AFGHANISTAN Women's Role in Afghanistan's Future – Taking Stock of Achievements and Continued Challenges ACS4474 ACS4474 Islamic State of Afghanistan Social Development and Gender AFGHANISTAN Women's Role In Afghanistan's Future - Taking Stock of Achievements and Continued Cballenges SASDS SOUTH ASIA 2013 IWomeD' o RoletnMpamlotan'o Futare • 1'aldllf StDck orAdlliM:IIlots 8Dd C:..lltlllaed Cb.oll...,.. This volume is a product of the staff of the Intcrnati.oual Bank for Reconstructiaa and Devdopmcntl The World Bank. The £indinp, interpretatiom, and e AMSwas based on dcllltto national s.al!'4lllnr. The WHOftrune has 11een based on 1heAMS ~additional ""P~~:tst~n.• Aa:uled 2JIA!K112013. bt!p;//M!O!l!cs.wgrl!l!!rfk.qs/cM!cr/llQuniT1!!!!e!s!!ta•· • " l " ' n . • - 3 Apr1 :IOU. h!!p:/Jc!otl!!z!alcl.warldbonk.an!lpndor/_,ntryl!,..,d•lomlc:!w!. • M/llllNffllll Mr>ttrlllry Su/w)< {l(abul: Mll'llllry of Public l!eaht\. 2010)66. "lbld,66. • lblcl,129 • ..lblcl,129• • lblcl,l29 • ..lblcl,129. Women’s Role in Afghanistan’s Future - Taking Stock of Achievements and Continued Challenges 39 at in more depth under the sub-heading HHealth Human Resources", below. Table 2 analyzes the effect of a mother's education levels and urban vs. rural residence, as factors that impact the choice to seek out an SBA. Table Z: Use of Sldlled Blrtb AttelulaDt II)' l!ducaiiOD l..eftladll.eddeace hrc;at.qll u.lq. Sldlleclllrda.AibladaDt .AMS2010M .AMICS 2010/11* (llue: 16.998) (Bae:: 4,865) No Education 30.1 34.2 Mother's Madrassa 41.6 - Primary 60.9 63.9 Education Secondary 77.7 83.0 Hillher 80.0 Urban 70.9 74.3 Residence Rural 25.7 30.5 As the table demonstrates, a more educated mother (especially in urban areas), is the most likely to use an SBA. Data was not available on the effect of the education levels of other members of the household (i.e. the father or the mother-in-law) on the use of SBAs. Box 1: Family Health Action Groups Various public health models have been used to provide increasing information to women on reproductive health. One interesting public health model that helps to reach women is the establishment and support to Family Health Action Groups, now a widely used model in Afghanistan. For example, through Save the Children (funded by UNICEF and AusAID), this model has been implemented starting in August 2011, in Istalif and Guldara districts of Kabul province and in Dehrawood district of Uruzgan. establishing 49 groups in total. These groups Include the participation of 326 women, each responsible for outreach to 10 - 15 households. The groups are a venue for women to provide and exchange information with other women, aimed at increasing knowledge (and therefore outcomes) as related to birth preparedness, antenatal and postnatal information, and newborn care. Community Health Worlrers are trained to support the Family Health Action Groups, building sustainability into the model In districts where this model is being implemented, Save the Children has seen a very strong interest by participating women in acting as advocates to other women on what they have learned about safe births. Most notably, in lstalif and Guldara, Save the Children has seen rates of attended births Increase from 56.7% to 80.6%, indicating that these groups can be a highly successful model of awareness-raising and advocacy. "Nr/lrDnlstan Mortalfly Su"'"Y. [Kabul: Mlnl•try of Public Health,. 2010)79. • NriiNJnistan Multip/o lndic:tltar CJustotSu"'"Y. [Kabul: UNICEF, 2012) 99. 40 I Women'• Role In AJibmbtan'• F'lltve · Taldq Stack of Adllevemeats ud ~- ChaJieDte• Whlle maternal mortality ratios are Improving. they are still particularly poor among adolescent girls (aged 15 -19).1n Afghanlstan,.l4% of girls In this age bracket have begun chlldbearlng. with an additional 2% who had a live birth prior to the age of 15 (with a likely higher percentage who were pregnant but did not have a live birth before 15).4' Some regions show particularly high rates of early child-bearing, namely the West. South, and Central Highlands. This issue is closely connected to the prevalence of early marriage; indications from anecdotal evidence and qualitative studies show a strong link between poverty and early marriage, as high bride prices help to offset debt payments or alleviate the poverty of a girl's family. Some of the complications reflected In Graph 2 above do not always cause fatalities (and are therefore not reflected In the statistics). However, birthing complications, such as prolonged or obstructed labor, which do not result In the death of the mother, can cause long· term health problems for women. The most severe of these long-term conditions is obstetric fistula, a fissure that forms in the vaginal wall to the bladder or rectum. Obstetric fistula is particularly common among girls who become mothers in their teenage years, and can also correlate to areas with high rates of under-nutrition. as it is linked to pelvic under-development Obstetric ftstula causes lnfecUon. reproductive health compUcatlons, and sodal alienation for women due to chronic lnconUnence and odor. At present, the only 2 facilities performing flstula repair operations are Malalal Maternity Hospital and CURE Hospital, both ln Kabul.48 .. lbld,.90. ""'lleehtt..,..rlhln),lry, OIMIIIt~FIIblt:AProlllemthtQon Be~.· ~UAp1120U. l)tSp;//qynryptT'q yntpppf'llgfltwnlstm'WtJW2af9.Dittc cMd"f1h tntJrv *'CPfG tktll• • R'*cm 1bot qn ~ 41 As with maternal mortality, changes in child mortality are difficult to assess with complete confidence, given the dearth of early data and variations in methodology used. However, as the table below illustrates, most key sources show that the levels of under-five and infant mortality have progressively declined. Tillie 3: lldmtPCI UDder 5 MortalitY..._ bYY.... 2005" NRVA 2007f8A AIIS2010U AMICS 2010/1111 IDfant 115 111 77 74 Mortality fatalities/ fatalities/1,000 fatalities/1,000 fatalities/1,000 Rate 1,000 births births births births UoderS 172 161 97 102 Mortallty fatalities/1,000 fatalities/1,000 fatalities/1,000 fatalities/1,000 Rate births births births births As the two most recent data sources, the AMS and AMICS figures are fairly close on this issue. Expressed by region, child mortality rates disaggregate in the below pattern: Graph 3: Infant and Under 5 Mortality Rates by Reclon 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 West South East Central North North East Central South East Highlands • Infant Mortality Rate • Under Five Mortality Rate (Saura: AMICS 2010/11) "Mlhanlstan: NatlonGI RealnstTuctlon and Prwerty Reduction- the Role of Women In Mlhanlstan's Futu~. (Washlnaton, D.C.: World Bank, 2005) 15 • ., NatioiNJJ RisJc and Vulmtrobt1ity Assessment. (Kabul: C..ntrol Statistics Orpnization, 2007/8) iii. "Mlhanlstan MortaJ(Iy 5"""'1'. (Kabul: Ministry of Public Heo~h, 2010) 192. "Afl1hanlstan Mu~ lndlcGtol' au.r.r S"""'l'. (Kabul: UNICEF, 2012) 20. 42 I Women'• Role In AJibmbtan'• F'lltve- Taldq Stack of Adllevemeats ud ~ued Cllalle:qes Ouop!Br z. Hulth 1 2013 Disaggregated by region of Mghanistan, the findings from the AMICS report illustrate that the highest rates of both infant and under-five mortality are in the West, Southeast, Central Highlands, and North. Again, one influential factor relates to the number of skilled health professionals available in each region, as compared to population size. This issue is explored more under the sub- heading HHealth Human Resources», below. While these figures represent steady improvement, they are still significantly higher than South Asian regional comparisons. The average Infant Mortality Rate for the South Asian region was 53/1,000 live births in 2010, where the Under-five Mortality Rate was 77/1,000 live births.53 An issue that has been identified as a serious problem in nearby countries is the sex ratio discrepancy at birth, resulting in a skewed overall demographic trend, where there are significantly more boys than girls. This is often related to the practice of sex-selective abortion, but can also include cases of female infanticide among other issues. According to data available on recorded births, the gender ratio at birth in Afghanistan is 115.7 males/100 females.s• This represents approximately 10% more boys than is considered natural (and is more pronounced in the South than any other region). However, there is no evidence of sex-selective abortion in Mghanistan; the skewed gender ratio most likely reflects the widespread practice of not registering births, especially those of girls. Differential treatment of female and male children after birth may have a gendered effect on the mortality rates. Fertility and Family Planning Encouragingly, the literature continues to record decreasing rates of fertility among Mghan women. In 2005, the fertility rate was 6.3.55 The most recent government figures placed the figure significantly lower in 2010 at 5.1.56 This compares to rates of3.6 for Pakistan,57 1.7 for Iran, 58 2.8 for India, 59 and 3.2 for Tajikistan.6() ""Gender Equality In Sooth Aslo: Rlsl111 to the Chollen1e." WDR 2012 COmpanion -South Asia (unpublished). (Washlnllon. D.C.: World Bank, 2012). "Afllhonl•tcrn Morlllllly Su~~~q. (Kabul: Mlnl5try of Public Heo~h, 2010] 38. "Afli!Janlsttm: NatlonD/IIea>ll5trtlr:tlon and Ptwerty l!eductlon- thel!ole of women In Afi!Janlstan's Alt!l,... (WashlnKton, D.C.: World Bank, ZOOS) 20. "Afli/Janlstan Mortcrllly Su~~~q. (Kabul: Mlnlslr( of Public Healltl, 2010] 40. ""Gander Equality In Sooth Asia: RlsiiiiJ to the Challansa." WDR 2012 COmpanion -South Asia (unpublished]. (WashlnKton, D.C.: World Bank, 2012). 51 ..1ran.· Accessed 28 Aprtl2013. http·IJdatatopJc.s wortdbank orafsender/country/lran -ls!amlc:rep Women's Role Ia Ali~Jumlstan's Flltare · Taldq Stack DfAclrlevemODts aad CDntlllued Claalleqes I 43 Commensurate to this decline in the fertility rate, the use of contraception is on the rise in Afghanistan. In 2005, only 5% of women aged 14-49 used any kind of contraception,61 while the AMICS from 2012 shows that more than 20% now use some form of modem contraception.6Z This figure disaggregates widely by urban vs. rural areas, at 28% for urban areas, and 13% for rural areas. However, knowledge of contraception is still much higher than use. According to the AMS, approximately 90% of women knew of some contraception methods, with knowledge most widespread in the West and least in the Southeast 63 However, despite knowledge and an increase in use, the use of contraception is still low and fertility rates remain high. There is a direct link between educational achievement, the use of contraception and fertility rates. Only a fifth (20%) of women with no education use contraception compared to 38% among women who have attained at least secondary education.64 In a similar vein, according to the AMS, fertility rates ranged from 5.3 among women with no education to 2.8 among women with higher education.6S Graph 4: Fertility Rate by Educational Bacqround (S'Quru: AMS 2010) •"'Gender Equality in South Asiil: Risina: to the Chilllence,:" WDR 2012. Camponion -South Asia (unpublished). ~Wilshinston~ D.C.: World Bank, 20121. "'"Tajilcistan.• Aa:essed 28 Aprll2013. ht!p;{fdatatoplcs.worldbank.orllsender/country/talflcfstan. "Afrlhanistun: National Reamstructicm < ~:"i""--.,-r •.t~.. .WJ..,. -~~ • '~ CUptm-3: l!ducdlon I 2013 Chapter 3: Education The 2005 Country Gender Assessment'J5 reflected a critical moment in Afghanistan's history, just four years after the fall of the Taliban. At the time, the available data was already showing significant increases in the number of girls and women in education as compared to the period under the Taliban administration. This rapid increase was a clear indication that demand for girls' education was strong. Despite shortcomings in the education sector, there was a sense of optimism that the ensuing years would witness a continuation of such changes. Many of the key indicators that influence girls' education attainment show that Afghanistan continues to move in the right direction. Female literacy is currently at 12%, a 7% increase over 2002, where early estimates were that female literacy was at 5%.96 More promising is that for the age bracket 12 - 16, female literacy is at 36%97 (although the same age bracket for boys is at 62%). Despite the remaining spread between boys and girls, the gap seen in this age group is the smallest gender gap in literacy ever seen in Afghanistan.98 This 15 A/ghrznistun: National Reoonstroction and PoVBty Rrduction - tM Rok of Wannm in Afghanistrm~s Future. (Wilshingto~ D.C.: Wo~d Bank, 2005). "Khan, Ahmad. 'Women & Gender In Afshonlston.• (Kabul: Clvii-MIIItary Fusion centre, 2012) 1. 07 1bid, 4. • 'HIIh Stakes: Girls' Education In Aflhanlston.•[Kobul: OXfom, 2011) 22. Women's Role Ia Ali~Jumlstan's Futare - Taldq Stack DfAclllevemeDts aad CDntlllued Claalleqes I 63 compares to 98% of female youth in Iran,99 nearly 100% in Tajikistan,too and 61% in Pakistan.tot The total number of girls and women in education has notably increased, 2005. This relates to the low participation of both boys and girls in education at that time, which necessitated significant gains in boys' education as well. Gains in girls' education in real numbers have been achieved at all levels of the education system, while some levels also demonstrate proportionate gains, indicating a closing of the gender gap. Essential to the increased number of girls and women in education has been a dramatic increase in education facilities within the government system countJywide, along with an increased number of female teachers. Proportion and Number of Female 34% 40% Primary (real number not (2,141,833)1 04 School Students Propol1ion and Number of Female 35% Secondary School Students (513,320)105 Proportion and Number of Female Higher 34% Secondary School Students (246,648) 106 Propol1ion and. Number of Female 19% 19% University Students (5,890) (14.811) 107 Proportion and Number of Female 31% Teachers (53,636)108 While the increases in real numbers are encouraging. the gap persists between girls' and boys' education, and is particularly wide at higher levels, indicating early drop-out rates for girls. This clearly demonstrates the need for continued efforts not just to increase the supply of educational opportunities, but to tailor 10 "Iran.• Acces"'d 25 May 2013. ht!p·ljwww lndCl!ll!undl comlfllctsl!pnll!teuey=gte. lllll "Tajikisttm:" Accessed 25 May 2013.http:/fwww.indexmundi.mm/@ct!iltajikistanl!iteracv-rate. 101 .. Paklstan." Accessed 25 May 2013. httn:l/www.lndeiOTiundl.mm/farts/paklstan/litl!racy-rate. ""Fora compo~son of slmllordato points datlns bock to 1960, seethe Wo~d Bank's 2005 report: AfghanlstDn: National Reamstroction and PGverty Reduction- the Role of Women in AfghanimJn~s Futun. "'Nl/hanlstan: National Roconstructlon and ~""rty -ton -liN! RoM of women In Nl/hanlstan's Future. (Washlnii\On, D.C.: Wo~ Bank, 2005). ""Education Mana1ementol Information System, os of 1390, PerJian Calendar yeor (unpublished]. Accessed November 2012. 105 1bid. 106 1bld. ""Afrlhonr.ran srtJrrsrrttll Yearlloo/t 2011·2012. (Kobul: central Stotlstlcs Otpnllltlon, 2012] 51-3. ... Ibid, 57. "'rbld,SO. Women'• Role In AJibmbtan'• Fu.tve . 64 I Taldq Stack of Adllevemeats ud ~- ChaJieD&e• CUptm-3: l!ducdlon I 2013 those opportunities to girls and women and to target key obstacles to their educational attainment. One key achievement since 2005 is the increase in data that is now available in the education sector in Mghanistan. The sector is among the most data rich in the country, making it possible to see the situation of girls' education from various angles and understand barriers to education at a more detailed level. This chapter will explore some of this data, relying on the MoE database, and some other key sources of data and studies exploring dynamics of education in Afghanistan. Enrolment and Retention Since 2005, female enrolment has increased substantially year on year. For example, there was a 10.2% increase in the number of enrolled female students in 2011-12 compared to 2010-11.110 Despite this, the table below shows the distribution of students by type of educational institution, with girls and women remaining in the minority in each case. One notable exception is in community-based education classes, where girls make up over half of students enrolled. lllrolled .... Table 7: EDrollecl Sbadeats by 1'YIM ofEduc:atlon lllrallMl F.-le '-!; qellale rem.~e .._ .... Tacal !iltlldealll StuUDUI s.~ ... ~ General Education 4,580,701 2,901,801 61.22 38.78 7,482,502 Community-based Education 94,733 124,437 43.22 56.78 219,170 Islamic Education 169,940 32,014 84.15 15.85 201,954 Teacher TraininR" ColleR"e 40,652 19,523 67.56 32.44 60,175 Technical and Vocational 33,190 4,139 88.91 11.09 37,329 Education Training {TVI!T) Adult Literacy School Students 11,162 9,054 55.21 44.79 20,216 Total 4,930,378 3,090,968 61.96 38.04 8,021,346 {Sourct!: EMIS do !:II for 1390) "' AfiltantstrJn StatiJtlcDI YMrboolc ZOll-2072. IK.obul: Contra IS13tistlcs o,...nlzatlon, Z01ZI so. Womea'sRoleln~sFutare· Taldq Staok DfAclllevemeDb and CDntlllued Claalleqes I 65 With all education types combined (up to higher secondary options), girls and women make up an average of just over 38% of enrolled students. The table above demonstrates enrolment across types of educational institutions. While in most types of education there is a considerable gap between the percentage of male and percentage of female students, there are two notable exceptions. Firstly, Community-based Education is the only type of education that actually has a higher enrolment rate for girls than boys. This is further discussed under the sub-heading "Community-based EducationH, below. Secondly, the gap between men and women in Adult Literacy Schools is considerably narrower than for other forms of education, indicating high demand for literacy education among women. The tables below take a closer look at government general education schools (i.e. the national public education system), which account for the vast majority of students in Mghanistan. The following table disaggregates female enrolment by region (as compared to male enrolment), demonstrating that some regions are approaching parity, while others have less than a quarter the number of girls as boys. Table 8: ~ otP..we Sludelltl m 111a1e Sladeatll braDed.la. ~Sc:llaokU1 ........ Central Highlands 43.8% Western Afghanistan 41.5% Northern Afilbanlsbn 41.01)6 Northeastern Mghanistan 40.2% Eastern AfRbanlstan 39.596 Central Mghanlstan 38.6% Southeastern Mghanistan 27.1% Soud!westem Afillllmllti.D 24.496 By province, the following disaggregation of female and male students is instructive. Badakhshan is the closest province to achieving parity in Afghanistan, while provinces like Uruzgan, Zabul, and Paktika demonstrate a gender gap in education far worse than the national average. In Uruzgan, barely above 10% of all students enrolled are girls.n2 111 Education Manasement or Information System, as or 1390, Persian Colendaryear [unpublished). Accessed November 2012. 112 1bid. Women's Role In AJibmbtan'• F'lltve- 66 I Taldq Stack of Adllevemeats ud ~- CllalleDae• CUptm-3: l!ducdlon I 2013 Gr~ph 1: ~rmnt.lp of M~l• ~nd F•m•l• Students In Govemment Sc:lhools 10096 9096 8096 7096 6096 5096 4096 3096 2096 I 1096 I I I 096 I I I (Soun:e: EMIS duta for 1390) The above table shows a combined proportion including all grades from primary to upper secondary. When analysed by grade or level of education, the figures reveal a diverse picture. While in Panjshir girls actually have a higher enrolment rate in primary school than boys (51%), the province then moves to 14th place nationwide by secondary school, where girls make up only 33%. Uruzgan has the lowest recorded percentage of girls in primary school in the country (12%), with a steady decline in the upper grades. Although Paktika has 22% girls at primary school, by upper secondary, there is not a single recorded girl in education in the province. By contrast,. Nimroz manages to maintain rates of 44% girls in secondary and 36% in upper secondary, whilst being a remote and sometimes volatile province. Despite a diverse set of trends that speak to a complex field of factors influencing girls' education, what is clear is that in all provinces, there are a significantly higher number and proportion of girls in primary school than in secondary and post-secondary. The MoE's national figures show that 41.5% of Women's Role Ia AJillumlsbm's Futare · Taldq Stack DfAclllevemeDb aad CDntlllued Claalleqes I 67 Grade 1 students are female, but by Grade 12, the figure drops to 30.6%.m Another way to look at this is through the Hsurvival rate" in primary school, or the rate of students who progress from being enrolled in first grade, to completing sixth grade.114 In 2009, the World Bank estimated the survival rate for boys was between 53% - 55%, and 35% for girls.m This is an issue of retention, and by these figures, it is clear that retention is poor for both boys and girls. This points to general problems in the education system, while girls face additional gender-specific challenges. In Afghanistan, retention of girls in school is affected by a series of interconnected factors, including early marriage and early motherhood, cultural perceptions of appropriate activities for pubescent girls, mobility constraints coupled with a lack of secondary facilities in close proximity to home, a lack of female teachers, a perception of education having low value and low return on investment (particularly for girls), a lack of job opportunities for women, and poverty.116 In addition, the education of parents is often correlated to that of children, especially daughters. While a father's education does not appear to consistently correlate to girls' education {with other factors influencing girls' education much more strongly), a mother's educational attainment and literacy appears to correlate strongly to girls' education, especially to test score outcomes.117 Other sources note that the possible refugee experiences and degree of exposure to secular education of both parents can influence their attitudes toward the education of all children.ne Retention of girls in schools suffers most acutely at the following key stages: Grades 1 and 2, Grade 5, and Grade 9. Girls drop out in Grades 1 and 2 largely because their families may have enrolled them without ever having a strong intention for their daughters to attend regularly. Due to starting at an older age than internationally typical (between ages 6 - 9), students are often 12 years old or more by Grade 5, a critical age for girls for puberty and early marriage, "' Educrtlon Mana1ementof Information System. as of 13!l0, Persian c.alendar 'f"•r (unpublished]. Accessed November 2012. 114 "A Master Prosramme In Eduook10JJ-20J2. (Kabul: Centro IStatistics Orpnlzatlon, 20121 82. Women'• Role In AJibmbtan'• Flltve - 78 I Taldq Stack of Adllevemeats ud ~- Cllalleqes CUptm-3: l!ducdlon I 2013 One of the exacerbating factors for increasing female teachers is that women are still underrepresented in teacher training facilities. In 2011/12, there were 19,523 women in teacher training, which constitutes 32.4% of the total number of trainees in government Teacher Training Colleges (TTCs).13~ Encouragingly, 39.9% of new students for teacher training were female in 2011-2012.'40 The Government is expanding its teacher training facilities by adding district level "satelliteu colleges (affiliated with Teacher Training Colleges in provincial centers), an approach that could have a positive impact on the ability of female secondary graduates to attend TICs, due to proximity of the district facilities to their homes. District TICs are allowing students to teach whilst attending TICs as well, an approach that acknowledges the widespread practice of secondary graduates taking on local teaching responsibilities without being officially certified as teachers. This approach makes it possible for young women to earn money by teaching, while simultaneously attending higher education close to home and becoming certified professionals. While benefiting these women, this approach can also increase the availability of female teachers, with a downstream impact on numbers of female students. Further incentives are also needed to encourage women TIC graduates to then work in more remote or underserved areas where need is greatest. Box 7: Increasing Female Teachers In order to Increase the number of available female teachers, some NGOs have developed strategies for mentoring female secondary school students into teacher training. Save the Children has developed a model called the Girls' Urgent Early Steps to Teaching Success program (GUESTS), with support from the Open Society Institute and AusAID. In this mode~ they deliver teacher training to girls who have progressed to Grades 11 and 12, In parallel to their regular curriculum education. Save the Children works with families to agree to have their daughters attend their regular school shift, and then attend a teacher training session. which takes place at their secondary school. This model is implemented In Uruzgan. Nangarhar, and Bamyan provinces. To date, 235 female students have been graduated from the GUESTS program, with 191 more in training. A significant majority of graduated students have become teachers and/or have gone on to tertiary education, demonstrating that this kind of "apprenticeship" program can be successful in developing more female teachers and in supporting girls into tertiary educatiorL "' Education Manarementof Information System, ao of 1390, Persian Cllendar yeer (unpublished]. Accessed March 2013. '""'AfrlltanisttJn Statf.stlc:al YombooJcZOll-2012. (K.obul: Central Statistics 0'1"nlzatlon, 2012177. Women's Role Ia Ali~Jumlsbm's Flltare · Taldq Stack DfAclrlevemeDb aad CDntlllued CballeDJe• I 79 Security Afghanistan has a history of attacks on schools, most recently by Taliban elements, but in the past by other factions. This phenomenon has been viewed as a means by which to strike out at the state and counter its influence. Ideological attacks on state schools (especially girls' schools) and subsequent closures were reasonably common occurrences from 2005-2008.t4t According to a report by the Civil Military Fusion Centre, 49% of girls' schools in Paktika, 69% in Zabul and 59% in Helmand were burned or attacked between 2006- 2009.az Despite a decline in frequency of what appear to be ideological attacks, a number of schools have been targeted recently, resulting in school closures once again. For example, in May 2012, anti-government groups set fire to a girls' secondary school in Wazir village in Khogyani district of Nangarhar province, destroying two school buildings and equipmentm More recently, widespread public opposition to the targeting of schools has, to some extent, limited these attacks. 144 However, attacks of other kinds appear to be common, including criminal attacks, asset theft, and targeting schools due to their alternative uses. For example, schools have been widely used as polling stations across Mghanistan during elections, and are often targeted during election seasons in an attempt to disrupt voting. During the 2009/10 election cycles, there were between 200-250 cases of violence, threats, or pre-emptive closures of schools directly related to the elections, with approximately 90 direct attacks on schools used as polling stations.145 In August 2009 alone (leading up to the presidential election), there were more than 500146 indirect threats on schools related to the elections.H7 In addition, local Mghan National Army (ANA) or Afghan National Police (ANP) officers have at times been instructed to guard schools, or have even in some cases occupied schools or co- located with schools; this is a controversial practice as even their temporary presence may in fact attract politically-motivated attacks. Since 2009, more '" •Knowledge on Fire· Attock$ on Education In Afsllanlstan: Rloko and Meaoureo for Succe5sf\ll Mltlptlon.• (Kabul: CARE, 2009)21. 1G Nijssen, Stefillnie -n,e Peiice Proaess and Afl;hanistiln's Women.• (Kilbul: Civil-Military Fusion Centre, 2012) 6. "'·uN Mission In AfBhanlstan Condemns Attacks on Schools by lnsu~Bents." Aocessed 09 June 2013. http:ljwww.un.ors/appslnews,lstarv.asp?NewsiD=41984&Cr=AfBhan&O'l=II.UKCWRicsmQ. 144 Giu!rtozzi~ Antonio and Oaudio Franco. -rhe Battle for the Schools: The Taleblln and State Education:• (Kabul: Afghan Analysts Network, 2011) 26. loU Care lntemtltionill and UNICEF. Forthcominc sb.ldyon attilcks on schools (forthcoming. in Summer 2013). 146 1ndlrectthreats Include cases of threats throu1h radio broadcasts and other medla announcementstarptlnlschools within ran••· 1ol7 Care lntemationill and UNICEF. Forthcomin1sb.ldyon attilck:s on schools (forthcoming. in Summer 2013). Women's Role In AJibmbtan'• F'lltve · 80 I Taldq Stac:kof Adllevemeats ud ~- ChaJieD&e• CUptm-3' l!ducdlon I 2013 than 60 cases of military operations and searches have been reported at schools.t48 Schools have also been collateral damage (in more than 50 cases since 2009), due to proximity to a high profile target or an ongoing operation. This is often due to an ANA/ANP checkpoint being established close to a school, or schools being constructed close to a district governor's office, etc. It is critical that schools remain non-politicized spaces, disassociated from state functions and likely targets like state security forces, and that site selection is carefully considered. In addition, there has been an escalating trend over the past 1 - 2 years of alleged poisoning incidents, typically at girls' schools (approximately 30 cases reported nationwide).149 To date, evidence is not concrete about the nature of these incidents, who is involved, whether these are indeed chemical attacks, etc. Conclusive evidence of the use of chemicals has not been established based on soil or water tests, or medical examinations of the affected girls. This trend warrants further study to better understand the nature of these incidents. However, despite a lack of information around these cases, they have nonetheless increased the perceived security threat to female students. Unfortunately, whether anti-education in nature or not, any attack on a school creates concerns around the safety of education. Attacks on schools deter parents from sending their children back to school and may force schools to close down. A World Bank-funded CARE report from 2008 found that many schools (85%) stayed closed for 1-3 months following attacks.tso The report also found that in 5 out of the 8 provinces studied, female attendance was more likely to be affected by threats/attacks than male attendance. For example, female attendance dropped by 39% in He rat, compared to 1% among males, after attacks. Interestingly, threats/attacks affected male attendance to a greater extent than female attendance in Ghazni (68% of boys compared to 22% of girls) and Khost (58% of boys compared to 46% of girls).tst This warrants further study, to better understand the gendered dynamics at work in family decision-making regarding returning to school after attacks. 141 1bld. ~Ibid. 150 'Knowted1e on Fire -Attacks on Education In AfKhanlstan: Risks and Measures for Successful Mltlptlon.• (KIIbul: CARE, 2009139. mlbid,41. Women's Role Ia Ali~Jumlstan's Futare - Taldq Stack DfAclllevemeDb aad CDntlllued CballeDJe• I 81 Community Involvement Community engagement and support to education, especially for girls, can be a critical factor in girls' retention rates and attainment levels. Various education actors, including MoE, through the World Bank-funded Education Quality Improvement Program (EQUIP), and key NGOs supporting the education sector in Afghanistan, have utilized models of community engagement to support girls' education, in recognition of the strong role that family support and community attitudes have on their ability to attend school. These models have included the establishment, training, and support of School Shuras, School Management Committees, Parent-Teacher Associations, or Mothers' Fora. While various models exist, these committees often take on responsibilities related to monitoring their local schools, observing quality, teacher attendance, use of resources, child safety, and collectively making decisions related to their local school and the education of their children. Depending on the model, the committees are made up of parents, village elders, religious leaders, students, and school administrators. In many areas, women are able to participate as members of these committees. To date, the Social Mobilization Unit of EQUIP has established 12,712 School Management Shuras. Key NGOs implementing education programming have established more than 6,300 of such committeesfcouncils.tsz Community-based Education Due to the immense challenges of geography and culture, and the limitations of government resource and capacity at this time, in 2012 the MoE reaffirmed its commitment to Community-based Education (CBE), developing a policy and recognizing existing classes as part of the broader national education system. As can be seen in Table 7 above, CBE is the only form of education where national enrolment of girls outstrips that of boys, largely because boys are more likely to be permitted to attend government schools, where girls may not be for a variety of reasons. Due to the closeness of classes and the ability for communities to be heavily involved in their local CBE class, they may be more comfortable sending their girls to this kind of education, allowing CBE classes to reach out-of-school girls. CBE classes are located in local communities, "'Thlo fl1ure Include• dlltll from CARE,tlleSwedloh Committee for Afallanlotan, Save tile Children, BRAC, the Ala Khan Foundation. the international Rescue Committee, and catholic Rellef5ervloes. Women's Role In AJibmbtan'• F'lltve- 82 I Taldq Stack of Adllevemeats ud ~- ChalleDte• CUptm-3: l!ducdlon I 2013 usually in a room in a family's home, and a teacher is nominated by the community as a trusted person for teaching children. This is done in communities where the nearest government schools are still too far from a village, and is seen as an important tool for increasing levels of education in remote and rural areas, espedally where governmental presence is lightts3 CBE has been shown to disproportionately benefit girls, as they are more likely to miss out on school due to mobility constraints that come into effect when travel is required to get to school. A government school may be several hours' walk away, and only provides approximately 3 hours of instruction per shift in a day. This means that a child might be required to walk 4 hours or more for 3 hours of instruction. Many families do not view being away from home for 7 or 8 hours a day acceptable for girls. CBE classes are typically only a few minutes from their homes, at the home of a trusted member of the community. Some of the main criteria for establishing a Community-based School are: i) The host community must allow girls to attend the school; ii) The host community must be at least 3kms from the nearest government school; ii) It must provide appropriate shelter for the classes, and; iii) It must play an active role in establishing and partidpating in a School Shura.ts• By the end of 2014, MoE has committed to supporting 4,800 community-based classes directly, in areas where the conditions for establishing a formal government school cannot yet be met (with the aim of eventually establishing formal schools and transitioning the CBE classes).l55 This is in addition to CBE implementation by a set of key development partners. m"Policies ilnd Guidelines for Community-&ised EdUCiltion.• (Kabul: Ministry of Educiltion1 2012) 10. 154 1bld,12. ""Hattonol EduaJtlonal S!ra!rf~Jc Plan 2011).2014. (Kabul: Ministry of Educ•tlon, 2010). Women's Role Ia Ali~Jumlstan's Futare - Taldq Stack DfAclllevemeDts aad CDntlllued Claalleqes I 83 2013 Cbaptm-3 •l!ducatiDD Box 8: Community-based Education A broad set of NGOs have chosen to implement CBE as a means of increasing access to education in underserved areas, and reaching out-of-school girls. CBE implementers fadlitate establishing a class in a community and forming a School Shura (or School Management Committee), which nominates a teacher who is acceptable to the broader community. CBE has been shown to overcome some of the major bani.ers to girls attending school. namely the bani.ers of distance, mobility, safety, and time involved when government schools are too far from home. In addition, because CBE teachers are selected by the community, implementers find that there is broader trust in the person selected, and communities typically express high levels of satisfaction and ownership toward their local CBE class. In this model, girls can often attend school more consistently and for longer. A range of NGOs implement CBE in Mghanistan, often in partnership with each other. CBE implementers include UNICEF, CARE International. Save the Children.. Catholic Relief Services, the Aga Khan Foundation, the International Rescue Committee, the Swedish Committee for Mghanistan, and BRAC. These implementers have been supported by AusAID, USAID, CIDA, DFID, DANIDA, NZAID, SIDA, KOICA, Stichting Vluchtelin (SV), the Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration (BPRM), the Netherland's Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Jochnick Foundation, and Caritas Australia. Among these organizations, CBE has been implemented In 28 provinces, In support of nearly 13,000 classes. CBE lmplementers have typically provided teacher training (both In academic subjects and In pedagogy) to the community-selected teachers. Different implementers have incorporated various additional components into the model, including clustering CBE classes, linking CBE classes to government "hub schools", facilitating teacher-to-teacher peer learning circles, establishing adolescent reading centers to support students in continued learning after they graduate from CBE classes, and running mobile CBE classes for nomadic communities. CBE classes cover different grades depending on the location. Some classes have focused on Grades 1 - 3, while others cover all of primary school. One challenge in the CBE model is to begin addressing the widening gap between boys and girls in secondary education, preparing more girls for tertiary education. CARE International has introduced lower secondary into their CBE classes, an approach that is now being assessed and considered for expansion by other partners. Women'• Role In AJibmbtan'• F'lltve- 84 I Taldq Stack of Adllevemeats ud ~- Cllalleqes CUptm-3: l!ducdlon I 2013 Tertiary Education The number of women in universities has increased significantly since 2005. However, similar to the proportion of women at other levels of education, the proportion of women in university has remained the same. For the year 2011- 2012, the CSO reports that 14,811 (19%) of the 77,654 students in Mghanistan's 26 government universities and institutes of higher learning are women. For the same year, of the 34,713 students in the country's 43 private universities, there were 5,123 (14.8%) women.tS6 With government and private university figures combined, only 17.7% of all university students are women. While the actual number of women in tertiary education has nearly doubled, the proportion has not changed since 2003 when the World Bank reported that 19% of students in university were female.1S7 This demonstrates that the increase in male students in universities has outpaced the increase in female students; hence, while actual numbers of women in universities have increased, the absolute gap between the number of men and the number of women enrolled in universities is widening. The Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE) states that it aims to increase the overall enrolment to 115,000 students, and the proportion of women to 30%, by the end of 2014. 158 However, these targets are highly unlikely to be achieved, given the current levels. By comparison, women make up 65% of university students in Iran1S9 and 41.5% in India.t6o Looking back over the last five years, the CSO offers the following figures, which highlight the growing difference between male and female student numbers. "'At;hGniJttm stat/Jtl OWns the "'-"'•? Ru"" Wam~~n'•-to Land and~· (Koi:U, A!ifwn - ..h ond E..r..Uon Unit, 200S}20. ""rar alurthordlmmlan afwomon and land rf&hla In Afillantm"'- the Worid Bank'aliiO!iGoncHrca.ntry Asse:ssmem:~:Nafkw11~fmdPt:NMylltdul:llon-IMRolttlfWtlti!MOt~s~• ....!lind Rllfarm In Afillanlmn Golndar Aa.wmont.• {Kobul: UnHtld- !I,IIM!tfar lntllmltlanallle'fl!lap!TW11, 2012) 14. "'rblot2L . . A/r1111JNrtftn: Naf:SoMI ~ fmd Pt:NtHty RI!IIWCfol!- tht! Rille tlfWIJIN!n In ~sfutwi':.(Washii\I!On, D.C.: Worill S.nk, :ZOOS) 65-8. Women’s Role in Afghanistan’s Future - 102 Taking Stock of Achievements and Continued Challenges Most fanns in Mghanistan practice subsistence farming and struggle to produce for commercial markets. The pressure to provide food for the family ties laborers (male and female) to a traditional production chain which acts as a significant barrier to reforming women's place in agricultural production; there is little room to experiment or take risks by changing traditional production models when agriculture is so tightly linked to household survival. Farmers who own small plots of land are especially reluctant to try new technologies or techniques because the risk of failure far outweighs the potential benefits. Poorer households generally require greater involvement of female labor (and often in broader roles) than wealthier households, since they cannot afford to forfeit unpaid labor that could contribute to household livelihoods. The traditional division of labor is deeply embedded. Qualitative research conducted in 2009 among 360 rural households in Badakhshan, Bamyan, and Kabul provinces found that women were mainly involved in roles such as weeding. harvesting and post-harvest work such as threshing and cleaning seeds. Respondents said that these roles had not changed in living memory.199 While these roles may be limited, this still reflects a fairly broad and external participation for women, especially in weeding and harvesting. and is more representative of some northern and central provinces as compared to other regions. In some other regions, it is more typical for women to only participate in the post-harvest processing elements, because these can be done inside the household compound. A baseline social assessment of the Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock's (MAIL's) National Horticulture and Livestock Project (NHLP), which started in November 2012, profiled agricultural practices in 23 provinces, and noted some interesting variances.2oo For example, in Herat, cultivation and sales were primarily a man's role, while women were involved in drying fruit and shelling nuts. Broadly similar in Badakhshan, women do take part in the sale of some products, including vegetables. In Bamyan, Panjshir, and Daikundi, both men and women are involved in the cultivation of vegetables, cereals, and grains, and in Daikundi, orchards are harvested '"' Ashrall, Hedayatlllloh. "Gender dimension of agrlcultUIII and rural emplo)'mellt: s~J«(al {ocus onll/Qhan rura/...,men's txaJS ta tlflrir:ulturr and rural ckveJopmrmt sector.• Aft:hilnistan Nationill Development Strmcv. ll 20!11> 30!11> 50!11> • Female Women's RolelaAJIIumlstan's Flltare · Taldq Stack DfAclllevemeDts aad CDntlllued Claalleqes I 109 2013 1 Cbaptm" ... Word ud lmplvymeDt The below graph (Graph 23) is broken down by male and female public sector employees in each province. Once again, provincial differences are notable. He rat province has the greatest proportion of female civil servants, comprising 34% of government employees. In many regions there are virtually no female government employees - 2% in Khost and Paktia, 3% in Uruzgan and Kunar and 4% in Ghor and Paktika. Nimroz is an interesting case study. Despite being surrounded by conservative Pakistani Baluchistan in the south and Helmand Province in the east, Nimroz appears to have a comparatively egalitarian view on female employment in the Government- 31% of government employees are women. This may be due to the close proximity to Iran and the high proportion of Mghans who lived in Iran during the Taliban rule. The next graph (Graph 24), demonstrates a weak correlation between levels of female education and the number of female employees in the Government In Khost Province, for example, while almost a quarter of students are female (24%), only 2% of government employees are women. In Laghman, the difference is even more striking- 44% of students are female, but only 5% of government employees are women. Graph Z3: Percentap of Male and Female Employees by Province 10006 "1 1' 2 ~ l~ 3 1" "1 " 1 1 1 1~ " 1 " "'% 80% l " 3 " 60% ~ 9 ~ 9 % 9~ 9 ~ 9 ~ 1 9 40% " 8 M. 9 II' 7~ ~: 'f; il6 " 8 20% 9 " 9 " 9 ~ 9 ~ 9 ~ 19 " 8 " I s ~ 8% 8 " 8 " 8 " 7 !J6 0% Women's Role In AJilbmbtan'• Flltve · 110 I Taldq Stack of Adllevemeats IUid ~ued Cllalleqes • I • (Soum~: CSO 13!10, JfoB) 2~7 The weak coJTelatfon shown above suggests that factors other than die avaUabllity of educated women determine the proportion of female clvll servants at a provincial level. These factors may Include security concerns, cultural values, mobility constraints, non women-friendly environments within the workplace, a lack of chfldcare options, and early maniage rates, among other Issues. These Issues are discussed further under the below sub-heading •Other Employment Issues Affecting Women·. AB has been highlighted in bod! the health and education chapters (Chapters 2 and 3), and above related to agricultural extension workers, it is critical that women be employed in social service delivery sectors, in order to expand access to these services "'~-Y-201t..211.12.(1(1bll:c.m.I-Orpnla1lar\,2!CII:ij2JI.90!6iii-Ma_.ont ofl-onSystol!\•ofU!lO, Portlool c.r .. llar-(l.l'4llllltallld~- Mardi2Cl!. 2013 1 Cbaptm" ... Word ud lmplvymeDt for women and girls. Due to regional variances in security and accessibility, urban areas and more secure provinces tend to have significantly higher numbers of women working in social service delivery sectors (and the public sector in general). These are also the areas that have more access to higher levels of education for women, including professional training at TTCs, midwifery or nursing schools, TVET opportunities, etc. (for more information on TVET and vocational training, see p.90-2). This becomes a self-reinforcing cycle, in which provinces and areas with better female education opportunities have more women in service delivery, which allows more women and girls to access services, which in turn makes it more likely that they too will be able to continue into higher education and or training, and so on. The downstream effect on women of not having enough female health workers, teachers, legal professionals, agronomists, etc. has been discussed in the foregoing chapters, on p. 51 and p. 76 respectively, above under the sub-heading ·Rural Employment", and in the following chapter onp.148.This is a challenge that must be addressed through means of affirmative action and targeted efforts, in order to break this negative cycle. Private Enterprise Although agriculture and the public sector account for a large part of the workforce, non-agricultural private enterprise contributes to employing Afghanistan's workforce as well. Women tend to be severely underrepresented in private enterprise due to more acute barriers to their participation, since work in private enterprise sectors often depends on activities and networks of relationships that take place outside the home. As in many countries, as women increasingly enter the workforce, they are more likely to enter through social service or public sector jobs than they are in private enterprise. Key obstacles to women's success in private enterprise include, a lack of financial decision-making power, limited mobility, the necessity to conduct regular and time-consuming household chores and provide childcare, limited access to market-related knowledge, and more limited personal networks than men. As mentioned above, there is less acceptability related to women working in the private sector, as compared to the public sector. While some of these issues may be salient in all forms of women's employment, the latter two issues (limited knowledge and personal networks), are particularly critical for private enterprise. Most business transactions take place between men, so women often have very little understanding of the Women'• Role In AJibmbtan'• Fu.tve. 112 I Taldq Stack of Adllevemeats IUid ~ued CllalleDae• wider market, including demand dynamics and pricing norms.zos In addition, one of the conditions for accessing the job market in Mghanistan is to have a strong network of personal contacts, whether through a large family structure or outside relationships. In an environment where only a small minority of women participate in formal employment, women are unlikely to have large networks of personal or professional contacts; if a woman does work in the formal sector, there will not be many other women around her who do, and forging professional contacts with men is socially difficult In addition, a lack of mobility makes it hard for women to expand their network of relationships to potential business contacts outside of their immediate family groups. Despite this, a recent perception-based study conducted by Building Markets surveyed small and medium enterprise owners across all 34 provinces, and found that 98% of people say that the proportion of women in the private sector has increased significantly since 2001, and 93% say there are more women working in the private sector now than there were 2 years ago.zo9 While the data does not exist to statistically verify these perceptions, they represent a growing awareness of women in private enterprise. In addition, the recent Business Bottleneck Survey, conducted in Kabul and Balk provinces, found that 81% of respondents believed that more women should run a company, where only 12% believed that only men should run businesses.210 In order to assess the number of private non-agricultural enterprises in Mghanistan, a survey was conducted in 2009, among 2,334 commercial establishments.211 According to the surveyed establishments, the following trends existed among their staff: Table 11: WarUn' ProtiJeZI.Z Paid 37.6% Unpaid 62.4% Full-time 87.8% Not full-time 12.2% Male 79.5% Female 20.5% MaDallerlal 27.3% Non- al 72.7% Nationals 99.9% Foreigners 0.1% "'"Undernandllll Gender In Alrianlstan: A baseline and lnltlallmpactsllld'( for MISFA. • (K.obul: MISFA,2007) 43. "" "World Bank Afilhanistlln Country Dashboard." Aa:05sod DS lune 2D13. http·l/datrtpplcs wor1dbank orslfJnancJa!Jnduslpn/oountry/afHhanrstan Women's Role Ia Ali~Jumlstan's Flltare · Taldq Stack DfAclrlevemeDb aad CDntlllued Claalleqes I 115 microfinance clients in Afghanistan. of which 38% are women.219 For example, MISF.A. estabUshed In 2003, exists to promote and fund mlcroftnance lnlt!atl.ves. At present, MISFA has 195,649 active borrowers natl.onwtde, 58.9% of which are women.22o Research conducted among 400 MISFA clients In four provinces • Kabul. Nangarhar, Balkh and Herat • shows that the program has been successful In enhancing household security and empowering women who part!clpate.m Almost all female clients (99%) said that their level of self· confidence had increased after taking a loan. Similarly, in 2012 AREU studied 57 women who had participated in MISFA microfinance programming in Mazar+Sharif (Balkh Province), and found that access to microfinance loans had enhanced women's decision-making responsibility in the household.m As a MISPA partner, the First Microfinance Bank (FMFB) is also a key micro-loan provider. As of December 2012, PMPB has 54,000 borrowers, with 16% of them being women. -IN • A i l l h o - M i c n i f t - - . - 1 5 - 2 0 1 2 . b!!qc/Jwww•namrJdl •"M-noelnmtmartSu~~torN!JN--U(Idne,·-o:zAinel.OU. ~ml!!!,pnr.!!/, "'awey, M. MCeft'om • Reid l:lipement In A(ahanln.wt.• (KibiA: World Bank, 2012) 16. '"'"DoetWoMeft't Panlt:Tpatfot> In tile HlltlcNI Solld1rtty Prceramn.e Malee • Dlffl!renoe kllhel' ~.Net? Ac-Study In &alllh Prcmnoe.• (ltallul: Afllhln lluardland Ewlulftlon !kilt, 2012). Women’s Role in Afghanistan’s Future - 150 Taking Stock of Achievements and Continued Challenges Chapter 5 : Legal Rights and Voice 2013 While the program has struggled with the same issue discussed above in relation to DDAs (the discrepancy between official and active participation of women), it has been somewhat easier to facilitate more active participation due to the decreased challenges of mobility at community level. NSP meetings take place in home communities, and NSP projects are implemented locally. However, the majority of CDCs still have separate men's and women's meetings, creating a challenge for the sharing of information and the normalized participation of women. In some cases, it appears that there is limited cooperation between the male and female committees, and that they exist along parallel tracks. Some women CDC members have even noted that they have never been told the amount of funds that was allocated to the community.m The vast majority of CDCs select a male Treasurer, so funding decisions and ownership are almost always more with men than with women. Mobility constraints related to the procurement of project materials and contracting of services for projects affect women's participation as well. Women in the Peace Process Women participated in Mghanistan's two foundational Loya Jirgas (in 2002 and 2003), aimed at establishing the post-Taliban political system and proposing a Constitution. In 2002,12% of the delegates were women, and this figure rose to 20% in 2003. However, various high level events and bodies have had a varied track record on including women. For example, the London Conference in 2010 took place without any official Mghan female delegates, while the Peace Jirga in Kabul the same year saw women's representation reach 21%. Currently 9 of the 70 members of the High Peace Council are women (12%). Women's groups are advocating for 30%, which would be a total of 21.312 While women have been included in various conferences both in and outside of Mghanistan, many women are concerned that political settlements will be reached in private negotiations between the predominantly male parties to the conflict. and that key ·red linesH on women's rights and access to services will be compromised. Some fear that the space to be heard and to implement pro-women policies will be used as a bargaining chip in a potential power-sharing deaJ.m Jtllbid, 17. '" Nlj55en, Stefanle "The Peoce Proce55 and AfJihonlotan's Women.• (Kabul: Civil-Military Fusion Cent-., 2012) 3. 111 Fleschenbe:rs, Andrew. "Afshansltilln's Transltlon In the M.akln1: Perceptions ;nd Polley Stratqlesof Women Pilrliamentillrians:" IHeiric:h Boll Stiftunc, 2008) 16. Women’s Role in Afghanistan’s Future - Taking Stock of Achievements and Continued Challenges 151 2013 Chapter 5 : Legal Rights and Voice Security for Female Public Figures A list of high profile female public figures have been attacked or assassinated, including Safia Amajan, head of the Kandahar DoWA in 2006, Malalai Kakar, the most senior police officer in Kandahar in 2008, Zakia Zaki and Sanga Amaj, journalists killed in 2007, the assassination of Kandahar Provincial Council Member, Sitara Achakzai, in 2008, the Head of the Department of Women's Affairs in Nangarhar, in 2012, and Shaima Rezayee, journalist and tv moderator in 2005. In the latest round of elections in 2009-10, some women were not able to campaign at all, given the security environment in their constituency.m As noted in other chapters, security continues to limit women's participation and access, both in general, and as particular targets for those who oppose their participation in various aspects of public life. Women and Communication Technology In Afghanistan, access to media sources for information has increased significantly. Both men and women listen to the radio about the same amount, where 89% of the rural population and 85% of the urban population report having a radio. In urban areas, 89% of people have television, which usurps radio as a primary information source; however, in rural areas, this percentage drops to 26%.315 More than 70% of Afghans have mobile phones, and mobile phone coverage has increased 100% since 2005. Male and female cell phone users are close to equal (38% and 33% respectively), and 40% of all users are between the ages of 15-24 years old.316 Overall, approximately 80% of women have some access to a mobile phone (whether personal or shared).317 Of those who owned their own mobile phone, 67% had obtained it in the last 2 years, and of those who obtained a mobile phone in the last 1 year, 64% were under the age of 25.31 8 However, there continues to be a significant difference between rural and urban areas; only 26% of all users are in rural areas. Internet access is still limited, at only 2%.319 '"•Islamic Republic of Afsllanlstan Final Report. Presidential and Provincial council Elections.• (Kabul: European Union Election ObservMion Mission, 2009) 5. !1.!1 Fl'ilenkel, Er.~n, Emrys Schoemilker ilnd Sheldon Himelfillrb. •AfBhanistiln Media Assessment: Opporb.Jnities ilnd Cllallonps for Pl!acH>uildinc.• (Washincton.. D.C.: Unitad St3taslnstituta of Paaca, 2010) 15-16. !Uilbld,18. '" •connectlnt~to Opportunity: A Survey of Afshan Women's Access to Mobile Phone TechnoiOfY.• (Washlncton.. D.C.: ~ID, 2012) 6. Ibid. "'Ibid, p.19. Women’s Role in Afghanistan’s Future - 152 Taking Stock of Achievements and Continued Challenges Chapter 5 : Legal Rights and Voice 2013 Policy Implications As can be seen from the foregoing chapter, women's access to justice has not significantly improved since 2005. A serious coordinated donor and Government partnership is needed in order to make a notable improvement on such a protracted issue. Women have seen some gains in political participation and social voice although challenges persist, and gains are at risk of receding. Recommendations for improving women's access to justice, political and social voice include: 1. ConUnued Legal Reform- Pass the EVAW Law through Parliament, the newly drafted Family Law and the amended Land Reform Law, expanding legal reforms that provide greater rights for women. 2. Female Legal Professionals and the ANP - Invest in female legal professionals of various kinds. Invest in significant reform within the ANP and further empower FRUs to address gendel'-based violence cases as criminal cases. 3. Greater Awareness of the EVAW Law and Other Progressive Jurisprudence - Since an estimated 80% of cases are still adjudicated by traditional justice mechanisms, and awareness within the formal legal system is at times low, support is needed to gain a greater awareness of the prevailing legal systems and provisions that better protect women. 4. Data Collection - Develop a central database to record all relevant cases of crimes that are codified under the EVAW Law (to be expanded to capture laws codified under future legislation), such that cases can be systematically followed up, and the processing and outcomes of cases can be analyzed. 5. Support to a Legal Social Safety Net - Support shelters and their expansion to new provinces, along with greater availability of legal aid. Help shelters develop training. skills development, and other strategies that can help women safely and sustainably leave shelters. 6. Expand and Reform Quotas - Reform the quota system to clarify women's reserved seats vs. openly-contested seats, allowing women to take up seats beyond the allocated quota if they win their seats outright. In addition, as District and Village Councils become more formalized in future, ensure the establishment of a formal quota system at those levels. 7. Support Party Platforms that could Embrace Women's Issues Collectively and Support Female Candidates - Provide support to Women’s Role in Afghanistan’s Future - Taking Stock of Achievements and Continued Challenges 153 2013 Chapter 5 : Legal Rights and Voice both female and male reformist candidates and elected representatives to develop coalition positions around women's rights and development issues. B. Consider Further Afftrmat1ve Action Measures Beyond Quotas - Implement measures to help women with logistical barriers to participation in public life, including transportation support,. personal security, and access to information, among other support. 9. Establish a Target for Women in Appointed Positions - The Government should set minimum targets for appointing women to governor and mayoral appointed positions. Women’s Role in Afghanistan’s Future - 154 Taking Stock of Achievements and Continued Challenges Chapter 6: Conclusion Chapter 6 : Conclusion 2013 Chapter 6: Conclusion Women’s Role in Afghanistan’s Future - Taking Stock of Achievements and Continued Challenges 157 2013 Chapter 6 : Conclusion Women's rights, development, and participation in society have been central to the agenda of international involvement in Mghanistan, and the Government of Mghanistan has undergone significant reforms and expansion of services that have targeted and benefited women and girls. .A3 this report has demonstrated, these efforts have in some cases achieved quite dramatic results in a short period of time. Strong results for women and girls can be seen in Health (Chapter 2), Education (Chapter 3), and Public Voice (second portion of Chapter 5). At the same time, the report has also highlighted areas where significant improvement has been lacking. and a systematic approach to addressing some issues is still missing. This can be seen in the section on Legal Rights (first portion of Chapter 5), and in the chapter on Work and Employment (Chapter 4). In addition, given the current political timeline in Mghanistan, with progressive withdrawal of international security forces, and a future decline in aid, gains made in services and participation for women could be at risk Drawing on the report's sectoral analyses, the below overall observations can be made regarding critical factors for sustaining gains and pushing forward to narrow gaps between women and men in Afghanistan. Challenges to Sustain Achievements Post-2014 and Recommendations A Political Settlement Must Advance Gains for Women. In the key interviews undertaken to prepare this report, various development, humanitarian, and advocacy actors expressed concerns about the potential for women's place in society being used as a bargaining chip in a political settlement Strongest concerns were expressed about the education and justice systems, and the contested space they represent A political settlement is closely linked to security, which has been highlighted above as a major deterrent to women's access and participation. However, if greater stability is gained but rights are compromised to gain it, women may not be able to benefit from a more secure environment. In addition. concerns were expressed that whatever the political arrangements and commitments, the capacity to implement provisions for women and maintain the Rule of Law may deteriorate. Security Underpins Development and Participation for Women Across Sectors. In Afghanistan. lack of security remains one of the key barriers to women's access to services and attainment of societal participation. As the foregoing chapters have demonstrated, security concerns affect women's and Women’s Role in Afghanistan’s Future - 158 Taking Stock of Achievements and Continued Challenges Chapter 6 : Conclusion 2013 girls' access to health and education, their mobility, their comfort in public places and in the workplace, their physical safety, their ability to participate in public life, and their psychological well-being. An analysis of the NRVA 2007/DB regarding the linkage between service delivery and security suggests that the opportunity cost for girls, for whom the risk of violence-related harm is perceived as higher, increases disproportionately with conflict, leading households to invest relatively more in boysfmen. For example, girls' education rates correlate strongly with security concerns, as do child health outcomes,322 where areas with the strongest security problems consistently generate the worst results against these indicators. Good security overall proved to be a significant predictor of children's educational and health outcomes, positively correlated to literacy rates, school enrollment, and provision of vital health services (i.e. vaccinations and vitamin A supplementation). Specifically girls' educational attainments were disproportionately worse in highly insecure areas.323 Partly because of the variation in security around the country, there are strong regional variances in access to services. The above analysis is based on the NRVA 2007/08; however, since then the security situation in some previously-secure areas has further deteriorated. Within Declining Aid, More Internal Resources Must Be Allocated to Women's Needs. Another challenge to sustaining achievements to date and expanding them further will be to secure government funding to commit to programming that benefits women. The sustainability and expansion of services developed to date is critical, and external resources are set to gradually decline at a time when programs need to be built upon and scaled up. The programs in place at the moment have not yet reached their intended commitments, particularly to women and girls, and must continue to expand further to do so (for example, there are still education and health facilities with no female staff, still high numbers of out-of-school children, and still extensive work needed in the justice sector). Developing sustainable resources to maintain the development effort and push forward in lacking areas will be a key challenge for the years to come. Female Human Resources are Critical for Women Across Sectors. As the report notes across chapters, one of the recurring themes throughout is the '" 'lnterac:llve Data VISUIIIIzatlon and Analysis on Wellbeing. Conflict and Access to Services" [Powerl'olnt presentation for the inter-Ministry meetinc of the Povorty AnolyJis and Policy Committee meetinll· World Bank, October 10, 2012• .m Ibid. Women’s Role in Afghanistan’s Future - Taking Stock of Achievements and Continued Challenges 159 2013 Chapter 6 : Conclusion negative effect of a lack of qualified female professionals in key sectors. In health, women have a more difficult time accessing healthcare and medical information where there are no or not enough female midwives, nurses, and doctors; in education, girls are often not permitted to attend school, especially in the higher grades, if there is no female teacher to instruct them; as related to employment, women face challenges in the workplace or struggle to develop successful businesses because they must operate in an environment with few women and without a strong professional network; in the justice sector, women have difficulty reporting cases or receiving due process, without qualified women to report to and be assisted by. A lack of qualified female professionals across all sectors contributes to a negative cycle that prevents other women from accessing services and participating in public life. Further workforce planning and human resource development is critical across sectors, linking higher education systems to various other sectors for cooperative planning. Affirmative action measures are needed to recruit students into key fields from far-flung provinces, with the requirement that they must practice in their home province upon completion of their training. This is particularly critical for women. Other provisions, such as secure accommodation and competitive salary packages are also needed to incentivize professionals in resource-rich areas to serve in areas of most need. Targeted Action Is Needed to Address Geographic lnequaUty. As mentioned above, an issue related to human resources is the uneven distribution of qualified personnel in general, and in particular of female professionals, around the country. As various chapters in this report have highlighted, women are strongly represented in some sectors in Kabul and other urban areas, but are virtually absent from remote or highly insecure areas. This is a difficult cycle to break; in those regions girls are likely to have less access to education, and therefore are less likely to attain professional qualifications. It is equally challenging to incentivize professional women from other places (i.e. urban centers) to go to work in very remote or insecure areas to fill this gap. Afghanistan needs creative solutions for training female professionals from challenging areas, and strongly incentivizing professionals from other places to go to difficult areas as well. Engage the Religious Establishment tn Key Issues of Women's Partidpation. They are still the people which communities are most likely to look to for advice and guidance in many areas, and as such are a critical community to be engaged in these processes. Women’s Role in Afghanistan’s Future - 160 Taking Stock of Achievements and Continued Challenges Chapter 6 : Conclusion 2013 Women's Access to Justice Requires Concerted Effort, Given Slow Progress. Although it has been treated in chapter 5 in particular, violence against women is also a cross-cutting issue. High levels of violence against women, along with social stigma, can cause physical and psychological impact, which impedes women's ability to pursue other opportunities across sectors. In this way, the issues explored in the first portion of Chapter 5 (HLegal Rights") are critical to all other sections as well. Women’s Role in Afghanistan’s Future - Taking Stock of Achievements and Continued Challenges 161 2013 References References PrintMedja Afghanistan Chamber of Commerce and Industries, 2013. "Business Bottleneck Survey." (Kabul). Afghan Independent Human Rights Commission, 2.006. Comparative Ana{ysis ofFamily Law in the Context of Islam (Kabul). Afghan Independent Human Rights Commission, 2006. Roundtable Conference on Comparative Analysis of Family Law in the Context oflslam. (Kabul). Afghan Independent Human Rights Commission, 2.011. "Fifth Report Situation of Economic and Soctal Rights In Afghanistan." (Kabul). Afghan Management and Marketing Consultants and the Microfinance Investment Support Facility for Afghanistan. "Gender Mainstreaming in Afghanistan's Microfinance Sector: An Impact Assessment· (Kabul). Afghan Research and Evaluation Unit, 2005. "Who Owns the Farms? Rural Women's Access to Land and Livestock." (Kabul). Afghan Research and Evaluation Unit, 2.005. Guide to Parliamentary Elections. (Kabul). Afghan Research and Evaluation Unit, 2006. "Urban Livelihoods in Afghanistan.• (Kabul). Afghan Research and Evaluation Unit, 2009. Smith, Deborah and jay Lamey.·A Holistic justice System for Afghanistan." (Kabul). Afghan Research and Evaluation Unit, 2011. The Impact of Microfinance Programmes on Women's Lives: A Case Study in Kabul Province." (Kabul). Afghan Research and Evaluation Unit, 2012. "The Impact of Microfinance Programmes on Women's Lives: A Case Study in Balkh Province." (Kabul). Afghan Research and Evaluation Unit, 2012. "Equal Rights, Unequal Opportunities: Women's Participation in Afghanistan's Parliamentary and Provincial Council Elections." (Kabul). Anwari, Hangama, Cheshmak Farhoumand-Sims and Krista Nerland "Assessing Gendered Access to justice in Afghanistan." (Kabul: The North-South Institute, 2009). APPRO and the Law and Order Trust Fund for Afghanistan, 2010. "Growing Pains: Women in the Afghan National Pol!ce.• (Kabul). Ashraf\, Hedayatullah. 2009. "Gender dimension of agriculture and rural employment: special focus on Afghan rural women's access to agriculture and rural development sector.• Afghanistan National Development Strategy. (Kabul, Government of Afghanistan). ASIEN, 2007. Schneider, I. "Recent Developments In Afghanistan Family Law." Azarbaijani-Moghaddam, Sippi, 2009. "A Study of Gender Equity through the National Solidarity Program's Community Development Councils." (Kabul: DACAAR). Asia Foundation, The, 2012. Afghaniston in 2012: A Survey ofthe Afghan People. (Washington, D.C.). Heath, Andrew, Christia Fotini, and Ruben Enikolopov, 2012. "Empowering Women: Evidence from a Field Experiment in Afghanistan.• (Kabul: World Bank). Building Markets and United States Agency for International Development, 2013 (forthcoming). Study on women in the private sector. CARE Internationa~ 2009. "Knowledge on Fire -Attacks on Education in Afghanistan: Risks and Measures for Successful Mitigation." (Kabul). Women’s Role in Afghanistan’s Future - 162 Taking Stock of Achievements and Continued Challenges References 2013 CARE International, 2010. • Afghanistan Case Study: Meaningful Participation and Empowerment for Women in Post-conflict Governance and Peace-building: Lessons Learned." (Kabul). CARE International and UNICEF, 2013 (forthcoming). Study on attacks on schools. Central Statistics Organization, 2007/B. National Risk and Vulnerability Assessment. (Kabul). Central Statistics Organization, 2009. "Integrated Business Enterprise Survey.• (Kabul). Central Statistics Organization. 2009. "Repon on the Survey of Women and Men in Decision· making.. (Kabul). Central Statistics Organization. 2012. Afghanistlln Stalistical Yearbook 2011·2012. (Kabul). Fleschenberg, Andrew, 2008. • Afghansitan's Transition in the Making: Perceptions and Policy Strategies of Women Parliamentarians." (Heinrich Boll Stiftung). Fleschenberg, Andrew, 2009. ·Afghanistan's Parliament in the Making: Gendered understandings and practices of politics in a transitional country." (Kabul: Heinrich Boll Stiftung). Food Security and Agriculture Cluster, 2013. "Gender Equality: Policies and Programmes". (Kabul). Fraenkel, Bran, Emrys Schoemaker and Sheldon Himelfarb, 2010. •Afghanistan Media Assessment: Opponunities and Challenges for Peace-building.· (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace). Free and Fair Elections Forum of Mghanistan, 2011. "Women and Afghanistan's 2010 Parliamentary Elections.• (Kabul). Giustom, A, 2010. "Nation-Building is Not for All: The politics of education in Mghanistan". (Kabul: Afghanistan Analysts Network). Giustom, Antonio and Claudio Franco, 2011. "The Battle for the Schools: The Taleban and State Education.• (Kabul: Mghan Analysts Network). Global Rights · Partners for justice, 2008. "Uving with Violence: A National Repon on Domestic Abuse In Mghanlstan." (Kabul). Government of Mghanistan, 2004. Constitution ofAfghanistan. (Kabul). Greeley, M. and Chaturvedi, M., 2007. "Microfinance in Mghanistan: A baseline and initial impact study for MISFA" (Kabul: MISFA). Heath, jennifer. "Land of the Unconquerable". (University ofCallfornla Press). Human Rights Watch Afghanistan, 2012. "I Had to Run Away." (Kabul). International Labor Organization, 2009. Key lndicaWT$ ofthe Lo.bor Mo.rket; Sixth Edition. International Cooperation in Higher Education. 2011. ·A Master Programme in Educational Research and Development In Mghanlstan 2008 - 2010: Experiences and Outcomes." (Kabul). Khan, Ahmad, 2012. "Women & Gender in Mghanistan." (Kabul: Civil-Military Fusion Centre). Lourdes, Beneria, 2003. Gender, Development and Globo.lizo.tion (New York and London: Routledge). Ministry of Education, 2010. National Educational Stratsgic Plan 2010-2014. (Kabul). Ministry of Education, 2012. "Policies and Guidelines for Community· Based Education." (Kabul). Mln!stryofllducatlon. 2013. EMIS data (unpublished). Ministry of Public Health, 2008. Annual Report 1387. (Kabul). Ministry of Public Health, 2010. Afghanist:Jin Mort:JIIity Survey. (Kabul). Ministry of Public Health, 2012. National Priority Progro.m: Heo.lth for All Afghans. (Kabul). Ministry of Publlc Health, 2013. HMIS data (unpublished). Women’s Role in Afghanistan’s Future - Taking Stock of Achievements and Continued Challenges 163 2013 References Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development, 2012. "Gender in Development: Local Self Governance Institutions and the Participation of Women in Afghanistan (A Pilot Study)." (Kabul). Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development, 2012. "Post-Implementation Monitoring Quarterly Report" (Kabul). Ministry ofWomen's Affairs, 2008. Women and Men in AfghanistJJn: Baseline Statistics on Gender. (Kabul). Nijssen, Stefanie, 2012. "The Peace Process and Afghanistan's Women: (Kabul: Civil-Military Fusion Centre). Nixon. Hamish. "Subnational State-building in Afghanistan,• 2008. (Kabul: Afghan Research and Evaluation Unit). Norris, P., 2006. "Opening the Door: Women Leaders and Constitution Building in Iraq and Afghanistan.• (Cambridge: Harvard University, JFK School of Government). Oxfam, 2011. "High Stakes: Girls' Education in Afghanistan.• (Kabul). Oxford University Press and the World Bank, 2001. "Engendering Development: Through Gender Equality in Rights, Resources, and Voice." (New York). Samuel Hall Consulting. 2012. "Social Assessment of the National Horticulture and Livestock Project". (Kabul). Sayed. Ghulam Dastagir, 2011. "Mental Health in Afghanistan: Burden. Challenges and the Way Forward." (Kabul: World Bank). Todd C.S., et al., 2007. "HIV, Hepatitis C, and Hepatitis B Infections and Associated Risk Behavior in Injection Drug Users.• (Kabul). UNAMA/OHCHR. 2011. ·A Long Way to Go: Implementation oftbe Elimination of VIolence Against Women Law in Afghanistan." (Kabul). UNICEF, 2010/11. Afghanistan Multi-indicator Cluster Survey. (Kabul). United Nations Development Program, 2013. • Afghanistan..· Human Development Report 2013, The Rise ofthe South: Human Progress ofa Diverse World- Summary. UN Office on Drugs and Crime, 2007. •Afghanistan: Female Prisoners and Their Social Reintegation." (Kabul). UN Office on Drugs and Crime, 2010. "Corruption in Afghanistan: Bribery as Reported by the VIctims.• (Kabul). United States Agency for International Development, 2011. • Afghanistan Technical and Vocational Education Training (TVET) Providers Inventory.• (Kabul). USAID, 2012. "Connecting to Opportunity: A Survey of Afghan Women's Access to Mobile Phone Technology." (Washington, D.C.). United States Agency for International Development, 2012."Land Reform in Afghanistan Gender Assessment• (Kabul). Wilder, Andrew. "A House Divided? Analyzing the ZOOS Afghan Election."(Kabul: Afghan Research and Evaluation Unit). World Health Organization, 2006. The World Health Report 2006: Working togetherfor health. (Geneva). World Health Organization, 2012. World Health St:JJtistics. World Bank, 2005. AfghanistJJn: National Reconstruction and Poverty Reduction- the Role of Women in JlfghanistJJn's Future. (Washington. D.C.). World Bank. 2010. Building on Ear!Y Gains In Afghanlswn's Health, Nutrition, and Population Sect:JJr: Challenges and Options. Women’s Role in Afghanistan’s Future - 164 Taking Stock of Achievements and Continued Challenges References 2013 World Bank, 2010. "Tracer Studies: Training of Chronically Poor Women in Badakhshan, Bamyan, Sarnangan, Kandahar, and Khost, in NSDP." (Kabul). World Bank, 2011. More and Better jobs In South Asia. (Washington, D.C.). World Bank, 2011. "Understanding gender In Agricultural value chain: The cases of grape/raisins, almonds, and saffron in Afghanistan". (Washington. D.C.). World Bank, 2011. "Implications of World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development for the World Bank Group" (unpublished- attached for the September 24,2011 Development Committee Meeting). World Bank, 2012. "Afghanistan Economic Update" (unpublished). (Kabul). World Bank, 2012. World Development Report 2012: Gender Equallt;y and Development (Washington, D.C.). World Bank, 2012. "Gender Equality in South Asia: Rising to the Challenge: WDR 2012 Companion- South Asia (unpublished). World Bank, 2012. South Asia Social Development Unit, Dissemination Note No. 3. World Bank, 2012. "Interactive Data Visualization and Analysis on Wellbeing, Conflict and Access to Services" (Power Point presentation for the inter-Ministry meeting of the Poverty Analysis and Polley Committee meeting). World Bank, 2013. "Challenges and Opportunities for Inclusive Growth in Mghanistan" (forthcoming). (Washington, D.C.). "Gender in Developing the Agriculture and Livestock Sectors." Mghanistan Gender Mainstrearning Implementation Note Series, No. 2. (Washington, D.C.). Women’s Role in Afghanistan’s Future - Taking Stock of Achievements and Continued Challenges 165 2013 References Online On order ofappearanc;e tn the text> "Pakistan," 28 April2013. http;//en,worldstatjnfo/Asia/Pakjstan/, "Iran.• 28 Aprtl2013. http·//en worldstat!nfo /As!allran. "Pakistan,• 28 April2013. http·//datatQpics wor)dbank,rn:JI:I&«:nder/count:zylpakjstan "Iran," 28 April2013. http;/ldatatopics.worldbank.org/gender/countzy/iran.-islamic-rep. "The Childbirth Injury, Obstetric Fistula; A Problem that Can Be Solved,• 28 April2013. htt;p·//count.ryofflce unfpa.o~!af&han!stan/2011/12128/4393/the chlldb!rth Injury obmtrt c fistula a problem that can be solved "Iran,• 28 April2013. htt;p;fldatatopics.worldbank.ore/pnder/couno:yfiran.-islamic-Tel!. "Tajikistan,· 28 Apri12013. http;//da!atopics.worlc!bank.o~/llen