76796

  Land Registration, Governance, and
Development: Evidence and Implications
               for Policy


                                  Klaus Deininger and Gershon Feder

The developmental impact of institutions to establish and maintain secure property
rights to land has been a subject of much debate. The authors review the literature on
the impact of land administration interventions in speci�c contexts, highlighting the
dependence of outcomes on the governance environment, the effectiveness of the state
apparatus, and the distribution of socio-economic power. There is evidence, albeit not
uniform, of enhancement of tenure security through land registration with bene�ts man-
ifesting themselves in higher levels of investment and productivity and a reduced need to
defend land rights. Land registration has also been shown to increase activity in land
rental markets, leading to higher ef�ciency overall. Evidence of improved access to credit,
due to formalization of land rights, is scant. Even in situations where land registration
had positive bene�ts, the literature contains little rigorous analysis of cost-effectiveness
and long-term sustainability of impacts. The authors conclude that formalization of land
rights should not be viewed as a panacea and that interventions should be decided only
after a careful diagnosis of the policy, social, and governance environment. If intervention
is justi�ed, the performance of land administration systems needs to be benchmarked in
terms of coverage, cost-effectiveness, and quality of service provision. JEL codes: O10,
Q15, P14



Development economists have long highlighted the central role of institutions for
economic growth and the distribution of its gains among the population (North
1971; Greif 1993). The impacts of different institutional structures related to land
rights and their interactions with the distribution of power, as well as overall pro-
ductivity in society, have been discussed extensively in the literature (Binswanger,
Deininger, and Feder 1995; Conning and Robinson 2007). A key reason for the

# The Author 2009. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the International Bank for Reconstruction and
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doi;10.1093/wbro/lkp007           Advance Access publication June 11, 2009                                    24:233–266
continued focus on property rights to land is the fact that in most economies land
and real estate are a key part of households’ and �rms’ wealth. The extent to
which such assets are used as collateral to access credit that can be used for
investment and other economic pursuits varies widely (Besley and Ghatak 2008).
This led some thinkers to suggest that a key reason for low growth in developing
countries is their relatively undeveloped system of property rights and, in particu-
lar, the limited share of land to which owners have title documents. This, it is
claimed, restricts the ability of entrepreneurs and in particular poor individuals
to transform “dead assets� into “live capital� through collateralized borrowing
(de Soto 2000).
   While the motivation from the credit angle is innovative, attention to the gov-
ernment’s role in helping to guarantee property rights is hardly a recent phenom-
enon. From the earliest days of recorded human history, awareness of the social
and economic bene�ts from secure and well-de�ned land rights and of publicly
recorded transactions led many societies to develop customs and laws to de�ne
land rights, set up registries to record such rights (often to obtain tax revenue),
and establish courts and police to enforce them (Powelson 1988).1 The notion
that a lack of formal property rights to land may limit the scope for investment
and development prompted bilateral and multilateral institutions to sponsor pro-
grams that would either systematically register land or improve the functioning of
institutions of land administration.2
   A review of the literature indicates that such interventions did not always live
up to expectations. One important insight is that a simplistic and undifferentiated
call for “formalization� that lacks awareness of the complexity and long history of
existing institutional arrangements is inappropriate and can make matters worse
(Bromley 2009). Land titling has also been portrayed as an example of naı          ¨ve
top-down approaches which, rather than responding to real grassroots needs, pre-
scribe “solutions� without a thorough diagnosis (Easterly 2008). While such criti-
cisms may be valid in speci�c cases, they offer little guidance on how to identify
and address situations where there is apparent demand for greater clarity in the
de�nition and exercise of property rights to land. For example, a social as well as
economic need for such interventions is apparent in the context of the rapid
recent food and commodity price hikes that have lead to demand for land by
outside investors, such that failure to de�ne property rights or the inability to
enforce them effectively could leave traditional land users in a precarious
situation.
   In this paper, we examine the theories identifying channels through which
land rights can affect socio-economic outcomes, point to realities which often
prevent such effects from materializing, summarize quantitative evidence on the
actual impact of land registration interventions to assess the validity of theoretical
arguments, and derive conclusions that can help guide applied work in this area.

234                                    The World Bank Research Observer, vol. 24, no. 2 (August 2009)
First we discuss arguments for public involvement in the de�nition of, and
dissemination of information on, property rights in land and how these would,
under ideal conditions, affect economic and social outcomes. Then we review
real-life situations—such as high inequality in pre-existing power structures and
poor governance, imperfections in markets for credit and insurance, high trans-
action costs, or low land values due to relative land abundance—that may under-
mine the effectiveness or sustainability of such interventions in speci�c settings.
We then present evidence on the impact (or lack thereof ) of land policy interven-
tions on administrative ef�ciency, tenure security, land-related investment, land
values, land market participation, and credit access. We conclude by highlighting
the implications for policymakers and the emerging challenges.



The Role of the State in Establishing Property Rights
Institutions
To ensure property rights security and realize the bene�ts from it, governments
need to perform three functions that build on each other, namely (i) unambigu-
ous de�nition and enforcement of property rights; (ii) provision of reliable infor-
mation to reduce the transaction cost associated with decisions relating to land
markets; and (iii) cost-effective management of land-related externalities.


De�nition and Enforcement of Property Rights
Property rights are social conventions, backed by the enforcement power of the
state (at various levels) or the community, allowing individuals or groups to lay
“a claim to a bene�t or income stream that the state will agree to protect through
the assignment of duty to others who may covet, or somehow interfere with, the
bene�t stream� (Sjaastad and Bromley 2000). How land rights are de�ned and
distributed is a key element of the social fabric, the power structure, and the scope
for economic development in a society.
   With ill-de�ned or incomplete property rights, those holding land need to
spend resources to defend their rights. As such expenditures (guards and fences)
often have little direct social or productive value, they lead to dissipation of rents
and divert resources from more productive uses (Allen and Lueck 1992). The pri-
vately optimal amount of spending on protection can be excessive from a social
point of view (Feder and Feeny 1991; Malik and Schwab 1991; De Meza and
Gould 1992). Enforcement of property rights by the state realizes economies of
scale and has bene�ts that are nonrival (that is, one person’s enjoyment does not
reduce others’ bene�ts), although some of them allow exclusion of others,

Deininger and Feder                                                               235
characteristics generally associated with a club good (Shavell 2003; Lueck and
Miceli 2006). If property rights are secure, well-de�ned, and publicly enforced,
landowners need to spend less time and resources guarding them.
   By reducing the risk of expropriation, secure property rights assure land users
of the ability to enjoy the fruits of their labor, thus encouraging them to make
long-term land-related investments and manage land sustainably (Besley 1995).
Also, ability to verify boundaries at low-cost and legal measures to minimize
land-related conflicts reduces transaction costs in a number of ways. Systems to
document and verify landownership are public interventions to enhance tenure
security. The magnitude of net private and social gains will depend on the extent
to which a land registration system induces higher levels of tenure security, and
the nature, magnitude, and opportunity cost of the resources thus freed up,
compared to the cost of the apparatus needed for administration and enforcement
of property rights.3


Information Access
On the basis of well-de�ned land rights, low-cost access to reliable information on
individuals’ landownership reduces transaction cost and uncertainty that hinder
the exchange of land in markets for rental or sale and the use of land as collateral
for credit. Informational asymmetries are less problematic when transactions take
place mostly among members of the community who typically are familiar with
each other’s land rights even in the absence of formal land records, although
conduct of land transactions in the presence of witnesses illustrates the impor-
tance of publicity to prevent fraudulent or opportunistic behavior. If land trans-
actions extend beyond community members, it becomes more dif�cult to
ascertain who holds legitimate rights and the bene�ts from formal arrangements
increase correspondingly.
   If there are differences in the ability of potential transaction partners to make
use of land, the ability to transfer land, either through rental or sale, will increase
productivity of land use. For example, being able to rent land allows labor to
move from agriculture to nonagriculture in the context of economic development.
In sales markets, reliable information on landownership can eliminate the risk
of future land loss that would be reflected in land prices and the volume of
ef�ciency-enhancing transfers of land.
   Provision of credit is risky because uncertainty and asymmetric information
lead to credit rationing in equilibrium and reduced lending volumes compared to
a world of perfect information (Stiglitz and Weiss 1981). The use of collateral is a
universal practice to reduce the extent of credit rationing and improve welfare. Its
immobility and relative indestructibility make land ideal collateral. However, the
ability of banks to use it for this purpose on a large scale is contingent on a

236                                    The World Bank Research Observer, vol. 24, no. 2 (August 2009)
formal and low-cost way to identify unambiguously landownership. In the
absence of other obstacles to the operation of �nancial markets, and if land rights
can be exercised, a reliable land registry can thus help to increase credit access.
As this will allow borrowers to obtain funding for projects, the true risk of which
is less than what lenders would assume without collateral, this would increase
the level of investment and improve economic ef�ciency. In such situations, for-
malizing land tenure can encourage �nancial market development and use of
�nancial instruments that draw on the abstract representation of property by
formal titles (de Soto 2000).


Management of Externalities
Even in the most individualistic societies, only part of the land is privately owned,
and even on such land the rights enjoyed by individual landowners are limited by
the need to restrict behavior that negatively affects the broader public interest.
One option to accomplish this is for individuals to form user groups or to establish
voluntarily norms governing the ability of owners to exercise their rights.
Alternatively, authorities can use land information to restrict individual land-use
decisions to avoid environmentally or socially harmful outcomes and internalize
externalities, for example, through zoning regulations or planning laws. In either
case, rules partially restrict individuals’ rights (for example, through easements
and rights of way), de�ne landowners’ obligations to contribute to social objec-
tives (for example, environmental amenities and green space), or set limits on the
extent of negative externalities they are allowed to emit. None of these can be
enforced without comprehensive and spatially referenced information on landow-
nership and institutional arrangements with clearly assigned responsibilities that
cover individual, communal, and state lands so as to facilitate their effective man-
agement (Kaganova and McKelar 2006).
   As infrastructure and services (water, roads, sewers, electricity) can be provided
more cost-effectively if layouts are prepared ahead of time, the planning of land
use will be of particular importance if land-use changes from agricultural to resi-
dential (or from rural to urban) with economic development. In many parts of
the developing world, lack of clear property rights, land information, and insti-
tutional or political obstacles limit governments’ ability to exercise effectively their
functions. This reduces the scope for making land with the necessary services
available to individuals in urban areas, who then are driven into informality.
Land rights and institutions, including rules regulating governments’ powers to
exercise eminent domain and impose land-use restrictions, contribute to tenure
insecurity and reduce investment incentives in many parts of the world.
Clarifying responsibilities and procedures for such actions, and establishing trans-
parent and agile processes for appeal, can increase tenure security, land-related

Deininger and Feder                                                                 237
investment, and market transactions. Land taxation cannot only provide resources
for local governments to deliver public services but also discourage speculation
and generate incentives for effective land use (Bird 2004).



Potential Real-Life Complications and Their Implications
While the above discussion highlights the channels through which land regis-
tration systems can generate positive outcomes, such positive impacts are not
always observed in practice. A key reason is that ground realities are often quite
different from the ideal conditions that implicitly underlie these models in terms
of power and governance, relative land abundance and state presence, the cost-
effectiveness and sustainability of land administration systems, and obstacles to
the functioning of credit markets that are widely observed in developing countries.
Appreciating the nature and implications of these is essential for being able to
diagnose problems in this area and to assess the adequacy of proposed solutions.


De�cient Governance Frameworks
Conceptual models of land and property rights institutions often abstract from the
fact that, in many instances, the distribution of landownership is not the result of
the operation of “perfect� markets but reflect power structures. This implies that
land registration may be viewed as an attempt to cement existing unequal
arrangements rather than to overcome them. Moreover, “good governance�—that
is a consistent legal and institutional framework, broad access to information, and
competent and impartial institutions (for example, courts and an honest bureauc-
racy) to enforce rights—is critical for making property rights effective and ensur-
ing that positive impacts from land administration interventions can be realized.
   However, many developing countries are characterized by serious de�ciencies
in governance. In such contexts, the state’s monopoly on the exercise of legitimate
power, which is a precondition for the functioning of advanced societies and
securing property rights, may be abused to appropriate property or to assist in the
unfair acquisition of land by elites, thus undermining the security of property
rights in a number of respects. The tendency to monopolize land access for other
ends was particularly strong in colonial contexts (Binswanger, Deininger, and
Feder 1995; Conning and Robinson 2007) and was continued thereafter,
especially in situations where land access was highly unequal (Baland and
Robinson 2003). This could con�ne direct bene�ts from land administration to
the better off or imply that land rights remain weak as it would be costly and dif�-
cult to enforce them consistently. Politically motivated awards of state land to
political leaders or their cronies are an important concern in many countries

238                                   The World Bank Research Observer, vol. 24, no. 2 (August 2009)
(World Bank 2003; Leuprecht 2004; Government of Kenya 2004). State mon-
opolies over land management in some African countries resulted in high levels
of mismanagement and corruption (Mabogunje 1992; Durand-Lasserve and
Royston 2002).
   Without institutions to enforce property rights effectively, the rights presumably
protected by the land registry may exist only on paper and have little practical
value. A land registration system can be rendered ineffective by the absence of a
judiciary that is accessible and impartial for allowing actions by the state to be
challenged effectively, by ineffective government institutions with overlapping
mandates that may issue conflicting documents regarding the same plot, and by
unclear and contradictory policies that make enforcement unpredictable and
costly. In such situations, it would be dif�cult to rely on state-issued documents
and uncertainty of property rights, the elimination of which was the goal of
setting up a registry system in the �rst place. Often, it will be weaker and poorer
segments of society which suffer the negative consequences of land titling in situ-
ations of ineffective or dishonest government, for example because of the better
connections between the wealthy and government of�cials and the lack of self-
enforcing institutions to constrain self-interested but socially undesirable behavior
by such elites.
   The disadvantages of an inadequate institutional framework can be exacer-
bated by the high cost of acquiring information on the legal regime or how rights
can be enforced. The iniquities and opportunities for abuse that can be created by
unequal access to information have been well documented for cases where land
rights are adjudicated (Jansen and Roquas 1998; Feder and Nishio 1999).
Evidence shows that if �rst-time registration is introduced, unscrupulous individ-
uals who are well connected and well informed may try to play the system either
by speculatively acquiring land in anticipation of formalization-induced price
increases or by registering spurious claims to communal or individual land that
did not actually belong to them. Lack of access to information can also prevent
those who would normally be empowered by certain legislation—often women or
members of previously disadvantaged groups—from exercising their rights.
Consequently, the inherent opportunities to improve equity—and often also ef�-
ciency of land use—may not be fully utilized. In Uganda, for example, laws to
augment security of customary rights had the desired impact only when individ-
uals knew about them; but such awareness was very limited (Deininger, Ayalew,
and Yamano 2008).


Variation in Land Scarcity
Particularly if land is relatively abundant and state capacity and outreach are
weak or limited, informal mechanisms to secure land tenure may be more

Deininger and Feder                                                               239
accessible and less costly to enforce than a formal land administration system. In
such cases, decisions on how to respond to demand for formalization will need to
be based on careful comparison of the different options available, in particular the
governance and transparency of traditional institutions and the political economy
and scope for gradual, incentive compatible, and differentiated arrangements to
bring about institutional change in response to local needs.
   De�ning property rights to land, or writing contracts regarding its exchange, is
costly, with a major cost element related to the physical survey and veri�cation of
boundaries in the �eld. Therefore, in traditionally settled areas, at low levels of
population density, boundaries may be de�ned only loosely and the �rst plots to
be registered will be those that are subject to transfers, which may involve usu-
fruct rather than full ownership and be con�ned to community members. In such
situations, much of the content of land rights may be de�ned informally by
unwritten “custom�. Changing economic and social conditions that make land
more valuable and increase the bene�ts to be obtained from land transfers imply
that the value of attributes that have previously been left undelineated may
increase suf�ciently to offset the transaction costs associated with more precise
delineation of land rights.
   Numerous examples show that supply-driven establishment of land adminis-
tration institutions that are intended to—though with limited state presence often
not able to—replace traditional actors will at best create a parallel system with
the consequence that, instead of complementing each other, “traditional� and
“modern� systems compete with each other as was the case in Kenya (Atwood
1990). This will increase transaction costs and give the better off or better
informed an opportunity to resort to “institutional shopping�, by, for example,
pursuing conflicts in parallel through a variety of channels (Firmin-Sellers 2000)
and increase conflict (Berry 1997; Fred-Mensah 1999). Doing so could eliminate
some of the positive aspects of traditional land administration systems, for
example their accessibility and the fact that, under relative land abundance,
households may make investments to secure land rights rather than the other
way round, implying that—even if it were possible—titling may have little impact
on bringing forth new investment (Sjaastad and Bromley 1997; Brasselle,
Gaspart, and Platteau 2002). For example, in Co       ˆ te d’Ivoire there is a long tra-
dition of migrants planting trees to establish property rights over all or part of the
land (Colin and Ayouz 2006).
   If traditional institutions work relatively well, introducing a system to systema-
tically register land may lead to speculative land acquisition on a large scale and
set off a “race for the prize� that can polarize the landownership structure
(Benjaminsen and Sjaastad 2002; Peters 2004) as powerful individuals use their
informational and other advantages to grab land. For example, with weak govern-
ance, land sales by chiefs who reinterpret their trusteeship role as ownership and

240                                     The World Bank Research Observer, vol. 24, no. 2 (August 2009)
pocket receipts are common and risk undermining traditional social safety nets
(Lavigne-Delville 2000). Similarly, “formalized� tenure often eliminated or
weakened secondary or communal land rights, for example the right to temporary
use of arable land for grazing by pastoralists after the harvest or collection of fuel
wood by the poor. Unless measures to recognize, and if necessary record, such
rights are taken they may—intentionally or unintentionally—be curtailed in the
process of land right formalization, with negative social consequences (Meinzen-
Dick and Mwangi 2009). Also, if land is not the scarcest factor, land registration
will be effective only if it is combined with establishment of secure rights to other
resources (for example water) that may limit the ability to make productive use of
the land. Especially in high-risk environments, individualization of communal
land rights that neglects the safety net function provided by flexible patterns of
access to land may reduce poor people’s options for risk management and insur-
ance and leave everybody worse off (Baland and Francois 2005).
   Even if mechanisms for the allocation of rights are established, land transfers
pose speci�c issues because at low levels of development land is not only a pro-
ductive asset but also performs important functions as a social safety net and old
age insurance. Many communities have adopted rules for limiting land alienation
to outsiders in an effort to reduce myopic land sales by individuals who would
squander the proceeds and then rely on community support for sustenance in a
way that creates negative social externalities (Andolfatto 2002). As long as such
rules are the product of a conscious choice by the group, and the group has clear
and transparent mechanisms for changing the land tenure regime, they are less
likely to be harmful. As traditional social ties loosen, or the ef�ciency loss from
the sales restriction becomes too high, groups are likely to move toward a gradual
individualization and sell to outsiders. The recent constitutional reform of the
land rights system in Mexico provides an example where the fact that the tran-
sition toward individual rights can only be made by a 75 percent majority of the
whole group provides a safeguard against land grabs. The fact that less than 15
percent of ejidos—mostly those in peri-urban areas where land had de facto
already been individualized—made use of this opportunity suggests that, even at
relatively high levels of per capita income, the spatial reach of insurance mechan-
isms to replace the safety net function of (communal) landownership remains
more limited than is often thought (Zepeda 2000).
   While the speci�c manifestation of land abundance will depend on the
conditions at hand, secular trends such as population growth, urbanization, and
increased land demand for nonagricultural purposes—including by outsiders—
need to be confronted everywhere. Increasing land scarcity can reinforce pre-exist-
ing inequalities along lines of gender, ethnicity, or wealth and set in motion a
spiral of conflict, resource degradation, and social strife. These can spread beyond
the narrow realm of land and have very negative social and economic

Deininger and Feder                                                               241
consequences. For example, in much of West Africa, where the descendants of
migrants can be easily identi�ed as “outsiders�, increased land values provide a
strong incentive for “locals� to renege on earlier sales contracts. In the case of
Coˆ te d’Ivoire, land access is interlinked with questions of nationality and the
ability of only nationals to own land, which can give rise to conflicts that extend
far beyond the area of land (Lavigne-Delville and others 2002). In Rwanda,
where extreme land scarcity coincided with accumulation of land by individuals
with access to nonagricultural incomes, this has led to land conflict being one of
the principal reasons that �nally fed into the outbreak of civil war in 1994
(Andre and Platteau 1998).
    A number of jurisdictions have recently made provisions for registering com-
munal land (Alden-Wily 2003) and provide opportunities for delimiting commu-
nity boundaries while leaving registration and management of individual plots to
community institutions with the possibility of making the transition to more
formal or individualized systems as the need arises.4 This is more cost effective
than individual titling and allows the covering of much larger areas very quickly
and can help reduce neglect of community rights through alienation by outside
investors (Alden-Wily 2008), historically a major reason for land-related conflict
and strife. If it is combined with mechanisms, and possibly training, for commu-
nities to negotiate directly with investors, for example through joint ventures, this
can help to decentralize decisions on outside investment and reduce red tape.
Recognition of the role of land-use change in accumulation of greenhouse gases
(Stern 2008) has sparked a debate about the desirability of establishing mechan-
isms for compensating land users for positive externalities from certain land-use
decisions (for example leaving land forested). Unless property rights by local land
users are recognized and recorded in some form, it will be dif�cult to ensure that
such transfers reach those making actual land-use decisions and thus fully affect
incentives in the desired way.
    While it is important to recognize and build on the advantages of traditional
land institutions in terms of cost and accessibility, they should not be idealized in
an uncritical fashion. If accountability is weak, increasing pressure on land can
quickly erode the advantages of such institutions and so corrupt them, giving rise
to conflict (Chimhowu and Woodhouse 2006). For example, land sales by chiefs
who reinterpret their trusteeship role as ownership and pocket the receipts are
common and risk undermining traditional social safety nets (Lavigne-Delville
2000). Customary systems are well suited to resolving conflicts within a commu-
nity but face much greater dif�culty in reducing conflict across groups, ethnicity,
and type of land use such as pastoralists and sedentary agriculturalists (van den
Brink, Bromley, and Chavas 1995). Finally, under traditional systems, women are
often severely disadvantaged and access to institutions for land administration
biased by gender and wealth (Henrysson and Joireman 2007). It is argued that,

242                                   The World Bank Research Observer, vol. 24, no. 2 (August 2009)
in such contexts, empowering traditional councils without giving minimum stan-
dards of accountability to communities, or giving a voice to communities, can
actually reduce tenure security as well as gender equality (Claassens 2003;
PLAAS and NLC 2003).
   The challenge is to �nd arrangements that combine the advantages of different
approaches and to respond to needs flexibly rather than aiming for wholesale
replacement. This will require attention to technical, social, and governance
issues. Mechanisms to ensure gender equality, transparency, and accountability
are critical. Given the limited number of proven models, it will be important to
analyze carefully existing arrangements and the scope for improvement on a case
by case basis and to analyze the impact of changes in land administration systems
based on a proper counterfactual that does not mistakenly attribute ( positive or
negative) developments that would have happened even without such a step to
changes in the land system.


Cost of Service Provision
A factor with potentially far-reaching impacts on the distribution and sustainabil-
ity of bene�ts from land-related interventions is the cost-effectiveness of providing
land administration services. Two key factors, in addition to the running costs of
registries, are the precision requirements for boundary de�nitions and the regis-
tration methodology applied, with deeds and title systems being most common. A
deeds registration system is a public repository where documents for providing evi-
dence of land transactions are lodged, numbered, dated, indexed, and archived.
Recording will give public notice of the transaction, serve as evidence for it, and
may assign priority to recorded rights in the sense that, in most contexts, regis-
tered deeds take priority over unregistered ones, or any deeds registered sub-
sequently. At the same time, registration of a deed does not guarantee the legal
validity of the underlying transaction. By contrast, under registration of titles, the
register itself serves as the primary evidence of ownership as commonly identi�ed
by three attributes, namely (i) the mirror principle indicating that the situation in
the registry is an exact reflection of reality; (ii) the curtain principle, implying
that anybody interested in inquiring about the title status of a given property will
not have to engage in a lengthy search of documents but can rely on the evidence
from the title registry being de�nitive; and (iii) the assurance principle according
to which the government will indemnify for damages incurred as a consequence
of errors in the registry.5
   A deeds system is generally cheaper to operate but provides a less comprehen-
sive service as the residual risk of verifying ownership information remains with
the transacting parties who incur the cost of due diligence. By contrast, to be able
to assume responsibility for the accuracy of information in the registry, the state

Deininger and Feder                                                               243
will have to assume responsibility, implying higher set-up as well as operating
costs.6 As landowners fail to register transactions if the cost of doing so is too
high compared to the bene�t (that is, the reduction in residual risk) then a title
registration system will be socially optimal if land values are high, whereas for
lower land values a deeds system is more appropriate (Arrunada 2003). Most
land registration projects funded by multilateral agencies recommend adoption of
a title registration system—and in some cases even the conversion from a system
based on deeds towards one based on title—although this has rarely been sub-
stantiated by rigorous analysis of the associated costs and bene�ts and, possibly as
a result, has not always led to the desired outcome.7 While a number of well-func-
tioning systems with high land values (Hong Kong, Britain, Scotland, various
Canadian provinces) have successfully made the transition from a deeds to a
titling system, though often over a long period of time, attempts to shift from a
deeds system to one of title registration in developing countries do not have a
good record. A project in Sri Lanka failed to put in place the legal, regulatory, and
institutional framework for systematic adjudication of land parcels and instead
accomplished only a very limited surveying and titling of parcels without conflict,
and with only limited economic bene�ts (World Bank 2007). Measures such as
standardization of deeds, parcel-based indexing, compulsory registration, and a
requirement for registrars to perform basic checks on deeds and the persons pre-
senting them before accepting them for registration all offer opportunities to
strengthen deeds systems. With access to computerized information about the
chain of deeds and other instruments pertaining to a given parcel, differences
between the deeds and title registration systems have narrowed signi�cantly. From
an applied perspective, deeds systems are also more robust and better systems, as
in the Netherlands or South Africa, which offer most if not all of the features of
well-run titling systems. Even in titling systems, a regulatory framework that fails
to disclose relevant rights or encumbrances in the registry can undermine the
integrity and usefulness of land registration. In practice, failure to register poten-
tially long-standing rights may allow these to be ignored, causing very negative
social impacts.8
    Resource requirements for �rst-time registration can also be vastly increased by
the fact that the cost of mapping increases exponentially with precision. A wide-
spread confusion between tenure security and precision of measurement, together
with lobbying by survey professionals, have often led countries to impose survey
standards that exceeded the available implementation capacity and imposed costs
that bore no reasonable relationship to land values. Consequently, in many pro-
jects with bilateral or multilateral support, costs of �rst-time registration were
very high, sometimes signi�cantly above US$100 per parcel, with average costs
between US$20 and 60 per parcel (Burns 2007).9 This can constrain coverage,
outreach, and speed of program implementation, and, even if subsidies support

244                                    The World Bank Research Observer, vol. 24, no. 2 (August 2009)
�rst-time registration, can reduce sustainability of such investment if landowners
fail to register subsequent transactions.
   As most of the bene�ts from land registries accrue to users, it will be desirable
for registries to recover their cost through user fees—although in many countries
fees from urban areas with higher frequency and value of transactions are used
to cross-subsidize rural areas. In addition to operational inef�ciencies, costs are
normally increased by three factors, namely (i) unreasonably high precision
requirements for surveys; (ii) a need to involve lawyers in transactions; and (iii)
stamp duties levied on land transfers. In practice, the costs associated with regis-
tering property are by no means trivial; despite reforms to reduce them, the mean
in 173 countries included in the World Bank’s 2008 “Doing Business� amounts
to 6.6 percent of the property values and 81 days of waiting time. The cost of
registering property is highly bimodal; while it is 2 percent or less of property
value in 32 cases, it amounts to 5 or 10 percent and more of property values in
92 and 41 of the cases (53 and 24 percent), respectively (World Bank 2007).10
Informal “fees� can further increase these costs, with possibly far-reaching conse-
quences for the ability of users to access information and their con�dence in the
land registry. For example, in India, the costs of registering even inheritances are
exorbitant and a recent study estimated bribes paid annually on land adminis-
tration to amount to $700 million (Transparency International India 2005),
three-quarters of India’s total public spending on science, technology, and the
environment. To the extent that the costs exceed the bene�ts (in terms of
increased security) which users obtain from registering, high cost can lead to a
re-emergence of informal practices up to a point where “deformalization� will
undermine the sustainability of a land registry system that was established at
high cost (Barnes and Grif�th-Charles 2007). The large improvements achieved
in Eastern Europe—by making registries �nancially independent and their infor-
mation publicly available on the internet, which involves private surveyors, redu-
cing staff, and increasing salaries—highlight the scope for improving ef�ciency
and governance of land registries (Dabrundashvili 2006).
   As it will be critical for both the feasibility and continued viability of property
rights institutions, the cost of running the land registry system requires upfront
attention at the design stage, especially in resource-constrained environments
such as Africa. Failure to account for the cost of the proposed institutions is one
of the reasons for the failure to implement the provisions of Uganda’s 1998 Land
Act (Hunt 2004), with the consequence that a decade after its passage not a
single certi�cate was issued. By contrast, in Ethiopia, a low-cost method of certi�-
cation with high levels of community participation that involved �eld measure-
ment but not creation of a graphical record managed to register more than 20
million plots at a cost of less than US$1 per parcel in less than three years. While
a system for updating has not been implemented yet, a modest fee (of US$0.65),

Deininger and Feder                                                               245
in line with the users’ willingness to pay, would be enough to �nance a partly
computerized system that could be self-�nancing. Options for adding at least a
cadastral index map at a cost that is sustainable are being explored (Deininger
and others 2008).11


Credit Market Imperfections
The discussion thus far has abstracted from imperfections in markets for credit
and insurance that may limit the potential of land registration for expanding
credit to cover poor farmers in rural areas or to informal (undocumented) land-
owners in urban areas (many of them illegal squatters in poor slums)—which has
been advertised as one of the main advantages of land registration interventions
(de Soto 2000). Such imperfections, the effects of which can be exacerbated by
socially or politically motivated restrictions on the ability to foreclose or the fact
that land-related interventions can reduce the transaction cost of borrowing but
are unlikely to increase the availability of “good� and bankable projects, will
imply that, in many of the contexts affecting poor or rural populations, the pre-
conditions for the operation of credit markets, in particular the banks’ ability to
foreclose readily and dispose of land in liquid land markets, will not be met. In
such situations, expecting large credit-related bene�ts from land registration
efforts may be unrealistic. Highlighting access to credit, rather than other bene�ts
related to investment incentives or transferability, as the main bene�t from land
registration, may thus be unrealistic and risk serious subsequent disappointment.
   In rural areas of developing countries, covariance of risk, that is the depen-
dence of outcomes on weather and natural phenomena (for example pest
attacks), introduces risks that are spatially correlated across large numbers of
would-be borrowers and that limit the ability of the lenders to diversify, thus
increasing the risk of rural lending. As this implies that a bad outcome will lead
to default by many borrowers at once, flooding the land market with foreclosed
properties, the value of which may be much diminished, reduces the value of
land as collateral. While there are ways to deal with this (for example, spatial
diversi�cation of loan portfolios) in the formal market, it does increase transaction
costs.12 This, together with the transaction costs of collateral registration, may
often exceed the bene�t that these generate for the relatively small loans under-
taken for seasonal (short term) purposes. In many instances, the ability to use
land as collateral for credit may thus be limited to larger landowners (Carter and
Olinto 2003).13
   Urban credit markets are typically more developed than rural ones and
entail higher participation of private (nonstate) lending institutions. Residential
credit often relies on collateralized long-term loans to �nance housing acquisition,
and documented landownership is important to facilitate such transactions.

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However, use of residential property, in contrast to commercial land, to �nance
business investments is less common and likely to be constrained, as it will be dif-
�cult for banks to repossess low quality dwellings in poor neighborhoods and the
gains from selling it will be limited. In both rural and urban areas, credit market
effects will also be limited by the availability of promising “bankable� projects as
well as the scope for “risk rationing�, that is the fact that potential credit-worthy
borrowers are unwilling to use titles for fear of losing them in case their project is
unsuccessful (Boucher, Carter, and Guirkinger 2008).



Impacts of Land Administration Interventions
This section provides a review of the extent to which empirical evidence on
program impacts supports the notion that, if conditions are right, well-
implemented land registration programs can help improve governance and admin-
istrative ef�ciency, reduce the need to expend resources to enforce land rights and
enhance gender equality, increase land-related investment, and enhance operation
of land markets as well as credit access. We �nd that positive impacts are not uni-
formly observed, in particular that evidence on land-related interventions having
improved credit access is less strong and suggests that direct positive impacts on
the poor were rather limited.


Improved Institutional Performance and Governance
Land registration interventions and associated legal reforms are likely to be more
effective in a context of good governance, implying that legal and policy changes
can independently improve tenure security. The case of land rights reform in China,
where land property rights have traditionally been insecure and where increased
pressure on land in peri-urban areas gave rise to a series of well-publicized conflicts,
provides a good example. The ability of of�cials to apply eminent domain principles
with little public scrutiny, and to rely on readjustment (land reallocation) to acquire
large tracts of land without any cash outlay, further imply extensive use of land
taking not only as a source of income by local government but reportedly also for
individual enrichment and corruption. The 2003 Rural Land Contracting Law
includes measures to change the cost of acquiring land by increasing the security of
individual land-use rights and enhancing the ability of individuals to lodge appeals
against violation of such rights. Data from a representative nationwide survey
suggest that legal reform had a signi�cant and quantitatively important impact on
increasing the security of property rights in terms of reducing the probability of
“illegal� land reallocation and increasing the amount of payments received by those
who were affected by legitimate land takings. Legal reform had a signi�cant impact

Deininger and Feder                                                                247
only where the village leadership was elected, suggesting that, for legal reform to be
effective, ways of holding the state to account are needed, an interpretation that is
supported by the fact that the knowledge of village leaders of the law had an
independent impact on reducing the probability of illegal reallocation. Availability of
land-use certi�cates did not signi�cantly reduce the risk of an unauthorized land
reallocation, suggesting that such certi�cates will only be useful within an appropri-
ate institutional framework (Deininger and Jin 2009).
    A natural experiment where title was given to some but not to other urban
squatters who had started out in exactly the same conditions in Buenos Aires
allows assessment of the impact of land registration not only on economic out-
comes but also on attitudes and beliefs. Some 14 years after the intervention had
occurred, those who, by chance, had bene�ted had signi�cantly more individua-
listic and materialistic attitudes, a result that is very robust.14 The effect is not
negligible, being equivalent to an additional 4.4 years of education by the house-
hold head. Despite their much inferior socio-economic situation, the beliefs of
bene�ciaries are virtually indistinguishable from the population average. By com-
parison, attitudes by those who did not get regularized are consistent with what
one would expect based on their socio-economic characteristics (Di Tella, Galiani,
and Schargrodsky 2007).
    Land registration can also have an affect on the local government’s ability to
generate resources, its governance, and the ef�ciency of its service provision. In
the Indian state of Karnataka, computerization of textual records is estimated to
have saved users $16 million in bribes annually (Lobo and Balakrishnan 2002).
Using this as a basis to automate registration and the associated valuation allowed
cuts in stamp duty from 14 to 8 percent and quadrupled tax revenue from
$120 to $480 million, thus illustrating the scope for land registries to be self-
�nancing.15 In Mexico, before reforms wee initiated in 1992, the ejido sector was
subject to numerous restrictions on land rights and the rural economy was
characterized by clientelism, inef�cient land use, and low levels of investment, and
peri-urban areas were subject to chaotic informal settlement (Gordillo, de Janvry,
and Sadoulet 1998). In qualitative interviews, bene�ciaries of a program to estab-
lish land rights that were both more secure and better administered highlighted
that the two most important aspects of the reforms were their impact on reducing
conflicts and on increasing transparency, with the associated reduction of political
influence in the ejido (World Bank 2002). Based on promising results from earlier
pilots, Ethiopia embarked on large-scale and highly participatory registration of
land holdings by six million households in 2003 –05. Although land remains
state-owned and many restrictions on land transfers continue to exist, more than
80 percent of respondents in a nationwide survey indicated that certi�cation (i)
increased the chance of getting compensation in the case where land was acquired
for nonagricultural uses; (ii) helped to reduce conflicts; and (iii) especially in

248                                    The World Bank Research Observer, vol. 24, no. 2 (August 2009)
regions where a woman’s photograph was included on the land certi�cate,
improved the bargaining power of females (Deininger and others 2008).


Lower Private Spending on Defending Property Rights
In Peru, a large land titling effort was carried out in rural and urban areas.
Estimates indicate that, in urban areas, having received a title resulted in a signi�-
cantly increased perception of tenure security. Furthermore, there was a large
labor supply response as recipients of titles increased their participation in the
formal labor market, because they were no longer required to invest in a multi-
tude of informal activities required to maintain tenure security (Field 2007). The
magnitude of these effects is large and grows over time with labor supply esti-
mated to have increased to 45 hours (equivalent to 50 percent of the total) after
four years, in marked contrast to other welfare programs that generally reduce
labor-force participation. As adults have an advantage over children in protective
activity, a reduction in the need for home protection could also reduce the
demand for child labor. Moreover, to the extent that changes in tenure security
can bring about an independent reduction in the productive value of children (for
example, due to better old age insurance or credit access or due to increased bar-
gaining power by females as compared to males), they could also prompt a
reduction in child bearing.
   The fact that, in the same program, a requirement was imposed for titles to be
issued jointly in the names of husband and spouse provides an opportunity to test
for gender-speci�c effects. If the titling program led to a redistribution of house-
hold assets in favor of females that shifted intrahousehold bargaining power, one
would expect outcomes more favorable to them.16 This is consistent with a 22
percent reduction of fertility for squatters who received a property title and the
fact that females who received joint title experienced twice the reduction in the
probability of having a child than those where the title is in one name only (Field
2003). A study in Nepal �nds positive association between higher levels of
women’s land rights and their socio-economic empowerment, as well as the
health of their children, and concludes that the impact of landownership is com-
parable in magnitude to that of education and employment (Allendorf 2007).
This is in line with evidence from India where access to land allows women to
choose self-employment on their land, thereby escaping gender discrimination in
the wage labor market (Deininger, Jin, and Nagarajan 2006), something that is
supported by qualitative evidence on the importance of land for the social status
of women (Panda and Agarwal 2005). In Punjab, joint titling made women more
assertive of their rights, increased attachment to their homes, and enabled them
to use formal means (courts) rather than informal ones to assert ownership
claims against hypothetical sales by their husbands (Datta 2006). In Gujarat,

Deininger and Feder                                                               249
landownership was found to be a key determinant of women’s empowerment that
increased a self-stated propensity to invest in land (Baruah 2007). The magnitude
of the investment effects associated with insecure land rights for women, as well
as the complexity of the underlying relationship, is illustrated for Ghana
(Goldstein and Udry 2006). All of this points toward potentially important gen-
dered impacts of land titling that sometimes materialize in rather unexpected
ways.
   In the long term, an additional channel through which land registration could
affect household size is through the scope for members of the extended family to
separate their inheritance, move out, and start independent enterprises. Indeed,
in Buenos Aires, similar �ndings of reduced family size—via lower presence of
extended family members—and lower fertility, as well as improved educational
outcomes by children of titled vs untitled squatters, are found (Galiani and
Schargrodsky 2005). While there were no differences in the number of children
born before treatment, untitled households are much larger ones—due to the
presence of members of the extended family—and there are larger numbers of
children after titling, an effect that disappears for the late treatment group. If
household resources for education are �xed, the lower number of children could
provide opportunities for investment in human capital. Indeed, children of titled
squatters had levels of school attendance that were 0.4 days per week above those
of the control group and a level of school achievement that was higher by 0.42
years. This is roughly equivalent to the estimated impact of Progresa in Mexico,
suggesting that land registration can have potentially large effects. (Progresa is a
Mexican government program (whose name was changed later to Oportunidades)
which makes cash grants to poor families on the condition that recipients abide
by certain requirements regarding preventive health, nutrition and child school
enrollment.)
   Also, teenage pregnancy rates and children’s short-term nutritional indicators
(weight for height but not height for age) are better on titled as compared to
untitled parcels, which suggests that titling allows families to improve investment
in human capital (Galiani and Schargrodsky 2004).


Investment in Land Improvements and Increased Land Values
The hypothesis of positive tenure security effects on economic incentives is hardly
controversial and has been quantitatively demonstrated by numerous recent
studies, for example in China (Jacoby, Li, and Rozelle 2002), Latin America
(Kazianga and Masters 2006; Bandiera 2007), Africa (Deininger and Jin 2006;
Goldstein and Udry 2006), and Eastern Europe (Rozelle and Swinnen 2004).
What is debated is whether, and under what circumstances, land registration
programs can effectively enhance tenure security, especially in relatively

250                                   The World Bank Research Observer, vol. 24, no. 2 (August 2009)
land-abundant settings, and how they need to be best designed. Existing evidence
as to the potential gains from titles is not uniform. A study in a rice growing area
in Madagascar suggests that formal title had no effect on plot-speci�c investment
and little impact on productivity. Land values are estimated to increase by at most
6 percentage points due to titling, implying that the cost of land titling will have
to be very low for such a measure to be justi�ed economically (Jacoby and Minten
2007). Within-household analysis of new investments on owned as compared to
merely occupied (mailo) plots by owner-cum-occupants in Uganda, by contrast,
points to signi�cant and quantitatively large investment effects of full ownership:
shifting from mailo occupancy to ownership is predicted to double the likelihood
of soil conservation and increase that of tree investment �vefold. Tenant regis-
tration is estimated to have no investment effect while measures to strengthen
occupancy rights attenuate—but fail to eliminate fully—investment disincentives
originating in overlapping rights (Deininger and Ali 2008). In Ghana, tenure
insecurity is shown to lead to reduced investment in the form of fallowing, esti-
mated to reduce output by about one-third and to lead to very large aggregate
ef�ciency losses (Pande and Udry 2005). While this supports the importance of
secure land tenure as a precondition for growth, it suggests that the magnitude of
possible impacts can vary widely and that interventions aiming to increase tenure
security need to be context speci�c to be effective.
   In urban areas, an important indicator for effectiveness of titling programs
would be housing investment. Indeed, in Buenos Aires, regularized squatters have
a 40 percent higher probability of having good walls and a similar increase in the
probability of having good overall housing quality. Apparently, the shift from use
to ownership rights increased the incentive to invest but failed to make house-
holds richer or increase the transferability of their assets (Galiani and
Schargrodsky 2005). In Peru, evidence on improvements in housing between
1994/95 and 1999/2000 suggests that, for titled households, rates of house
renovation increased more than two-thirds above baseline levels, though most of
the increase was �nanced out of pocket rather than through credit (Field 2005).
   Applying the same methodology to rural households in Peru, and distinguishing
households with different initial levels of tenure security, land titling was found to
have contributed to signi�cantly increased investment, particularly for initially inse-
cure households for whom the propensity to invest in land almost quadrupled. This
is consistent with �ndings for a smaller region in Peru where registration increased
the probability of investment by 6.6 percent (Antle and others 2003). As the vast
majority (97 percent) of such investments was �nanced out of pocket, a big credit
impact is improbable (Fort 2007) and the fact that the titling density within a dis-
trict signi�cantly affected infrastructure investment points toward external effects.
Use of a linear probability model of export crop adoption in a small panel suggests
that receipt of title had a highly signi�cant and positive effect on its own and—less

Deininger and Feder                                                                251
robustly—made households more responsive to price changes, leading the authors
to the conclusion that market liberalization helps only if conducted in an appropri-
ate institutional environment (Field, Field, and Torero 2006).
   If adjustments are made for effects of risk and imperfections in capital markets,
the difference between the price of registered and unregistered land can provide a
measure of the social welfare gains of land registration (Feder and Feeny 1991). In
Nicaragua, full registration of a plot after the 1990 revolution had a signi�cant
investment-enhancing impact, increasing the propensity to invest by between 8 and
9 percent. By contrast, award of agrarian reform title without registration had insig-
ni�cant effects. Moreover, with about 29 percent, marginal returns to land-attached
investment are much higher than those from investment in mobile capital, pointing
toward scope for gains in economic ef�ciency by shifting resources from the latter
towards the former and suggesting that such higher levels of tenure security can
promote a more appropriate balance in the investment mix between moveable and
�xed capital. Land values for plots with registered title are higher by 30 percent
(Deininger and Chamorro 2004). Reduced form regressions lead to similar con-
clusions regarding the superiority of full as compared to only “reform� title and
enhanced land values, investment in perennials, and higher crop yields (Broegaard
2005). The presence of an investment incentive effect that is independent from
credit is also highlighted by evidence from a land settlement program in Guatemala
that was started in 1986. A 1993 resurvey suggests that, while all of the sample
households had bene�ted from credit provided under the program, those who had
exogenously received a title to their property took greater care of their parcels and,
most likely as a result of past and recurrent investment, had higher yields than
those who did not (Schweigert 2007).
   In addition to awarding about 11 million land use certi�cates (LUCs) through
land registration efforts in the 1993 – 2000 period, legal changes in Vietnam
during the same period also expanded users’ rights to include transfer, inheri-
tance, exchange, lease, and mortgage (Do and Iyer 2008). While the magnitude
of new registration was comparable to the Ethiopian case, it is much larger and
more rapid than what was achieved by other interventions such as the 8.7
million titles distributed in Thailand since the 1980s, the 1.8 million titles in
Indonesia from 1996, and the 1.2 million urban and 1.5 million rural titles in
Peru between 1992 and 2005. A difference in difference estimation strategy at
district level for this case suggests that provinces where certi�cation made more
progress have devoted more of their land to perennials and have expanded
nonfarm activities. In a province where everybody had an LUC, the proportion of
land under perennials is predicted to be 7.5 points higher. As restrictions on crop
choice that require households to keep land in rice remained in effect, this is
likely to be a lower bound on the true effect. Of equal interest is the fact that the
supply of labor to nonagricultural employment is estimated to increase by 11 –12

252                                    The World Bank Research Observer, vol. 24, no. 2 (August 2009)
weeks compared to the situation without LUC, an outcome that is more pro-
nounced for the poor than the rich. Much of this effect is through diversi�cation
of the income portfolio within households rather than specialization by house-
holds in different types of activities. There is, however, no evidence of either a
credit effect or a measurable impact of titling on income or expenditure, consistent
with the notion that, without complementary changes in banking and rules for
land transactions, titling alone is unlikely to set off big changes in economic
structure.
   Although little time had passed for certi�cation to have a long-term effect, a
signi�cant impact emerged not only on households’ perceived tenure security (an
18 percentage point reduction in the share of those expecting an administrative
change to their land holding over the next �ve years) but also on land-related
investment (a 29 point increase in the likelihood of having made repairs or new
investments in the last 12 months) and a 9 percentage point increase in the pro-
pensity of renting out land (Deininger, Ali, and Alemu 2008).
   In Thailand landownership titles induced higher investment in farming capital
(attached investments and other capital), and titled land had signi�cantly higher
market values and higher productivity per unit. Output was 14 –25 percent
higher on titled land than on untitled land of equal quality (Feder and others
1988). A comparison of housing prices between nonsquatter, formal residential
areas and the informal areas of the city of Davao in the Philippines revealed that
prices were 58 percent higher in the formal area than in the informal one and
that rents were 18 percent higher; in Jakarta, registered land was up to 73
percent more valuable than similar land held by a weak claim (Friedman,
Jimenez, and Mayo 1998).
   Self-assessed land values provide an upper bound on the gain in utility from
property registration. In Ecuadorian slums, title increases the expected market
value of a plot by 23 percent (based on responses by the same household for
hypothetical changes), an effect that increases to more than 50 percent in situ-
ations where, because the settlement was recently invaded and has no organizer
who could provide political protection, tenure security is very low. Comparing the
hypothetical bene�ts to the cost of such a program suggests a positive return even
though one has to take into account the tendency for private people to overvalue
the gains from title. Particularly large bene�ts to households with women only
are interpreted as indicating that there is a need for interventions to incorporate
gender concerns (Lanjouw and Levy 2002).


Land Market Functioning
In China, land rental contributed to diversi�cation of the rural economy
(Deininger and Jin 2009) and productivity. However, if land rights are not

Deininger and Feder                                                              253
suf�ciently secure, landowners may be averse to renting out because they fear
that land may be taken away from them (Yang 1997; Holden and Yohannes
2002) or that tenants may not give it back upon expiry of the contract. This
reduces the level of transactions below the optimum and can lead to signi�cant
losses in allocative ef�ciency (Benjamin and Brandt 2002). Within-household
regressions and cross-sectional estimates in Vietnam suggest that having long-
term use rights secured through registration will increase the tendency to rent
out to nonrelatives but does not affect the propensity to rent out to relatives, con-
sistent with the notion that land registration can substitute for informal enforce-
ment through social capital. Moreover, and in line with the expectation that in
the case of informal transactions with friends and relatives the smaller number of
potential partners reduces the scope for ef�ciency-enhancing transactions, rental
transactions among nonrelatives but not among relatives are shown to contribute
to a signi�cant increase in ef�ciency (Deininger and Jin 2008).
    In the Dominican Republic, insecure property rights not only reduce the level
of activity on the land rental market, but also induce market segmentation.
Landlords who have reasons to fear losing their land restrict renting to narrow
local circles of con�dence. This segmentation further reduces rental activity by
limiting opportunities to �nd suitable tenants. Simulations show that improved
security of property rights through title registration can lead to ef�ciency and
equity gains; improving tenure security would increase total area rented by the
poor by 63 percent (Macours, de Janvry, and Sadoulet 2004). In Nicaragua pro-
ducers who have a title are signi�cantly more likely to rent out their land, provid-
ing an opportunity for more effective producers to increase their cultivated area
(Deininger, Zegarra, and Lavadenz 2003). On the other hand, descriptive statistics
from Peru suggest that perceived rights to rent, sell, or exclude others—in con-
trast to rights to use, invest, and inherit—are not signi�cantly different between
titled and nontitled households (Fort 2007).In Tigray, Ethiopia, land certi�cation
contributed to higher levels of land-rental market participation, especially by
female-headed households (Holden, Deininger, and Ghebru 2008) and consider-
ably enhancing opportunities for women to bene�t from land rental (Bezabih and
Holden 2006). As it makes it easier to liquidate and recoup the full value of
investments in case of unexpected shocks (Ayalew, Dercon, and Gautam 2005;
Deininger and Jin 2006), transferability is likely to increase investment incentives.
Renting out allows landowners to take up nonfarm jobs without losing their
assets or closing off the possibility of returning to farming and allows tenants to
increase incomes by cultivating larger areas (Carter and Yao 2002; Kung 2002;
Deininger 2003). Registered documents to prove ownership can help remove the
perceived risk of engaging in transactions by lowering enforcement costs in cases
of dispute, thus allowing more rental transactions, possibly at a lower rental
price.

254                                   The World Bank Research Observer, vol. 24, no. 2 (August 2009)
   Studies on the potential impacts of land registration on sales markets have
mostly been based on descriptive comparisons of the situation before and after
interventions. In Eastern Europe, registration of land rights was generally followed
by considerable and often rapid growth in land market transactions and, in the
case of urban land and real estate, mortgages, but construction of a counterfac-
tual is dif�cult, and therefore the evidence is only suggestive. In Vietnam, allow-
ing land sales has led to increased activity and sales markets and even
landlessness, but this has not increased poverty; to the contrary, it has overall
been a benign or even positive factor in the process of poverty reduction
(Ravallion and van de Walle 2008). In St Lucia, sales market activity and the
number of registered mortgages increased immediately after introducing the
system (and remained high in peri-urban areas). However, the marginal increase
in formal land market activity after introduction of the title system was not sus-
tained over time (Barnes and Grif�th-Charles 2007), pointing toward rather
limited impacts. Descriptive evidence suggests that titling of frontier land in
Guatemala, while helping to reduce conflict and reduce the perceived danger of
the land invasion, has little effect on investment and credit access and fails to
prevent informal sales, implying that the registry is becoming outdated (Gould
2006).


Access to Credit
Early study of the impact of titling in Thailand, where informal credit markets
had already operated and land markets functioned relatively well before the inter-
vention, point toward signi�cant impacts on credit access (Feder and others
1988). In Paraguay, a signi�cant credit supply effect was demonstrated but
accrued only to medium and large landowners, whereas producers with less than
20 hectares remained rationed out of the credit market, something that could set
in motion longer-term dynamics in terms of equity that may not be desirable
(Carter and Olinto 2003), parallel to what was found in Guatemala (Mushinski
1999). However, if land markets are illiquid or nonexistent, or if the cost of regis-
tering mortgages or foreclosing on them is very high, one would not expect land
registration to have an immediate impact on credit access. For example, in Peru,
land registration increased the likelihood of obtaining a loan (by between 9 and
10 percentage points) only for credit through a state bank but not the private
sector. One explanation is that, due to the political nature of the application
process, the likelihood of foreclosure is actually lower (or transaction costs higher)
for those with titles. In fact, there is some reason to believe that the politicized
nature of the titling process may actually have reduced rather than increased the
ability of banks to foreclose. This is in line with evidence suggesting that, even
after land registration, more than one-third of households remained completely

Deininger and Feder                                                               255
rationed out of formal credit markets (Field and Torero 2006). While interest
rates charged by the private sector are lower (by about nine points) for titled as
compared to untitled households, this appears to be due to signaling rather than
the ability to collateralize debt with collateral, similar to what is found in
Indonesia where land registration was contingent on demand and signi�cant
payment by owners so that possession of a title could be used as a proxy for entre-
preneurial drive (Dower and Potamites 2005). Evidence from rural areas in Peru
points in the same direction (Field, Field, and Torero 2006; Fort 2007). In Buenos
Aires, despite signi�cant effects on house-related investment and other variables,
no credit effect is found, implying that, even with titles, households will be unable
fully to ensure their consumption or use their talents more ef�ciently in entrepre-
neurial activity, suggesting that growth implications of titling programs may be
overstated (Galiani and Schargrodsky 2005), consistent with what is found by a
recent comprehensive descriptive review of urban titling (Payne, Durand-Lasserve,
and Rakodi 2008).



Policy Implications and Challenges Ahead
Our review allows a number of conclusions. First, realization and nature of
bene�ts from land registration depend on the broader socio-economic and govern-
ance environment and the nature of interventions. Bad governance and an inef-
fective or predatory state will hinder bene�ts from such interventions, or even
cause negative outcomes. However, there is ample evidence of positive tenure-
security effects of land registration in situations where overall conditions are
favorable. These effects manifest themselves in higher levels of investment, less
need for activities to protect land rights, and—especially if female rights are
enhanced or made more visible—empowerment of women. Second, while there is
evidence of land registration helping to activate land rental markets, the relation-
ship between land tenure and off-farm labor market participation is under-
researched, especially in rural areas of developing countries where occupational
diversi�cation will acquire increased importance as a driver of growth in the
immediate future. Third, although land registration helps to improve credit access
in some settings, positive credit effects are contingent on other factors such as
liquidity of land markets and the presence of credit-worthy projects that may not
hold in practice. Even if credit effects materialize, evidence on potentially very
skewed incidence of such effects suggests that attention to their distribution will
be warranted. Fourth, evidence on the cost-effectiveness, sustainability, and
longer-term impact of land administration interventions is limited and few quanti-
tative studies have explored how land registration effects can be enhanced by
complementary interventions (for example business training) and how they

256                                   The World Bank Research Observer, vol. 24, no. 2 (August 2009)
interact with the broader social and economic environment. Finally, although one
would expect impacts of systematic land registration to be more pronounced in
urban environs where such interventions may be highly complementary to
infrastructure investments (Gulyani and Talukdar 2008), quantitative studies
have focused on rural areas and examined land regularization almost exclusively
in terms of allocation of individual rights, neglecting group rights and state land
management.
   This suggests that, instead of using “formalization� as a panacea, interventions
to improve property rights will have to be preceded by a careful diagnosis of the
policy and governance environment. The need to adapt flexibly to local conditions
and the absence of standard approaches require careful monitoring to learn from
experience—possibly drawing on experimental methods and standard administra-
tive data. At the same time, there are a number of clear implications to guide pol-
icymakers and practitioners.
   First, the positive impact of low-cost and participatory measures to increase
tenure security suggests that, even where credit markets are underdeveloped and
the provision of individual titles in a rather slow and costly process will not be
viable economically, a number of measures are available to make land rights more
secure. These include a legal framework that recognizes traditional rights by indi-
viduals and groups, dissemination of information, institutional reform, and regis-
tration of rights—possibly �rst at the group rather than the individual level—in a
way that can be subsequently upgraded according to clear rules, with information
maintained in a coherent format to avoid parallel systems. Safeguards, such as
systematic rather than sporadic registration, information campaigns on laws, pro-
cedures, and ways of redress, as well as public review of allocations before �naliza-
tion, will be essential.
   Second, the technical complexity of some of the underlying functions should
not conceal the importance of land administration institutions delivering services
(that is, information useful to clients) in a cost-effective way. There is no reason
why standard indicators of outreach and effectiveness of service delivery should
not be applicable to land administration. Benchmarks such as coverage, registered
transactions as a share of parcels, and cost per transaction will be important to
guide policy choices as a diagnostic tool to identify areas for improvement and to
generate political support for measures to improve outcomes.
   Third, good governance is of overriding importance to ensure that clear prop-
erty rights and institutions to administer them contribute to the desired socio-
economic outcomes instead of providing a means to enable elites and of�cials to
usurp the rights of the poor and socially weak groups. This requires clear delinea-
tion of institutional responsibilities within the land administration system, an
audit of regulatory requirements to ensure that these are justi�ed and that com-
pliance is within the reach of target groups, transparent management and access

Deininger and Feder                                                               257
to information, effective avenues to flag problems, and availability of accessible
and accountable institutions to resolve conflicts and ensure enforcement.


Funding
Support from the collaborative DFID-World Bank program on land policies, the
Gender Action Plan TF, the Norwegian ESSD Trust Fund (Environment Window),
and the Lincoln Institute for Land Policy is gratefully acknowledged.



Notes
Klaus Deininger: Development Research Group, The World Bank, Washington DC, USA; Tel. 202
4730430; fax 202 522 1151; email kdeininger@worldbank.org (Corresponding author). Gershon
Feder: International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington DC, USA. The authors thank
Xiangping Liu for excellent research assistance and C. Augustinus, A. Durand-Lasserve, S. Galiani,
S. Holden, G. Ingram, J. Kagwanja, G. Kohlin, J. Sanjak, and H. Selod for discussion and insightful
comments. The paper draws heavily on a literature review presented at the 2008 International
Land Policy Conference by the Lincoln Institute for Land Policy and the Swedish Royal Academy of
Agricultural Sciences (to be published in a proceedings volume). The views expressed in this paper
are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the World Bank, its Board of
Directors, or the countries they represent.
    1. Documented evidence on the operation of property rights institutions is available from as
early as 2350 BC from Egypt, the Assyrian empire in Mesopotamia (c.1200–750 BC), and its suc-
cessor the Babylonian and Sassanian (500 BC –AD 651) empires (Powelson 1988).
    2. Activities related to the demarcation and survey of land boundaries, registration and record
keeping, adjudication of rights, resolution of conflicts, and land management are normally referred
to as “land administration� (UNECE 1996). In 2005, the World Bank was supervising a portfolio of
more than 1 billion US dollars’ worth of land administration projects.
    3. While much of the literature relies on a unitary household model, women’s ability to own land
is often constrained by social practice. Even if constitutions outlaw gender discrimination, females can
often access land only through male relatives, and their ability to inherit land or hold on to it in the
case of widowhood or divorce is limited. This can affect their intrahousehold bargaining power, the
allocation of household spending among alternative uses, the ef�ciency of land use (Udry 1996), and
the participation in nonfarm opportunities (Quisumbing and Maluccio 2003). Legal changes and land
registration programs that take into account local realities and enforcement capacity can contribute
to women’s social and economic empowerment (Deininger and Castagnini 2006; Joireman 2008).
    4. For a discussion of institutional options see Fitzpatrick (2005) and for a detailed example of leg-
islative arrangements to put this in practice see Government of Mexico (2000).
    5. To illustrate this: if, under title registration, A fraudulently sells a piece of land (which actually
belongs to C) to B who purchases in good faith, B becomes the rightful owner and any claims by C
are extinguished as soon as the sale is registered. The only recourse open to C would be to demand
compensation, but not restitution of the property, from the state which in turn has the option to sue
A. The need to ensure that the responsibility taken up by the state can be met is one of the reasons
why title registration systems are normally associated with a guarantee fund to facilitate payment of
such compensation. By contrast, under a deeds system, it is B’s responsibility to investigate the vera-
city of A’s ownership claims and C will be able to demand restitution of the property from B, implying
that B will incur the loss.


258                                              The World Bank Research Observer, vol. 24, no. 2 (August 2009)
    6. The speci�c historical circumstances of the United States, which operates under a deeds system,
have given rise to a system of “title insurance� where private companies, rather than the state, have
developed a comprehensive record of all land transactions that enables them to examine the legal val-
idity of transactions and insure against defects. Given the long time it took to assemble the required
information this is not an option for developing countries (Arrunada and Garoupa 2005).
    7. In St Lucia, households received provisional documents that were supposed to be replaced
by full titles after 12 years, but 75 percent of titles were never collected by their owners
(Grif�th-Charles 2004). In Ghana, where a new title registration system has been introduced, less
than 1,000 titles were issued per year and the rate at which titles entered the system was below that
of new transactions to be registered, implying a widening gap between the registry and reality and
increasing levels of informality (Nettle 2006).
    8. An illustrative example relates to tenants on mailo (merely occupied) land in Uganda. Although
these tenants had in many cases been on the land for more than a generation, their presence was not
indicated on landlords’ titles. Banks who lent against such titles discovered that the presence of
tenants with far-reaching rights on the land they had accepted as collateral made liquidation imposs-
ible, making it dif�cult even for owners of unencumbered land to use it as collateral, thereby under-
mining the value of existing titles and making the state guarantee (which extends to ownership only)
worthless from their point of view (Deininger and Ali 2008).
    9. In the Philippines at the start of the 20th century, an explicit policy to survey the country and
establish a title registration system failed in large part as a result of the high cost of surveying. Public
support to a nationwide program to establish land titles would have amounted to between 57 and
230 percent of the colonial government’s entire revenue (Maurer and Iyer 2008), thus highlighting
the importance of ways to keep down costs.
    10. The World Bank’s ‘Doing Business’ survey has rightly identi�ed the cost of registering property
as a key impediment to private sector activity by including this as one of the indicator variables in its
global survey. As these �gures are based on expert opinion for an unencumbered property in the
capital city, they should be used only with proper care (Arrunada 2007) and are likely to constitute a
lower bound for the cost of registration faced by the average landholder. For example, a �eld-based
study in St Lucia found transaction costs for what was considered a “typical� transaction by the local
population to be almost three times the 7 percent given in the Doing Business survey (Grif�th-Charles
2004).
    11. Of households who do not have one, 95 percent would like to get a certi�cate; 99 percent of
those with a certi�cate would be willing to pay an average of 12 Birr ($1.50) to replace it if it were
lost; and 90 percent (most of them willing to pay) would like to add a sketch map (Deininger and
others 2008).
    12. Policy-induced restrictions on the transferability of land can further increase the transaction
cost associated with use of formal land records as a means to improve credit access, as is the case in
Tanzania.
    13. To reduce transaction costs, informal and even formal, lenders sometimes invoke a procedure
that is not fully formal, whereby they demand physical possession of the title document. This does not
entail formal recording of collateral encumbrances, but it prevents the borrower from selling the land
under favorable (formal) terms to others without respecting �rst the obligations to the creditor
(Siamwalla 1990).
    14. Among others, they were more likely to believe that people can succeed economically on their
own, that money is important to be happy, and that others can be trusted. No signi�cant differences
emerge regarding the belief that those who put in effort will do better economically.
    15. In Thailand a program of land titling provided the basis for a substantial increase in the total
amount of land revenue collected, from US$300 million in 1984 to US$1.2 billion in 1995 (Burns
2007).
    16. A similar nutritional effect, though only on children’s weight but not height, is found in
another study using the same data (Vogl 2007).



Deininger and Feder                                                                                     259
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