Strengthening Gender Outcomes in Social Protection and Poverty Focused Programs in South Sudan P169065 June 22, 2019 “When South Sudan’s war began, the Beatles were playing their first hits, and reaching the moon was an astronaut’s dream. Half a century later, with millions massacred in Africa’s longest war, the continent’s biggest country split in two.�—Peter Martell, First Raise a Flag I. Introduction 1. On July 9, 2011, The Republic of South Sudan became the world’s newest nation and Africa’s 55th country. Unfortunately, independence did not translate into peace for her citizens. Renewed conflicts in December 2013 and July 2016 have worsened the humanitarian situation and dented the progress that South Sudan was making following its independence. According to the World Bank, the conflict is estimated to have led to nearly four hundred thousand excess deaths since 2013. More than 4.3 million people have been displaced both internally and to neighbouring countries. Hunger is at historic high levels. As of January 2019, more than 6 million people did not know where their next meal would come from. Almost 7 million people (60 percent of the population) will be food insecure at the height of the lean season which runs from May to July. 2. As in most conflicts, women, girls and young men are among the most vulnerable. They face a number of challenges including extreme poverty, lack of access to basic productive assets, and the impacts of climate change on livelihoods and wellbeing. In situations of conflict, these groups are most exposed to adversity, and many of the risks they face, such as gender-based violence (GBV), are heightened. 3. Social protection programs are increasingly emerging as important policy tools to rebuild the social fabric and social capital of fragile and conflict affected countries. The implementation of well-designed and inclusive programs can contribute to reducing inequality and empowering women. This is particularly relevant with persistent gender gaps. The inclusion of women and groups with low bargaining power, a lack of voice and agency, and with low access to productive resources in the design of poverty reduction programs can tackle gender-specific vulnerabilities and solidify efforts to increase women’s empowerment and inclusive development. Furthermore, failing to recognize existing gaps can exacerbate inequality to the detriment of vulnerable subgroups and the country’s overall fragility. 4. Social protection and poverty reduction programs must consider the different circumstances of women and girls, men and boys to deliver benefits to those that need them most. It is also important to understand the impact of programs for different subgroups of the population, including children and youth, to build a sustained approach to addressing fragility and conflict and to make progress towards ending extreme poverty and achieving shared 1 prosperity. Finally, social protection programs can play a critical role in the prevention, mitigation and response to GBV. 5. The objective of this report is twofold. First, to assess how social protection, poverty reduction, and other programs targeting the most in need have addressed the different needs of women and girls/men and boys in South Sudan. Second, to distil lessons and guidance for task teams. The study is based on a review of the impact evaluation literature and a review of World Bank and non-World Bank interventions (mostly emergency interventions) in South Sudan and in other fragile and conflict-affected countries. The report is organized in seven sections. Section 1 is the introduction. Section 2 presents the methodology. Section 3 describes the status of poverty and vulnerability in South Sudan. Section 4 discusses the status of gender equality in the country. Section 5 presents a brief description of the integration of gender equality in Social Protection programs in South Sudan. Section 6 discusses the findings of the portfolio review. Section 7 provides recommendations, highlights good practices in addressing the gender gaps and vulnerabilities in countries facing similar challenges and concludes. II. Methodology 6. This report is based on a portfolio review and a review of impact evaluation evidence. The report presents the results of a portfolio review of World Bank projects, complemented by a review of evidence from impact evaluations in fragile and conflict affected or comparable low- income countries.1 7. The portfolio review analyses the integration of gender equality in World Bank projects.2 The focus of the review was initially social protection programs in South Sudan, but given the small size of the portfolio, it was expanded to other sectors including agriculture, rural and urban infrastructure, transport, and health. Fourteen of the 24 projects analyzed were implemented in South Sudan and the remaining 10 in similar fragile and conflict affected countries. The latter were identified based on concrete actions to promote gender equality and/or women empowerment or based on the inclusion of indicators focused on female beneficiaries. 8. The review covers projects approved during fiscal year (FY) 2008 – 19. Projects cancelled during this period were excluded from the review. While some of these interventions rarely have an explicit goal related to improving gender equality (as they target households), they do have an effect on individual members of the household. Interventions reviewed in South Sudan include a relevant social protection or economic opportunities component, regardless of whether they cover aspects pertaining males’ and females’ needs and vulnerabilities. 1 The works builds off on the 2014 Independent Evaluation Group’s systematic review of evidence on SSNs and gender 2 A few interventions and emergency projects undertaken by other development organizations were included in the review. Detailed information about the design and implementation of such programs is not readily available. 2 9. The portfolio review takes a project cycle approach. Project objectives, components, indicators, and results were analyzed using information from project documents including appraisal documents (PADs) and implementation status and results reports (ISRs). Implementation and completion reports (ICRs) served as a source of information for completed projects.3 In-depth unstructured interviews were conducted with task team leads for 5 of the 14 projects included in the portfolio review of projects in South Sudan. Annex 1 presents the list of questions used for the portfolio review and Annex 2 presents detailed results of the analysis. 10. The review of evidence from impact evaluation identified studies based on four factors. First, intervention countries were fragile states or low-income.4 Second, interventions were related to social safety nets (including conditional and unconditional cash transfers as well as in-kind food transfers), subsidies, and public works programs. Other thematic areas such as agricultural interventions, were also included in the review. Third, studies had a valid counterfactual or control group. Fourth, impacts were disaggregated by sex or referred to gender-specific outcomes. Studies included in the analysis are papers published between 2013 and 2018 for interventions implemented between 2008 and 2016. This timeframe was chosen to avoid duplication of reviews already covered in previous reports. The review covered 16 impact evaluation studies grouped in five thematic areas: (i) Conditional Cash Transfers (CCTs) and Unconditional Cash Transfers (UCTs), (ii) Labor Intensive Public Works (LIPW), (iii) Community Driven Development (CDD), (iv) Agriculture, and (v) Information.5 Eleven out of the 16 studies are World Bank related work, either through funded interventions or involvement in impact evaluation studies. The number of papers in each thematic area and a brief description of the intervention are provided in Annex 3. 11. Outcomes reviewed are mainly organized according to the four pillars of the World Bank’s Gender Strategy. Specifically, these outcomes relate to (1) improving human endowments – education, health, (2) removing constraints for more and better jobs – employment, entrepreneurship, wages; (3) removing barriers to women’s ownership and control of assets – physical assets and financial assets, and (4) enhancing voice and agency and engaging men and boys – decision making, participation in decision making bodies, and gender-based violence. 12. The analysis also identifies good practices that illustrate how projects implemented in fragile and conflict affected countries (and in some low-income settings) have integrated gender equality into the design and implementation of their operations. Good practices are 3 Many of the projects are characterized by emergency, short term responses. Monitoring and evaluation information is scant for most of the emergency response program which significantly narrowed the scope for the assessment. 4 Two sources were used to identify a country’s fragility, namely the Country Policy and Institutional Assessment (CPIA) score of the International Development Association (IDA) and Fund for Peace’s Fragile State Index (FSI). Due to possible changes in a country’s fragility and income classification over time, we consider these scores over the program implementation period. 5 These thematic areas were chosen to be consistent with the 2014 IEG report on Gender and Social Safety Nets. The scope of the analysis was expanded to agriculture and information as per the request of the Country Management Unit (CMU). 3 organized to correspond with the project cycle and they are complemented by the findings of the review of impact evaluation studies as part of the recommendations. III. Poverty and Vulnerability in South Sudan6 13. Poverty has increased in South Sudan in recent years, mainly due to protracted conflict and the decline in oil price. Between 2009-2011, the country managed to make progress in poverty reduction when the share of poor declined from 51 percent to 47 percent7 (South Sudan Poverty Profile, 2016). Estimates indicate that poverty reached 82 percent in 2016 (The World Bank, 2018). This deterioration can be attributed to the fresh breakout of conflict between the government and the parties supported by the former vice president in 2013 as well as the decline in the price of oil in late 2014. The conflict led to displacement as well as the loss of livelihoods for many people across the country. The sharp decline in oil prices destabilized the macro-economic situation of the country while heavy reliance on oil revenues led to depreciation of the South Sudanese Pound and resulted in very high inflation. This severely affected the purchasing power of the poor population, resulting in one of the highest concentrations of poverty in the world. 14. The state of poverty has worsened across regions. The northern states experienced high prevalence of poverty primarily because of the pre-independence civil war and subsequent lack of development. In 2009, poverty rates in the northern states were higher than in the southern part. But since 2009, with the ongoing civil war and the collapse of the economic order, poverty has spread southward as well. Between 2009 and 2016, income inequality declined across the country largely due to the consumption loss suffered by wealthier households. The Gini8 index has declined from 0.47 in 2009 to 0.41 in 2016 (The World Bank, 2018). However, the improvement in equality can be attributed to the consumption loss in wealthier regions rather than greater prosperity in the less-privileged. 15. Hunger is highly prevalent among South Sudanese households. Even though the number of households who “often� or “sometimes�9 go hungry has dropped and is relatively low in urban areas, the level of hunger is still higher than it was in 2013. The hunger prevalence scenario is much worse among rural population. About three quarters of rural households face hunger “sometimes� and 35 percent “often.�10 South Sudanese households adopt a number of strategies to cope with hunger. One-third of them resort to inferior options such as eating wild foods, while 14 percent reduce consumption and 13 percent go hungry altogether. Even households in the richest quintile (around 3 percent of households) report having suffered hunger more than 10 times in a month (South Sudan Poverty Profile, 2016). 6 This section is based on the South Sudan Poverty Profile (World Bank, 2016) and on the Republic of South Sudan Systematic Country Diagnostic (World Bank, 2015). 7The poverty level was estimated using the international US$ 2011 PPP 1.90 poverty line. 8 The Gini index is calculated from the area under the Lorenz curve, which plots the cumulative percentage of consumption expenditure against the cumulative percentage of the population, with perfect equality lying along the 45�degree line. 9 “Often� refers to people who have experienced hunger more than 10 times in 30 days. “Sometimes� refers to people who have experienced hunger 3-10 times in 30 days. 10 “In the past 30 days at least one HH member has gone hungry�, 2016. ‘Often’ refers to more than 10 times, ‘Sometimes’ referes to 3�10 times and ‘Rarely’ refers to 1�2 times. 4 16. Poverty is more prevalent among female-headed households. Poverty rates are slightly higher among households headed by a woman than those headed by a man (83 and 73 percent, respectively). Female headed households are more prevalent in rural than in urban areas where the male members of the household have left in search for economic opportunities or to join the armed groups. 17. Women and men, girls and boys, experience and respond differently to conflict. Women and girls are among the groups most vulnerable to conflict, and often most exposed to its indirect effects, such as poverty, malnutrition, diseases, and a lack of access to public services. Men and boys, on the other hand, represent most fatalities in conflict. They experience mental health consequences and issues related to accessing labor market opportunities and even reintegrating into society after having engaged in conflict (World Bank, 2018). Understanding the different needs and vulnerabilities of women and men in fragile settings provides insights on the impact of conflict on communities, households and individuals. 18. One of the most critical forms of vulnerabilities that threaten women’s wellbeing is gender- based violence (GBV). About 65 percent of women and girls in South Sudan have been the victim of physical and sexual violence at some point in their life with the majority of them experiencing it for the first time before 18 (UNICEF, 2018). In 33 percent of the cases, the violence was experienced during military raids from a non-partner while in 51 percent cases it was from an intimate partner. The economic downturn and loss of livelihoods caused by the conflict forced many women and girls to engage in sex for making a living. Even many female members of the armed groups report physical abuse or rape by fellow group members. The culture of violence and impunity that has emerged from decades of conflict continues to provoke violent behavior toward women inside and outside their home (UNICEF, 2018). 19. Conflict has serious negative effects on human development outcomes and these are gender-differentiated. The destruction of schools, loss of teachers to violence and intimidation, the recruitment of child soldiers, as well as forced displacements are some of the direct effects of conflict. Children also get pulled out of school to work and replace lost family income. Reduced school attendance might affect human capital, both at the individual and aggregated levels (Khan and Seltzer, 2016). Children exposed to the Rwandan genocide experienced a drop in completed schooling of almost half a year and were 15 percent less likely to complete 3rd or 4th grade (Akresh and de Walque, 2008). The effects are differentiated for boys and girls due to the risk of violence, abduction or even reallocation of family resources. In Pakistan, the exposure to high levels of terrorism stemming from the Taliban’s campaign reduced school enrollment among boys by 5.5 percent, compared to 10.5 percent for girls (Khan and Seltzer, 2016). 20. Conflict can provide opportunities for women to play an active role in rebuilding communities. Evidence has shown that in some countries, women have been able to renegotiate traditional gender roles and play a more active role in the economic and political spheres in the aftermath of conflict. Women can also contribute to reconstructing economies and communities (Buvinic et al., 2012; World Bank, 2018). Further, women’s participation in 5 negotiation and peace processes is highly correlated with the likelihood of agreements being reached and implemented (UN Women, 2015). 21. More than 4.5 million South Sudanese—a third of the population—have been forcibly displaced inside and outside their country. Almost 90 percent of the displaced are women and children. Displacement affects women and men differently because of existing gender disparities. In contexts where women have traditionally been excluded from land ownership and inheritance, displacement makes women vulnerable, dependent and at a greater risk of exclusion. 22. Conflict-induced displacement has also altered family structures and affected the livelihoods of South Sudanese households. With very limited or no access to livelihood or productive assets and isolation from their kinship network, women face even higher level of insecurity and marginalization. At the same time and depending on the nature of displacement, women may struggle to fulfill both traditional male and female roles within the family in the absence of male relatives. 23. Displacement further exacerbates the vulnerability of women, girls, and young men as many of them become victims of violence. Domestic violence tends to increase, as people experience trauma and as displaced males struggle with feeling of loss of control within the family. In fact, prolonged war has resulted in a culture of impunity and violence which is also responsible for high levels of domestic violence (UNICEF, 2018). Young men are another sub- group that is extremely vulnerable to violent acts of crime in rural and urban areas (Republic of South Sudan Systematic Country Diagnostic, 2015). At least 25 percent of the reported conflict-related cases of sexual violence involves children (UNICEF, 2018). IV. Status of Women and Girls/Men and Boys in South Sudan Human Endowments 24. Life expectancy in South Sudan is one of the lowest in the world and in the Sub-Saharan Africa region. Women’s life expectancy at birth is 58 years compared to 56 years for men (UNDP, 2017). Conflict is estimated to be one of the five most fatal causes for premature adult death in South Sudan, and it accounts for 8-times more deaths than it did 10 years ago (IHME, 2018). Conflict and violence, alongside the struggling health system, contribute to higher mortality rates among men (335 versus 309 per 1,000 people for women). Since the beginning of the conflict in 2013, there have been nearly 400,000 excess deaths in the country. According to a report by London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, violence is responsible for 50% of the lives lost (London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, 2018). 25. South Sudan still has a long way to go to reduce maternal mortality. The maternal mortality ratio—one of the highest in the world—stands at 789 per 100,000 live births, which is significantly higher than the Sub-Saharan Africa rate of 547 deaths per 100,000 live births (WHO 2015). This is partly explained by the fact that only 10 percent of births are attended by skilled health personnel and that 81 percent of the births take place at home (2010 SSHS). In addition to the persisting food insecurity, inadequate resources to support the critical health 6 services is a major obstacle for the country to address the maternal health issues. The prevalence of HIV is also significantly high among women. In 2016, of the population aged above 15, women constitute 59 percent of those living with HIV (WHO, 2016). 26. South Sudan performs worse than other Sub-Saharan African countries in most of the education indicators. As of 2015, the net enrolment rate for primary education is 36 percent and 28 percent for boys and girls, respectively. Secondary net enrollment rates are the lowest in the region at 6 percent for boys and 4 percent for girls. Similarly, only 18 percent of girls and 33 percent of boys complete primary education (UNESCO, 2019). The civil conflict makes improvement of education outcomes more difficult. Almost 31 percent of the schools have suffered attacks since 2013 and of all schools that were open since then, a quarter became non-functional by 2016. 27. Girls’ participation in education is hindered even more by the social expectation to perform domestic chores, help in cattle camps and due to the practice of child marriage . The high prevalence of crime and violent acts, particularly GBV, forces girls to restrict their movement beyond their neighborhood. As a result, a high percentage of children, especially girls, are forced to discontinue their primary education before acquiring basic numeracy and literacy skills. Poor academic facilities including lack of competency of the teachers, and instruction in mother tongue and English are partly to be blamed for compounding the problem. 7 Box 1: The Status of Human Capital in South Sudan (The World Bank, 2018) The Human Capital Index (HCI), developed as part of human capital project, offers a measurement of human capital that a child born today will potentially be able to achieve by age 18. It reflects the productivity of the next generation of workforce weighed against a benchmark of complete education and full health, signified by a value between zero and one. The HCI combines five indicators across education and health sectors: the probability of a child surviving to age five, proportion of not-stunted children, expected years of schooling a child could receive, quality of learning measured through harmonized test scores and the proportion of 15-year-olds that will survive to age 60 (adult survival rate). Globally, 56 percent of children born today will grow up to be half as productive as they could be. What is the status of human capital in South Sudan? Human capital index: The HCI score of South Sudan is 0.3. This means a child born today will be able to attain only 30 percent of the productivity she could have achieved if she had received complete education and full health. South Sudan scores second lowest among 157 countries with data. Probability of survival to age 5: 90 percent of South Sudanese children are expected to survive to age 5. The survival rate is slightly higher for girls than for boys. Expected years of school: A child in South Sudan who starts school from 4 is expected to receive 4.2 years of schooling by the time she turns 18. Boys are expected to receive about 1.4 years of more schooling than girls do. Harmonized test scores: Students in South Sudan score 336 on a scale where 300 represents minimum attainment and 625 represents advanced attainment. Learning-adjusted years of school: Adjusted for quality of learning, children in South Sudan receive only 2.3 years of school. Adult survival rate: 68 percent of 15-year-olds in South Sudan are expected to survive to age 60. Survival rates are slightly higher for girls (70 percent) than for boys (67 percent). Not stunted rate: 69 percent of children are not stunted. This means that the physical and cognitive development of 31 percent of children can be impaired for a generation. The probability of stunting is slightly higher for boys (71 percent) than for girls (67 percent). The table below summarizes state of human capital in South Sudan. The HCI could not be sex-disaggregated because data was not available for some of the indicators. Component Boys Girls Overall HCI - - 0.3 Survival to Age 5 0.9 0.91 0.9 Expected Years of School 4.9 3.5 4.2 Harmonized Test Scores - - 336 Learning-adjusted Years of School - - 2.3 Adult Survival Rate 0.67 0.7 0.68 Not Stunted Rate 0.67 0.71 0.69 8 Jobs and Access to Economic Opportunities 28. Labor force participation rates are similar for men and women (75 percent and 73 percent, respectively). Almost two-thirds of the population is employed in the agriculture sector, with no differences in the share of female and male employment (International Labour Organization, 2018). In urban areas, the female share of own-account workers is higher than that for men (73 percent for women vs. 62 percent for men). This pattern reflects their predominant role as unpaid family workers (The World Bank, 2018). Also, of the employed population, more women than men work in low-paying, low skill elementary occupations (55 percent for women vs. 24 percent for men) (The World Bank, 2016). Among the youth, labor force participation tends to be slightly higher for women than for men (63 percent vs. 58 percent) (ILOSTAT database, 2018). 29. In agriculture, the roles performed by women are different and at times more time- consuming than those performed by men. The type of engagement of women in agricultural works varies across regions and communities but in all cases, they perform these roles in addition to the domestic and care duties. Yet, women tend to be excluded from decision- making processes, especially from those related to use of income. There is a gap in the distribution of income as well. The proceeds from sale of surplus agricultural output in most cases are controlled by men despite women’s critical contribution in the production process (The World Bank, 2015). 30. Within the household, women bear a disproportionately heavy burden with very limited scope of child care and support. The proportion of women working as contributing family workers is 48 percent, compared to 17 percent of men. At the same time, they are less likely than men to be employed as wage and salaried workers (38 percent vs. 46 percent). 31. Few women can consider venturing outside the household to initiate their business. Women face considerable obstacles in registering their businesses and accessing finance. According to Women, Business and Law (2018), South Sudan does not have legislation protecting women from discrimination in accessing credit or facing sexual violence in education or in the workplace. Their scope of self-employment is also constrained by the lack of formal education and skill development opportunities. In case a marriage is dissolved, the law does not allow for valuation of nonmonetary contributions, making it unlikely for women to secure a fair division of assets (The World Bank, 2018). Moreover, the conventional social expectation is that women should take up “white collar� jobs rather than starting a venture of their own (The World Bank, 2015). 32. Furthermore, there is a disparity in terms of women’s right to inherit, acquire and own land or other property. The customary courts for determination of right to property limit women’s right to own land independently. While the Land Act (2009) acknowledges women’s equal right to inherit land, it also retains the existing right to land held by individuals or communities under the customary law. As a result, women remain significantly marginalized economically (International Alert, 2012). In the years following the conflict, a few tribal Chiefs are observed to be adapting to the changing social dynamics and granting land rights to returnee widows 9 and single women. These efforts make little difference to overcome the shortcomings of the customary law which traditionally favors men when it concerns granting land right (Mennen, 2012). This apparent gender bias in customary courts leaves women with very limited access to land or productive assets as well as to finance or other factors of production. This compounds their vulnerability, especially in the rural areas where livelihood opportunities for women are scarce beyond the household farm activities. Since women are not allowed access to property independent of their male relatives, in absence of husband or other male family members, they are left with no on-farm works (Republic of South Sudan Systematic Country Diagnostic, 2015). Similar customary laws are practiced across Africa, particularly in countries where the traditional rules of land ownership are still recognized (Untited Nations, 2018). Voice and Agency 33. The patriarchal norms prevailing in South Sudan--especially among the rural population-- lead to the acceptance of inequitable gender attitudes. According to a report by GWI, the perspectives of young women have started to change, and adolescent women are reporting to be less accepting of GBV. However, these women are being raised in a patriarchal society where inequitable norms and practices are deeply rooted. 34. Greater attention to reconciliation initiatives and inclusion of women and young people are all opportunities for constructive engagement. While there is a quota for women’s representation in the legislature, there are few female leaders as ministers, senior civil servants and governors. Women’s voice is largely excluded from the household through customary laws to party politics (International Alert, 2012). 35. The prevalence of early and forced marriage is an expression of biased gender norms. About 52 percent girls get married before reaching 18. In South Sudanese culture, the transition from a girl to a woman is marked by menarche, and hence forced early marriage is justified. This practice is also linked with poverty and ongoing conflict. Many families receive a bride price, especially when a young girl is married off to an old, wealthier groom (GWI, 2018). Traditionally, the brides’ families are paid ‘the bride price’ in the form of cattle or money. The custom of paying bride-price makes men think of their wives as commodities and thus the wives lost the rights to speak up for themselves (GWI, 2018). 36. Gender-based violence is prevalent in South Sudan. About 65 percent of women and girls have been victims of physical and sexual violence at some point in their life and most of them experience it for the first time before 18. At least 25 percent of the reported conflict-related cases of sexual violence involve children (UNICEF, 2018). 37. Domestic violence is more prevalent in a household with inequitable gender attitudes . According to the Global Women’s Institute (GWI, 2018), gender norms that consolidate all household power with the husband also may contribute to domestic tensions that can trigger incidents of physical violence. About 79 percent of South Sudanese women think that a husband is justified in beating his wife for reasons that range from burning the food to 10 neglecting their children 11 (The World Bank, 2019). The majority of male respondents (77 percent in Rumberk), and female respondents (from 73 percent in Juba City to 93 percent in Rumbek), agree that violence was justified in at least one of the following circumstances: if a woman goes out without telling her husband, neglects the children, argues with her husband or refuses to have sex. V. Gender Equality in Social Protection Programs 38. Gender equality has been widely accepted as an essential component of effective development. Gender equality has progressively taken centre stage in the international development community over the past two decades (The World Bank, 2014). The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) underscore gender equality and women’s empowerment as an important development objective, in and of itself (Goal 5), and highlight the relevance of gender equality to achieving a wide range of objectives related to sustainable development. Box 2: A Note on Gender Equality and Empowerment The concept of gender equality refers to equality of sexes in terms of access to participation in economic opportunities, decision making as well as the condition of valuing different behavior, action and needs equally, regardless of gender. The concept of empowerment, however, is defined in a variety of ways. Different indicators can be considered for measuring empowerment in different socio-economic contexts. Empowerment can be defined as “the process by which those who have been denied the right to make strategic life choices acquire such skills� (Kabeer, 1999). Alkire (2005) defines empowerment as a sub-set of agency, which is what an individual can freely pursue and consider important for well-being. Control over personal decision, power to household decision making, domain-specific autonomy, power to change aspects of individual’s own and communal life are some of the indicators that can guide measurement of empowerment (Alkire & Ibrahim, 2007). Alsop and Heinsohn (2005) described individuals and groups as empowered when “they possess the capacity to make effective choices: that is, to translate these choices into desired actions and outcomes�. The World Development Report (WDR) of 2012 took a broader approach. The notion of agency, according to the WDR, should include control over resources, decision-making, freedom of movement, freedom from the risk of violence and a voice and influence in collective decision-making processes. 39. First-generation social protection programs mainly focused on economically vulnerable households. The focus on such programs was one of poverty reduction by increasing household income and consumption. While the assumption was gender neutrality, poorly designed programs often led to widening of existing gender inequalities in society (Luttrell and Moser, 2004). Labor-intensive workfare projects with emphasis on the formal sector were 11Percentage of women ages 15-49 who believe a husband/partner is justified in hitting or beating his wife/partner for any of the following five reasons: argues with him; refuses to have sex; burns the food; goes out without telling him; or when she neglects the children. 11 more favorable for men than women. Holmes and Jones (2013) also argue that interventions have tended to be more preoccupied with addressing the condition of poor women (i.e. their material circumstances), than their position (i.e. place and power within the home and society) — without which poverty cannot be addressed in a sustainable manner. 40. The idea, objective and scope of social protection programs have evolved and broadened over the past years. A broad set of social protection and poverty reduction interventions are now being utilized to address risk and vulnerabilities generating from widespread gender inequality. There is a large body of evidence from Africa and other developing regions which suggests that households use cash and in-kind transfers to benefit children, empower women, and for living better lives. Box 3: Gender in The World Bank Social Protection and Labor Strategy The Social Protection and Labor Strategy (SPL) of the World Bank for 2012-22 aims to support individuals and societies to overcome risk and volatility by making progress on three key fronts: resilience, equity and opportunity. Better economic opportunity is key to achieving gender equality and women empowerment. The promotion of opportunity is also strongly integrated with achievement of resilience and equity. Therefore, programs like conditional cash transfers, that create economic opportunity for women also promote gender equality by investing in women’s investment in human capital. Creating inclusive social protection systems can lead to economic empowerment for women. The SPL strategy highlights the importance of making social protection programs inclusive for women. Women face numerous obstacles accessing education and labor market opportunities. This means that they have less capacity to cope in the event of a shock. Further, impacts of shocks on women and men are almost often different. The SPL strategy suggests safety net programs are made inclusive by considering the vulnerability faced by women. This can be achieved through south- south learning and by creating cost-effective, tailored outreach efforts. The strategy also suggests that social norms about gender-appropriate behavior, as well as gender- specific responsibilities relating to household and market work are considered in designing public workfare programs. These measures are expected to enable more women to access public works and similar economic opportunities. While most developing countries struggle to find a balance between coverage and fiscal resources required for social protection programs, the SPL strategy suggests vulnerability of women should be factored in while deepening coverage of social insurance. Because of their limited access to formal employment as well as pension systems and better life expectancy, they should receive adequate coverage from the social protection systems. Source: The World Bank Social 2012-2022 Protection and Labor Strategy 41. Interventions that focus on reducing gender-related vulnerabilities and promoting women’s empowerment have a number of benefits. Research on the impact of cash transfers shows positive effects on school enrolment, attendance, completion and transition for girls in many Latin American and African countries (Gaia, 2015). Evidence on the impact of social protection on HIV/AIDS prevention has also shown that women and girls who receive cash transfers are less likely to resort to harmful coping strategies like having sex with older partners; or 12 having sex in exchange for food, shelter, transport or money (Gaia, 2015). Social protection also strengthens these prevention gains by increasing girls’ school enrollment and attendance rates as well as their use of critical health and counselling services. 42. Impact evaluations of both conditional and unconditional cash transfers have confirmed in some contexts that giving the transfer to women translates into greater household spending on children’s needs (The World Bank, 2014). Cash transfers can support investments in productive assets even if they were not designed for this purpose and do not include explicit incentives to invest. Women and female heads of household were also found to invest in livestock and agricultural tools as much as or more than men. They also invest in different types of assets. However, the channels through which these impacts occur are complex and depend on gender norms prevalent in each society. 43. The Social Protection and Jobs Follow-Up Note (FUN) to the implementation of the WBG Gender Strategy builds on existing achievements but also goes deeper to align with the vision of the strategy. It lays out three principles: Maintain achievements on activities that have proven to yield successful results; extend good practices to new settings where they will be transformational towards closing gender inequalities; and go deeper by innovating and testing new project design features and delivery modes in projects to lift constraints to gender equality. Applying this vision in the context of South Sudan highlights the need to work on first generation problems of adequate coverage of female beneficiaries as well as going deeper on specific topics such as GBV. 44. Gender-sensitive social protection interventions can play a transformative role in conflict- affected countries and in response to the heightened risk of GBV. Gaia (2015) argues that in situations of domestic violence, women and girls often stay because of economic dependence on their abusers and such dependence compromises their safety, health, well-being and personal agency. Cash transfers targeting female beneficiaries can alleviate households’ budgetary constraints, and may reduce domestic violence. Moreover, integrated social protection programmes that detect situations of vulnerability and abuse within the household can connect girls and their parents to benefits and services aimed at preventing and responding to violence and abuse, parenting support and education. However, evidence has also shown that activities that are likely to shift intra-household power dynamics can also impact the risk of experiencing domestic violence (Heise, 2011; Hjort and Villanger, 2011). Thus, it is important to consider design features that can mitigate the potential adverse impacts for women, including the engagement of men and communities in program activities. VI. Social Protection in South Sudan and the Integration of Gender Equality in the World Bank’s Portfolio 45. The social protection system in South Sudan takes the form of non-contributory safety net support and it is almost exclusively financed by donors as humanitarian assistance. With the decline in oil production and collapse of agriculture, South Sudan had to resort to international aid to sustain its already-struggling social safety net programs. The international community in the immediate aftermath of the conflict was keen to prioritise humanitarian assistance 13 activities. However, developing a robust safety net system requires significant investment, particularly in a country that suffered decades of conflict and socio-economic decline. In the current context, the need for food assistance programs cannot be undermined, especially with the looming fear of famine and virtually no agricultural activity in most parts of the country. In these situations, women and children are the most vulnerable. Most of them face food insecurity either due to loss of their subsistence farm activities or loss of the earning member of the family. Men are also exposed to considerable risks. They are more likely than women to be victims of violent crime, being recruited into armed groups, with serious implications for the sustainability of lasting peace in the country. As previously mentioned, GBV is also common in the country and in the absence of adequate safety net measures, these women, girls, and young men are on the verge of even graver distress. Therefore, it is imperative that the government makes adequate efforts for promoting gender equality and preventing GBV when developing poverty reduction interventions. 46. Amid conflicts, the Government of South Sudan struggled to provide basic safety net services for its citizens. A greater share of safety net resources is increasingly provided by external partners and the country is nowadays one of the largest recipients of humanitarian aid (11.3 percent of GDP) (Beegle et al., 2018). Spending on safety nets in 2012 was estimated at US$345 million, US$342 million of which was provided by the World Food Programme (WFP) (The World Bank, 2015). However, like other fragile countries, South Sudan often fails to receive the aid that had been committed (The World Bank, 2015). In 2018, US$ 1.19 billion was received against the requirement of US$ 1.72 billion (United Nations, 2019). Because of its dire economic state, it is unlikely that the country would be able to overcome its financial constraints in the short run. In addition to addressing poverty and vulnerability, the provision of social safety nets in fragile settings goes a long way in securing people’s trust and demonstrating state-capacity. Safety net programs can play an important role in fostering social cohesion as well (GIZ, 2012). Therefore, despite all the hindrances, safety net programs can help the country address some of the pressing social and economic challenges. 47. Food transfer programs account for approximately 98 percent of total safety nets expenditures in South Sudan. Nearly 70 percent of beneficiaries are being reached through emergency food distribution, 14 percent through school feeding programs; and a further 15 percent through cash for work and food for work interventions (Alternative Social Safety Nets in South Sudan, 2015). While the benefits of food-based programs cannot be questioned in such fragile economic situation, it is also most often criticized for being inefficient and prone to leakage (Grosh, Ninno, Tesliuc, & Ouerghi, 2008). Besides, productive safety nets can be effective in tackling economic vulnerability in medium and long term. Public works, conditional or unconditional cash transfer programs, and skill development interventions can reactivate the economic activities in rural areas by infusing critical productive assets. 48. Safety net interventions continue to be fragmented and do not exist at a significant scale or as longer-term interventions. In the cash transfer sector alone for humanitarian aid in 2018, there were 58 actors engaged in 77 different projects. There are significant challenges to deepening and widening safety nets beyond the existing humanitarian assistance activities. The conflict has left infrastructure as well as capacity of the government in dire condition. The 14 government possesses very limited capacity to implement an effective safety net program at national level, thus leading the international aid providers to rely on UN agencies, international NGOs and humanitarian organizations for program implementation. While this might help overcome the logistical problem in the short term, the engagement of government agencies in safety net programs is crucial for long term capacity building and sustainability of the projects. Another major challenge in implementation is the identification of beneficiaries for social safety net programs as many of them have been displaced from their original location. There are also concerns about quality of implementation due to lack of robust monitoring and evaluation system. Government Policies, Institutions and Programs 49. In 2009, the Government of South Sudan in its National Security Policy set a goal to have universal social welfare programs by as early as 2012. This includes pensions, unemployment benefits, and maternity allowance, among others. The maternity benefit was expected to cover pregnant women’s medical expenditure and compensate for any subsequent income loss caused by the pregnancy. Due to the protracted conflict, few of these have been implemented so far. 50. The Government, as laid out in the South Sudan Development Plan SSDP, envisions an inclusive safety net system and to ‘work progressively to reduce risk, vulnerability, poverty, and economic and social exclusion throughout South Sudan’ (SSDP 2011). The plan proposes the creation of a Social Protection Core Team under the leadership of the Ministry of Gender, Child, Social Welfare, with representation from other government institutions and development partners, including the World Bank, World Food Programme (WFP), United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Save the Children, and the Department for International Development (DFID). The plan also identified five intervention areas to achieve its vision: the development of safety net systems, an early warning system and targeted programs for children, people at risk including widows and people in need of special care. 51. The draft National Disability and Inclusion Policy acknowledges the higher level of vulnerability experienced by women with disability and recommends a safety net program for them (South Sudan National Disability and Inclusion Policy, 2013). The draft National Social Protection Policy Framework produced by the Ministry of Gender, Child, Social Welfare, Humanitarian, and Disaster Management sets out its vision as to ‘respond to and address the multiple vulnerabilities faced by South Sudanese citizens, with a particular focus on the poorest and most excluded sectors’ (GoSS 2014). While the commitment is there, there is a long way to translate all these plans into actions through smart design and implementation of social safety net and poverty reduction projects. Review of the World Bank’s Portfolio in South Sudan 15 52. The portfolio review is based on 14 World Bank funded projects, approved between FY2008 and FY2019 (Table 1). These operations were designed by several different sectors: Agriculture, Social Protection and Jobs, Health, Transport, and Social, Urban, Rural and Resilience. Nine of the 14 World Bank projects reviewed for the study included activities focused on improving access to economic opportunities for the poor and vulnerable. The development objectives of these projects include the enhancement of human capital, institutional capacity building and infrastructure development. The health sector projects focus on improving access to primary health care (PHC) services for the vulnerable population. Table 1: Distribution of projects by type of intervention and sector Agriculture Social Health Transport Urban Protection Development Total Projects 5 1 5 2 1 Public works 0 1 0 0 0 Cash transfer 0 1 0 0 0 Food or in-kind 4 0 0 0 0 support Other 1 0 5 2 1 (Institutional capacity building, construction etc.) This section draws findings from these 14 projects, illustrating how gender equality has been integrated into the design and implementation of their operations. The 14 projects revealed six key findings: Key Finding 1: Project design is rarely informed by a gender analysis 53. The design of social protection and economic opportunities programs in South Sudan rarely used rigorous gender assessments. A number of reasons can account for that. First, there is not enough data and rigorous evidence base to rely on. This is partly explained by protracted nature of the crisis in South. Second, since the peace agreement of 2005, the vast majority of projects were focused on rebuilding the country (mostly through infrastructure projects) and ensuring that people did not suffer from hunger and starvation. While the situation showed some improvement after independence, gender equality remained less of a government priority as reintegration and rebuilding continued to take the centre stage. 54. Some of the projects, however, factored in vulnerabilities of women and tailored interventions at a later stage. The Emergency Food and Nutrition Security Project is cognizant of the different roles played by men and women in agriculture and encourages female participation in the project accordingly. The design of the Safety Net and Skills Development Program (SNSDP) project considered the socio-economic gaps between men and women. The health sector projects (South Sudan MDTF HIV/AIDS Project and South Sudan Health Rapid Results Project) made conscious efforts to address the challenges faced by poor and vulnerable women in accessing health care services. For example, the provision 16 of maternal health care and mental and psycho-social support for victims of GBV were prioritized under the project. Key Finding 2: Most projects aim to target female beneficiaries 55. Most projects (except for those in the transport sector) targeted women as beneficiaries. However, few of them used direct targeting methods to ensure greater uptake by women. The Gender Support and Development Project targeted women while the Safety Net and Skill Development Project reserved quotas for female beneficiaries. Direct targeting made the project accessible to poor and vulnerable women. Labor intensive works and skill development components were also favorable for women. The project provided training for the skills more suitable for women to participate in income generating activities. 56. The vast majority of projects used community-based targeting as this process is perceived to be transparent and conscious of the local socio-economic context. In enhancing capacity for service delivery, the health sector projects prioritized maternal health care services or mental and psychosocial support to victims of sexual and gender-based violence, which proved to be more beneficial for women. The South Sudan Health Rapid Results Project prioritized maternal health care services, mental and psychosocial support to victims of sexual and gender-based violence as these services were considered critical for welfare of poor and vulnerable women. Key Finding 3: Outreach activities could be more effective in improving both men and women’s awareness about the safety net programs 57. More than half of the reviewed projects did not include targeted measures to make the projects more accessible for women. Few outreach activities were conducted to improve women’s awareness of the intervention, particularly in rural areas where entrenched social norms oftentimes curtail female participation in productive activities. Information campaigns can significantly improve women’s utilization of Grievance Redress Mechanisms (GRM) and reduce the risk of domestic violence stemming from changing intra-household dynamics by engaging men in program activities targeting female beneficiaries. Exceptions to this include the Safety Net and Skill development Project, the South Sudan Health Rapid Results Project, the South Sudan Rapid Results Project, the South Sudan Health Rapid Results Project and South Sudan Provision of Essential Health Services. For example, The South Sudan Health Rapid Results Project recorded higher uptake of primary health care services due to the “Dry- Season Campaign� carried out across communities. Key Finding 4: Most of the projects lacked innovation to make conditionalities favorable for women 58. Income-support projects feature cash for work programs which in some cases are not equally accessible due to their labor-intensive nature. The South Sudan Emergency Food Crisis Response Project, which offered short term employment through public works, later included a direct food transfer to those who could not take part in public works. The transport 17 and urban development projects were designed to improve people’s mobility and thus spur economic activities rather than to create short-term employment for the poor. As expected, the health sector projects prioritized human development instead of short-term income. Though there is plenty of evidence around the impact of CCTs in health across countries, the capacity constraints of implementation agencies in South Sudan can be a significant barrier to such effort. Key Finding 5: Half of the projects had a Grievance Redress Mechanism (GRM) in place 59. Seven out of the 14 projects had grievance redress mechanism for the project beneficiaries. These mechanisms were established primarily to improve transparency and quality of project implementation including beneficiary targeting, project selection and public work implementation. In most cases, traditional community bodies were chosen as the first point for reporting. In some of the projects (Local Governance and service Delivery Project, South Sudan Health Rapid Results Project and Safety Net and Skills Development Project) these community-level grievance management units are required to maintain female representation which could encourage women’s utilization of the GRM. Mobile or internet- based grievance reporting could be also be considered to improve women’s access to GRM. However, except for the Safety Net and Skills Development Project, no other project established a system to address complaints related to GBV. Key Finding 6: Most of the projects reported sex-disaggregated information, but none keeps track of intra-household dynamics 60. Sex-disaggregated data is critical in understanding a project’s impact on the inequality and vulnerability that women face within the household. In projects with multiple interventions, a comparison could help identify the more efficient ways to address women’s socio-economic challenges. Table 2: Projects and Information Collected Agriculture Transport Social Health Urban Protection development Projects 5 2 1 5 1 reviewed Projects with 4 2 1 0 1 sex- disaggregated PDOs Projects with 1 0 0 5 0 gender specific PDOs Note: PDO stands for Project Development Objective 18 Box 3: Projects financed by external partners The School Feeding Program (World Food Program): The United Nation’s World Food program encourages boys and girls in South Sudan to attend school by providing meals at school. In addition to ensuring education, the intervention addresses short-term hunger, malnutrition and cognitive development of children. WFP also supports girls’ attendance to school through cash or rations. This incentive is particularly effective in incentivising families to send their daughters to schools instead of engaging them in household chores. As a result of the intervention, enrolment and attendance rate for girls improved from 30 percent to 86 percent in the program areas (World Food Program, 2015). Nutrition support to pregnant and lactating mothers: In partnership with UNICEF, WFP provides nutritious food as well as nutrition counselling to pregnant women and children aged between 6 and 11 months. Nutrition Volunteers were trained and mobilized as part of outreach initiatives. This has helped address severe short-term mal-nutrition problem particularly prevalent among internally displaced women. In some cases, programs last only for a few months which leaves the vulnerable women exposed to food insecurity (World Food program, 2018). Food Assistance for Asset (FFA): The World Food Program provides food assistance to households to improve their resilience and reduce dependence on humanitarian assistance. Households receive food or cash as they build assets by restoring productivity of arable land and constructing community-level infrastructures. While supporting productive activities and building infrastructure is likely to help women cope vulnerability and food insecurity, the project does not include any intervention to promote female empowerment or their participation in productive activities (reliefweb, 2018). UNICEF’s Nutrition Program: In addition to treating children affected by severe acute malnutrition, UNICEF extends nutrition support and counselling to lactating and pregnant women. It also provides psychosocial services to children and women who have suffered GBV. The counselling and mental support services are primarily targeted at the children and women who are most vulnerable to the violent activities. These interventions, complementary to the food-based humanitarian assistance, offer critical support women and children-at-risk (UNICEF, 2019) VII. Recommendations and Good Practices 61. This section draws lessons from the South Sudan portfolio review and from various operations implemented in other fragile and conflict affected countries. It identifies entry points in the project cycle where teams can apply good practices to shape interventions seeking to respond to the vulnerabilities that are specific to women and girls/men and boys. Rigorous evidence from impact evaluations is included to support some of the recommendations. This section is organized around the project cycle, starting with the design and concluding with the evaluation. Annex 4 provides a list of resources to help task teams to put concrete recommendations into practice. 19 62. Oftentimes project teams develop strategies to collect the information needed to design interventions that respond to the needs of women and girls, and to close prevailing gender gaps. Building this capacity is crucial in fragile settings to move from crisis response to risk management. A systematic use of existing good practices would increase the scope and impact of operations in fragile contexts. By closing gender gaps and promoting female empowerment, World Bank operations can better contribute to the twin goals of eliminating extreme poverty and fostering shared prosperity. VII.1. Gender Equality in Project Design 63. In the last few years, some of the projects started explicitly targeting female beneficiaries and making gender equality a part of the Project Development Objectives (PDOs). The SNSDP, as mentioned earlier took into consideration the constraints for women’s economic participation and incorporated design and implementation features accordingly. This is a good practice of how simple design features can go a long way to encourage female participation at different stages of the project cycle, not only for South Sudan, but also for countries with similar challenges or in low-income settings. Good practice 1: Conducting assessments to identify gender gaps 64. Gender assessments are important tools during project preparation. Gender assessments enable project teams to better understand the risks and vulnerabilities faced by women and girls/men and boys in their projects and they are often needed to identify gender gaps in access to opportunities. They are particularly relevant in fragile contexts—like South Sudan— as they unveil gender gaps that require an understanding of the complex dynamics in the country. They can also support the argument for designing interventions that address the needs of women and men and can be used to navigate the dialogue with the Government. Funding and dedicated resources for gender assessments are crucial to amplify the dialogue on gender equality. A starting point is the use of existing evidence. Quality data might not be readily available, but project design can benefit from lessons learned from past projects, reviewing reports by local NGOs and donors. Qualitative data emerging focus group discussions with communities are also relevant sources of information for project design. 65. This review identified one good practice in this area. The design of the various subcomponents under the Emergency Safety Net Project (Jigisemejiri) in Mali conducted a gender assessment that helped identify income generating activities that were more likely to be taken up by poor women. This assessment helped the team ensured that project resources would have greater impact in improving women’s access to economic opportunities. Based on the constraints and specific needs identified through the assessment, the team also developed a detailed gender action plan to guide the design and implementation process. Good practice 2: Reflecting gender outcomes in Project Development Objectives (PDOs) 66. Including gender equality outcomes in the PDO can make a big difference for implementation and monitoring. The integration of explicit gender outcomes (e.g. increased 20 female participation, reduced female school dropout, reduced GBV in project areas) in the Project Development Objectives (PDOs) incentivizes governments and other implementing agencies to focus on differences in access, needs and opportunities between women and men during the implementation phase, and subsequently reporting sex-disaggregated information (or gender-specific indicators). 67. This review identified two good practices in this area. The PDO of the Economic Opportunities for Jordanians and Syrian Refugees P4R encouraged female participation in income generating activities. This led to reforms in the Home-Based Business (HBB) regulations, making it easier for women to start home based businesses. Since this was one of the indicators linked to fund disbursement, the Government of Jordan put extra emphasis in making sure reforms were executed. The project also succeeded in starting a dialogue around the low rates of female participation in the labor market and potential strategies to address underlying constraints. The Safety Net and Skills Development Project in South Sudan states that at least 30 percent of the project beneficiaries must be women. To achieve this goal, the public works component took a participatory and gender sensitive approach that took into account the needs of women and ensured that a minimum of 30 percent of female beneficiaries are able to participate in the activities. Public works activities have been undertaken in close proximity to villages and appropriately fitting to South Sudanese women. Women were also involved in the decision-making processes, including the selection of the types of public works activities. 68. The Emergency Youth and Skills Development Project (PEJEDEC) in Cote d’Ivoire, consisted of a LIPW program focused on road maintenance that randomly targeted young men and women between 18 and 30 years of age. The program imposed a quota of 30 percent female participation, which led to a reduction in the gender gap in employment and earning explained by stronger impacts on women relative to their men (Bertrand et al., 2017). Good practice 3: Using stand-alone components 69. In fragile and conflict-affected countries with large gender gaps, teams might explore the possibility of supporting gender equality through stand-alone components. One such example is the Women's Economic Empowerment Rural Development Project in Afghanistan which targets poor rural women with the objective of empowering them socially and economically. The project facilitates community mobilization, trains women in income generating activities and supports female-owned small enterprises by providing access to microfinance. 70. Unconditional cash transfers have the potential to empower women. In Bangladesh, findings from both short- and long-term evaluations of an unconditional cash transfer program targeting poor women with children under 2 years of age showed that the transfer had a positive effect on women’s control over productive resources, captured by control over money (Roy et al. 2017). 21 Good practice 4: Quotas and activities for female workers in labor intensive public works 71. Quotas can be used to ensure that implementing agencies make active efforts to target female beneficiaries and design programs that appeal to women. Labor intensive public work programs scheduled when it is convenient for women to work provide a concrete example of adjusting program activities to contribute to gender equality. The results of the evaluation of the labor intensive public works in Cote d’Ivoire, suggest that the weekly average number of hours worked increased by 8 hours for women versus 1 hour for men 4 to 5 months into the intervention (Bertrand et al., 2017). These are reflected in earnings where average earnings increases were 37,000 FCFA and 13,000 (approximately $74 and $26) for women and men, respectively. These results persisted 12 to 15 months post-intervention. Most of these earnings originated from non-wage agricultural income, suggesting that the program induced self-employment. Further analysis reveals that the principal beneficiaries of the intervention were women, who were the most vulnerable and had earnings much lower than the national minimum wage prior to the intervention. 72. Public works programs with a heavy manual labor component put women at a disadvantage, as men and women may have different physical capacities at different stages in the life cycle (Jackson and Palmer-Jones, 1998). This can be addressed by designing work that is suitable for both men and women, including ‘lighter’ activities such as material preparation and planting trees. The Emergency Safety Net Projects (Jigisemejiri) in Mali made efforts to ensure that the women could equally participate in labor intensive work programs implemented under the project. In particular, the operations manual sets out clear guidance about undertaking works that are suitable for women and are conveniently located from their households. Good practice 5: Addressing constraints to female participation and managing risks 73. Women face the dual responsibility of performing household chores and income generating activities in South Sudan. It is thus important for projects to explore ways in which participation can be made convenient for female beneficiaries. These could include providing safe community-based childcare facilities, flexible working hours, assigning women to work close to their residence so as to minimize the risk of sexual violence, and facilitating transport arrangements. 74. Among the projects analyzed for this review, three stand out as notable examples for addressing constraints to female participation and for managing risks of GBV. The public works component in the Productive Safety Net Program in Ethiopia targeted poor female- headed households in rural areas. It incorporated design elements which helped increase female participation, including community day care facilities, flexible working hours and direct support during pregnancy. In Burkina Faso, the Youth Employment and Skills Development Project, which supports young people with temporary work opportunities, developed a low- cost model of mobile childcare for female beneficiaries of the labor-intensive public works component. The model encourages women’s participation in project activities by following the women as they move from worksite to worksite. It also allows mothers to nurse their 22 babies and provide meaningful care and stimulation for the children. Following a major crack- down on militancy in FATA, around 340,000 families became temporarily displaced. To facilitate repatriation of the displaced population, the Government of Pakistan, along with the World Bank, took up the FATA Temporarily Displaced Persons Emergency Recovery Project and provided support to the families with unconditional cash grants and child health services. The project recognized the restrictions imposed on female movements due to security situations, which disrupted the community health workers regular duties. Similarly, community midwives have faced multiple issues leading to them becoming almost non- functional. This issue was resolved through dialogue and subsequent partnership with the Pakistani Military. Good practice 6: Involving external partners in the design and implementation process 75. The design process of a project can benefit greatly from consultation with local players and development partners who have knowledge of the local context. For the Economic Opportunities for Jordanians and Syrian Refugees P4R, the World Bank collaborated with the UK Department for International Development (DFID), International Labour Organization (ILO), United States Agency for International Development (USAID), UNHCR and the European Union (EU), and NGOs to learn about the refugee situation, issues related to female participation in the labor market, and export potential of Jordanian products to different countries. Since the World Bank did not have solid ground presence in Jordan prior to this project, relying on the information and knowledge base helped a great deal in project design. Following consultations, the project team decided to design one of its core reform components around facilitating and increasing number of Home-Based Businesses run by female beneficiaries. In South Sudan, the World Bank has also partnered with WFP, UNICEF, UNHCR in many of its projects, and benefited from the local knowledge of these partners for the design and implementation of programs. Good practice 7: Leveraging appropriate transfer modalities 76. Due to the high level of vulnerability in terms of hunger and malnutrition, most of South Sudan’s safety net and poverty reduction programs are food-based. This is explained by the level of vulnerability in terms of hunger and malnutrition. However, food-based safety nets are more prone to leakage and hence many countries are gradually moving to cash-based safety net from food-based ones. Some of these transfer programs specifically target women and add conditionalities targeted to better health, education and empowerment outcomes. It has been found that when women receive the transfer, consumption decisions are often more pro-children (The World Bank, 2014). Perova (2010) found that Peru’s Juntos had a negative and significant impact on the prevalence of physical violence and emotional violence. This decrease is attributed to the increase in women’s discretionary income as a result of the program. Hidrobo et al. (2012) similarly found that the World Food Programme’s Food, Cash, and Voucher interventions significantly decreased controlling behaviours and physical and sexual violence. 23 77. The use of electronic payment systems has been gaining much consideration as a way to increase financial inclusion and women empowerment, given their discretionary nature. Aker et al., (2016) investigated the impact of unconditional cash transfers targeting women. The intervention consisted of three treatment arms (i) cash transfers, (ii) a mobile cash transfer, and (iii) electronic transfers (m-transfer) among female recipients in Niger. While the m-transfer did not reduce leakage, results highlight several advantages attached to the program. Recipients of the m-transfer were able to save up to 20 hours (in terms of travel time and wait-time) and had more flexibility in which day to go get their transfers relative to their counterparts who received cash transfers. This “extra� time translated into a higher probability of growing marginal crops by 7-13 percentage points. Furthermore, the reception of the electronic transfer was discreet and provided more bargaining power to women on how to use these transfers compared to cash transfer recipients. The cost of implementing the m-transfer program was higher by about $7.7 per recipient compared to the traditional cash transfers but falls to only $6.78 when the cost of phone purchase is excluded. Given the proliferation of cell phones in rural areas in Sub-Saharan Africa, electronic transfer payment may be an alternative cost-effective way of social protection services that distribute transfers. VII.2. Targeting and Outreach Activities Good practice 8: Inclusive approach to dialogue 78. Information campaigns must be easy to understand and provide information about the objectives of the project and gender-related provisions. In societies with entrenched social norms and strong gender biases like South Sudan, it is be important for project teams to discuss women participation with male members of the community to build consensus around the benefits increasing female participation in programs aimed at providing economic opportunities. 79. This review identified multiple examples of projects that used an inclusive approach to dialogue. In Bangladesh, the NGO BRAC utilized this strategy successfully in their poverty reduction programs. Lesotho’s cash transfer program ensured that both men and women understood how the household entitlement was calculated, and, in the few cases where men demand a share of the cash, they were only able to receive the allocation for one person (Slater and Mphale, 2008). In Kenya, understanding the difference between multiple savings products was crucial for women to opt for low return individual accounts rather than highly subsidized joint accounts with their husbands. This type of savings accounts refrained them from withdrawing their money for uses other than their business, which allowed them to achieve higher savings rate and business expansion relative to men (O’Sullivan, 2017). The activities of the Citizen Charter Afghanistan Project include training male community elders to facilitate and accommodate women’s participation in the project. Another example would be the FATA Temporarily Displaced Persons Emergency Recovery Project in Pakistan which carried out a campaign strategically targeting male tribal elders to inform them about the benefits associated with female participation in the project. Good practice 9: Preventing and raising awareness about GBV risk 24 80. Most of the projects in South Sudan have not been able to utilize outreach activities to manage risks of GBV. This is a missed opportunity. Women are particularly vulnerable in fragile and conflict affected contexts; therefore, it is crucial that project teams consider how to manage risks posted by sexual violence and gender-based violence. While recognition of these risks in World Bank operations has increased in recent years, it is important to highlight that this might not be the case for governments, and that this is a gap that needs to be bridged. 81. Engaging men and community members can go a long way in breaking social stereotypes and empowering women. In Burundi, adding a discussion series for men and women to the Village and Saving Loan Associations led to improved attitudes regarding violence against women, increased female participation in household decision making, couples, negotiation skills, and a small reduction in domestic violence (Iyengar and Ferrari, 2011). 82. Properly designed interventions have the potential to tackle specific issues faced by men and prevent gender-based violence. Men and young boys are often victims of violent crime in South Sudan. In Liberia, impact evaluation evidence suggests that $200 cash grants combined with Cognitive Behavioral Therapy reduced men’s participation in violence and crime for at least a year (Blattman et al., 2016). In another program in Liberia, agricultural training, capital inputs, and counselling also steered young men away from crime and violence (Blattman and Annan, 2016). 83. Among the projects analyzed for this review, one stands out as notable example for managing the risk of GBV. The Bandebereho Project in Rwanda was aimed to promote equitable gender relations among couples and enhance the decision-making power of women through a gender- transformative male engagement approach (Doyle et al., 2018)12. The program was implemented by the Rwanda Men’s Resource Center as part of MenCare+, a four-country initiative led by Rutgers and Promundo and funded by the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Men met weekly with the same peer groups, from their own communities, over a period of 4- 5 months; women joined their partners for approximately half of the sessions. The sessions provided the opportunity, in some cases for the first time, for men and women to talk about their expectations and fears as they become parents, to discuss important topics like pregnancy, contraception, and violence, as well as to learn and improve their relationship with their partners, including communication, conflict resolution, and sharing caregiving responsibilities.13 These interventions led to significant improvements in multiple outcomes, including women's experience of physical and sexual IPV, women’s antenatal control attendance, the use of modern contraception, and partner support during pregnancy. Moreover, the project demonstrated a shift in power dynamics as evidenced by improvements in women’s decision-making within the household and a more egalitarian division of labor. 12 Doyle K, Levtov RG, Barker G, Bastian GG, Bingenheimer JB, et al. (2018) Gender-transformative Bandebereho couples’ intervention to promote male engagement in reproductive and maternal health and violence prevention in Rwanda: Findings from a randomized controlled trial. PLOS ONE 13(4): e0192756. 13 http://rwamrec.org/spip.php?article225 25 84. Furthermore, in Cote d’Ivoire, men who participated in a preventive program on GBV reported a significant decrease in their intention to be violent against their partners. They also reported that they were more prone to acting more equitably and having self-control toward their partners, as well as having less attitude of sexual violence. These findings suggest that engaging men through gender transformative behavior in an fragile and conflict affected setting can constitute a viable way to reduce GBV/ IPV (Hossain et al., 2014). Box 4: Resources for operational teams • The report Working together to prevent sexual exploitation and abuse: Recommendations for World Bank investment projects includes recommendations by the Global Gender-Based Violence Task Force to strengthen the World Bank’s capacity to identify, mitigate and prevent risk of sexual exploitation and abuse in the projects it supports. • The GBV Risk Assessment and Mitigation Folder on the GBV thematic group webpage is a repository of resources useful for project teams to prevention and respond to the risk of GBV in their operations. It includes examples of Codes of Conducts, Terms of Reference, and a roster of consultants with expertise in this area. • The Violence Against Women and Girls Resource Guide provides basic information on the characteristics and consequences of violence against women and girls (VAWG), including the operational implications that this phenomenon can have in several priority sectors of the WBG. It also offers guidance on how to integrate VAWG prevention and provide quality services to violence survivors across a range of development projects. Lastly, it recommends strategies for integrating VAWG prevention and response into policies and legislation, as well as sector programs and projects. VII.3. Implementation Arrangements Good practice 10: Investing in human resources 85. Investing in human resources is a good practice to address gender gaps. Gender specialists can provide support and expertise at all stages of the project cycle. Female beneficiaries often find it more comfortable to share their challenges and personal issues with other women. This has been echoed by World Bank project teams in South Sudan. Using a randomized control trial, Kondylis et al. (2016) examine the impact of the use of both female and male trainers to diffuse sustainable land management techniques in 200 rural communities in Mozambique. Two years following the intervention, awareness of the technologies among women in treatment communities increased by up to 9 percentage points. Findings also indicate that women in the treatment villages were more likely to adopt the technology by approximately 5 percentage points three years following the intervention. Similar results are found in Northern Uganda (Shikuku, 2019), where the use of women as “disseminating farmers� increased the probability of information exchange among men and women. 26 86. Resources designed and produced by gender experts such as training materials and operational guidance can inform project design and help respond to the specific needs of women and girls/men and boys. The absence of gender specialists has been felt by some project teams, particularly those reviewed in the transport sector. Hiring female professional staff is important to ensure that there is equal opportunity in the workplace and that standards about gender equality and women’s safety in the workplace are in place and properly implemented in project implementation units. Good practice 11: Leveraging credible institutions and relevant stakeholders 87. In the context of South Sudan, physical safety and security is often the primary concern. It is important to partner with institutions that can provide security and that beneficiaries can trust. In the Pakistan example (FATA), project officials recognized the restrictions imposed on female movements due to security situations. This issue was resolved through dialogue and subsequent partnership with the Pakistani Military. The Emergency Food and Nutrition Security Project aligned its proposed support with the Humanitarian Response Plan (HRP) for South Sudan for 2017 and built upon the interventions being undertaken by UN agencies (e.g. WFP, UNICEF, and FAO) and other partners, including national and international Non� Governmental Organizations (NGOs). In fact, one of its components (direct food support as well as supporting nutritional needs of the vulnerable) is being implemented with the support of the WFP and UNICEF as these are the only organizations in South Sudan with the demonstrated logistical capabilities to source and supply food to a large number of vulnerable beneficiaries and which have preferential access to areas that might not be secure. 88. Communication activities aimed at changing behavior might raise the cost of violence against women while alleviating social barriers that refrain them from accessing economic opportunities. The unconditional cash transfer program in Bangladesh, mentioned above, involved behavior change communication activities at the household and community level, with the objective of creating a supportive environment for mothers within the household and the community. Results of the impact evaluation (2017) reveal strong differences between receiving “only cash� and “cash combined with behaviour change communication activities�. Women in communities that received the behavior change communication activities besides the transfers were up to 26 percent less likely to experience physical violence and were more likely to improve their wellbeing. Such effects persisted three years following the inception of the intervention. VII.4. Monitoring and Evaluation Good practice 12: Moving beyond outputs towards measuring sex-disaggregated outcomes 89. A sound Results Framework is the basis for reporting progress towards development and intermediate results. Most of South Sudan’s projects report sex-disaggregated data on beneficiaries, but it is important to move beyond outputs towards measuring outcomes. During project implementation, evaluations of the project’s impact and results (disaggregated by sex and other circumstances) are also crucial to distill lessons and inform future 27 programming. The DRC Eastern Recovery Project results framework measures success in achieving women’s inclusion throughout project activities, by using indicators that capture the quality of women’s engagement in community-level governance mechanisms (e.g. movement in management and decision making) as well as the number of participants in meetings disaggregated by sex. The project’s monitoring and evaluation system works particularly well because both the monitoring and the evaluation are part of the same system. The day-to-day monitoring is primarily done using the data collected by the World Bank’s Development Impact Evaluation (DIME). This approach enables rapid feedback to the project team which has allowed mid-course corrections to be made. 90. When it comes to impact evaluation, only few studies report intervention outcomes by sex, even when sex-disaggregated data is available. Given the importance of understanding the heterogenous impact of development interventions on women and men to inform decision- making, this calls the need for researchers to report sex-disaggregated results more often. Furthermore, moving forward, projects may consider assessing potential effects of their operations on intra-household dynamics. 91. Data collection in South Sudan can be challenging due to instability, poor infrastructure and limited resources. As a result, projects can only be supervised with great difficulty. The Intermittent Beneficiary Monitoring (IBM) is a demand-driven approach that collects data from a random sub-sample of project beneficiaries on a regular basis. This allows project teams to diagnose problems early on and make appropriate corrections. IBM can be especially useful for assessing gender aspects, as it collects information directly from beneficiaries. Also, because this approach relies on small samples, phone interviews and non-conspicuous means of data collection, it is also suited for conflict areas (Hoogeveen and Taptué, 2018). Good practice 13: Grievance Redress Mechanism (GRM) with facilities to report GBV incidents 92. Seven out of the 14 projects in South Sudan had a GRM for project beneficiaries. The GRMs were established primarily to improve transparency and quality of project implementation including beneficiary targeting, project selection and public work implementation. In most cases, traditional community bodies were chosen as the first point for reporting. In some of the projects (Local Governance and service Delivery Project, South Sudan Health Rapid Results Project and Safety net and skills development projects) these community-level grievance management units are required to maintain women representation which could encourage women’s utilization of the GRM. Mobile or internet-based grievance reporting could also be considered to improve women’s access to GRM. As previously mentioned, except for the Safety Net and Skills Development Project, no other project established a GRM to address complaints related to GBV. Some of the good practices from which South Sudan can benefit are as follows: a) Setting multiple channels to receive complaints. b) Resolving complaints at the point of service delivery to reduce information and transaction costs. 28 c) Having access to independent channels for redress is important (e.g. links to audit institutions, contracting out facilitation or collection of complaints to third parties). d) Adequate staffing and representation of both male and female personnel in the team. e) Continuous information campaign about the GRM. f) Hiring gender specialists as the resources designed and produced by gender experts such as trainings, project instruments can help identify existing gender gaps and risks faced by women. 85. The GRM procedure must be communicated at the community level to create GBV awareness and enable project�affected people to file complaints. Mozambique’s Integrated Feeder Road Project provides an example of good practice of utilizing multiple channels to receive complaints and grievance related to GBV. The project identified a local NGO (JHPiego) with demonstrated capacity addressing GBV risk and related challenges in the project areas – including work on HIV prevention dating to 2004 and subsequent work – to partner with the GRM. When the GRM receives a complaint on sexual exploitation and abuse (SEA), it would only record information on (i) the nature of complaint (what the complainant says in hers/his own words); and (ii) if, to the best of their knowledge, the survivor believes the perpetrator was associated with the project. The GRM would then refer the survivor to the NGO to ensure the adequate provision of case management (while always maintaining the survivor’s confidentiality). If the survivor needs to be referred to other services, the NGO would provide consistent case�level support and advocacy. The NGO would also sensitize the public on SEA, raise public awareness about the different entry points to place complaints with the GRM, train stakeholders (contractors, communities, PIU), assist and refer survivors to appropriate service providers, and monitor implementation of the GBV risk mitigation and response measures (i.e. that Codes of Conduct for contractors and workers are in place and signed, and that the GRM and project liaison committees are maintaining case confidentiality and acting in conformance with the Response Protocol). The supervision engineer would be in charge of monitoring that the courses for contractors regarding the Code of Conduct obligations and awareness raising activities to the community are in place. The information gathered would be monitored and reported to the World Bank and other stakeholders by the implementing agency. VIII. Conclusion The situation of the entire South Sudanese population is quite dire due to economic and political circumstances. These factors affect women and girls/men and boys differently. This review analyzed how operations have addressed gender equality in South Sudan and in similar countries with the aim to provide guidance for project teams operating in South Sudan to support for women and girls/men and boys. Our findings indicate that many of the World Bank’s operations target women among their beneficiaries. However, only a few of them integrate gender equality in a systematic manner, that is, from design to implementation and evaluation. The discussion around gender equality, and particularly GBV, is a sensitive topic in South Sudan. While the Bank is increasingly recognizing the risk of different forms of GBV in operations, it is important to acknowledge that this might not be the case 29 for the Government. Therefore, carefully considering potential risks and focusing discussions around practical measures provide an entry point for dialogue. To assist project teams in the delivery of social protection programs that respond to vulnerabilities specific to women and men, this review identified thirteen good practices in promoting gender equality throughout the project cycle. We hope that this work will inform future activities in South Sudan and in other fragile and conflict affected settings. As illustrated by the good practices, designing and implementing operations that promote gender equality is a goal that can be achieved. 30 References Aker, J. C., Boumnijel, R., McClelland, A., & Tierney, N. (2016). Payment mechanisms and antipoverty programs: Evidence from a mobile money cash transfer experiment in Niger. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 65(1), 1-37. Akresh, R.; D. de Walque. (2008). « Armed conflict and schooling: evidence from the 1994 Rwandan genocide� (English). 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Retrieved from Financial Tracking Service: file:///Users/rony/Documents/W%20O%20R%20K/Africa/South%20Sudan/20190202/Republic%20o f%20South%20Sudan%202018%20(Humanitarian%20response%20plan)%20%7C%20Financial%20Tr acking%20Service.webarchive. United Nations. (2018, December 29). Africa Renewal. Retrieved from un.org: https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/special-edition-women-2012/women-struggle-secure- land-rights UN Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UNWOMEN). 2015. Preventing Conflict Transforming Justice Securing the Peace - A Global Study on the Implementation of United Nations Security Council resolution 1325. 33 Annex 1: Checklist - How do programs address gender equality throughout their phases? 1. Program design a. Gender assessment informed program design: does the program gather and incorporate information on gender issues into the design? b. Addressing gender equality and female empowerment in the program objective: Does the program target specific gender outcomes? If yes, which one(s)? c. Benefits: Does the program (and to what extent) integrate gender issues in determining benefits modality? i. Is access to program benefits convenient for female beneficiaries? ii. Do the program conditions (if applicable) create hindrance for female participation? iii. Does the program design allow women to control access to their benefits? iv. Do women have to rely on male family members for accessing the program benefits? v. How flexible is the process to access benefits? vi. How predictable are benefits? d. Benefits sensitive to women/men needs and vulnerabilities: do benefits factor in vulnerabilities specific to males and females? i. Does the program design aim at preventing risky sex behavior/GBV issues? ii. Are conditionalities gender sensitive? iii. Are service centers conveniently located? e. Relative advantage/disadvantages caused by the program: The design of a program might cause advantage for a particular group of beneficiaries at the cost of others. i. Public works programs: Does the program design favor female participation? Does it consider any of the following aspects?: 1. Flexible working hours 2. Quotas on women’s participation 3. Complementary activities that can encourage female participation (e.g. sweeping the streets, preparing materials to be used in construction) 4. Less strenuous works for women 5. Availability of childcare facilities ii. Does the program accommodate lower levels of literacy> 34 iii. Does the program allow more flexibility in the requirements for official documents, such as birth and marriage certificates? f. Recognizing existing gender gaps and/or constraints to women empowerment: How conscious are the program activities in addressing the gender gaps? 2. Implementation a. Access to information (awareness) for women: Are women aware of the program requirements, eligibility criteria, benefits or other relevant information? Are outreach activities adequate to inform potential female beneficiaries of the program? b. Promoting quality participation: What implementation measures are undertaken to promote women’s participation into the programs? c. Practical actions to reshape existing gender gaps: How practical the program measures are in acknowledging and addressing the gender discrimination? d. Are there provisions for female-headed households? e. Are there provisions for women living in other (less traditional) types of households such as polygamous and extended families? 3. Monitoring a. Does the program collect and report sex-disaggregated data and/or gender specific indicators? i. Provision of sex-disaggregated indicators/ specific indicators for men and women: Does the result framework capture impact of the programs separately for women and men? ii. Capturing gender differentiated effects: Does the program (and to what extent) collect and report on gender-specific outcomes like fertility/maternal health? iii. Impact on income: Does the program collect and report information on income effect for female beneficiaries? iv. Anthropometric outcome (if applicable): Does the program monitor and report sex-disaggregated anthropometric outcomes? b. Intra-household impacts i. Observing impact of the program on improving risky behavior: are there any provisions to prevent domestic violence? ii. Does the program capture indicators on female economic empowerment? Does it monitor intra-household bargaining power? c. Grievance redress mechanism: Does the grievance redress mechanism incorporate additional dimensions to ensure the women’s grievances are captured? i. How accessible is the grievance redress mechanism? Can women access the system to lodge their grievances? 35 ii. Does the GRM design have any female focus? Is there any feature in the GRM that makes it suitable for female users? iii. Is there a specific ‘mechanism’ in place to report cases of GBV? 36 Annex 2: Gender relevance of key safety net programs supported by the World Bank (Projects 1-7) Projects South Sudan South Sudan Local Governance South Sudan Support to Southern Sudan Safety Net and gender support Emergency Food and Service Rural Roads Agriculture and Roads Skills and development and Nutrition Delivery Project Project Forestry maintenance Development project Security project Development project Project Sector Agriculture Agriculture Urban Transport Agriculture Transport Social Protection Development Project Code P115717 P163559 P127079 P129000 P104786 P118579 P143915 Task Team Leader Yasmin Tayyab Abel Lufafa, Elliot Zishan Faiza Muhammad Berhane Tesfamichael Endashaw Tadesse Wamboka Karim, Makiko Zulfiqar Ahmed Manna/Abel Nahusenay Mitiku Gossa, Nadia Mghenyi Watanabe Lufafa Selim Duration 16/11/2009 – 11/05/2017 – 28/03/2013 – 15/08/2012 – 20/03/2008 – 01/03/2010 – 30/09/2013 – 31/12/2012 31/07/2019 28/02/2019 30/06/2016 31/10/2011 30/06/2011 28/02/2019 Program Design Gender Gender context of The project design The project design The project is Even though the The project is Gender context of assessment the country was factors in reflects women expected to project expected to the country was informed taken into account Vulnerability of empowerment benefit encouraged benefit taken into account program design: in project design. women features situation at the communities female communities in project design. One of the tailored community level. including women participation it including women One of the objectives of the interventions to however, there is does not appear however, there is objectives of the project was to address that. no indication that that gender issues no indication that project was to support the gender issues were considered gender issues provide Ministry develop a were considered during the project were considered employment to gender policy. when the project design. when the project vulnerable women was designed. was designed. Addressing The project The project makes The project design The project The project does The project The project gender equality Addresses gender conscious efforts addressed the focuses on not set out any focuses on Addresses gender and women equality and to ensure women gender gap to improving all- objective to improving equality and empowerment in empowerment by benefit from the improve women season access for address issues connectivity for empowerment by 37 the program focusing on nutrition, empowerment by rural related to gender communities. No focusing on objective: improved access agriculture and engaging women communities. No equality or particular focus on improved access to opportunities livestock supports in planning and particular focus on women women to opportunities. and through policy provided under implementation of women empowerment. empowerment. In order to reforms the project. community-level empowerment. facilitate women’s public works. participation, projects were required to employ at least 30 percent women workers in close proximity of their households. Transfer Beneficiaries of No dedicated The project The project No dedicated The project GIS based modality: the project delivery channel provided focuses on delivery channel focused on biometric received cash and for women was resources to improving all- for women was improving payment system agricultural input proposed. communities for season access for proposed. connectivity for can be useful in from the project. financing public rural communities. No reducing leakage Cash transfer was works. communities. No transfer of and training on affected due to transfer of resources was financial literacy disruption in resources was planned in the would help utilize banking services. planned in the project. their wages Pilferage of project. productively . seedling, tools and fencing materials was also a delivery challenge. Conditionalities/c No transfer hence Food and nutrition No No No No The beneficiary o-responsibilities no conditionality support is conditional/uncon conditional/uncon conditional/uncon conditional/uncon selection criteria sensitive to involved unconditional. In ditional transfer ditional transfer ditional transfer ditional transfer as well as women/men supporting conditionalities 38 needs and women in was included in was included in was included in was included in were adapted for vulnerabilities: productive the project design. the project design. the project design. the project design. ensuring women’s activities, the participation in project is the program. For cognizant of the example, gender- considering the disaggregated mobility and roles played by safety limitations men and women it was ensured in agriculture. that women can work in close proximity of their households. Relative Advantage for The project design The mandatory The improved Priority was given The improved The provision of advantage/disadv women. The is not expected to engagement of connectivity is to women when connectivity is quota and antages caused by project cause women in the expected to selecting farmer expected to transparency in the program: development disadvantage for community-level equally benefit groups for the equally benefit beneficiary objectives as well the women. project men and women. providing men and women. selection process as the resources implementation is assistance under proved effective in are all focused on expected to help the project. improving female female women participation in beneficiaries. empowerment. public works. Recognizing The project design In supporting Existing gender The project does The project did The project does The project design existing gender reflects on the women in gaps are not directly not directly not directly reflects on the gaps and/or existing gender productive addressed in the address any address any address any existing gender constraints to gap in women activities, the design by way of prevailing gender prevailing gender prevailing gender gap in women women participation and project is ensuring their gap. gap. gap. participation and empowerment empowerment. cognizant of the participation in empowerment. gender- community disaggregated bodies. roles played by 39 men and women in agriculture. Implementation Access to No particular The project design The project design No particular No particular No particular Care was taken in information focus on to encourage included extensive focus on focus on focus on making the (awareness) for improving inclusive and campaign on the improving improving improving program females: women’s access transparent project activities women’s access to women’s access to women’s access to accessible for to information. beneficiary but no targeted information. information. information. women. The selection. campaign was publicity contents However, no undertaken for and media were targeted outreach women. suited for reaching activity for women women in rural is planned. areas. Promoting quality The project is The community- The project made No particular The project made No particular The project has participation: targeted at based targeting special effort to focus on special effort to focus on taken strong women apart process will make ensure female improving ensure female improving measures to from this there women’s access to participation. women’s participation. women’s ensure female was no additional the project easier. participation. participation apart participation. effort to promote from the training female provided to participation female therein. technicians. Practical actions The project The project to By ensuring No particular In beneficiary No particular The project to reshape addressed existing engage significant female action was taken targeting The action was taken addressed existing existing gender gender gap by resources in participation in to mitigate gender project prioritised to mitigate gender gender gap by gaps: improving development of community-level gaps. women groups, gaps. improving women’s access to agriculture where public works the recognizing women’s access to economic majority of the project would women’s lack of economic opportunities. rural women are help reduce access to opportunities. employed. gender gaps. economic opportunities. 40 Provisions for No specific In selecting The project did The project No specific The project did No specific female-headed provision was beneficiaries, the not intend to focuses on provision was not intend to provision was households made for female project will benefit people at improving all- made for female benefit people at made for female season access for headed household level. headed headed prioritise female- household level. rural households households. households. headed communities. No households. particular focus on female-headed households. Monitoring Collect and report Features gender - Features both sex- Features sex- Features sex- Features sex- Features sex- Features sex- sex-disaggregated specific PDO disaggregated and disaggregated disaggregated disaggregated disaggregated disaggregated data and/or indicator gender-specific PDO indicator PDO indicator PDO indicator. PDO indicator PDO indicator. gender specific PDO indicators indicators Intra-household No information No information No information No information No information No information No information impacts was collected on was collected on was collected on was collected on was collected on was collected on was collected on any intra- any intra- any intra- any intra- any intra- any intra- any intra- household household household household household household household impacts. impacts. impacts. impacts. impacts. impacts. impacts. Grievance redress No grievance The Grievance A robust grievance The project’s No grievance No grievance A robust grievance mechanism: redress redress system redress system grievance redress redress redress redress mechanism was does not have any was proposed for system is designed mechanism was mechanism was mechanism was established in the female focus collecting to resolve established in the established in the developed to project. however it grievances related community-level project. project. ensure includes appeal to quality of public grievances and transparency in committee Boma works does not feature beneficiary and Payam levels implementation. any gender focus. selection, public and will make use this did not works of the traditional include any implementation mediation bodies. female focus or and wage This should be payment. 41 particularly channel for GBV However, the accessible for the reporting. GRM was not women. suited for women No dedicated to report GBV or channel for other oppressive reporting GBV. behavior. Annex 2b: Gender relevance of key safety net programs supported by the World Bank (Projects 8-14) Projects South Sudan South Sudan South Sudan South Sudan Southern Sudan Southern Sudan South Sudan MDTF HIV/AIDS Health Rapid Health Rapid Health Rapid Emergency Food Emergency Food Provision of Project Results Project Results Project Results Project Crisis Response Crisis Response Essential Health AF AF II Project AF III Project AF IV Services Project Sector Health Health Health Health Agriculture Agriculture Health Project Code P106927 P127187 P146413 P156917 P145339 P149700 P168926 Task Team Leader Mohamed Ali Mohamed Ali Anne Bakilana Noel Chisaka Abel Lufafa Abel Lufafa Paul Jacob Kamil Kamil Robyn, Fatimah Abubakar Mustapha Duration 29/02/2008 – 06/05/2012 – 13/06/2013 – 31/08/2016 – 01/11/2013 – 31/03/2014 – 00/00/0000 – 30/06/2012 31/10/2014 31/10/2015 30/10/2017 30/04/2015 30/06/2016 31/12/2021 Program Design Gender Gender context It is not evident It is not evident It is not evident The project The project The project assessment of the country whether a whether a whether a design addresses design addresses design informed was taken into gender gender gender vulnerability in vulnerability in incorporates program design: account in assessment was assessment was assessment was general. It does general. It does lessons from project design. carried out prior carried out prior carried out prior not appear that not appear that gender to project to project to project the design was the design was 42 preparation. preparation. preparation. based on gender based on gender assessment of However, the However, the However, the assessment. assessment. the country. project design project design project design addresses health addresses health addresses health care issues care issues care issues critical for critical for critical for vulnerable vulnerable vulnerable women. women. women. Addressing The project The project The project The project Though not Though not The project gender equality acknowledges objective objective objective directly targeted directly targeted made concerted and women women’s lack of includes includes includes at women, the at women, the effort to support empowerment in knowledge of improving improving improving food/cash food/cash women who fall the program HIV prevention service delivery service delivery service delivery transfer transfer victim to sexual objective: and limited that would that would that would component of component of and gender- access health benefit benefit benefit the project is the project is based violence. and counselling disadvantaged disadvantaged disadvantaged expected to expected to services. there women. Apart women. Apart women. Apart benefit benefit are PDOs that from this the from this the from this the vulnerable vulnerable reflect these PDO does not PDO does not PDO does not women as well. women as well. issues. explicitly focuses explicitly focuses explicitly focuses on equality or on equality or on equality or empowerment empowerment empowerment of women. of women. of women. Transfer Women are The project The project The project It is not evident It is not evident No cash or in- modality: expected to resources are resources are resources are the project took the project took kind transfer to receive better used to improve used to improve used to improve in to in to beneficiaries access to health access to health access to health access to health consideration consideration was planned and counselling care services for care services for care services for the problems the problems under the services under vulnerable vulnerable vulnerable female female project. 43 the project. No population and population and population and beneficiaries of beneficiaries of cash or in-kind no cash or in- no cash or in- no cash or in- the project the project transfer kind benefit is kind benefit is kind benefit is might encounter might encounter beneficiaries transferred to transferred to transferred to in collecting in collecting expected. project project project their benefits. their benefits. beneficiaries. beneficiaries. beneficiaries. Conditionalities/c No No No No It does not It does not No o-responsibilities conditionalities conditional/unco conditional/unco conditional/unco appear that the appear that the conditional/unco sensitive to attached to the nditional nditional nditional project made project made nditional women/men benefits offered transfer of transfer of transfer of any effort to any effort to transfer of needs and to the benefit was benefit was benefit was make the public make the public benefit was vulnerabilities: beneficiaries. included in the included in the included in the workfare workfare included in the project design. project design. project design. programs more programs more project design. accessible for accessible for women. women. However, a direct food transfer was incorporated for those who cannot participate in the public workfare programs. Relative Women will The project The project The project The public The public The focus of the advantage/disadv benefit from the resources resources resources workfare workfare project on antages caused by improved access prioritizes high prioritizes high prioritizes high programs are programs are improving access the program: to counselling impact health impact health impact health targeted at able- targeted at able- to maternal 44 and health care services care services care services bodied bodied health care and services including including including individuals individuals mental and provided under maternal care. maternal care. maternal care. which may not which may not psycho-social the project but it Women, Women, Women, particularly favor particularly favor support to is difficult to therefore, will therefore, will therefore, will the women. the women. victim of sexual conclude be significantly be significantly be significantly violence would whether they benefitted from benefitted from benefitted from be of particular will be in an the project. the project. the project. advantage to advantageous vulnerable position to women. access these benefits. Recognizing While the The project The project The project The project does The project does While the existing gender project did not acknowledges acknowledges acknowledges not directly not directly project can gaps and/or set any explicit vulnerability of vulnerability of vulnerability of address any address any benefit women, constraints to intervention to women in terms women in terms women in terms prevailing prevailing particularly the women improve women of primary of primary of primary women women victim of sexual empowerment empowerment, health care. health care. health care. empowerment empowerment violence, very the However, there However, there However, there or gender or gender limited effort empowerment is no visible is no visible is no visible equality issues. equality issues was noted in of sex workers direct focus on direct focus on direct focus on stopping and other women women women violence toward disadvantaged empowerment empowerment empowerment women. group did lead issues. issues. issues. to better economic opportunities to these people. Implementation 45 Access to The project Mass campaign The project The campaign No particular No particular The project information acknowledges and outreach made concerted and outreach focus on focus on made concerted (awareness) for lack of activities were efforts to ensure activities were improving improving efforts to ensure females: knowledge planned at the mass campaign designed to women’s access women’s access mass campaign among women community level and outreach encourage to information to information and outreach regarding to improve activities reach participation of was observed. was observed activities reach prevention of utilization of the most all members of the victims of HIV and invests primary health vulnerable in a community. sexual and resources in care services. No community. However, it is gender-based improving targeted not evident that violence to awareness of campaign for any targeted improve pregnant women was campaign was utilization of women and sex considered. run for women. mental support workers services. regarding its prevention. Promoting quality The awareness The project Concerted effort Utilization of No specific No specific The project participation: and outreach made effort to was made to primary health measure was measure was incorporates activities were improve ensure care services by undertaken to undertaken to activities that expected to utilization of participation of women was promote promote promotes promote primary health the most promoted. women’s women’s women’s women’s care services vulnerable participation in participation in utilization of participation in especially those groups in a the program the program project the program. related to community. particularly in particularly in resources. maternal health. the cash/food the cash/food for work for work component. component Practical actions No explicit The project The project The project No particular No particular The emphasis of to reshape action was prioritized prioritized prioritized action was taken action was taken the project on 46 existing gender undertaken to improving improving improving to mitigate to mitigate supporting gaps: address existing delivery of delivery of delivery of prevailing prevailing victims of sexual gender gaps services that are services that are services that are inequalities inequalities violence except for primarily used primarily used primarily used experienced by experienced by acknowledges encouraging by vulnerable by vulnerable by vulnerable women. women the lack of women to use women. women. women. mental and HIV prevention psycho-social services. care available to them. Provisions for No specific No specific No specific No specific No specific No specific The project female-headed provision was provision was provision was provision was provision was provision was focuses on households made for female made for female made for female made for female made for female made for female delivery of headed headed headed headed headed headed health care households. households. households. households. households. households. services to vulnerable members of community. No specific effort was made to serve the female-headed families. Monitoring Collect and report Features specific Features specific Features specific Features specific Features sex- Features sex- Features specific sex-disaggregated PDO indicators PDO indicators PDO indicators PDO indicators disaggregated disaggregated PDO indicators data and/or for women. for women. for women. for women. PDO indicator. PDO indicator. for women gender specific indicators Intra-household No information No information No information No information No information No information No information impacts was collected on was collected on was collected on was collected on was collected on was collected on was collected on any intra- any intra- any intra- any intra- any intra- any intra- any intra- 47 household household household household household household household impacts. impacts. impacts. impacts. impacts impacts impacts Grievance redress No grievance No grievance No grievance Grievance A grievance No information The project mechanism: redress redress redress redress through redress on the grievance provides mechanism was mechanism was mechanism was community-level mechanism was redress system beneficiaries established established established health established was found in the options to under the under the under the committees under the project report project. project. project. which require project with no documents. grievances using mandatory particular separate female attention to mechanisms put representation. addressing in place by the However, these grievances from world bank, committees are women. UNICEF and primarily International focused on Committee for improving Red Cross (ICRC). delivery of While ICRC’s service, no wide coverage specific and proximity to intervention was vulnerable address communities grievances from place them in women. advantageous position to redress grievances at community level, it is not clear whether 48 the GRM is adapted to address grievance from women. 49 Annex 3. Selected Impact Evaluation Studies Type of Authors Country Sample size Main outcomes implementation 167 villages Agricultural Goldstein et al. (control) Benin Agriculture investment, (2018) 282 villages production (treatment) Round 1: 22 villages (control) Information 30 villages diffusion, Beaman & Dillon (treatment) Mali Agriculture agricultural (2018) Round 2: technology 29 villages knowledge (control) 23 villages (treatment) 50 communities Awareness, (control) knowledge, and Kondylis et al. Mozambique Agriculture adoption of (2016) 150 communities agricultural (treatment) technologies 104 schools Education (control) outcomes, poverty, Barrera-Osorio et Cambodia Cash transfer cognitive and al. (2018) 103 schools socioemotional (treatment) skills 63 villages – 432 households (control) Consumption, 63 villages assets, agricultural Haushofer Shapiro -503 pure & business Kenya Cash transfer (2013) treatment activities, & households and psychological well- 505 spillover being households (treatment) 270 groups -5,828 individuals (control) Capital stock, Blattman et al. 265 groups – 5,460 income, business Uganda Cash transfer (2013) profit & individuals (treatment) employment 50 villages (control) Assets, 200 villages – 50 expenditures, Roy et al. (2017) Bangladesh Cash transfer for each of the four health, nutrition, treatment arms emotional and (treatment) physical states Kilburn et al. 754 households Kenya Cash transfer Health indicators (2016) (control) 50 1540 households (treatment) Citizen engagement, health and Laudati et al. education, DRC CDD 781 villages (2018) governance related, and women empowerment. 50 villages Public service (control) Giné et al. (2018) Pakistan CDD delivery, health 108 villages services (treatment) 1035 individuals Workforce (control) participation, Bertrand et al. income, Cote d’Ivoire LIPW (2017) 2,001 individuals expenditures, and (treatment) psychological outcomes 624 couples Reproductive and Gender (control) maternal health, Doyle et al. (2018) Rwanda transformative 575 couples decision-making, strategy (treatment) IPV 329 individuals -180 men and 149 Gender women (control) Hossain et al. Cote d’Ivoire transformative 276 individuals - IPV indicators (2014) strategy 170 men and 106 women (treatment) 20 communities Political Mass-media, (control) participation, Mvukiyehe (2017) Liberia Empowerment, 20 communities women Voice and Agency (treatment) empowerment About 3000 and Knowledge Gender and Kondylis et al. 2000 female and diffusion Mozambique information (2016). male farmers, Technology diffusion respectively adoption About 1100 in 96 Agricultural villages split in 3 production, Aker et al., 2016 Niger Cash transfer treatment arms consumption, (32 villages by women’s treatment arm) empowerment 51 Annex 4. List of reviewed World Bank Safety Net Projects outside South Sudan # Project Country Project code Project document 1 The Eastern Recovery Project Democratic P145196 Project Appraisal republic of Congo Document 2 FATA Temporarily Displaced Pakistan P154278 Implementation Persons Emergency Recovery Status & Results Project (Pakistan): Addressing Report security, and safety concerns through 3 Women's Economic Islamic Republic P164443 Project Appraisal Empowerment Rural of Afghanistan Document Development Project 4 The Emergency Safety Nets The Republic of P165064 Project Appraisal Project (Jigisemejiri) Mali Document 5 Third Northern Uganda Social Republic of P149965 Project Appraisal Action Fund Project (Nusaf 3) Uganda Document 6 Kenya Social and Economic Republic of Kenya P164654 Project Appraisal Inclusion Project Document 7 AFCC2/RI-GLR: Displaced Persons Zambia P152821 Project Appraisal & Border Communities: Document 8 Economic Opportunities for the Jordan P159522 Project Appraisal Jordanians and Syrian Refugees Document 9 Productive Safety Net Project 4 Ethiopia P146883 Project Appraisal (PSNP 4) Document, Social Safety Nets and Gender: Learning From Impact Evaluations and World Bank Projects, World Bank Group 10 Integrated Feeder Road Mozambique P158231 Project Appraisal Development Project Document Annex 5: Resources for Task Teams 52 Evidence and Data • Africa Gender Innovation Lab • East Asia and Pacific Gender Innovation Lab • Middle East and North Africa Gender Innovation Lab • South Asia Gender Innovation Lab • Development Impact Evaluation (DIME) • Gender Data Portal Gender-Based Violence, Sexual Exploitation and Abuse • GBV Risk Assessment and Mitigation Folder • Violence Against Women and Girls Resource Guide • Working together to prevent sexual exploitation and abuse: Recommendations for World Bank investment projects Corporate Commitments • World Bank Group Gender Strategy • Gender Tag • Gender Strategy Follow Up Notes • Environmental and Social Framework Contacts • GP Gender Leads and Focal Points 53