E I R lAA E N T Monitor 2004 30053 _~~~~~~~~~~ -- _~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ r 41~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- _ .!@:_-7-~ - _ _ ., - --~~~~~~~~~~ .. I. Environmental Cha-llenges of Urban D-evlopment t ~~~~TH E WORLD BAN K - - - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Mongolia i ENVIRk7 NMENT Monitor 2004 Environmental Challenges of Urban Development THE WORLD BANK M 1'REFACE iii tIBBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS iV 'ECTION l: OVERVIEW OF THE URBAN TRANSFORMATION IN MONGOLIA 2 !ECTION 11: PRESSURES OF URBANIZATION 10 'ECTION III:TOWARD ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE URBAN AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 24 ECTION IV: FUTURE CHALLENGES 30 MONGOLIA AT A GLANCE 31 NOTES 32 'I he International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / THE WORLD BANK 18'18 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20433 I he World Bank Mongolia Office 11 A Peace Avenue I laanbaatar 210648, Mongolia All rights reserved. F irst printing June 2004 'I his document was prepared by a World Bank team comprising Messrs./Mmes. Anna Corsi (ESDVP), Giovanna Dore, Tanvi Nagpal, and lony Whitten (EASES); Raja Iyer (EASUR) and the team of the Second Ulaanbaatar Urban Service Improvement Project; Salvador Rivera (i.ASEG) and the team of the Mongolia Improved Urban Stoves Project; Jim Cantrell designed the cover and layout of this document, and lIffrey Lecksell was responsible for the map design. [Liput and comments from Messrs./Mmes. Zafar Ahmad and Christopher Finch (EACIF); Tseveen Badam (Office of the Mayor, City of L laanbaatar); Rachel Kaufmann (SASES); Dr. Shiene Enkhtsetseg (Mongolia Ministry of Health); H. Ykhanbai, and Naavaan-Yunden (Oundar (Mongolia Ministry of Nature and Environment); Jitendra Shah (EASES); Dr. Jeffrey Spickett (Western Australia, Curtin University World Health Organization); Darius Teter (Asia Development Bank, Ulaanbaatar Office); Caterina Laderchi-Ruggeri and Vera Songwe (kASPR); and Heinz Unger (EACIQ) are gratefully acknowledged. 'I he facilitation of the Office of the Mayor of Ulaanbaatar is also acknowledged. All photographs by Tony Whitten, except where otherwise indicated. 7 he views expressed in the Mongolia Environmenzt Monitor are entirely those of the authors and should not be cited without prior pennission. They do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank Group, its Executive Directors, or the countries they represent. The material contained herein has hien obtained from sources believed to be reliable but is not necessarily complete and cannot be guaranteed. il Mongolia Environment Monitor In the last decadle, Mongolia has undergone an economic Development Strategv has becn approved by the Parliamene and political transition, as wvell as a demographic trans- The latter strategy aims to create alternative urban nodes c- formation. A confltuence of market refornms, harsh clinmatic development throughout Mongolia, based on regional events and greater urban opportunities attracted growing economic and natural resource advantages. The effective annl nombers of nomadic herding families to urban areas. Thirty environmentally sustainable implementation of thes'' percent of Mongolia's 2.3 million people already live in strategies will depend on a complex understanding of th, Ulaanbaatar, the capital city. Tens of thousands more move to environmental impacts of large-scale urban investments 11! Ulaanbaatar every year, straining social and environmental diverse landscapes and ecologies, and on comprehensiv,, services, and placing unprecedented stresses on the already- environmental monitoring and management. fragile environment. The Environment Monitor 2004 aims at raising awarenes. Mongolia's urbanization has been both rapid and ad-hoc. about the environmental challenges of urbanization iii Much of the urban growth has been absorbed by the rapidly Mongolia. The report is divided into four sections; the firs- expanding suburban "ger" areas. Residents of ger areas are presents an overview of the urban transformation in Mongoli. often unregistered, poorer than their counterparts in formal based on changes in the structure and distribution of th,' housing and spend disproportionately high percentages of population; the second focuses on the environmental their incomes for water, heating, healthcare and education. pressures created by urbanization, providing data on air City cores and ger areas face growing pollution from industrial, pollution, water availability and quality, solid wasto vehicular and household heating sources, and rising quantities management, and land degradation. The third sectioi of solid waste. Scarce open spaces are quickly disappearing summarizes government responses to urban environmentaL as they are developed for urban uses. challenges. The final section outlines the main challenges fo ' improving and strengthening environmental management in As long as urban areas offer individuals opportunities that urban areas. they may not have in rural areas, Mongolia will continue to face the challenges of a fast paced urbanization process. The This issue of the Monitor was prepared by the World Banlk Government recognizes thatwhile fostering economic growth, East Asia Environment and Social Development Unit, in urban environments also need to be protected. Toward this collaboration with the Energy and the Urban Development end, a City Development Strategy has recently been completed Units, the Mongolian Ministry of Nature and Environment ant I to better manage Ulaanbaatar's growth, and a Regional the Municipality of Ulaanbaatar. 2004 -ii 3CV \]JDB Asian Development Bank NEAP National Environmental Action Plan l,OD biochemical oxygen demand NGO non-governmental organization (-DS Ulaanbaatar City Development Strategy NO, nitrogen dioxide (-HP combined heat-and-power plant PSMFL Public Sector Management and Finance Law (-RC City Reconstruction Company RDS Regional Development Strategy 1)O dissolved oxygen SO, sulphur dioxide I )SRC District Construction Service Companies UBSIP2 Second Ulaanbaatar Services Improvement .oM Government of Mongolia Project (DP Gross Domestic Product USAG Ulaanbaatar Water Supply and Sanitation ILOB heat-only boiler Company kLm2 square kilometer USEPA United States Environmental Protection mil3 cubic meter Agency mlg/mi3 microgram per cubic meter WHO World Health Organization N [NE Ministry of Nature and Environment WWTP wastewater treatment plant N tNT Mongolia Tugrug tv Mongolia Environment Monitor 86o 2 I6 01o4 04' IT 112 lI I X. 88- 12T~~~~~~~~~~ A -s S ^' RUSSIAN FEDERATION _ 5 )tt , 3f\< T g<6% LUVS KHOVKh 9 \ ~ tSG + - _ L_* 06d6 E *,6Ib~D fO l0. - c, ° .) Eolhon°E S -*w;3 oih uulf - |A SELE?IGE N ° 56hgb6bSj ERDENETo . ~ kh6O- - 9660 O606j ~~~~~~~~~T~,-56O - - - _ L ( < t ZAVKHAN - * V ° Y6,6< '* > ' ' 'OO< < o S f X % kAR ' RN E 3To,696 / ~ E:bamKHOVRL on / SUKHBAATAR CHINA 'GOVALTAI - M-d.Sl~y6KI69 9Ay6gg ,> + , ;GOV dg66_ 6 , -bAYAkNKNONGOR Vs66IO ' D Sne Kho,-Aymg - -Kono./ '6 AID, T6I6h6?.d - RE6,,6l~ ( A Vt O, S=Dshond S j 'NDGOV' L A. DORNOGOV' \ - RIVERS - - o~~~~~~~~~~~666I~ ~ ~~d- 9\\\\\S& , Odulg a \ Khow gOI Dzamin Uud .oj * PPOVINCE CAP:TAL5~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~PPROINC CA ENVIRONMENTALTRENDS D-d ; G d tADAHr PRl2C P CITES * WATERPOLLUTON CURRENTFORESTS \ ' O-N Vf OTHERSELECTEDECITIES * SOUD WASTEPOLLTION ORbGINALFORESTS N6\ O i j(XxKD--, - - PROVINCE ROINDAR ES A AIR POLLUTION GOBI DESERT E. . . _ _ _ -- I HTERNAT,ONVR ECITARIE T STRICTLY PROTECTED AREAS CHINA * - - . NATIONAL PARKS - '. NATURE RESERVES I 100 20 0 3D RESERVED/HERTAGE AREAS RILOMEERS > 92 66 ITO- IDA loa II?- 11 V II GjEOGRAPHY, POPULATION, AND ADMINISTRATIVE S TRUCTURE Table 1 Relative Population Densities in the World ' A Iith a territory of 1,564 square kilometers (km2) anda total population of 2.3 million people, Persons2 l|11 \ Mongolia is one of the most sparsely populated Ranking Country perkm V V countries in the world.' Some 30 percent of the 1st Macau 20,824.38 total population lives in the captial citv of Ulaanbaatar alone, 2nd Monaco 16,486.67 another 30 percent resides in the Central region,2 and about 3rd Hong Kong 6,571.14 18 percent of the population lives in the West region.3 The 4th Singapore 5,539.77 Scouth4 and East5 regions are very sparsely populated and 5th Gibraltar 4,486.92 account for the remaining 32 percent of the total population. 1oth Bahrain 1,014.66 According to the 2000 census, 57 percent of the total population 20th Puerto Rico 433.94 lived in urban areas, defined as Ulaanbaatar, the 21 provincial 50th Vietnam 237.62 capitals6 and 22 village capital centers.7 Some 39 percent of 100th Cuba 100.09 the urban population is concentrated in Ulaanbataar, Erdenet, 150th Ecuador 45.38 IDarkhan, and Choibalsan. Ulaanbaatar is by far the largest, 200th Argentina 13.34 most populous, and most densely populated city in Mongolia 233rd Mongolia 1.67 (see Map III). Source:WWW.Geography.com. UIrbanization Trends Table 2 In 1999, 47 percent of the world's population lived in urban Rates of Urbanization, and Population areas. By 2030, it is expected that this proportion will reach 60 in Largest City in Selected Asian Countries percent, totaling 4.9 billion people. More than 60 percent of the increase in the world's urban population will occur in Asia; popas popula- tion in both primary and secondary cities are likely to experience high % of tion in largest total urban city as % r ates of growth and face all the problems that accompany rapid popula - centers of urban urbanization. tion < 7M pop. Country (2007) (2000) (2000) Cambodia 17 53 Mongolia is no exception to this commonly experienced China 37 14 3 urbanization pattern. There are, however, two notable Indonesia 42 10 13 differences. First, urbanization is a relatively new trend in Lao PDR 20 -- 62 Mongolia, having been introduced in the middle of the last Mongolia 57 -- 56 century. Second, while Ulaanbaatar is a small city compared Philippines 59 16 22 to many Asian capitals, in a very sparsely populated country it Thailand 21 12 56 stands out as an increasingly congested capital, dwarfing other Vietnam 25 13 24 urbanizing areas by its size, services, and importance in the Source: World Development Indicators 2003,Table 3.10, pp.156-158. national economy. Thus, while policymakers may not be able to stem urbanization, they have the opportunity to better plan and manage growth in both the capital and in the rest of the Mongolia Environment Monitor country, and to lcarn from the mistakes that havc been made urban infrastructure and self-governing administrative in other Asian mega-cities. structures.' Towns with 50,000 or more residents can receive a special status in accordance with their role in national Mongolia's urbanization has been both rapid and ad hoc. The economic and social development, their level of urbanization country had a largely nomadic population well into the 90thl and infrastructure development. century, when unplanned settlement was set into motion. Beginning in the 1930s, a number of small towns and cities Ulaanbaatar had been created by default, along railway routes and roads, Ulaanbaatar is the chief contributor to the economic growth and around major power plants. Road connections were of the country since more than 50 percent of Mongolia's gross established, and social services provided in these towns. domestic product (GDP) is produced in the capital. The city Ulaanbaatar, Darkhan, and Erdenet were among the first now accounts for 30 percent of total industrial output, more urbanized areas in Mongolia. The socialist government strictly than 50 percent of the construction and assembly work, 85 controlled migration in an attempt to equalize the status of percent of power generation, and half the total investment in rural and urban areas. However, since the Law on Freedom of the country. In addition, Ulaanbaatar is home to the central Personal Movement (Article 16) went into effect in 1992, the government and its bureaucratic structure, and the most Government has been unable to control the flow of migrants prominent public and private institutions of higher learning into Ulaanbaatar and other urban areas. and best medical services. The definition of what constitutes an urban area has changed The 2000 census estimated Ulaanbaatar's population at four times since 1961. In 1992 the new Constitution of 760,000. However, recent reports estimate that 824,700 people Mongolia was ratified, and the Law on Cities andVillages was permanently reside in Ulaanbaatar, and almost one million issued by the Parliament. According to this supplemental law, people, including interim residents and incoming and outgoing passed in December 1993, the capital city, and aimag centers- guests, live, work, and study in the city.10 From 1989 to 2002, both soums and villages, are included in urban areas. The law the population grew by 41 percent, and is expected to reach defined"towns"asthoseurbansettlementshavingaminimum 1.1 million in 2010 and almost 1.6 million in 2020.11 In-- population of 15,000 with a large proportion of the population migration to Ulaanbaatar is the chief source of population working in industries and the tertiary sector; with developed growth. In 2002 alone, Ulaanbaatar's population grew by 22' percent, most of which were migrants from rural areas. The Figure 1 steady stream of migrants who enter Ulaanbaatar for Administrative Structure of Mongolia employment, medical services, education, or to be close to other Gentral Government family members, is increasingly absorbed into the expanding ger areas.12 The influx of population presents a financial and l I management challenge to the municipal government, which Aimags Ulaanbaatar, Capital City is already pressed to provide and expand urban services. I I Secondary Cities and Provincial Capitals Soums Duuregs While Ulaanbaatar is by far the most important urban center l l in the country, several Mongolian secondary cities also have Bags Khoroos important regional and provincial roles. Urban centers in the Central region grew as people moved in to take advantage of Source: Mongolia Statistical Book 2002. the road and rail corridors that link Ulaanbaatar to other 2004 3 ; Box 1 1-- DEMOGRAPHIC SHIFTS IN MONGOLIA Inter-censal growth in Mongolia has varied over the years both due to natural changes in fertility rates, loss of life due to internal conflicts, and out migration. Between the censuses of 1918 and 1935, and 1935 and 1944, the population growth rate remained below one percent. From 1956 and 1989, the inter-censal growth varied between 2.5 to 3.0 percent per annum. However, from 1989 to 2000 the growth had fallen by approximately a whole percentage point to 1.4 percent. Fertility has been declining since 1989. In 1999, the crude birth rate was 20.4 percent as compared to 36.5 percent in 1989. Economic hardships and greater availability of contraception are seen as the main causes of the decline. In addition, since 1989 more than 50,000 citizens of the former Soviet Union left for their countries, and more than 60,000 Kazakhs have returned to Kazakhastan since 1992. Average annual growth rates in Ulaanbaatar city, Orkhon, Bulgan and Khovsgol aimags were above the national average because of migration into these areas. The early 1990s saw a steady net flow of urban-to-rural migrants, swelling the population of rural districts, particularly in the Central and Western Regions.This trend has been attributed to the outflow of many newly unemployed state workers who had acquired a few animals under the privatization of state and collective assets, and taken up life as herders. By the second half of the 1990s, this pattern had been reversed. Herders and other rural inhabitants began to move closer to markets so as to reduce transaction costs and improve household terms of trade.This process of population concentration began taking place at virtually all scales levels; within districts, from outlying areas closer to the district centers; within provinces, closer to provincial centers and major transport axes, and on a national scale from more remote provinces, particularly in Western Mongolia, toward those in Central Mongolia and closer to Ulaanbaatar. Source: 2000 Population and Housing Census of Mongolia, National Statistical Office of Mongolia, United Nations Population Fund (UNFP), and United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD), 2001. regions and countries (see MapV). However, even in the rapidly growing Central region there was a net outflow of people to Figure 2 IJlaanbaatar. The 2000 Census describes the Central region Share of GDP igUreC2 Shar of6DPIn Main Urban Centers towns, many of which are aimag centers, as temporary 60 destinations in a step-wise internal migration process whose end point is Ulaanbaatar. With a population of 75,000, Erdenet 50 - _ is the second largest city in Mongolia and an important center 4 for the copper mining industry; Darkhan is the third largest e 40 urban center, and one of key agricultural areas in the country. o U 30 Sainshand and Choibalsan remain important centers for X meatpacking, serving livestock owners across a wide region. vb 20 Finally, Dalanzadgad is the center of cashmere production in the Southern Gobi area (see Map II). 10 0 - _n , r,111_111 F-rI-N UJrban and economic development of secondary cities and provincial capitals is undermined by old and decaying infrastructure, in serious need of repair and replacement. At the end of 2000, only 32 percent of the total urban population had access to potable water, 27 percent to district heating, and 37 Source: Mongolia-Development Strategy for Secondary Cities; Urban percent to solid waste disposal services. Like in Ulaanbaatar, Development Unit, East Asia and the Pacific Region, 2003. there is vast disparity in the provision of services between - Mongolia Environment Mordtor formal urban and ger arcas. Formal urban areas may have Growing rural to urban migration is one of the most visiblw access to centrallv provided heating and hot vatcr, water supply consequences of these disparities. In addition to the migratioi and sanitation, solid waste collection, and social services such of herding families to be closer to markets, the search fob as schools and hospitals. On the other hand, ger areas, which emplovment is the main cause of migration." People alst house at least half the population in provincial capitals, migrate to be close to extended family or to study generally lack most of these services. Approximately 42 percent and 25 percent of migrants tu Ulaanbaatar and Darkhan reported that thev have better Verv limited information is available on the environmental employment opportunities in their new home place. Migrants. impacts of economic growth and urbanization in secondary to Ulaanbaatar also felt that they have improved access to towns. Local environmental authorities lack the administrative education and professional skill-building. and financial capacity to monitor and analyze even basic water and air quality indicators. Although there is anecdotal A large percentage of those who migrate to towns, includini. information that these areas are experiencing a growth in Ulaanbaatar, settle in ger areas. These, quickly-growing areas pollution and degradation problems similar to Ulaanbaatar, it have access to few municipal services, and migrants living hero remains difficult to support this claim with sufficient reliable spend a huge portion of their incomes to obtain heating data. healthcare and education for their families. Yet, ger areas continue to grow as herders seek more reliable income sources Disparities Within and Across Rural and Urban Areas proximity to markets and the promise of a different life for As Mongolia's urban areas have grown, disparities between their children. them and rural areas have become even starker. Rural residents have less access to education, health care, information, Over the past five years, GoM has been working to ensure employment and other opportunities than their urban that, while fostering economic growth, urban environments counterparts. For example, while health services are generally are also protected. Toward this end, it had undertaken the poorin urban and rural areas, they are particularly problematic development of a Masterplan for Ulaanbaatar, and a Cit. in the countryside, where there is an acute shortage of qualified Developnment Strtaegl to ensure the city's financially viable ancd doctors. Some rural clinics lack electricity and running water. environmentally sustainable growth; a Development StrategyJbr Soum hospitals suffer from inadequate budgets, and unreliable Secondanj Cities to help selected secondary cities to formulate funding from the center. Rural women face higher mortality their development strategies, and a Regional Development rates due to complications from pregnancy and childbirth. Strategy to develop alternative urban nodes of economic growth Similarlv, two-thirds of the rural population uses water from in areas other than Ulaanbaatar. unprotected wells, rivers, rain or snow, as compared with less than a tenth of the urban population.13 2004 ' POPULATION CHANGE BY CAPITAL CITY AND SELECTED URBAN CENTERS: t PERCENT DECREASE PERCENT INCREASE. SE AIMAG (PROVINCE) CAPITALS 0%- 5% 0% - 5%* NATIONAL CAPITAL 3WS9120011 1%- 10% A (5N1%- 10% g Ei8 M - POPULATION | >10% 10.1%- 20% AIMAG (PROVINCE) BOUNDARIES § | |N. Dt.fa f., 1989 >20% - - INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES i m N Dtofor199 20 I I ~ ~ ~~~~ ~~~~~~I I I 88° 92 96, 100 104 O1 08 112' 116° 1 20 R U S S I A N F E D E RAT I O N -5, CS* [. @/ >< S ~UI ac SJingom '*. ) - a, _ ~ _ 1_ 989,7n 2013 589 1 w 3' x U~~~VS 8e - BAYAN- .\ iHi J ' _ . _- \ < - - \ DORNOD -~BAYA- - 0- 48° \ OLGII a / _ L II ZAVKHAN / Khd erle j Of4 ~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~~ ~~~~~KHENTII (Choibalso-® / N . ' ' '~~~ I Uisostoie3 ,, Zoom AANBV TAR \. .. \ - ; > i' O ' rd ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~TV \5 Oedorkhoon; ^ . Esorrbolog ® i (Altil) * ° ' (3 Dun~~~eoodgov' r GOV'ALTAI DUNDGOV' 44, N. 1 44 ' N DOE RNO0OV' L _,_ .- - - - -' 0 100 200 300 KILOMETERS Tbhs >09 >0 pr rp-ed- by the Mop D-o9r Uni of fIT> Word fork The bo-'d-res, colr-, dero-i -ot,rs ond ry other >! mrrroon s -how on bis mop do -ot imply, o the po rf The Wodd or-k > Groop, 00ny tO Oert or the I gr I shlos dofr,ny - rot-y, oror ny 2 e -do,seoertor-occeptr- e-ofsochboundo>es C H I N A ri 92' 96' 100' 104I 108 127 11 6 ± I~~~~7 I I I 0', * l d d = SN wrs 55 @ ~~~~~~~~~~AIAG (PROVINCE) CAPIALS 88° 92' 9,U l00° 104° 108, 112' 116- 1 20 r.i6 R U S S I A N F E D E R A T I O N/ \f S~~~~~~~~~~~~~ %~~ ~~~ ,. . %-- /*> i£ ^. *\^. \4 -qX ! I\ ONOV- A,~~ 'is 14 4 * * ° KLMTR rh,s map w=s produced by hhe Mop Design Un ffi f rhe Wodd Bcmk DC~?NaD Theboundonescobrs.denommbonsandanyoSermbrmohon ~' _ ' 11 ' show onae o bntIpy nhepro teWd 0k, t; !~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~J CRK A " r ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i _ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~P Box 2 GER AREAS -ADAPTING TRADITIONAL NOMADIC DWELLINGS TO AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT In Mongolian, ger simply means home. Gers are traditional dwellings, well adapted to the nomadic life of Mongolia's herders, and consist of a wooden framework and a felt cover. The wooden framework includes the walls, long poles, a round smoke escape and its supports. Inside the ger, felt is laid either on a wooden floor or straight on the ground.The number of walls and poles determines the size of the ger. Most herders'gers have five walls, which make a living area of 16-18 m2. Larger gers can have up to 12 walls. Each ger has a hearth, which is of great symbolic and functional importance. In the winter the hearth heats the ger and also serves as a stove for cooking. Gers weigh approximately 224 kg. It takes about half an hour to collapse an average ger and slightly longer to rebuild it. Some ger residents in urban areas are beginning to build wooden houses to avoid expenditure on the upkeep of gers, and the cost of covering them with plastic sheets to protect them from the rain and snow. Currently, 22 percent of the total Mongolian population live in houses and apartment buildings, while 78 percent live in gers. In urban areas, about 60 percent of the population still live in gers. A large percentage of those who migrate to towns settle in 'ger areas.' These are long strips of fenced-in, unserviced housing plots that surround the city. The center of the plot contains a ger, increasingly in addition to a simple wooden home. Animals are kept in close proximity to the ger, within the fenced-in area. Approximately 4.8 percent or 225 square kilometers of the total land area of Ulaanbaatar Minicipality is considered urbanized, and residents of the urbanized core live in apartment homes. Ger areas are growing informally on three sides of Ulaanbaatar, bounded on the south by the Tuul River and topography. Over 30 percent of Darkhan residents also live in ger areas. There are wide disparities between these two types of dwellings with respect to access to electricity, heat, water and sanitation, and communication. Residents of gers in all urban areas are often unregistered, receive little to no services, are poorer than their counterparts in apartment dwellings, and use disproportionately high percentages of their household incomes for water, heating, healthcare and education. Although the majority of households have access to electricity (92.2 percent), all ger households use individual stoves for heating. Roughly 80 percent of the households get their water from boreholes and the rest from open springs.The available water supply per resident in these areas is 4.6 liters/day, far less than the World Health Organization's recommended standard. Over 70 percent of the households lack access to waste removal points, and the vast majority are not linked to any drainage system. Ger areas have become a permanent part of the urban landscape of Mongolia, representing a fusion of traditional and modern lifestyles. Even in ger areas, younger Mongolians prefer modern, well-built, wooden or brick houses to traditional gers. Herding families who spend most of the year in ger areas use their traditional homes in the summer months v'hen they move their hALs into nearby pastures. S - urc, A.[hCr , . E IF _ _^ _ I_ X F -- Ger area outsile Ulaanbaatar. 8 Mongolia Environment Monitor NET IN-MIGRANTS (0C0) 0 AIMAG (PROVINCE) CAPITALS * NATIONAL CAPITAL AIMAG (PROVINCE) BOUNDARIES _ REGION BOUNDARIES - - INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~I T I I I I 88' 92' 96' 100' 104' 108' 112' 116' 120 , I '/R U S S A N F E D E R A T I O N 0ik SUloangom >.C._ / KH6VSG&L ' . - * _ *-1.UVS_no ' SOgi\ US( >MBULGAN parkhanO _ -°OG.r-Erdene l SELENGE '-'-s*-- DORNOD I -48' \ LGI Jargalant BuAVKHh ~48 . _ I . (Khrond) I ZAVKHANLJ - E N T P P 1 KHENTII IChoibalsanI@ 48- ARKHANGAI ULAANBAgAR \ ' KHOVD E N 1:. i-; *.-.-. .p .i ,.I,..,I ITOV Bruroun Urt Esonbulog0 .,a . (Atoul oS Khrngor@ - G, ^ (Aa SUKHBAATAR 6V6R- ®~~~~Dundt: ~ _ GOV'AITAI . } KHANGAI DUNDGOV_ ,' AYAN- -44' \ 8 KHONGOR - )., 0i \ } , " DORNOGOV' SOU'TH UI .J Dalanzadgad ( l. I OMNOjGOV'0 100oo 200 300 , , _ KILOMETERS This mop wrs produced by fte Mop es2gn UMt of The World Bont * The boundaries colors, denomn*neioneand any oher bnfomation \ ' . _< shown on this mop d not imply, on he pont of The Wodd Bon, > Group, ny udgmenton th legal st s of-ny ternto, orsoy -y 4 endorsement or acceptance f such boundares C H I N A w 0 912' 96' 100' 104' 108' 112' 11 6' 0 1 1 I J| rbanization often crcates environmental hazards, In addition, in-migration into the ger areas surrounding both vhich affect the health and safety of the population, Ulaanbaatar and secondary cities has aggravated the solid especially the poorest residents. It also causes waste management problem. This section outlines the extent environmental degradation, with longer-term, wider- of these urban environmental issues and the legislative and a,rea and intergenerational consequences.15 In Mongolia, rapid institutional capacity hurdles that MIongolia faces in their growth in Ulaanbaatar and its periphery has led to a management. dleterioration of air and water quality, and land degradation. Figure 3 Distribution of the Population in Formal Urban Settings and Ger Areas Distribution of the urban population Distribution of the total population 1|1 In I 111~~~~~I K ~~~~apartments ll - E ~~ ~ ~~22% E In apartments Source: National Wastewater Draft Strategy for Mongolia. Ministry of Infrastructure, National Water Committee and Ministry of Nature and Environment, 2003. Ulaanbaatar -Degraded forest in the lkh Tengger Presidential complex. , Mongolia Environnent Monitor I'~~~~~~~~~~I AIR POLLUTION Figure 4 Sources Sources of Air Pollution in Ulaanbaatar Air pollution has become a serious problem in Mongolia's urban areas in the past decade. Sources of air pollution include emissions from mobile sources or vehicles; stationarv sources- comiibined heat-and-power plants (CHP), heat-only boilers CHP Tramupt (HOB) and industrv; and area sources-household stoves, 44% 39% refuse burning, road dust, sandstorms. Approximately 5.7 million tons of coal and 160 cubic meters HOB (m3) of wood are used for energy generation, heating and 9,, cooking in Mongolia annually. Ulaanbaatar is the world's coldest capital and heating is required for almost nine months Source: Ministry of Nature and the Environment, 2003. in the year. Three CHP consume approximately 5 million tons of coal per year. An additional 250 HOB burn an annual average of 400,000 tons of coal and release 10,000 tons of poisonous Figure 5 substances, including sulfur dioxide (SO2)' particulate matter, Number of Vehicles in Mongolia and nitrogen dioxide into the air. Over 70,000 households use between 200,000 to 350,000 tons of coal. In winter, each 60,000 - household consumes approximately 5 tons of coal and 4.7m3 of wood, contributing approximately half the air pollution in 50,000 - the city. Reductions in emissions from the power sector have been partially offset by the higher emissions from household 40,000 heating and cooking in the growing ger areas. Air pollution __ has a strong seasonal pattern, being much worse in the winter 30,000 - months when SO, and dust concentrations are many times higher than in the summer. 20,000 - Between 1995 and 2002, the number of vehicles (such as cars, 10000 buses and trucks) in Ulaanbaatar has grown from 28,119 to l l l 52,000 units, and the transport fleet continues to expand 0 rapidly. Some 80 percent of the vehicles do not meet fuel %0S 90B\ 9c0% ,ep9 10 N K + consumption or emissions standards, further adding 70 tons of pollutants to air pollution each year. Source: WHO, Ministry of Health and Public Health Institute (2002). Preliminary Health Risk Assessment of Environmental Pollution in Ulaanbaatar City, WHO, Ulaanbaatar. Air Quality Monitoring There are four air quality-monitoring stations in Ulaanbaatar. However they have not been measuring ambient con- centrations very regularly, and various studies of air pollution have yielded different results. Most studies agree that concentrations of S02 are higher between October and March dUe to increased emissions from local heating sources and Figure 6 ulectricitv generation. In these months, peak SO, SO2, NO2 Annual Mean Concentrations, 1997-2001 concentrations of 45 pg/m3 have been recorded in the evenings 35 60 between 4 pm and 8 pm. There is concern that at the current 30 i A * 50 rate of growth, these peak concentrations will soon be above 25 0 X > X X 40 Stipulated standards. 20 30 15 2 10 20 Vehicle emissions have been growing in Ulaanbaatar since 5 [r 10 1990. As a result higher concentrations of nitrogen dioxide L L 0 (NO.,) have been observed along the main roads and traffic 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 intersections. Readings at all the monitoring sites show that so2 NO NO, concentrations are on the rise. From 1997 to 2002, daily H O SO2 standard x WHO NO2 standard mean NO2 rose from 18 pg/m3 to 28 pg/M3. However, these Source: Ministry of Nature and Environment, March 2002. c oncentrations are still below the national standard. According to one study, between 1994 and 2000, mean annual Table 3 concentrations of SO, and NO, have risen; SO, concentrations WHO, US-EPA1 and Mongolia2 Ambient have risen from 4 pg/m3 to 9 pug/m3 and NO, concentrations Air Quality Guidelines for Common Pollutants have risen from 14 pg/m3 to 25 pg/m3. A recent World Health Mongolia Time WHO US-EPA Standard Organization (WHO) study observed that the daily mean of Pollutant (averaging) t'pg/m3) (pg/n3) Spg/m3a. both SO, and NO2 in the winter months are already higher Total daily ** 150-200 than the ambient air quality standards.16 Particulate annual (TSP) I1'articulates Particulate Daily 150 matter less Annual 50 that 10 l 'erhaps the single largest problem pollutant in Ulaanbaatar is microns particulate matter. The daily mean particulate concentration (PMj,,) Sulfur Daily 125 365 150 in Ulaanbaatar now ranges between 131-162 pug/m3 and is dioxide Annual 50 80 two-to-three times higher than internationally accepted (SO,) standards. Suspended particulate matter measurements show Nitrogen Daily 40 - 40-60 dioxide Annual 100 that this form of pollution peaks in the winter months. Dust (NO,) storms, caused by strong winds picking up the soil, are Ozone(0,) 1 hour 120 235 120 storms, ~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~ ~~ ~~~~~~8 hours 15 _ _ _ _ _ _ especially common in April. There are now four times as many Carbon 1 hour 30 mg/m' 40 mg/im' 3 mg/m3 cdust storms in Ulaanbaatar as were recorded in 1960. monoxide 8 hours lOmg/mr 1Omg/M3 (24 hrs) (CO) _ _ _ _ _ _ In recent years, health studies have established a direct Notes: 1. US Clean Air Act of 1999 and WHO/SDE/OEH/00.02, Geneva 2000. of particulate mate ..2. Mongolian standards are from MNS4585-98.The range is related to the relationship between daily concentrations of partculate matter analytical method used for measuring the pollutant. and premature deaths and excess morbidity. A significant **WHO no longer recommends an air quality guideline for PM because there is no safe limit. correlation also exists between increased air pollution and acute Values of US-EPA are for primary standards. respiratory infection among children. A 2002 WHO study Annual average is an average of daily measurements taken during a period of reports that there is a strong statistical link between air one year. pg/m3 refers to one millionth of a gram of a pollutant in a cubic meter of air. pollution and respiratory disease requiring hospitalization Guideline refers to the safe level of a pollutant, for the given averaging time, to among children in Ulaanbaatar and Tungkhel areas.17 Two protect the public from acute heath effects. Source: US Clean Air Act of 1999; WHO/SDE/OEHI00.02. Geneva 2000; MNS4585- studies, conducted in 1996 and 2001, have noted that the 98, Ulaanbaatar, 1998. I Mongolia Environment Monitor I~~~~~~N ph]ysical growth of children has been negatively impacted by monitoring networks be interpreted for usc by the governmert air pollution.lS and by nongovernmental actors.The absence of air quality dat.t for all other urbanizing areas is an even more glaring problem. Policy Responses If the problems that are now occurring in LI .. ... l are to As more automobiles enter the roadways in and around be avoided in the newlv urbanizing areas, it is critical that well Ulaanbaatar, and industries diversify and expand, air pollution designed air qualitv monitoring networks be put into place will continue to worsen if appropriate steps are not taken. In and monitoring carried out on a regular basis. this regard, the government has recently begun limited testing of tailpipe emissions in the city. New, less polluting coal stoves Box 3 are being introduced through a government program INDOOR AIR QUALITY AND supported by the Global Environment Facility. The private THE IMPROVED STOVES PROJECT I sector is also becoming active in marketing energy efficient and less polluting alternatives to coal and wood, for use in Air pollution resulting from incomplete combustion in household stoves is a major environmental health problem in household stoves. These developments wvill have a direct impact hosolstvsiamjrenrnetlhathpbemn househdol stovesality.Thee develoments wrllhaveagdirectht i t Ulaanbaatar and other urbanizing areas. Coal is used for about 80 percent of all energy production in urban and semi-urban is a need to replace or refurbish old boilers and furnaces to areas. Used for both heating and cooking, fires are set at floor make them more efficient and less polluting. New industries level in simple metal or clay stoves. Coal, wood or biomass do should have tax and other incentives to adopt cleaner not burn completely in these stoves, releasing large quantities technologies and other energy-conserving measures. of non-combustible contaminants into the air. The National Agency for Meteorology, Hydrology and In 2000, a survey of 1,899 households with 8,296 residents Environmental Moitrig,isreposirevealed that pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, dust and carbon Environmental Monitoring, is responsible for air pollution monoxide were higher than internationally-accepted standards. monitoring, developing pollution inventories, and Another study was conducted in 2004, in conjunction with the implementing national air quality action plans. However, implementation of the GEF-supported Improved Urban Stoves absence of collaboration between this agency and other Project.Preliminaryresultsshowthattraditionalstovesusemore important sector players such as energy, transport, and health, coal or wood than improved stoves, produce comparable levels have been a major impediment in the implementation of air of heat, and yet release higher levels of particulate and carbon monoxide. quality action plans. While both monitoring and analysis need to be strengthened, it is equally important that data from Source: East Asia Energy and Mining Sector Department,World Bank, 2004. 2004 13 SOLID WASTE Figure 7 Solid Waste Composition by Type and Sector -Solid waste generation has been increasing over the past five Composition bytype,2001 years. The lack of environmentally sound waste disposal and t-eatment facilities, has compounded the problem of solid Orgnic waste management. There is limited reliable and accurate data Pape' 17% for waste generation, collection and disposal, for Ulaanbaatar 2s Plastic and the other main urban areas. Solid waste originates from a 12 wide range of residential, industrial, agricultural, municipal and Ash Can commercial sources, including households, manufacturers and 834 hospitals. Ulaanbaatar produces an average of 600 m3 of solid a s s wsaste annually. Some reports suggest that residents of 4% L laanbaatar produce more waste per capita than other East Asian countries at similar levels of economic development. Composition by sector, 2001 Streets Collection and Management - Authorities report that in 2002, approximately 1,300-1,500 m3 3tI, of waste was collected daily in Ulaanbaatar.19 Waste is collected, Apartment a - 57Jt' xxith f d ff* f h h *f 1 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~buildings~ sOth varying frequency and efficiency, from both the informal 34°' 1 Other and formal housing areas, and deposited at one of three open 14i; dumps on the outskirts of the city. About 40 percent of households have access to solid waste collection services. There are an estimated 200 large and small collection points in the city, and 100 small, open trucks are used to transport the wastes Source: Ministry of Nature and Environment, 2001. Figure 8 Waste Generation in Mongolia and other Asian Countries 100 ~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~Hong Kong Singapore Republic of Korea 5.07 1.1 80 -1.59 Japan 1.47 ° ^ 60 * igt Mongolia Du ~~~0.6 * Philippines Mlyi c. ai 0.60.52 0.81 C6 °E 40 - Ini Indonasi India 0.79 *Inoei Vietnam 0.46 0.76 0.55 Lao POR S Sri Lanka Thailand 20 p l Bangladesh 0.49 0- 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 GDP/capita Note: Size of circles is proportional to unit waste generation. Source: What a Waste: Solid Waste Monagement in Asia. Urban Development Sector Unit, East Asia and Pacific Region, World Bank, May 1999. 14 Mongolia Environment Monitor to 497 dumping sites throughout the country. In multi-storied are 5,000 to 7,000 scavengers, many of wvhom are young buildings, solid waste is deposited in a room on the ground chiildrcn. These scavengers are not integrated into the dailx floor and collected by waste iianagem ent companies. In areas waste managemcnt operations of the city and are often seen with loxwer buildings and individual houses, communitv bins as a nuisance. The Blue Bag campaign run by the Mongolian are available for each block. Solid xvaste from these areas is Women's Federation supports the sorting of wastes into blue supposed to be collected twice a week. In reality, collection bags and sending them for commercial recycling. occurs closer to once a week, leading to severe odor and cleanliness problems. Solid Waste Management Costs Data on national and municipal budget allocations and Residents of ger areas are required to deposit their household expenditures are scarce and difficult to gather. The various wastes in designated areas. These open sites often overflow government agencies involved in solid waste management do with waste, as xvaste collection is irregular, sometimes just once not necessarily compile costs for the services they provide, and a month. Many roads in ger areas are in poor condition and do not account for the costs of depreciation of facilities, have steep slopes. The small trucks assigned for waste equipment, and utilities, so that total owning and operating collection have a difficult time reaching the dumps. Often costs are not evident. Data from MNE show that no budget individuals dispose of all the household waste into the nearest allocation was made for solid waste management for the period ravine. Coal ash from stoves makes up more than half this 1996-2000 either at the national or the local level. In 2000, the waste. seriousness of the solid waste problem prompted the international donor community to make 1,194 million MNT Disposal available in loans and grants to address the most pressing Until 1990, open burning was commonly used as a method of challenges related to solid waste collection and management.2( waste disposal throughout the country to reduce households waste quantities, and also to separate recyclable material from Toxic and Hazardous Waste waste. Concerns about the impact of this practice on air quality Toxic waste management is also weak. Some 20 percent of led to its banning. However, no new solutions for waste toxic waste is stored in non-standard storage facilities, while management have been introduced thus far, and open burning another 20 percent is stored at open sites. No health and continues at the three main dumpsites. Accidental fires are environmental risk classification system currently exists for either auto-ignited from the decomposition of organic matter, transporting, handling, and storing toxic waste. Concerns are or started by scavengers for heating. Smoke from these fires is increasing about possible water pollution and soil contaminated and often toxic. Infectious hospital waste is contamination, resulting from inappropriate management and burned in special parts of the dumps, causing soil and disposal of toxic waste. However, thus far there has been no groundwater pollution. Solid waste dumps remain unregulated; attempt to create an inventory of industrial, hazardous or toxic have no provision against groundwater contamination, and wastes for the country. no separation, treatment or burying of solid waste is done. In addition, wild dogs and other animals also carry waste from Policy Responses open dumps to nearby residential areas. The Government is proceeding with the implementation of Recycling the recently adopted "Solid Waste Generation Reduction Program,"in several municipalities and provinces; however, it Only a small portion of solid waste is recycled despite the isstilltooearlytoquantifyandevaluatethepreliminaryresults existence of a potential market for used products from recycled on the ground. plastics, glass bottles, and scrap metals. In Ulaanbaatar there 2004 IS In addition, the government is also supporting citizen--based WATER RESOURCES AND QUALITY initiatives to improve neighborhood solid wvaste collection. A Sources of Water license system to register open dumps has also been Mongolia has more than 3,800 rivers and streams with regular established and it hias been helpful in closing down several rti-un-off, creating a waterway network of 6,500 km. In addition, illegal dumpsites throughout the country- 3,500 lakes, and 186 glaciers add up to a total surface water volume of 63 million cubic meters. Despite such abundance, only half of surface water resources is available for industrial, agricultural and human use, and account for only 20 percent of the total water consumed. Groundwater supplies 80 percent of total water consumed. Although average per capita annual water availability is . 1' 17,300 i3, there is high variability across the regions in the fl country. The lowest per capita availability is in the Gobi area, with only 4,500 m3 available per person, whereas northern and central areas have the highest per capita availability with N Ii. -.._ 46,000 m3 per person. Population pressures are responsible -~ ( for declining water flows in the Tuul, Haraa, and Herlen rivers. Groundwater levels are also falling with increased use, thus liE H . . causing some of the wells and springs to dry up completely, H FA ' _ ~~~~~~~~~~especially in March and April. As much as 60 percent of ; - a . .groundwater abstraction for commercial use is done without the required permit, and no metering system is in place to -AO monitor withdrawal levels. - Figure 9 Water Consumption by Sector ~~~ ~~~ ~~~~ " ~~~~~~~~ g ~~~Dom3estic 1 Crop irrigation 1% Growing urbanization and timber market in UB. Source: Ministryof Nature and Environment,2002. 16 Mongolia Environment Monitor I Access to Safe Water following groups: truck delivery to kiosks; kiosks connected In Ulaanbaatar, the only source of water is groundwater to a piped network; private wells, use of river and springs.- 2 pumped from 160 bore wells in four wvell fields along theTuul Some kiosks close during the winter months when they River; in 2002, water extraction reached 180,000 m3 per day. become inaccessible to the tankers. Family members carry The distribution netwvork supplying the citv core is 350 km water from the kiosks, for an average distance of 350 meters. long. Almost half the population of Ll-,.-,trb,l.:1 :,s.,l (45.3 percent) A limited number of bathhouses are available for residents of gets water from the centralized system; the rest depend on ger areas. The cost of using a bathhouse can be as much as non-centralized supply points.There are vast discrepancies in 10,00 0MNT per half hour, making it unaffordable to many access to safe water. Currently 230-400 liters of water per day residents. is allotted to apartment residents;21 in contrast, ger residents usually consume between 4 to 8 liters per capita, per day. This Water Quality and Monitoring amount is three to four times lower than the world average Recent surveys reveal that both surface and ground water and the minimum daily consumption recommended by the quality is declining across the country. Water pollution can be WHO. attributed to the discharge of human and industrial waste in and around the major urban areas, and to upstream mining Most ger area residents buy potable water from communal operations. Pollutants include minerals, phosphorus, excessive water kiosks. Fewer than 10 percent of the households also nitrogen, organic and inorganic waste, and heavy metals. get water from private wells, springs and the river. Current Animal waste often ends up in the river, and in wells and water supply to ger residents can be categorized into the streams from which ger residents withdraw water. Although the water and sanitation company (USAG) contends that the water is potable, aside from a few E-coli outbreaks, there is Table 4 little monitoring data to support this claim. In a study Degree of water pollution in conducted by WHO in three khoroos in Ulaanbaatar, the results selected sampling points in Tuul River (mg/I) were very varied; in some instances the few samples of water Sampling that were tested turned out to be free of E-coli, but in others, point COD DO BOD one of three samples was contaminated. Terelj 9.8 9.9 5.43 Nalaikh 116.6 12.09 6.82 sewerage The water quality-monitoring network consists of 140 sampling plant points on 70 rivers around the country. State inspectors have Bayanzurkh 29 9.61 4.54 utilized this network very sporadically, and rangers seldom take bridge samples or use analytical lab services. More detailed water Zaisan 32.7 11.7 6.4 quality monitoring has been conducted for the Tuul River, which Yarmag 68.6 11.9 6.04 runs through the center of Ulaanbaatar, and is reportedly the Sonsgolon 58.8 11.6 6.38 most polluted river in the country. Its upper reaches are rated Songino 117.6 5.61 2.1 Grade II, while downstream it is rated Grade IV. The water bridge _ _ _ _ Shuvuun 19.6 11.0 4.75 quality of the Orkhon River, which passes through mining and fabric logging areas, and through the relatively densely populated Altanbulag 49 9.12 4.31 Orkhon aimag, is also compromised. The Kherlen River near Note: According to Mongolian guidelines, surface water Baganuur, the country's largest supplier of lignite coal, and the classificationsforcleanlinessareasfollows:COD9mg/A, BOD <1OmgAitre. With increasing bio-chemical oxygen demand, heavy metal Source: WHO (2003) op cit. , ..,,, , . .; .<:>.;;'?.-.:.A .2IR4a.^,>iX.-a:T ] Box4 sanitationi situation in ger areas has become critical .There are BOX 4 SURFACE-WATER CLASSIFICATION 1 0,()0l cases of diarrhea reported in Mongolia every year, and -SURFACE WATER CLASSIFICATION v- k{1989,GoM established a five-grade(classification system to 60 to 70 percent of these occur in Ulaanbaatar. Dysentery is the second most-prevalent disease. Incidence of hepatitis is In 1989, GoM established a five-grade classification system to thscodmstpean ies.Icdneofeaiiss characterize the quality of surface water. Several indices of seven times the international average. oxygen condition, mineral composition, organic pollution, biological contamination, and toxicity determine the purity Households with no soak pits face the additional problem of grades. having inefficient pit latrines that tend to fill up within two or three vears (as com-pared with six or seven when used in Grade l-Extra cleanfresh surfacewater resources used for: 1. Conservation, not required to pass through water treatment conjunction with a soak pit).This maybe because of the practice process. of disposing gray water in the latrines, thus slowing down the 2. Ecosystem conservation where basic organisms can breed bacterial breakdown process, increasing the bulk of sludge and naturally. filling up the latrine rapidly. The practice of adding lime to Grade Il-Very clean fresh surface water resources used for: latrines, previously common in Ulaanbaatar, is being 1. Consumption, which requires ordinary water treatment discontinued, as many households cannot afford the lime. processes before use; There are reports of salt being used for the same purpose. This 2. Aquatic organisms conservation, fisheries, and recreation. creates additional problems by raising the sodium absorption Grade Ill-Medium clean fresh water resources used for: ratio of the land and can render the soil barren. 1. Consumption after ordinary treatment; 2. Agriculture. Grade IV-Minimally clean freshwater resources used for: Wastewater Treatment 1. Consumption after special treatment; There are about 102 centralized wastewater treatment plants 2. Industry. GraIndestry. VPlefsareoc cnesoy (WWTP) of varying sizes and capabilities throughout the for navigation, country and, without exception, their performance has been deteriorating over the years. Only 35 of the 102 WWTP were To date, only the Khangal, Kharaa, Kherlen, Orkhon, Tamir, Terelj, in operation in 2002.23 Most plants lack standby power Tuul, and Ze/ter rivers have been classified. However, water quality isanot systematiershally moenclsited. However, water generation, and in the event of power failures, the entire raw domestic and industrial wastewater flows are directed to the Source. Ministry of Nature and Environment, 1997. river. In Ulaanbaatar, the main WWTP was commissioned in 1963 and expanded in 1979 and 1986. It is located 11 km west of the city center was designed for conventional secondary concentrations, falling dissolved oxygen, these rivers are rated treatment, using an activated sludge process.The treatment Grade III. plant is in a state of disrepair and is not very efficient. It was designed to treat 230,000 m3/day,24 and actual flows are in the Sanitation and Sewerage range of 150,000 m3/day. As a result, a downward trend has Virtually, all ger residents in Ulaanbaatar and other cities use been noted in the quality of the effluent discharged into the on-site, poorly constructed pit latrines.There are approximately Tuul River. A second treatment facility (Hargia) has the capacity 60,000 open toilets in and around the city. Surface to treat 130,000 m3 of wastewater from wool and leather contamination is clearly evident and ground water industries. However, this facility is not working to its full contamination is occurring in many areas. With growing capacity, and its output does not meet standards thus allowing population density, significant numbers of urban livestock, poor extremely polluted industrial wastewater to pour into the main solid waste collection and absence of controlled drainage, the treatment plant. 18 Mongolia Environment Monitor 2 Over the past decade, GoM invested lINT 3.8 billion to strengtheni the private sector's involvernent, and interest i i improve access and provision of sanitation; however, more investing, in water supply and saniitationi. needs to bc done to prevent further river pollution, and to Policy Responses The law on the operation of water supply and sewerage systerr,s Box 5 was approved in 2002. Amendments to the Water Law and Lawv ~IN~SERVICES IMPROVEMENT IN ULAANBAATAH on Discharge fees are now under reviev by the Mongolia i Parliament. In addition, Mon-olia has a Standard for Industriali Most of the growth in urban populations is taking place in ger a n areas, considered informal housing, and it is these areas that are Wastewater Discharge into the sewage system (MNS 4288- lagging behind in urban infrastructure and environmental 95) and regulations governing the selection of sites for WTTFPs, services provision. treatment technologies and effectiveness. However, due to the size of the country and its scattered settlements, and limite i The Government and international donors are turning their technical and financial capacity, it remains difficult to ensute attention to tackling the problems of these under-funded areas. In Ulaanbaatar, World Bank/international Development industries'compliancetouniformstandards. Association-funded Second Ulaanbaatar Services Improvement Project (UBSIP2) will provide piped kiosk water and limited A new National Wastewater Strategy is considering sanitation assistance (on-site facilities improvement), bath- decentralization of monitoring and control to polluters, wh a houses, roads and footpaths, and drainage. The project area will be routinely monitored. Smaller and decentralized covers over 1000 hectares, and total project cost is $US 21 million. wastewater treatment may also be a more practical alternatix e The total ger area around Ulaanbaatar is 10,000 ha. Accordingly, for smaller and scattered populations, while centralize] one could estimate that at least $200 million (in current dollars) may be needed to provide the type of upgrading that UBSIP2 is treatment would be the only viable alternative in a larger city providing throughout the ger areas of Ulaanbaatar. such as Ulaanbaatar. In addition to these changes, a new Source: Authors. effluent standard for WWTPs has been prepared and is undergoing review. 2004 1' LAND USE AND DEGRADATION The Ulaanbaatar City Development Strategy (see Section III) outlines some of the critical land management issues. However, [in the fast-growing cities of the developing world, housing, the strategy does not make mandatory provisions for transport and commerce compete for shrinking open spaces. environmental assessment to ensure that the policies adopted Yet, in the long term, the economic and social vitality of cities by city managers are environmentally sound, and that their depends on their cultural and natural resources-architecturally impacts are adequately addressed. a 3d historically distinctive neighborhoods, open parks and A aterfronts. Ulaanbaatar's 1986 Master Plan, designated large areas of the city as green spaces. However, the majority of Box 6 projects and programs for greening the city were not MUNICIPAL FORESTS OUTSIDE ULAANBAATAR implemented due to lack of funds. Planted area per capita is now approximated at 3.2 m2 per person, which is 3 to 5 times Only somefive percentof Ulaanbaatar is actually urban.The rest smaller than the city's required standard. The green spaces that comprises steppe, larch and pine forests including most of Bogd remain are used for social gatherings, playing sports, formal Khan Special Protected Area-a UNESCO Man and Biosphere and informal events both is the summer and the winter. The Reserve-to the south, and part of Khan Khentii Special Protected Area to the northeast. The forests are amongst the opDen spaces within or immediately adjacent to Ulaanbaatar most southerly in the country and under natural conditions are irnclude the Tuul River floodplain, the parks around the found only on the northern slopes because the shallow soils of Parliament Building, Bogd Khan, Tasgant Ovoo, Botanic the southern slopes become too dry to support trees. Although Gardens, Children's Park, and the dozens of open areas nominally protected from felling, the forests are under severe enclosed by apartment blocks. pressure from collectors of fuel wood and timber, and from land claims. A major increase in felling has occurred in order to satisfy Since the passing of the new Land Law in 2002, these areas the demand for fence slats in response to the provisions of the have been under more pressure than ever before. The new Land Law. The loss of forests is probably aggravating the impacts of the rare but dramatic rainstorms. In 2003 alone there playgrounds within apartment block complexes are being were two major floods in Ulaanbaatar, in May and September, transformed into office blocks and more apartments. Smaller with the former causing 12 deaths. The slopes to the north of open spaces are being used for parking lots and garages as the Ulaanbaatar now have less and less protection and the heavy number of vehicles in the city keep growing. In addition, rains tend to rush over the soil surface rather than infiltrating authorities in Ulaanbaatar and other aimag centers are faced 1111wu1dwter. * with the challenge of addressing land degradation caused by overgrazing as herdsmen settle down in these areas so as to be close to markets.25 PDlicy Responses Combating land degradation is high on GoM's environmental agenda. The 2000 National Environment Action Plan (NEAP) mentions the need to designate specific sites for the safe disposal of solid waste as one way to check degradation in urban areas. However, more will need to be done to prevent further degradation, restore damaged lands, preserve open spaces and forests within urban areas, provide zoning to protect eiivironmentally fragile or vulnerable areas, and involve the 9 private sector to help address these challenges. 'M M.ngoUa Envknmn- t Monftor . d...Sd Box 7 URBAN AND ENVIRONMENTAL PRESSURES OF MINING The mining industry is a significant part of the Mongolian economy. It employs close to 17,000 people, produces 30 percent of the total industrial output, and accounts for 65.5 percent of the export revenue. Copper mining alone earns between 40 to 50 percent of foreign exchange and provides almost a quarter of the government's revenue.There are presently 35 operating mines for construction materials in addition to 160 operating mines for other minerals. The most prominent deposit in terms of size and significance is the Erdenet copper-molybdenum mine, some 360 km north of UB. The mining complex employs 6,000 of the 15,000 residents of Erdenet, thus making the city overwhelmingly dependent on the mine both for employment as well as income.The Baganuur Coal Mine Complex is located approximately 110 km west of Ulaanbaatar in Tuv Aimag and employes only 1,400 people; yet over the years, accessibility to UB via a dirty road and proximity to the trans-mongolian railroad have attracted a significant number of migrants to Bagannut, whose total population has reached 30,000. The Zamaar gold mining district in Tuv Aimag, approximately 250 km from Ulaanbaatar is a center of placer mining operations. Mining in the Zamaar area employs some 100,000 people, and has reduced land availability, and intensified stresses on herders already effected by extreme climatic events. In addition, artisanal mining for gold is on the rise, and has become the biggest generator of rural employment and rural cash-based income. Mining's impact on the environment is potentially significant as Mongolia's natural ecosystems are highly susceptible to degradation both by human and natural forces, and are slow to recover. In addition to the environmental impacts that are directly related to mining activities, mining areas also attract considerable numbers of people as they offer job security that is difficult to find elsewhere in the country. While these areas are not large population conglomerations by international standards, in a sparsely populated country such as Mongolia, they represent concentrations that are equivalent to small towns. Populations in these towns are solely dependent on the economic performance of the mine supporting them. Many of the mining areas occupy lands previously used for herding, thereby displacing herders who often become artisanal miners. Such poverty-driven manual mining has serious health, social and environmental risks. , r.hrnm.,nr, jer, ar.,1 J.:,.:ri.'n Becker (2003) Review of the Environmental and Social Policies and Practices for Mining in Mongolia, Draft Final Report prepared for I:,' Id Bani . . ~ ~ .-M ~ -' v- L EIJHBAATAC CO VIALTA+ I Cl/OR~~~~~~~Aryh E J 5-44d98 K. /'~~~~~~~~~'Y~~~~~'0 E~~~~~AYAN~ booAr < y - 84~~~~~~T1khL H-ONGOR < H-NGAY F'041 OSUNDCOVI Alt4y/"0/ - ~~ OBoy~~o~4~ - -- -----) (A - - MAIN ROADS DabWL6y SECONDARY ROADS )h0'H 0OMNOGOVI _q ' E,.,....i.bIog. RAILROADS _ K - 4~a 9 -~-RISERS t ' * NATIONAL CAPITAL 0 A AMAG (PROVINCE) CAPITALS .0''' DARITAN PRINCIPAL CITIES"" ' 7 -4''N 10 ' N OTHER SELECDED CITIES C H I N AN AIMAG (PROVINCE) ROUNDAR ES . ..... -- NTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES4440 - 94' 08 00 104' 104' 1612'? In an effort to ensur-e the sustainabilitv of the ongoing natural re5ources, population characteristics and emplovmeenI urbanizaLtion and economic development process, especially structures, and to build upon these.The capital is seen as on, for the poorest citizens including migrants from rural areas, independent region with all kinds of services, enterprises GoM is supporting several key initiatives.These include the information technology and with internationally ranked Regional Development Strategy, the Ulaanbaatar City banking and financial networks. Development Strategy, and the Development Strategy for Secondary Cities. Each of the economic zones will have a development nod( which is likelv to emerge as the dominant urban area in thc I Regional Development Strategy zone. Development nodes will be connected through road an, I In 2001, the Mongolian Parliament ratified the main concepts air links, both with each other and with major cities aroumnl of a Regional Development Strategy (RDS). Through the the world.This is a major departure from the manner in whicl l implementation of this Strategy, the government aims to reduce road and rail links have emerged in Mongolia in the past, whei the over-concentration of population in Ulaanbaatar and all major roads and rail links led to Ulaanbaatar (see MapV. minimize differences in development and economic Two main cross-country roads have been proposed.These wi I opportunities among different regions, and between cities and link Ulaanbaatar-Tsetserleg-Uliastay-Hovdo to the West, an, i rural areas. The Strategy also envisions joining Ulaanbaatar Ulaanbaatar-Ondorhan-Choibalsan to the East. The roads ar with domestic and foreign markets through investments in expected to be ready bv 2010. Ports on the border with Russi l .. and China will be developed in the Western, Eastern, and manufacturing and the services sector. Towards this end, it is envisaged that the first 10-year objectives of the Ulaanbaatar Central zones. Master plan for the period 2000-20 will be implemented in The success of RDS is based on the completion of larg close conjunction with RDS. infrastructure projects that will assist in the creation of urban centers of growth in areas outside the capital region. Whil The Strategy has proposed a concept of zonal development RDS has established some general environmental protection for Mongolia. Four regional economic zones and one gDelinestithasnetanticipatedtheenvironmentalchin indeendet zne fr Ulanbatarwil be stabishd. Tese guidelines, it has not anticipated the environmental change . independent zone for Ulaanbaatar will be established. These ta asv nrsrcuedvlpetmybigt zones inclue the folloing areas:that massive infrastructure development mav bring to zoncstes n Zotie includethefolloing Bareas: OlgiymGoviMongolia. Guidelines have been created for the creation of an DzWestern Zone including 'ayan m Gecological fund that will provide resources for ecologicr I Dzahvan, Uvs and Khovd aimags; rehabilitation and renewal. In addition, an independent zoni I * Hangay z i planning and management system is to established: Intereste, i Orkhon, Ovorhangay and Khovsgol aimags, investors, both national and foreign, will be able to gain long- * Central Zone including Gov' -Sumber, Darkhan-Ul, term leases for the use of an area, possibly for mining, with th Dornogovi, Dundgovi, Omnogovi, Selenge and Toy aimags; oversight of the zonal planning agency. The Strategy envision-s * Easteni Zone including Dornod, Sukhbaatar, Khentii aimags. that this system will be responsible for assessing the carryin * Ulaanbaatar Zone including the capital city, the territories ' ~~~~capacitv of the natural environment in an area. There is som of its suburbs, and satellite cities in the vicinity of the city. c t concern that lack of previous experience wit l large infrastructure development may lead to investments the t Different economic activities are proposed for each of the are both economically and environmentally nonsustainable. zones. One of the goals of the strategy is to identify existing 2004 27 laanbaoatar City Development Strategy by the national government. In addition, the city governmcnt I2001, GoM approved a development strategy for Ulaanbaatar cannot assess taxes unless approved by the Parliament. As a ty.The strategy, an outcome of year-long series of workshops consequence the city revenue base remains small. lding in March 2001, involved city government staff, non- w ovemment organizations, the private sector and the international The Ulaanbaatar Master Plan, approved in 2001, is also part of onor community The final Ulaanbaatar City Development CDS. The Master Plan is based on the assumption that the -.-rategy (CDS) is divided into 26 vision statements. These are urban area itself would dramatically expand to accommodate ˇneral statements about the direction of future development in the growing population; however, such an assumption does I laanbaatar. They are not backed by implementation plans or not seem to be based on the most recent socio-economic data idgets, and it is unclear who wll be responsible for developing available. In addition, the Master Plan lacks adequate id managing these plans if they are indeed created. For example, investment plans for the proposed infrastructure projects, and K ision 3 outlines the goals for"Living Environment and Social considerations for any of the regulatory reforms needed to I Sfe." It includes the following statements: manage growing urban areas in an environmentally sustainable way. Decrease environmental pollution t Create an integrated solid waste management system Development Strategy for Secondary Cities bRecover the green belt area and increase green areas in The concept of regional development is central to the the city Development Strategy for Secondary Cities. The main objective b Provide clean water of this DSSC is to assist aimag centers to develop strategic Be prepared for forecasting and dealing with natural plans that would enable them to accomplish the following: calamities when they occur *Establish programs of poverty alleviation and employment U Assess the level, identify strengths, weaknesses, generation opportunities and threats of their current development Protect citizens from crimes and to take measures to status strengthen social equity * Clarify their urbanization visions and share them with Improve public health. various stakeholders, including the urban poor and NGOs * Formulate improved urban development strategies (with I hle CDS was the first participatory urban planning exercise particular attention to poverty alleviation and environmental \'X er undertaken in Mongolia. For the first time, stakeholders sustainability), and prioritize needed actions iom different sectors of the city were able to collectively U Share and discuss these urban strategies with others It lentify the most critical urban issues. They also noted that through workshops, consultations, and the creation of a ad- I Ie City has limited authority and there is very unclear division hoc website. lK responsibility between the local and national government. lI ost of the city's activities require the approval of the national The DSSC will be piloted in Edemet, Darkhan, Khovd, Choibalsan, > )vernment, specifically the Cabinet; the City Assembly lacks and Tsetserleg, and drafts of each city development strategy are l( gislative authority and its annual budget needs to be approved expected to be completed by the end of 2004. .?9 Mongolia Environment Monitor 2 ENVIRONMENTAL PUBLIC AWARENESS Nfinistrv of Education, Culture and Science, established the Ecological Training Center to develop environmental and Public awareness and citizen pressure on governments and ecological curricula. Thev also published a basic ecolog: polluters are some of the most important factors in motivating textbook to provide guidance for ecological and environmental environmental reform. Local environmental problems such as education. removal of solid waste, maintaining drainage, etc. can often be coordinated successfully at the community level. On the Within MNE, a Civil Society Committee has been established other hand, citywide problems need the engagement of city to ensure that public opinion is taken into account in crucial agencies and utilities. Even at this level, municipal authorities environmental decisionmaking, and to coordinate public can relv on local communities to regularly monitor and report participation activities between government agencies and problems as well as to suggest cost-effective and locally NGOs at local and national levels. An information unit was appropriate solutions. also recently formed to facilitate the dissemination of environment-related information and to educate people oi Mongolians are becoming increasingly aware of the environmental laws and regulations. More than 40 environ- deteriorating environmental conditions in their country. mental NGOs have emerged over the past 10 years, and about However, understanding of the root causes of the current thirty of them formed the Union of Mongolian Environmental environmental degradation is still limited, thus preventing the NGOs in 1999. An environmental information column is public from playing a more active role in managing and published in the Daily News, and the Ecological Guard is protecting natural resources. broadcast regularly on national public radio. In 1995, GoM and the Soros Foundation, started a distance In 2000, the World Bank began sponsoring a series of learning program on economic and social impacts of current stakeholder meetings with the aim of creating a City environmental problems for university lecturers and students, Development Strategy for Ulaanbaatar. Such strategies are and secondary school teachers. In 1997, GoM adopted the beingundertakenin several EastAsian countries.Theyinclude 'National Program for Public Environmental Education', and a participatory assessment of the city's economic, social and established the National Council to organize the Program's environmental conditions and prospects, and outline priorities activities, including the broadcast of a series of environmental and actions plans for policy and investment. The Strategy documentaries on national television. In 1999, MNE and the introduced the concept of participatory planning in Mongolia. . .. .,...,..it.:;.-.a In the last decade Mongolia h1as been uLlnddcrgoinig a private sector manag,emenit of utilities and environmental si-i1ificaint transformationi: from a country with a diverse services have never been associated wvith cost recovery. and largely unexploited natural resource base, to one that * ,1. Reliabiliti1 anid Accessibility/ of En,vironinental is transitioninlg to a market-basedi economy, over- Mouiitorinig Data andzt7 Informantion. Accurate and reliable helmingly reliant oni the use and management of natural informiiation and data on environmental quality is limited i. sources. for Ulaanbaatar, and even more scarce for secondary cities. A lack of modern and practical sampling equipment, I conomic liberalization and changes in the governance shortage of technical personnel who could gather and -Iructure have also accelerated the process of urbanization. analyze samples, and absence of training in modern ,\lthough, by international standards, Mongolia's main city, sampling techniques are some of the problems that need I laanbaatar, remains small, it dwarfs all other urban areas in to be addressed in order to improve environmental t ie country. It also continues to be a strong magnet for rural management, especially in secondary cities. t tigrants who throng to it in search of employment, education * Strengthening the Enforcemnent of Existing Environnmental a ld access to other urban services. Yet, urban areas of C,iialWi, Standards and Regulations. An unclear regulatory diestination are poorly equipped to receive the inflow of framework, including lack of consistency in imposition of rtigrants and cannot adequately house, employ or educate fines and penalties, and minimal court action against the r any of them. In addition, the concentration of populations worst offenders, has hampered effective monitoring of a id industry in these areas is having serious impacts on the environmental quality parameters. Inflexibility of standards, ! cal environment. In an attempt to reverse spatial inequities, unduly high standards in some cases and overly lax (.oM has created a Regional Development Strategy. This standards in others, have also created a weak and confusing S Lrategy, however, has an ambiguous implementation plan and regulatory atmosphere in which enforcement of existing C )es not adequately address environmental implications of environmental laws and regulations rarely occurs at all. cl,velopment and change in what have been sparselypopulated * S ib-. inlc, and broaden ii,. I,l .It.i,ii,.. of the environmiiiental r.rral areas. Implicationis of Regional Developmene1t St, ,i-.-i, the Ulaatnbaatar City Developmtienzt Strategy, and the Developmiient Strategy for , ased on the available information and analysis, this report Secondanj Cities. To date, relatively little is know about the identifies the following challenges for Mongolia to succeed in possible environmental impacts of various economic and addressing the environmental challenges of urbanization: urban development program planned and/or already under implementation. There is a need to ensure that environment lt Iiproved Provisionl of Urban Environmiental Services. Ensuring and natural resources management are not relegated to a access to safe drinking water, clean air, waste collection and secondary status in the development policy agenda, and to sanitation are major urban challenges. In ger areas these avoid Mongolia backpedaling into environmental neglect. challenges are amplified as there are few transportation links National and local governments should not have to choose and populations tend to be scattered over wide areas. The between environment and development; both are needed provision and maintenance of infrastructure and other for Mongolia to make progress toward achieving its services could be problematic and expensive due to limited Millennium Development Goals. qualified technical staff. Further, there is no experience with :3CI Mongolia Environment Monitor _ .. *. ,.. w.,. Geography Economy and Society Location: Northern Asia, between China and Russia GDP: US$ 4.7 billion (2000 est.) Total area: 1565 million sq km GDP growth rate: 1% (2000 est.) Land boundaries: Total: 8,161.9 km GDP comnposition by sector: Bordercountries: China 4,676.9 km Agriculture: 36.00%o Russia 3,485 km Industry: 22.0% Services: 42.0% (2000Oest.) Elevation extremes: Lowest point:Khoh Nuur 518 m;2 Highest point: Nayrarmadlin Orgil 4,374 m Currency: Togrog (MNT); U$ 1 = 1,097 Togrog (MNT) Mineral resotrces: oil, coal, copper, molybdenum, tungsten, Inflation rate 7r $200 nillion (1998est.) phosphates,tin, nickel,zinc gold, silver, iron lndustrialproduction growth rate 2.4%(2000 est.) Land use Agrculture products: Wheat barley, potatoes,forage Arable land: 5.7% crops; sheep, goats, cattle, can-els horses Permanent pastLres: 81.0% Forest and woodlands: 11.4% Exports total value: $4543 nillion (f.o.b., 1999) Other: 1.9 % (2000 est.) Export partners: China 60%, US 20%, Russia 9%, Japan 2c/o (2000) est.) Irrigated land:800 sq km(1993est.) aimate continental (large daily and seasonal termperature Inports-Total value: $510.7 nTillion (cif, 1999) ranges) Import Partners: Russia 330/o, China 21 %,1Japan 12%/, South Korea 10%, US 4% (1999) National capital: Ulaanbaata r Population,mid-year: 2,654,999 (2001 est.) Administrative divisions: The aimag (= province) is Population growth rate: 1.4%(2001 est.) the largest sub-national administrative unit; Mongolia Poverty (percent below poverty l ine): 40 (2000 est.) is divided into 21 aimags. The sub-national Birth rate 21.8 births/1,000 population (2001 est.) administrative unit below the aimag is the soum (= Death rate 7.1 deaths/1,000 population (2001 est.) district), which is divided into bag (= sub-district). In the Infant mortality rate: 53.5 deaths/1,000 live births (2001 capital city districts are called duureg and sub-districts est.) khoroo. Life expectancy at birth: 64 years FiscalYear:January 1" - Decenber 31' Access to safewater: 60 % oftotal population Independence: 11 July 1921 (fromChina) Accesstosanitation 25%oftotal population Literacy (at age 15) total population: 970/o .,, .,. .. , . = ,.:t, . , . ,,. ,,,-X>,.;,?t, ,& ,,~ I In 2000, Mongolia completed the first comprehensive and Public Health Institute (2002).PreliminaryHealth Risk population census since the beginning of the economic Assessment of Environmental Pollution in Ulaanbaatar transition. Population data gathered in this round of census City, Mongolia. are significantly more detailed and reliable than previous 17. WHO, Ministry of Health and Public Health Institute, op censuses; these data will continue to be used until 2010, cit. p. 66. when the next general census will take place. 18. Burmaa, B. (2001). Health of Mongolian Children 2. Khovsgol, Uvurkhangai, Selenge, Tuv, Arkhangai aimags. Depending on Ecological Burden: Diagnosis and .. Bayan-LJIgii, Bayankhongor, Gobi-Altai, Zavkhan, Uvs and Prevention. Unpublished PhD dissertation. p. 54; and Khovd aimags. Otgon G. (1996), Physical Development, Some Functional 4. Gobisumber, Umnugobi, Dornogobi, Dundgobi aimags. Indicators of Ulaanbaatar City Children Living in a Dornod, Sukhbaatar, Khenti aimags. Different Ecological Situation. Unpublished Ph.D. e. Provinces are referred to as Aimags. Soum is the subna- dissertation. tional administrative unit below the aimag. Soum are 19. Pacific Consultants International et al./World Bank (2001) divided into Bag. In the capital city and other urban areas, Ulaanbaatar City Development Strategy, p. 3-16. districts are called Duureg, and subdistricts are referred to 20. World Bank (2002) Mongolia Public Expenditure and as Khoroo. Financial Management Review: Bridging the Public ,. Consistent with the Law on Cities andVillages, ratified by Expenditure Management Gap, Washington DC: World the Parliament in 1993. Bank, p. 50. S. Article 3-Towns and Villages, Law of Mongolia on the 21. Ulaanbaatar City Development Strategy, August 2001. Legal Status of Towns andVillages. 22. Environmental Impact Assessment for Feasibility Study 9. Article 4-Status of Towns, Law of Mongolia on the Legal of Second Ulaanbaatar Services Improvement Project and Status of Towns and Villages. Preliminary Design for Water Supply Facilities. World Bank, 10. World Bank (2003) Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper and 2003. Joint Assessment. 23. Draft National Wastewater Strategy (2003) Ministry of lt l. Presentation by Mr. Ch. Bat, Director, Economy and Infrastructure in collaboration with National Water Strategy Policy Department, Office of the Mayor, Committee and Ministry of Nature and Environment. Ulaanbaatar city. Unpublished. 12. Approximately 4.8 percent or 225 square kilometers of the 24. Ulaanbaatar City Development Strategy, p. 3-16. total land area of Ulaanbaatar city is considered urbanized. 25. In Ulaanbaatar, the number of cattle owned by residents Surroundingthisurbanizedcorearegerareas,municipal rose from 180,000 in 1990 to 280,000 in 2002 In forests and open spaces. Ulaanbaatar, for example, the number of cattle owned by 1.8. United Nations Development Program (2003). Human residents rose from 180,000 in 1990 to 280,000 in 2002. Development Report Mongolia: Urban-Rural Disparities See United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and in Mongolia. UNDP, Ulaanbaatar. pp. 25-30. Ministry of Nature and Environment (2002) State of the *14. United Nations Population Fund (2003) Fact Sheets on Environment-Mongolia, UNEP. p. 54. Migration, Mongolia. 26. http://www/ahrchk.net/ua/mainfile.php/2003/484; 15. World Bank (2003). World Development Report: http://www.icsf-2003.mn/hot.htm; Sustainable Development in a Dynamic World, http://www.eurasianet.org/resource/mongolia/ypermail/ Transforming Institutions, Growth and Quality of Life. 200303/0000.sthml NY: Oxford University Press. p. 111. 27. Good Governance for Human Security Programme, I (i. World Health Organization, Mongolian Ministry of Health Government of Mongolia. Ulaanbaatar. 2001. .32 Mongolia Environnent Monitor 28. Inspectors have the authoritv to stop activities that are seen environmental information trom surveys and monitoring as damaging to the environment, suspend operations that to national information and data management agencies violate environmental regulations or standards, impose and systems; regulate and control activities of provincial penalties on violators, develop local programs of commercial and industrial entities; and coordinate the environmental protection and rehabilitation; relay activities of provincial environmental enterprises. 2004 :;3 __ I sr | . | lL.', ;i L.' 1 I k | __ 11 . . | :1 ;2 Fs S t ] X I ____ fi e. I < X - 1 | I i __ I 1_ _S _-I l l | _ ' , . !!_ I I | 1W- 1$$fls l I F I __ w i THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, NW Washington, D. C. 20433 U.S.A. Tel: 202-477-1234 Fax: 202-477-6391 Telex: MCI 64145 WORLDBANK MCI 248423 WORLDBANK Internet: http://worldbank.org THE WORLD BANK MONGOLIA OFFICE Ulaanbaatar, I I A Peace Avenue Ulaanbaatar 210648, Mongolia