez It should be cited as: World Bank. 2018 Closing the Navarrette, Ivette Gonzalez, Jessica Muñoz Perez Brito, Senior Social Development Alvarado, Claudia Carlo Perez, Jesus Antonio Gender Gap in Natural Resource Management Muro, and Francisco Moreno. Programs in Mexico. Washington, DC. Specialist; Hugo Cardenas, Field Consultant; Avila Celis, and Rita Margarita Canul Ek. Varun Gauri, Senior Economist; Joao We thank the experts who took time for Montalvao, Economist; and Maria Beatriz interviews before the field work in May Orlando, Lead Social Development Specialist and June 2017. Interviews were held with 1  http://cide.edu/. Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 6 7 Acknowledgment Abbreviations National Commission for the Development of Indigenous Peoples NDC Nationally Determined Contribution CDI [Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas] NPV Net Present Value Research Center for Sustainable Development and Food Sovereignty OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development CEDRSSA [Centro de Estudios para el Desarrollo Rural Sustentable y la Soberanía Alimentaria] Concurrent Special Program for Sustainable Rural Development PEC 2014-2018 [Programa Especial Concurrente para el Desarrollo Rural National Commission for Knowledge and Use of Biodiversity [Comisión Sustentable 2014-2018] CONABIO Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad] Special Program on Climate Change 2014-2018 [Programa Especial de PECC CONAFOR National Forestry Commission [Comisión Nacional Forestal] Cambio Climático 2014-2018 ] CONAPO National Population Council [Consejo Nacional de Población] Program for Direct Assistance in Agriculture [Programa de Apoyos PROCAMPO Directos al Campo] National Council for the Evaluation of Social Development Policy CONEVAL PES Payment for Ecosystem Services [Consejo Nacional de Evaluación de la Política de Desarrollo Social] DGM Dedicated Grant Mechanism PROFOR Program on Forests National Strategy for REDD+ in Mexico [Estrategia Nacional REDD+ Program for the Promotion of Livestock [Programa de Producción ENAREDD+ PROGAN de Mexico] Pecuaria Sustentable y Ordenamiento Ganadero y Apícola] National Biodiversity Strategy [Estrategia Nacional sobre Biodiversidad National Program for Equal Opportunities and Non-Discrimination ENBioMex de México] PROIGUALDAD against Women 2013-2018 [Programa Nacional para la Igualdad de Oportunidades y No Discriminación contra las Mujeres 2013-2018] National Strategy on Climate Change 10-20-40 vision [Estrategia ENCC Nacional de Cambio Climático visión 10-20-40] Sectoral Program on Environment and Natural Resources 2013-2018 PROMARNAT [Programa Sectorial de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales 2013-2018] ER-P Emission Reductions Program National Forestry Program 2014-2018 [Programa Nacional Forestal 2014- PRONAFOR FCC Forests and Climate Change Project 2018] FCPF Forest Carbon Partnership Facility REDD+ Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation FIP Forest Investment Partnership R-PP Readiness Preparation Proposal GAP Gender Action Plan Secretariat of Agriculture, Livestock, Rural Development, Fisheries and SAGARPA Food [Secretaría de Agricultura, Ganadería, Desarrollo Rural, Pesca y Alimentación ] GHG Greenhouse Gas Ha Hectares SDG Sustainable Development Goal(s) National Institute of Statistics and Geography [Instituto Nacional de SEDESOL Secretariat of Social Development [Secretaria de Desarrollo Social] INEGI Estadística y Geografía] Secretariat of the Environment and Natural Resources [Secretaria de SEMARNAT National Research Institute for Forestry, Agriculture and Livestock Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales] INIFAP [Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias] UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change National Institute for Women [Instituto Nacional de INMUJERES USD United States Dollar las Mujeres] MRV Measuring, Reporting, and Verification WDR World Development Report Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 8 9 Abbreviations Executive Summary Closing the Gender Gap in Natural Resource Management Programs in Mexico Main Messages • This report examines perceived and actual gender differences in the use • In the study context, women’s participation in productive activities and and management of natural resources and the challenges of integrating their participation in communal decision-making are correlated. Thus, women into activities related to Reducing Emissions from Deforestation women’s economic participation is vulnerable to gender-exclusive social and Forest Degradation (REDD+) or other natural resource management structures, low social status, and other behavioral barriers discussed in projects in Mexico. Recommendations are aimed at increasing gender chapter 3. inclusiveness in project design and implementation. • These barriers are malleable and can be addressed through structural • The report applies a behavioral science lens to uncover key psychological, changes and institutional mechanisms, but also through behavioral science cultural, social, and non-material barriers to women’s participation in interventions such as framing, simplification, promoting women’s agency, natural resource projects. and using alternative spaces to communicate with them. See the Gender Action Plan in chapter 4 for details. • Barriers to women’s participation in REDD+ related activities can be framed as structural (economic, legal, institutional) and behavioral (biases, • The study reveals that rural women in Mexico prefer to undertake traditional mental models, gender norms). These barriers exacerbate each other in a activities, and how these activities should be promoted and advertised vicious cycle. providing social and logistical support to assure uptake. • Women use natural resources differently than men, which makes them more • Gender mainstreamed REDD+ related activities and natural resource vulnerable to climate change events, unequal distribution of remuneration management programs offer important opportunities for women’s and benefits, and other structural barriers discussed in chapter 2. empowerment, sustainable resource management, and community prosperity. Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 12 13 Executive Summary This report examines perceived and actual gender differences in the use and Women’s economic participation is vulnerable to behavioral barriers such as management of natural resources, and the challenges of integrating women into social status and empowerment. Women’s participation in productive activities REDD+ related activities or other natural resource management projects. This and their participation in communal decision making are positively correlated. analysis leads to recommendations for more gender inclusiveness in project design, Thus, women’s economic participation is vulnerable to gender-exclusive social both in Mexico and elsewhere. More generally, the study aims to contribute to the structures, low social status, and other behavioral barriers discussed in chapter 3. World Bank’s Gender Strategy and to fulfill relevant Sustainable Development Goals. Structural and behavioral barriers exacerbate each other in a vicious cycle. The report applies a behavioral science lens to uncover key psychological, For example, structural barriers such as poverty traps deplete mental bandwidth, cultural, social, and non-material barriers to women’s participation in REDD+ which in turn triggers behavioral biases and diminishes the likelihood of signing up related activities, particularly at the individual and community level. to programs. To the extent that women are disproportionally affected by structural Decision-making patterns influenced by mental shortcuts, psychological biases, and barriers, behaviorally informed policies can thus be particularly effective for women. social norms are identified. The approach was inspired by the World Bank Group The study’s qualitative analysis also reveals activities that rural women in Mexico (2015b) World Development Report 2015: Mind, Society, and Behavior and the World would prefer to undertake in light of the upcoming forestry programs to be Bank 2013 report On Norms and Agency: Conversations about Gender Equality with implemented in Mexico by CONAFOR (Mexico’s National Forest Commission) Women and Men in 20 Countries. We hope our conclusions can draw attention to and the World Bank. These include traditional activities such as coffee production, women’s critical role in REDD+ activities in Mexico and elsewhere and help enhance beekeeping, and handcrafting; and small-scale farm activities close to home, such as gender inclusiveness in project design and implementation. livestock and agriculture in forest landscapes. These activities should be undertaken Women face a variety of barriers to participating in demand-driven REDD+ with social and logistical support, such as women-accessible venues (like schools or related activities, which in this report are framed as structural and behavioral. clinics), flexible hours, capacity-building activities, and the integration of the whole Structural or “traditional” barriers—economic, legal, institutional, and others—may family (including the husband) into the value chain. be identifiable from desk research and interviews. Behavioral, often unconscious The report concludes with a Gender Action Plan (GAP). Structural and behavioral barriers—biases, mental models, gender norms, and others—may be revealed barriers are malleable. The GAP provides concrete recommendations for the inclusion by behavioral science diagnostics and field work for identification. of a gender perspective and female empowerment in policies, practices, and projects, Women use natural resources differently than men, which sets the stage for a especially those related to emission reduction programs, natural resource management, variety of structural barriers. Differentiated resource use makes women vulnerable to and REDD+. When designed to take into consideration gender differences, REDD+ economic, social, and external environmental influences, especially in rural areas. Such related activities and natural resource management programs can offer important vulnerability affects their economic empowerment, livelihoods, their social spaces, and opportunities for women’s empowerment, sustainable resource management, ultimately their involvement in REDD+ and related initiatives, as discussed in chapter 2. and shared prosperity. See Chapter 4 for details. Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 14 15 Executive Summary Women also have double roles and Small behavioral elements of program Introduction time burdens in the economy by working design and implementation can have are key to strengthening activities that both in the household and in jobs. disproportionate effects on individual reduce forest loss and degradation and their This double time burden has structural and choices and actions. There is incomplete This report aims to understand perceived integration into REDD+ related activities behavioral antecedents and consequences. evidence on the behavioral barriers and actual gender differences in the use can boost women’s economic status, Women have less free time, face educational associated with women’s participation and management of natural resources, and at the same time generate more disadvantages, and, if heading a household, in REDD+ schemes. Most of the above- and the challenges of integrating women equitable social benefits. higher risks of poverty. Structural barriers mentioned challenges are identified as into REDD+2 related activities or other In Mexico, women face a myriad of such as poverty traps deplete mental structural or traditional. Integrating a natural resource management projects. barriers that limit their participation in bandwidth, which in turn triggers behavioral behavioral analysis into program design The analysis leads to recommendations REDD+. In this report, we draw distinctions biases and diminishes the likelihood that can help uncover mental shortcuts (thinking for a more gender-inclusive design of between barriers as traditionally defined women will sign up to forestry programs. To automatically), psychological biases, and natural resource management programs, in the literature, and newer behavioral the extent that women are disproportionally mental models (predefined views and both in Mexico and elsewhere. More definitions of barriers. Structural and affected by structural barriers, behaviorally interpretation of ourselves and the world generally, the study aims to contribute to behavioral barriers exacerbate each other informed policies can thus be particularly around us)4 that limit women’s participation the World BanK’s Gender Strategy and in a vicious cycle. For example, 62 percent effective for women. in REDD+ initiatives. Social and cultural to fulfilling Sustainable Development Goal of Mexican forests are under a legally norms can be more powerful than financial (SDG) 5 (Gender Equality and Women’s Mexico’s Emission Reduction Program binding collective ownership system or other program incentives, especially Empowerment) and SDGs 1, 8, 10, 13, 15, (ER-P) under the Forest Carbon Partnership (ejidos and communities)3 and 80 percent in rural communities. In such contexts, and 17. Although the document was written Facility (FCPF) offers the opportunity of land owners are men, a circumstance behavioral science can provide interesting specifically for Mexico’s Emission Reduction to test the REDD+ approach under an with both structural/legal and behavioral/ insights into the complex world women Program (ER-P) under the Forest Carbon integrated land management program traditional antecedents. Most landowners live in governed by traditional role models, Partnership Facility (FCPF), the conclusions in five states (Yucatan, Campeche, Quintana are men, and only landholders can partake gender bias, stereotypes, self-concept, can be applied to other contexts. Roo, Chiapas, and Jalisco). The ER-P may in decision-making; therefore, collective and statu quo. also generate new activities and approaches As countries develop policies and land ownership constitutes a traditional or to benefit women through its benefit- actions to prepare for or implement structural barrier to women’s participation sharing mechanism (particularly for the REDD+, it is crucial to ensure that these and representation in the management and second, upcoming stage of implementation). processes are gender sensitive and conservation of natural resources. A land title The program specifies that the benefits inclusive. Project planning should account is also a prerequisite for applying to most generated from REDD+ should be context for gendered, cultural, and socioeconomic government forest programs, which restricts specific, include a gender perspective, and differences in forest and natural resource women’s access to incentive programs or be generationally inclusive. To this end, management, and tackle gender inequality subsidies related to infrastructure, credits, the ER-P addresses the problem that few and marginalization. REDD+ offers the and technical assistance. As a result of these women have property rights. The program opportunity to recognize the critical role structural and behavioral barriers, more seeks to actively include women by defining of women in the conservation and men than women apply to and participate program beneficiaries not only as owners, sustainable management of forests. in REDD+ related activities and subsequent but also “users”—that is, people living in ejidal Women’s knowledge, skills, and experience benefit-sharing models. and communal lands—including women or women’s groups without land tenure. 2  REDD+ (or REDD-plus) refers to the “reduction of emissions from deforestation and forest degradation,” including mitigation of and adaptation to climate change through conservation, sustainable management of forests, and enhancement of forest carbon stocks. 3  CONAFOR (2016b). 4  World Bank Group (2015b). Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 16 17 Executive Summary Report Approach women and men; and drafted around Socioeconomic Analysis 30 field observation documents to better understand contexts and subconscious of the Communities Visited The report applies a behavioral science behaviors. The third stage of the report was lens to uncover key psychological, writing a Gender Action Plan (GAP), which The socioeconomic analysis of the communities and inhabitants visited for this cultural, social, and non-material provides recommendations and indicators field study showed a women-to-men ratio of almost 1-to-1; a mostly homogenous barriers to women’s participation in for gender mainstreaming REDD+ related indigenous population in respect to gender but in different numbers according REDD+ related activities, particularly activities and the FCPF ER-P benefit-sharing to the communities; a mostly Spanish-speaking indigenous population except at the individual and community level. model, and in general for natural resource for some communities;6 a less educated and more illiterate female population; The approach was inspired by the World management programs. and formal employment much higher among men than women. Overall, these Bank Group (2015b) World Development results show a panorama of hardship for these localities compared to the rest of Report 2015: Mind, Society, and Behavior, Mexico. This information provides helpful insights into possible policy limitations. and the World Bank (2012b) report On For example, the isolation of these localities due to the lack of public transportation Norms and Agency: Conversations about Qualitative Field Work poses a challenge for access to social programs when centralized in a municipal Gender Equality with Women and Men office or state delegation offices.7 in 20 Countries. In the context of REDD+ Background this report uses country-specific, sex- disaggregated data and analyzes gendered The field work for this report was differentials, as defined by the World Bank Group Gender Strategy. undertaken in June and July 2017 in selected Participants’ Description municipalities. These include 11 communities This report was drafted in three stages. in Tekax (Yucatan), 9 communities in The first stage was extensive desk analysis Yaxcaba (Yucatan), 9 communities in As was the target of the fieldwork, women were the main participants of the focus of research papers, documents, policies, Benemérito de las Américas (Chiapas), and groups. Other details about the participants are listed below:8 and programs, with an emphasis on the 11 communities in Maravilla de Tenejapa • About half of the participants have between 1 and 4 children and FCPF ER-P states (Jalisco, Chiapas, the (Chiapas). The objective of the field work was the majority are either married or cohabitating with their partner. three states in the Yucatan Peninsula). to understand the underlying socio-cultural Data was gathered on gender, forestry, context for women in ER-P intervention • Most participants could read and write (72 percent). However, the indigenous peoples, rural communities, states. The work explored behavioral barriers, communities of Huehuechen Balam and Quetzalcoatl presented high behavioral science, and social and financial decision-making process, motivations, levels of illiteracy. inclusion. The second stage was field influencing agents, and other factors women work in the summer of 2017 with 40 ejidos or men consider when deciding upon their • About 20 percent of the participants did not receive any education, 26 (hereinafter referred to as “communities” ) 5 participation in REDD+ related activities. (see percent completed primary school, 23 percent did not complete primary in the ER-P states Chiapas and Yucatan. Annex A6 for the process to select field work school, and 18 percent completed secondary education. The team held 16 focus groups to learn intervention areas). about points of view, biases, perceptions, and norms; did 25 deep interviews with 6  The highest percentage of non-Spanish-speaking population (Flor de Cacao, 5  In this report, the terms “ejidos” and “communities” are used interchangeably and broadly referred to as Nueva Reforma, and Salto de Agua; Yaxcaba and Huechen Balam) was 30 percent. communities, to enhance reader friendliness. The authors would like to point out, however, that ejidos and communities can have differing laws and governance structures. For this report, these differences did not change 7  See Annex A7 for graphics and detailed socioeconomic analysis. the outcomes, which is why the authors decided to use them synonymously. 8  Ibid. Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 18 19 Executive Summary • Responding to questions about activities, 11 percent of participants 03. social decision-making and perception, guided by innate preferences, answered that they were housewives, 12 percent that they dedicated cooperation, and reciprocity. their time to seaming, 28 percent to agriculture, and the rest to livestock, The behavioral barriers to women’s participation in REDD+ related activities poultry or swine breeding, and hammock embroidery. include social stigma, traditional gender norms, and a strict role within the • In the state of Chiapas, only three of the selected communities hold a ma- community. However, behavior is malleable. Normative, long-term change can be jority indigenous population of more than 80 percent: Flor de Cacao, Loma induced in communities using behavioral science interventions such as “framing,” Linda, and Salto de Agua. These are followed by Maravilla Tenejapa with 50 agency and assets, alternative communication spaces, and a variety percent of indigenous population, followed by the rest of the communities of targeted programs. in Chiapas without homogenous distribution of indigenous population Chapter 4 presents the Gender Action Plan (GAP). This chapter can be (principally ranging from 1 percent to 20 percent). In Yucatan, the indige- seen both as a summary of the main findings of previous chapters and as a nous population exceeds 50 percent in almost all of the identified commu- stand-alone report. The GAP provides concrete goals, recommendations, and nities, consistent with the state’s proportion of indigenous population. indicators for mainstreaming gender into REDD+ and other natural resource management programs. Report Structure Chapter 1 provides an overview on the environmental and legal background to forestry and the unique land tenure system in Mexico, and introduces REDD+. It highlights the important correlation of poverty, marginalization, biodiversity, and deforestation. It underlines that deforestation is mostly due to land use change for agriculture and livestock production, despite negative cost-benefit results for traditional agriculture schemes. The chapter concludes with insights into Mexico’s unique land tenure structure and an introduction to REDD+ in Mexico. Chapter 2 highlights the main structural barriers for women’s participation in REDD+ related activities. These barriers are categorized as institutional, legal, and economic. Evidence suggest that women use natural resources differently than men, making them more vulnerable to a variety of negative externalities, especially in rural areas. Women may be more exposed to structural barriers and externalities such as climate change, longer working hours, weaker social status, wage gaps, a lack of sex disaggregated data, poverty traps, lack of land tenure, lack of representation in community decision-making, and differences in human endowments (health and education). Chapter 3 introduces behavioral science and presents the main behavioral science findings. The findings are presented in three models: 01. automatic decision-making, relying on narrow, habitual frames and assumptions; 02. mental decision-making, using interpretive frames and various conflicting “mental models”; and Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 20 21 Executive Summary Chapter 1: Forests, Landscapes, and REDD+ in Mexico. Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 22 23 This chapter provides an Forests and Forest Use in Mexico overview of the Mexican The sustainability of Mexico’s forests9 is threatened by socioeconomic stresses forestry sector and and climate change. Of Mexico’s 12 million forest dwellers, 88 percent live in highly marginalized localities and 62 percent live in poverty.10 These poor and marginalized highlights the important regions11 are characterized by high rates of deforestation, high dependency on correlation between poverty, natural resources, greater vulnerability to climate change, and less capacity to adapt. Specifically, climate change threatens to disrupt forest uses that are prevalent marginalization, biodiversity, in rural regions, such as timber and non-timber management, agriculture, and firewood collection. Thus, the conservation and sustainable management of and deforestation. It natural resources, including climate change mitigation, is important for sustainable provision of ecosystem services to the poor and vulnerable, as well as for biodiversity underlines that deforestation and ecological protection (see Annex A10). is mostly due to land use The main driver of deforestation in Mexico is land-use change related to often change for agriculture and unsustainable agricultural practices. Public programs for sustainable use of forest resources are not coordinated between sectors, and local-level organizational livestock production, despite capacity and leadership are weak. Moreover, agricultural activities—especially if unsustainable—and workers in this sector are especially vulnerable to climate negative cost-benefit results change. Much of the agriculture-dependent population is rural, poor, and vulnerable.12 Sustainable REDD+ activities offer social and private returns that for traditional agriculture surpass those of unsustainable activities,13 and thus present unique opportunities schemes. Finally, this chapter to conserve and manage natural resources, while creating benefits at the individual and collective levels. provides insights into Mexico’s unique land tenure structure and introduces the 9  See Annex A10 for a discussion of Mexico’s forests in the context of REDD+. 10  DOF (2016). history of REDD+ in Mexico. 11  Marginalization (depicted in Mexico through a Marginalization Index by the National Population Council (CONAPO)) is defined as a situation where parts of a society lack opportunities, access to development, or other detrimental situations, caused by lack of access to education, inadequate housing, and lack of services and goods (CONAPO 2012). 12  INEGI (2009). 13  See Annex A9 for the Economic Analysis of the DGM (World Bank Group 2017c). 24 25 Chapter 1: Forests, Landscapes, and REDD+ in Mexico Land Tenure Schemes and or REDD. REDD was transformed into REDD+ in 2010, to also include strategies for the management and conservation of forest lands. Today, Mexico has a holistic, Landownership in Mexico nationwide REDD+ Strategy (ENAREDD+), including national monitoring and safeguards systems.19 Mexico has a unique land tenure scheme: the communal property system of ENAREDD+ was designed in consultation with a broad range of stakeholders, comunidades and ejidos. Fifty-three percent of Mexico’s total land is communal including women, local and indigenous communities,20 civil society, academia, property, composed of 29,441 ejidos and 2,344 communities. Sixty-two percent of business, and government.21 The strategy includes specific provisions related to Mexico’s forests are under a communal property structure (of the rest, 32 percent women and gender, mandates state REDD+ strategies to mainstream gender belongs to small private owners and 6 percent is public property in the form of forest concerns,22 and encourages greater participation of women in community reserves). (See Annex A9, Box A9.1, for a comprehensive discussion of Mexico’s land 14 governance and natural resource management.23 (see Annex A10, Box A10.2, tenure system.) on the inclusion of women in ENAREDD+ consultations). Exclusion from land tenure impinges on women’s economic well-being and Mexico implements REDD+ through an integrated landscape approach that their right to participate in community assemblies and decision making. Land promotes different, individual activities adapted to state and local needs. tenure confers the legal right to vote in community assemblies and other decision- This unique and challenging approach recognizes that each ejido and community making powers. Of the 4.2 million Mexican community members in 2013 with land is different, with different needs and uses of land and forest, agricultural practices, titles, only 19.8 percent were women.15 Furthermore, women hold only 12.5 percent and forms of social organization (see Figure 1.1).24 of the 350,000 management positions in local assemblies and governing bodies. 16 Often, women can only become landowners through bequest or inheritance of parcels owned by their husbands, which explains why the majority of women with land rights are 63 years of age or older and widowed.17 Ownership and control of land and other assets lays an important foundation of women’s agency. Land tenure boosts women’s voices and bargaining power in household decision making, improves access to capital, and increases their overall economic independence.18 REDD+ in Mexico The Government of Mexico is a pioneer in REDD+. In 2005 the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) created the framework for the “Reduction of Emissions from Forest Deforestation and Degradation,” 19  For detailed information on national institutions and country policies relevant to the REDD+ implementation and the ER-P please refer to Figures A1, A2, and A3 in Annex A1. ENAREDD+’s activities are in line with UNFCCC’s four requirements for countries to access REDD+ results payments: (1) a national 14  CONAFOR (2016b). action plan or strategy; (2) a reference level for forest emissions; (3) a national monitoring, reporting, and verification system (MRV); and (4) a safeguards information system. 15  Of these women with land titles, 23 percent are property owners, but do not have rights over common resources; and 42 percent are “settlers,” that is, inhabitants recognized by the community assembly without 20  CONAFOR (2016b). private property rights or common use and without voting rights (Almeida 2009; INMUJERES 2013). 21  Protocol available online: www.enaredd.gob.mx. 16  CONABIO (2016). 22  Armijo and Castañeda (2017). 17  Aguilar et al. (2014). 23  CONAFOR (2016d). 18  World Bank Group (2012a: 88). 24  See Annex A10 for a discussion of state REDD+ strategies under ENAREDD+. Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 26 27 Chapter 1: Forests, Landscapes, and REDD+ in Mexico Figure 1.1. World Bank Support in Mexico for REDD+ Activities in the Context of Mexico the Forest and Climate Change Agenda Source: CONAFOR (2016b). Together with the World Bank, Mexico is implementing a comprehensive Opportunities of income for owners and inhabitants of forests Forest and Climate Change programmatic approach that provides financing in an integrated landscape management approach for sustainable forest management, including efforts to address key drivers of deforestation and forest degradation.25 Among others, Mexico participates in the Readiness Fund of the FCPF, the FCPF’s Carbon Fund portfolio with an Emission Reduction Program (ER-P), and the Forest Investment Program (FIP). Through the ER-P, Mexico seeks to contribute to the zero deforestation objective and reach the 22 percent reduction in GHG target by 2030 as established in its Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) under the Paris Agreement. The FCPF also highlights the importance of incorporating gender considerations into REDD+ planning and operation stages. To this end, Mexico’s Readiness Preparation Proposal (R-PP) encourages the identification of gender-based inequities related to Investment Programs components and fosters the inclusion of both men and women into benefit-sharing schemes. Mexico’s efforts are complemented by the World Bank-developed Regional Action Plan for Gender for the Latin American and Caribbean Region. The plan, together with the overall World Bank Group Group’s Strategy,26 seeks to integrate the gender perspective into the Bank’s technical assistance projects, financial instruments, and knowledge processes. 25  See Annex A10 for a full discussion of World Bank support in Mexico 26  World Bank Group (2015a). Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 28 29 Chapter 1: Forests, Landscapes, and REDD+ in Mexico Chapter 2: Structural Barriers to Women’s Participation in REDD+ Structural barriers to women’s empowerment are set by institutions, policies, legal frameworks, economic systems, or other systems. While barriers identified in this chapter are commonly known and well documented, it is important to reemphasize them in this context as they continue to persist. This chapter identifies structural barriers to female participation in REDD+, Institutional Barriers organized by institutional, and Recommendations legal, and economic categories. It shows that differentiated use of natural resources makes Structural challenge 1: women vulnerable to a variety Lack of infrastructure and the difficulty of of structural barriers, including providing necessary paperwork on time low social status, lower Limited public infrastructure and distance to public offices may require remuneration and less benefits, several hours or days of travel and hinder community members from transmitting required paperwork. Lack of infrastructure was mentioned several poverty traps, lack of land times during focus groups in Chiapas: a woman pointed out that they never tenure, lack of representation received the cacao and coffee program because “this community is inaccessible.” Long travel times can also prevent promoters and delegates from presenting in community decision programs to targeted beneficiaries. Complicated travel and transfer logistics create time burdens for women (as they are absent from home instead of devoting their making, and differences in time to care-taking or household chores). human endowments (health The application process to receive grants and subsidies implies an investment of time and resources that is burdensome to men, and even more so and education). for women. Applications to grants and subsidy programs can be expensive (approximately 6 percent of the annual cost in the case of communities that use forestry).27 Some grants require the verification of land ownership, excluding 27  INECC (2016). 33 Chapter 2: Structural barriers to women’s participation in REDD+ those who lack property rights (particularly women). Some subsidies require online registration, but rural communities often lack Internet access.28 Moreover, Structural recommendation #1 the required paperwork needs to be provided in Spanish, which often impedes indigenous women from applying. Timelines and schedules are an important factor for signing up to programs. Facilitate application processes and Once operating rules for the application process have been published, the time accommodate time lines to community allowed for applicants to present all relevant documents can vary from one week to three months. Considering the time needed for communal decision-making, decision-making procedures this might not be adequate. Before any decision can be taken, assemblies need to Simplify and streamline application requirements and supporting be convened for an anticipated 8 to 15 days. Often a second meeting is necessary, administrative processes. According to the behavioral science “EAST” (Easy, which means that at least 51 percent of community members are required to meet Attractive, Social and Timely) framework, to encourage a behavior, program 8 to 30 days later.29 Some application processes can take even longer, such as administrators need to make it “easy, attractive, social, and timely” (UK BIT 2012). registering a change of land use, the change of land titles (for example, from man Specific actions to streamline applications and increase women’s enrollment in to woman), or providing women applicants with the right to use land and to REDD+ programs could include: partake in REDD+ related activities. 01. Providing documents in indigenous language and requiring less paperwork to reduce the burden women face (including educational disadvantages). 02. Providing women with easily accessible information (using images, infographics, and stories). 03. Providing women feedback mechanisms such as a hotline to support them through the application process. 04. Providing women-only transportation if needed, in groups and during family-accessible times (such as the late afternoon). 05. Accommodating community decision-making timelines. 06. Extending enrollment windows and speeding up application-handling procedures. A long-term action to facilitate program application and delivery could be the creation of “one stop shops.” These could be opened in locations easily accessible to women such as schools or clinics. 28  In Mexico, only 45 percent of households have a computer and 47 percent access to the Internet (INEGI 2016b). 29  Agrarian Law, Art. 25 and 26. Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 34 35 Chapter 2: Structural barriers to women’s participation in REDD+ Structural challenge #2: Lack of a comprehensive gender perspective in REDD+ Box 2.1. Mainstreaming Gender in Mexico’s A coherent gender perspective may not be incorporated into REDD+ policy and program design. UN-REDD+ identified four areas for gender mainstreaming Natural Resource Management in REDD+: Programs 01. understanding gender roles and needs; 02. addressing the use, access, and control over resources, knowledge, For the past decade, productive REDD+ related activities in Mexico have been fostering the integration of women or groups of women. The Ministry and power related to gender; of Agriculture, Rural Development, Fisheries and Food (SAGARPA) explicitly supports women’s empowerment through its program to support small- 03. giving women equal representation and ability to influence decision scale producers. Also, through the “Field in our Hands” component, SAGARPA making; and supports women by building capacity and strengthening their role and presence in productive activities through access to technology, innovation, and 04. implementing affirmative action to promote gender iguality, and tools.a The National Forestry Commission (CONAFOR) has also been working monitor and evaluate action impacts. In addition, women may not 30 on including gender considerations in the process of granting subsidies since know, and should be informed of, the panoply of opportunities for 2008 (see Figure B2.1.1 for how the criteria and the gender mainstreaming have women that REDD+ activities could offer. 31 evolved). In 2017, the “Productive Forestry Projects for Women”b program was initiated and has since received 51 applications. However, 41 of these applications failed, mainly due to technical errors. In interviews, CONAFOR staff suggested that trained forestry promoters can reduce the failure rate by helping women submit error-free project applications. As this report shows, other institutional barriers for women might include application forms that indigenous women find difficult to read and understand, or the lack of cash or access to credit to provide the necessary counter-financing. Note: a. Through this component, SAGARPA provides women in poverty between the ages of 18 and 65 years production packages for self-supply (family or school garden, modules for chickens and rabbits), projects for primary production (infrastructure and equipment, genetic material, reproductive specimens, bee hives, and so forth), or capacity-building support (SAGARPA 2016). b. CONAFOR (2016c). 30  Nhantumbo and Chiwona-Karltun (2012). 31  As confirmed in interviews, REDD+ related projects that are of interest to women are mostly related to beekeeping, forest supervision, and small farming. The women interviewed suggested that these activities make them feel empowered and competent to undertake REDD+ related activities. Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 36 37 Chapter 2: Structural barriers to women’s participation in REDD+ Figure B2.1.1. Socioeconomic data is oftentimes not disaggregated by gender, which poses Gender criteria in CONAFOR Operational Guidelines for applications, problems for policy makers and program designers trying to improve gender mainstreaming. Data should be collected at national, state, municipal levels, and 2008–17; own elaboration if possible at the local level, and organized from a gender perspective. This will give policy makers a better overview on poverty, scarcity scenarios, access, agency, Source: Own elaboration. endowments, and potential incentives. Sex-disaggregated data can reveal a variety of useful metrics, such as the value of unpaid labor and child care, income at the Direct participation of women in individual level, the combined income in households, time use, and land ownership the project development process (by gender). With these metrics, policy makers could differentiate and quantify Applicant is a woman Applicant is a woman the needs and dependencies, constraints, and opportunities of women and men, leading to more effective environmental, and forest production and conservation interventions. 2008 2009-12 In addition, socioeconomic data for indigenous populations may not be sufficiently disaggregated. The needs of indigenous populations are an important input for REDD+ program design, especially in intervention areas with higher indigenous populations.32 Data disaggregation supports the consideration and Requesting legal entity (company or strengthening of the role of indigenous women as custodians of culture, language, community) has women in its representative body and beliefs. This focus also helps strengthen women’s roles in the protection of the environment and biodiversity. Direct participation of women in the project development process REDD+ programs in Mexico should enroll more women. Regarding subsidies Applicant is a woman allocated to individuals in 2016, CONAFOR assigned 25 percent of the total to women, or US$11.6 million. Table 2.1 shows the number of women and men who received subsidies for sustainable forest management in the last quarter of 2016.33 2013-15 It also shows that in the last quarter of 201634 fewer women received subsidies than men (see Box A10.3 in Annex 10 for more information on the enrollment of women). For productive programmes; if implementing group is 100% women For Payment of Ecosystem Services (PES), For Payment of Ecosystem Services (PES), the owner of the ES is a woman or the legal the owner of the ES is a woman or the legal entity of the area counts a woman within its entity of the area counts a woman within representative body its representative body Requesting legal entity (company Requesting legal entity (company or community) has women in its or community) has women in its representative body representative body Direct participation of women in the project Direct participation of women in the development process project development process Applicant is a woman Applicant is a woman 32  Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas (CDI), UNDP (2006). 2016 2017 33  CONAFOR (2017). Background to the Gender Perspective in the Forestry Sector. 34  CONAFOR (2017). Background to the Gender Perspective in the Forestry Sector. Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 38 39 Chapter 2: Structural barriers to women’s participation in REDD+ Table 2.1. Share of Females (F) and Males (M) who Received Subsidies for Sustainable Forest Management from CONAFOR, by Age, During the Last Quarter of 2016 Source: CONAFOR (2016e). Note: F = female; M = male; NS = not specified 15–29 years 30–44 60+ Total Total number Region TOTAL TOTAL F M NS F M NS F M NS F M NS F M F M Campeche 0.10% 0.00% 0.00% 1.28% 4.23% 0.10% 1.47% 8.55% 0.00% 0.98% 6.88% 0.10% 3.83% 19.67% 23.70% 39 200 241 Chiapas 6.78% 8.26% 0.00% 0.49% 1.18% 0.00% 1.28% 2.56% 0.00% 0.69% 1.67% 0.00% 9.24% 13.67% 22.91% 94 139 233 Jalisco 0.98% 4.13% 0.00% 1.97% 4.33% 0.00% 2.26% 7.77% 0.00% 4.62% 6.00% 0.00% 9.83% 22.22% 32.06% 100 226 326 Quintana Roo 0.29% 0.39% 0.10% 0.29% 1.28% 0.00% 0.49% 2.95% 0.00% 0.29% 1.38% 0.10% 1.38% 6.00% 7.57% 14 61 77 Yucatan 0.10% 0.20% 0.00% 0.10% 2.65% 0.00% 0.20% 5.90% 0.00% 0.29% 4.33% 0.00% 0.69% 13.08% 13.77% 7 133 140 TOTAL 25% 75% 100% 254 759 1,017 Structural challenge #3: Structural recommendation #2 Lack of policy coherence across programs, institutions, and levels of government. Mainstream gender at all policy REDD+ public programs and investments in the rural sector could be more coherent. and government levels There are approximately 12 federal government institutions that provide financial support for forestry and agricultural-related activities.35 Uncoordinated support across programs can Steps should be taken to incorporate a gender perspective into REDD+ from fund opposing activities, such as land conservation versus conversion of land to pasture and the inception of policy and program design. It is important to link REDD+ policy instruments with existing national development strategies and to promote gender rangeland.36 (see Box A10.4 in Annex 10 for discussion of the Mexican Government’s efforts to equality and female participation in benefit-sharing schemes. achieve policy coherence).37 Disaggregate socioeconomic data by gender. Gender data will give policy makers a better overview on poverty, scarcity scenarios, access, agency, endowments, and potential incentives. Collect and disaggregate socioeconomic data for indigenous populations (and by gender for this population). The needs of indigenous populations are an important input for REDD+ program design. Enroll more women in REDD+ programs in Mexico. Programs should better tackle women’s needs and demands and thus aim at enhancing take up of rural women. See Box A10.3 in Annex 10 for more information of enrollment of women. 35  García and González (2015). 36  SAGARPA (2016). 37  Alianza México-REDD+ (n.d.). Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 40 41 Chapter 2: Structural barriers to women’s participation in REDD+ Legal Barriers and Structural recommendation #3 Recommendations Enhance policy coherence across programs, institutions, and levels of government Structural challenge 4: Efforts should be undertaken to better harmonize objectives and align implementation of the different governmental programs. Achieving Lack of land tenure policy coherence for sustainable development—which in fact is Sustainable Development Goal 17.1438—is an important priority for Mexico’s government Lack of land tenure impedes women’s participation in REDD+ activities and sustainable land management. Analysis of federal policies and their implementation at both the federal and state level could help mitigate and community governance. Only 19.8 percent of the rural land owners with full distortions or incoherence and ultimately contribute to improving gender community assembly decision-making rights are women. Without ownership empowerment (see Annex 10, Box A10.4 for details of the Mexican Government’s or control of land, women cannot apply to (most) incentive programs (subsidies) ongoing efforts to achieve policy coherence). related to infrastructure, credits, and technical assistance; nor can they participate in community decision-making and assemblies. The majority of landowning women At the same time, economic and technical resources from different sectors inherited the land from their husbands and are 60–70 years old. They have limited working on rural development should be mobilized to identify and then capacity for hard physical work on the land, and their economic and political mitigate the most incoherent approaches. It is important to exploit synergies outlook tends to be short term. across different policy areas with important development dimensions, such as investment, agriculture, and environment, to create environments conducive The gender division of labor and the constitution of the family as an economic development and sustainable resource management. entity often contributes to gender inequalities. For example, the move of the female to the male spouse’s house makes it counterintuitive for parents to bequeath their land to their daughters. Moreover, landless women cannot attend community assemblies, and thus do not receive the information about REDD+ activities that is mainly disseminated in assemblies.39 Absence of property ownership and control matters for women’s agency. Assets are an important element to boost voice and 38   http://indicators.report/targets/17-14/  bargaining power in household decision making, access to capital, and overall economic independence.40 The growing migration of population in Mexico increases the responsibilities of rural women, while their legal and economic status remains unchanged.41 There is increasing migration of populations between 20 and 44 years old. In 2014, male migration was 34.2 percent and female migration was 25.6 percent. Men who migrate rarely sign over their land to women, thus not providing their wives (or daughters) with the necessary legal authority to become part of the community’s governing bodies, work the lands, and apply for governmental support. 39  Méndez López et. al. (2015). 40  World Bank Group (2012: 88). 41  CONAFOR (2014d). Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 42 43 Chapter 2: Structural barriers to women’s participation in REDD+ For the typical laborer who is only a temporary migrant, having a wife at home is Structural challenge #5: cost-efficient, conforms to gender norms, and protects his social standing in the Lack of representation for women and intimidation that community and kinship structures. However, migration could create new scenarios prevents their participation in decision-making forums in which gender and cultural structures may be altered. Women might be able to generate new spaces of interaction that give them possibilities to grow and empower themselves. Institutions often benefit men through decision-making, even over products and services that are mostly used by women. In 2016 in Mexico, women held only 12.5 percent of the 350,000 management positions in local assemblies and Structural recommendation #4 governing bodies.42 Furthermore, most programs require that the community council participate in the application to and approval of accessing programs. This requirement excludes women, since they usually are not members of the council. Even if women do participate (for example, through a mandatory gender parity rule), Distribute legal land tenure more equally throughout their opinions traditionally are not given the same importance as those of men. the population and change customary laws A woman in a focus group during field work mentioned: “Not all women form part of the ejido council. We are part of an indigenous community and we (women) are Ensure that property rights are distributed throughout the population by ashamed to raise our hand to participate. The Municipal Commissioner has a rude redistributing land titles or including women on legal land titles. The number of personality and there are not a lot of opportunities for us to express our opinion.” “Agricultural and Industrial Units for Women,” known as “women’s parcels ” (parcelas de la mujer), exclusive for the productive use of women, is still low. Today only 19 Although community and ejido assemblies are often open to everyone, their percent of ejido and community land corresponds to these parcels (most of them in organization and dynamics do not favor women’s participation. They often Yucatan, the fewest in Chiapas). As stated during an interview for this report, many lack a seating order, operate under the “whoever is loudest is heard” principle, of these parcels are either far away from the households (thus impeding women and intimidate women who are already in a minority during these meetings.43 from using them daily), are tilled by men, or are used for agricultural purposes Furthermore, information about subsidy and advisory programs is disseminated (like raising cattle) that traditionally are not women‘s duties. The situation could be in these communal spaces and if women are not present during the assemblies, improved in the following ways: they are not informed. • Authorities could try to ensure that women’s parcels are returned to women’s use only, and build women’s capacity to use the land as needed. If the parcels are too far away from the communities (so that women could not use them without leaving their home unattended), a switch of parcels could be negotiated. • Husbands could be encouraged to include their wives on the land title. • A longer-term solution would be to conduct a social and behavioral intervention through educational programs at the community level to prepare for changes in customary law. An example would be to encourage men to bequeath their land to their wife or daughter in times of death or migration. However, counterintuitive traditions to this normative change should be considered—for example, that the daughter moves to the husband’s house. 42  CONABIO (2016). 43  Interview with CONAFOR (2017). Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 44 45 Chapter 2: Structural barriers to women’s participation in REDD+ Economic barriers and recommendations Structural recommendation #5: Promote women’s representation and participation in decision-making processes Structural challenge #6: Promote women’s attendance and participation in decision-making Poverty traps for women and processes and ensure that women can express themselves freely. female headed households This report finds that women’s participation in productive activities and their participation in communal decision making are correlated. Therefore, women’s participation in decision-making processes should be promoted, and Female-headed households are poorer and face higher risks of falling into a they should not be hindered by the social structures and entrenched power poverty trap.45 They are less likely than male-headed households to have access to asymmetries during meetings. Women’s participation could be supported in land and resources. Twenty-three percent of Mexico’s women live in rural areas and the following ways: in vulnerable conditions with limited access to human endowments such as food, education, health, infrastructure, and employment.46 As depicted in Table 2.2, in • Gender parity rates could be stipulated for council debate to open 2010, nearly half of all Mexican women were living in households with a per capita access to women to decision-making arenas. Such rule changes should income below the poverty line.47 be accompanied by social support for women, including asking communal leaders to help women speak out in meetings and become more confident. Female-headed households are more likely to have reduced educational levels. As a study of the Oportunidades Program has shown, it is more common • Dedicated spaces such as schools or medical facilities could be provided for children and adolescents from female-headed households not to attend for women to meet and discuss community issues. Every morning, most school. Girls and young women stop studying to help their mothers with household women walk their children to the nearest school. Thus, educational facilities activities. This implies that these female-headed households cannot comply with could be a space to present programs or activities, without forcing women the education requirements of the Oportunidades Program and thus do not profit to leave their home and routine for too long. Furthermore, women must from it.48 In general, women undertake more domestic, informal, and unpaid get a periodical medical checkup to receiving direct social assistance from activities than men (one of the additional causes impeding them from signing the Oportunidades program, and thus medical facilities could also be a up for programs to escape from poverty). convenient meeting space and presentation forum for information about programs and subsidy schemes that women can apply to. This would help also overcome intention-action gaps.44 45  Poverty trap is used in a context where current poverty might be what is causing future poverty. A poverty trap takes place when poor people lack access to capital and credit to help them break out of the poverty cycle. As a result of limited access to resources and opportunities, current poverty can cause future poverty (Kraay and McKenzie 2014). 46  INEGI (2016a). 44  “Intention-action gaps” are defined by the World Bank Group (2015b) as: a failure by an individual to follow through on his or her intentions and instead to take an action that, on reflection, the individual would 47  DOF (2016). not have wished to take. 48  De la Paz y Salles (2006). Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 46 47 Chapter 2: Structural barriers to women’s participation in REDD+ Table 2.2. Social and gender roles prevent women from doing paid work. The share of women Poverty and Reduced Socioeconomic Status of Women in the economically active population is much lower than that of men. Only 38 percent of women are economically active, compared to 62 percent of men.49 The situation and Female-Headed Households in Mexico of income earners in the household varies regionally. Households with a majority (83 Sources: INEGI (2014b), INEGI (2015), and DOF (2016). percent) of male “breadwinners” can be found in the southern Pacific region (Chiapas, Note: n.a. = Not applicable Guerrero, and Oaxaca) versus 70 percent of male “breadwinners” in the central parts of Mexico (Mexico City, State of Mexico, and Morelos).50 This suggests a certain machismo, National patriarchal control, and indirect socialization of traditional gender roles in southern Female Male Average (and ER-P) states. Perhaps women are discouraged from working at an early age, when they learn and see that men are the breadwinners (in behavioral science, this Living in poverty (2010), national average 46.3% 46.1%a 46% phenomenon would be called salience of gender identity). The traditional undervaluing of women discourages change, such as investment in women’s education and skills. Living in extreme poverty, national average 10.4% 10.4% 10.4% Thus, the normalcy of patriarchal control and gender inequality is perpetuated. Educative disadvantage, national average The wage gap between men and women is especially significant in rural areas. (difference in access and results of education between 21.8% 19.4% 20.6% Measured nationally, 60 percent of women receive a salary above the minimum wage men and women; higher is worse) (70 percent of men).51 In rural areas, however, only 43 percent of women are paid more than minimum wage (and 56 percent of men).52 One important driver of economic Head of household (rural)b Alimentary insecurity of HH headed by marginalization in rural areas is the lack of training services for better work. Without job women is 6% higher than those headed by training, rural (and indigenous) women cannot exit low-productivity and informal sectors. 11% 89% n.a. men; 79% of female-headed households have no male partner, but dependent children, Women fulfill double roles in the economy and bear a double time-burden. When making them especially vulnerable.c compared to men, women spend more time on household activities and less time on social activities. Traditionally, women are assigned the role of the caretaker, which National: 3.5% National: 19% Working in primary sector (agriculture, forestry, fishing) 13% includes education, housework, and community work (see Figure 2.1). Rural women in Rural: 11% Rural: 89% particular spend 71 percent of their week working in remunerated and nonremunerated Working in tertiary sector (services, National: 79% National: 55% activities, compared to 66 percent of the week for men. All in all, women undertake more 61% commerce, transportation)d Rural: 49% Rural: 51% nonemployment activities and have less free time than men. This might hold them up from signing up to another task, such as a REDD+ related activity. Working in informal sector, national average 51% 49% 50% Women use natural resources differently than men, which sets the stage for a variety of structural barriers. Differentiated resource use makes women vulnerable US$207 US$292 US$280 to economic, social, and external environmental influences, especially in rural areas. Average monthly income per female-headed male-headed average rural household in rural areas (2000) rural house- rural house- Such vulnerability affects their economic empowerment, livelihoods, their social households holds holds spaces, and ultimately their involvement in REDD+ and related initiatives. Share of hours spent on domestic 71% 29% 53% chores, national average a  CONEVAL (2012). 49  Percentage points are for formal labor; the informal economy is particularly important for rural b  Alianza México-REDD+ (2013). women’s livelihoods, but not reflected in statistics for the economically active population. c  Eighty-four percent of the rural female-headed households are led by women aged 30 years or younger, 50  De la Paz y Salles (2006). 37.3 percent by women between 30 and 49 years old, 20.9 percent between 50 and 59 years old, and 33.4 percent by women older than 60 years. Source: Alianza México-REDD+ (2013). 51  INEGI (2016c). d  INEGI (2016c). 52  INEGI (2014a). Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 48 49 Chapter 2: Structural barriers to women’s participation in REDD+ Figure 2.1. Time Dedicated to Diverse Activities in Localities of Less Structural recommendation #6: than 10,000 Inhabitants (Women aged 12 and above), 2014 Source: INMUJERES (2014). Note: Reference is made to the resident population of localities with less than 10,000 inhabitants. Time is estimated Fight the poverty traps resulting from in weekly hours. Household activity includes: domestic work, the production of goods for exclusive household consumption, care and support for people in the household, support for other households, and community and women’s time burdens, economic volunteer work. Entertainment includes: sport, social, community activities for pleasure, and entertainment and the use of mass media. Other activities include: travel to work, job search, and travel to school. marginalization, and blunted aspirations Consider scarcity scenarios and double time-burdens during project design. Offer REDD+ related activities close to women’s homes, so they don’t have to leave their household chores and children unattended. Complement Household activity REDD+ activities with innovations that reduce time spent on household tasks. 13% Entertainment For example, “estufas ahorradoras de leña” (wood-burning “saving stoves”) can reduce the time dedicated to collecting firewood. This would reduce women’s domestic burden and allow them more time for leisure or productive activities. Works at the market (sales or purchases) Additionally, steps should be taken to create a stable market and prices for 11% agricultural products. In Chiapas, some communities travel to Guatemala to INDIGENOUS 67% Studies sell their products. In Yucatan, access to markets is even more difficult, which WOMEN is why communities mostly rely on intermediaries to sell their produce, often 7% Other Activities losing profit or selling below the cost of production. Recognize and support economic opportunities for women in agriculture 2% and other productive activities. Women help farm some “light crops” (including chili, coffee, pumpkin, and vegetables) that are easy to grow and harvest. These crops present an economic opportunity for women, but they often lack the technical skills to take over cultivation. Women have prominent roles in other agricultural activities such as animal husbandry. This is an economic opportunity—principally in Chiapas—as cattle and meat achieve more stable prices than crops. Such activities would be in line with REDD+ efforts as agroforestry/silvopastoral schemes.53 Other preferred activities for 19% women include forestry programs, coffee, subsidies for handcrafting, and local programs for cultural or traditional activities. Some of these opportunities are women-exclusive and allow conciliating domestic labor with economic or productive activities, without adding an extra time burden. 15% NON INDIGENOUS 55% WOMEN 53  See the ER-P investment plan projects for further reference. 8% 3% Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 50 51 Chapter 2: Structural barriers to women’s participation in REDD+ Structural challenge #7: Structural recommendation #6: (cont.) Educational disadvantages Fight the poverty traps resulting from Women receive less education and are often less exposed than men to the world outside of their communities. In particular, indigenous peoples in Mexico women’s time burdens, economic still face significant disadvantages in access to health, education, and income marginalization, and blunted aspirations opportunities. The overall Human Development Index for Indigenous Peoples in Mexico in 2010 was lower than the national average.55 Of the 15 percent of Use choice simplification to free cognitive space 54 that is limited under a Mexican women who are illiterate, 37 percent are indigenous.56 Many only speak scarcity mindset. Cognitive space is limited under a scarcity mindset. Thus, an indigenous language and do not speak or understand Spanish. Indigenous an overflow of information can cause women to stick to their status quo and men often receive better education or/and have more exposure to Spanish during ignore new programs. meetings, assemblies, or working hours.57 This makes a strong case for education Reminders (a form of commitment device) could also be used to reduce as the key to empowerment of (indigenous) women. Education and other training the cognitive costs of decision-making and follow-through on decisions. can build women’s capacity to manage natural and financial resources, and thus Reminders can take the form of text messages, verbal reminders in places enhance their socioeconomic status.58 women assist regularly (church, clinics, schools, etc.), or calls. Reminder options should be designed to avoid unintended conflict with a community’s Lack of education can result in barriers when applying to programs: a good social norms with unintended consequences. Once a woman enrolls in an policy or program might not succeed if it is not understood and taken up by activity, a system of reminders can help sustain her commitment. When its target population. Policies, programs, information, and benefits that are only technology-based solutions are not possible (due to lack of infrastructure), presented in Spanish can further exclude minorities and women. The areas covered alternatives could include short announcements during social meetings in this study suffer further from high levels of illiteracy,59 and women tend to have or in public places (schools, medical care institutions, and so forth) or a higher overall illiteracy rate than men (see “Illiteracy” in Annex A7 for details). text messages. 54  Cognitive space or cognitive bandwidth denotes the finite information processing capacity of the brain. Making decisions and challenging decision contexts consumes cognitive bandwidth 55  UNDP (2010), p. 15. (World Bank 2015b). 56  INMUJERES (2014). 57  Almeida (2009). 58  United Nations (2010). 59  Please see Annex A.7 for a concrete socioeconomic analysis of the communities. All numbers are based on data by INEGI from 2014 (further referred to as INEGI (2014c). Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 52 53 Chapter 2: Structural barriers to women’s participation in REDD+ Structural recommendation #7: Box 2.2. Case study: Structural Barriers Provide accessible information on programs to Women’s Participation in a Recognize and mitigate the structural disadvantage posed to women CONAFOR Project by inaccessible information. The use of images, infographics, and stories could be useful to help women absorb information about grants and subsidies. Programs, funding opportunities and any other benefit-sharing scheme should be presented in the indigenous language, orally, and at Enrolling in social programs often requires the completion of forms, which locations accessible to women (clinics, schools), especially in states with many might prove difficult for someone who did not attend school. For example, in indigenous peoples. Culturally sensitive capacity training is also needed and 2017 the National Forestry Commission (CONAFOR) initiated the “Productive should be given in the afternoons, when women have more or less finished Forestry Projects for Women” program.a Of the 51 applications received,b 10 their household chores. projects were approved for a total amount of US$548,223 (the subsidy per project can range from US$10,000 to US$100,000) to support manufacturing of furniture, handicrafts, charcoal, and food from forest products. The reasons for not approving the remaining 41 projects vary; they include noncompliance with eligibility criteria, submission of incomplete application, no accreditation of legal ownership of land or lack thereof, or failure to specify the location where support would be applied. The submission of incomplete applications could After reviewing the structural barriers, organized in legal, be explained by: 1) the challenges faced by public servants/technical advisors economic, and institutional barriers, the next chapter and forestry promoters when communicating application processes and addressing barriers faced by women; 2) women lacking the capacities to apply; will present the behavioral barriers that women face and 3) women not knowing about the existence of the program or lacking when participating in emission reduction programs or detailed information (few women applied to this program). Furthermore, in productivity schemes. order to receive this special women-only subsidy, women must contribute between 10 and 50 percent in cash or in kind under the 2017 program. Women often lack cash or access to credit to provide the necessary counter-financing. As of 2016, only 38 percent of rural women had a bank account, and access to financial services was low. Only 11 percent of the rural population requested formal credits and only 5 percent of ejidos and communities engaging in sustainable forest management accessed financial services. Thus, there are important opportunities to make projects more gender-inclusive and better target women, something this report is aiming to do. Source: World Bank (2017c). Note: a. CONAFOR (2016c). b. The highest number of applications from indigenous populations come from the state of Mexico (9 applications), followed by the states of Michoacán, Oaxaca, and Puebla with 4 applications each, Coahuila with 3, and the rest of the applications from other states (2 or less). Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 54 55 Chapter 2: Structural barriers to women’s participation in REDD+ Chapter 3: Behavioral Barriers to Women’s Participation in REDD+ 57 This chapter presents the main behavioral science findings regarding women’s decision-making Box 3.1. processes, external and Three Models of Decision-Making internal influences on their behavior patterns, and their decision to partake in The World Development Report 2015 (World Bank 2015b) divides decision making into three models: REDD-related activities. The 01. automatic models and decision-making, during which we rely on analysis follows the World narrow frames, beliefs, default assumptions, and association systems that automatically come to mind, and that are generally learned; Bank’s World Development 02. mental decision-making, using interpretive frames provided by “mental models,” which can be of multiple forms, sometimes conflicting, and which Report 2015 framework on can change what an individual perceives and how she/he interprets it; and the behavioral impacts of 03. social decision-making and perception, guided by innate preferences, cooperation, and reciprocity. Social norms and their influence, as well as automatic thinking, mental social networks, also fall under this category and influence our decisions as we want to meet others’ expectations and act based on shared identities and models, and social norms. collective goals. Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 58 59 Chapter 3: Behavioral barriers to women’s participation in REDD+ In recent years, behavioral science has provided a new approach to understanding (essential) resource and resorts to automatic thinking for remaining decisions.62 public policy challenges, one that considers the individual as a social actor. The field Computational, cognitive capacity—including the ability to pay attention, make takes into consideration insights from psychology, sociology, anthropology, and good decisions, and resist temptation—is captured by the scarce resource. Thus, economics to define, understand, and predict human behavior. Behavior is driven by people in poverty may make short-sighted decisions that prevent them from biases, heuristics, loss aversion, self-control, and social norms, among others. To date, breaking the poverty trap. Researchers argue that seemingly bad choices people more than 100 countries are incorporating behavioral insights in the design and make in poverty scenarios are not the result of low education, living conditions, implementation of their public policy and programs. Furthermore, many countries or demographic variables, but the result of a scarcity mindset. such as Australia, the Netherlands, Peru, and the United Kingdom, and institutions such as the OECD, the United Nations, and the World Bank have established units 62  For further reference, see Daniel Kahneman’s book Thinking, Fast and Slow (2011), which explains two dedicated to leveraging behavioral insights to design better policy and programs. different systems of decision making: System 1, Intuitive/Biased; and System 2, Deliberative/Cognitive. Behavioral science can work in tandem with standard diagnostic tools to improve the design and implementation of REDD+ related activities. Structural barriers and behavioral barriers exacerbate each other in a vicious cycle: for example, by driving poverty, structural barriers deplete mental bandwidth, which in turn triggers behavioral biases. To the extent that women are disproportionally affected Box 3.2. by structural barriers, behaviorally informed policies can thus be particularly effective for women. The combined approach taken in this report to address both behavioral and structural barriers thereby hopes to be effective in increasing Simplifying the Choice Environment women’s participation in forestry, agricultural, or other REDD+ related activities. Following the World Development Report 2015, this report presents three categories of behavioral challenges to women’s participation in REDD+: automatic decision In behavioral science, human decision making is deliberative. Much of our making, mental models and decision making, and social decision making. The three thinking is automatic and based on what effortlessly comes to mind, using categories are discussed below. mental shortcuts. Even minor changes in how choices are presented or contextualized can have a large impact on behavior, and ultimately on the achievement of development goals. Simplifying the choice environment helps people make rational choices and enact behaviors that benefit them. Automatic decision-making Automatic, unconscious choices and external constraints strongly affect decision-making processes. These are often exacerbated by “scarcity effects,” Understanding how contexts of poverty, hardship, and scarcity affect decision- which reduce cognitive bandwidth60 and thus intensify automatic decision-making. making processes is important for the analysis of take-up and retention of Scarcity exists in poverty contexts in the form of lack of income, limited access to social programs. Forty-two percent of the Mexican population live in poverty.63 public services, and difficulty meeting basic needs. Behavioral science finds that These communities face institutional and resource deficiencies and scarcity, people tend to perceive scarce resources as more valuable61 than other readily including lack of information, monetary resources, access to education, health available resources. Scarcity focuses people’s thoughts solely on the lack of a certain services, social security, housing, services, food, and time. 60  “The brain can process only so much information and make so many decisions at once. Making decisions and challenging decision contexts consume cognitive bandwidth” (World Bank 2015). 61  Cialdini (2008). 63  CONEVAL (2012). Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 60 61 Chapter 3: Behavioral barriers to women’s participation in REDD+ Behavioral challenge #1: food and studies for my children”; and “Help my husband with the harvest every year.” Only a few answers differed from daily activities: “Start my own barbershop”; Scarcity scenarios: time, financial, “Build my own greenhouse for planting palm leaf”; “Finish my technical-high school and aspiration scarcities degree.” As with a lack of financial security, a cognitive tunneling effect could hold women back from looking beyond their immediate horizons. Women may not This report argues that there are three scarcity scenarios affecting women in consider the possibilities afforded by subsidies or other governmental programs, both Yucatan and Chiapas: time scarcity (no free time), financial scarcity (poverty nongovernmental interventions, or other recreational activities. Furthermore, that prevents the fulfilment of basic needs), and aspirations scarcity (lack of mid- gender norms and lack of role models can limit women’s aspirations beyond term and long-term goals). All three scenarios influence automatic decision-making. traditional roles As outlined in structural challenge #5, women suffer from a double time- burden and thus time scarcity. Like many barriers to women’s participation, time scarcity has both structural and behavioral aspects; here we focus on the insights provided by behavioral framing. Women are responsible both for their domestic/ Box 3.3. household work and productive, agricultural, and mostly unpaid work (feeding the cattle or harvesting vegetables) (see Box 3.3). By tradition, women feel responsible for taking care of the house, their children, their husbands, and the household What do we know about a day in a rural and do not perceive this as something negative. While both men and women woman’s life? agree that women are responsible for domestic activities, men underestimate the time and role their wives dedicate to productive work. Men usually report lower (perceived) rates of female involvement in agricultural activities than actual reality—which means no acknowledgment of the double time-burden women face We asked women in the rural focus group about how they spend their day. The following is a summary of their responses. Women rise with the or their contribution to bread-winning. As recorded in field work, a focus group of sun—between 4 and 6 am—and start the day by preparing food and clothing nonorganized women expressed: “Men limit our participation. They do not detect for their children and husband (some families have up to 12 children). Around that almost every woman has done agricultural work (…) we can harvest, grow and 7 or 8 am, after breakfast, the husband leaves the house to go to work (mainly clean the field.” This underestimation could increase the psychological stresses agricultural or forestry activities) and the women continue with their domestic of families, keep women out of productive work, and increase the scarcity context. activities: cleaning the house, preparing lunch, and playing with their children. The second scarcity scenario is the lack of necessary resources to satisfy In some families where women also do productive activities, they feed cattle or harvest some seeds or leaves. These activities are scheduled to avoid impinging basic needs: financial scarcity. During the focus groups, women expressed on domestic responsibilities. their difficulty in satisfying daily food needs of their family. Both women and men mentioned in field work interviews that they look for additional, nonagricultural In the afternoon, women start preparing dinner to have it ready for their activities to earn extra income: “We are motivated to undertake other activities husbands when they return from work (sometimes, husbands also get home because we need food on our table. We need to have enough resources to feed our for lunch). children.” The focus on satisfying basic needs could cause a tunneling effect, which At night, women continue with domestic activities or take care of the children is when scarcity captures people’s attention and limits their cognitive bandwidth for and then make necessary preparations for the next day. aspirations and ideas that go beyond their daily routine. The family may overlook the best short- and long-term options for generating additional income. The third scarcity scenario is women’s lack of aspiration: aspiration scarcity. Source: Own elaboration from field work During the focus groups, the participants were asked to share their aspirations. The most common aspirations pertained to daily activities and the satisfaction of basic family needs: “My aspiration is to take care of my child—that’s it”; “Provide Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 62 63 Chapter 3: Behavioral barriers to women’s participation in REDD+ .Behavioral recommendation #1: Mitigate scarcity scenarios by reducing Simplify choice architecture, which could encourage or “nudge”68 rural complexity and access barriers women to sign up to productivity programs. Women and communities through simplification, improved under a scarcity scenario may have limited cognitive space and bandwidth, leading them to overlook new options and programs. Especially for poorly choice architecture, and nudging64 educated women in rural areas, program complexity might be perceived as very high. A “choice architecture” to encourage women’s participation could Improved choice architecture65 can support the mitigation of scarcity include simpler program presentation, assistance in signing up, and program scenarios. Complexity is not itself a behavioral phenomenon, but can result in monitoring. Moreover, choice architecture activities could be undertaken by behavioral compensations that further reduce access. When confronted with promotors similar to their communities (exercising social influence on potential complex information, people tend to make worse, more uninformed, and more beneficiaries). Finally, knowledge exchange between men and women from irrational decisions than when information is clearly presented.66 In fact, the similar communities (to alter social norms) can help increase program effort of decision-making leads people to the use of heuristics,67 which make uptake and better-informed decision-making. them more prone to biases, low cognitive performance, or even can deter them from taking any decision at all. Reduce complexity and access barriers by designing program presentations with culturally sensitive communication tools, and deliver presentations at opportune moments, such as paydays or community meeting days, so that people act on their good intentions at the moment it is easy and accessible for them. Using photographs, videos, direct exchanges, or presentations can help correct false beliefs about social norms—for example, by providing accurate statistics on women’s chores and economic activities. These media can also be used to provide information about how an individual’s 64  Automatic decision-making can be influenced by something called “choice architecture.” behavior compares to that of peers. Choice architecture influences decision making by simplifying the presentation of options, by automatically evoking particular associations, or by making one option more salient or easier to choose than the alternatives. Similarly, “nudging” can induce a certain behavior—in this case, a tendency to sign up to programs—by changing the default option, the description, the anchor, or the reference point. 65  Such as simplification, reducing options, use of defaults, bundling or partitioning options. 68  Nudging is an aspect of choice architecture that alters behavior in a predictable way 66  Gigerenzer and Gaissmair (2011). without forbidding any options or significantly changing economic incentives (World Bank 67  Heuristics are mental shortcuts individuals use to simplify decisions (WDR 2015). Group 2015b). Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 64 65 Chapter 3: Behavioral barriers to women’s participation in REDD+ Mental models and decision-making Behavioral challenge #2: Gender norms and limited aspirations Mental models encompass categories, concepts, identities, causal narratives, and worldviews. Mental models can be unconscious grounds of reasoning since Most rural women interviewed in Chiapas and Yucatan view their roles through they provide default assumptions about the characteristics of people, objects, traditional gender norms. Women recognize that family and their role as mothers and relationships, and thus drive stereotypes, social norms, and cultural stigma. comes first and is the most important responsibility in their lives. A “good family A person’s self-concept consists of multiple mental models, each associated with woman” knows how to raise children and always fulfills her daily and household specific sets of norms. These norms guide their choices and behaviors. 69 Gender chores to everyone’s satisfaction (a value that was mentioned in all focus groups). roles are one of the mental models that women adopt based on the norms around Even from a woman’s perspective, leaving her house and the community to women’s roles in the household and community. Collectively shared mental engage in a productive activity is only acceptable if “there is no other way to give models are persistent and can exert a major influence on individual choices and food to your child” or “when your husband abandons you.” Most of the women aggregate social outcomes. However, mental models are also malleable and can acknowledged that their main aspirations are to provide education and food be altered by education, programs, or initiatives. In other words, mental models to their children and help their husbands in the harvest. These findings show both constrain and enable development. Moreover, individuals have many different that from the women’s perspective, being a mother is the most important role and competing mental models that they can bring to bear on a situation, and in their lives—both in their family and community. which one they use depends on the context that activates one mental model Women’s bravery, acknowledged in traditional roles, could be linked to their rather than another.70 Behavioral science offers insights into women’s agency by participation in REDD+ activities.72 Women identified themselves during the helping to explain the different biases that determine women’s self-concept, their focus group as “very brave” and those who had been involved in nondomestic self-perception regarding their abilities and capacities to achieve their goals or to activities outside the house were satisfied with the results they had attained. For start new activities, and their aspirations. By removing barriers for women to have example, in Sacpukenha, a woman told a story about standing her ground when ownership and possess assets and enhancing women’s voice and agency, they can hunting with her husband. While she was holding the rifle, a deer appeared. Lacking become more empowered to participate in programs such as REDD+. Behavioral time to hand the rifle over to her husband (the deer would have heard and ran and normative patterns—and mental models—can be positively changed.71 away), she had to make the shot—and did so successfully. There was a common In rural areas of Mexico, mental models can result in the exclusion of women agreement among the women who heard the story that she had been “brave” and from REDD+ participation, and other productive activities. Models such as “courageous.” Through other stories told during the focus groups, it became evident stereotypes, traditional gender norms, and the historical exclusion of women that the first mover, initially, felt fear about trying something new, but that the fear from decision-making processes can affect women’s self-confidence, self-efficacy, subsided the moment they tried it and realized that they could succeed. The deer and, consequently, their will to get involved in decision-making processes or feel metaphor could be a symbol for other women to get involved in “exclusively male” empowered to sign up for programs (see Box 3.4). Therefore, one important aim activities. Women’s bravery is already accepted among communities; this identity of the data collection was to approach an understanding of mental models in could be extended to nondomestic activities. communities—that is, stereotypes, the way the community perceives a woman (“what is a good woman?”), and the way women perceive themselves (self-concept). 69  WDR (2015). 70  World Bank Group (2015b). 71  World Bank Group (2008). 72  World Bank (2015b). Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 66 67 Chapter 3: Behavioral barriers to women’s participation in REDD+ Behavioral recommendation #2: Box 3.4. The Effects of Identity and Gender Expand women’s self-concept Bias on Agency: Achieving Gender through role models Inclusion Through Behavioral Insights Increase the number of female forestry promoters or technical advisors to slowly change gender norms that block women from signing up to programs. Of the 353 forestry promoters (promotores forestales) in Mexico, only 16 percent (58) are women. Of the 899 technical advisors (asesores An individual’s self-concept is composed of multiple identities, built by técnicos certificados) in the ER-P states, 19 percent (175) are women.73 beliefs and perceptions. Two individuals who appear to have the same The reasons for this gender disparity include the fact that forests are a background may make different decisions depending on how they predominantly male space, that capacity building for promoters might primarily (or in the moment of the decision) identify themselves—for not have been gender inclusive, and women suffer the above-mentioned example by gender, race, ethnicity, religion, class, or another characteristic. structural and behavioral barriers to getting involved in promoting jobs. Individual motivation and decision-making power is called agency. The low female rate of forestry promoters and technical advisors poses Behavioral science offers insights into women’s agency by highlighting challenges when working with communities. Gender norms might prevent or a variety of barriers. These include the biases underlying women’s self- discourage women f rom interacting with a male promoter. In remote areas concept, women’s self-perception regarding their abilities and capacities such as Chiapas’ Selva Lacandona, women might not talk to male strangers. to achieve their goals or to start new activities, and their aspirations. By At the same time, it is difficult for women to relate to the promoters in removing barriers for women to ownership and assets and enhancing order to receive social influence or create a cascade effect (see Box 3.5), or to women’s voice and agency, they become more empowered, both look up to the forestry promoters and aspire to follow their career path. It is structurally and behaviorally. Behavioral and normative patterns—and therefore recommended to increase the number of female forestry promoters mental models—can be positively changed (World Bank Group 2015a). or technical advisors. Especially when female promoters are f rom the same community or localities, this can help: 01. reframe women’s role, 02. change Gender bias creates societal norms and roles that deny women the same social bias, 03. build the trust needed to convince women and men to sign up opportunities as men. Social norms prescribe how women are expected to REDD+ related activities, and 04. harness influence. to act or perceive themselves. These expectations affect women’s self- concept, self-efficacy, and self-worth. Stereotypes, idealization, and other cognitive biases ultimately determine the social norms upon which Encourage group activities for women. Field work and research found that women are judged and treated. once women are organized in groups or undertake a group activity, they start feeling empowered to become even more informed and partake in decision- Behavioral insights can unveil the barriers that hinder women from making. For example, a study conducted in West Bengal, India found that achieving voice and agency. Through these insights can we contribute to prior exposure to women in leadership roles improved perceptions of female meeting the World Bank’s Gender Strategy more efficiently and effectively. 73  Of the 58 female promoters, 55 percent are in Jalisco, 28 percent in Quintana Roo, 7 percent in Chiapas, 5 percent in Campeche, and 5 percent in Yucatan. Regarding technical advisors: Campeche has a total of 76 advisors, of which 14 are women. Chiapas has a total of 317 advisors, of which 53 are women. Jalisco has a total of 212 advisors , of which 23 are women. Quintana Roo has a total of 123 advisors , of which 44 are women. Yucatan has a total of 117 advisors, of which 41 are women. (Source: E-mail communication from CONAFOR, 2017.) Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 68 69 Chapter 3: Behavioral barriers to women’s participation in REDD+ Behavioral recommendation #2 (cont): Box 3.5. Expand women’s self-concept Social Influence and Cascade Effects through role models leader effectiveness and weakened gender roles stereotypes in both public Social norms produce social influence. People are motivated to adopt a and domestic spheres.74 Therefore, a first step would be to involve more women new behavior when other members of their group engage in the same new in groups, which allows them to solve problems requiring collective action. behavior. For instance, people tend to reduce energy consumption when Group activity would slowly change the traditional gender norms of women they know that others in similar households use less energy, and people are and communities, for example, through knowledge exchanges, lessons learned, more likely to take the stairs rather than the lift when colleagues do the same and the integration of women in community decision-making spaces (for (Durantini et al. 2010). example, in Yaxcaba or Amatitlán) are more confident talking in front of men if they feel support from other women. Organized activities permit women to Social influence can create a cascade effect in a group when adoption of a solve collective action problems and have a stronger impact in the decision- beneficial new behavior spreads among members (which is the intended making processes. outcome of organizing women in groups for beneficiary programs). Here, however, the weight one gives to messages of benefits depends on the source. Associate women’s participation in productive activities such as REDD+ The more a messenger resembles group members—that is, the smaller the to their role as mothers. Connect the two roles by framing productive social distance—the more likely that the group will approve the message. Thus, activities as a family enterprise, through which families would benefit from the more alike promotores are to the communities, the more likely they can an increase in income. By connecting the two roles through framing, women build trust and uptake for their programs. might be encouraged to participate in productive activities to contribute to their households’ income, hence increasing the opportunities for their offspring, thus contributing to fulfilling their role as caretakers. This association could increase the number of women participating in REDD+ programs and increase women’s empowerment. household responsibilities.75 Community norms that value boys more than girls result in families prioritizing the education of male children and viewing girls’ 74  Beaman et al. (2009). education as unnecessary or costly. Similarly, girls can be pressured into certain types of work, feeling that formal or higher-paying jobs are reserved for men. Social influences often go unnoticed. Knowing how social norms influence behavior can help policy makers design more effective interventions and avoid unexpected pitfalls. Promoters can become more effective by learning how to Social decision-making identify biases underlying stereotypical gender and social norms. Promoters can then work to slowly work around these social norms and expectations among men and women regarding women’s participation in REDD+ programs. Social decision-making, reflects social preferences, norms, and networks. Cultural understanding of gender identity and what is “appropriate” behavior for a woman can influence their economic activity choices and their decisions regarding 75  Jewkes, Levin, and Penn-Kekana (2003). Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 70 71 Chapter 3: Behavioral barriers to women’s participation in REDD+ The stereotype of the ideal woman is difficult to change. Social norms can If rural women knew that women in similar communities undertake economic reinforce gender biases by perpetuating the stereotype of the ideal woman in activities or participate in REDD+ programs, they might be encouraged a certain society. The stereotypes continue to exist because of the difficulty of to participate, hence updating their beliefs about the norms. Knowledge altering them and because acting or thinking differently from the stereotype exchanges between men and women from different communities could be helpful breaks a social norm. As social individuals, breaking the social norms is something in this regard. that carries a heavy cost. Injunctive and descriptive norms can impede women from joining productive activities (see Box 3.6). Since few women participate in productivity schemes, rural women might believe that not participating is the norm within Behavioral challenge #3: the communities. Furthermore, women who break social norms and participate Fixed social identity more in economic activities feel pressure from both family and community to continue the “traditional way of life.” Some women who decided to leave the home to work or study often faced social discrimination. A woman from Chiapas Women are usually perceived to be domestic and economic help for their mentioned in a focus group: “It is not easy. When you leave your community, you husbands. In both Chiapas and Yucatan, there is a conservative view of labor: men face a lot of judgments by both men and women. It is common that neighbors are the breadwinners, responsible for physical activities and for earning money “to say: ‘She just wants to look for a husband’ or ‘She just wants to buy better clothes live well.” Women feel they cannot rest until all the household chores are done. Both than everyone’. Some women therefore decide to stay in as it is difficult to deal genders feel responsible for their children. Men fulfill this responsibility as providers with social rejection by everyone you know.” Thus, a prevalent social norm in the through agroforestry labor, and women through their duties at home. From the communities is that women should stay in their community. This is combined community perspective, a “good woman” is always respectful, hardworking, and with a strong sense of belonging: some women have never left their community “knows how to cook and clean.” Women’s domestic role is unequivocally strong and and the family has been there all their life. Although a few women said that uncontested. Men recognize their wives’ work as a contribution, but usually perceive “people are brave for leaving the community,” a stronger emphasis was put on the tasks as “low-value work”—more like a help than a job. A man in Huechem the rejection people could experience when leaving the community. Balam expressed: “Women’s tasks are not independent work, they are undertaken to help the man with his activities. Many times, women offer to help us with the crops in the fields: we then let them clean the plants or harvest beans.” Women, however, consider this “help” a real job. They express that they are as capable as Box 3.6. men to undertake certain types of agricultural activities (help in the field was mostly undertaken by single mothers or older women), but prefer to help men with lighter activities, like harvesting coffee or vegetables. Women do not feel as capable as men Descriptive and injunctive norms to do heavy agricultural activities, lacking physical strength. Involving women in activities outside the household changes norms and Social norms have two components: descriptive norms and injunctive perceptions. Activities considered “appropriate” for men and women were norms. Descriptive norms specify what is typical and normal and offer the discussed. One interesting finding was that the more involved women were in individual mental shortcuts when taking a decision. Elaborate cognitive organized and paid activities, the more liberal they and their husbands seemed processes can be bypassed with descriptive norms and heuristics (“if the to be or had become. This outcome highlights the possibility of changing self- majority does it, then it is wise to do so”). Injunctive norms are rules or perceptions and norms bit by bit through the long-term involvement of women beliefs about morally approved or disapproved behaviors, which help in REDD+ related group activities. For example, leaders of organized women individuals make decisions (Jewkes, Levin, and Penn-Kekana 2003). For groups (including groups that had been involved in productive or REDD+ related both kinds of norms, behaviors that are socially approved in a given time activities for a while) questioned the “traditional” discourse that only men should and context might be confused with what is “normal.” be breadwinners on several occasions. A woman from Chiapas participating in organized activities argued: “We must have the right to earn our own money (...) Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 72 73 Chapter 3: Behavioral barriers to women’s participation in REDD+ men should not get mad at the fact that we can work as hard as them.” Table 3.1 (“Abejas Meliponas”), agricultural activities, or eco-tourism. Women stated that presents statements by women about their participation in the decision-making since they had started the program, they had also gotten more involved in decision process and remunerated activities. The table shows that the more involved making, seeking better scenarios for improving their livelihoods, and expressing women become in outside activities, the more empowered they become. their ideas. Activities that involve various women working together would be socially Empowered women want to participate in outside activities and community more acceptable by traditional communities. Table 3.2 shows men’s most common councils and earn money. perceptions about: 1) female participation in communities, 2) women’s participation outside the household, and 3) women’s roles inside the household. This table also Table 3.1. compares how men’s perspective about women’s roles changes depending on Women’s Perception of Women’s Participation women’s organizational status. in Productive Activities and Community Councils The benefits of women’s participation can change traditional social identities. Men often resist women’s engagement in council meetings or decision-making Source: Own elaboration with data from focus groups and interviews in Chiapas and Yucatan field work. processes. However, when it becomes apparent that the whole family benefits from women’s participation in group activities, husbands tend to accept the “new” Activity role. There is a traditional dislike of women undertaking activities by themselves (or worse, with other men). This barrier can be overcome by making the whole family beneficiaries of women’s participation. Women’s economic status Women can Women should Women can earn undertake participate in their own money activities outside Table 3.2. community councils of their house Men’s Perception of Women’s Participation in Productive Activities and Community Councils Strongly agree; they Strongly agree; it is Strongly agree; men Organized (forestry or other are part of the ejido or good for all the family can contribute to productive activities) community if women earn money domestic issues Source: Own elaboration with data from Chiapas and Yucatan Fieldwork. Agree, but she Generally, agree; Generally, agree, Opinion should earn money but they can also be but she should Nonorganized without leaving the represented by their not disregard house unattended husbands her household Women’s labor status Men’s opinion Men’s opinion about Men’s opinion about for too long about women who women who participate women who participate participate in ejido or in economic activities in economic activities community councils outside the home inside the home Only involved in domestic Women did not There is no time to That’s a man’s task activities answer the question leave the house Very acceptable, they Slowly becoming Organized in groups are in company of more acceptable other women This participation The main difference between organized and non-organized women is their willingness to has always been participate in community councils. It seems that the more involved women are in activities outside Acceptable, just completely acceptable of the household, the more interested in decision-making they become. In other words, there is a Not very acceptable, conditioned to Not organized just in specific cases not disregarding strong correlation between extra-household empowerment and intra-community empowerment. house activities Organized women’s groups we interviewed included handcrafting (“Hamacas program”), beekeeping Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 74 75 Chapter 3: Behavioral barriers to women’s participation in REDD+ Behavioral recommendation #3: Target influencers to reframe social norms A possible intervention in the context of REDD+ related activities could be to give men small incentives and recognition if they support their partners to Make women’s existing social roles relevant to participation in programs participate in sustainable forest and agricultural activities. This incentive could through reframing. Our research suggests that some of the main behavioral be awarded by an influencer. While financial incentives, as an intervention, barriers for women’s participation in natural resource management are lack are typically associated with neo-classical economic theory, there are cases of empowerment, intimidation, and low psychological agency (including self- in which financial incentives can be “behavioral.” When the incentive is small efficacy and aspiration). These barriers can be overcome by activating existing compared with the behavior change it causes—and when it is not enough positive mental models that could override these psychological obstacles. money to relieve an actual financial constraint or market failure—we classify it as behaviorally motivated. For instance, it seems like a poor calculation to Enlist influencers such as community leaders or role models to gain the drive to a store across town just to redeem a one-dollar coupon on a grocery support of both women and men. These leaders can help convince both item; the experience of receiving an incentive may be more important and men and women in the community of the benefits of a program. Female relevant than the financial value of the reward itself. In the case of communities, forestry promoters and other successful women can demonstrate to their incentives and recognition by the community for effort could play a part in peers’ successful participation in programs or decision-making processes, fostering behavior and motivation. The use of a small token, in kind or monetary, with the support of their husbands. Examples of peer success can improve could encourage men to support women’s participation in economic activities. women’s agency and self-perception and increase men’s acceptance of Another behavioral tool could be the use of public recognition, a lottery, or other women’s participation in nontraditional activities. The husband’s approval incentives to change the behavior of men and women. is a strong determinant for women’s decision to participate in programs. Promotion of the benefits of women’s inclusion should highlight people Monetary rewards may create a risk of gender violence, wherein men force who are like the men and women in the target audience; and the less women to attend programs only to receive the financial incentive. Small abstract the presentation, the more success can be expected. Photographs, rewards or public recognition without money may help mitigate the risk. video, direct knowledge exchanges, or presentations can help individuals They would not be significant enough that anybody would force the woman relate to their peers. Media can be used to correct false beliefs about social to participate; but such rewards could be representative enough to make norms—for example, providing accurate statistics on women’s chores and participation attractive for the community member. Further studies and economic activities. close monitoring would be recommended. Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 76 77 Chapter 3: Behavioral barriers to women’s participation in REDD+ Chapter 4: Gender Action Plan: How to Design Gender-Informed REDD+ Related Activities with a Behavioral Science Lens Based on the desk research and findings from the field, this chapter presents the Gender Action Plan (GAP). Following the principles A Gender Action Plan (GAP) presents actions and activities that a government, an institution, policy makers, think tanks, or an international organization can develop of a GAP, this chapter will to promote gender equality within a project or initiative. A GAP first undertakes a diagnosis on the “as is” situation regarding gender (see Chapters 1 through 3 of this highlight the main barriers report). The GAP then provides clear and action-oriented recommendations on how for mainstreaming women identified gender challenges can be mitigated and considered for project design and implementation.76 into REDD+, natural resource Note that this GAP does not seek to generalize its findings for all of Mexico. management programs in Mexico has rich and extensive diversity—naturally, culturally, socially, politically, and economically. Therefore, this GAP does not seek to recommend a “one size fits general, and the FCPF ER-P all” approach, but rather provide ideas and stimulation for future programs. The behavioral science lens used for this report helps create a psychological and holistic benefit-sharing model in perspective. Specific recommendations, however, should always be tested before being applied on a larger scale. particular. Clear, realistic, and appropriate targets are presented for women’s Summary of the report participation in REDD+ related activities in Mexico. The report upon which this GAP is based examines perceived and actual gender differences in the use and management of natural resources, and the Results are organized into challenges of integrating women into REDD+ related activities or other natural resource management projects. This analysis leads to recommendations for goals, recommendations, more gender inclusiveness in project design, both in Mexico and elsewhere. More generally, the study aims to contribute to the World Bank’s Gender Strategy and indicators. and to fulfilling relevant Sustainable Development Goals. 76  European Commission (2005). 81 Chapter 4: Gender Action Plan: How to design gender-informed REDD+ related activities with a behavioral science lens The report applies a behavioral science lens to uncover key psychological, cultural, social, The report concludes with this Gender Action Plan (GAP). Structural and behavioral barriers are and non-material barriers to women’s participation in REDD+ related activities, particularly malleable. The GAP provides concrete recommendations for the inclusion of a gender perspective at the individual and community level. Decision-making patterns influenced by mental shortcuts, and female empowerment in policies, practices, and projects, especially those related to natural psychological biases, and social norms are identified. The approach was inspired by the World resource management and REDD+. When designed to take into consideration gender differences, Bank Group (2015b) World Development Report 2015: Mind, Society, and Behavior. We hope our REDD+ related activities and natural resource management programs can offer important conclusions can draw attention to women’s critical role in REDD+ activities and help enhance opportunities for women’s empowerment, sustainable resource management, and shared prosperity. gender inclusiveness in project design. Table 4.1. Women face a variety of barriers to participating in demand-driven REDD+ related activities, Overview of the Gender Action Plan Goals, which in this report are framed as structural and behavioral. Structural or “traditional” barriers— Recommendations, and Indicators economic, legal, institutional, and others—may be identifiable from desk research and interviews. Behavioral, often unconscious barriers—biases, mental models, gender norms, and others—may be revealed by behavioral science diagnostics and field work for identification. Goal 1: Facilitate application processes and accommodate time lines to community decision-making procedures Women use natural resources differently than men, which sets the stage for a variety of structural barriers. Differentiated resource use makes women vulnerable to economic, social, and external environmental influences, especially in rural areas. Such vulnerability affects their economic Action/Recommendation: Indicators: empowerment, livelihoods, their social spaces, and ultimately their involvement in REDD+ and 01. Provide documents in indigenous language · Percentage reduction of the steps needed to com- related initiatives, as discussed in chapter 2. and requiring less paperwork to reduce the plete the application process (%). burden women face (including educational · Integrate into the Rules of Operation/call for propos- Women’s economic participation is vulnerable to behavioral barriers such as social status and disadvantages). als the exact dates for response times to the appli- 02. Provide women with easily accessible information cations and the means of dissemination of results empowerment. Women’s participation in productive activities and their participation in communal (using images, infographics, and stories). (being easily accessible) (yes/no). decision-making are correlated. Thus, women’s economic participation is vulnerable to gender- 03. Providing women feedback mechanisms such as · Have open office days in application times for ques- exclusive social structures, low social status, and other behavioral barriers discussed in chapter 3. a hotline to support them through the application tions and clarifications (yes/no). process. · Percentage of eligible REDD+ areas that create one- Structural and behavioral barriers exacerbate each other in a vicious cycle. For example, 04. Provide women-only transportation if needed, in stop shops, in accessible communities, not more groups and during family-accessible times (such than two hours away from each ejido and commu- structural barriers such as poverty traps deplete mental bandwidth, which in turn triggers behavioral as the late afternoon). nity on key dates (%). biases and diminishes the likelihood of signing up to programs. To the extent that women are 05. Accommodate community decision-making to · Increase time windows for application to allow ap- disproportionally affected by structural barriers, behaviorally informed policies can thus be women-friendly timelines. plication schedules to be in line with ejido and com- 06. Extend enrollment windows and speed up munity decision-making time lines (yes/no). particularly effective for women. application-handling procedures. · Percentage of the programs presented in indige- nous language (orally) in regions with more than x% The study’s qualitative analysis also reveals activities that rural women in Mexico would of indigenous peoples (%). prefer to undertake in light of the upcoming forestry programs to be implemented in Mexico by CONAFOR and the World Bank. These include cultural or traditional activities such as coffee production, beekeeping, and handcrafting; and small-scale farm activities close to home, such as livestock and agriculture in forest landscapes. These activities should be designed and implemented with social and logistical support, such as women-accessible venues (like schools or clinics), flexible hours, capacity-building activities, and the integration of the whole family (including the husband) into the value chain. Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 82 83 Chapter 4: Gender Action Plan: How to design gender-informed REDD+ related activities with a behavioral science lens Goal 2: Mainstream gender at all policy and government levels Goal 5: Promote women’s representation and participation in decision-making processes Action/Recommendation: Indicators: Action/Recommendation: Indicators: 01. Incorporate a gender perspective into REDD+ · Share of REDD+ ER-P Phase 2 Projects designed to from the inception of policy and program design. specifically address and include women (%). 01. Promote women’s attendance and participation · Share of targeted women participating in commu- 02. Disaggregate socioeconomic data by gender. · CONAFOR’s annual budget for gender expert staff in decision-making processes and ensure that nity or ejido decision meetings (%). 03. Collect and disaggregate socioeconomic data for and specific gender programs is increased ($). women can express themselves freely. · Share of women in each community or ejido rating indigenous populations (and by gender for this · Gender capacity-building actions for different feder- 02. Gender parity rates could be stipulated for council “satisfied” with their participation in ejido/communi- population). al entities designed (yes/no). debate to open access to women to decision- ty councils (%). 04. Enroll more women in REDD+ programs in Mexico. · Number of staff reached in gender capacity training making arenas. · Number of influencers/role models/agents of (number). 03. Dedicated spaces such as schools or medical change participating in decision-meetings and · Share of indicators on women’s inclusion into fed- facilities could be provided for women to meet supporting women to have their voices heard, slow- eral and state programs that are able to measure and discuss community issues. ly boosting behavioral change (number). direct and indirect beneficiaries (%). · Number of alternative information dissemination · Number of opposing subsidy schemes amended areas created per municipality (number). and made coherent (number). · Share of targeted women in community or eji- · Number of additional sex disaggregated indicators do with knowledge of their rights, programs, and after x years of intervention (number). projects (%). Goal 3: Enhance policy coherence across programs, institutions, and levels of government Goal 6: Fight the poverty traps resulting from women’s time burdens, economic marginalization, and blunted aspirations Action/Recommendation: Indicators: 01. Harmonize objectives and align implementation · A goal for policy coherence (in general or in this case, Action/Recommendation: Indicators: of the different governmental programs. for sustainable natural resource management) inte- 02. Mobilize economic and technical resources from grated in ministries’ development plans or the Na- 01. Consider scarcity scenarios and double time- · Reduction of daily time devoted to household ac- different sectors working on rural development to tional Development Plan of the new government burdens during project design. tivities and increase of time devoted to sustainable identify and then mitigate the most incoherent (yes/no). 02. Take steps to create a stable market and prices for agroforestry, forest use, and sustainable agricultural approaches. · Share of REDD+ instruments such as the Safeguards agricultural products. activities (%). Information System and the Safeguards Plans in the 03. Recognize and support economic opportunities · Increase in women’s aspirations according to aspira- ER-P states, that include gender sensitive indicators, for women in agriculture and other productive tion questionnaires (yes/no). specific sex disaggregated analysis, and gender activities. · Share of women with perception of improved deci- monitoring system (%). 04. Use choice simplification to free cognitive space sion-making agency (%). that is limited under a scarcity mindset. Goal 4: Distribute legal land tenure more equally throughout 05. Use reminders (a form of commitment device) the population and change customary laws to reduce the cognitive costs of decision-making and follow-through on decisions. Action/Recommendation: Indicators: 01. Ensure that property rights are distributed · Share of new, reestablished parcelas de la mujer- throughout the population by redistributing land women’s parcels, located closer to the women’s Goal 7: Provide accessible information on programs titles or including women on legal land titles. houses (%). 02. Authorities could try to ensure that women’s · Share of targeted women with improved access to parcels are returned to women’s use only, and land, or better, owning the land (%). Action/Recommendation: Indicators: build women’s capacity to use the land as needed. · Number of new projects supporting small commu- 03. A longer-term solution could include social and nity enterprises, collective forms of land ownership behavioral intervention through educational and management, as well as schemes for the redis- 01. Recognize and mitigate the structural disadvan- · Number of alternative information dissemination ar- programs at the community level to prepare for tribution of land tenure titles (number). tage posed to women by inaccessible information. eas created per municipality (number). changes in customary law. · Share of application forms in indigenous language (%). Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 84 85 Chapter 4: Gender Action Plan: How to design gender-informed REDD+ related activities with a behavioral science lens Goal 8: Mitigate scarcity scenarios by reducing complexity and access barriers Goal 10: Target influencers to reframe social norms through simplification, improved choice architecture, and nudging Action/Recommendation: Indicators: Action/Recommendation: Indicators: 01. Make women’s existing social roles relevant to · Number of identified “agents of change” in the 01. Simplify choice architecture, which could · Simplified program presentations (number). participation in programs through reframing. communities (number by gender). encourage or “nudge” rural women to sign up to · Number of agents of change trained to present pro- 02. Enlist influencers such as community leaders or · Number of agents of change trained to present pro- productivity programs. grams (number by gender). role models to gain the support of both women grams (number by gender). 02. Reduce complexity and access barriers by · Number of culturally appropriate knowledge ex- and men. · Number of culturally appropriated knowledge ex- designing program presentations with culturally changes organized (number by gender). 03. A possible intervention in the context of REDD+ changes organized (number by gender). sensitive communication tools, and deliver · Number of presentations delivered at opportune related activities could be to give men small · Decrease of average age of community and ejido presentations at opportune moments. moments, such as paydays or community meeting incentives and recognition if they support their assembly participants (number by gender). days, so that people act on their good intentions partners to participate in sustainable forest and · Number of targeted women and men who adapt at the moment it is easy and accessible for them agricultural activities. their point of view regarding women’s involvement (number). (number by gender). · Number of women successfully participating in REDD+ related activities (number). · Number of targeted women with a perception of Goal 9: Expand women’s self-concept through role models having received direct economic and noneconomic benefits from REDD+ related activities (number). · Number of targeted women with a perception of Action/Recommendation: Indicators: having received indirect economic and non eco- nomic benefits from REDD+ related activities 01. Increase the number of female forestry promoters · Share of female technical advisors in each Initiative (number). or technical advisors to slowly change gender to Reduce Emissions (IRE) area and per state (%). · Number of men perceiving the participation of norms that block women from signing up to · Share of female forestry promotors in each IRE area women in REDD+ related activities and the receipt programs. and per state (%). of the financial incentive as beneficial (number). 02. Encourage group activities for women. · Share of technical advisors and community promo- · Difference between women being supported to 03. Associate women’s participation in productive tors trained with culturally sensitive gender infor- continue with commitment (e.g., through remind- activities such as REDD+ to their role as mothers. mation (%). ers) and their long-term participation in REDD+ re- · Female promoters, speaking indigenous language, lated activities (number of women/time of partici- helping potential beneficiaries to fill out application pation in programs). forms (number). · Increase of time spent with each community, to al- low the building of trust (%). · Increase of the perception of women to feel more empowered according to survey (scale 1–10). · Increase of number of targeted women wanting to sign up to REDD+ related activities (number). · Increase of number of targeted women success- fully participating in REDD+ related activities (number). · Number of targeted women with a perception of having received direct economic and noneconomic benefits from REDD+ related activities (number). · Number of targeted women with a perception of having received indirect economic and non- economic benefits from REDD+ related activities (number). Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 86 87 Chapter 4: Gender Action Plan: How to design gender-informed REDD+ related activities with a behavioral science lens Further steps to mainstream gender into REDD+ related activities Based on the recommendations provided above and taking into consideration the desk and field work, the following suggestions are offered for gender-mainstreamed programs under the Stage 2 ER-P window and any future REDD+ related activities. Table 4.2 showcases investment program activities that could be windows of opportunity to move toward equitable participation of men and women in REDD+. Proposed activity for both men and women State (some are already being implemented) Table 4.2. Activities in the Investment Programs of the Five ER-P states • Production projects with women and youth for sustainable forest and wildlife in Which Women Could be Included According to Research and management • Technical advice for improvement of the Milpa crop-growing system and in- Consultations vestment in projects with women and youth to strengthen food security and Jalisco reduce the pressure on land use • Support to entrepreneurial women’s projects through the State Ministry for Source: Own elaboration, based and adapted from Armijo and Castañeda (2017). Development and Social Integration · Positioning and training of women as agents of change and as important stakeholders in natural resource management Proposed activity for both men and women State (some are already being implemented) · Acquisition of equipment for beekeeping to support the family economy, fo- cusing on women and youth (especially melipona honey) Participation of women, youth and local population in: · Consortium of forestry owners producing chewing gum · Establishing fodder nurseries, germoplasm banks, biofertilizer composting sys- · Production of infusions/tea (Brosimum alicastrum) tems · Production of fruit jams from forest trees (successful for the integration of Quintana Roo · Developing productive chains in timber and nontimber forest activities both men and women) Campeche · Beekeeping activities such as the construction of boxes, smokers, and packag- · Production of wood handicrafts from native forest trees ing and processing of products · Ecotourism companies · Consortium of forestry owners producing chewing gum · Positioning and training of women as agents of change and as important · Positioning and training of women as agents of change and as important stakeholders in natural resource management stakeholders in natural resource management • Production of sustainable self-supply projects for backyard production · Recognition of women’s coffee organizations and chocolate productions • Ecotourism by strengthening existing ecotourism centers · Capacity building of women and youth to avoid their exclusion in silvopastoral • Consortium of forestry owners producing chewing gum systems • Production and marketing of honey and honey products · Linking women and youth to strategies for the conservation and enhancement • Production and marketing of chocolate products of oak forests that produce firewood or charcoal in mitigating the risk of reduc- • Extraction of tree products such as charcoal ing forest diversity caused by favoring pine species in areas of mixed pine and Yucatan • Extraction and commercialization of nontimber ornamental products such as Chiapas oak forest Xiat palm · Extraction and commercialization of nontimber ornamental products such as • Participation of more women in community nurseries Xiat palm • Capacity building of women to participate in livestock projects · Positioning and training of women as agents of change and as important • Capacity building of women to participate in timber forest enterprises stakeholders in natural resource management • Positioning and training of women as agents of change and as important stakeholders in natural resource management Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 88 89 Chapter 4: Gender Action Plan: How to design gender-informed REDD+ related activities with a behavioral science lens An interesting aspect to consider when evaluating the feasibility of the activities for • Foster projects where men and women are a team. Examples could gender mainstreaming mentioned in Table 4.1 is the opportunity cost to encourage include agroforestry, silvopasture, or sustainable management of cacao women to work in these areas. Overall opportunity costs would depend on women’s and chocolate. In the latter case, men harvest the crop and women location (distance from home), time constraints, the support and capacity building produce the final product. Both harvest and production are REDD+ that would be needed, and the opportunity cost of time spent on household chores activities. Such projects could support social contracts within communities versus other activities. and induce long-term equality between women and men. Furthermore, based on the team’s research, we would like to recommend some • Integrate urban gardening and wood-stoves into REDD+ subsidies characteristics to be considered in the design of REDD+ related activities and to help free women’s time (women spend a lot of time tending fire). programs. The recommendations include: These activities would also benefit the environment and the household members’ health. • Provide technical information and capacity building to both men and women living in the same household—for example, on tree nursery and • Make sure to design a value chain and provide the necessary input to allow forest management training. Such assistance could increase market ac- women to generate the ingredients for their product and the total end cess for women in timber and nontimber forest product value chains. product themselves. • Design programs contributing to the social contract and values of the communities, including the whole family. The analysis and recommendations in this report are not just for REDD+ related • Provide long-term capacity building and design long-term interventions activities. They could be extended to other productive activities targeting rural (of more than five years) to ensure a long-term follow-up of the results. women. • Break the status quo through interventions or new programs by ensuring Finally, it should be noted again that this Gender Action Plan does not seek to that women are organized in groups. Organized activities permit women provide findings for all of Mexico. Mexico is a country with rich biodiversity and is to solve collective action problems and to have a stronger impact in the enormously diverse naturally, culturally, socially, politically, and economically. One community’s decision-making processes. Organized women (for example, cannot recommend a “one size fits all” approach, but rather ideas and stimulation in Yaxcaba or Amatitlán) feel more confident talking in front of men for future programs. if they feel support from other women. It is important to not impose Behavioral science can help provide a different, psychological, and more holistic conditionality on women’s groups being formally constituted, but also perspective. Specific recommendations, however, should always be tested before accept loose and informal group activities. being applied on a larger scale. • Include program criteria to prevent leaders or powerful groups from capturing benefits that are intended for communities. • Develop approaches that foster proactive transparency and reduce risks of corruption through timely and truthful distribution of information, monitoring of resource management, and the establishment of mechanisms for accountability. • Secure direct provision of goods through asset transfer programs targeting women. • Build capacity ex ante of the interventions and thereby also induce subtle adaptation of social norms. Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 90 91 Chapter 4: Gender Action Plan: How to design gender-informed REDD+ related activities with a behavioral science lens Appendix Journey for forest landscape  programs in Mexico Identifying women’s behavioral bottlenecks KS OR TW ITY NE IO E NS L TIT SSIB RC IAL CA & UT OC E CC ES FS CY Inaccessible INA TIM INS KO Communication CA Channels FFI LAC MS F-E Information OR S And Cognitive SEL LE LN & Overload IAS RO CIA OF OB ER CK SO ND QU LA GE S & ST US RT & O BIA CO AL AT ITY U ON ST SQ UN ITI TU AD STA PO TR OP Hearing Aspiring Inquiring Applying Obtaining about the to apply about the the benefits program program from the program Closing the gender gap in natural resource management programs in Mexico 92 93 Glossary Agency: Poverty traps: By agency we mean an individual’s (or group’s) The term poverty trap is used in a context where ability to make effective choices and to transform current poverty might be what is causing future those choices into desired outcomes. Agency can be poverty. A poverty trap takes place when poor people understood as the process through which women and lack access to capital and credit to help them break out men use their endowments and take advantage of of the poverty cycle. As a result of limited access economic opportunities to achieve desired outcomes. to resources and opportunities, current poverty can cause future poverty. Behavioral science: Prominent: A field based on psychology, cognitive science, anthropology and economics, to define, understand The novelty, importance, or state that attracts attention. and predict human behavior. Self-Efficacy: Choice architecture: A person’s belief about their ability to succeed or Influence decision making by simplifying the perform certain tasks. presentation of options, avoiding automatic associations or highlighting more than one option or making it easier to choose between the presented Social norms: alternatives. 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