Report No. 78983 FRAMING THE GLOBAL LANDSCAPE OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION AND TRAINING PROGRAMS June 30, 2013 . . Education Department Human Development Network . . Standard Disclaimer: . This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/ The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. . Copyright Statement: . The material in this publication is copyrighted. 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All other queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to the Office of the Publisher, The World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA, fax 202-522-2422, e-mail pubrights@worldbank.org. 1 Table of Contents Executive Summary .................................................................................................................................................................. i Context of this Study .............................................................................................................................................................. 1 Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................................................ 1 Chapter 1 – About the Study ............................................................................................................................................... 3 Motivation.............................................................................................................................................................................. 3 Objective ................................................................................................................................................................................. 3 Methodology ......................................................................................................................................................................... 4 Search Strategy ............................................................................................................................................................... 4 Selection of Program Evaluations ........................................................................................................................... 5 Limitations ........................................................................................................................................................................ 5 Structure of the Study ....................................................................................................................................................... 6 Audience ................................................................................................................................................................................. 6 Chapter 2 – Literature Review ........................................................................................................................................... 7 On Entrepreneurship ........................................................................................................................................................ 7 Defining Entrepreneurship ........................................................................................................................................ 7 Entrepreneurship as a Panacea? ............................................................................................................................. 7 Entrepreneurship and Economic Development................................................................................................ 7 Government Enabling Entrepreneurship ............................................................................................................ 8 Entrepreneurship Promotion Beneficiaries ....................................................................................................... 9 On Entrepreneurship Education and Training ....................................................................................................... 9 Mindsets and Skills for Entrepreneurship........................................................................................................... 9 Can Entrepreneurship Be Learned? ..................................................................................................................... 10 Emergence of Education and Training for Entrepreneurship ................................................................... 10 Defining Entrepreneurship Education and Training .................................................................................... 10 Focus of Entrepreneurship Education and Training ..................................................................................... 10 Entrepreneurship Education and Training Beneficiaries ........................................................................... 11 Scope of Entrepreneurship Education and Training..................................................................................... 11 Governments Supporting Entrepreneurship Education and Training .................................................. 12 Entrepreneurship Education and Training Research ................................................................................... 12 Areas for Further Entrepreneurship Education and Training Research .............................................. 13 Implications for Policy .................................................................................................................................................... 13 Chapter 3 – Conceptual Framework .............................................................................................................................. 15 Types of EET Programs .................................................................................................................................................. 15 Developing a Conceptual Framework for EET ..................................................................................................... 16 Describing the Framework by Dimension.............................................................................................................. 17 2 Outcome Domains........................................................................................................................................................ 17 Program Context .......................................................................................................................................................... 20 Participant Characteristics....................................................................................................................................... 22 Program Characteristics ........................................................................................................................................... 25 Chapter 4 – EET Program Landscape and Analysis................................................................................................. 30 Entrepreneurship Education – Secondary Education Students (EESE)..................................................... 30 Program Landscape .................................................................................................................................................... 30 Analyzing EESE Programs ............................................................................................................................................. 31 Outcomes ......................................................................................................................................................................... 31 Program Characteristics ........................................................................................................................................... 33 Moderating Factors ..................................................................................................................................................... 34 Entrepreneurship Education – Higher Education Students (EEHE) ........................................................... 40 Program Landscape .................................................................................................................................................... 40 Analyzing EEHE Programs ............................................................................................................................................ 40 Outcomes ......................................................................................................................................................................... 40 Program Characteristics ........................................................................................................................................... 43 Moderating Factors ..................................................................................................................................................... 44 Entrepreneurship Training – Potential Entrepreneurs (ETPo) .................................................................... 50 The Program Landscape ........................................................................................................................................... 50 Analyzing ETPo Programs............................................................................................................................................. 51 Outcome Domains........................................................................................................................................................ 51 Program Characteristics ........................................................................................................................................... 53 Moderating Factors ..................................................................................................................................................... 55 Entrepreneurship Training – Practicing Entrepreneurs (ETPr) ................................................................... 63 The Program Landscape ........................................................................................................................................... 63 Analyzing ETPr Programs ............................................................................................................................................. 64 Outcome Domains........................................................................................................................................................ 64 Program Characteristics ........................................................................................................................................... 67 Moderating Factors ..................................................................................................................................................... 69 Chapter 5 – Implications for Program Design and Implementation ................................................................ 80 Summary of Findings ...................................................................................................................................................... 80 Who do EET programs target? ............................................................................................................................... 80 What outcomes do EET programs aim to achieve? ....................................................................................... 81 What dimensions shape these outcomes? ......................................................................................................... 81 At what cost are outcomes achieved?.................................................................................................................. 82 Implications for Program Design ............................................................................................................................... 82 3 Considering Implementation .................................................................................................................................. 84 Policy Implications ........................................................................................................................................................... 84 Entrepreneurship Education- Secondary Education Students ................................................................. 84 Entrepreneurship Education- Higher Education Students ......................................................................... 84 Entrepreneurship Training – Potential Entrepreneurs ............................................................................... 85 Entrepreneurship Training – Practicing Entrepreneurs ............................................................................. 85 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................................... 85 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................................................................ 87 ANNEXES................................................................................................................................................................................ 102 ANNEX 1 ǀ List of EET Programs.............................................................................................................................. 103 ANNEX 2 ǀ PROGRAM OUTCOMES .......................................................................................................................... 105 ANNEX 3 ǀ PROGRAM CHARACTERISTICS .......................................................................................................... 108 ANNEX 4 ǀ MODERATING FACTORS ...................................................................................................................... 113 ANNEX 5 ǀ PROGRAM NARRATIVES ...................................................................................................................... 115 BizWorld | the Netherlands ............................................................................................................................. 116 Network for Teaching Entrepreneurship (NFTE) | Boston chapter United States ................... 120 Bødo | Norway ....................................................................................................................................................... 124 Business Plan Thesis Competition ǀ Tunisia ............................................................................................. 127 McGuire Center for Entrepreneurship at the University of Arizona | United States ................ 131 Entrepreneurship Development Centre | Bosnia-Herzegovina ........................................................ 135 Economic Empowerment of Adolescent Girls and Young Women (EPAG) | Liberia ............... 138 TechnoServe ǀ El Salvador ................................................................................................................................ 141 FINCA | Peru ........................................................................................................................................................... 144 National Rural Savings Programme (NRSP) | Pakistan ........................................................................ 148 Interise | United States ...................................................................................................................................... 152 ANNEX 6 ǀ PROGRAM DESCRIPTIONS .................................................................................................................. 155 Entrepreneurship Education – Secondary Education Students (EESE) ............................................. 155 Entrepreneurship Education – Higher Education Students (EEHE) ................................................... 165 Entrepreneurship Training – Potential Entrepreneurs (EETPo) .......................................................... 175 Entrepreneurship Training – Practicing Entrepreneurs (EETPr) ........................................................ 191 LIST OF BOXES Box 1 - Building Socio-emotional Skills: BizWorld (Netherlands) ................................................................... 18 Box 2 - Improving Entrepreneurial Capabilities: FINCA-Peru........................................................................... 19 Box 3 - Becoming Entrepreneurs: Student Training for Promoting Entrepreneurship (Uganda) ...... 19 Box 4 - Enhancing Firm Performance: Interise (United States) ........................................................................ 20 4 Box 5 - Political Support through Partnership: Start and Improve Your Business (Vietnam) .............. 22 Box 6 - The Gender Effect: National Rural Savings Programme (Pakistan) .................................................. 24 Box 7 - Entrepreneurial Intentions: Entrepreneurship Development Center (Bosnia-Herzegovina)24 Box 8 - Training the Trainers: Network for Teaching Entrepreneurship (United States) ..................... 27 Box 9 - Coaching as Follow-up: Business Plan Thesis Competition (Tunisia) ............................................ 27 Box 10 - Examining the Formation of Human Capital in Entrepreneurship: A Meta-Analysis of Entrepreneurship Education Outcomes – Bruce c. Martin, Jeffrey J. McNally and Michael J. Kay ....... 41 Box 11 - What Are We Learning from Business Training and Entrepreneurship Evaluations around the Developing World? – David McKenzie and Christopher Woodruff .......................................................... 52 Box 12 - Human Capital and Entrepreneurial Success: A Meta-Analytical Review – Jens M. Unger, Andreas Rauch, Michael Frese and Nina Rosenbusch ............................................................................................ 66 Box 13 - A Critical Review of the Effects of Entrepreneurship Training in Developing Countries – Matthias Glaub and Michael Frese.................................................................................................................................. 67 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 ⎼ Entrepreneurship versus business management education ......................................................... 11 Figure 2 ⎼ Classifying Entrepreneurship Education and Training Programs............................................... 16 Figure 3 ⎼ Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................................................. 17 Figure 4 ⎼ Outcome Domains............................................................................................................................................ 18 Figure 5 – Contextual Factors ........................................................................................................................................... 21 Figure 6 ⎼ Participant Characteristics........................................................................................................................... 23 Figure 7 ⎼ Program Characteristics ............................................................................................................................... 26 Figure 8 - Conceptual Framework: Detailed Structure ......................................................................................... 29 Figure 9 - Entrepreneurship Education – Secondary Education ....................................................................... 32 Figure 10 ⎼ Entrepreneurship Education – Higher Education ........................................................................... 42 Figure 11 -Entrepreneurship Training –Potential Entrepreneurs ................................................................... 52 Figure 12 - Entrepreneurship Training – Practicing Entrepreneurs ............................................................... 66 Figure 13 ⎼ Summary of EET Program Analysis ....................................................................................................... 83 LIST OF TABLES Table 1 - Entrepreneurship Education – Secondary Education Students ...................................................... 31 Table 2 - Entrepreneurship Education – Secondary Education Students (EESE) ...................................... 36 Table 3 - Entrepreneurship Education - Higher Education Students .............................................................. 40 Table 4 - Entrepreneurship Education – Higher Education EEHE .................................................................... 45 Table 5 - Entrepreneurship Training – Potential Entrepreneurs ...................................................................... 50 Table 6 –Available Information on Costs ǀ ETPo Programs ................................................................................. 55 Table 7 - Entrepreneurship Training – Potential Entrepreneurs (ETPo) ...................................................... 57 Table 8 - Entrepreneurship Training – Practicing Entrepreneurs (ETPr)..................................................... 63 Table 9 - Available Information on Costs ǀ ETPr Programs.................................................................................. 68 Table 10 - Entrepreneurship Training – Practicing Entrepreneurs (ETPr) .................................................. 71 5 Executive Summary Entrepreneurship Promotion There is a growing interest in the role that entrepreneurship can play as a catalyst to achieve economic and social development objectives, including, growth, innovation, employment, and equity. Entrepreneurship can manifest within an economy in a number of ways, and includes both formal as well as informal economic activities for the purposes of creating wealth. In turn, entrepreneurship can contribute to economic development through the high-growth enterprises, or in the case of necessity-driven entrepreneurship, enterprises can serve as an important source of income and employment for vulnerable populations. The variety of potential beneficial spillovers of entrepreneurship in turn focuses attention to interventions that stimulate individuals’ decisions to become and succeed as entrepreneurs. A current focus of entrepreneurship promotion is the role of mindsets and skills in enabling individuals to both recognize and capitalize on entrepreneurial opportunities. Research suggesting that several of these mindsets, knowledge, and skills can be learned; situates educational institutions and training programs firmly within the broader discussions around entrepreneurship promotion. Entrepreneurship Education and Training A number of international, regional, national, and local actors are taking part in the global experiment of entrepreneurship education and training (EET). Today, EET is recognized as an established field of study, growing in parallel with the interest of policymakers and students. Taken as a whole, EET represents academic education or formal training interventions that share the broad objective of providing individuals with the entrepreneurial mindsets and skills to support participation and performance in a range of entrepreneurial activities. EET encompasses a heterogeneous array of interventions, including formal academic education programs as well as stand-alone training programs. Both of these may aim to stimulate entrepreneurship as well as support individuals and enterprises already engaged in entrepreneurial activities. EET beneficiaries include both potential and practicing entrepreneurs who are: traditional students enrolled in degree programs, early school leavers, adult learners, individuals with doctoral degrees, minority groups, women, and rural as well as urban populations About the Study Despite a global interest in education and training for entrepreneurship, many (if not most) high- profile efforts have not been rigorously evaluated and global knowledge about these programs’ impact remains thin. Responding to this need, this study sets out to identify and organize the landscape of EET program types as well as the dimensions that shape program outcomes, including: program characteristics, participant characteristics, and program context. Informed by a body of EET research, this study proposes a Conceptual Framework and applies the Framework to conduct an analysis of both EET research and a global sample of program evaluations. The study is guided by four key questions about the global landscape of EET programs: i) who do EET programs target? ii) What outcomes do EET programs aim to achieve? iii) What dimensions shape these outcomes? iv) At what cost are outcomes achieved? Flowing from the observations of this analysis, this study describes a set of practical insights about EET program design and implementation across target groups, intended outcomes, and contexts. Typology for EET Programs EET programs can be classified under two related but distinct categories: education and training programs. Broadly speaking, both aim to stimulate entrepreneurship, but they are distinguished from one another by their variety of program objectives or outcomes. While differing from program to program, entrepreneurship education (EE) programs tend to focus on building knowledge and skills about or for the purpose of entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship training (ET) programs, by contrast, tend to focus on building knowledge and skills, explicitly in preparation for starting or operating an enterprise. Advancing the classification of EET, programs can also be distinguished by their target audiences. The academic nature of EE means these programs target two groups in particular: secondary education students and higher education students, the latter including both graduate and undergraduate students enrolled in formal degree-granting programs. By contrast, ET programs target a range of potential and practicing entrepreneurs who are not part of formal, degree- granting programs. Potential entrepreneurs targeted by ET programs can include -- at one end of the range -- vulnerable, unemployed, inactive individuals, or necessity driven potential entrepreneurs and at the other end, highly skilled, innovation- led, or opportunistic potential entrepreneurs. Likewise, the range of practicing entrepreneurs runs from individuals owning informal, micro- and small enterprises, all the way to high-growth potential enterprise owners. Classifying Entrepreneurship Education and Training Programs Conceptual Framework for EET Determining the outcomes of EET programs is a complex and multidimensional challenge, regardless of whom a program targets. The task is complicated in part because the intended outcomes of EET programs can vary substantially from program to program. Therefore, this study draws upon existing EET research to propose a way of conceptualizing both the results EET programs seek and the factors that can shape those outcomes. ii The Conceptual Framework categorizes EET outcomes into a series of four domains. The first, entrepreneurial mindsets refer to the socio-emotional skills and overall awareness of entrepreneurship associated with entrepreneurial motivation and future success as an entrepreneur (e.g. self-confidence, leadership, creativity, risk propensity, motivation, resilience, and self-efficacy). The second, entrepreneurial capabilities, refer to entrepreneurs’ competencies, knowledge, and technical skills associated with their entrepreneurship (e.g. management skills, accounting, marketing, and technical knowledge). The third, entrepreneurial status refers to the temporal state of a program beneficiary as measured through entrepreneurial activities and beyond (e.g., starting a business, becoming employed, and achieving a higher income). Lastly the fourth, entrepreneurial performance, refers explicitly to how indicators of a venture’s performance have changed as a result of an intervention (e.g. higher profits, increased sales, greater employment of others, higher survival rates). The Conceptual Framework also outlines three dimensions which available research has shown to influence the range of EET outcomes: (i) the context within which programs are implemented, (ii) the characteristics of individual participants, and (iii) the functional characteristics of the program itself. Conceptual Framework i) Program Context The Conceptual Framework accounts for a series of contextual influences shown to impact the likelihood of a program’s capacity to generate outcomes. These include the economic context, the political context as well as the Cultural context. ii) Participant Characteristics The Framework accounts for the moderating influence of what participants bring with them coming into a program. This includes an individual’s profile, basic demographic identifiers and factors iii related to a participant’s personality or traits; education; interest and intentions; as well as behaviors while enrolled within a program (e.g. attrition). iii) Program Characteristics The Conceptual Framework distinguishes among four major categories of program characteristics: program design; trainers and delivery; content and curriculum; and wrap-around services. EET Program Landscape Analysis The Framework was applied to conduct an analysis of a global sample of EET programs, based on available evaluations. Given the heterogeneity of the EET landscape, the analysis is conducted by target group to enable a more focused discussion, and breaks down the sample of programs as follows: EE secondary education students, EE higher education students, ET for potential entrepreneurs, and ET for practicing entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurship Education – Secondary Education Students (EESE) This study identified and examined a total of nine entrepreneurship education programs targeted at secondary education students. Unfortunately, for these nine programs, the only impact evaluation available targeted children in the final grade of primary school, indicating a significant lack of rigorous evaluations on secondary education programs. This evaluation demonstrated moderate positive and significant effects on the development of non-cognitive skills (such as self-efficacy, the need for achievement, risk-taking propensity, persistence, analyzing, creativity, and proactivity) among the students who received the intervention when compared to the control group. Across the landscape of EESE programs, measured outcomes were concentrated in the entrepreneurial mindset domain. Evaluations indicated that these programs can achieve positive changes in outcomes associated primarily with foundational entrepreneurial mindsets and the range of socio- economic skills that literature associates with entrepreneurship. Self-confidence, locus of control, leadership, creativity, risk propensity, motivation, resilience, and self-efficacy are particularly common. EESE program characteristics are influenced by already being within secondary schools. As such, many of these programs demonstrate a degree of functional collaboration with schools themselves or with the broader education system through program integration into standard curricula. Furthermore, an EESE program can also be part of a broader or more national roll out, in which the program is being adopted into curricula on a mass scale. EESE program evaluations focus on the need for teachers trained in the specific pedagogies and content of EESE programs. In terms of contextual factors potentially influencing mindset and skills acquisition, program evaluations cite the socioeconomic level of community and school as well as the relative quality of instruction, which are issues not uncommon to broader discussions of contextual influences on student learning in education research. Entrepreneurship Education – Higher Education Students (EEHE) This study identified and examined a total of ten entrepreneurship education programs targeted at higher education students. There was additionally a meta-analysis indicating that there is a relationship between entrepreneurship outcomes and academic-focused EET interventions. Of these ten programs, impact evaluations were available for two programs. Both impact evaluations iv provide compelling results for the capacity of EEHE programs to foster positive effects in mindsets and capabilities, but produce mixed results around entrepreneurial status. One intervention produced strong impacts on participants’ self-reported business skills and networking proxies, but indicated only a small positive increase in the probability of being self-employed and there was no evidence that the program significantly affected overall employment. The evaluations of the other EEHE programs appear to also reflect promising results in the mindsets and capabilities domains. Findings from the other evaluations of EEHE programs are heavily concentrated in the mindsets and capabilities domains and evaluations also indicate promising results in the mindsets and capabilities domains. On the whole, the evaluations of EEHE programs provide less robust insight on which programs influence indicators in the entrepreneurial status and performance domains. Across EEHE programs, general business education, entrepreneurship awareness, marketing, and accounting are common areas of curricular focus. A number of the evaluated programs place emphasis on the knowledge and skills required to develop a business plan as well as contribute to the strategic development of an enterprise. To facilitate this learning, several EEHE programs use business plan competitions and enterprise simulations. Common EEHE wrap-around services include mentoring and coaching, typically from entrepreneurs, as is the case with the BEP and BPTC programs. These types of wrap-around services focus on exposing students to innovation-driven entrepreneurs, suggesting that several EEHE programs are looking to cultivate high-growth potential entrepreneurs and enterprises. Self-selection and selectivity are at the center of participant behavior dynamics for EEHE programs. Entrepreneurship Training – Potential Entrepreneurs (ETPo) This study identified and examined a total of 16 entrepreneurship training programs targeted at potential entrepreneurs. Of these 16 programs, impact evaluations were available for seven programs and in addition, the analysis was informed by insights from relevant meta-analyses and systematic reviews. One such review indicated that some of the stronger effects of ETPo programs relate to helping potential owners launch new businesses more quickly. The targeted outcomes of the other evaluated ETPo programs are primarily concentrated in the entrepreneurial status domain and to a lesser extent the entrepreneurial performance, capabilities, and mindsets domains. With regard to entrepreneurial status, several of the evaluations demonstrate mixed-- but promising-- results around the capacity of these programs to improve employment, income, and savings for beneficiaries. While few evaluations look explicitly at rates of new business start-ups, many use proxies for business start-up, such as self-employment and increased business income. Among the most promising results in the firm performance domain was enhancing business practices, with several program evaluations indicating improved record keeping, formal registration, access to new loans, and a more strategic orientation of the business Nonetheless, there was little evidence that training fostered the creation of high-revenue or high-employment firms in the long run. Lastly, some program evaluations also gave attention to the effects on various socio-emotional skills and entrepreneurial awareness. Several program evaluations cited increases in participants’ self-confidence and teamwork, and one impact evaluation found mixed results for a range of indicators related psychological and social well-being of participants. Focus on such indicators serves to reinforce that many ETPo program evaluations cover interventions aimed at improving the immediate, material well-being of vulnerable populations. In line with these objectives, a number of the ETPo programs are designed to target vulnerable groups, including women, unemployed youth, and welfare recipients. The characteristics of ETPo programs in turn reflect the diversity of individuals these programs target and outcomes they v pursue. In some cases the training is embedded within a broader support program that may include a number of services in addition to training including grants, conditional cash transfers, and intensive follow-ups. Across these programs the content ranges from business knowledge to entrepreneurial skills to financial literacy and accounting to marketing, sales, general management skills to vocational and life skills. Most ETPo programs appear to include some wrap-around services. According to available ETPo evaluations, the training components that combine grants with activities such as internships and mentoring services have higher impacts than simple training programs. Program outcomes are cited as being influenced by factors relating to local economic conditions and infrastructure, including access to finance and access to markets. Entrepreneurship Training – Practicing Entrepreneurs (ETPr) This study identified and examined a total of 25 entrepreneurship training programs targeted at practicing entrepreneurs. Of these programs evaluations, 11 were impact evaluations with an experimental design. In addition to the program evaluations, the ETPr program analysis is informed by insights from relevant literature, including four meta-analyses and systematic reviews. The most common stated objectives of ETPr programs relate to the firm performance outcome domain, which corresponds to the immediate needs of the target audience -⎼ practicing entrepreneurs. Common targeted performance objectives include increases in profits, employees, and productivity, as well as business expansion in markets, financing, investment, and the implementation of better business practices and innovations. Despite being the most targeted program objective, ETPr program evaluations indicated mixed results around firm performance. In terms of firm profits or revenues, evaluations found limited effects. For example, one impact evaluation did not demonstrate higher profits or revenues; however, difference-in-difference specifications did find a positive, but small impact on enterprise revenues. Some evaluations demonstrated more promising results on this indicator depending on the type of training that was delivered. Mixed findings from evaluations on the impact of training on enterprise survivorship reflect the findings of available meta-analyses and systematic review. One program evaluation suggested training raised the probability of enterprise survival by 8 or 9 percentage points, while another evaluation found no impact. A systematic review found relatively modest impacts of training on survivorship among existing firms. Program evaluations and reviews indicated that few studies find significant impacts on profits or sales, but do find modest effects on practicing entrepreneurs’ decision to implement better business practices. Several program evaluations and meta-analyses give attention to the promise of ETPr programs to enhance trainees’ entrepreneurial capabilities (knowledge and skills), by shedding light on how these capabilities may ultimately contribute to better entrepreneurial performance. One meta-analysis finds a significant relationship between EET and entrepreneurship-related human capital assets and entrepreneurship outcomes, while another indicates that while programs can improve knowledge; this does not necessarily lead to related gains in performance and status outcomes. As is the case with other EET program types, there is considerable heterogeneity across the characteristics of ETPr programs. Several ETPr programs appear to be linked to a particular micro- finance institutions or commercial banks and a number of evaluations describe programs with a particular sector or target group focus. The scale and duration of ETPr programs ranges considerably as well, from serving the proprietors of nearly 35,000 MSEs to the highly selective programs serving 4-6 beneficiaries per cohort and there is considerable variation in the common areas of content (financial literacy and accounting, marketing and sales, management skills, and strategic planning). Over half of these program evaluations indicated that the program offered some kind of wrap-around service linked to accessing finance or financial assistance, which proved to be important during program implementation. In some cases, programs offer incentives for vi participation and retention, and others deploy a highly selective vetting process to attract suitable participants and combat attrition. ETPr programs cited the broader economic environment as an opportunity and a constraint. Additionally, cultural moderators, such as attitudes towards gender, were also identified as influencing outcomes. Implications for EET Program Design and Implementation The analysis of programs according to program type and target group reveals a set of insights to consider about what tends to characterize programs within each category:  Target Groups within Target Groups – Within secondary entrepreneurship education programs there is a differentiation between programs that target “select” groups of students versus programs that target broader student populations. For higher education participants students may participate in a program as an elective course or capstone activity; students may participate in a degree/certificate granting entrepreneurship program; or students may participate in EE as an extracurricular activity, such as a business plan competition. For potential entrepreneurs, entrepreneurship programs aim to recruit a range of participants -- from potential high-growth or opportunity-driven entrepreneurs to necessity-driven self-employed entrepreneurs. Among entrepreneurship training programs targeting practicing entrepreneurs, interventions target a range of participants -- from high- growth entrepreneurs to necessity, self-employed entrepreneurs.  A Range of Outcomes - There are a number of objectives that EET programs target within the broader domains of entrepreneurial mindsets and capabilities as well as entrepreneurial status and performance. Across program types, there is an increased emphasis on outcomes in the status and performance domains; and among EE programs, there is also a notable emphasis on mindsets (and the associated outcomes of socio- emotional skills and entrepreneurship awareness).  Importance of Context - Both relevant research and EET program evaluations signal the importance of context in the capacity of programs to meet their objectives. The importance of context is even discussed in evaluations that are randomized controlled trials, where it is unclear if similar outcomes would accrue if a program were implemented elsewhere. The analysis also suggests the prominence of particular contextual factors can depend on the outcomes being measured.  Information on Program Costs and Finance - Within the literature and program evaluations, there is a paucity of information on the costs and financing of EET programs. Further, the information that is available is rarely comparable. In most cases, the costs of EET programs are a function of the institutions responsible for implementation as well as associated principles of cost recovery.  Using the Framework to Guide Design Options - Clairity about target groups and desired outcomes can help focus program design choices that align program design to the needs of participants and their particular context. Implications for Policy When reflecting on the policy implications of the study, an initial question to consider is whether the government should be involved in the provision, financing, or promotion of EET programs: vii  Secondary Education Students – The context demands some government role, at least within public institutions or institutions using national curricula. The relationship between labor market performance and socio-emotional skills is documented in a body of research thus lending creditability to the assertion that some programs may offer a public good, in turn justifying government intervention and support.  Higher Education Students - Government intervention might be important in some contexts, particularly within public institutions and one can again return to the issue of how entrepreneurship education can be pointed to as a public good-- whether in equipping students with relevant skills and/or providing students with the capacity to innovate or bring innovative products or processes to market.  Potential Entrepreneurs - Government involvement is most commonly characterized as directly funding -- or enabling other entities to finance -- entrepreneurship training programs. Since these types of programs often target specific (often vulnerable) populations for whom the government may already be generally interested in supporting, the public good is more closely tied to program objectives such as enhancing equity and reducing poverty. In this sense, the policy implications should be grounded in the efficacy and effectiveness of policy alternatives that are present in these contexts (e.g. conditional cash transfers, fostering wage employment) for furthering these same objectives.  Practicing Entrepreneurs - The policy implications for programs targeting practicing entrepreneurs who are in vulnerable populations echo considerations for programs geared toward potential entrepreneurs of similar backgrounds. For programs targeting high- growth potential entrepreneurs, despite an interest in economic spillovers such as employment and innovation – the government’s role is better reserved for creating the space for the financing, providing private entities to train, and fostering a business environment that enables entrepreneurial activity. Given the government’s practical and political limitations of “picking winners,” selecting and training participants a role better filled by the market and the private entities. Amidst the global interest in education and training for entrepreneurship, available and reliable information on program outcomes is relatively sparse. However, through an analysis of programs, this study is able to offer a focused and structured discussion around what generally characterizes these programs when they target particular groups of beneficiaries, seek to achieve certain objectives, and are delivered in various contexts. The study illustrates the challenge of looking at EET as a one-dimensional, blunt policy instrument, when the global landscape of programs reveals a complex and heterogeneous collection of programs. viii Context of this Study Over the last 20 years, entrepreneurship education and training (EET) programs have mushroomed, given their promise and potential to promote entrepreneurial skills and attitudes. While the number of such programs continues to expand worldwide, global knowledge about these programs’ impact remains thin. The objective of this study is to identify and catalogue the range of EET program types as well as the program dimensions that shape program outcomes, including: program characteristics, participant characteristics, and program context. Informed by a body of EET research, this study presents a Conceptual Framework for EET programs and applies the Framework to conduct an analysis of both EET research and a global sample of program evaluations. Building off the observations of the analysis, this study describes a set of practical insights about EET program design and implementation across target groups, intended outcomes, and contexts. The importance of this topic is reflected within the World Bank’s Education Sector Strategy 2020, Learning for All: Investing in People’s Knowledge and Skills to Promote Development (World Bank 2011) and responds directly to Step Four of the Skills Toward Employment and Productivity (STEP) Framework. Specifically, this study corresponds to the goal of encouraging entrepreneurship and innovation (World Bank 2010). This study also aligns with the Bank’s Social Protection and Labor Strategy 2012-2022, Resilience, Equity and Opportunity (World Bank 2012), and complements a new multi-sector work program being led by the Bank’s Social Protection Network (HDNSP) -- Supporting Self-Employment and Small-Scale Entrepreneurship: Creating and Improving Alternatives to Wage Employment. This study builds upon the existing multi-sector effort that examines the broader population of entrepreneurship promotion programs, including but not limited to EET. This study is financed by a Trust Fund from the Bank-Netherlands Partnership Program (BNPP). Acknowledgements This study was prepared by a team led by Alexandria Valerio (World Bank) and composed of Brent Parton (World Bank) and Alicia Robb (Kauffman Foundation) with support from Maria Ariano (World Bank), Shiranthi Gnanaselvam (World Bank), Teal Pennebaker (World Bank) and Sebastian Monroy Taborda (World Bank). This study was developed in close collaboration with a team of experts from the Thunderbird School of Global Management led by Amanda Bullough (Assistant Professor of Entrepreneurship and Leadership, Thunderbird School of Global Management), and composed of Dina Abdel Zaher (Assistant Professor of Management, University of Houston Clear Lake), Berkley Roberts (Client Director of Strategic Projects and Impact Division, Thunderbird School of Global Management), and Laura Libman (consultant at Tech Talk Ink and CEO of Tia Foundation). The written pieces contained within this study were edited by Marc De Francis (DeFrancis Writing & Editing). We appreciate the overall support of Elizabeth King (Sector Director, Human Development Network) and Harry Patrinos (Sector Manager, Human Development Network) of the World Bank. Helpful peer review comments were provided by the following World Bank colleagues: Louise Fox, Margo Hoftijzer, Mattias Lundberg, Michel Welmond, and Evan Burfield (Chairman Start-up DC of the Start-up America Partnership). The team appreciates the thoughtful advice and guidance of a number of colleagues, including: Diego Angel Urdinola, Stefanie Brodmann, Pedro Cerdan Infantes, Yoonyoung Cho, Robin Horn, Helen Craig, Wendy Cunningham, Peter Darvas, Keiko Inoue, Esperanza Lasagabaster, David Margolis, Victor Macias, Ana Ruth Menezes, Marta Milkowska, [1] Mateo Morgandi, David Robalino, Maria Laura Sanchez Puerta, Halsey Rogers, Jee-Peng Tan, Quentin Wodon, and Cecilia Zanetta from the World Bank, Carlos Herran from the Inter-American Development Bank, Vanessa Beary (Harvard University) and Victor del Rio (Consultant). The team is also thankful for the overall assistance received from Marie Madeleine Ndaw and Elise Egoume- Bossogo. The team would like to thank all of the members and organizations on the Advisory Council set up to review the study, comprised of experts on entrepreneurship education and training from both industry and academia. The following members have contributed significant knowledge, feedback, and expertise to this study: Peter Bamkole (Director, EDC Pan-African University, Enterprise Development Center), Debbi Brock (Assistant Professor of Entrepreneurship and Marketing, Wingate University of Charlotte, North Carolina); Jaime Casap (Education Evangelist, Google, Inc.); Shelly Esque (Vice President in the Legal and Corporate Affairs Group and Director of Corporate Affairs, Intel); Rich Leimsider (Director of Fellowship and Alumni Programs, Echoing Green); Alyse Nelson (President and Chief Executive Officer, Vital Voices Global Partnership); Bob Nelson (Professor Emeritus, College of Education, University of Illinois); Guy Pfefferman (Founder and Chief Executive Officer, Global Business School Network); Minet Schindehutte (Associate Professor of Entrepreneurship, Entrepreneurship and Emerging Enterprises, Whitman School of Management, Syracuse University); and George Solomon (Associate Professor and Co-Director of Center for Entrepreneurial Excellence, George Washington University). Finally, the team would also like to thank the leaders of organizations featured in the Program Narratives. The following have contributed significant knowledge, feedback, and expertise to these narratives: BizWorld’s Catherine Markwell (CEO); Pauline van Dulken (Commercial Director, Jong Ondernemen, BizWorld Licensee); Bodø Graduate School of Business’ Gry Agnete Alsos (Associate Professor, University of Nordland); Business Plan Thesis Competition’s Stefanie Brodmann (Economist, World Bank); Economic Empowerment of Adolescent Girls and Young Women’s Sarah Elizabeth Haddock (Knowledge Management Officer, World Bank), and Peter Darvas (Senior Education Economist, World Bank); Entrepreneurship Development Centre’s Selma Cilimkovic (Market Research Officer, Partner Microcredit Foundation) and Miriam Bruhn (Economist, World Bank); FINCA Peru’s Iris Lanao Flores (CEO) and Viviana Salinas (Manager of Solutions for Human Development); Interise’s Jean Horstman (CEO); McGuire Entrepreneurship Program’s1 Patty Sias (Director, University of Arizona’s Eller College of Management); National Rural Savings Programme’s Rashid Bajwa (CEO); Network for Teaching Entrepreneurship’s Tracy Mehu - Hammonds (Program Manager), Alyssa Miller (Public Relations Consultant), and Jennifer Green (Executive Director, NFTE New England); Start and Improve Your Business’ Merten Sievers (Global Coordinator/Specialist, ILO) and Eva Majurin (Monitoring Officer, ILO); TechnoServe’s Andrew Eder (Marketing and Communications Manager) and Oscar Artiga (Central American Regional Director). 1 Formerly Berger Entrepreneurship Program. [2] Chapter 1 – About the Study Motivation There is a growing interest in the role that entrepreneurship can play as a catalyst to achieve economic and social development objectives, including, growth, innovation, employment, and equity. Accordingly, there is an expanding body of literature documenting the potential contributions of entrepreneurship to economic and social development -- offering a complex picture of what constitutes entrepreneurship, the societal contributions of entrepreneurial success, and the factors driving or constraining the success of entrepreneurs. An increasing area of interest in this field is how a range of actors—including governments, the private sector, and international organizations—can bolster entrepreneurs’ success and progress on broader socio-economic goals. The potential beneficial spillovers of entrepreneurship and the potential success of entrepreneurs have garnered attention—provoking interest in interventions that stimulate individuals’ decisions to become and succeed as entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurship promotion efforts can include the easing of business environment constraints, enhancing access to finance and credit, as well as the provision of support to strengthen business practices and enterprise management. Embedded within a number of entrepreneurship promotion activities are efforts that aim to develop mindsets, knowledge, and skills associated with entrepreneurial success. Research suggests that several of these mindsets, knowledge, and skills can be learned; thus situating educational institutions and training programs firmly within the broader discussions around entrepreneurship promotion. Education and training for entrepreneurship encompasses a heterogeneous array of interventions, including formal academic education programs and stand-alone training programs. Both of these may aim to stimulate entrepreneurship as well as support individuals and enterprises already engaged in entrepreneurial activities. These interventions can target a range of individuals and have a variety of program objectives, from enhancing socio-emotional skills (e.g. locus of control and self-confidence among secondary education students), to teaching business plan development to graduate students, to providing training in bookkeeping to subsistence farmers. The diversity of these interventions reflects the variety of who can be considered “entrepreneurs.” Despite a global interest in education and training for entrepreneurship, many (if not most) high- profile efforts have not been rigorously evaluated. This has left critical gaps in information about the outcomes across interventions and, in particular, what is working and what is not. These gaps flow, in part, from the sheer heterogeneity of entrepreneurship programs. The corresponding lack of comparable data makes gauging the impacts across programs a challenge and complicates understanding their cost and effectiveness. In order to avoid wasted resources, efforts are needed to: (a) strengthen the foundation of quality studies through rigorous evaluations of existing entrepreneurship education and training interventions, and (b) catalogue the global landscape of interventions to enable a coherent and structured discussion of program outcomes and practices. Objective This study examines the range of entrepreneurship education and training interventions, herein referred to as entrepreneurship education and training (EET). EET includes both the activity of transmitting specific mindsets and skills associated with entrepreneurship, as well as education and training programs that seek to engender various entrepreneurship outcomes. As a working definition for this study, EET represents academic education or formal training interventions that [3] share the broad objective of providing individuals with the entrepreneurial mindsets and skills to participate in entrepreneurial activities. The objective of this study is to identify and organize the landscape of EET program types as well as the dimensions that shape program outcomes. This includes program characteristics, participant characteristics, and program context. Informed by a body of EET research, this study proposes a Conceptual Framework and uses the Framework to analyze both EET research and a global sample of program evaluations. Building on the observations of the analysis, this study describes a set of practical insights about the design and implementation of EET programs across groups of interest, intended outcomes, and contexts. In addition to this paper, this study includes a set of supplementary research products:  A Database of Programs that contains a global sample of EET program evaluations; and  Program Narratives that profile selected programs to illustrate the dimensions of EET programs in practice. Methodology Four key questions about the global landscape of EET programs guided this initial inquiry into EET research:  Who do EET programs target?  What outcomes do EET programs aim to achieve?  What dimensions shape these outcomes?  At what cost are outcomes achieved? To respond to these questions, this study draws upon two principal sources of information: (a) a review of available literature and research, including meta-analyses and (b) a review of the specific programs’ evaluations. Annexes 2, 3, and 4 provide an in-depth look at the program dimensions that contributed to the development of the Conceptual Framework. Search Strategy To identify EET literature in peer-reviewed academic journals, the team conducted systematic searches of electronic databases (e.g. EBESCO, EconPapers, JSTOR, Web of Science, Web of Knowledge, ProQuest, and Google Scholar) using a set of relevant key words and search terms (e.g. entrepreneurship education, entrepreneurship training, self-employment competencies, entrepreneurship, self-employment, entrepreneurial intentions, entrepreneurialism, entrepreneurial attitudes). The team also conducted web searches to identify organizational and practitioner-oriented reports and articles on relevant research institutions’ and international organizations’ websites (e.g. Global Entrepreneurship Monitor, Kauffman Foundation, International Labor Organization, Regional development banks, OECD, EU, World Bank), as well as various EET program websites. Lastly, approximately 16 primary interviews were conducted with members of the Advisory Council to identify noteworthy research and programs. The Advisory Council includes practitioners, academics, and thought-leaders in the entrepreneurship field, who have helped guide the research team throughout the duration of this project. [4] Selection of Program Evaluations This search strategy identified 230 EET program evaluations for more in-depth review. From this collection of programs, 87 programs had a program evaluation that met the following criteria:  Had an explicit definition of its expected outcomes and targeted goals;  Had outcomes expressed in some measurable manner (e.g., number of business start-ups, higher income); and  Had collected credible information on participants’ outcomes. The rigor of the available evaluations ranged from weak to strong. This study categorized program evaluations according to three tiers of rigor:  Tier 1 evaluations are randomized, controlled experiments with an experimental design;  Tier 2 evaluations have a quasi-experimental design; and  Tier 3: evaluations are principally surveys of program participants, including tracer studies that vary in the range of time examined, as well as monitoring and evaluation reports that rely largely on administrative data. It is important to note that the tiers of rigor do not relate to the quality or strength of the program per se, but rather to the method of the program evaluation itself. The literature review and Conceptual Framework drew from both the search strategy’s body of research and the 87 EET program evaluations. The analysis of EET programs (Chapter Four), however, used 60 of the 87 program evaluations. These 60 evaluations were selected because they explicitly featured an EET program and had sufficient information on program characteristics and outcomes. The remaining 27 evaluations looked at broader entrepreneurship promotion efforts that included EET, but not as a central component. Given this study’s exclusive focus on EET, these 27 evaluations were ultimately excluded from the analysis section of the study. Of the 60 EET program evaluations that met the inclusion criteria, there were 21 Tier 1 programs, 10 Tier 2 programs, and 29 Tier 3 programs. Among the 60 program evaluations, 19 programs were classified as entrepreneurship education programs, while 41 were classified as entrepreneurship training programs. All 60 programs are listed in Annex 1. Some of the program evaluations cover programs that are now closed, or were time limited by design. Other program evaluations did not examine a program in its entirety, and instead focused on particular outcomes or aspects of a program. Evaluations rarely aligned with the full scope of the program and its outcomes -- even in cases where evaluations had a random experimental design that could provide insights about which specific components of a program worked or which did not. Limitations  Coverage of research. This study does not claim to provide an exhaustive examination of the considerable research available on entrepreneurship. Furthermore, given the sheer number and scope of EET programs in operation today, the sample of programs cannot be considered comprehensive and is limited to insights emerging from published, available information about specific programs. [5]  Rigor of program evaluations. The team acknowledges the limited rigor of program evaluations, with few evaluations using randomized controlled experiments and quasi- experimental design. Furthermore, “many evaluations suffer from low statistical power, measure effectiveness only within a year of training, and experience problems with survey attrition” (McKenzie and Woodruff, 2012, p. 1). Even for those studies employing more rigorous methods, issues exist around their validity and applicability across contexts, an issue highlighted by Pritchett and Sandefur (2013).  Isolating which program dimension led to success. Although an evaluation may reveal whether a program has achieved a desired outcome, rarely did evaluations explain what aspect of the program contributed most to the outcomes achieved. In other words, one often cannot trace whether the reason for the outcomes achieved was primarily related to the instructor, the curriculum, the wrap-around services, the participant, or other factors. Most programs and their corresponding evaluations fell into this category.  Availability of information on cost and financing. Information on the cost and financing of EET programs was scarce. In several cases, implementing organizations considered this information to be proprietary in nature. In the cases where information was available, it was rarely comparable across target groups, program types, and implementation contexts. Few evaluations gauged the cost-effectiveness of programs or program elements. Structure of the Study This study is organized into five chapters:  Chapter two summarizes major findings and trends in EET research, particularly around the rationale for investing in EET and the potential role of government in EET programs.  Chapter three sheds light on the difference between entrepreneurship education (EE) and entrepreneurship training (ET), and proposes a Conceptual Framework for analysis.  Chapter four analyzes the global landscape of EET programs, using the Conceptual Framework and looking specifically at the achievement of outcomes, specific program characteristics, and the role of contextual factors;  Chapter five summarizes the study’s findings, and lays out potential implications for policymakers. The chapter also presents a roadmap for informing EET program design and implementation, and proposes areas for further research. Audience This study is intended to contribute to the international dialogue on entrepreneurship. The desired audience is broad, with a primary focus on policymakers, practitioners, and World Bank staff. This information is meant to broaden understanding of existing EET programs, identify directions for improvement, and inform dialogue around including EET in education and training strategies. The secondary audience for this paper is the public at large. [6] Chapter 2 – Literature Review On Entrepreneurship Defining Entrepreneurship Entrepreneurship is a globally recognized phenomenon lacking a single precise definition. Early in the 20th century, Schumpeter (1934) discussed the role of entrepreneurship in promoting innovation and implementing change in an economy by introducing new products or processes. Kirzner (1973) defines entrepreneurship as a process of discovery; the acting upon previously unnoticed—and often marginal—profit opportunities. Some definitions tie entrepreneurship only broadly to specific economic activities, describing a process of opportunity recognition to create value and act upon that opportunity (Schoof, 2006). Klapper, Amit, and Guillen (2010) describe how, from a practitioner standpoint, entrepreneurship is generally understood as a process of creating new wealth, but for the purpose of measuring entrepreneurship, the definition narrows to the initiation of economic activities in the form of a legal (formal) enterprise. Unbound by the need to empirically measure entrepreneurship activity per se, this study proposes a definition that is inclusive of both formal as well as informal economic activities (including self-employment) for the purposes of creating wealth. This broader definition provides space for a comprehensive investigation of the range of activities and individuals, which the nature of this study demands. Entrepreneurship as a Panacea? From employment to poverty reduction to innovation, entrepreneurship is tied to a number of pressing global, economic imperatives (Brock and Evans, 1989; Acs, 1992; Carree and Thurik, 2003; World Economic Forum 2009; ILO, 2011, Bandiera, 2012). For example, Birch (1979) cites entrepreneurship as a critical driver of job creation, and suggests that entrepreneurship is the largest single source of new job growth in both developed and developing economies (Fritsch, 2004; Acs and Armington, 2006; Schramm, 2009). Additionally, entrepreneurship is identified as a mechanism for achieving stable income flows and increased profits for vulnerable populations (Hermes and Lensink. 2007; Karlan and Valdivia, 2011). Furthermore, a body of research draws linkages between entrepreneurial activity, innovation, and technological change (Acs and Varga, 2005; Van Praag and Versloot, 2007). Despite assuming a place in dialogue around job creation, poverty reduction, and innovation, the relationship between entrepreneurship, entrepreneurs, and these various economic objectives is complex. With regard to employment, it is suggested that the bulk of job creation is within microenterprises that experience high failure rates, which can compromise net job creation (World Bank, 2012c). Moreover, while entrepreneurship may contribute to income generation for the vulnerable, Gindling and Newhouse (2012) indicate that as countries develop, many of these individuals are absorbed into wage and salaried employment -- jobs that remain the prominent driver of growth. On the innovation front, large, established firms are typically more innovative -- investing more in research and development and launching new products and services (World Bank, 2012c). Entrepreneurship and Economic Development Despite a more nuanced picture of the relationship between entrepreneurship and various economic objectives, a body of literature investigates the relevance of entrepreneurship to economic development (Wennekers and Thurik, 1999; Vyakarnam, 2009; Klapper et al., 2010). Acs et al (2008) summarizes one of the more prominent contributions to this relationship -- the “U [7] shaped” theory. The theory posits that as countries develop from a factor-driven stage of development to an efficiency-driven stage, entrepreneurial activity actually decreases; however, as countries develop further from the efficiency-driven stage to the innovation-driven stage, entrepreneurial activity again increases. While indicating that the U-shaped theory is sound for describing a decline in self-employment as countries develop, Acs et al. (2008) suggests it is inadequate for understating entrepreneurship more broadly, where it is important to differentiate between “necessity entrepreneurship” -- starting a business after being pushed into it -- and “opportunity entrepreneurship” -- starting a business to exploit a perceived business opportunity. The imperative of this differentiation aligns with Kilby (1971) who was among the first to suggest that entrepreneurs manifest within in an economy in a number of ways, and Farstad (2002) who makes a similar distinction between “subsistence entrepreneurs” and “innovative entrepreneurs.” This suggests that entrepreneurship’s contributions to economic development can accrue differently depending on the type of entrepreneurship. Klapper and Richmond (2009) underscore the importance of entrepreneurship in contributing to economic development through the growth of enterprises. These enterprises can generate employment, spillovers, and structural economic change. By contrast, necessity or subsistence entrepreneurs own micro and small enterprises (MSEs) that are unlikely to expand beyond a few employees (Nichter and Goldmark, 2009). Despite the lack of enterprise growth, this type of entrepreneurship can still contribute to development, since these enterprises are an important source of income and represent a substantial share of production and overall employment in the developing world (Grimm et al., 2012). Necessity entrepreneurship and self-employment are often terms used interchangeably. But Levine and Rubenstein (2013) suggest that self-employment unto itself demands differentiation between the incorporated self-employed (formal sector, tend to earn more than salaried counterparts) and unincorporated self-employed (informal sector, tend to earn less than salaried counterparts). While a body of literature differentiates between necessity and opportunity entrepreneurship, new research suggests that these classifications are not necessarily destiny, and that in some cases necessity entrepreneurs share characteristics with growth-oriented entrepreneurs. The Grim et al. (2012) study, based in seven cities across West Africa, indicates that in between successful entrepreneurs (whose enterprises grow) and necessity entrepreneurs (whose enterprises do not) are a number of “constrained gazelles.” The “constrained gazelles” share the low capital and low profit characteristics of necessity entrepreneurs, but have the skills and behaviors of successful entrepreneurs (with enterprises that grow). These findings resonate with Gindling and Newhouse (2012) who also found shared characteristics across successful and less successful entrepreneurs. Government Enabling Entrepreneurship There is a wide body of research associated with understanding the constraints to entrepreneurial success. Klapper et al. (2009) describes how regulations related to the ease of starting a business can affect entrepreneurial activity. Welter (2010) outlines the contextual dimensions that can shape entrepreneurship, including social contexts (e.g. cultural traditions, gender roles) and spatial contexts (e.g. geography). Levie and Autio (2008) suggest finance access is among the most widely recognized factors influencing the success of entrepreneurs. Against this backdrop, whether driven by youth bulges in Africa and South Asia (Cho and Honorati, 2013) or the imperative for innovation in Europe (EURYDICE, 2012), governments have taken an interest in alleviating constraints and promoting entrepreneurship. Audrestch (2004) sees a government’s action grounded in four types of market failures: network externalities (geographic proximity to complementary firms), knowledge externalities (knowledge spillover), failure externalities (value created for other firms and individuals even if firms fail), and [8] learning externalities (motivation and learning from the demonstration of entrepreneurial activities by others). In addressing these various market failures, Minniti (2008) summarizes the views of Baumol (1990) and North (1990), indicating that governments can act through institutions to channel society’s existing entrepreneurial intentions away from undesirable activities (e.g. crime) and towards more desirable activities (e.g. enterprise creation and innovation). To address the constraints to entrepreneurship, governments can employ a number of policy tools (McKernan, 2002; Paulson and Townsend, 2004; de Mel et al., 2008). Policymakers can support entrepreneurship endeavors with policies or programs aimed at modifying regulations, easing business environment constraints, expanding access to credit, promoting value chain integration, strengthening capacity to improve business practices, and establishing incubators to support innovation and business start-ups (McKernan, 2002; Paulson & Townsend, 2004; de Mel et al., 2009). To summarize, Stevenson and Lundström (2002) offer a framework for the variety of areas that these polices aim to impact -- the promotion of entrepreneurship, the reduction of entry exit barriers, entrepreneurship education, start-up support, start-up financing, and target group measures. Entrepreneurship Promotion Beneficiaries The literature documents entrepreneurship policy targeting a number of groups, including: youth, women, the unemployed, the self-employed, rural populations, and welfare recipients (Wu and Pangarkar, 2006; GEM, 2012). The targeting of young adults appears to reflect policymakers’ perception of entrepreneurship as a means for combating urgent social problems, such as persistent youth unemployment and criminal activity (Volkmann et al, 2009). Another key subgroup targeted for entrepreneurship promotion is women. The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor Women’s Report (GEM, 2010b) conducted a survey in 59 economies (representing over 80 percent of global GDP) and estimated that more than 187 million women were engaged in entrepreneurial activities. Research suggests that women are more likely to reinvest their profits in their own families; in their families’ or their own education; or in their communities. This bolsters policymakers’ interest in targeting entrepreneurship promotion for women (GEM, 2010). Lastly, a number of promotional efforts focus on easing constraints for self-employed individuals operating in the informal economy, including the underemployed and rural populations working in agriculture (Todd and Javalgil, 2007; Yaw, 2007). On Entrepreneurship Education and Training Mindsets and Skills for Entrepreneurship A focus area of entrepreneurship promotion research is the role of mindsets and skills in enabling individuals to both recognize and capitalize on entrepreneurial opportunities (Nichter and Goldman, 2009). Levie and Autio (2008) summarize a body of literature that highlights how education provides individuals the cognitive ability to match potential entrepreneurial opportunities with their respective skills and abilities. Furthermore, Van Der Sluis et al (2004) as well as Isaacs et al (2007) describe literature linking higher levels of education with better entrepreneurial performance as well as higher rates of enterprise formation. These associations resonate with a worldwide survey of entrepreneurs, who cite mindsets and skills as a potential constraint to entrepreneurial opportunity and success (Monitor, 2012). [9] Can Entrepreneurship Be Learned? Further research explores whether mindsets and skills can be cultivated, taught, or transmitted for the purpose of entrepreneurship promotion (World Bank, 2012c). Within an ongoing debate about the extent to which entrepreneurship can be learned (Isaacs et al., 2007), a body of literature indicates that aspects of it indeed can (Timmons and Spinelli, 2004; Henry et al., 2005; Kuratko, 2005). Haase and Lautenschläger (2011), however, underscore a series of arguments to the contrary, suggesting that certain aspects cannot be learned. To this point, Akola and Heinonen (2006) separate the “art” and the “science” of entrepreneurship, in which the former (e.g. creativity, innovative thinking) is not teachable, except through practical experience; while the latter (e.g. business and management skills) can be taught. Despite these points to the contrary, research supports that when education and training systems incorporate creative and entrepreneurial skills into teaching methodologies, the mindsets and skills more closely tied to the “art” of entrepreneurship are transmittable (World Bank, 2010). Emergence of Education and Training for Entrepreneurship Even against the backdrop of debates about whether entrepreneurship can be learned, there is a growing global interest in EET, as documented by the growth in course offerings at education institutions (Kuratko, 2003) and its inclusion in international agendas and programs, such as the European Commission’s Oslo Agenda and the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor. Mwasalwiba (2010) suggests that this popularization of EET is in part driven by mutual self-interests of key stakeholders, including policymakers (the political imperative for job creation), students (more graduates competing for less jobs, seeking new opportunities and ways to set themselves apart) and education institutions (to satisfy policymakers as well as the student market through course offerings). Taken together with indications that aspects of entrepreneurship can be taught and learned, education and training systems are emerging as a key component of broader discussions about the promotion of entrepreneurship. Defining Entrepreneurship Education and Training A number of international, regional, national, and local actors are taking part in the global experiment of entrepreneurship education and training (EET). Today, EET is recognized as an established field of study, growing in parallel with the interest of policymakers and students (Mwasalwiba, 2010). While a single, generally accepted definition remains elusive, researchers are contributing to an evolving definition (Charney and Libecap, 2000; Farstard, 2002; Menzies, 2003; Isaacs et. al, 2007; Dickson, Solomon, & Weaver, 2008). Taken together, EET generally reflects both the activity of transmitting specific mindsets and skills associated with entrepreneurship; as well as education and training programs that seek to engender various entrepreneurship outcomes. As a working definition for this study, EET represents academic education or formal training interventions that share the broad objective of providing individuals with the entrepreneurial mindsets and skills to support participation and performance in a range of entrepreneurial activities. Focus of Entrepreneurship Education and Training Common EET mindsets and skills include socio-emotional skills like self-confidence, leadership, creativity, risk propensity, motivation, resilience, and self-efficacy (Luthje and Franke, 2003; Rauch and Frese, 2007; Teixeira and Forte, 2009; Hytti et al., 2010; Cloete and Ballard, 2011); overall awareness and perceptions of entrepreneurship (Kolvereid and Moen, 1997; Peterman and Kennedy, 2003; Fayolle, Gailly, and Lassas-Clerc, 2006; Souitaris, Zerbinati, and Al-Laham, 2007); and the general business knowledge and skills needed for opening and managing a business, like [10] accounting, marketing, risk assessment, and resource mobilization (Curran and Stanworth, 1989; Detienne and Chandler, 2004; Honig, 2004; Russell, Atchisona, and Brooks, 2008; Bjorvatn and Tungodden, 2010; Karlan and Valdivia, 2011). A prominent theme in EET literature is the differentiation between EET and business management education. While both focus broadly on enterprise development (Zeithaml and Rice, 1987; Winslow, Wennekers, and Tarabishy, 1999), research suggests that business management education traditionally trains students to operate within existing hierarchies and serve as managers of established firms (Sexton and Bowman, 1984). Farstad (2002) acknowledges overlap between EET and business education, but indicates EET goes beyond business education to address the unique conditions entrepreneurs face. Garavan and O'Cinneide (1994) describe how business schools use models to train students how to analyze large amounts of credible information in order to ascertain solutions; while entrepreneurs tend to operate under different time and resource constraints, often with less credible information. Furthermore, Vesper and McMullan (1998) differentiate EET by its focus on building awareness of entrepreneurship and developing skills specific to both creating new products or services and to opening or expanding business ventures (see Figure 1 ). Figure 1 ⎼ Entrepreneurship versus business management education Entrepreneurship Education and Training Beneficiaries While the EET literature gives particular attention to the differentiation from business management education, EET is heterogeneous and can resemble a range of other interventions, including: general and technical education curricula, second chance education programs, active labor market programs, and business development services. This variety reflects the range of targeted EET beneficiaries. EET beneficiaries include both potential and practicing entrepreneurs who are: traditional students enrolled in degree programs, early school leavers, adult learners, individuals with doctoral degrees, minority groups, women, and rural as well as urban populations. The literature underscores the importance of whether EET programs suit the identities, characteristics, and learning demands of particular beneficiaries (Block and Stumpf, 1992; Brockhaus, 2001; Henry et al., 2005; GEI, 2009; GEM, 2010). Scope of Entrepreneurship Education and Training The scope of EET interventions varies by curricula and scale. Some programs are implemented on a global scale, like the International Labor Organization’s Know About Business and Start and [11] Improve Your Business programs (Goppers and Cuong, 2007), or through a global reach like the Junior Achievement’s programs (Mahohoma and Muyambo, 2008). By contrast, EET can be specific to an individual school or institution, such as the University of Arizona’s McGuire Entrepreneurship Program (Charney and Libecap 2000) or the microfinance institution FINCA Peru (Karlan and Valdivia, 2011). Further, EET interventions can represent a blend of global and local -- partnerships between global brands and regional or local education ministries and institutions, as exemplified by the INJAZ Al-Arab program (Reimers, Dyer, and Ortega, 2012) and BizWorld (Huber, Sloof, and Van Praag 2012). Furthermore, EET can involve a range of public and private stakeholders (Volkmann, 2009), including government, educational institutions, businesses, non- governmental and international organizations. The roles of these stakeholders can include the development, financing, delivery, and evaluation of EET interventions. Governments Supporting Entrepreneurship Education and Training A government’s rationale for playing a role in EET is tied to a government’s interest in addressing mindsets, knowledge based-skills, and cultural constraints to entrepreneurship. The World Bank’s World Development Report (2012c) indicates that a government’s role in EET is shaped by the potential knowledge spillovers of entrepreneurial related knowledge and skills (across potential or practicing entrepreneurs in a certain area) as well as by evident market failures when individuals recognize the value of management expertise to their entrepreneurial outcomes. Governments can be uniquely situated to support EET. For example, at a strategic level, governments can serve as champions for EET through the establishment of national plans and agendas (Pena et al., 2010). Governments can set policy frameworks that shape the context of EET delivery within education systems and institutions (Pittaway and Cope, 2007). Governments can directly fund EET interventions (Martin, McNally and Kay, 2012), develop EET curricula, and train instructors to implement curricula in education systems (Nelson and Johnson, 1997; Farstad, 2002). However, Cho and Honorati (2013) demonstrate that involving the private sector on the delivery of EET is more closely linked to better effects on the participants. This would suggest that governments’ role should also include public-private partnerships to provide EET more effectively. Additionally, governments can support the monitoring and evaluation of programs, collaboration, and integration among EET service providers; they can serve as a convener for sharing good practices across programs (Volkmann, 2009). Lastly, Pittaway, and Cope (2007) suggest that research on the government and policy role in EET remains underdeveloped, particularly understanding the role of regional, national, and supra-national polices in shaping EET interventions. Entrepreneurship Education and Training Research For governments and practitioners looking for guidance on EET interventions, the body of available research remains relatively limited. Mwasalwiba (2010) highlights literature indicating that despite an agreement on the teachability of aspects of entrepreneurship, critical issues in EET research remain unresolved, including fundamental definitional issues. This may contribute to fragmentation in available research (Garavan and O'Cinneide, 1994). Nonetheless, understanding the outcomes of specific EET programs is a growing area of interest for a number of researchers ( Van der Sluis, van Praag, and Vijverberg, 2005; Lautenschläger and Haase, 2011; Unger et al., 2011). Glaub and Freese (2011), however, argue that to date, existing evaluations on the outcomes of EET programs are methodologically weak. In addition to methodological weakness among the body of evaluations of EET programs, studies find mixed results. For example, some studies examining EET’s impact on entrepreneurial [12] intentions indicate a positive short-term influence on (short-term) entrepreneurial intentions (Lüthje and Franke, 2003; Lee, Chang, and Lim, 2005; Fayolle, Gailly, and Lassas-Clerc, 2006; Souitaris, Zerbinati, and Al-Laham, 2007); while a set of other studies, as detailed by Lautenschläger and Haase (2011), demonstrate insignificant or negative effects (Oosterbeek, van Praag, and Ijsselstein, 2010). Complicating the picture of measuring EET outcomes, Pittaway and Cope (2007) find the connection between one outcome -- such as entrepreneurial intentions -- and another outcome -- entrepreneurial activity (e.g. starting a business) -- to be tenuous. Lastly, most evaluations examine a range of outcomes, but often the results are mixed. As an example, a meta- analysis by McKenzie and Woodruff (2012) demonstrates relatively modest impacts of training on the survivorship of existing firms, but few significant impacts on profits or sales. Furthermore, evaluated EET outcomes can vary across types of training. A meta-analysis by Martin, McNally, and Kay (2012) finds differential effects between academic focused and training focused EET interventions. Areas for Further Entrepreneurship Education and Training Research Given the growing prevalence of EET, there is a need to better understand what shapes program outcomes. To date, however, few impact evaluations rigorously link EET programs to desired outcomes around entrepreneurial activity or success (Henry et al. 2005). Furthermore, a dearth of experimental or quasi-experimental studies specifically investigate the impacts of EET programs, and there are few tracer studies tracking graduates of EET programs to see whether they become business owners or go into self-employment (McMullan and Gillin, 2001). Moreover, relatively little is known about effective teaching approaches and corresponding learning outcomes (e.g. Gundlach and Zivnuska, 2010; Haase and Lautenschläger, 2011), how the content of certain programs or learning strategies helps develop skills that result in entrepreneurial activity (Garavan and O’Cinneide, 1994), and how wrap-around services (Ibrahaim and Soufani, 2002; Volkmann et al., 2009), context, and participant characteristics (e.g. Dana, 2001; Lee, Chang, and Lim, 2005; Lee, Lim, Pathak, Chang, and Li, 2006) can moderate outcomes. Such research-- that appreciates the heterogeneity EET programs-- may bring critical, evidence-based insights to bear for the design and implementation of future EET programs. This research may inform the determination of what types of programs work for particular beneficiaries to engender particular outcomes, within particular contexts. Implications for Policy The literature review raises a number of important issues and provides a glimpse of the ongoing policy questions. There is evidence that governments view entrepreneurship promotion as a policy response to address a number of pressing economic and social issues. As is the case with any public investments, there are a number of public policy considerations that need to be deliberated when formulating interventions. The questions below, although not exhaustive, relate to some of the key issues that policymakers may consider when evaluating investments in EET programs: (a) targeting - Who should benefit from interventions aimed at encouraging or financing education and training in entrepreneurship?; (b) types of intervention - Is the intervention addressing market failures such as skills mismatch or access to credit markets, or is it addressing governmental failures such as legal entry/exit barriers or poor business climates for start-ups?; Does the intervention generate externalities such as knowledge spillovers, network externalities, and failure externalities?; (c) service providers and delivery - What is the most effective design to provide successful EET? Should it be provided only via public institutions, the education system, or public-private partnerships?; (d) monitoring and evaluation – Are there enough rigorous EET evaluations with internal and external validity of what [13] is known? What are their findings?; (e) fiscal burden and/or public expenditure - Who should pay for public interventions? Should they be financed by taxpayers, payroll or other type of taxes, public debt?; and, (f) role of different governmental levels – How should the local, regional, national and supra national levels coordinate to shape EET interventions? Addressing all these questions in depth goes beyond the scope of this study. But the discussion in the following chapters touches on these key issues and questions around targeting, types of intervention, service providers, and the delivery, monitoring, and evaluation. For the remaining policy implications listed (fiscal burden and/or public expenditure and the role of different governmental levels), however, more precise guidance on optimal responses in particular contexts is an area for future research and analysis. [14] Chapter 3 – Conceptual Framework Types of EET Programs EET programs can be classified under two related but distinct categories: education and training programs. Broadly speaking, both aim to stimulate entrepreneurship, but they are distinguished from one another by their variety of program objectives or outcomes. While differing from program to program, academic entrepreneurship education (EE) programs tend to focus on building knowledge and skills about or for the purpose of entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship training (ET) programs, by contrast, tend to focus on building knowledge and skills, explicitly in preparation for starting or operating an enterprise (GEI, 2009; GEM, 2010). While conceptually distinct, it should be noted that in practice there are instances where the characteristics of EE and ET overlap or are integrated into a single program. Advancing the classification of EET, programs can also be distinguished by their target audiences. The academic nature of EE means these programs target two groups in particular: secondary education students and higher education students, the latter including both graduate and undergraduate students enrolled in formal degree-granting programs. By contrast, ET programs target a range of potential and practicing entrepreneurs who are not part of formal, degree- granting programs. Potential entrepreneurs targeted by ET programs can include -- at one end of the range -- vulnerable, unemployed, inactive individuals, or necessity driven potential entrepreneurs and at the other end, highly skilled, innovation- led, or opportunistic potential entrepreneurs. Likewise, the range of practicing entrepreneurs runs from individuals owning informal, micro- and small enterprises, all the way to high-growth potential enterprise owners. Building on these concepts, this study proposes the following definitions for classifying EET programs according to both program type and target audience (see Figure 2):  Entrepreneurship Education (EE) – for Secondary and Higher Education Students. This category generally refers to the building of capabilities, skills, and mindsets about or for the purpose of entrepreneurship. The goal is to expand the pool of potential future entrepreneurs. Thus, it is generally integrated within formal education institutions at the secondary and higher education level (including universities, colleges, and vocational schools). In this context, this study examines EE programs targeted at both secondary and higher education students enrolled in formal secondary, undergraduate, and graduate degree-granting programs.  Entrepreneurship Training (ET) – for Potential and Practicing Entrepreneurs. This category generally refers to the building of knowledge and skills in preparation for starting or operating a business. Thus, the goal of ET is to aid potential entrepreneurs to become entrepreneurs as well as help current entrepreneurs become higher performing entrepreneurs. The broad nature of the definitions of both potential and practicing entrepreneurs means that ET programs can target a range of potential and practicing entrepreneurs, regardless of age, level of education, prior experience, or circumstances (e.g., highly skilled and educated, self-employed, underemployed, and informal economy workers). [15] Figure 2 ⎼ Classifying Entrepreneurship Education and Training Programs It should be noted that these constructs do not ignore the reality that secondary education students can indeed be considered “potential entrepreneurs” or that many practicing entrepreneurs may be enrolled in adult education courses at tertiary education institutions. However, these classifications do enable a more focused analysis of the EET landscape for the purpose of providing targeted insights about how programs generally can differ depending on where they are being implemented and whom they are targeting. Developing a Conceptual Framework for EET Determining the outcomes of EET programs is a complex and multidimensional challenge, regardless of whom a program targets (Fayolle, Gailly, and Lassas-Clerc, 2006; Pittaway and Cope, 2007; Oosterbeek, Van Praag, and Ijsselstein, 2010). The task is complicated in part because the intended outcomes of EET programs can vary substantially from program to program. Therefore, this study draws upon existing EET research to propose a way of conceptualizing both the results EET programs seek and the factors that can shape those outcomes. This study puts forth a Conceptual Framework (see Figure 3) that outlines three dimensions which the research has shown to influence the range of EET outcomes: (a) the context within which programs are implemented, (b) the characteristics of individual participants, and (c) the functional characteristics of the program itself. The Conceptual Framework situates these three dimensions as independent variables in a moderating relationship to the outcomes of EET programs (that is, their outcomes, the dependent variable). The framework additionally suggests that the first two dimensions-- program context and participants-- can influence the operational characteristics of the program itself (e.g. duration, method of delivery). In sum, a program’s outcomes are shaped by both its own programmatic characteristics and the contextual and participant-based moderating factors. [16] Figure 3 ⎼ Conceptual Framework Program 1 characteristics Outcomes 1 Participants Context Describing the Framework by Dimension What follows is a summary of the EET literature supporting this conceptual framework, focusing on the program dimensions that turn entrepreneurial knowledge into a variety of outcomes. This section focuses more on program characteristics than on the other two dimensions, since policymakers and EET practitioners typically have the most leverage over the program design level- - most influencing outcomes and in turn benefiting from the experience of good practice. However, this study does recognize that programs “need to be customized (…) addressing the specific constraints relevant for [program’s] outcome” (Cho and Honorati, 2013, p.32). The program should be a result of an understanding of the context constraints, participant’s needs , institutional framework and capacity, and policy objectives. Policymakers should recognize the learned lessons derived from other programs in terms of design, implementation, and evaluation, but they should avoid the exact replication. Outcome Domains While no consensus has been established on a definitive method for measuring EET outcomes (OECD, 2009), any study of EET programs must have clarity around which outcomes are being measured and how they are being measured. Drawing upon available literature and the evaluations of a range of EET programs, outcomes vary widely. Furthermore, intended outcomes are not limited to the conventional entrepreneurship measures, such as the number of new startup ventures or their performance. They may also focus on improving skills or changing attitudes, such as encouraging participants to consider entrepreneurship as a career option (Mwasalwiba, 2010). The Conceptual Framework categorizes EET outcomes into a series of four domains (see Figure 4 ): (a) entrepreneurial mindsets; (b) entrepreneurial capabilities; (c) entrepreneurial status; and (d) entrepreneurial performance. Each of these outcome domains is elaborated on below. [17] Figure 4 ⎼ Outcome Domains Program characteristics Outcomes Mindsets Outcomes Capabilities Status Performance Participants Context Entrepreneurial Mindsets. Entrepreneurial mindsets refers to the socio-emotional skills and overall awareness of entrepreneurship associated with entrepreneurial motivation and future success as an entrepreneur. Extensive literature documents a range of socio-emotional skills associated with entrepreneurship, which include self-confidence, leadership, creativity, risk propensity, motivation, resilience, and self-efficacy (Boyd and Vozikis, 1994; Luthje and Franke, 2003; Rauch and Frese, 2007; Cassar and Friedman, 2009); Teixeira and Forte, 2009; Hytti et al., 2010; Cloete and Ballard, 2011). Other socio- Box 1 - Building Socio-emotional Skills: BizWorld (Netherlands) emotional skills associated with entrepreneurship pertain closely to how individuals interact with BizWorld, launched in the Netherlands in 2004, is others, such as teamwork and social networking. an entrepreneurship education program that takes place in hundreds of Dutch classrooms each year. While some entrepreneurial socio-emotional skills Companies each sponsor a class of students for an are difficult to develop in people, there is evidence intensive four-day program. In 2011, the BizWorld that others, such as opportunity recognition, can be Netherlands program was evaluated using a taught (Detienne and Chandler, 2004; Henry et al., randomized field experiment.* The evaluation demonstrated that students who completed 2005). Reflecting the importance of socio-emotional BizWorld showed much more developed non- skills, a number of programs reviewed in this study cognitive skills than the control group—in target outcomes related to such skills. As an example, particular they showed greater self-efficacy, need BizWorld Netherlands (Huber, Sloof and Van Praag, for achievement, risk-taking propensity, and 2012), an entrepreneurship education program, analytical skills. measures participants’ improvements in self- Huber, Sloof, and Van Praag (2012). efficacy, need for achievement, and risk-taking propensity (see Box 1). In addition to socio-emotional skills linked to entrepreneurship, research indicates that entrepreneurial activity is linked to whether participants have a positive perception of entrepreneurship (Souitaris, Zerbinati, and Al-Laham, 2007; Martin, McNally, and Kay, 2012). Thus, programs seeking to impact entrepreneurial mindset also seek to affect participants’ views of the [18] desirability and feasibility of starting a business as well as their intent to do so (Kolvereid and Moen, 1997; Peterman and Kennedy, 2003; Fayolle, Gailly, and Lassas-Clerc, 2006; Souitaris, Zerbinati, and Al-Laham, 2007). Participation in EET has been found to have a positive effect on individuals’ overall passion and motivation for entrepreneurship (San Tan and Ng, 2006; Richardson and Hynes, 2008; Gundlach and Zivnuska, 2010) as well as their entrepreneurial intentions (Pruett, 2011; Martin et al., 2012). Entrepreneurial Capabilities. Entrepreneurial capabilities refers to entrepreneurs’ competencies, knowledge, and technical skills associated with their entrepreneurship. Some EET programs measure the extent to which programs equip participants with general business knowledge and the basic skills needed for opening and managing a business. (Russell, Atchisona, and Brooks, 2008; Box 2 - Improving Entrepreneurial Capabilities: Bjorvatn and Tungodden, 2010; Karlan and FINCA-Peru Valdivia, 2011). These progams can target a range of management skills, from accounting and Founded in 1993, FINCA-Peru is a microfinance institution that trains low-income entrepreneurs to marketing to the ability to manage complex develop their businesses. FINCA trainings focus on processes, assess risks, and mobilize resources improving clients' capabilities in such areas as how (Curran and Stanworth, 1989; Detienne and to treat clients, how to use profits, where to sell, Chandler, 2004; Honig, 2004; Summit Consulting, how to use special discounts, and how to sell 2009). Additionally, some EET programs target credits. In 2004, a randomized control trial compared participants in FINCA’s program to a specific technical knowledge or skills associated control group. While the FINCA participants did with a particular occupation or sector, such as not have higher profits, they did report significant agriculture. A number of EET program evaluations strides in developing their entrepreneurial skills. explicitly cite progress in knowledge and skill Specifically, FINCA participants had a greater familiarity with separating money between acquisition. For example, participants in the FINCA- business and household, reinvesting profits in the Peru program demonstrated increased familiarity business, maintaining records of sales and with separating money between business and expenses, and thinking proactively about new household, reinvesting profits in the business, markets and opportunities for profits. maintaining records of sales and expenses, and Karlan and Valdivia (2011). thinking proactively about new markets and opportunities for profits (see Box 2). Entrepreneurial Status. Entrepreneurial status refers to the temporal state of a program beneficiary as measured through entrepreneurial Box 3 - Becoming Entrepreneurs: Student Training for activities and beyond (e.g., starting a business, Promoting Entrepreneurship (Uganda) becoming employed, and achieving a higher income). Status outcomes transcend the acquisition Using a randomized control group design, Gielnik of specific mindsets and skills associated with et al. (forthcoming) found that an EE program targeted at undergraduate students led to an entrepreneurship—instead focusing on measuring increase in business ownership within a period of how a participant’s individual status has changed 12 months.* The program, taught on a weekly basis or life has improved because of an EET over a period of 12 weeks, trained students in the intervention. EET programs have been shown to last year of their undergraduate studies. The 12- month evaluation study showed a significant measure individuals’ decisions to seek out new impact on new business start-ups-- students in the capital and start ventures (Singh and Verma, 2010), training group were significantly more likely to become employed (Brodmann, Grun, and Premand, start a new business. Compared to the control 2011), and increase income and savings (Cox et al., group, the training increased the likelihood of 2012). In many respects, the prevailing purpose of starting a business by 50 percent; and compared to the initial status in the training group, the training EET programs is to have participants go on to start increased the likelihood of starting a business by their own enterprises. As such, the extent to which 219 percent. programs are yielding these outcomes is a common Gielnik et al. (forthcoming) inquiry. Gielnik et al. (forthcoming) conducted a [19] randomized-control experiment to investigate just this question in a Ugandan EET program and found positive effects (see Box 3). Entrepreneurial Performance. Entrepreneurial performance refers explicitly to how indicators of a venture’s performance have changed as a result of an intervention (e.g. higher profits, increased sales, greater employment of others, higher survival rates). A number of EET studies look at whether participants perform better as entrepreneurs compared with those who aren’t exposed to EET (WEF, 2009; von Graevenitza, Harhoffa, and Weber, 2010; Shane, 2010). In certain cases, EET program participants show improvement in multiple performance outcomes, including annual Box 4 - Enhancing Firm Performance: Interise (United sales, number of employees, number of customers, States) and market expansion (Botha, 2006a). Additional Interise is a nonprofit organization that teaches literature suggests that EET programs also look at small business owners, principally from performance outcomes related to improved underserved populations, to sustain and grow business practices, which in the case of SMEs can their businesses, create jobs, and strengthen their communities. Participants meet for three include formalization of an enterprise. Other hours biweekly for 13 sessions in class sizes of measured practices include improvement in 15 to 18, and also form peer mentoring groups separating money between business and household, to allow for further discussion. Each year, reinvesting profits in business, maintaining records Interise does an extensive evaluation of its of sales and expenses, and implementing program. The 2011* survey indicated that 62 percent of past participants had added jobs to innovations (Karlan and Valdivia, 2011). their companies and had given out an average Understandably, performance outcome indicators salary of just over $40,000. Furthermore, over are typically associated with ET programs that half of Interise participants also reported a target practicing entrepreneurs, as is the case with growing business—with increased revenue and government grants averaging $325,000 per the Interise program (see Box 4), although business. measuring these outcomes is not limited to this Interise 2011 Report Card (Boston: Interise.org, target group. 2011). Evidence also indicates that many programs measure outcomes in multiple domains. An example of this latter phenomenon is the Women Entrepreneurship Program (WEP) in South Africa, which measures outcomes under all four categories (Botha, 2006b). Similarly, a global program, Empretec, targets both aspiring and practicing entrepreneurs and measures outcomes under both status and performance (Grossmann, 2005). Meanwhile, Start and Improve Your Business (SIYB), which is also in use around the globe, has tracked outcomes under mindsets, capabilities, and performance (Goppers and Cuong, 2007). Program Context The Conceptual Framework accounts for a series of contextual influences shown to impact the likelihood of a program’s capacity to generate outcomes (Karimi et al., 2010). Studies have looked at the series of economic, political, and social factors that are likely to make individuals more successful at starting new ventures (Pittaway and Cope, 2007). As a fundamental example, a market that possesses the unique contextual factors needed to foster entrepreneurship is more likely to have the factors that enable entrepreneurial activity than a market that lacks such contextual factors. Furthermore, EET programs are also likely to face contextual implementation challenges due to their operating locations. The Conceptual Framework recognizes three broad categories of such factors: economic context, political context, and cultural context (Figure 5). [20] Figure 5 – Contextual Factors Program characteristics Outcomes Context Economic Participants Context Political Culture The Economic Context. The economic context represents the multiple economic variables that have been found to correlate with entrepreneurship outcomes. “Even potentially skilled entrepreneurs would have difficulty succeeding without access to basic infrastructure and financial resources. In their absence, managerial capacity alone may not be enough”.2 Contextual economic factors include local economic conditions -- the investment climate and specific market opportunities. In addition, contextual economic factors can include the local infrastructure, both financial (availability of finance) and physical (access to markets), as well as regulatory and tax structures that relate to the ease and incentives to start a business. McKenzie and Woodruff (2012) suggest that spillovers (positive or negative) within the economic context from entrepreneurship programs may correlate with entrepreneurship outcomes. The spillovers are mainly driven by competition responses to trained entrepreneurial activities. Further illustrating the importance of the relationship between entrepreneurship and economic context, Acs and Szerb (2010) developed the GED Index (The Global Entrepreneurship and Development Index) to measure the quality and quantity of business formation in 71 countries. The Political Context. The political context refers to both the stability of local society and institutions as well as the leadership and will to promote entrepreneurship through local policies and institutions. While improvement on any economic or human development indicators depends on a particular level of security and local stability, the political context for entrepreneurship can manifest in more explicit as well as localized ways. Government support for entrepreneurship can be an explicit entrepreneurship promotion framework; as can specific policy actions such as government support for fair practices, minimal bureaucratic barriers, and grants and funding opportunities to subsidize programs (Freedom House, 2008; Heritage Foundation, 2008; World Bank, 2012a, 2012b). Additionally, political support can include partnerships with government 2 World Bank Development Report on Jobs 2013. [21] ministries in the financing and implementation of EET interventions. For example, the SIYB program in Vietnam partners with government through the Ministry of Labor (see Box 5). Moreover, the political contexts that influence EET Box 5 - Political Support through Partnership: Start and Improve Your Business (Vietnam) can be found in more localized institutions--like support from community-based organizations, The Start and Improve Your Business (SIYB) advocates, and the education system-- and program in Vietnam trains micro- and small- business owners in basic business management, individuals within schools in which programs are and helps them—as well as potential implemented. Pittway and Cope (2007) highlight the entrepreneurs—start up or improve the importance of creating a match between a program performance of their businesses. From 1998 to and its local institutional context. Several programs 2004, the Vietnam Chamber of Commerce and Industry (VCCI) and the International Labor underscore the linkages between EET outcomes and Organization (ILO) implemented the SIYB instruction-specific program champions, such as program in Vietnam. Today, however, SIYB is teachers, principals, and organizational partnering with the Vietnamese government administrations (Kuratko, 2005). through its Department for Vocational Training (under the Ministry of Labor) to market, select The Cultural Context. Cultural context refers to participants for, and deliver the program to over 1 million farmers over the next seven factors associated with local perceptions of years. entrepreneurship as well as cultural attitudes toward Source: Goppers and Cuong (2007). failure, success, and the traditional roles of certain members of society. These cultural dynamics can either enable or constrain entrepreneurship in a society and, in turn, can moderate EET outcomes. Holfstede (1991) defines cultural values as broad tendencies to prefer specific behavioral patterns over others.3 Specific cultural dimensions (Rauch et al., 2000; Pinillos and Reyes, 2011) and the presence of entrepreneurial values within a society (Davidson and Wiklund, 1997) have also been associated with different levels of entrepreneurial activity. A socially supportive culture relates positively to entrepreneurship (Stephan and Uhlaner, 2010). As an example, Russian and Chinese business owners have more entrepreneurs in their families and among childhood friends than otherwise similar individuals, suggesting that social environment also matters.4 In general, studies have suggested that entrepreneurship is facilitated by cultures that exhibit both collectivism (providing community support) and individualism (valuing individual goals over group loyalty), that are low in uncertainty avoidance (having a risk- taking propensity), and that are low in power-distance (where movement and communication within a hierarchy are allowed). Hayton, George, and Zahra (2002) deduce from this that the greater the cultural distance from this ideal, the lower the levels of entrepreneurship. Since a host of EET programs aim to promote an overall entrepreneurial culture, one may reasonably posit that entrepreneurship promotion must sometimes encounter significant cultural constraints. Participant Characteristics Among EET program’s outcomes, a key moderating factor is what individual participants bring with them coming into a program. Participants’ individual characteristics are a prominent subject in the EET literature --certain personality traits have been linked to positive entrepreneurial outcomes (Luthje and Franke, 2003; Rauch and Frese, 2007). From an operational standpoint, EET programs themselves recognize the role of participant characteristics in moderating outcomes. This would explain why so many EET programs employ a range of selection processes-- screening candidates 3 “Cultural Differences in Planning/Success Relationships: A Comparison of Small Enterprises in Ireland, West Germany, and East Germany.” 4 World Bank Development Report on Jobs 2013. [22] for various characteristics including their educational background, their work experience, and even their personalities (using personality tests to screen for certain character traits). Furthermore, program outcomes can be shaped by dynamics associated with participant behavior, including the nature of participant uptake as well as attrition within a particular program. The Conceptual Framework thus includes five categories of participant characteristics5 that research indicates can moderate program outcomes: (a) individual profile (both demographic and personality related); (b) education; (c) experience; (d) interest and intentions; and (e) participant behavior. Figure 6 illustrates these participant characteristics. Figure 6 ⎼ Participant Characteristics Program characteristics Participants Outcomes Profile Education Participants Experience Context Interest & Intentions Behavior Profile. An individual’s profile refers to basic demographic identifiers and factors related to a participant’s personality or traits. As is practice in social research, evaluations of EET programs often segment results according to factors such as gender, age, or parental background (Wang and Wong, 2004). Evaluations of EET programs have looked at differences in outcomes across each of these categories to discern whether a moderating relationship might exist between components of a participant’s profile and the outcomes of an intervention. A prominent example of this is the NSRP program in Pakistan. Its evaluation demonstrated disproportionate effects based on gender (see Box 6). Additionally, certain personality traits have been linked to positive entrepreneurial outcomes (Luthje and Franke, 2003; Rauch and Frese, 2007). These personality characteristics are often a reflection of the favorable socio-emotional skills that many EET programs aim to build. In the case of participant characteristics as moderating factors, these are skills such as self-confidence, risk propensity, resilience, and teamwork-- traits that participants have upon entering a program. 5These participant characteristics go across types of programs (EEHE, EESE, ETPO and ETPR). The distinction relies more on program targeting although they should not be considered as mutually exclusive categories. [23] Box 6 - The Gender Effect: National Rural Savings Programme (Pakistan) Started in 1991 with a focus on reducing poverty and increasing rural development, the National Rural Savings Programme (NRSP) is a microfinance program that works within rural regions of Pakistan to help communities implement a variety of programs that increase productive employment, alleviate poverty, and improve quality of life. NRSP employs a common approach to microfinance lending, which includes a requirement that its members join community organizations. At the time of its evaluation in 2007, NSRP was tying a series of its microloans to entrepreneurial training sessions that included 46 hours dedicated to business planning, marketing, and financial management. The evaluation found that the inclusion of business training increased participants’ business knowledge, enhanced their business practices, and improved several participants’ incomes, though this was disproportionately the case among male participants. The evaluation cited remarkably different levels of success between males and females, and noted that this difference could in part be related to: Pakistan segregating its labor markets by gender, women being excluded from many occupations reserved for men, and female wage rates being lower on average. Given the disproportionate effect by gender, the evaluation concluded that future interventions will have to be more intensely focused on female participants to realize similar outcomes across genders. Source: Gine and Mansuri (2011). Education. Education refers explicitly to the educational background of a participant, including both level of attainment and basic cognitive skills flowing from formal educational exposure, such as literacy and numeracy. For instance, Ruiz and Dams (2012) note that the majority of high-impact women entrepreneurs (those who had a business growth of 20 percent or more over the last 3 years) had an educational attainment level of college or above. Studies point to the role of a participant’s educational level in moderating EET outcomes (Oosterbeek, van Praag, and Ijsselstein, 2010). Furthermore, the setup of a number of EET programs point to the role of literacy and numeracy skills in influencing outcomes; these cognitive skills are critical for the comprehension Box 7 - Entrepreneurial Intentions: and application of entrepreneurship concepts Entrepreneurship Development Center (Bosnia- imparted through EET (Kourilsky and Esfandiari, Herzegovina) 1997) as well as the integration of knowledge into The Entrepreneurship Development Centre (EDC) the establishment or strengthening of an enterprise ran a comprehensive business training program (Peterman and Kennedy, 2003; Lans et al., 2008;). for existing and potential entrepreneurs who had loans at Partner Microcredit Foundation in 2009. Participants were young adults in Bosnia- Experience. Experience refers to EET participants’ Herzegovina who had small businesses or who work and employment experience (Oosterbeek, van were developing a new enterprise. The Praag, and Ijsselstein, 2010). Start-up, management, randomized control trial took place in 2009, with and industry-specific experience have all been the evaluation aiming to better understand the shown to moderate the outcomes from EET effects of business training on emerging entrepreneurs’ business success and loan participant to participant (Unger et al., 2011). repayment. The evaluation found that while the Experience brings about a functional level of EDC training program did not influence business business knowledge and familiarity with certain survival, it significantly improved business markets or opportunities. At the ground level, practices, investments, and loan terms for surviving businesses. However, the evaluation also individuals with some work experience tend to have noted the important role of uptake in the program, a better understanding of both the socio-emotional since the program is only delivered to individuals skills as well as technical skills that are requisite for interested in participating. Of note in reading the developing and sustaining an enterprise. The evaluation and outcomes-- the program experience may come from their own work participants had demonstrable interest in entrepreneurship. experience or from other sources, such as family and/or acquaintances being entrepreneurs. For Bruhn, Miriam and Bilal Zia. "Stimulating Managerial Capital in Emerging Markets: The Impact of Business example, Ruiz and Dams (2012) find that the Training for Young Entrepreneurs." Journal of majority of women entrepreneurs had relatives with Development Effectiveness, forthcoming 2013. their own business. [24] Interest and Intentions. Interest and intentions refer to how EET participants’ intentions differ, depending on their profiles (Pittaway and Cope, 2007) as well as their particular motivations for participating (McClelland, 1958; Sengupta and Debnath, 1994; Zanakis, Renko, and Bullough, Forthcoming). According to the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991), which is extensively cited in the entrepreneurship literature, a person’s intentions and relative desire to become an entrepreneur (Peterman and Kennedy, 2003) are the most reliable predictor of actions (Krueger, Reilly, and Carsrud, 2000; Bullough, Renko, and Myatt, Forthcoming; . A number of programs look at entrepreneurial motivations and intentions through a series of indicators, including self- selection, as was the case with the EDC program in Bosnia-Herzegovina (see Box 7). Program attendance is also used as a proxy to measure the seriousness of participants’ intentions. Behavior. Individuals’ decision to participate and continue participation in a program can influence program outcomes. This includes how participants respond to program offerings or perceive the overall value of program. Studies point to incentives shaping program outcomes, which in turn influences program uptake, such as a program tying finance access or other wrap-around services (World Bank, 2012d). Additionally, Botha (2006) finds that the perceived value of other participants can influence the decision of individuals to participate in a program. That is, if a small business owner sees his brother benefit from taking a program, he is more likely to take the program himself. Furthermore, the perceptions around becoming entrepreneurs may go beyond monetary incentives. For instance, women entrepreneurs studied by Ruiz and Dams (2012) listed their top three reasons for becoming entrepreneurs as follows: independence, achievement, and challenge. Interestingly, money came in at six out of nine. Karlan and Valdiva (2011) shed further light on how participant perceptions can shape program outcomes, specifically on the issue of attrition. They found rates of program dropouts were higher for people with more education and experience. The individuals with this profile were likely to benefit most from the training, but were less likely to perceive its value. Supporting this point, they also found stronger effects of training for the participants who expected less from the training intervention in a baseline survey. These behavioral dynamics influence if and who elects to participate in a program, as well as how long they participate, which in turn can moderate the ultimate outcomes of the program in question. Program Characteristics EET programs may range from full academic courses to short training courses. Program characteristics are an important driver of EET since they are the easiest to manipulate. The entrepreneurship program concept is broader than what can be conveyed by a single course or by the material taught in a classroom alone; instead it comprises a whole portfolio of complementary activities (Souitaris, Zerbinati, and Al-Laham, 2007). An appropriate design of this portfolio is important to a program’s ultimate outcomes. The portfolio can include the usual components related to classroom activities -- such as trainers, curriculum, delivery format, and duration or intensity -- as well as wrap-around services like mentoring, networking opportunities, guest speakers, and collaboration with other institutions. The Conceptual Framework distinguishes among four major categories of program characteristics: (a) program design; (b) trainers and delivery; (c) content and curriculum; and (d) wrap-around services. (See Figure 9). These fundamental categories are included in the Framework for two reasons. First, they are grounded in the broad-based discussions found throughout the EET literature. Second, they help meet the need to build a holistic framework for examining common practices across EET programs and informing EET program design or reform. [25] Figure 7 ⎼ Program Characteristics Program characteristics Program characteristics Program Design Trainers & Delivery Content & Curriculum Wrap-around services Outcomes Participants Context Program Design. Program design refers to a set of inputs and arrangements that help define a program’s goals, scope, financing model, and methods for determining progress. Among the most important components of program design is how a program is financed, both in terms of finance sources and how it costs out its units of service. Design characteristics can also include the extent to which arrangements are made to facilitate collaboration with institutions in the local community (Fuchs, Werner, and Wallau, 2008). This includes partnering with area organizations to obtain buy- in from the indigenous community and to recruit participants and trainers. Trainers and Delivery. Trainers and delivery refers to key program inputs and implementation aspects related to who is delivering the content of the program; that is, whether programs are led by credentialed teachers, professional trainers, or entrepreneurship practitioners, and where these individuals are drawn from (e.g. local schools, international training consultant organizations, or other). Programs can also include a mix of academic and practitioner instructors, with evidence suggesting that a mix --faculty who have the academic and theoretical knowledge, combined with practitioners who are experts in the subject area-- can provide the best balance of theory and practice for participants (Porter and Mckibbin, 1988; Pittaway and Cope, 2007). For example, the Network for Teaching Entrepreneurship (NFTE) found participants were more likely to engage in a range of entrepreneurial behaviors-- including taking initiative and leading in business, arts, and sports activities—and underscores the importance of training quality instructors and the role of variability in teacher quality in influencing program outcomes (see Box 8). These characteristics also include the program setting (e.g. classroom, virtual), the program duration, and the size of the participant class/cohort (Hynes, 1996; Shinnar, Pruett, and Toney, 2009; GEM, 2010). EET programs that have been evaluated for their impact on entrepreneurship- related outcomes are typically delivered in face-to-face settings. While programs that incorporate experiential learning or virtual learning exist, the prominence of face-to face delivery is notable. [26] Content and Curriculum. Content and curriculum often become the focal point of program design efforts because other categories revolve around them. In theory, they have a strong relationship with the outcomes a program aims to deliver. These characteristics include a program’s relative thematic content areas (e.g., entrepreneurship awareness, financial literacy, strategic planning). Common areas of focus include general business skills, socio-emotional skills, and entrepreneurial awareness and business plan development. They also include pedagogy (e.g., whether lecture-based or experiential) and teaching techniques. Box 8 - Training the Trainers: Network for Teaching Entrepreneurship (United States) The Network for Teaching Entrepreneurship (NFTE) program has operated in Boston, MA, since 1991, working with 18 public schools there. NFTE targets high schools where at least half of the student body is eligible for free or reduced-priced lunch. It focuses on participants’ mindsets and capabilities, ultimately aiming to help participants stay in school, recognize business opportunities, and plan for future employment. To deliver the program, NFTE certifies instructors who are already teaching in the schools where their program will take place. Each teacher goes through a four-day training at the beginning of the school year (so-called “NFTE University”) and NFTE provides financial incentives to certified instructors for continuous professional development programs throughout their time teaching the NFTE course. In addition to NFTE-certified instructors, mentors come to class a few times throughout the year to guide their mentees and help students create their business plans, and a handful of guest lectures are delivered during the year by volunteer local business leaders. Harvard University Graduate School of Education: Nakkula, (2004): “Initiating, leading and feeling in control of one’s fate”. Findings from the 2002-2003 study of NFTE six Boston Public High schools, Harvard University, Cambridge. For example, some programs may link learning with real-world experiences (Porter and McKibbin, 1988; Pittaway and Cope, 2007). Evidence suggests that delivery is enhanced by including varied teaching techniques, which can range from hands-on experiential exercises to lectures, articles, writing, simulations, and group projects on a variety of integrated subjects. Lastly, these characteristics include how participant learning is evaluated (e.g. tests, business plan presentations) (Henr et al., 2005; Karlan & Valdivia, 2011; Haase & Lautenschläger, 2011; Martin, McNally, and Kay, 2012). For example, some programs require presentations of plans, proposals, or projects. Wrap-around services. Wrap-around services are aspects of a program that complement the main content and curriculum. These can include arrangements for networking and mentoring as well as Box 9 - Coaching as Follow-up: Business Plan Thesis opportunities to gain access to financing or other Competition (Tunisia) resources (e.g. technical assistance, administrative Introduced by Tunisia’s government in the 2009- services, job counseling, incubators, grants) to 2010 school year, the Business Plan Thesis support participants during or upon the completion Competition entrepreneurship program is targeted of a program (Ibrahaim & Soufani, 2002; Volkmann at undergraduate, engineering graduate, and et al., 2009). As an example, the Business Plan masters students. The government created the Thesis Competition program in Tunisia matches program in the country’s 12 public universities to encourage better employment outcomes among participants with entrepreneur coaches during the college graduates. The program has two parts. First, final stage of its program (see Box 9). students are trained in basic entrepreneurship skills around business creation. The second part is more An evaluation of the WINGS program in Uganda personalized-- each student is assigned a coach with suggests the potential importance of wrap-around an entrepreneurial background who advises him or services to EET – indicating that on-going support her on finalizing a business plan. for young, new entrepreneurs is essential to help Can Entrepreneurship Training Improve Work them succeed and address the challenges that arise Opportunities for College Graduates?” World Bank, April 2013 with every nascent business endeavor.6 The tier 1 6“Building Women’s Economic and Social Empowerment through Enterprise an Experimental Assessment of the Women’s Income Generating Support (WINGS) Program in Uganda”. April 2013. [27] evaluation of the WINGS project also underlines the importance of grants, which the evaluation suggested were “likely the most impactful element of the program.”7 Building upon the structure of the preceding Conceptual Framework, Figure 8 below provides a more granular picture of EET program dimensions, identified through this chapter’s summary of research. As a more detailed reflection of the Conceptual Framework, this figure will serve as a tool for understanding what shapes EET program outcomes; first, by providing a means for systematically cataloging program-specific information about a global sample of EET programs (contained within the Program Database), and subsequently to structure an analysis of these programs to identify common practices and trends. The findings from this analysis are presented in chapter four. 7 Same as above. [28] Figure 8 - Conceptual Framework: Detailed Structure [29] Chapter 4 – EET Program Landscape and Analysis The preceding Conceptual Framework is based on a review of existing EET research, and thus helps to summarize existing research about EET programs. A secondary purpose of the framework is to enable an analysis of existing EET programs to inform a discussion about what proved to work well, what did not work, and the lessons learned. As described in the Methodology section, a set of criteria related to the rigor of each program’s evaluation generated a sample of programs. While the sample cannot be considered exhaustive, the study identified and analyzed 60 EET programs with evaluations that met the standards of Tier 1 (21 programs), Tier 2 (10 programs), and Tier 3 (29 programs). Of that total, 19 programs were classified as EE, while 41 were classified as ET. This section presents the findings from the Conceptual Framework application-- analyzing this sample of EET programs by target group. In particular, findings from the evaluations of Tier 1 and 2 programs inform findings about program outcomes. Tables 2, 4, 7, and 10 summarize these findings for each program type. Lastly, where relevant, additional EET literature and available meta-analyses findings informed the study. Given the heterogeneity of the EET landscape, the analysis is conducted by target group to enable a more focused discussion, and breaks down the sample of programs as follows: EE secondary education students, EE higher education students, ET for potential entrepreneurs, and ET for practicing entrepreneurs. Programs falling under the same category were collectively analyzed to produce a set of observations about their common dimensions, which are then organized according to the Conceptual Framework and highlighted in Figure 9-12. These figures feature the distribution of the various outcome domains identified by the evaluations (M=Mindsets, C=Capabilities, S=Entrepreneurial Status, P=Entrepreneurial Performance) and also highlight common program characteristics as well as common moderating influences (individual participant characteristics and contextual factors). Additionally, Tables 2, 4, 7, and 10 provide more detailed information related to program scope and findings from Tier 1 and 2 evaluations for each program type. It should be noted that the dimensions discussed here are not intended to be an exhaustive list. The tables in Appendices 2-4 provide a fuller picture of the many dimensions shared by EET programs examined in this study. Lastly, as already mentioned in the introduction, this Framework Paper is complemented by a complete master database of the programs that were selected for inclusion in this study. The database provides a fuller and more detailed picture of the individual program characteristics and what characteristics are shared across programs. Entrepreneurship Education – Secondary Education Students (EESE) Program Landscape This study identified and examined a total of nine entrepreneurship education programs targeted at secondary education students, see Table 1 (EE-Secondary). Unfortunately, for these nine programs, the only impact evaluation available (Tier 1) targeted children in the final grade of primary school (BizWorld Program), indicating a significant lack of rigorous evaluations on secondary education programs. Four programs had evaluations that satisfied the Tier 2 criteria and four additional program evaluations met the criteria for Tier 3. See Table 2 for the list of the programs as well as a summary of the key findings from the evaluations. [30] The reach of all these programs extends well beyond a single school, and several target either regional or national secondary education systems. Further, several of these programs could be considered international in scope since their evaluations emerged from country-based affiliates of global programs, as in the case of SAIE in South Africa, NFTE in United States, and Junior Achievement (INJAZ) in the Middle East. While there were no available meta-analyses or systematic rigorous reviews exclusively of EESE programs, a wider body of literature-- including the findings of Farstad (2002) from an in-depth analysis of integrated entrepreneurship education in Botswana, Uganda, and Kenya-- was also considered to inform the understanding of EESE program dimensions. Table 1 - Entrepreneurship Education – Secondary Education Students Program Name Country Evaluation BizWorld BizWorld, the Netherlands The Netherlands Tier 1 EOEAS Entrepreneurial Orientation and Education in Austria Tier 2 Austrian Secondary Schools Study INJAZ Junior Achievement Middle East Tier 2 JACP Junior Achievement Company Program Sweden Tier 2 NFTE Network for Teaching Entrepreneurship United States Tier 2 JAN Junior Achievement Namibia Namibia Tier 3 KAB Know About Business Syria Tier 3 SAIE South African Institute for Entrepreneurship / South Africa Tier 3 Business venture course YE Young Enterprise Denmark Tier 3 Analyzing EESE Programs Outcomes Looking at the evaluations of EESE programs, the targeted outcomes were concentrated in the mindset domain. With regard to mindsets, programs sought to enhance a number of socio- emotional skills, including: self-efficacy, need for achievement, risk-taking, social orientation, persistence, creativity, and locus of control. In addition to socio-emotional skills, these programs sought to develop students’ entrepreneurial awareness by encouraging entrepreneurial thinking and behaviors. On both fronts, program evaluations indicated promising results. For example, the most rigorously evaluated of all the EESE programs, the BizWorld evaluation, demonstrated moderate positive and significant effects on the development of non-cognitive skills (such as self- efficacy, the need for achievement, risk-taking propensity, persistence, analyzing, creativity, and proactivity) among the students who received the intervention when compared to the control group. The NFTE program, which targets Boston-area secondary students who are low-income and at high-risk of dropping out, also demonstrated positive results in this area. A survey measured the development of students’ entrepreneurial attitudes and behavior after participating in the program, using a range of indicators such as taking initiative and taking leadership roles in a range of activities including business, art, and sports. The evaluation found a relatively large and statistically significant increase on entrepreneurial behavior for NFTE students compared to the control group. Further, NFTE students increased their scores on locus of control by about three percent after the intervention -- outscoring the control group -- but the increase was not statistically significant. Finally, the findings from the evaluations of other EESE programs, including EOEAS, SAIE, and [31] INJAZ, also indicate progress in fomenting entrepreneurial mindsets. The evaluation of EOEAS in Austria assessed the extent to which entrepreneurial thinking was promoted in vocational and general secondary education, and found that targeted instruction in start-up and entrepreneurial knowledge supports the development of a positive attitude toward entrepreneurship as a goal in life. With regard to the other outcome domains, several programs seek to enhance the entrepreneurial capabilities of students, including expanding knowledge of business, economics, financial literacy, and other work related life skills. The evaluations of the programs themselves, however, are sparse in reporting impacts in this area. The BizWorld evaluation described a positive, but insignificant, effect on enhancing students’ cognitive entrepreneurial skills. Furthermore, a review of integrated entrepreneurship education in Botswana, Uganda, and Kenya (Farstad, 2002) found that failure rates on post-intervention examinations were low, suggesting some level of knowledge and skill transfer, but the examinations lacked any additional verification of actual skill acquisition. In terms of the entrepreneurial status outcomes, some EESE programs look to enhance students’ intentions to become an entrepreneur as well as their probability of actually starting a business. The evaluation for BizWorld found a moderately large and significant negative effect on entrepreneurial intentions (opening a business). Only one program evaluation (JACP) referenced the firm performance outcome domain, reporting no significant effect of the program on firm survival. The JAN program evaluation examined how students provided benefit to enterprises run by their parents, alluding to students being better able to help parents with particular business practices such as bookkeeping. Of interest, Fairlie and Robb (2004) found that skills learned from experience working in a family member’s enterprise to be associated with later business success. Figure 9 - Entrepreneurship Education – Secondary Education Program Characteristics Program  Delivered by Secondary characteristics Education Teachers  Content focus on socio- emotional skills and financial literacy P S S M Outcomes M Participants CC Context  May not select into programs  Community environment and are exposed as part of Participants  Teacher ContextQuality curricula  Education system capacity and  Performance can be correlated support with parental status Taken as a whole, the evaluations of EESE programs are consistent in suggesting that these programs can achieve positive changes in outcomes associated primarily with foundational [32] entrepreneurial mindsets and the range of socio-economic skills that literature associates with entrepreneurship. Skills such as self-confidence, locus of control, leadership, creativity, risk propensity, motivation, resilience, and self-efficacy are particularly common. By contrast, EESE programs are clearly only able to target entrepreneurial capabilities, indicating more heterogeneous results among cognitive entrepreneurial skills. The EESE program evaluations support the potential role of secondary schools as environments for the promotion and acquisition of foundational entrepreneurial mindsets and some entrepreneurial capabilities. Such findings are consistent with other research that positions EESE programs as a means for ensuring young people possess knowledge, capabilities, and attitudes associated with entrepreneurship (Isaacs, Visser, Friedrich and Pradeed Brijlal, 2007). These skills serve as the foundation for a more focused managerial and business education and training at a later point in time (ILO, 2011). Program Characteristics EESE program characteristics are influenced by already being within secondary schools. As such, from a design standpoint, many of these programs demonstrate a degree of functional collaboration with schools themselves or with the broader education system through program integration into standard curricula. The ILO (2011) describes how EESE programs can represents “pilot” programs, in which different content and teaching methods are tested within particular schools or within current areas of study; like the JAN program, whose evaluation covers the pilot program across several Namibian schools. Furthermore, an EESE program can also be part of a broader or more national roll out, in which the program is being adopted into curricula on a mass scale. Farstad (2002) outlines examples of this in Botswana, Uganda, and Kenya, with integration being the most thorough in Kenya, where entrepreneurship education has been a compulsory aspect of all levels of Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) since the 1990s. The KAB program in Syria has also been integrated into the curricula of vocational secondary schools. Lastly, INJAZ represents yet another program design approach, in which the program is an extracurricular activity, yet one that is still implemented in partnership with the relevant education authorities. While the EESE programs examined by this study represent a mix of all program design approaches, many share association with global “brands” in entrepreneurship education -- such as BizWorld, Junior Achievement, the National Foundation for Teaching Entrepreneurship, and Know about Business (ILO). Thus, from a program design standpoint, EESE programs can represent an intriguing blend of the global (international NGOs) and the local (individual schools). The duration of EESE programs can range from five days (BizWorld) to a whole school year (NFTE). The intensity of the program within this duration can range as well. Farstad (2002), looking at curricula integrated programs in Botswana, Uganda, and Kenya, found that allocated time never exceeded an average of two hours a week. The SAIE program evaluation examined results according to the duration of the intervention, finding stronger performance improvements after a two year period in comparison to a one year period, and indicated that entrepreneurial skill acquisition takes place over a longer period of time than anticipated. EESE programs’ content and curricula understandably correspond with the general focus on the promotion of entrepreneurial mindsets and capabilities in the outcome dimension. Of note is the focus on various socio-emotional skills, such as leadership, creativity, and teamwork, as well as on entrepreneurship awareness. The NFTE program includes the concepts of competitive advantage, [33] ownership, opportunity recognition, marketing, finance, and product development -- which all tie back to core math and literacy skills. In terms of how this content is delivered, the ILO (pg. 4, 2011) suggests the usefulness of a “learning by doing” approach, stressing the importance of activities that expose students to concrete entrepreneurial practices. This can include simulations (mock businesses), competitions, and teamwork. The EOEAS program evaluation found team-oriented instruction methods to be among the most important predictors of students’ post-program entrepreneurial inclinations. The learning by doing approach appears to echo the recommendations of Volkmann (2009) who highlights the value of business plan development and competitions, which are components of NFTE and INJAZ. Farstad (2002), however, warns of the danger of over relying on such methods for learning entrepreneurship concepts, describing how students tend to focus on copying the business plans of other students to ensure good grades. EESE program evaluations and research also identify instructors as exposing students to concrete entrepreneurial practices. BizWorld includes a local businessperson as a volunteer instructor, and JACP curricula are implemented by community volunteers. Local businesspeople serve as volunteer mentors to students in the NFTE program; however, the curriculum is largely implemented by specially trained, existing teachers. The NFTE program emphasizes the role of teachers in shaping the outcomes of the program, finding that effects are strongest for students taught by a teacher with a strong record of effective teaching. Volkmann (2009) focuses on the need for teachers trained in the specific pedagogies and content of EESE programs. Bolstad (2006) describes a specific initiative designed to further the teaching of entrepreneurship education -- the Northland Enterprising Teachers initiative in New Zealand targets teachers in subjects across the curriculum (not only those from economics or finance backgrounds) to reinforce the broad applicability of entrepreneurial skills. However, Farstad (2002) finds that in Botswana, Uganda, and Kenya, most teachers of entrepreneurship are from business management or economics backgrounds; although in Kenya, entrepreneurship education has been a part of all teachers’ training since 1993. Finally, looking at the evaluated programs, very little information is available on their costs. The exceptions are the BizWorld and KAB programs. BizWorld is financed through a public-private partnership, with companies sponsoring a class of students. BizWorld costs a business US$1,300 to sponsor a classroom at a school, which includes providing a businessperson who serves as a volunteer instructor. KAB is free for students, but costs US$15,000 to hire a trainer to teach instructors the KAB curriculum in each school. Farstad (2002) also encountered challenges in establishing the costs related to entrepreneurship education in part due to a) the reluctance to disclose financial information and b) the reality that much of EESE program costs are often indiscernible from broader operational costs of secondary education institutions. Overall, the costs of EESE programs would be expected to fluctuate with the relative costs of classroom time of other subjects, the extent to which specialized teaching materials are needed, and whether certain learning activities are implemented (e.g. competitions, field trips). No information on financial analysis of EESE programs was found. Moderating Factors Evaluations of EESE programs cite a range of factors--related to both individual participants and program context-- that potentially moderate outcomes. At the participant level, some program evaluations indicate that outcomes are influenced by students’ expressed interest in [34] entrepreneurship, by their parental background (e.g., parents’ level of education, immigrant status), and by their own self-concept. The EOAS evaluation suggested that the development of start-up inclinations were found more closely linked to social influences, with relatively large and positive effects. Social Influences are features such as entrepreneurs in the surroundings, innovative orientation, experience in leadership and organizations, and team-oriented instruction. Furthermore INJAZ students, who elected to take part in extra-curricular programs, tended to have high levels of access to entrepreneurs in their lives through family members and/or neighbors. Importantly, when considering EESE program outcomes, evaluations acknowledge the practical constraints to interventions influencing secondary education students becoming self-employed or launching entrepreneurial ventures. As program participants, secondary students may have several years before entering the workforce. Farstad (2002) echoes this insight, underscoring how students’ age, maturity level, and lack of life experience or productive and marketable skills complicate their ability to become self-employed, and that many students may opt for more education after an intervention. This finding is reflected in the NFTE evaluation, where participants expressed an increasingly strong interest in occupations requiring advanced training or formal education, including college. Volkmann (2009) further indicates that many students are considered minors by law and in turn face legal constraints to establishing an enterprise or corporate entity. For those who do pursue self-employment, Farstad (2002) finds a higher frequency among TVET students, suggesting a number of explanations, including: TVET students tend to be older, TVET students tend to have less access to white-collar career paths, or the fact that TVET equips students with productive knowledge and skills. Program evaluations also cite various economic, cultural, and institutional contextual factors as moderating factors. The SAIE program evaluation indicated that extraneous factors (the socio- economic profile of student) were a powerful influence on student performance, even more influential than teaching materials. Farstad (2002) finds that students in rural areas tend to enter self-employment more frequently than their urban counterparts, suggesting an influence of the socio-economic dynamics of rural communities. Farstad’s study (2002) study also touches on the capital constraints that students face as well as a culture of skepticism that surrounds self- employment in Botswana, Uganda, and Kenya. In terms of contextual factors potentially influencing mindset and skills acquisition, program evaluations cite the socioeconomic level of community and school as well as the relative quality of instruction, which are issues not uncommon to broader discussions of contextual influences on student learning in education research. [35] Table 2 - Entrepreneurship Education – Secondary Education Students (EESE) Program Program Name Evaluation Sample Outcomes Measured Key Findings Beneficiaries Children in Tier 1 | The sample consisted of 85 Direct (short-term) effect  The treatment effect was positive and statistically the final Randomize schools (the universe was of early entrepreneurship significant for seven of the nine non-cognitive grades of d field 113 schools that had signed education on the skills tested, namely self-efficacy (0.149***), need primary experiment up for the program in 2010 development (a) non- for achievement (0.166***), risk taking school and 2011, out of which 75 cognitive skills including: propensity (0.114**), persistence (0.105**), percent consented to self-efficacy, need for analyzing (0.127***), creativity (0.096*), and participating in the achievement, risk taking, proactivity (0.144***). Analysis on the research)-- a total of 118 social orientation, heterogeneity of treatment effects showed that classes and 2,751 students persistence, motivating, the treatment effects remained or increased in the last year of primary analyzing, proactivity, and slightly when controlling for individual, school, school. The response rate creativity; (b) cognitive and neighborhood characteristics, and year of BizWorld8 was 87.7 percent. Since the skills including data collection. Also, the size of treatment effects program was delivered at entrepreneurship were substantial and comparable to being eligible | The this class level, the unit of knowledge; and (c) to one track level in entering high school (i.e. Netherlands analysis was the class level entrepreneurial form the baseline of pre-vocational to general rather than the school. intentions including secondary education); Schools and classes were children’s intentions to  The estimated effect on cognitive entrepreneurial assigned to a treatment or a become an entrepreneur skills (entrepreneurship knowledge) was positive control group. For both although not significant (0.015); and groups, the study applied a  The estimated effect on entrepreneurial pre-test/post-test design to intentions (owning business) for children was allow an unbiased negative and significant (-0.134***). The study difference-in-differences acknowledged that the measures used for estimate of the non- entrepreneurial intentions were not validated for treatment effect children and could potentially alter the results. EOEAS | General and Tier 2 | The sample included six Personality (achievement,  Self-employment was the least preferred option vocational Quasi general secondary schools, motivation, locus of in all school types; Entrepreneurial secondary experiment four commercial academies, control, innovative Orientation and  Commercial academy and secondary technical education al design three secondary technical orientation); resources schools graduates were more likely to start a Education in schools schools and one secondary (attention to business and career after graduation; Austrian (focusing on school for technical and economics, knowledge of Secondary Schools  Commercial academy students had more business, business professionals. In business and economics, technical addition, a sample of experience in leadership opportunities to gain practical experience and Study9 | Austria demonstrated the strongest entrepreneurship careers, trades Austrian participants in an and organization, network 8 Rosendahl Huber, Laura, Sloof, Randolph and Van Praag, Mirjan, (2012), “The Effect of Early Entrepreneurship Education: Evidence from a Randomized Field Experiment”, Discussion Paper Series No. 6512, IZA. 9 Frank, Herman, Karunka, Christian, Lueger, Manfred and Mugler, Josef, (2005), “Entrepreneurial Orientation and Education in Austrian Secondary Schools”, Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, Vol. 12 No.2, pp. 259-273. [36] and international junior and activities inside and orientation, though these conditions did not lead commerce) entrepreneur contest outside school; start up to higher start up inclinations or a pronounced (“junior”) was selected. inclination (startup entrepreneurial orientation; and Among the 15 schools, a probability); environment  Education processes seemed to fulfill an total of 875 students and 36 (entrepreneurs’ in the important function in the development of contest participants were student’s surroundings, entrepreneurial orientation. Schools could surveyed in 2001. Survey use of technology, influence this effect by reinforcing business and participants were 15-18 supportive upbringing), economics knowledge. However, the years old and process development of startup inclinations seemed to be (entrepreneurship more closely linked to social influences in the orientation of the school, micro social environment. For example, the most independence/criticism important predictors of startup inclinations as values in instruction, included: entrepreneurs in the surroundings entrepreneurship- (0.31***); innovative orientation (0.27***); oriented instruction experience in leadership and organization methods, and team (0.19***); and team-oriented instruction methods oriented methods) (0.11***). Currently in Tier 2 | The sample included a total Entrepreneurship  Entrepreneurial behavior (EB) increased for 18 high Quasi of 17 classrooms, 13 thinking, entrepreneurial NFTE students compared to the control group. schools in experiment teachers and 268 students, behavior (EB) through an The EB score for NFTE students registered a Boston, al design out of which 158 students entrepreneurial activities significant increase of 7.5 percent (p<.01). The Massachusetts received the NFTE program checklist (49 activities changes in the two groups were large and . The program (treatment) and 110 organized around significant for the starter dimension and business targets high students were selected in different domains and domain; schools where the comparison classes dimensions), locus of  In contrast, the EB score for comparison students NFTE | Network at least half of (control) control, and applied new did not register significant changes, although in the student scales to measure healthy some domains the trend declined; for Teaching body is or positive development Entrepreneurshi eligible for (using the values in action  Although the results for locus of control were not p10 | United significant, the scores followed the hypothesized free or scale that gauge pattern. While NFTE students began with States reduced- originality, curiosity, marginally lower locus of control scores than the priced lunch industriousness and comparison group, they increased their score by hopefulness) about 3 percent after the intervention, outscoring the control group. Similarly, immigrant students participating in the program improved in their locus of control by about 4.5 percent while the score of similar students in the comparison group declined by approximately 2.5 percent;  Locus of control findings were strongest for 10Nakkula, Michael, Lutyens, Miranda, Pineda, Claudia, Dray, Amy, Gaytan, Frank, and Huguley, Jay, (2004) “Initiating, Leading and Feeling in Control of One’s Fate: Findings from the 2002- 2003 Study of NFTE in Six Boston Public High Schools”, Harvard University, Recover from: http://www.nfte.com/sites/default/files/harvard-nfte_study_02-03_full_report_6-6-04.pdf [37] students taught by one particular teacher in one of the schools with a strong track record of effective teaching (i.e. had received recognition);  Results on students’ connectedness were generally negative;  Results from the values in action scales (originality, curiosity, industriousness and hopefulness) were not found to be significant. Although not significant results, NFTE students scored marginally higher than the comparison group in the pretest, meanwhile the gap narrowed at posttest with the comparison group increasing their score and the NFTE students decreasing the score;  Overall, NFTE students trained by top-notch teachers showed a higher degree of general student teacher connectedness, unlike the comparison group; and  Similar to the findings from the first phase, relative to the comparison group, NFTE students expressed increasingly strong interest in occupations requiring advanced training or formal education, including college. Students in Tier 2 | The pool of students came Student knowledge, skills  Participants in the JA programs had very high upper Quasi from a small number of and attitudes, and levels of access to entrepreneurs in their lives. secondary experiment cities in the six countries. Its behavioral intentions Around 80 percent had siblings who were that al design total size was 1,454 where about entrepreneurship. entrepreneurs, and 30 to 74 percent indicated participated in 617 were interviewed for that their parents or neighbors were INJAZ | Junior the INJAZ the baseline of the entrepreneurs; Achievement11 | Company comparison group and 837  They had medium levels of knowledge of basic Morocco, Program. for the treatment group. entrepreneurial concepts; Lebanon, Jordan, They were not randomly  High and positive aspirations, views of self and Saudi, UAE and assigned to either group and others, self-efficacy and interest in business Egypt due to limitations in creation; and implementation, they could  Favorable attitudes towards entrepreneurship only match pre and post and business. surveys in limited cases. The baseline questionnaire was collected in December 2010 11Reimers, Fernando, Dyer, Paul, and Ortega, Maria Elena, (2012), “Entrepreneurship Education in the Middle East”, A summary ca n be recovered from: http://www.nfte.com/sites/default/files/harvard-nfte_study_02-03_full_report_6-6-04.pdf. Full text is available upon request. [38] and January 2011, and the follow-up survey was collected in July and November 2011. Upper Tier 2 | The pool of individuals for Probability of starting a  Participation increased the likelihood of starting a secondary Quasi- the treated was around business, entrepreneurial new business by at least 20 percent (*) when level students experiment 166,606 individuals. The income and firm survival compared to the non-participants of JACP; JACP | Junior in Swedish al design sample size was 224,838  JACP participation had a positive effect of Achievement schools using individuals of whom 10,103 expected income in the range of 7 percent (**) – Company Propensity comprise the treatment 18 percent (***); and Program12 | Score group (individuals who  There was no significant effect on firm survival Sweden Matching participated in the JACP (PSM) between 1994 and 1996) due to JACP participation. and 214,735 comparable non-participant individuals 12 Elert, Niklas, Andersson, Fredrik, and Wennberg, Karl, (2013) “The Impact of Entrepreneurship Education in High -School on Long-Term Entrepreneurial Performance”, Mimeo. [39] Entrepreneurship Education – Higher Education Students (EEHE) Program Landscape This study identified and examined a total of ten entrepreneurship education programs targeted at higher education students (EEHE), see Table 3. Of these ten programs, impact evaluations were available for two that met the Tier 1 criteria (impact evaluations with an experimental design), one program had an evaluation that satisfied the Tier 2 criteria, and seven programs met the criteria for Tier 3. (See Table 4 for a list of these programs as well as a summary of the key findings from the evaluations.) In terms of geographic distribution, four of the ten programs are found in Western Europe, with two in the United States, three in Africa, and an additional program in East Asia. The scope of these programs is most discernible by the number of higher education campuses where they were delivered. Only three of the ten are delivered at more than two campuses, and three others are isolated to a single campus. Seven of these programs are delivered exclusively to undergraduate students, two are delivered to undergraduate and graduate students, and only one specifically targets graduate students. In addition the aforementioned sample of EEHE program evaluations, this portion of the analysis draws upon broader research, including a recent meta-analysis conducted by Martin, McNally, and Kay (2012) -- a quantitative review of EET literature based upon 42 independent samples (N=16,657). This study is particularly relevant to EEHE, since the authors delineate between academic-focused EET (EEHE) interventions and training-focused EET interventions. Table 3 - Entrepreneurship Education - Higher Education Students Program Name Country Evaluation BPTC Business Plan Thesis Competition Tunisia Tier 1 STEP Student Training for Promoting Entrepreneurship Uganda Tier 1 UTES University Training for Entrepreneurs Sweden Tier 2 APSB Auchi Polytechnic School of Business Nigeria Tier 3 BEP McGuire Entrepreneurship Program (formerly Berger) United States Tier 3 BØDO Bødo Graduate School of Business Norway Tier 3 CCOE College Carve out Education China Tier 3 FEE Finland Entrepreneurial Education Finland Tier 3 GE Grande Ecole France Tier 3 MIT The Making of an Entrepreneur United States Tier 3 Analyzing EEHE Programs Outcomes The EEHE programs included in this study target outcome domains largely related to entrepreneurial mindsets and capabilities and to a lesser extent entrepreneurial status and performance. Reflecting this pattern, the findings from the evaluations of EEHE programs are heavily concentrated in the mindsets and capabilities domains as well. This concentration in outcomes is consistent with the profile of the target group for EEHE programs-- students in tertiary education institutions who are typically preparing to enter the world of work, and thus entrepreneurship. [40] The meta-analysis of Martin, McNally, and Kay (2012) (See Box 10), however, does find a relationship between entrepreneurship outcomes and academic-focused EET interventions. In fact, that relationship is stronger for the academic-focused EET interventions -- that are likely to resemble EEHE programs (r=0.238) -- than for training-focused EET interventions (r=0.151), which are more likely to resemble ET program types. This finding focuses on the potential role of EEHE programs in not only engendering outcomes related to mindsets and capabilities, but also to outcomes related to entrepreneurial status Box 10 - Examining the Formation of Human Capital in (e.g. enterprise start-up) as well as Entrepreneurship: A Meta-Analysis of Entrepreneurship performance (e.g. enterprise survivability). A Education Outcomes – Bruce c. Martin, Jeffrey J. McNally and Michael J. Kay discussion of whether the included EEHE program evaluations support these findings is This study reviewed the literature on Entrepreneurship below. Education and Training (EET), specifically human capital and educational activities outcomes. They included 42 Particular attention is paid to the two Tier 1 studies that met several criteria: i) the predictor variable had to be either in entrepreneurial education or training, EEHE impact evaluations available -- the STEP ii) criterion variables had to be either related to human program in Uganda and the BPTC program in capital assets or to entrepreneurship outcomes, and iii) Tunisia. Both evaluations provide compelling reported data that could be included in a meta-analysis (r results for the capacity of EEHE programs to values or data to transform it into r values). The results suggested that there was a positive and significant foster positive effects in mindsets and relationship between EET and entrepreneurship-related capabilities, but produce mixed results around human capital assets (rw=0.217) and performance (rw= entrepreneurial status. Thanks to an action- 0.159). The moderator analyses suggested a stronger based training method implemented over a 12- relationship between EET and outcomes from academic- focused EET (rw=0.238), similar to EEHE programs, than month period, the STEP program evaluation from training focused EET (rw=0.151), similar to ET indicated that the program increased the program types. These results presented implications in likelihood of treated students starting a terms of positive returns on investments to develop EET business, compared to the control group. In programs, and in terms that inclusion of more conceptual particular, the STEP program evaluation material will benefit students in training focused EET to achieve entrepreneurial success. underlined the central importance of action- regulatory mechanisms in entrepreneurship Martin, B.C., McNally, J. J. and Kay, M. J., (2012), “Examining the formation and showed how action-oriented of human capital in entrepreneurship: A meta-analysis of entrepreneurship education outcomes” in Journal of Business Venturing, entrepreneurship training13 provided the doi: 10.1016/j.jbusvent.2012.03.002 necessary skills and knowledge to start a business and pursue the career option of an entrepreneur. The evaluation of the BTCP program examined participants’ aspirations for the future, personality traits, and behavioral skills-- as related to entrepreneurship. The intervention produced strong impacts on participants’ self-reported business skills and networking proxies. About 77 percent of program graduates reported knowing how to produce a business plan, compared to 45 percent in the control group. The intervention also led to changes in several domains of the “Big Five” socio- emotional skills, including a large decrease in agreeableness and a moderate increase in extraversion, when compared to a control group. There was, however, no evidence that the entrepreneurship training positively affected conscientiousness and emotional stability, and other entrepreneurial traits such as tenacity or power motivation remained unchanged. 13 An action-oriented entrepreneurship training is based on the propositions of action regulation theory (Frese & Zapf, 1994). Such trainings feature the following components: teaching the training content in form of action principles, learning-by-doing, providing positive as well as negative action feedback, and matching training tasks and real-world tasks to increase transfer. The training thus goes beyond other trainings which focus mainly on learning-by-doing. [41] The BPTC evaluation also examined effects through a number of entrepreneurial status outcomes, like self-employment and wages. In contrast to the results on mindsets and capabilities, the intervention produced only a small probability of students becoming self-employed compared to the control group. The evaluation indicated a small but positive increase in the probability of being self-employed for graduates of the entrepreneurship track after one year of graduation. There was, however, no evidence that the program significantly affected overall employment as captured by the likelihood of being employed in the last seven days. In fact, estimates were negative and pointed to a reduction in the probability of holding wage employment; and although not significant, the decrease was of the same magnitude as the increase in self-employment, suggesting the possibility of substitution effect from wage employment to self-employment. The evaluations of the other EEHE programs appear to also reflect promising results in the mindsets and capabilities domains. For example, program evaluations for the CCOE program in China and GE program in France focus on the entrepreneurial intentions of participants. To gauge entrepreneurial intentions, the CCOE evaluation examined a number of proxies, including business knowledge, abilities, and psychological qualities. The evaluation found a positive and significant correlation between (a) college carve-out education and business knowledge, entrepreneurial ability, and psychological quality; (b) business knowledge and intention; (c) entrepreneurial ability and intention; and (d) psychological quality and intention. The evaluation of the GE program indicated that the perception of potential entrepreneurship doubled from the first year to the second year of the program. However, the number of students that wanted to work in a SME dropped in the same period. Lastly, the evaluation of the Bødo program in Norway, which targets business students, found a positive correlation between education in entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial behavior, both for actual behavior and for behavioral intentions. Figure 10 ⎼ Entrepreneurship Education – Higher Education Program Characteristics Program  Blendcharacteristic of theory and practice  Emphasis on strategic s planning and business plan development  Offer mentoring and coaching P SOutcomes Participants M Context  Expressed interest in Participants entrepreneurship C  Cultural openness to Context entrepreneurship  Prior experience in the  On campus support for world of work program implementation On the whole, the evaluations of EEHE programs provide less robust insight on which programs influence indicators in the entrepreneurial status and performance domains. Notable exceptions [42] are the evaluations of the Bødo program in Norway and the BEP program in the United States. The Bødo evaluation indicated that having a major in entrepreneurship was positively associated with new firm formation, thus finding a positive correlation between education in entrepreneurship and subsequent entrepreneurial behavior. Furthermore, the BEP program evaluation described how participants were three times more likely to be involved in the creation of a new business venture than non-entrepreneurship-track business students. The evaluation also indicated that EEHE may benefit firms and individuals beyond the realm of self-employment and entrepreneurship in the traditional sense-- suggesting that the program corresponded with higher salaries and asset growth for its graduates as compared with traditional business school graduates. Lastly, the BEP program evaluation was the only EEHE program to explicitly examine outcomes relevant to firm performance, with its findings suggesting that existing companies that either hired or were either owned by its entrepreneurship graduates demonstrated higher sales and growth in employment. The evaluation also claims BEP played a role in fostering innovations in existing businesses by enhancing the transfer of technology from the university to the private sector. It is important, however, to note the limitations of the BEP program evaluation, as well as the applicability of its findings on the whole, given the program targets a limited number of selected participants (about 80) per year, who through self-selection are highly motivated to work in entrepreneurship. Program Characteristics While the EEHE program design is influenced by the context in which they are delivered – within tertiary education institutions – these programs still exhibit heterogeneity. In some cases, EEHE program are implemented across a number of tertiary education institutions at a national level. Examples of this include the BPTC program, a new entrepreneurship curricula being implemented by the Tunisian government, and the APSB program, which is an effort by the Nigerian government to introduce entrepreneurship education into tertiary institutions. By contrast, individual institutions are implementing a number of program initiatives and course offerings. In either case, the duration and intensity of programs appear to typically follow the norms of other higher education courses/programs of study (e.g., several week- or semester-long courses), and importantly, programs are typically delivered by faculty members. Notable exceptions include the short course (6-12 hours) GE program option, as well the STEP program, where students do not receive credit or grades for participation. The literature suggests that entrepreneurship is a multi-disciplinary field drawing upon a number of disciplines including psychology, economics, and business administration (Baron, 2007b). Across EEHE programs, general business education, entrepreneurship awareness, marketing, and accounting are other common areas of curricular focus. A number of the evaluated programs place emphasis on the knowledge and skills required to develop a business plan as well as contribute to the strategic development of an enterprise. To facilitate this learning, several EEHE programs use business plan competitions and enterprise simulations. Emblematic of this approach, the BPTC program allows students to substitute a thesis requirement by developing a business plan. Plan completion culminates in a competition, where the winner receives start-up capital. The BEP program has a year-long focus on developing a new venture, which also culminates in a year-end competition. Further, STEP uses an action-oriented approach to shape positive outcomes-- students form small teams and use $100 in start-up capital to launch an actual business. This helps students apply lessons directly to facilitate learning. Common EEHE wrap-around services include mentoring and coaching, typically from entrepreneurs, as is the case with the BEP and BPTC programs. These types of wrap-around [43] services focus on exposing students to innovation-driven entrepreneurs, suggesting that several EEHE programs are looking to cultivate high-growth potential entrepreneurs and enterprises. Even in the case of EEHE, the information on program costs is limited, with only three of the evaluated programs providing such data. Two of these programs are in the United States (BEP and MIT) and one in Norway (Bødo). In particular tuition rates vary for the BEP program, depending on the track of the course taken and where the students are from (e.g. in-state is cheaper than tuition from out of state students--ranging from US$5,000 to US$15,825); while the university cost to deliver the program is approximately US$900,000 annually. Similarly, in the case of the MIT program, the cost is US$41,770 for a master’s engineering student’s annual tuition. On the contrary, the Bødo program is offered at no cost for students because public higher education in Norway is free. The wide range of costs reflects different program structures and content, as well as varying education policies among countries. Moderating Factors The profiles of EEHE students—and thus their general human capital assets—are similar across programs when compared to other EET program types, given that EEHE students are at the tertiary level. EEHE program evaluations nevertheless indicate that individual characteristics can have a moderating effect on program outcomes. For example, the CCOE program evaluation in China found that the role of a student’s profile, such as their prior work experience, was a key moderating factor; while several programs (BØDO, BPTC) cite the role of students’ predisposition and interest in entrepreneurship, which drew them to the program in the first place. The MIT evaluation indicated that the interest in entrepreneurship itself may be influenced by students’ particular personality traits, indicating that students with a high risk taking propensity and those with an internal locus of control were more likely to be interested in entrepreneurship. Self-selection and selectivity are at the center of participant behavior dynamics for EEHE programs. The self-selection issue is that entrepreneur programs participants would have chosen to be an entrepreneur even if the program did not exist. This would benefit the targeting of the program, but would negatively affect the program evaluation. For example, the BEP program consists of students who are personally motivated to apply for the entrepreneurship major. Students also opt into the entrepreneurship track with the BPTC program. Additionally, selectivity is assumed as barriers to entry to these programs for students. In the case of STEP, the program includes an application process (student must elect to apply) and if accepted, students must pay a US$10 deposit (refunded at the end of the program), which further underscores the program’s effort to select dedicated participants. Evaluations of EEHE programs place little emphasis on contextual factors’ moderating role. The main exceptions to this are: (a) the GE (Grande Ecole) program in France, which emphasizes the culture of French society itself and the Grand Ecole’s culture of inhibiting students’ desire to start or work for SMEs; and (b) programs implemented at multiple campuses, where evaluations recognize how differences among institutions and on-campus support for entrepreneurship promotion can all play a role in outcomes (BPTC, CCOE). Other notable exceptions include the evaluations of BEP, reflecting the strength of the U.S. economy and the entrepreneurial ecosystem in the 1990s, and of BPTC, which suggests that the Arab Spring and Tunisian revolution have helped foster a cultural excitement and interest in entrepreneurship. The STEP evaluation also cited the highly entrepreneurial Ugandan context as potentially playing an enabling role in students’ decisions to become entrepreneurs. [44] Table 4 - Entrepreneurship Education – Higher Education EEHE Program Outcomes Program Name Evaluation Sample Key Findings Beneficiaries Measured Undergraduate Tier 1 | Students at Makerere Entrepreneurial self-  Action knowledge was a central factor promoting the students in Randomized University and Uganda efficacy, action initiation and maintenance of entrepreneurial activity. their final controlled field Christian University. knowledge, action Compared to the control group, the training increased semester experiment Among the 651 planning, the likelihood of starting a business by 50 percent, and applications received, 200 entrepreneurial goals, compared to the initial status in the training group, the were selected to receive entrepreneurial training increased the likelihood of starting a business the training right away action, business by 219 percent; (treatment group) and 200 opportunity  The training had a positive and significant effect on: were placed in a waiting identification, and (a) entrepreneurial self-efficacy (F = 10.44, p <0.01, group (control group) that business ownership interaction effect = .03 and group effect after training STEP | Student received the training after 0.44); (b) action knowledge (F = 17.65, p<0.01, completion of the study. interaction effect = .05 and group effect after training Training for The data were collected 0.61); (c) action planning (F = 5.53, p<0.05, interaction Promoting using a pre-test/post-test effect = .02 and group effect after training 0.47), and Entrepreneurshi design at three points in business opportunity identification (F=7.70, p<.01, p14 | Uganda time (T1, T2 and T3) interaction effect = .02 and group effect after training 0.42). The effect of training on entrepreneurial goals was marginally supported (F = 2.88, p<0.10, interaction effect = .01 and group effect after training 0.31); and  Entrepreneurial action at T2 had a significant effect on entrepreneurial action at T3 (β = 0.26; p<0.01) and action knowledge had a significant and positive effect on entrepreneurial action (β = 0.13; p<0.05). The coefficient on entrepreneurial self-efficacy on entrepreneurial action was not significant. Undergraduate Tier 1 | Impact For the academic year of Self-employment,  Approximately one year after graduation, graduates of BPTC | Business students evaluation 2009/10, 1,702 students employment status, the entrepreneurship track had a higher probability of Plan Thesis enrolled in using a (about 9 percent of all employment being self-employed. Although the effects were small Competition15 | Tunisian randomized eligible students characteristics, in absolute terms (ranging from 1 to 4 percentage Tunisia Universities assignment nationwide) participated in business skills, points), given the low prevalence of self-employment the entrepreneurship preference and in the control group, the small absolute effects imply 14 Gielnik, Michael, Frese, Michael, Kahara-Kawuki, Audrey, Wassawa Katono, Isaac, Kyejjusa, Sarah, Munene, John, Muhammed, Ngoma, Namatovu-Dawa, Rebecca, Nansubuga, Florence, Orobia, Laura, Oyugi, Jacob, Sejjaaka, Samuel, Sserwanaga, Arthur, Walter, Thomas, Bischoff, Kim Marie, and Dlugosch, Thorsten J. (XXXX), “Action and Action -Regulation in Entrepreneurship: Evaluation of a Student Training for Promoting Entrepreneurship”, Mimeo. Recover from: http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb07/fileadmin/datas/fb07/5- Institute/IVWL/Forschungskolloquium/SS12/121219_STEP_Evaluation_v09.pdf 15 Premand, Patric, Brodmann, Stefanie, Almeida, Rita, Grun, REbekka, Barouni, Mahdi, (2012), “Entrepreneurship Training and Self -Employment among University Graduates: Evidence from a Randomized Trial in Tunisia, Policy Research Working Paper No. 6285, World Bank. [45] track--some students behavioral skills, that beneficiaries were on average 46 to 87 percent applied in pairs so a total of attitudes towards the more likely to be self-employed compared to the 1,506 projects were future and access to control group; registered. The evaluation credit  There was no evidence that the program significantly assigned 757 projects to affected overall employment as captured by the the treatment group and likelihood of being employed in the last seven days. In 742 to the control group. fact, estimates were negative and pointed to a Information was collected reduction in the probability of holding wage at the beginning of the five- employment; and although not significant, the month program (February decrease was of the same magnitude as the increase in 2009) and nine to twelve self-employment, suggesting the possibility of months after graduation substitution effect from wage employment to self- from the program (April- employment; June 2011)  The program did not promote higher quality jobs among participants. There were no significant program impacts on employment in the formal sector, firm size, hours of work, or earnings;  The intervention produced strong impacts on participants’ self-reported business skills and networking proxies. About 77 percent of program graduates reported knowing how to produce a business plan, compared to 45 percent in the control group;  Intervention led to measurable, significant and robust changes in several domains of the Big Five, including a decrease in agreeableness (0.23-0.25 sd compared to control group) and an increase in extraversion (albeit a less robust finding compared to the previous trait). There was no evidence to indicate that the entrepreneurship training positively affected conscientiousness and emotional stability, and other entrepreneurial traits such as tenacity or power motivation remained unchanged; and  Participants were found to be more likely to be confident in obtaining credit and to have applied for credit (conditional on having a business idea), but they were neither more likely to know how to apply for credit nor to have obtained credit. UTES | Business Tier 2 | Between 1994 and 1995, Entrepreneurial action  Contrary to expectations, no significant differences in undergraduate Development tests were administered to capability (EAC), locus entrepreneurial action capability (EAC) were found University and and application 265 students business of control (LoC) and between single owner managers and multiple owner Training for engineering students at Vaxjo and an entrepreneurial [46] Entrepreneurs16 graduate of three tests Halmstad University, 110 value index (EVI) managers; | Sweden students at two engineering students at  The EAC and EVI results were highest for business Swedish Halmstad University and students participating in entrepreneurship programs universities 213 business owner- (7.11 and 3.28, respectively), followed by engineering managers of small firms students (6.51 and 2.47, respectively) and lastly (less than 20 employees)— owner-manages (6.03 and 2.29, respectively); the the latter group was differences between business students and owner subdivided into traditional managers were significant at p<0.01, and between or single venture owner- engineering students and owner managers significant managers and genuine or multiple venture owner- at p<0.10. managers. The LoC test  Business students enrolled in entrepreneurship was not applied to the programs showed higher entrepreneurial action owner-managers capability compared to business students from conventional programs (significant at p<0.01). However, business students in conventional programs scored higher on the entrepreneurial value index and locus of control, suggesting that showing entrepreneurial value did not necessarily lead to orientation in entrepreneurial action (locus of control was significant at p<0.01)  Contrary to expectations, there was no evidence that students in entrepreneurial programs with an engineering orientation had higher scores on entrepreneurial action capability compared to students enrolled in parallel business programs (significant at p<0.01); and  Academic training had an impact on students' entrepreneurial action capability; however, the short- term effects were stronger than the long-range effects. BEP | McGuire Business Tier 3 | Tracer A total of 2,024 surveys Formation of new  Entrepreneurship education increased the probability undergraduate Survey were mailed to graduates ventures, likelihood of of an individual being involved in a new business Entrepreneurshi and graduate from the non- self-employment, sales venture by 25 percent over non-entrepreneurship p Program students at the entrepreneurship business growth rate of graduates. Entrepreneurship students were 11 (formerly University of school graduates and 460 emerging firms, percent more likely than non-entrepreneurship Berger)17 | Arizona were mailed to accumulation of students to own their own businesses after entrepreneurship graduates’ assets and graduation; United States graduates, all of whom had technology transfer  Entrepreneurship education contributed to the growth 16 Johannisson, Bengt, Landström, Hans, and Rosenberg, Jessica, (1998), “University Training for Entrepreneurship – An Action Frame of Reference”, European Journal of Engineering Education, Vol. 23 No. 4, pp. 477-496. 17 Charney, Alberta and Libecap, Gary D., (2000) “Impact of Entrepreneurship Education”, Insights: Kauffman Research Series, Recover from: http://entrepreneurship.eller.arizona.edu/Docs/Evaluation/Impactevaluation_Entrepreneurshipprogram_UA.Pdf [47] graduated from the from the University to of firms, especially smaller emerging firms. On university between 1985 the private sector average, smaller emerging firms that were owned by and 1998. The final or employed entrepreneurship graduates had greater response rate was 511 for than five times the sales and employment growth than the non-entrepreneurship those that employed non-entrepreneurship graduates; business graduates and  Entrepreneurship graduates received an average 105 for the annual income that was 27 percent higher compared entrepreneurship to the average annual income of non-entrepreneurship graduates. Response rates graduates; were generally uniform across levels of degrees  Entrepreneurship education increased a business school graduate’s probability of being associated with and types of programs, a high-tech firm by nearly 13 percent and of however, it should be developing new technological products by almost 9 noted the response rate percent; and was extremely low at 21 percent  Entrepreneurship education enhanced the transfer of technology from the University to the private sector, and promoted technology based firms and products. Among self-employed entrepreneurship graduates, nearly 23 percent owned a high-technology firm, compared to less than 15 percent of non- entrepreneurship graduates who owned a firm. Business school Tier 3 | Tracer Graduate students in Entrepreneurial  Entrepreneurship was found to be a function of factors students Survey business at Bødo Graduate behavior and which can be altered through education; entering their School of Business (15-30 entrepreneurial  Having a major in entrepreneurship was positively BØDO | Bødo fifth year students per year) intention associated with new firm formation (a major in Graduate School entrepreneurship was the only variable that was of Business18 | significantly related to new firm formation r = 0.20 Norway p<.0.001); and  Having a major in entrepreneurship was positively associated with entrepreneurial intentions (r= 0.26 p<.0.001). Undergraduate Tier 3 | A total of 300 Carve-out education,  The evaluation found a positive and significant CCOE | College s in China Structure questionnaires were business knowledge, correlation between (a) college carve-out education Carve out equation model distributed, 214 were entrepreneurial and business knowledge (estimate 0.513***), Education19 | using survey completed, of which 200 abilities, psychological entrepreneurial ability (0.641***), and psychological China data from were valid (response rate quality and quality (0.385***); (b) business knowledge and current entrepreneurial intention (.0243***); (c) entrepreneurial ability and 18 Kolvereid, Lars and Moen, Oystein, (1997), “Entrepreneurship among Business Graduates: Does a Major in Entrepreneurship Make a Difference?”, Journal of European Industrial Training, Vol. 21 Issue 4, pp. 154-160. 19 Zhang, Guifang, Cheng, Peng, Fan, Luqing, and Chu, Ziqi, (2012), “An Empirical Study on Impact of College Carve-Out Education on Entrepreneur Intention”, SSRN, Recover from: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2034168 [48] students of 93 percent) intention intention (0.201***); and psychological quality and intention ( 0.276***); and  The evaluation did not find a significant correlation between education (0.077) and intention or knowledge and ability (0.006). Undergraduate Tier 3 | Surveys From December 2002 to Students’ perspectives  There was an upward shift in students’ attitudes and master’s of February 2003, two groups on entrepreneurs and towards entrepreneurship as a career choice between students in undergraduate of young people were entrepreneurship, first and second year students. While only 26.5 France and graduate surveyed about their students’ attitudes percent of first-year students surveyed saw students attitudes towards towards themselves as potential entrepreneurs, the percentage entrepreneurship and entrepreneurship, and for second year students surveyed was 50. Similarly, entrepreneurs, as well as the influence of while 30.9 percent of first year students could their desired career entrepreneurs as envisage setting up their own business, 53 percent of choices. The sample family members on second year students imagined setting up their own consisted of a group of the career choices of business; undergraduates, aged students  About 81 percent of first-year students surveyed between 19 and 22 years mentioned wanting to work in a large organization GE | Grande who were either about to upon completion of their studies compared to 60 Ecole20 | France enter the program (first percent for second-year students; and year students) or had just  The proportion of students who mentioned wanting to completed the program work in a small and medium enterprise dropped from (second year students). 54 percent for first year students to 31.7 percent for The intention was to second year students. identify differences between first and second year ESC students. The survey was sent to 280 first year students, of which 82 responded, and 276 second year students, of which 60 students responded 20 Klaper, Rita, (2004), “Government Goals and Entrepreneurship Education – An Investigation at a Grande Ecole in France”, Education + Training, Vol. 46 No. 3, pp. 127-137. [49] Entrepreneurship Training – Potential Entrepreneurs (ETPo) The Program Landscape This study identified and examined a total of 16 entrepreneurship training programs targeted at potential entrepreneurs (ETPo), see Table 5. Of these 16 programs, impact evaluations were available for seven programs that met the criteria for Tier 1 (impact evaluations with an experimental design), the evaluation of one additional program satisfied the criteria for Tier 2, and eight program evaluations met the criteria for Tier 3. (See Table 7 for a list of the programs as well as a summary of the key findings.) In terms of geographic distribution, there are four programs delivered in Latin America, three in South Asia, four in the United States, three in Sub-Saharan Africa, one in Western Europe, and one in East Asia. The scope of entrepreneurship training programs targeted at potential entrepreneurs is large, with 10 of the 14 programs serving over 1,000 beneficiaries, and several serving upwards of 10,000 beneficiaries. In addition to the program evaluations, the analysis of ETPo programs is informed by insights from relevant literature, including available meta-analyses and systematic reviews. These include Martin, McNally, and Kay (2012), a quantitative review of 42 independent ETPo literature samples (N=16,657); Cho and Honorati (2013), which includes 37 impact evaluations of entrepreneurship programs and 1,116 estimates for six different types of outcomes21; Glaub and Frese (2011), a critical review of 30 studies that evaluated 10 different entrepreneurship programs in developing countries; and McKenzie and Woodruff (2012), a critical review of business training program evaluations in developing countries. Table 5 - Entrepreneurship Training – Potential Entrepreneurs Program Name Country Evaluation AAC Atención a Crisis Nicaragua Tier 1 EPAG Economic Empowerment of Adolescent Girls and Young Liberia Tier 1 Women GATE Growing America Through Entrepreneurship Project United States Tier 1 JE Juventud y Empleo Dominican Tier 1 Republic JEA Jóvenes en Acción Colombia Tier 1 WINGS Women’s Income Generating Support Program Uganda Tier 1 YOP Youth Opportunities Program Uganda Tier 1 MEP Micro-emprendimientos Productivos Argentina Tier 2 ACTiVATE Achieving the Commercialization of Technology in United States Tier 3 Ventures through Applied Training for Entrepreneurs BACIP Building and Construction Improvement Program Pakistan Tier 3 DCEI Dade County Entrepreneurial Institute United States Tier 3 ENBDP Entrepreneurship and New Business Development Sweden Tier 3 Programme SEWA SEWA Bank India Tier 3 SIYB Start and Improve Your Business Program Vietnam Tier 3 WEMTOP Women’s Enterprise Management Training Outreach India Tier 3 Program WSBP+MBDP Training Women for Success United States Tier 3 21Includes entrepreneurship training programs as well as programs providing micro-finance – only insights from training programs were considered. [50] Analyzing ETPo Programs Outcome Domains Evaluated ETPo program objectives include income diversification, economic assistance, and the reduction of unemployment. In line with these objectives, a number of the ETPo programs are designed to target vulnerable groups, including women, unemployed youth, and welfare recipients. The targeted outcomes of evaluated ETPo programs are primarily concentrated in the entrepreneurial status domain and to a lesser extent the entrepreneurial performance, capabilities, and mindsets domains. With regard to entrepreneurial status, several of the evaluations demonstrate mixed-- but sometimes promising-- results around the capacity of these programs to improve employment, income, and savings for beneficiaries. An evaluation of the AAC program in Nicaragua, which provides beneficiaries with a cash transfer, training and a productive investment grant, suggested that there were (significant) increases in in self-employment, household consumption, and income two years after the end of the intervention. The evaluation of GATE program in the U.S., however, suggested that the effects on business ownership (although mainly driven by a significant likelihood of business start-ups22 rather than no effect on the likelihood of a business exiting23) and employment were positive and significant in the short-run when compared to a control group, but they vanished on the medium and long-term. Additionally, the GATE evaluation did not find any evidence of training programs having effects on other business performance and labor market outcomes such as household income and work satisfaction. Conversely, the evaluation of the EPAG program in Liberia evidenced gains in weekly income and savings among trainees compared to a control group. The evaluation of the WINGS program in Uganda, which targeted poor and capital- and credit-constrained women, also found significant impacts on income, consumption, and savings. Evaluations of ETPo programs also examined impacts on earnings and employment beyond self- employment. For example, the evaluation of the JEA program in Colombia reported that the training moderately increased wage and salaried earnings in the formal sector and had a small positive effect on the probability of having a formal sector job. Interestingly, the JEA program indicated that while training increased wage and salary earnings in the formal sector, the same effect was not realized in the informal sector. The evaluation of the MEP program in Argentina, which aimed to promote self-employment among welfare recipients, indicated that program participants substituted away from other jobs, and realized no significant gains in short-run income. The JE program evaluation also described disappointing results, finding no impact on the employment rate of participants. 22 Based on individuals who did not owning a business at baseline. 23 Based on individuals who had a business at baseline. [51] Figure 11 -Entrepreneurship Training –Potential Entrepreneurs Program Characteristics Program  Customized to needs of characteristics particular target group  Focus on accounting  Links to finance and offer technical assistance P M Outcomes Participants C Context  Performance may be related to existing human S  Local economic conditions Participants capital assets  Context Access to markets  Initial interest and  Access to finance willingness to stay in program In McKenzie and Woodruff’s (2012) review of ET programs in developing countries (See Box 11), the authors indicate that some of the stronger effects relate to helping potential owners launch new businesses more quickly. This study, however, finds that at least among the more rigorously evaluated ETPo programs, few evaluations look explicitly at rates of new business start-ups. Instead, as appears to have been the approach with the McKenzie and Woodruff review, proxies for business start-up, such as self-employment and increased business income, are more common in these evaluations. This could be because many of the more rigorously evaluated programs tend to target vulnerable groups and in turn place a focus on enhancing the individual’s status in ter ms of income and employment, as opposed to enterprise creation. It could also be a definitional issue around what constitutes a formal enterprise or an entrepreneur versus the self-employed. Box 11 - What Are We Learning from Business Training and Entrepreneurship Evaluations around the Developing World? – David McKenzie and Christopher Woodruff The paper looked at what can be learned from evaluations of business training programs to draw out lessons for policy and the next generation of research. They looked at evaluations focusing on enterprise management for practitioner entrepreneurs. They reviewed 20 studies that included randomized experiments, regression discontinuity designs, and experiments on individualized consulting services. The results evidenced considerable heterogeneity across interventions in terms of content and participants, which made it difficult to compare the impact measures from different evaluations. Also, evaluations suffered from low statistical power,, short time horizon, and attrition, which limited their internal and external validity. The paper suggested that evaluations of business training found stronger evidence of helping potential owners to launch new business more quickly, and practitioners tended to put in practice what they learned in training. They presented several recommendations towards future work. These recommendations dealt with: i) increasing the size and homogeneity of firms in both treatment and control groups, ii) better outcome measurements that overcame problems with profits and revenues challenges encountered in many evaluations, as well as the limited time horizon, iii) evaluation designs that took into account spillover effects, iv) test different types of interventions, and v) understood market failures and building relevant solutions. McKenzie, David and Woodruff, Christopher (2012), “What Are We Learning from Business Training and Entrepreneurship Evaluatio ns around the Developing World”, Policy Research Working Paper 6202, The World Bank. [52] In comparison to the findings on the status outcomes domain, findings across other ETPo domains are comparatively weak and sparse. In terms of firm performance, the WINGS program evaluation recorded an increase in imports from major trading centers, and the ACTiVATE program reported positive job creation results (Tier 3 evaluation). The most promising firm performance result was enhancing business practices, with several program evaluations indicating improved record keeping (SIYB), formal registration (YOP), access to new loans (SEWA), and a more strategic orientation of the business (ENDBP). Nonetheless, there is no evidence that training fostered the creation of high-revenue or high-employment firms in the long run (GATE). In terms of the capability outcomes domain, several ETPo program evaluations described gains in general business knowledge and skills, as well as in business plan development, enhanced understanding of the market and marketing (SIYB, WSBP), and enhanced vocational skills (BACIP). The YOP program evaluation found that after four years, members of the treatment group were 65 percent more likely to practice a skilled trade. Lastly, program evaluations also gave attention to the effects on various socio-emotional skills and entrepreneurial awareness. Several program evaluation cited increases in participants’ self-confidence and teamwork (WEMTOP, WSBP). Of interest, the WINGS program evaluation examined a range of social indicators and registered mixed results; for example, finding little effect on the psychological and social well-being of participants. The YOP program evaluation measured but found weak evidence of a social impact two years following the training. Focus on such indicators serves to reinforce that many ETPo program evaluations cover interventions aimed at improving the immediate, material well-being of vulnerable populations. Program Characteristics The characteristics of ETPo programs reflect the diversity of individuals these programs target and outcomes they pursue. Many of these programs are designed to meet the specific needs of particular vulnerable groups in specific contexts. In some cases the training is embedded within a broader support program that may include a number of services in addition to training. These include grants, conditional cash transfers, and intensive follow-ups. For example, the safety net program AAC in Nicaragua was a one-year pilot program designed to support agricultural households in mitigating the risks associated with climate change. The program included cash transfers and either a vocational training scholarship or a productive investment grant. While AAC had little information available on the characteristics of the training program itself (other than it offering a training scholarship), the WINGS program in Uganda has a comprehensive evaluation-- an experiment in which vulnerable women in a conflict prone region participated in a five day training program, received a start-up grant, and regular follow-up visits from trained community workers. EPAG in Liberia targets young women and is training focused, with six months of classroom-based training on entrepreneurship, job, and life skills, followed by six months of job placement and support. Finally, the BACIP program targets unemployed young adults in Pakistan, integrating entrepreneurship training with specific vocational skills training in the housing or sales sectors. Despite the heterogeneity of these programs, they are relatively expansive in scale, covering between 500 and 1500 participants, often across a number of communities and can be time-limited, closing after a few years at most. Not all ETPo programs are time-limited—others also frequently serve at-risk populations but are ongoing, stand-alone training programs, serving comparatively smaller numbers of beneficiaries. Examples include the ACTiVATE program in the United States, a year-long program meeting once a week in cohorts of 30 aspiring women entrepreneurs and delivered within a local higher education [53] institution, and the DDEI program in the United States, consisting of three five-week courses implemented by local higher education institutions, and targeted at minority communities. Furthermore, the ENBDP program in Sweden and the WSDP/MBDP program in the United States serve as examples of smaller-scale, ongoing and stand-alone programs, both of which operate in an incubator style model of workspace and technical assistance. Interestingly, despite the latter group being more exclusively focused on training (in comparison to the larger scale, more comprehensive programs described above), the available evaluations of these ETPo programs are less rigorous. Additionally, several ETPo programs appear to represent targeted initiatives to expand specific populations’ access to formal technical training (in partnership with public and private providers) for the purpose of promotion entrepreneurship. In the SIYB program in Vietnam, the ILO’s Start and Improve Your Business curricula is implemented in partnership with the General Department of Vocational Training to deliver training to one million farmers across Vietnam over seven years. Three additional programs have relationships with training institutions in Latin America. Examples include the JEA program in Colombia, which targets young people from low socio-economic backgrounds in large cities across the country, with training institutions offering classroom trainings and internships. The JE program in the Dominican Republic also targets young people from disadvantaged backgrounds without a secondary education, contracting with local training institutions. Lastly, the MEP program serves welfare recipients in Argentina, relying on local universities, technical institutions, and NGOs to deliver technical assistance. Across this varied field of ETPo programs, the content ranges from business knowledge to entrepreneurial skills to financial literacy and accounting to marketing, sales, general management skills to vocational and life skills. Most ETPo programs appear to include some wrap-around services. According to available ETPo evaluations, the training components that combine grants with activities such as internships and mentoring services have higher impacts than simple training programs. In particular the ETPo evaluations show that grants are a key component of some of these programs (e.g. AAC and WINGS). ETPo programs have more cost data available compared to other program types. Out of the 16 programs, the following 14 programs present some data on their costs (See Table 6). The available costs, however, are heterogeneous and not comparable for three reasons: (a) they reflect the heterogeneity of content that the programs provide, with training of different length and varying wrap-around services; (b) they refer to different years and countries; and (c) in some cases, they reflect the costs of the overall program, while in other cases the costs of only some activities. Additionally, five financial analyses were conducted as part of the evaluations to assess the programs’ sustainability. The cost-benefit analyses for the JEA and JE programs indicated that the net benefits more than justified the programs’ existence and possibly their expansion. For the EPAG program, the results had a relatively high per-participant cost, and despite the high initial investment, the expected returns of one of the trainings offered (the business skills training) were compelling. It will likely take two years for business skill training participants to increase their earnings in an amount equal to the original investment; while participants in the other training (the job skills training) will take as long as eight years. Conversely, in the case of the WINGS program in Uganda the impacts of the intervention struggled to pass the cost-benefit analysis. Finally, in the case of the MEP program in Argentina, the evaluation indicated that the program did not reach average significant income gains in the short-run. This lack of income gains does not make the program cost-effective in the short-run. [54] Table 6 –Available Information on Costs ǀ ETPo Programs Program Name Country/ Costs of implementation Cost Region Recovery AAC ǀ Atención a Crisis Nicaragua All beneficiaries received a basic transfer of n.a. US$ 145. Participants with children received an additional US$ 90 per household and US$ 25 per child. One third of the beneficiaries also received a scholarship to attend a vocational training course. One final third of the beneficiaries also received US$ 200 grant for productive investments. ACTIVATE ǀ Achieving the United The annual cost to run the program is Tuition is Commercialization of States estimated at US$ 200,000, or about US$ 8,000 estimated at Technology in Ventures cost per participant. US $3,000 (as through Applied Training for of 2010). Entrepreneurs DCEI ǀ Dade County United n.a. n.a. Entrepreneurial Institute States ENBDP ǀ Entrepreneurship Sweden Cost to run program for 10-12 participants is n.a. and New Business US$ 66 (but does not include the costs of Development Program running the incubator or conducting seed capital activities) EPAG ǀ Economic Liberia A total of US$ 1,221 per student is allocated n.a. Empowerment of Adolescent for business skills training and US$ 1,678 per Girls and Young Women student for job skills training GATE ǀ Growing America United Course costs fluctuate between US$ 850 to n.a. Through Entrepreneurship States US$ 1,300 per participant. Project JEA ǀ Jóvenes en Acción Colombia It cost about S$ 750 per participant n.a. WEMTOP ǀ Women's India Initially the cost per enterprise support team n.a. Enterprise Management was US$1,485 and overtime the cost was Training Outreach Program reduced to $341. WINGS ǀ Women’s Income Uganda About US$ 922 per person n.a. Generating Support Program WSBP+MBDP ǀ Training United n.a. Tuition is Women for Success States estimated at US$ 2500 n.a. Not available Moderating Factors ETPo programs have fewer moderating factors. The majority of these programs make note of participants’ characteristics upon entry, including their gender, educational background, and previous exposure to self-employment. With regard to contextual moderating factors, the program outcomes are cited as being influenced by factors relating to local economic conditions and infrastructure, including access to finance and access to markets. Looking across ETPo program evaluations, however, participant characteristics at times appear to moderate outcomes. For example, the evaluation for the JEA program demonstrated heterogeneity [55] in impacts, with male teens in particular being the group that most benefited from the program. The WINGS evaluation indicated that the treatment was most impactful on the people with the lowest initial levels of capital and access to credit; however, the treatment didn’t have a large positiv e effect on skills/education, patience, or good. The JE program evaluation (Dominican Republic) found earning effects were larger for the youngest age group, for residents of Santa Domingo, and for those with some secondary education. The evaluation for the MEP program in Argentina, which overall did not demonstrate significant positive results regard to income, described how subsets of participants did have evident gains -- in particular younger and more educated participants or those with self-employment experience saw improvements in income. Finally, the GATE program examined different rationales on the provision of training subsidies. The evidence suggested no lasting effect on the provision of training in terms of credit constraints, human and managerial constraints, and labor market discrimination. However, there was a positive and significant effect on business ownership for the unemployed, but this effect was only on the short run. McKenzie and Woodruff (2012) discuss the issue of program uptake with participants of ET programs, raising a set of issues particularly pertinent to the larger scale, comprehensive ETPo programs described earlier in this section. The authors describe how often despite training being offered for free, uptake of training is rarely close to universal. They estimate across the studies they examine that the average uptake rate to be at 65 percent. In light of these challenges, programs may offer incentives for uptake as well as completion. For example, the EPAG program offers a small stipend and a bonus for completion. While not necessarily a function of these incentives, EPAG’s retention rate is 95 percent and attendance averages 90 percent over the course of the program. Further, the JE program experiences similar promising results-- with approximately 93 percent of the individuals who start the training completing it. That said, the evaluation of the JE program’s outcomes were less promising, indicating that uptake and completion were unlikely to be deterministic unto themselves. [56] Table 7 - Entrepreneurship Training – Potential Entrepreneurs (ETPo) Program Program Name Evaluation Sample Outcomes Measured Key Findings Beneficiaries Atención a Agricultural Tier 1 | The sample included 3,002 Consumption, income and  Two years after the end of the intervention, both the Crisis24 households Randomize eligible households in the income diversification; productive investment grant and the training helped that faced d control treatment communities (56) participation and returns to protect against the negative impact of shocks and | Nicaragua increased trial and a random sample of in nonagricultural reduce the variability of consumption and income, exposure to 1,019 eligible households in activities while the basic CCT package did not offer protection weather the control communities against the negative effect of shocks; shocks linked (50). Eligible households  The productive investment grant and training to changes in were assigned to one of showed positive and significant results in increasing rainfall and three packages (a) the basic consumption (12 percent and 9 percent respectively) temperature CCT ($145 plus $90 per as shock intensity increased by one standard patterns. The household for households deviation; program was that had children between 7  The effect of only the training package on targeted to 15 years old attending consumption showed a strong positive and primarily primary school plus an significant impact. Conversely, there was no towards additional $25 per child; (b) significant impact found for only the vocational women the basic CCT plus a scholarship for a vocational training package on consumption; training (training focused on  In terms of household participation and returns to diversification outside nonagricultural activities, results showed that the subsistence farming and households that received the productive investment labor market and business grant package were 13 percentage points more likely skills training workshops), to engage in nonagricultural self-employment, and (c) the basic CCT plus though no significant impact was found on the productive investment nonagricultural wage employment. The magnitude of grant ($200 to encourage the impact on returns is large, amounting to a 15-20 starting non-agricultural percent annual return on the initial investment of activities) $200. For households that received the training package the increases shown were not significant. About 2,500 Tier 1 | Approximately 2500 young employment, behaviors,  The program was well received-- the retention rate EPAG | beneficiaries Randomize women were accepted to empowerment and was 95 percent and attendance averaged 90 percent; Economic in nine d pipeline participate in the program. agency, and family  The program increased employment among trainees Empowerment communities research The evaluation randomized welfare by 50 percent, compared to those in the control of Adolescent in Monrovia design participants into two types group; Girls and and Kakata of treatment groups: (a)  Positive employment outcomes were driven City training package on primarily by the business development skills Young Women25 business development and trainees, whose monthly income increased by US$ 75 24Macours, Karen, Premand, Patrick, and Vakis, Renos, (2012), “Transfers, Diversification and Household Risk Strategies: Experimental Evidence with Lessons for Climate Chang e Adaptation”, Policy Research Working Paper No. 6053, World Bank. [57] | Liberia life skills or (b) training per month; package on job,  The program increased girls' savings compared to entrepreneurship and life the control group. At midline, the treatment group skills; there was also a had a total of US$ 44 more in savings compared to control group. Impact was the control group; and defined as the change in  There were no significant changes to borrowing or outcomes between the time lending among beneficiaries. the program started and six months after the classroom training ended, as compared to a statistically similar control group (the second round trainees) Potential Tier 1 | The sample consisted of The outcomes measured  Training significantly increased short-run business entrepreneurs Randomize 4,197 Individuals seeking were related to business ownership and employment, but these effects within 7 sites d control training had to attend to an ownership, business vanished over the long-term; in 3 states. trial orientation meeting which performance and size, and made them eligible. They all labor market related had to fill a baseline (employment, household GATE | Growing application form. The income and work America applications were reviewed satisfaction). Additionally, and randomly assigned it looked at Through 2,094 to treatment and heterogeneous treatment Entrepreneurs 2,103 to control. Attrition effects over various hip Project | was not big, but it was larger rationales for providing United States for the control group than training subsidies (credit for the treatment. constraints, human and managerial capital constraints, labor market discrimination, and unemployment insurance frictions). Young people Tier 1 | The sample had 786 Employment search time,  There was no impact found on the employment rate JE | Juventud y aged between Experiment individuals in the treatment unemployment, of participants. Employment rate post-intervention Empleo26 | 16 and 29 al design group and 563 in the control employability, income and was 57 percent for the treatment and 56 percent for Dominican from group. About 93 percent of duration of employment the controls; disadvantaged the individuals who started  Although there were caveats in the estimation, the Republic backgrounds the training completed it, treatment group had higher monthly labor earnings-- who did not and of those, 84 percent 25World Bank, (2012) “Can Skills Training Programs Increase Employment for Young Women? The Case of Liberia”, Adolescent Girls Initiative, Results Series, Recover from: 26Ibarrarán, Pablo, Rosas, David, and Soares, Yuri, (2006) “Impact Evaluation of a Youth Job Training Program in the Dominican Republic” Expost Project Evaluation Report, IDB, Recover From: http://www.iadb.org/en/publications/publication-detail,7101.html?id=18088 [58] have started an internship. about 17 percent higher than the control group secondary Baseline data was collected (about 10 percent on average). The earnings effects education in May-July 2005 and a were larger for the youngest age group, for residents follow up interview was of Santo Domingo, and for those with some carried, on average, about secondary education; 13 months after the  There were no large or systematic effects on hours completion of the program worked per week in the overall sample or by subgroups; and  There was no evidence of a large or systematic quality effect in terms of training institutions. Young people Tier 1 | The total sample consisted Employment, earning  Individuals who were offered the training did better between the randomized of 3,300 individuals broken effects, formal sector in the labor market. They were more likely to be ages of 18 and control trial down into a treatment employment and earnings employed, to show an increase in paid employment 25 in the two (1,650) and a control group by about 6.8 percent, and to have about 12 percent lowest socio- (1,650). Anticipating a level higher wage and salary earnings compared to those economic of attrition of 24 percent for not offered training; strata of the program participants and 40  Women offered training were more likely to have population, percent for non-program paid employment and to be employed in the formal living in the participants, the samples sector and earn higher overall and formal wages seven largest were increased to 2,040 for (results for men were estimated imprecisely); JEA | Jóvenes en cities, were the treatment and 2,310 for  Training increased the probability of having a formal eligible for the the control group. Baseline Acción27 | program data was collected in 2005 sector job by 0.053 and a written contract by 0.066; Colombia (Barranquilla, and a follow-up individual  Training increased wage and salary earnings in the Bogota, interview was carried out formal sector but not in the informal sector; Bucaramanga, between August and  A cost cost-benefit analysis using an average monthly Cali, October 2006. Telephone increase in earnings of 25,500 Colombian pesos for Cartagena, updates were done four men and 30,000 Colombian pesos for women and a Manizales and months after the completion discount rate of 5 percent over a 40 year period Medellin). of the program and the yielded a net gain of US$ 2,344 for men and US$ individual interviews were 2,749 for women. Using a 5 percent discount rate and carried out between 9 and depreciation in earnings of 10 percent annually, the 11 months after the results were still positive for men US$ 906 and telephone update women US$ 1,066. WINGS | 1,800 Tier 1 | The sample consisted of Earnings, earning  A year after the intervention, monthly cash earnings beneficiaries Randomize 1,800 poor (mostly) women opportunities, doubled from 16,500 to 31,300 Uganda Shillings Women’s (86 percent d control aged 14- 30 from 120 distribution of poverty 31,300 (US$ 6.60 to 12.52), cash savings tripled, and Income poor women) experiment villages (15 beneficiaries impacts, savings, short-term expenditure on goods and services, and Generating in 120 with mixed- per village). The evaluation characteristics of durable assets increased 30 to 50 percent relative to 27Attanasio, Orazio P. , Kugler, Adriana D., Meghir, Costas, (2009) “Subsidizing Vocational Training for Disadvantaged Youth in Developing Countries: Evidence from a Randomized Trial”, Discussion Paper Series No. 4251, IZA, Recover from: http://ftp.iza.org/dp4251.pdf [59] Support villages, methods built a wait-list control individual success, health the control group (the average treatment effect is Program28 | across two data group whereby 900 of the (sick days, hunger, health 16,200 Uganda Shillings per month and the median districts in collection beneficiaries were status, index of treatment effect is 9,700 Uganda Shillings per Uganda Northern randomized in the program depression and anxiety), month); Uganda in phase 1 (mid 2009) and empowerment (indices of  The treatment was most impactful on the people with another 900 in phase 2 economic decision the lowest initial levels of capital and access to credit; (early 2011). For phase 1, making, gender attitudes,  Among who responded to treatment with more the program evaluation interpersonal violence, economic success (rather than average levels of placed the randomized independence household economic success), the study found that women have participants into three support), and social groups: one received the capital (groups and lower success and individuals with higher levels of access to credit at baseline see fewer gains; WINGs program, another networks, trust, social group received the core cohesion, collective  There was no large positive effect of skills/education, package plus the cross- action) patience or good health on response to treatment; cutting design package  There were little health and social effects (positive or (support for business negative) of the intervention on beneficiaries; networks), and the last  There was little effect on psychological or social well- group acted as the wait- being from the observed reduction in poverty; listed control group  There was no effect found on women’s independence, status in the community, or freedom from intimate partner violence;  Involving male partners and training the couples brought some more positive results on the couples’ interactions and on women’s physical and mental health, but not on women’s empowerment;  There were large spillovers in the small village economies, including more women becoming traders, an increase in imports from major trading centers and a fall in the consumer price index;  Close supervision and advising by the NGO led to slight increases in economic success;  The rate of return calculated for the WINGS full package plus administration (using an increase in income of 6,200 Uganda Shillings per month for 15 years) was -33 percent when applying a discount rate of 15 percent for 15 years, +36 percent when applying a 3 percent discount rate for 15 years. Although the return of the intervention using the average income effect was positive at a lower 28Blattman, Christopher, Green, Eric, Annan, Jeannie, and Jamison, Julian, (2013) “Building Women’s Economic and Social Empowe rment through Enterprise: An Experimental Assessment of the Women’s Income Generating Support (WINGS) Program in Uganda”, IPA, Recover from: http://www.poverty-action.org/sites/default/files/wings_full_policy_report_0.pdf [60] discount rate, it was not possible to determine whether the inputs that went into the program were the most appropriate or optimal combination, versus their individual contribution to the outcome. Poor and Tier 1 | From the pool of 535 Investment, occupational  The treatment group invested most of the grant in underemploye Randomize groups, 265 were randomly choice/levels, social skills and business assets, and after for years they d youth aged d control assigned to the intervention issues and income were 65 percent more likely to practice the skilled 16 to 35 in trial (treatment) and the trade; Uganda’s remaining 279 to the  Earnings were 49 percent greater than the control north control. They surveyed the group and 41 percent greater after four years; treatment and control youth  The treatment group was more likely to engage in three times-- at baseline, two and four years post- business practices such as keeping records, register and pay taxes; intervention YOP | Youth  There was a shift in occupational choice towards Opportunities skilled work, where the treatment group was around Program29 | 38 percent higher than the control, and it was larger Uganda for women;  Labor supply increased in response to the increase in capital for both men and women;  Earnings were larger for the treatment group and for both genders, but there was a catch up by the control group after 4 years, primarily among men;  Wealth index was 0.2 standard deviation greater for the treated than for the control; and  There was limited and weak evidence of a positive social impact after 2 years and none after four. MEP | Micro- All Tier 2 | The sample covered 553 Labor participation, hours  Program participants substituted away from other emprendimiento beneficiaries Quasi- beneficiaries of whom 309 of work, individual and jobs and significantly increased their total weekly of Jefes, a large Experiment were program participants household income hours work, however this did not happen for other s Productivos30 | scale workfare al design (301 households and a total household members; Argentina program in of 1,340 individuals) and  There was no evidence of a significant increase in Argentina 244 non participants (244 individual income or total household income; households and a total of  Effects were differentiated across gender, where 1,116 individuals). The women were more likely to combine self- attrition rate was of 14 employment with other jobs; and percent, and the final sample was 476  Income effects were targeted to a subset of younger 29 Blattman, Christpher, Fiala, Nathan, and Martinez, Sebas tian, (2013) “Credit Constraints, Occupational Choice, and the Process of Development: Long Run Evidence form Cash Transfers in Uganda” , Working Paper Series, SSRN, Recover from: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2268552 30 Almeida, Rita and Galasso, Emanuela, (2007) “Jump -starting self-employment? Evidence Among Welfare Participants in Argentina”, Policy Research Working Paper No. 4270, World Bank. [61] beneficiaries of whom 279 and more educated beneficiaries, and for those for were program participants whom the self-employment was related to an and 197 were non- ongoing activity. participants [62] Entrepreneurship Training – Practicing Entrepreneurs (ETPr) The Program Landscape This study identified and examined a total of 25 entrepreneurship training programs targeted at practicing entrepreneurs (ETPr). Of these programs, (see Table 8) 11 impact evaluations met the Tier 1 criteria (impact evaluations with an experimental design), while an additional four evaluations satisfied the Tier 2 criteria, and ten programs evaluations met the Tier 3 criteria. (See Table 10 for a list of these programs as well as a summary of the key findings). In terms of geographic distribution, two regions are particularly dominant, with nearly half of these programs (11 of them) being delivered in sub-Saharan Africa, and an additional seven delivered in Latin America. The scope of these programs vary considerably, ranging from a program in South Africa targeting an exclusive group of four to six high-growth-potential entrepreneurs a year, to a program in Kenya training 35,000 SME proprietors in the informal sector over the course of eight years. In the ETPr category, several programs are directly linked to or targeted at existing clients of micro- finance or commercial financial institutions. Finally, it should be noted that three of these programs target practicing entrepreneurs along with potential entrepreneurs. In addition to the program evaluations, the ETPr program analysis is informed by insights from relevant literature, including available meta-analyses and systematic reviews. These include Martin, McNally, and Kay (2012), a quantitative review of the literature on EET based on 42 independent samples (N=16,657); Cho and Honorati (2013), which includes 37 impact evaluations of entrepreneurship programs and 1,116 estimates for six different types of outcomes31; Glaub and Frese (2011), a critical review of 30 studies that evaluated 10 different entrepreneurship programs in developing countries; Unger, Rauch, Frese, and Rosenbusch (2009) a meta-analysis of the effects of human capital on entrepreneurial success covering 70 studies from an overall sample size of 24,733; and McKenzie and Woodruff (2012), a critical review of evaluations of business training programs in developing countries. Table 8 - Entrepreneurship Training – Practicing Entrepreneurs (ETPr) Program Name Country Evaluation EDC Entrepreneurship Development Centre Bosnia-Herzegovina Tier 1 FINCA FINCA Entrepreneurship Program Peru Tier 1 GNAG Ghana National Association of Garages Ghana Tier 1 MIDA- Millennium Development Authority Farmers Based Ghana Tier 1 FBO Organizations Training NRSP National Rural Support Program Pakistan Tier 1 PBS Production and Business Services El Salvador Tier 1 PRIDE PRIDE Microfinance Tanzania Tier 1 ROT Rules of Thumb Dominican Republic Tier 1 SIYB Start and Improve Your Business (ILO) Sri Lanka Tier 1 ULTP Urban Land Titling Program Peru Tier 1 WEP Women Entrepreneurship Program South Africa Tier 1 DDFET Dutch Dairy Farming Entrepreneurship Training The Netherlands Tier 2 END Endeavor South Africa Tier 2 FTDAP Farmer Training and Development Assistance Honduras Tier 2 Program 31Includes entrepreneurship training program as well as programs providing micro-finance – only insights from training programs were considered. [63] TECH TechnoServe Central America Tier 2 10KW 10,000 Women India Tier 3 CEM Certificate in Entrepreneurial Management Nigeria Tier 3 CREA Capitación y Reclutamiento Empresarial Americana Mexico Tier 3 DFCU Bank Pilot Financial Literacy and Business Planning Uganda Tier 3 Training Program ELP Executive Leadership Program Northern Ireland Tier 3 GOWE Growth-Oriented Women Entrepreneurs Kenya Tier 3 INT Interise United States Tier 3 MSETTP Micro and Small Enterprise Training and Kenya Tier 3 Technology Project PAVCOPA Agricultural Trading and Processing Promotion Mali Tier 3 Pilot Project WETVBI Women’s Virtual Business Incubator Tanzania Tier 3 Analyzing ETPr Programs Outcome Domains The most common stated objectives of ETPr programs relate to the firm performance outcome domain, which corresponds to the immediate needs of the target audience -⎼ practicing entrepreneurs. Common targeted performance objectives include increases in profits, employees, and productivity, as well as business expansion in markets, financing, investment, and the implementation of better business practices and innovations. Despite being the most targeted program objective, ETPr program evaluations indicated mixed results around firm performance. In terms of firm profits or revenues, evaluations found limited effects. For example, the evaluation of the FINCA program in Peru did not demonstrate higher profits or revenues; however, difference- in-difference specifications did find a positive, but small impact on enterprise revenues. The FINCA program also led to a four-percentage point increase in client retention rate, which corresponded with increased net revenue for FINCA trainees’ firms. The more promising results on this indicator were from the ROT program in the Dominican Republic, where a subset of beneficiary entrepreneurs treated with “rules of thumb” training registered a substantial increase in revenues (US$31) during bad weeks, at a significant level of 5 percent, and an increase in savings of about 6 percent. The Endeavor Program in South Africa also indicated positive effects on sales growth of the beneficiary firms, however, the highly selective program included a sample size of only 19 treated and 33 control, non-selected applicants (who received no training at all). Among program evaluations indicating improvement in sales, enterprise growth shows mixed results. For example, the SIYB program evaluation indicated that trainees’ enterprises were more profitable. However, training alone did not necessarily lead the businesses to grow. Additionally, the ULTP did not find statistically significant effects on sales increases, nor employment gains. In terms of more promising firm growth findings, the INT program evaluation in the United States demonstrated gains in firm revenue, as well as full-time employment, while the TECH program evaluation suggested that intervention led to an expansion of the business in the treatment group, via job creation, wage and benefits, and increased revenue. Echoing these mixed results, the review of business training programs conducted by McKenzie and Woodruff (2012) indicate that few studies find significant impacts on profits or sales, however they do find modest effects on practicing entrepreneurs’ decision to implement better business [64] practices. It is also on this front that the landscape of ETPr program evaluations found the most promising effects. The ROT program evaluation suggested a small but significant increase in the likelihood of individuals reporting the separation of business and personal cash accounts, keeping accounting records, and formally calculating revenues. The NRSP program also indicated improvements in business practices, including recording sales on a piece of paper and separating household and business accounts. The SIYB training led to improvements as well, albeit small in magnitude, in improved business practices for existing firms, and the ULTP program showed moderately sized and statistically significant positive average effects on improved business practices. In a few cases, however, better business practices did appear to lead to more profitable enterprises in the long-run. The FINCA program in Peru showed positive changes in keeping records and the use of profits for business growth; however no effect was found on profits and revenues. The evaluation of the EDC program in Bosnia-Herzegovina demonstrated significant improvements in business practices and investments, but results were not statistically significant for broader business performance indicators. The Cho and Honorati (2013) meta-analysis produces similar findings, demonstrating that improved business practices within an enterprise do not necessarily coincide with improved business performance (business income). With regard to lending, the microfinance institution program evaluations, such as FINCA and EDC, did not report significant changes on beneficiaries’ loan sizes. The Mida-FBO program evaluation did demonstrate an increase in participants’ use of formal sources for loans. Moreover, there was a significant impact on loan restructuring and a significant increase in client retention rate-- generating a portfolio of better quality and increased net revenues for the financial institution. Similar results were found for the NSRP program, where the opportunity to access larger loans had little effect on the beneficiary entrepreneurs. ETPr programs target entrepreneurial status as a common outcome domain, reflected in training programs that aim to help existing enterprises survive as well as enhance the personal income and savings of training participants. A handful of program evaluations noted mixed results around entrepreneurial status. For example, the evaluation for the GNAG program in Ghana claimed to raise the probability of enterprise survival by 8 or 9 percentage points, while the evaluation of the EDC program did not appear to influence business survival. These mixed findings align with McKenzie Woodruff (2012), who find only relatively modest impacts of training on survivorship among existing firms. In terms of personal household savings, the results are more promising. The ROT program evaluation found economically large increases in savings, and the ULTP program evaluation detailed increased participation in savings for both family and personal purposes. In the capabilities domain, some of the rigorously evaluated ETPr programs indicate positive outcomes. These programs include PRIDE in Tanzania, a program targeting small-scale microcredit entrepreneurs that described gains in business knowledge through multiple-choice tests given to participant; and the WEP program in South Africa, which demonstrated statistically significant gains across several skills areas including business knowledge and business skills. The NRSP program evaluation described gains in business knowledge, and the EDC program evaluation indicated positive gains in business and financial knowledge at the time of follow-up to the training, although the treatment effect was not statistically significant. [65] Figure 12 - Entrepreneurship Training – Practicing Entrepreneurs Program Characteristics Program  May be tied to micro-finance characteristics institutions and other forms of finance  Skill building for business development M P Outcomes C Context Participants  Economic conditions  Experience as an Participants entrepreneur S  Cultural openness to Context entrepreneurship (in  Level of education particular for women)  Perceived value of training Several meta-analyses give more weight to the promise of ETPr programs to enhance trainees’ entrepreneurial capabilities (knowledge and skills), by shedding light on how these capabilities may ultimately contribute to better entrepreneurial performance. A meta-analysis by Unger, Rauch, Frese, and Rosenbusch (2009) (see Box 12) estimate the effects of human capital on entrepreneurial success, demonstrating a significant but small relationship between human capital and success (r=0.098). The relationship is higher for outcomes of human capital investments (knowledge and skills) than for capital investments (such as education and experience) and higher Box 12 - Human Capital and Entrepreneurial Success: A Meta- for human capital related to entrepreneurial Analytical Review – Jens M. Unger, Andreas Rauch, Michael tasks than for human capital that is not Frese and Nina Rosenbusch related to entrepreneurial tasks. Martin, The paper reviewed the literature and estimated the McNally, and Kay (2012) find a significant magnitude of the relationship between human capital and relationship between EET and entrepreneurial success. The paper aimed to test whether entrepreneurship-related human capital different conceptualizations of human capital relate to assets (r=0.217) and entrepreneurship business success, and proposed that human capital is most important for success if it is based on current task-related outcomes (r=0.159). It should be noted that knowledge. The analysis was based on 70 studies that both meta-analyses cite methodological defined entrepreneurship as business ownership and issues and a third meta-analysis by Cho and active management, and that reported a correlation Honorati (2013) indicates that while between an indicator of human capital and entrepreneurial success or statistics to estimate it. The evidence suggested programs can improve knowledge, this does an overall positive relationship between human capital and not necessarily lead to related gains in entrepreneurial success (rc=0.098). Furthermore, there performance and status outcomes. was evidence of moderating variables, such as task- relatedness, country contexts, age of business, and success Lastly, a handful of ETPr evaluations measurements suggesting that the relationship was more indicated an interest in strengthening the correlated for outcomes of human capital investments than entrepreneurial mindsets of practicing for human capital investments. entrepreneurs, in particular focusing on self- Unger, J.M., Rauch, A., Frese, M., and Rosenbusch, N., (2011), “Human Capital confidence (10KW, WEP) as well as broader and Entrepreneurial Success: A Meta-Analytical Review” in Journal of Business Venturing, Vol 26, pp.341-358 life skills. Program evaluations’ measurements of these mindset outcomes, [66] Box 13 - A Critical Review of the Effects of Entrepreneurship however, were relatively sparse. The Training in Developing Countries – Matthias Glaub and Michael notable exception being the WEP program Frese in South Africa, which demonstrated The paper looked at the methodology used in different statistically significant gains in the evaluations of entrepreneurship training programs to assess whether they promote entrepreneurship. It aimed to entrepreneurial characteristics and determine how different contents (such as psychological entrepreneurial orientation of participants, factors and business management skills) contribute to including confidence building and the entrepreneurial success. The paper reviewed and rated, by enhanced use of role models. Perhaps as a independent consultants, 30 studies that evaluated 10 different entrepreneurship training interventions. The proxy for strengthening the socio- studies were both published and unpublished and met three emotional skills and entrepreneurial criteria: i) conducted in developing countries, ii) published awareness of participants, the INT program in English, and iii) reported quantitative data. No pure case found gains in the community involvement studies were included. The studies were evaluated in terms of participants. The ULTP program, which of sample size and quality, evaluation design and measures, and data analyses. The results suggested that the majority of includes modules on personal studies (80 percent) rated low on methodology used so their development, indicated that participants results were not conclusive and not supported. were more likely to participate in business Notwithstanding, interventions appeared to have positive associations after the training. effects on knowledge, behavior, and business success across all studies. Lastly, the studies found that training in Furthermore, the meta-analysis by Glaub psychological factors influenced business growth whereas and Frese (2011) (see Box 13), which business management skills positively affected start-ups, indicates that entrepreneurship training even though both are different facets of entrepreneurial seems to positively affect entrepreneurial success. performance, brings attention to training Glaub, Matthias and Frese, Michael, (2011), “A critical review of the effects of programs that focus on enhancing certain entrepreneurship training in developing countries” in Entreprese Development and Microfinance, Vol.22 No. 4 pp 335-353. entrepreneurial mindsets – namely the psychological factors impacting business growth such as entrepreneurial motivation to stand-out from competitors, to be innovative, and to expand. While citing a number of methodological challenges, Glaub and Frese (2011) find that training programs that focus on these psychological factors tend to be more successful than business management training for practicing entrepreneurs. Program Characteristics As is the case with other EET program types, there is considerable heterogeneity across the characteristics of ETPr programs. One trend of note is that several ETPr programs appear to be linked to a particular micro-finance institutions or commercial banks (e.g. PRIDE, ROT, NRSP, FINCA, EDC, DFCU, EDC). Further, a number of evaluations describe programs with a particular sector or target group focus, including agriculture (DDFET, FTDAP), construction (NRSP), garage mechanics and metal workers in industrial clusters (GNAG), and Jua Kali informal sector workers (MSETTP). A number of programs also focus exclusively on women entrepreneurs (10KW, CREA, DFCU, GOWE, SIYB, ULTP. WEP, WETVBI). The scale and duration of ETPr programs ranges considerably as well, from the MSETTP program serving the proprietors of nearly 35,000 MSEs, to the DFCU program that serves 50 women per cohort, to the highly selective END programs serving 4-6 beneficiaries per cohort. The duration and intensity can vary from less than 10 days (SIYB, NRSP) to approximately one month (CREA, ROT), to several months (FINCA, ULTP). In terms of delivery, there is notable integration with formal education institutions across a number of programs. The CREA and CEM programs are led by university faculty, while GNAG and MSETTP are delivered in partnership with vocational training institutions, the latter a voucher program for trainees to procure services from both public and private training providers. The END program is led by both an academic faculty member and [67] entrepreneurs from the surrounding community. The meta-analysis by Cho and Honorati (2013) also indicate that involving the private sector in the delivery of programs is associated with improved program effects. Out of the 25 programs, ten have publicly available information about their costs (see Table 6 below). Similar to the programs for potential entrepreneurs, the range of costs are heterogeneous since the programs vary—providing different content, across different years and countries and reflecting in some cases the costs of the overall program, while in other cases the costs of only some activities. Finally, no financial analysis of the programs was found in the Tier 1 and 2 evaluations. Table 9 - Available Information on Costs ǀ ETPr Programs Program Name Country Costs of implementation Cost recovery /Region CREA ǀ Capacitación y Mexico n.a. There is no tuition or enrollment Reclutamiento fee required. Empresarial Americana EDC ǀ Entrepreneurship Bosnia- n.a. There is no tuition or enrollment Development Center Herzegovina fee required. Participants are provided a stipend of US$ 35 for the cost of their time and receive transportation to and from the program location. GNAG ǀ Ghana National Ghana About US$ 40,000 to setup and n.a. Association of Garages run the program and subsequently about US$ 740 per participant. GOWE ǀ Growth- Kenya US$ 13 million allotted for n.a. Oriented Women funding project. Entrepreneurs INT ǀ Interise United States n.a. Local partners set their own tuition rate, ranging from US$500 to US$2000 per participant. MSETTP ǀ Micro and Kenya About US$7.5 million to reach n.a. Small Enterprise 35,000 MSEs with training Training and Technology Project PBS ǀ Production and El Salvador The average cost per n.a. Business Services participant ranged from around US$1,600 in the forestry value chain to over US$3,200 in the dairy value chain. Overall, the average cost per participant for all the value chains was US$ 2,995. PRIDE Tanzania n.a. There is no tuition or enrollment fee required. ROT ǀ Rules of Thumb Dominican About US$ 17 per participant n.a. Republic TECH ǀ TechnoServe Central The implementation cost to run Participants paid an application America the initial program was US$ fee of US$ 15. No information 343,420. available regarding tuition requirements. n.a. Not avaliable [68] While there is considerable variation in the common areas of content (financial literacy and accounting, marketing and sales, management skills, and strategic planning), a couple of available meta-analyses described the differential effects of content types on program outcomes. Gluab and Frese (2011) point to the more positive effects for programs that focus on the aforementioned psychological factors of entrepreneurship. Cho and Honorati (2013) indicate that general business training tends to work better than financial training. Overall, this attention to program content places weight on considerations about the extent to which content aligns with the (heterogeneous) needs of ETPr participants. To this point, the rigorous evolution of the ROT program in the Dominican Republic demonstrated that training based on simple “rules of thumb” -- or the simplification of financial decision making without explaining the motivation -- led to significant improvements in the way SMEs managed their finances relative to groups not offered training or standard accounting training. Additionally, program evaluations suggested positive results for both training with a technical assistance component and training that was more specifically tailored to the needs of the targeted entrepreneurs. This is consistent with the literature, where ample debate surrounds the optimal method and content for introducing training for practicing entrepreneurs. For example, the ULTP program evaluation evidenced that beneficiary micro entrepreneurs receiving general training and technical assistance reported a statistically relevant increase in sales compared to the control group and to those beneficiaries that who been treated only with the general training. Furthering the point about catering to the target audiences, END, INT, and DDFET principally aim to serve proprietors of high-growth potential enterprises, and from a content standpoint, understandably appear to focus on the development of strategic management and growth plans. Lastly, over half of these program evaluations indicated that the program offered some kind of wrap-around service linked to accessing finance or financial assistance, which proved to be important during program implementation. Such wrap-around services are to be expected with ETPr programs linked to banking institutions. In the evaluation of the TechnoServe program in Central America, the program conducted a competition where participants could win a financial prize. This led to economically significant changes in the probability of starting or expanding a business. Additionally, several program included wrap-around-services like networking and mentoring (DFCU, END, GOWE, INT, WETVBI)—interestingly, they were found across programs serving both necessity as well as high-growth potential practicing entrepreneurs. Moderating Factors In the relatively more targeted programs at the ETPr level, there is an implicit appreciation of the potential for individual and contextual factors to influence entrepreneurial outcomes. Nonetheless, the field of ETPr programs shows a number of moderating influences. At the level of the participant, ETPr program evaluations highlighted participant profiles, including gender, level of literacy and education, and past experiences as entrepreneurs. In the NRSP program, women participants experienced differentiated results from men. While both increased their baseline business knowledge, they were unable to put their newly acquired knowledge into practice, and while NRSP training was associated with a reduction in business failure among male business owners compared to the control group, there was no statistically significant effect among women. The ULTP program found that the businesses run by single women accrued more profits, with a more entrepreneurial attitude index, and woman´s businesses were relatively more important for the household´s budget. [69] In addition to the participant profile, ETPr programs appear to acknowledge the role of participant behaviors around program uptake and attrition in shaping program outcomes. In some cases, programs offer incentives for participation and retention, such as access to finance (SIYB, NRSP, ROT, GOWE), transportation and stipend (EDC) as well as a starter packs of fertilizer, seeds, and other resources (Mida-FBO). Other programs (END) deploy a highly selective vetting process to attract suitable participants and combat attrition. The importance of uptake, attendance, and attrition is illustrated in the PRIDE program evaluation, which found the mean attendance for the sub-sample of treated participants to be 15.9 out of 21 sessions (76 percent); and indicated how more schooled, more skilled (in terms of math), and more experienced (in terms of age) entrepreneurs had higher attendance than those who scored lower on those dimensions. The evaluation suggested that the effect of training appeared to be highest for entrepreneurs who participated frequently in the course, who initially did not have a lot of formal education, but who did have strong cognitive skills. Interestingly, the FINCA evaluation indicated that the effects of the training were higher for participants who expressed less interest in the training in the baseline survey. This related to ETPr addressing market and information failures and individuals accurately gauging the potential value of EET programs as a whole. These points are particularly relevant considering the opportunity-cost for attending ET programs is higher for practicing entrepreneurs compared to the target groups of the other EET programs. This underscores the implications of preparing ETPr interventions that stimulate participation and reduce attrition, since no-shows and drop-outs could be the ones with the highest learning potential. In terms of context, ETPr programs cited the broader economic environment as an opportunity (WEP) and a constraint, specifically the investment climate, financial infrastructure, and access to markets. These also flowed from geographic-related moderators, such as rural location and proximity to training (EDC, MSETTP). Additionally, cultural moderators, such as attitudes towards gender (NRSP), were also identified as influencing outcomes. These moderators explained variability in outcomes across participants as well as the importance of tailoring programming to address such cultural factors. The role of contextual moderators was surprisingly underemphasized, perhaps again related to the targeted nature of these programs (which may mean a greater appreciation for and effort to combat the influence of external contextual factors on program outcomes). [70] Table 10 - Entrepreneurship Training – Practicing Entrepreneurs (ETPr) Program Name Program Evaluation Sample Outcomes Key Findings Beneficiaries Measured EDC | 18 to 25 year Tier 1 | The sample size had 445 Business creation and  The training program did not influence the business Entrepreneurship old clients of Randomized active business loan clients survival, business survival; it did improve the business practices, Development Partner Control Trial between-- aged 18 to 35 performance, business investments and loan terms for businesses; Microcredit years old-- who were growth, business  The training improved business and financial Center32 | Bosnia Foundation interested in the training practices and knowledge on average (after the training, the total Herzegovina around Tuzla, after an initial phone investments, and loan score of the exit test had increased from a baseline of Bosnia screening. The evaluation behavior 2.6 to 2.9). At follow‐up, the average treatment effect Herzegovina design suffered some of the training on business and financial knowledge changes over time. By the was positive, but not statistically significant; end, the treatment group had 117 individuals (39  The strongest effects of the training were on percent of whom were improvements in business practices and investments: invited to the training) and the treatment group was 17 percent more likely to 148 in the control group implement new production processes than the control group, and 11 percent more likely to inject new investment into the business;  The training increased business profits for entrepreneurs with above median financial literacy at baseline by 54 percent, although the results were not statistically significant at conventional levels; and  No impact was found on loan amounts, but there were significant impacts on loan restructuring. The treatment group was 3.4 percent more likely than the control group to refinance its loans. This effect was large, indicating that the treatment almost doubled the likelihood of refinancing loans. FINCA | FINCA Clients of Tier 1 | The sample was the Business outcomes,  Basic business training to preexisting clients did not Entrepreneurship FINCA Randomized preexisting lending groups business processes lead to higher profits or revenues on average. Program33 | Peru microfinance Control Trial of FINCA clients. On and knowledge, However, difference-in-difference specifications, institution average, they were household outcomes found a positive but small impact on enterprise (approx. total organized in groups of 20 and microfinance revenues; of 16,000 women randomly assigned institutional outcomes  Positive changes in four business skills and practices clients in Lima to control and treatment outcomes were significant at 95 percent (keeping and two groups, stratified by credit 32 Bruhn, Miriam and Zia, Bilal, (2011) “Stimulating Managerial Capital in Emerging Markets: The Impact of Business and Financial Literacy for Young Entrepreneurs”, Policy Research Working Paper No. 5642, World Bank. 33 Karlan, Dean and Valdivia, Martin, (2011) “Teaching Entrepreneurship: Impact of Business Training on Microfinance Clients and Institutions”, The Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 93 Issue 2, pp 510-527. [71] Andean officer. 139 groups were records, an index of business knowledge, the use of Provinces) assigned to treatment and profits for business growth, and implementation of 101 to control innovations in the business);  No training impact was found on household decision making;  The training led to a 4 percentage point increase in the client retention rate – generating an increased net revenue for FINCA;  The training had no effect on loan size or accumulated savings; and  Sometimes the stronger training effects were found for those clients who expressed less interest in the training in the baseline survey. GNAG | Ghana Aprox.1,000 Tier 1 | The pool of entrepreneurs Practice adoption and  The training had a strong impact on the adoption of National metalwork Randomized was 167 metalwork financial outcomes the recommended practices, although the firms Association of entrepreneurs Control Trial entrepreneurs randomly experienced decreased profitability due to new in the Suame selected from the GNAG competition; Garages34 | Ghana Magazine, member list. However, due  After the training, the percentage of firms in the located in the to attrition, and treatment group keeping records increased by 36 city of Kumasi, implementation problems, percentage points whereas the increase was 6 Ghana the final sample was 113 percentage points in the control group; entrepreneurs. The treatment group had 47  Similarly, the percentage of firms in the treatment entrepreneurs while the group analyzing business records increased by 34 control had 66 percentage points while the increase was about 3 percentage points in the control group;  However, these effects were not homogeneous because between a third and half of participants did not adopt these practices;  The decrease in the sales and gross profits after the training were somewhat smaller for the treatment group than for the control group, respectively -12.9 percentage point compared to -19.6 for the sales, and - 2.8 percentage points compared to -6.9 for the gross profits. Also, the effects of the training on the gross profits are much more significant than the effects of 34 Mano, Yukichi, Iddrisu, Alhassan, Yoshino, Yutaka, and Tetsushi, Sonobe, (2011) “How Can Micro and Small Enterprises in Sub -Saharan Africa Become More Productive? The Impacts of Experimental Basic Managerial Training”, Policy Research Working Paper No. 5755, World Bank. [72] the training on sales revenues; and  Participation in the training program increased the probability of survival by 8 or 9 percentage points. MIDA- FBO | Farm-based Tier 1 | Approximately 1200 FBOs Loans accessed and  There was no evidence of intervention impact on crop Millennium organizations Randomized were ex ante designed to be estimates on behavior yields and crop incomes overall, but there were Development (FBOs) in 30 phase-in interviewed as part of the (cultivated land size, significant zonal differences with on crop incomes; districts in the approach evaluation. There was an chemical use and  Training positively impacted the loan amounts that Authority Farmers Northern attrition rate of 10 percent value, labor hours, and household received, but were driven by MIDA loans; Based Agricultural seed use) Organizations Zone, the  Training increased farmers’ use of more formal Training35 | Central African sources for loans; and Ghana Basin Zone, and  The intervention led to an increase in the use of the Southern improved seeds and fertilizers by farmers, but that Horticultural was mainly driven by the starter pack that Belt participants received. NRSP | National Over 300 Tier 1 | The experiment offered Business knowledge,  Business training led to increased business Rural Support groups of Randomized training to the randomly creation and knowledge (estimate value of 0.058, with significance Program36 | borrowers (CO) Control Trial selected half of 747 groups performance at 10 percent level); at five branches of borrowers (COs) from  Pakistan No effect of business training was found on business of a five different branches of creation either with or without access to the larger microfinance three different districts loan (estimate value of -0.006); institution in (treatment group), while three districts the other half did not  Offer of business training led to improvements in of rural receive training (control business practices such as recording the sales on a Pakistan. group) piece of paper as well as separating business from household accounts;  Female CO members who had lower levels of business knowledge at baseline increased business knowledge by about 87 percent (p-value 0.12), but differently from men, they were unable to put into practice their newly acquired knowledge;  Business training led to a reduction in business failure by 6.1 percent among male business owners, compared to the control group, but there was no effect among business women (p-value of 0.98); and  Access to the larger loan, in contrast, had little effect on anyone. 35 Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research, (2012) “An Impact Evaluation of the MiDA FBO Training: Final Report”, University of Ghana. 36 Giné, Xavier, and Mansure, Ghazala, (2011) “Money or Ideas? A Field Experiment on Constraints to Entrepreneurship in Rural Pakistan,” Recover from: http://p31.itcilo.org/entdev/synergies/en/impact-assesments/money-or-ideas-a-field-experiment-on-constraints-to-entrepreneurship-in-rural-pakistan.x.gine-g.mansuri-2011 [73] PBS | Production Over 13,500 Tier 1 | The sample size was 1,736 Producer level and  The offer of PBS had a positive and statistically and Business participants in Randomized of which 518, 593 and 625 household level significant effect on employment in the handicrafts Services37 | El El Salvador’s Rollout design individuals were chain, but not in the dairy or horticulture chains; Northern Zone distributed in dairy,  Among all artisans in the treatment group, PBS Salvador over horticulture and assistance resulted in 0.13 additional jobs (Intention approximately handicrafts chains to Treat Effect - ITT); four years respectively  Among artisans who participated in the intervention, PBS assistance resulted in 0.19 additional jobs (Treatment on the Treated Effect - TOT). This difference was equivalent to nearly 50 days of full- time employment per year;  Only in the dairy value chain did the offer of PBS have a significant positive impact of around US$ 1,850 on dairy producers’ productive income (ITT), with a p- value of 0.01. At over US$ 3,000, this impact was even larger among individuals who participated in PBS assistance;  Across all three value chains, there was no significant impact of PBS on producers’ investments and costs detected using ITT and TOT approaches; and  No statistically significant impact of PBS on net household income was found in any value chain;  No impact of PBS on household consumption was found in any value chain. PRIDE | PRIDE The more than Tier 1 | A randomly selected subset Participation and  The mean attendance for the sub-sample of the Microfinance38 | 300 clients of Randomized was drawn from the pool of performance (the treated participants was 15.9 out of 21 sessions (76 Tanzania PRIDE Control Trial clients who were offered latter measured as percent), indicating that the training was perceived microfinance in training. The sample size is entrepreneur business as beneficial for the businesses; Dar es Salaam, 126 from the treated group skills)  More schooled, more skilled (in terms of math), and Tanzania and 126 from the control more experienced (in terms of age) entrepreneurs group. There was an had higher attendance than those who scored lower attrition rate of 15 percent on these dimensions. The values of attendance were for the treatment and 13 respectively 1.70 (significant at 10 percent), 1.62 percent for the control, but (significant at 10 percent), and 2.26 (significant at 5 it did not affect the percent); randomization. The final sample was 107 for the  On average, the treatment group had a 9 percent treatment and 104 for the higher score on the business knowledge test than the 37 Blair, Randall, Campuzano, Larissa, Moreno, Lorenzo, and Morgan, Seth, (2012) “Impact Evaluation Findings After One Year of P roductive and Business Activity of the Productive Development Project, El Salvador”, Mathematica Policy Research. Recovered from: http://www.oecd.org/countries/elsalvador/report-102012-evaluation-slv-production-and-biz-services.pdf 38 Bjorvatn, Kjetil and Tungodden, Bertil (2010) “Teaching Business in Tanzania: Evaluating Participation and Performance”, Journal of the European Economic Association, Vol 8, pp 561-570. [74] control control group. Based on the business knowledge results, the treatment group received in incentives price an average 1,810 TZS compared to 1,662.50 TZS for the control group; and  The effect of training appeared to be highest for entrepreneurs who participated frequently in the course, who initially did not have a lot of formal education, but who did have strong cognitive skills. ROT | Rules of 1,200 Clients of Tier 1 | Because of baseline survey Business practices and  The impact of financial literacy training varied by its Thumb39 | ADOPEM Randomized errors, the sample was performance delivery method: the training program based on Dominican microfinance Control Trial reduced to 1,193. The simple rules of thumb led to significant institution in distribution across the improvements in the way SMEs managed their Republic Santo Domingo, treatment groups was: 402 finances relative to groups not offered training or Dominican assigned to accounting offered the standard accounting training; Republic courses, 404 to ROT  ROT training increased by 6 to 12 percent the courses, and 387 to the likelihood that individuals reported separating control group business and personal cash and accounts, kept accounting records, and calculated revenues formally, in comparison with the control group, which did not receive training. The estimates were significant at the 5 percent-level. No statistically significant effects were found on the business practices of those assigned to the accounting treatment;  Individuals assigned to the ROT treatment reported a substantial increase (about US$ 31) in revenues during bad weeks. This value was significant at the 5 percent-level. No discernible effects of the accounting program were found on revenues;  Economically large increases in savings (6 percent) were found for the participants in the ROT trainings, and it was significant at the 10 percent level. No effect on savings was found for the group that received the basic accounting training; and  Follow-up visits did not affect the outcomes for clients in the rule-of-thumb based training. In contrast, the follow-up visits to the participants of the 39 Drexler, Alejandro, Fischer, Greg and Schoar, Antoniette (2010) “Keeping it Simple: Financial Literacy and Rules of Thumb”, in CEPR Development Economics Workshop. Sant Benet Monastery (Manresa), Barcelona, 8-9 October 2010, Recover from: http://dev3.cepr.org/meets/wkcn/7/784/papers/FischerFinal.pdf [75] basic accounting training showed a significant increase in savings levels of about 10 percent and an increase in the probability of implementing the accounting practices taught in class. But there were no improvements on real outcomes of the businesses such as sales were found. This suggested that effectiveness might be a matter of delivery method or the likelihood of implementing techniques conditional on understanding them. SIYB | ILO’s Start Women who Tier 1 | Samples of the two groups Business practices and  Training alone did not appear to be enough to get and Improve Your operate Randomized of 628 women were business outcomes for subsistence businesses run by women to grow, Business training subsistence Control Trial randomly allocated into both sets of groups although results were more encouraging for using enterprises and three smaller groups: (a) (business owners and business training to help women out of the labor force program40 | Sri have been out training only: 200 potential business as well as for improving profits and management of Lanka of the labor individuals invited to owners) these businesses; force but are training; (b) training plus  Training led to improvements in business practices for interested in grant: 200 individuals existing firms, although the magnitude was relatively starting a invited to training, who small; business received a grant of 15,000 Rs (US$130) conditional on  Training (with or without grants) had no impact on finishing training; and (c) the survival of existing firms; control group of 228  Training along with grants had no significant impact individuals on the profits or sales of existing firms;  Training sped up the creation of new businesses;  Businesses started by trained entrepreneurs were more profitable up to two years later, with profits and sales that were up to 40 percent higher. ULTP | Urban Micro- Tier 1 | 1,983 eligible women were The outcomes were in  Treatment induced women to make important Land Titling entrepreneurs Randomized placed in two treatment terms of business adjustments to their business practices, although they Program41 | Peru who were Control Trial and one control groups. practices differ across the type of treatment; beneficiaries of The distribution of women  Positive differences in business sales were found a titling was as follows: 709 in among the treated micro-entrepreneurs, but they program in Treatment 1 (T1) group were not statistically different from zero. The sales Lima which received only the increases came mainly from those for whom the general training treatment included GT+TA. In a normal month, those component; 709 in treated with GT+TA sold 19 percent more than their Treatment 2 (T2) group control counterparts; which received both the 40 Mel, Suresh de, McKenzie, David, and Woodruff, Christopher, (2012) “Business Training and Female Enterprise Start -up, Growth and Dynamics”, Policy Research Working Paper No. 6145, World Bank. 41 Valdivia, Martín, (2011), “Training or Technical Assistance? A Field Experiment to Learn What Works to Increase Managerial Capital fo r Female Micro-entrepreneurs”, Grade, Lima, Peru. Recover from: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTGENDER/Resources/336003-1303333954789/final_report_bustraining_BM_march31.pdf [76] general training  No significant employment effect was found due to the component first, and the training, so the sales increases imply a productivity technical assistance (TA) gain for the GT+TA treatment group; component; and the  GT+TA trained women were 5.7 percentage points remaining 565 were more likely to participate in business-related assigned to the control associations; group. There was an attrition rate of 18 percent  GT treated women were more likely to close their old in the treatment and 21 businesses (3.5 percentage points) once they realized percent in the control that it was not profitable, while those who received group GT+TA were more prone to plan and implement innovations in their current business (about 3.5 percentage points);  Business results effects accrued among the businesses run by single women (0.34 s.d.), with a more entrepreneurial attitude index (0.36 s.d.), in households with titled dwellings (0.09 s.d.), and where the woman´s business was relatively more important for the household´s budget (0.25 s.d.), and for larger businesses (0.11 s.d.);  The aggregate standardized index for business practices showed statistically significant positive average effects of the training (0.037 s.d.), in particular, for those who received full treatment (0.049 s.d.); and  Increased participation in savings/borrowing for family or personal purposes was found. WEP | Women Women who Tier 1 | New and established Skills and knowledge  There were statistically significant gains in the four Entrepreneurship want to start Randomized women entrepreneurs in on running a business, skills transfer factors (entrepreneurial characteristics, Program42 | South their own Control Trial South Africa. The increase in number of entrepreneurial orientation, business knowledge, business or evaluation had a treatment employees, turnover, entrepreneurial and business skills) between Africa have one and group of 116 women and a productivity and profit treatment and control group; seek to control group of 64 women  There were statistically significant (at a 5 percent improve their level) differences in effectiveness between treatment entrepreneurial and control group in relation of business improvement and factors; management skills.  There was improvement in the number of employees and the number of costumers for the treatment group (statistically significant) whereas this was not the case 42 Botha, Melodi, Nieman, G. H. and Van Vuuren J. J. (2006) “Evaluating the Women Entrepreneurship Training Programme: A South African study”, The International Indigenous Journal of Entrepreneurship, Advancement, Strategy and Education, Vol 2. Issue 1. Recovered from: http://www.indigenousjournal.com/IIJEASVolIIIss1Botha.pdf [77] for the control group;  However, in business performance indicators (annual sales/turnover, value of capital assets, number of employees, number of customers per month, success of the businesses, probability of the businesses, satisfaction of the customers, and break-even point), both groups presented improvements before and after (mainly due to improvement in external factors of the economy). But they were statistically significant for the treatment group in 5 out of 6 indicators, while only 2 out of 6 indicators were statistically significant for the control group;  98.12 percent of the treatment group were satisfied with WEP and indicated that they would recommend it to a friend or a colleague; and  96.94 percent of the experimental group stated that WEP had helped them grow their businesses and 97.96 percent indicated that WEP had some effect on their businesses six months after the training. DDFET | Dutch Less than 100 Tier 2 | Case – Two groups of full-time Farm and farmer  On average, all participants benefitted from the Dairy Farming dairy farmer Control Study Dutch dairy farmers were characteristics and program, irrespective of farmer, farm characteristics Entrepreneurship beneficiaries selected to participate in entrepreneurial or the level of competencies at the start of the per cohort in the study. One group (n= competencies program; Training43 | the 75) participated in the  It was possible to improve entrepreneurial Netherlands Netherlands training program, the competencies of dairy farmers through similar second group (n=180) training programs; and served as a control group. The sample size was 164 of  Strategic competencies of dairy farmers had a positive which 50 comprised the relationship with farm size; supporting the general treatment group and 114 idea that when farms become larger, it becomes more the control group important for farmers to be able to set, implement, and evaluate a strategy. END | Endeavor44 The target is Tier 2 | Quasi- Sample size included a The effect of being  The program had positive effects on sales growth; | South Africa mostly small Experimental treatment group of 19 chosen as a program  On average, sales for EEs increased by approximately and medium Design selected enterprises (EEs) - participant on firms; R2-R3 million more than non-EEs; enterprises -those who received the total sales, export that are whole range of Endeavor’s sales, number of  The effect on the percentage of export sales was not particularly services-- and a control employees, and statistically significant; and 43 Bergevoet, R.H.M., Giesen, G.W.J, Van Woerkum, C.M.J, and Huirne, R.B.M, (2005) “Improving Entrepreneurship in Farming: The Impact of a Training Programme in Dutch Dairy Farming”, 15th Congress – Developing Entrepreneurship Abilities to Feed the World in a Sustainable Way, Campinas, SP. Recovered from: http://www.ifmaonline.org/pdf/congress/05Bergevoet%20et%20al.pdf 44 IFC, (N.D) “Do Programs Supporting High Growth Entrepreneurs Work? Evaluating the Endeavor -South Africa Project”, Monitor No. 45322, IFC. [78] conducive to group of 33 non-selected income  EEs’ most used services were the mentoring, training innovation in (non-EEs) applicants course and networking opportunities, but not all the South Africa services were used, showing that achieving all program objectives required some additional effort. FTDAP | Farmer 7,500 Tier 2 | Quasi- Two rounds of surveys Increased cultivation  FTDAP had a positive impact on activities related to Training and smallholder experimental yielded 7,262 completed of horticultural crops, horticultural crops, but a broader positive impact on Development farmers in 16 Design interview questionnaires, household income and household income and expenditures was not detected; of which 4,526 were from employment  The results also showed that net income change from Assistance departments of the baseline surveys other crops was on average 11,360 lempiras (US$ Program45 | Honduras conducted, and 2,736 were Honduras 601) higher for program participants than for from the follow-up survey nonparticipants;  All of the income/expense components for other (horticultural) crops had positive effects;  There was no effect on the proportion of farmers growing horticultural crops; and  There was an effect on income, net income, expenditures and labor expenditures for other crops. TECH | Individuals or Tier 2 | Quasi- The sample size was 655 Business start-ups or  The evidence suggested that receiving business TechnoServe46 | existing small experimental applications in the three business expansions training significantly increased the probability of Central America and medium- (Regression countries, where 377 business start-ups and expanded existing business; scale Discontinuity) received at least some  The training program led to an effect of a higher enterprises in training and 278 were probability-- 9 to 11 percentage points-- of opening a Central rejected applicants who did business (for individuals without a business before the America who not receive any training start of the program) in the treatment group and a 23 were interested to 26 percentage point higher probability of expanding in setting up a a business (for individuals with an existing business new business before the program) in the treatment group; or expanding business  Winning the competition led to economically services significant changes in the probability of starting or expanding a business, suggesting the presence of financial constraints; and  Financial constraints were more important for women who wished to start or expand a business than for men. 45 NORC, (2012) “Impact Evaluation of the Farmer Training and Development Activity in Honduras: Final Report”, University of Chicago. Recovered from: http://www.oecd.org/countries/honduras/report-100512-evaluation-hon-farmer-training-and-development.pdf 46 Klinger, Bailey and Schündeln, Matthias, (2007) “Can Entrepreneurial Activity be Taught? Quasi -Experimental Evidence from Central America”, CID Working Paper No. 153, Harvard University. [79] Chapter 5 – Implications for Program Design and Implementation This study examines the range of entrepreneurship education and training (EET) interventions and seeks to address four key questions about the global landscape of EET programs, namely : (a) who do EET programs target; (b) What outcomes do EET programs aim to achieve; (c) what dimensions shape these outcomes and, (d) at what cost are outcomes achieved? Building off the analysis of a body of research as well as the evaluations of EET programs, this section describes findings along the lines of these four questions and offers a set of practical insights about the design and policy implications of these findings. Summary of Findings Who do EET programs target? This study proposes a typology for understanding the various target groups of EET programs, including: secondary education students, higher education students, potential entrepreneurs, and practicing entrepreneurs. Building upon these target groups, the analysis provides details about the characteristics of the participants that these programs target, and who the individuals are that ultimately participate. While by definition secondary entrepreneurship education programs target students at the secondary education level, the analysis indicates that there is a differentiation between programs that target “select” groups of students versus programs that target broader student populations. For example, students may participate in entrepreneurship education as part of curricula integrated during normal school instruction hours. By contrast, students may choose to participate in an EE programs as part of an extra-curricular activity, such as an after school club. The same holds for higher education participants in entrepreneurship education. Students may participate in a program as an elective course or capstone activity; students may participate in a degree/certificate granting entrepreneurship program; or students may participate in EE as an extracurricular activity, such as a business plan competition. Depending on how the program is structured within the higher education context, sorting occurs as students make the decision to participate. In some cases the decision may be motivated by a deliberate interest in entrepreneurship. In other instances the decision may be driven by available options, for example either writing a thesis or participating in entrepreneurship education to develop a business plan. Program evaluations reveal little information about participants that elect not to take entrepreneurship education programs. When targeting potential entrepreneurs, entrepreneurship programs aim to recruit a range of participants -- from potential high-growth or opportunity-driven entrepreneurs to necessity-driven self-employed entrepreneurs. When programs are implemented as randomized controlled trials, eligibility requirements can provide a detailed picture of participants’ characteristics. Outside of these cases, however, information about targeted participant characteristics is scarce. Though in some cases the specific goals of funders or the government can influence the population a program targets; for example residents within a post-conflict zone, rural populations, or welfare recipients. [80] Among entrepreneurship training programs targeting practicing entrepreneurs, interventions target a range of participants -- from high-growth entrepreneurs to necessity, self-employed entrepreneurs. The defining characteristics of these program participants, however, are that they are proprietors of existing enterprises. By consequence, they have a unique stake in benefitting from the time and resources invested in a program; or, a risk if their participation do esn’t benefit them. As such, the incentives for these individuals to participate, and continue to participate are unique to programs targeting practicing entrepreneurs. What outcomes do EET programs aim to achieve? There are a number of objectives that EET programs target within the broader domains of entrepreneurial mindsets and capabilities as well as entrepreneurial status and performance. Across program types, there is an increased emphasis on outcomes in the status and performance domains; and among EE programs, there is also a notable emphasis on mindsets (and the associated outcomes of socio-emotional skills and entrepreneurship awareness). This trend is to be expected as the target audience changes from students to practicing entrepreneurs, and in turn, success is measured according to an individual’s increased income or profitability. From an evaluation standpoint, both metrics are more practical, and, from an individual’s standpoint, potentially more urgent. Lastly, it is worth noting that despite entrepreneurship training programs becoming comparatively less focused on entrepreneurial mindsets, some evaluations do look at the development of participants’ socio-emotional skills as well as entrepreneurship awareness, suggesting that entrepreneurial mindsets are valued beyond entrepreneurship education students. What dimensions shape these outcomes? Both relevant research and EET program evaluations signal the importance of context in the capacity of programs to meet their objectives. The importance of context is even discussed in evaluations that are randomized controlled trials, where it is unclear if similar outcomes would accrue if a program were implemented elsewhere. The analysis also suggests the prominence of particular contextual factors can depend on the outcomes being measured. As an example, EE programs that focus principally on developing capabilities and mindsets are prone to be influenced by any contextual factors that may enhance or limit skills acquisition, such as the quality of a teacher, or the backing of an administration to implement a program. For entrepreneurship training programs that tend to measure an individual’s decision to start business or succeed as an entrepreneur, factors affecting macro-economic stability or access to markets tend to be of particular importance. Of interest, across program types there are examples of cultural dynamics cited as influential to shaping program outcomes; however, evaluations tend to lack specificity around what constitutes cultural resistance or embrace of entrepreneurship. In addition to context, participants’ characteristics and behaviors can influence program outcomes. Some common participant characteristics cited across program types include an individual’s gender as well as skills profile (literacy and numeracy). With regard to participant behavior, there are indications that individuals electing to participate and complete a program play a role in shaping outcomes. However, few evaluations describe what becomes of those who elect not to participate or quit. Finally, in terms of the program characteristics themselves, evaluations do not provide a discernible picture of which characteristics are most influential in shaping program outcomes. On the whole, evaluations rarely focus on testing one program characteristic approach versus another, such as a particular wrap-around service or teaching method. A notable exception is the Tier 1 evaluation of the STEP program in Uganda. [81] At what cost are outcomes achieved? Within the literature and program evaluations, there is a paucity of information on the costs and financing of EET programs. Further, the information that is available is rarely comparable. In most cases, the costs of EET programs are a function of the institutions responsible for implementation as well as associated principles of cost recovery. How this impacts comparability is evident in evaluations that provide information on costs to the participant. For example, for a higher education program delivered in Norway, there is technically no tuition cost to the participant; whereas at a higher education program in the United States, the cost to the student is comparatively high given that students are required to pay some form of tuition to participate in the program. These indicators can tell us very little about the actual cost to implement programs in each country, or the true extent of cost recovery in the cases where students have tuition responsibilities. Ascertaining this information for programs would require a standardization of all the program inputs; rarely do evaluations provide information on the unit costs for the whole package of inputs. Evaluations that do offer insight on unit costs -- even within the same target group -- range from under US$ 100 per participant to upwards of US $2,000 per participant. Again, little information is available about which unit costs are comprehensive. Lastly, program evaluations suggest that programs are rarely subject to cost-effectiveness analyses. Given the challenge of comparability in the cost of programs, EET program cost-effectiveness is likely better considered compared to other interventions or policy alternatives in that particular context, versus from one entrepreneurship education program to another. Implications for Program Design The analysis of programs according to program type and target group reveals a set of insights to consider about what tends to characterize programs within each category. This information can be helpful for dialogue around the options available for designing an EET program. Figure 13 captures a summary of what dimensions tend to characterize different types of EET programs -- informed by the analysis of EET research and the sample of program evaluations summarized in Chapter 4. The decision about an EET intervention’s target groups and desired outcomes can ultimately inform program design. Using the Framework to Guide Design Options Clairity about target groups and desired outcomes can help focus program design choices that align program design to the needs of participants and their particular context. The analysis found a breadth of choices available to program designers even within a singular program input, such as instructors or wrap-around services. Details on each of these are provided in this study’s corresponding database of programs. Unfortunately, the available EET research and program evaluations provide little reliable guidance about the optimal mix of program characteristic choices for certain target groups or program objectives given the nuance of how these characteristics come together to shape program outcomes for better or worse. That said, a useful starting point for examining program design options may be findings from the more rigorous program evaluations -- both those that engender positive results as well as those that do not. This analysis offers program designers an opportunity to understand what choices are most common for particular target groups, particular outcomes, and within particular contexts. [82] Figure 13 ⎼ Summary of EET Program Analysis Entreprenuership Education Entreprenuership Training Program Dimensions Secondary Education Higher Education Potential Practicing Students Students Entreprenuers Entreprenuers Socio-emotional Skills Mindsets Entrepreneurial Awareness Management Skills Capabilities Vocational Skills Outcome Domains Enterprise Formation Employability Status Income and Savings Network Formation Profits and Sales Job Creation Expansion Productivity Performance Formalization Reinvestment Implementation of Innovation Products and Services Local Partnerships Program Design Selection Process Design Source of Funding Finance Unit Cost (program and participant) Teacher/Educator Trainers Practitioner Consultant Face to Face Delivery Online Experential 10 or less 10 to 30 Class Size 30 to 60 Trainers and 60 to 100 Program Characteristics Delivery More than 100 Daily Intensity Weekly/Bi-Weekly Monthly One-off Less than 2 weeks 2 weeks to 3 months Duration 3 to 6 months 6 months to 1 year More than 1 year Financial Literacy/Accounting Marketing Sales General Business/Management Content Vocational Content and Leadership and Teamwork Curriculum Strategic Planning Socio-emotional Skills Mixed Methods Curricula Tests/Assessments Presentations/Competitions Mentoring and Coaching Wrap- Individual Networking around Job Counseling Access to Finance Services Firm Technical Assistance Gender Age Profile Personality and Traits Family Background Moderating Factors Education Level Education Literacy and Numeracy Participants Work Experience Experience Entrepreneurship Experience Interest and Interest in Entreprenuership Intentions Intention to Start/Grow a Business Uptake Behavior Attrition Conditions Economic Infrastructure Stability Context Political Entreprenuership Promotion Entreprenuership Enabling Cultural Entrepreneuership Constraining [83] For example, the analysis enables a designer to move from an understanding of the general value of wrap-around services in EET to a more focused understanding about which wrap around services are common for particular types of programs. This includes how mentorship or internship opportunities may be common wrap-around services within higher education programs; or how access to loans are a more prevalent options for programs targeting practicing entrepreneurs. In terms of program content, financial literacy and accounting are common focuses across all program types. However, this content can differ depending on the target group -- whether a program serves low-literacy self-employed, or high-growth potential entrepreneurs with a graduate education. Considering Implementation Finally, while program evaluations tend to say little about program implementation, its importance for program design should not be overlooked. Program evaluations, as well as available literature, provide information on the context in which programs are implemented and how outcomes vary from one context to the next. Little is documented, however, about how local dynamics and political economy can influence program implementation. Policy Implications When reflecting on the policy implications of the study, an initial question to consider is whether the government should be involved in the provision, financing, or promotion of EET programs. Insight is likely best found within the particular type of program, as reflected by its particular target group or objectives. Entrepreneurship Education- Secondary Education Students Among programs targeting secondary education students, the context demands some government role, at least within public institutions or institutions using national curricula. The role can vary in intensity -- from promoting EE by granting its use in a curricular module to a more intensive role in making EE a requisite aspect of teacher training. Furthermore, a secondary entrepreneurship education program’s objectives and outcomes may include the provision of socio-emotional skills and financial literacy. The relationship between labor market outcomes and socio-emotional skills (e.g. creativity, teamwork, and leadership, self-control, etc.) is documented in a body of research (Heckman, James J., and Yona Rubinstein, 2001; Heckman, Stixrud and Urzua, 2006; Becker, 2007; Borghans, 2008; Jacob, 2002; Heineck and Anger, 2010), thus making it plausible for these types of programs to contribute towards a public good that may in turn justify some form of government intervention and support. Entrepreneurship Education- Higher Education Students At the higher education level, government intervention might be important in some contexts, particularly within public institutions; though higher education tends to operate more autonomously than secondary education. Also, one can again return to the issue of how entrepreneurship education can be pointed to as a public good. Insight on this front is likely related to a government’s broader rationale for supporting higher education -- whether as a means to foster a productive and employable workforce or to enhance innovation and the development of a knowledge-driven economy. Entrepreneurship education could be considered as relevant to both -- whether in equipping students with relevant skills and/or providing students with the capacity to innovate or bring innovative products or processes to market. [84] Entrepreneurship Training – Potential Entrepreneurs Government plays a role in potential entrepreneurship training programs; however in comparison to entrepreneurship education programs, the nature and justification of its role is less straightforward. In some cases government is a partner in allowing the use of physical space within public training intuitions; however, overall, government involvement is more commonly characterized as directly funding -- or enabling other entities to finance -- entrepreneurship training programs. Since these types of programs often target specific (often vulnerable) populations for whom the government may already be generally interested in supporting, the public good is more closely tied to program objectives (enhancing equity, reducing poverty) – often more so than the public good associated with what the program actually delivers (knowledge and skills). In this sense, the policy implications should be grounded in the efficacy and effectiveness of policy alternatives that are present in these contexts (e.g. conditional cash transfers, fostering wage employment) for furthering these same objectives. Also of note -- some entrepreneurship training programs suggest there are knowledge and skills spillovers between participants and non- participants, however there is little information about how these spillovers contribute to a program’s overall policy objectives. Entrepreneurship Training – Practicing Entrepreneurs The policy implications for programs targeting practicing entrepreneurs who are in vulnerable populations echo considerations for programs geared toward potential entrepreneurs of similar backgrounds. The analysis indicates that while some programs demonstrate material benefits to beneficiaries and a degree of knowledge spillover, policymakers must consider the available alternatives within particular populations’ contexts. However, programs for high-growth potential entrepreneurs merit further discussion about government involvement. The analysis indicates that among these targeted programs, the government role is limited. While the objectives of these programs tend to also be in the interest of governments-- including economic spillovers such as employment and innovation -- these programs tend to target better educated and better off individuals. Groups with limited rationale for government support. Furthermore, the government role with these sort of programs is complicated by the perception of “picking winners” as well as practical limitations in identifying “the right” participants -– a role that the market and investors are likely better equipped to fill. Thus for programs targeting high growth potential entrepreneurs, the government’s role is likely limited to creating the space for the financing, providing private entities to train, and fostering a business environment that enables entrepreneurial activity (e.g. business registration, access to finance, taxation). Conclusion Research indicates that entrepreneurship can be tied to a number of pressing global and economic imperatives -- ranging from employment creation to poverty reduction and innovation. Given the potential beneficial spillovers of entrepreneurship, there is an interest in interventions that stimulate individuals’ decisions to become and succeed as entrepreneurs. Among these interventions are entrepreneurship education and training programs that aim to develop mindsets, knowledge, and skills associated with entrepreneurial success. These programs represent a heterogeneous field of interventions, and this study proposes a coherent structure for the EET landscape through the development of a typology and conceptual framework. [85] Using available literature and program evaluations, this study also examined the range of EET programs and sought to address four key questions about what types of program compose the global landscape and what information is available about how these programs achieve a range of outcomes. Despite a global interest in education and training for entrepreneurship, available and reliable information on program outcomes is relatively sparse. However, through an analysis of programs, this study is able to offer a focused and structured discussion around what generally characterizes these programs when they target particular groups of beneficiaries, seek to achieve certain objectives, and are delivered in various contexts. This information is intended to be helpful for practitioners and policymakers conceptualizing the design and implementation of entrepreneurship education and training programs. Finally, while little is known about the programs’ success in supporting and ultimately developing entrepreneurs, entrepreneurship is being examined as a way to cope with a number of economic realities -- including the economic contributions of self-employment and SMEs, the persistence of unemployment, precarious employment, the emergence of knowledge-driven economies, and the imperative of bringing innovations to market. While evaluations of entrepreneurship education programs can rarely draw hard, direct lines to outcomes that explain how education and training per se helps addresses these issues, many EET programs appear to contribute by association -- whether as means of generating income for individuals marginalized by an evolving global economic landscape, for whom there may be few immediate alternatives, or through building foundational skills relevant to emerging knowledge-based sectors. 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Retrieved from http://ssrn.com/abstract=2034168 [101] ANNEXES [102] ANNEX 1 ǀ List of EET Programs Program Program Name Acronym 10KW 10,000 Women Program Indian School of Business - ISB AAC Atención a Crisis (Ministry of the Family, Nicaragua) ACTiVATE Achieving the Commercialization of Technology in Ventures through Applied Training for Entrepreneurs (University of Maryland, USA) APSB Auchi Polytechnic School of Business (Nigeria) BACIP Building and Construction Improvement Programme (Aga Khan, Pakistan) BEP Berger Entrepreneurship Program (McGuire Entrepreneurship Program, University of Arizona, Eller College – USA) BIZ BizWorld (Netherlands) BØDO Bødo Graduate School of Business (Norway) BPTC Business Plan Thesis Competition (Ministries of Education, Tunisia) CEM Certificate in Entrepreneurial Management (Nigeria) CCOE College Carve-Out Education (China) CREA Capacitación y Reclutamiento Empresarial Americana (CREA Mexico) DDEI Dade County Entrepreneurial Institute (Miami, FL, USA) DDFET Dutch Dairy Farmers Entrepreneurship Training (Netherlands) DFCU Development Finance Company of Uganda EDC Entrepreneurship Development Center (Bosnia-Herzegovina) ELP Executive Leadership Programme (IDP, Northern Ireland) EMPRETEC EMPRETEC Programme (in 32 countries) ENBDP Entrepreneurship and New Business Development Programme (Sweden) END Endeavor (South Africa) EOEAS Entrepreneurial orientation and education in Austrian secondary schools (Austria) EPAG Economic Empowerment of Adolescent Girls and Young Women (Liberia) FEE Finland Entrepreneurial Education (Finland) FINCA Foundation for International Community Assistance Entrepreneurship Program (Peru) FTDAP Farmer Training Development Activity (Honduras) GATE Growing America Through Entrepreneurship Project (United States) GE Grande Écôle (France) GNAG Ghana National Association of Garages (Ghana) GOWE Growth-Oriented Women Entrepreneurs (Kenya) INT Interise (USA) INJAZ Junior Achievement for youth in Middle East (Middle East) JAN Junior Achievement (Namibia) JACP Junior Achievement Company Program (Sweden) JE Juventud y Empleo (Youth Development Project, Dominican Republic) JEA Jóvenes en Acción (Colombia) [103] KAB Know About Business (Syria) MEP Microeprendimientos Productivos (government workforce program, Argentina) MiDA-FBO Millennium Development Authority- Farm-based organization training (Ghana) MSETTP Micro and Small Enterprise Training and Technology Project (Kenya) MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology engineering students (USA) NFTE Network for Teaching Entrepreneurship (Previously National Foundation for Teaching Entrepreneurship) (USA) NRSP National Rural Support Program (Pakistan) PAVCOPA Agricultural Trading and Processing Promotion Pilot Project (Mali) PBS Production and Business Services (El Salvador) PRIDE PRIDE Bank (Tanzania) ROT Rules of Thumb (Dominican Republic) SAIE South African Institute for Entrepreneurship (South Africa) SEWA SEWA Banks (India) SIYB Start and Improve Your Business program (Vietnam) SIYB-SL ILO’s Start and Improve Your Business training program (Sri Lanka) STEP Student Training for Promoting Entrepreneurship (Uganda) TECH TechnoServe (Central America) ULTP Urban Land Titling Program (Peru) UTES University Training for Entrepreneurs (Sweden) WEMTOP Women's Enterprise Management Training Opportunity Program (India) WEP Women Entrepreneurship Program (South Africa) WETVBI Women's Virtual Business Incubator (Tanzania) WINGS Women’s Income Generating Support Program (Uganda) WSBP/MBDP Women’s Small Business Program and Micro Business Development Program (USA) YE Young Enterprise (Denmark) YOP Youth Opportunities Program (Uganda) [104] ANNEX 2 ǀ PROGRAM OUTCOMES Programs Program Outcomes Tier 1 and 2 Tier 3 Mindsets Socio-emotional skills Persistence BIZ EMPRETEC Self-Efficacy BIZ, STEP EDU, INJAZ Need for Achievement BIZ , EPS, EOEAS EMPRETEC Pro-activity BIZ Creativity BIZ Optimism BPTC Locus of Control EPS, EOEAS Openness to ambiguity EOEAS Opportunity recognition DDFET, STEP EMPRETEC 10KW, EMPRETEC, JA, SIYB, ELP, WETVBI, Self-confidence SNP, ACTIVATE, WEMTOP Communication and teamwork BIZ NET, EMPRETEC Leadership BIZ, JFRLP, EOEAS, STEP NET, EMPRETEC, JA, CEA, PAVCOPA, ELP Entrepreneurial Awareness EPS, SAIE, INT, UTES, CREA, JA, LSTVETP, SFDP, CEM, 10KW, Entrepreneurial values, attitudes, and BEP EMPRETEC, GE, MEP, PAP, WETVBI, norms WEMTOP, MIT, PT, FET Perception of entrepreneurship SAIE, MEP, BEP GE, BØDO, BEP, INT, ETP, SEWA, MIT, WB, APSB, ENP, Willingness and intention to become INJAZ, BIZ, ROT, CCOE, EMPRETEC, NET, FEE, PAP an entrepreneur FTDAP, STEP Capabilities Business and Management PRIDE, FINCA, EDC, YDP, INJAZ, CEM, ELP, 10KW General business knowledge NRSP, SAIE, EPS, BØDO, GE, GNAG, CCOE JFRLP, FINCA, EDC, NRSP, LSTVEP, SFDP, CEM, 10KW, CREA, INJAZ, MSMECP, UTES, PRIDE, ELP, SIYB, WSBP, PAVCOPA, WEMTOP, General enterprise management skills MSETTP, MIDA, MEP, SFOP TECH, FTDAP, BPTC, FINCA Accounting and Financial Literacy General financial literacy BIZ, FINCA, ROT, EDC, NRSP, WSBP General accounting ROT, EDC, NRSP, EPAG CREA, CEM, VET, CBRDP Separation of profit and income ROT, FINCA, EDC Calculating production costs FINCA, ULTP CREA, PAVCOPA Knowledge on obtaining financing WEP Product pricing FINCA Develop loan work-out strategies for JRFLRP viable companies [105] Marketing and Sales WEP, FINCA, EDC, ULTO, CREA, CEM General marketing NRSP Marketing plans BIZ, EDC, NRSP PAVCOPA, BDRDP, CEM, WETVBI Market positioning and research FINCA Strategic Planning BPTC, BIZ, WEP, EDC, GE, PAVCOPA, WSBP, ACTIVATE BEP, UTES, EPS, MIDA, Business plan development FTDAP, MSETTP, TECH, NRSP, ACTiVATE Strategic assessment FINCA, EDC, JFLRP, DDFET EMPRETEC Linking theory and practice GE, EE Risk Assessment EOEAS Predict problems in business WEP SVT Networking Skills INT 10KW, CREA, EMPRETEC, NET Vocational Skills AAC, ULTP, JEA, BIZ, CREA, PAVCOPA, ACTIVATE, LSTVETP, MSETTP, GNAG SVT, LBRDP, WESDFS Status Enterprise Formation WEP, EDC, JRFLRP, FINCA, EMPRETEC, EDU, CREA, WSBP, CBRDP, MCSMP, TECH, MEP, BØDO, , WETVBI, ENP, ACTIVATE, DDEI, INJAZ EE, DDFET, BEP, MSETTP, TECH, GATE Employability EPAG, PRIDE, BØDO, NFTE, BACIP, SVTP, WEMTOP, INJAZ Enhanced employability JE Employment in private sector JEA WEMTOP BPTC, EPAG, MEP, AAC, EDU, PAP, WETVBI, WEMTOP Self-employment GATE Income and Savings JRFLOP, ROT, WEP, FINCA, 10KW, EDU, LFTP, CREA, PAVCOPA, EDC, ULTP, END, INT, MEP, WESDFS, SEWA, WETVBI, SFDP< Income PBS, MIDA, FTDAP, MSMECP, ECTFPIP, CEM MSETTP, WINGS, JE Savings JRFLRP, ROT Increased wages JEA, GE Network formation 10KW, CREA, PAVCOPA, NET Performance Profits and Sales PRIDE, AAC, WEP, EDC, END, EMPRETEC, CEM Profits MSMECP, MSETTP Cash flows FINCA ROT, WEP, FINCA, EDC, 10KW, EDU, LFTP, CREA, PAVCOPA, ULTP, END, INT, MEP, PBS, WESDFS, SEWA, WETVBI, SFDP< Sales MIDA, FTDAP, MSMECP, ECTFPIP, CEM MSETTP, GNAG Sustainability NRSP Job Creation [106] END, INT, PBS, MSMECEP, 10KW, EMPRETEC, SFDP, CEM, ELP, BEP CBRDP, ENP, DDEI Expansion WEP, PBS, MSETTP, TECH, EMPRETEC, PAVCOPA, ELB, WETVBI New or improved markets INT, MSMCEP, Increase in exports PAVCOPA, ELB EDC, NRSP, MIDA, MSMECP, CEM Increased borrowing MSETTP Productivity MIDAM, FTDAP, MSMECP EMPRETEC, LFTP, PAP, ECTPIP Formalization MSETTP LFTP Reinvestment FINCA, EDC, DDFET, PBS, EMPRETEC, CBRDP MSETTP, INT Implementation of Innovation FINCA, EDC, ULTP, MSMECP, PAVCOPA MESTTP, ACTiVATE Products and Services Increased customer satisfaction WEP Improvements in product quality PAVCOPA, PAP, EDP, ECTFPIP [107] ANNEX 3 ǀ PROGRAM CHARACTERISTICS Program Program Programs Type Literature Interviews Characteristics Tier 1 and 2 Tier 3 EE ET Program Design Local Partnerships JRFLP, WEP, SIYB, EMPRETEC, NET, Fuchs, Werner, Schindehutte, EDC, NRSP, INJAZ, X X JA Wellau (2008) Forti, Brock NFTE Selection Process WEP, ULTP, TECH, Bharadwaj, BAICP, Schindehutte, FTDAP, GE, STEP, Osborne, X EMPRETEC, NET Heim, Forti GATE, END Falcone (2010) Trainers and Delivery Trainers Teacher/Educat ROT, EOEAS, NFTE, X or STEP PRIDE, EDC, YDP, EMPRETEC, NET, Trainer/Consult NRSP, GNAG, JA, NFTE, Schindehutte, BAICP, SIYB, JA, X ant MCSMP, GE, MSETTP, Brock CREA, EDU, LFTP GATE Practitioner TECH, MSETTP X Pittaway and Mehu- BPTC, BIZ, JA, BØDO, Cope (2007), Hammonds, GE, BEP, MSETTP, Blend Porter and Heim, Forti, X X EMPRETEC, BAICP, Mckibben Pfefferman, LSTVETP, 10KW, END (1988) Bamkole Includes Mehu- EMPRETEC, NET, Trainer/Teacher NRSP, JA, NFTE Hammonds, X X JA, SIYB Training Forti, Brock Delivery 10KW, EDU, JFRLP, PRIDE, AAC, CREA, PAVCOPA, BTPTC, WEP, FINCA, SIYB, BACIP, EDC, ULTP, YDP, WSBP, PCY, Face to Face NRSP, JEA, BIZ, ROT, INJAZ, NET, X X Classroom DDFET, MCSMP, EMPRETEC, SIYB, BØDO, MSMECP, LSTVETP, CEM, FTDAP, INT, TECH, SEWA, FEE, SAIE, EPS, BEP, NFTE DFCU, SVT, YEN, ENP, ACTIVATE Online (or END, GE BACIP, CREA X X components of) Experiential JEA X Content and Curricula Content [108] PRIDE, BIZ, EPAG, FINCA, EMPRETEC, EDC, NRSP, WEP, BACIP, CREA, JRFLRP, ROT, PAVCOPA, 10KW, Financial Literacy Heim X X MCSMP, TECH, LFTP, CEM, GE, GNAG, PBS, SEWA, ELP, MIDA, BEP, CBRDP NFTE, EDC, ULTP EDC, NRSP, Accounting TECH, BEP, ROT, 10KW, LFTP X EPAG EPAG, FINCA, Record-keeping LFTP X EDC, MCSMP FINCA, ULTP, Costing X MCSMP FINCA, MCSMP, PRIDE, WEP, BIZ, 10KW, CREA, Marketing EDC, ULTP, PAVCOPA, CEM, X X NRSP, TECH, LFTP, JA BEP, MSCMP BIZ, ROT, FINCA, LFTP, CREA, Sales X ULTP PAVCOPA ROT, WEP, EDC, ULTP, NRSP, EMPRETEC, JFLRP, PRIDE, BACIP, CREA, EPAG, BIZ, NRSP, General Business PAVCOPA, 10KW, Barringer and BEP, FTDAP, X X Knowledge and Skills LFTP, CEM, Ireland (2010) MCSMP, TECH, SEWA, ELP, UTES, DDFET, CBRDP GE, GNAG, PBS, MIDA, BEP, NFTE EPAG, ULTP, PAVCOPA, BACIP, AAC, JEA, BIZ, PCY, LSTVETP, Vocational X X MIDA, DDFET, PAP, SVTP, VET, PBS, MSETTP SVT, CBRDP BIZ, NET, WEP, NRSP, PRIDE, BPTC, AAC, EMPRETEC, NET, Fuchs et al Entrepreneurship EPAG, AAC, 10KW, ESBP, (2008), Tan and Heim, Mehu- X X Awareness/Theory EPAG, YDP, BEP, PCY, CEM, FEE, Frank Ng Hammonds NFTE, TECH, FET, TEVET (2006) SAIE, EPS, PBS, NFTE WEP, ULTP, EMPRETEC, JA, Mehu- Leadership X X NFTE 10KW, NET Hammonds Teamwork and LFTP, CREA, GE X X Networking PAVCOPA WEP, EDC, Strategic Planning DDFET, GE, BEP, EMPRETEC X GE, TECH, EPS BPTC, WEP, EDC, Business Plan GE, MCSMP, BEP, 10KW, CEM X X INJAZ General Socio- X X [109] emotional Skills PRIDE, EPAG, Customer Care X FINCA, ULTP EPAG, ULTP, Life Skills YDP, JRFLP, AAC, EDU, PAP X X TECH Product Design, BIZ, FINCA, EPS, Production and FTDAP, MCSMP, PAVCOPA X Promotion EPS, GE, PBS Product Quality ULTP, MCS, X Management FTDAP, GE Enterprise WEP, FINCA, CREA, PAVCOPA, Barringer and Registration, X X BPTC, PCY SFDP, WEMTOP Ireland (2010) Trademarks Human Resource GE 10KW, CEM X Management Industry Specific MIDA LFTP, PAVCOPA X Content Curricula WEP, BIZ, NRSP, Classroom-based ROT, FINCA, NET, EMPRETEC, X X Lecture TECH, GE, NFTE, JA, WSBP, PCY INJAZ WEP, JEA, FINCA, Heim, Mehu- NRSP, BIZ, ROT, Hammonds, NET, 10KW, NRSP, JA, NFTE, Bamkole, Mixed Methods EMPRETEC, JA, X X TECH, MSMCP, Nelson, WSBP, PCY END, TECH, GE, Solomon, INJAZ Davis Company NRSP, EOEAS Simulations Case Studies WEP, MSMECP X Pittaway and Solomon, Linking Learning EMPRETEC, NET, Cope (2007), Mehu- with Real-World END, NFTE, GE JA, CREA, Porter and Hammonds, Experience PAVCOPA Mckibbin Brock (1988) Presentation to BIZ, WEP, NFTE, EDU, EMPRETEC X X External Audience GE BPTCC, AAC, Solomon, Competitions and PRIDE, INJAZ, EMPRETEC Heim, X X Awards BEP, NFTE, Pfefferman TECH, END, GE Wrap-around Services Creates linkages between students/trainees and professional community WEP, YDP, NFTE, EMPRETEC, NET, Fuchs et al Hammonds, MSMECP, UTES, X X CREA, PAVCOPA (2008) Heim, Bamkole GE Mentoring, Counseling or Coaching WEP, BPTC, INT, 10KW, EMRETEC, Sarri Heim, Solomon, X NGTE, PCY, NET, CREA, ESBP, (2011), Forti, Brock, [110] ENDBP, MCSMP CEM, GOWE Wikhol, Bamkole, Nelson Henningson, and Hultman (2008) Access to Finance WEP, EPAG, BPTC, AAC, PRIDE, NRSP, FINCA, EC, ULTP, BACIP, CREA, MCSMP, END, PAVCOPA, WSBP, Forti, Brock X PBS, END, SFDP, PAP MSMECP, MSETTP, TECH, EDC, YOP, STEP, WINGS Access to Markets JRFLP, MSMECP BACIP, PAVCOPA Nelson X Technical Assistance EPAG, ULTP, MCSMP, PBS, END, TECH, CREA, PAVCOPA, Mehu- X X MSMECP, WSBP Hammonds MSETTP, GE, WINGS Access to Technology EPAG, NFTE, Haan (2001) Cassup X X TECH Business Plan Advising AAC, MSMECP, 10KW, SFDP X TECH Alumni Network WEP, NFTE, EMPRETEC, Heim X ENDBP 10KW Networking with other Entrepreneurs EMPRETEC, Mehu- Ronstadt WEP, NFTE, END 10KW, PAVCOPA, Hammonds, X (1985) NET Nelson Job Counseling/Placement JEA, YDP X X Workspace/Incubation Centers, Support Centers ENDBP Conferences, Workshops, Study Tours, Entrepreneur Days END, INT, EOAS [111] [112] ANNEX 4 ǀ MODERATING FACTORS Program Program Programs Programs Literature Interviews Program Moderating Characteristics Type Type Literature Interviews Factors Tier 1 and 2 Tier 3 EE ET Participants Age PRIDE, DDFET X X Family Background Peterman and Kennedy (2003), NFTE, INJAZ, 10KW Scott and Storper X DDFET (2003), Wang and Wong (2004) Education WEP, PRIDE, Unger et al (2011), BPTC, FINCA, Van Der Sluis, Van X UTES, MEP, GE, Praag and WINGS Vijverberg (2005) Literacy and Numeracy PRIDE, FINCA, X MRSP Work Experience JRFLRP, GNAG, Unger, Rauch, Frese MCSMP, ROT, and Rosenbusch X X MSMECP (2011) Interest and Intentions Oosterbeek, Van Praag and Ijsselstein (2010), Rauch and MEP, WEP, Frese (2007), MSETTP, EDC, Douglas and EMPRETEC, JA Bamkole X X BØDO, EOEAS, Sheperd (2002), MSETTP, EPAG Fran, Lueger and Korunka (2007), Krueger, Reilly and Carsrud (2000) Context Economic Bullough et al AAC, WEP, (2009), World NFTE, SAIE, Conditions NET Bank (2012a), Heim, Nelson X X INJAZ, MCSMP, Doing Business EOEAS, EPS Project (2012b) ROT, MSMECP, Bullough, Infrastructure Cassup X X MSETTP Kroeck, [113] Newburry, Lowe and Kundu (2009) Political Stability INJAZ X X JEA, JRFLP, Reynolds, Camp, NFTE, SAIE, Solomon, Nelson, Promotion Policy NET, SIYB, JA Bygrave, Autio X X MSETTP, NFTE, Brock and Hay (2002) END Cultural WEF (2009), Weber, von Enabling CREA Solomon, Brock X X Graevenitz and Harhoff (2009) WEP,. NRSP, Solomon, Brock, Constraining SAIE, NFTE, X X Bamkole, Nelson END, GE [114] ANNEX 5 ǀ PROGRAM NARRATIVES The program narratives presented in this Annex aim to give a sense of the variety of programs and audiences captured by EE and ET. These programs span the developed and developing world; reaching practicing and potential entrepreneurs as well as secondary and higher education students. The programs profiled come from the EE/ET database of over 80 programs. To be profiled, the programs needed to have sufficient information to capture a complete program landscape. In many cases, these profiles show the evolution of programs—some have expanded their scope; while others have narrowed it. These narratives are meant to provide a sampling of EE and ET—they highlight both good practices and areas that could be improved. Program representatives filled in any information gaps not covered in the program evaluations or online. These same representatives reviewed the final write-ups—which include a detailed look at the program format, target audience, local partnerships, teachers, contextual factors, and an overview of the program evaluation. [115] BizWorld | the Netherlands Program Overview BizWorld launched in the Netherlands in 2004. Who Participates Financed by a public-private partnership, the Primary school children, typically ages 11-12, program takes place in hundreds of Dutch participate throughout the Netherlands if their classrooms each year. Companies sponsor a class of school has opted to partner with BizWorld. students, typically ages 11 to 12, for the intensive four- day program. A businessperson from the How the Program Works sponsoring company co-teaches with the class’s regular instructor, leading students through a A business in the community volunteers to business development exercise. In 2013, BizWorld’s sponsor BizWorld in a classroom. Additionally, the Dutch program anticipates taking place in 450 sponsoring business has one of its employees 47 schools and reaching more than 11,000 students. serve as a co-instructor during the program. Over the course of the four-day classroom-based Started in the United States in the late 1990s, program—typically spanning two to four weeks— BizWorld is a global entrepreneurship education the instructor and business person lead the class program geared toward primary school students. of 25 students through an experiential learning Over 350,000 children from 84 countries have exercise. participated in the program to date. The instructors divide the class into teams of about Program Objectives five, and each child applies to become a key member of a start-up (e.g. CEO, finance director, The program focuses on developing entrepreneurial director of product design, etc.). In each class mindsets, including self-efficacy, leadership, and session, which runs for three hours, the students collaboration. work to create, design, market and ultimately sell Socio-emotional Skills  their product to buyers in the grade below. The Mindsets Entrepreneurial Willingness aim is to teach the students the basics of Entrepreneurship Theory   entrepreneurship, business, and finance. Management Skills  Capabilities Vocational Skills The instructor and visiting businessperson serve as Networking Skills   judges for the competition. The teams that have Firm Formation  the greatest revenue and perform best win a series Self-Employment Status Employability  of certificates (e.g. Best Revenue, Most Sustainable Income and Savings  Company, Best Company to Work For).  Network Formation  Profits and Sales  Job Creation Who Teaches the Program Market Expansion  Performance  Productivity  Typically, a few weeks before the program starts, Reinvestment  the primary school teachers who lead their Innovation  students in BizWorld must attend a two-hour 47 training program, where they also receive all the Current program information gathered from course materials—containing very detailed and discussions with BizWorld’s Catherine Markwell (CEO) strict guidelines about the course. For teachers and Pauline van Dulken (Commercial Director, Jong Ondernemen, BizWorld Licensee) [116] who want to preview the course content, the development; as compared to only 59 percent of BizWorld website provides instruction videos. other EU citizens. In addition to the primary school teachers, the A Look at the Program Evaluation Dutch BizWorld program also includes an entrepreneur to help lead the program and University of Amsterdam researchers evaluated provide real world examples to the students. BizWorld’s Dutch program using a randomized 49 BizWorld trains these business people in the field experiment to measure the direct (short- basics of their curriculum prior to the class. term) effects of early entrepreneurship education on the development of cognitive, non-cognitive Program Partnerships entrepreneurial skills, and entrepreneurial intentions using a randomized field experiment. The Dutch version of BizWorld is sponsored by The evaluation took place between February and companies. At this time, 35 small- and medium- July 2010, and over the same period in 2011. sized businesses as well as corporations pay 1,000 Euros each to sponsor at least one The sample consisted of 85 schools (that had classroom (some larger companies sponsor up signed up for the program and had consented to to 50 classes). The funding covers the cost of participating in the research; about 75 percent of the teacher training, and the company provides all schools that signed up in 2010 and 2011)-- a one of their businesspeople to serve as a co- total of 118 classes and 2,751 students in the last instructor. year of primary school. The response rate was 87.7 percent. Since the program was delivered at What is the Local Context the class level, the unit of analysis was the class level rather than the school. BizWorld classes take place in a wide variety of schools in the Netherlands. Some students have For both randomly assigned treatment and parents who are entrepreneurs; other students control groups, the study applied a pre- struggle with the language barrier of being new test/post-test design to allow an unbiased immigrants. Schools are in dense urban areas— difference-in-differences estimate of the non- where there’s a high likelihood students have treatment effect. The study collected data on (a) been predisposed to business and non-cognitive skills including: self-efficacy, need entrepreneurship—but there are also schools in for achievement, risk taking, social orientation, more rural areas, where these concepts are persistence, motivating, analyzing, proactivity, more foreign. BizWorld’s Netherlands office and creativity; (b) cognitive skills including notes that schools with high immigrant entrepreneurship knowledge; and (c) population perform well in design, production entrepreneurial intentions including children’s and sales; while schools with students who intentions to become an entrepreneur. come from high-income families are much more The treatment effect was positive and statistically interested in the stock exchange. significant for seven of the nine non-cognitive skills tested, namely self-efficacy (0.149***), need for achievement (0.166***), risk taking propensity Of particular note—the Netherlands has the most (0.114**), persistence (0.105**), analyzing entrepreneurs of any European Union country— (0.127***), creativity (0.096*), and proactivity 8.7 percent of the population owns a start-up; as 48 (0.144***). Analysis on the heterogeneity of compared with 6.6 percent of citizens in the EU. treatment effects showed that the treatment In a 2011 survey, over 80 percent of Dutch view effects remained or increased slightly when starting a business as a positive career 49 Rosendahl Huber, Laura, Sloof, Randolph and Van Praag, Mirjan, (2012), “The Effect of Early Entrepreneurship Education: 48 \http://www.ondernemerschap.nl/sys/cftags/assetnow/desig Evidence from a Randomized Field Experiment”, Discussion n/widgets/site/ctm_getFile.cfm?file=A201211.pdf&perId=0 Paper Series No. 6512, IZA. [117] controlling for individual, school and neighborhood characteristics, and year of data collection. Also, the size of treatment effects was substantial and comparable to being eligible to one track level in entering high school (i.e. form the baseline of pre-vocational to general secondary education). The estimated effect on cognitive entrepreneurial skills (entrepreneurship knowledge) was positive although not significant (0.015); and the estimated effect on entrepreneurial intentions (owning business) for children was negative and significant (-0.134***). The study acknowledged that the measures used for entrepreneurial intentions were not validated for children and could potentially alter the results. [118] Summary Program Details Program Name BizWorld Country The Netherlands Program Type Four-day experiential learning class at Dutch primary schools Primary school students throughout the Netherlands. The course will Target Audience serve over 11,000 Dutch students in 2013. Age 10-12 years Gender Equal mix To improve students’ collaboration, financial and leadership skills, Objective while exposing them to the basics of business In the Netherlands since 2004; originally started in the United States Program Maturity in the late 1990s Contact http://www.bizworld.org/programs/index.php Local businesses subsidize the cost of the program—1,000 Euros-- to each school by sponsoring a classroom and providing a Cost businessperson who serves as a volunteer instructor. This amount covers all classroom costs. Evaluation Rosendahl Huber, Laura, Sloof, Randolph and Van Praag, Mirjan, (2012), “The Effect of Early Entrepreneurship Education: Evidence Evaluator from a Randomized Field Experiment”, Discussion Paper Series No. 6512, IZA. Evaluation Randomized field experiment Methodology Evaluation Tier 1 [119] Network for Teaching Entrepreneurship (NFTE) | Boston chapter United States Program Overview Program Outcomes The Network for Teaching Entrepreneurship NFTE focuses on participants’ mindsets and (NFTE)50 program has operated in Boston since capabilities, ultimately aiming to help its 1991, now working with 18 public schools there. participants stay in school, recognize business NFTE targets high schools where at least half of the opportunities, and plan for future employment. student body is eligible for free or reduced-priced Socio-emotional Skills  lunch. Mindsets Entrepreneurial Willingness  Over a semester or year-long course, students Entrepreneurship Theory learn entrepreneurial skills that help them create a Management Skills   business plan. Each student’s business plan Capabilities Vocational Skills  ultimately competes in a school-wide competition, Networking Skills with the winners advancing to a regional NFTE- Firm Formation  wide competition and ultimately the National Self-Employment  Youth Entrepreneurship Challenge. Status Employability  Income and Savings  NFTE is a global program that started in New York  Network Formation  in 1987. It aims to help young people who are at Profits and Sales risk of dropping out of school. NFTE has reached  Job Creation over 500,000 students and trained 5,000 teachers Market Expansion  Performance  worldwide. In a handful of schools, students are Productivity required to take the NFTE course, but in most Reinvestment   schools—including Boston’s—students opt into the Innovation program. 51  Who Participates How the Program Works NFTE-certified teachers guide students for 70 NFTE runs programs in middle schools and high hours as part of a semester or year-long class. schools where at least 50 percent of students are The two possible courses are Entrepreneurship: low-income. The program is aimed at students who Owning Your Future and Exploring Careers for are at high risk of dropping out of school. Typically, the 21st Century. Subjects range from the there are an equal number of male and female concepts of competitive advantage to finance participants. and marketing. In a class of 20, students follow a curriculum that draws upon their math and literacy skills. During the course, each student comes up with an idea for a business and works throughout the semester or year to create a business plan. To 50 Originally, NFTE was the National Foundation for Teaching help with this process, business plan coaches visit Entrepreneurship. students and help them throughout the process. 51 Current NFTE information gathered from discussions with Ms. These mentors are volunteers from local Jennifer Green, New England Executive Director and Ms. Tracy Mehu-Hammonds, former NFTE Program Officer. [120] businesses, typically entrepreneurs or workers in Overwhelmingly, the students who matriculate the finance field. into NFTE courses are at a high risk of dropping As a capstone for the course, all students present out—sometimes due to poor grades, other times their business plan in front of a panel of judges. because of the need to provide for their families. The judges are volunteers who work in the local To provide context, in Boston—the largest city in business community. The top three students in Massachusetts—public high school graduation this competition then advance to a regional rates for 2011 were 65.9 percent; while the state- business plan competition, where they compete wide average was 84.7 percent. against other NFTE students. The winner of the A Look at the Program Evaluation regional competition then advances to the national competition. The top three national Researchers from Harvard University’s Graduate winners receive up to $25,000 and prizes School of Education did a multi-year analysis of 52 including two free round-trip plane tickets to NFTE’s Boston program in 2004 . The first phase anywhere in the world. surveyed students from two large public high schools in 2001/2002. The second phase expanded the universe of schools from two to six Who Teaches the Program public high schools to allow the analysis of NFTE certifies instructors who are already possible program impacts in a wider range of teaching in the schools where their program will learning contexts. The sample included a total of take place. Each teacher goes through a four-day 17 classrooms, 13 teachers and 268 students, out training at the beginning of the school year of which 158 students received the NFTE (called “NFTE University”). NFTE provides financial program (treatment) and 110 students were incentives to their certified instructors to selected for comparison classes (control). complete continuous professional development The evaluation studied the role of NFTE in programs throughout their time teaching the promoting the development of entrepreneurship, NFTE course. including entrepreneurship thinking and In addition to NFTE-certified instructors, mentors behavior. The study measured entrepreneurial help students create their business plans. The behavior (EB) using an entrepreneurial activities mentors come to class a few times throughout checklist (49 activities organized around different the year to guide their mentees. And in a handful domains and dimensions), locus of control, and of classes during the year, volunteer local applied new scales to measure healthy or business leaders serve as guest lecturers. positive development (using the values in action scale that gauge originality, curiosity, Program Partnerships industriousness and hopefulness). Babson College provides in-kind rent and Entrepreneurial behavior (EB) increased for NFTE support to NFTE’s Boston administrative staff. students compared to the control group. The EB score for NFTE students registered a significant NFTE offers companies the ability to give back increase of 7.5 percent (p<.01). The changes in through its Adopt-a-Class program. Hollister, the two groups were large and significant for the Inc., a Boston-based staffing business, adopts a starter dimension and business domain. In class each year. Its staff serve as mentors to the students. 52 Nakkula, Michael, Lutyens, Miranda, Pineda, Claudia, Dray, What is the Local Context Amy, Gaytan, Frank, and Huguley, Jay, (2004) “Initiating, Leading and Feeling in Control of One’s Fate: Findings from NFTE’s students come from trying economic the 2002-2003 Study of NFTE in Six Boston Public High Schools”, Harvard University, Recover from: situations—typically from households that fall http://www.nfte.com/sites/default/files/harvard- below the poverty line. Many students are the nfte_study_02-03_full_report_6-6-04.pdf first English speakers in their families. [121] contrast, the EB score for comparison students did not register significant changes, although in some domains the trend declined. Although the results for locus of control were not significant, the scores followed the hypothesized pattern. While NFTE students began with marginally lower locus of control scores than the comparison group, they increased their score by about 3 percent after the intervention, outscoring the control group. Similarly, immigrant students participating in the program improved in their locus of control by about 4.5 percent while the score of similar students in the comparison group declined by approximately 2.5 percent. Locus of control findings were strongest for students taught by one particular teacher in one of the schools with a strong track record of effective teaching (i.e. had received recognition). Results on students’ connectedness were generally negative; and results from the values in action scales (originality, curiosity, industriousness and hopefulness) were not found to be significant. Although not significant results, NFTE students scored marginally higher than the comparison group in the pretest, meanwhile the gap narrowed at posttest with the comparison group increasing their score and the NFTE students decreasing the score; Overall, NFTE students trained by top-notch teachers showed a higher degree of general student teacher connectedness, unlike the comparison group; and Similar to the findings from the first phase, relative to the comparison group, NFTE students expressed increasingly strong interest in occupations requiring advanced training or formal education, including college. [122] Summary Program Details Program Name Network for Teaching Entrepreneurship Country USA Semester- or year-long entrepreneurship education class in Program Type low-income high schools Target Audience Low-income high school students at high risk of dropping out Age 15-18 year olds Gender Equal mix To improve students’ interest in staying in school—with the Objective ultimate goal of gainful employment and potentially starting a business Program Maturity In the United States since 1987, in Boston since 1991 Contact http://www.nfte.com/ Evaluation Nakkula, Michael, Lutyens, Miranda, Pineda, Claudia, Dray, Amy, Gaytan, Frank, and Huguley, Jay, (2004) “Initiating, Leading and Feeling in Control of One’s Fate: Findings from the 2002-2003 Evaluator Study of NFTE in Six Boston Public High Schools”, Harvard University, Recover from: http://www.nfte.com/sites/default/files/harvard-nfte_study_02- 03_full_report_6-6-04.pdf Evaluation Quasi experimental design Methodology Evaluation Tier 2 [123] Bødo | Norway Program Overview Program Objectives Founded in 1985, the Bødo Graduate School of Bødo wants to prepare its graduates for gainful Business in Bødo, Norway, has had more than employment, whether self-employment or with a 3,000 students graduate from its master’s degree firm. As such, the program focuses on students’ in business program. As part of the master’s mindsets, capabilities, and status. program, about 20 percent of Bødo students Socio-emotional Skills major in entrepreneurship; others choose to Mindsets Entrepreneurial Willingness  major in subjects like finance, management, Entrepreneurship Theory  53 Management Skills  accounting and international business. Capabilities Vocational Skills Networking Skills  The entrepreneurship major is a combination of  Firm Formation  course work-- in topics like business formation and Self-Employment  strategy-- and thesis work on areas of Status Employability  entrepreneurship. The program aims to help Income and Savings  Network Formation  participants develop their entrepreneurial Profits and Sales  awareness and develop skills for creating a new Job Creation Performance Market Expansion   business when they graduate. Upon conclusion of Productivity the entrepreneurship component, students Reinvestment   graduate with a master’s in business, focusing on Innovation  entrepreneurship. Who Participates How the Program Works Bødo students spend their first three years The entrepreneurship major takes up the entire completing a bachelor’s degree. To become a final—fifth year—of master students’ course load. master’s student at Bødo, students undergo a Most students going into the major prepare for it screening process based on these first three years by taking electives in entrepreneurship in the year of grades. If admitted to the master’s program, prior (their fourth year). This typically includes they will spend two more years at Bødo business planning, project management and completing the degree. In their fourth year (and technology management. The business planning first year as a master’s student), Bødo students elective includes a one-week seminar where who have started their business master’s degree students work with real life entrepreneurs and select a major. For those who want to pursue develop business plans. entrepreneurship as a major, their fourth year At the start of their final year, Bødo grades determine their admittance. The majority of entrepreneurship students spend half their time students who apply for the entrepreneurship major in the classroom taking required classes in are admitted. entrepreneurship and innovation management as well as scientific method. As part of the entrepreneurship and innovation management course, students also create small enterprises in peer groups. Over the course of the year, they 53 Current program information drawn from discussions with plan, start, and ultimately end the business— Bodø Graduate School of Business’ Gry Agnete Alsos presenting on the enterprise as part of their final (Associate Professor, University of Nordland). [124] th exams. However Norway ranks 10 among OECD In conjunction with these courses, students also countries in administrative burdens in starting a 54 work on their entrepreneurship thesis. The thesis business—behind all Nordic countries. involves a theoretical and empirical study of a topic in entrepreneurship and innovation A Look at the Program Evaluation management. In 1995, researchers from Bødo and Norway’s Who Teaches the Program Technical University did a tracer survey, sending surveys to entrepreneurship program participants Bødo School of Business professors teach from 1987 to 1994.55 The evaluation focused on entrepreneurship courses, in addition to classes in measuring entrepreneurial behavior and other areas of the school (e.g. undergraduate entrepreneurial intention among business school electives in entrepreneurship or strategy). graduates. A total of 720 questionnaires were mailed while 374 were received. The final sample Program Partnerships was found to be representative of the alumni. Local partners include Innovation Norway, Entrepreneurship was found to be a function of Nordland County Council, SIVA, Kunnskapsparken factors that can be altered through education. Bodø, and Kunnskapsfondet, funding workshop Further, the study found that having a major in seminars and experiential activities like providing entrepreneurship was positively associated with housing during students’ five-day business plan new firm formation (a major in entrepreneurship development seminar. Specifically, Sweden’s was the only variable that was significantly related development agency, SIVA, and the Research to new firm formation r = 0.20 p<.0.001); and Council of Norway fund research on new having a major in entrepreneurship was positively technology-based firms in which Bødo students associated with entrepreneurial intentions (r= are involved, and some students write their 0.26 p<.0.001). master’s theses about this research. What is the Local Context For students to even apply to the . entrepreneurship program, they have to have been admitted to Bødo as undergraduates. And to be admitted to the entrepreneurship master’s major, they must have sufficient grades. Given this, the pool of admitted students tends to be at the top of their university. More broadly, because of Norway’s strong social programs—universal health care, education, and readily available welfare—entrepreneurs take on less of a risk when starting their own businesses. Entrepreneurship is increasingly embraced in the th th country—rising from 20 to 6 place among OECD countries among positive national attitudes 54 toward entrepreneurs. Norway has the highest The Nordic Institute for Studies in Innovation, Research and Education’s Nordic Growth Entrepreneurship Review proportion of startups among all Nordic 2012 http://www.nordicinnovation.org/Global/_Publications/R countries; additionally bankruptcy laws are ranked eports/2013/NGER_2012_noApp.pdf among the best in the region for entrepreneurs, 55 Kolvereid, Lars and Moen, Oystein, (1997), reducing the cost of failed businesses. Among “Entrepreneurship among Business Graduates: Does a Major in Entrepreneurship Make a Difference?”, Journal of European OECD nations, Norway is a top provider of loans. Industrial Training, Vol. 21 Issue 4, pp. 154-160. [125] Summary Program Details Program Name Bødo Graduate School of Business, Entrepreneurship Program Country Norway A major for master’s business school students involving one year of studies and Program Type thesis writing Target Audience Master’s year students entering their fifth year Age 20-24 years Gender Equal mix Cost Education is free for students in Norway To improve students’ entrepreneurial awareness and prepare them for starting Objective businesses or joining firms upon graduation Implementing Bødo Graduate School of Business Agency Program 1985 Maturity http://www.uin.no/english/aboutus/faculties/hhb/studyprogrammes/Pages/default. Contact aspx Evaluation Details Kolvereid, Lars and Moen, Oystein, (1997), “Entrepreneurship among Business Evaluator Graduates: Does a Major in Entrepreneurship Make a Difference?”, Journal of European Industrial Training, Vol. 21 Issue 4, pp. 154-160. Evaluation Tracer survey Methodology Evaluation Tier 2 [126] Business Plan Thesis Competition ǀ Tunisia Program Overview Introduced by Tunisia’s government in the 2009-10 requirement being that a student be enrolled in a school year, the Business Plan Thesis Competition is participating university. intended for undergraduate, engineering, graduate and masters students. The government created the Program Objectives program in the country’s 12 public universities-- The program places a strong focus on status, about 700 students matriculate each year--to specifically on a student’s potential to become encourage better employment rates among college self-employed or to find gainful, sustainable graduates. Students can choose to take this employment upon graduating. program and write a business plan to graduate Socio-emotional Skills  instead of the traditional thesis that most Tunisian 56 Mindsets Entrepreneurial Willingness  undergraduates must complete. Entrepreneurship Theory The program is two-part. First, students are trained Management Skills   in basic entrepreneurship skills around business Capabilities Vocational Skills creation. Then, with the help of business mentors Networking Skills   and under the supervision of professors, students Firm Formation Self-Employment  create business plans. These plans ultimately  Status Employability compete for seed funding in a program-wide  Income and Savings  competition. While students don’t receive a degree Network Formation  from the program itself, they are found to be more Profits and Sales knowledgeable about business creation and better  Job Creation networked in the business community. Market Expansion  Performance  Productivity  Who Participates Reinvestment  Innovation The program is aimed at Tunisia’s undergraduate  students, as well as masters and engineering students. The program tends to enroll two-thirds How the Program Works women, which correlates to the demographics of the country’s universities. The program has two parts. First, students complete a 20-day entrepreneurship course. Run The typical enrollee is about 23 years old, single, has by the public employment office, this course taken a previous entrepreneurship course and has a zeroes in on developing business ideas, writing a strong grasp of English. Typically, students come business plan, and managing a project—the skills from middle- to low-income families, and over half necessary to successfully create a business. have a father with at least a high school education. Students create an initial draft of a business plan Students apply to the program and are randomly with this information, which is then reviewed by admitted—there is no screening process, the only bankers and experts. After receiving this feedback, students research implementation, estimate financials and begin building their networks. 56 Information about the program drawn from discussions with Stefanie Brodmann (Economist, World Bank). [127] The second part of the program is more Nationally, there is a lack of access to credit—a personalized. Each student is assigned a coach major hindrance for new graduates. Private with an entrepreneurial background—with whom lending institutions require up to a 20 percent they meet at least eight times—who advises on deposit, a prohibitive amount for recent 57 finalizing their business plans. The plans include a graduates . detailed description of the enterprise, a plan for purchasing necessary inputs, and financial A Look at the Program Evaluation projections for financial viability. The impact evaluation used a randomized Upon graduating, students can enter their assignment among applicants to the finalized business plan into a competition for seed entrepreneurship track to estimate the causal funding. An external regional jury of professors, impact of the program. For the academic year of employment agency staff, and bankers ranks the 2009/10, 1,702 students (about 9 percent of all plans, with top participants advancing to a eligible students nationwide) participated in the national competition where staff from federal entrepreneurship track--some students applied government agencies declare a winner. The top in pairs so a total of 1,506 projects were 50 participants receive prize money to go toward registered. The evaluation assigned 757 projects setting up their enterprises. to the treatment group and 742 to the control group. Information was collected at the Who Teaches the Program beginning of the five-month program (February 2009) and nine to twelve months after Instructors from the Tunisian employment agency graduation from the program (April-June 2011). (ANETI) provide the entrepreneurship training for Information collected included indicators on the first part of the program, where participants socio-economic characteristics, labor, aspirations learn the basics of business creation. for the future, personality traits and behavioral In the second part of the program, experienced skills related to entrepreneurship. entrepreneurs serve as coaches, and university Approximately one year after graduation, professors oversee students’ progress in creating graduates of the entrepreneurship track had a business plans. higher probability of being self-employed. Although the effects were small in absolute terms Program Partnerships (ranging from 1 to 4 percentage points), given The Tunisian employment agency (ANETI) runs the the low prevalence of self-employment in the training program. control group, the small absolute effects imply that beneficiaries were on average 46 to 87 The World Bank has been assessing the efficacy of percent more likely to be self-employed the program and working with ANETI to address compared to the control group. the constraints program participants face in the post-graduation period. There was no evidence that the program significantly affected overall employment as What is the Local Context captured by the likelihood of being employed in the last seven days. In fact, estimates were Students choose to apply for the program. Those negative and pointed to a reduction in the who enter the program with a business idea are probability of holding wage employment; and more likely to complete the program. Those who although not significant, the decrease was of the drop out of the program are more likely to be same magnitude as the increase in self- male or students already enrolled in business- employment, suggesting the possibility of related programs, perhaps feeling that the entrepreneurship program is redundant to their 57 http://www.tunisia-live.net/2012/01/16/tunisian- current studies. entrepreneurism-and-innovation-the-road- ahead/#sthash.VcNzY1nd.dpuf [128] substitution effect from wage employment to self-employment. The program did not promote higher quality jobs among participants. There were no significant program impacts on employment in the formal sector, firm size, hours of work, or earnings. But the intervention produced strong impacts on participants’ self-reported business skills and networking proxies. About 77 percent of program graduates reported knowing how to produce a business plan, compared to 45 percent in the control group. The program led to measurable, significant and robust changes in several domains of the Big Five, including a decrease in agreeableness (0.23- 0.25 sd compared to control group) and an increase in extraversion (albeit a less robust finding compared to the previous trait). There was no evidence to indicate that the entrepreneurship training positively affected conscientiousness and emotional stability, and other entrepreneurial traits such as tenacity or power motivation remained unchanged. Participants were found to be more likely to be confident in obtaining credit and to have applied for credit (conditional on having a business idea), but they were neither more likely to know how to apply for credit nor to have obtained credit. . [129] Summary Program Details Program Name Business Plan Thesis Competition Country Tunisia Higher educational entrepreneurship program with strong focus on Program Type business plan creation Target Audience Undergraduate and master’s graduate students Age 20-25 years old Gender Two-thirds female Increase self-employment among graduates by improving skills and Objective affecting attitudes toward entrepreneurship Ministry of Vocational Education and Employment, the Ministry of Implementing Agency Industry, the Ministry of Higher Education and ANETI, the public employment office Program maturity Started in Tunisia in 2009 Contact http://www.cnentrepreunariat.mes.rnu.tn/historique.php Evaluation Details Premand, Patric, Brodmann, Stefanie, Almeida, Rita, Grun, Rebekka, Barouni, Mahdi, (2012), “Entrepreneurship Training and Self- Evaluator Employment among University Graduates: Evidence from a Randomized Trial in Tunisia, Policy Research Working Paper No. 6285, World Bank. Evaluation Methodology Impact evaluation using a randomized assignment Evaluation Tier 1 [130] McGuire Center for Entrepreneurship at the University of Arizona | United States Program Overview completing graduate programs at the University Started in 1983, the McGuire Entrepreneurship of Arizona (e.g. business degrees; masters in Program is one of the oldest entrepreneurship engineering studies). The student body is one- programs in the United States. Based at the quarter women. University of Arizona’s Eller College of Management, this local program attracts top tier Students who are admitted have a strong undergraduate and graduate students from the academic background with a clear interest in University of Arizona. Undergraduate business entrepreneurship and a commitment to students obtain a second major in collaborative learning settings. entrepreneurship, MBA students complete a concentration in entrepreneurship, and doctoral Program Outcomes students from around the university complete a doctoral minor in entrepreneurship. For non- The McGuire Entrepreneurship Program aims to business undergraduate and graduate students prepare students to successfully apply the program does not award a degree, but entrepreneurial principles whether they start their completing the course is a prestigious distinction own business or go to work in a corporation. and provides a strong link to the Specifically, the program focuses on students’ 58 entrepreneurship community. capabilities and status. All participants have completed at least some Socio-emotional Skills Mindsets Entrepreneurial Willingness college and have varying degrees of business  Entrepreneurship Theory experience. They spend their year at the McGuire  Management Skills  Program studying marketing and finance, as well Capabilities Vocational Skills as venture development. These face-to-face  classes complement the students’ year-long focus Networking Skills Firm Formation  on creating a new venture that will ultimately  compete with other students’ plans for awards Self-Employment  Status Employability totaling $10,000.  Income and Savings  Network Formation  Who Participates Profits and Sales Job Creation  Applicants from across the University of Market Expansion  Performance  Arizona—undergraduate and graduate students Productivity alike—along with aspiring entrepreneurs can Reinvestment   apply to be students. About 80 students Innovation  matriculate each year; 65 percent are undergraduate students who are majoring in How the Program Works business, and the other 35 percent are Each school year, approximately 80 students begin McGuire’s year-long entrepreneurship program. The students are high achieving 20-30-year-olds, 58 Current program information gathered from discussions with Ms. Patty Sias, McGuire Entrepreneurship Program who are either undergraduate or graduate Director. [131] students at the University of Arizona and have To date, the McGuire Program has produced demonstrated strong academic credentials and an nearly 200 businesses. interest in enterprise. The core curriculum is very clearly defined, and students are forever part of an Students who complete the McGuire Program alumni network of entrepreneurs who also receive a certificate of completion and credits completed the McGuire program. that can be applied toward their degree. Within the first weeks of the program, the Who Teaches the Program students form teams of 3-4 students, and each Finance and marketing courses are taught by team starts formulating a new venture. business school professors and adjunct faculty. Throughout the school year, their classes will help The year-long venture development course, inform the elements of this venture—a marketing though, is team-taught by the two mentors-in- class, a venture finance course, and venture residence. Along with teaching, the mentors meet development classes. Classes meet twice a week with each team of students at least once per in the fall and once a week in the spring week to review the progress of their new semester. ventures. These are real-world entrepreneurs who found success in their own right and are now full- Students are taught by Eller business school time McGuire Program faculty who teach and professors and the McGuire program’s two mentor students. mentors-in-residence, successful business professionals who spend the year shepherding A communications mentor is available much of students through the program. Each team is also the year to advise students on the written part of assigned one of these two mentors, with whom their business plans and their presentation style. they check in each week to discuss the status of Occasionally, guest lecturers and domain experts their venture. Additionally, each team is provided present to classes. legal counsel by a team of University of Arizona students who are studying entrepreneurship law. Program Partnerships Throughout the year, teams compete for Heart A local angel investment group, the Desert Experiential Grants that assist with venture Angels, serves as a mentoring partner. Their testing. Students also compete for McGuire members occasionally guest lecture, participate in Program funding to compete in regional and angel mentoring workshops each semester, and national business plan competitions. are available to provide feedback to any McGuire Program teams as they develop their new To ensure students have learned from their time ventures. at the McGuire Program, they are put through an academic review in the spring. Each team of Additionally, the McGuire Program has a students must present its business plan and field partnership with the entrepreneurship class at the questions from a panel of entrepreneurship University of Arizona’s law school. Law students professors from outside universities. The aim of serve as legal advisers to each team of McGuire this interaction is to ensure that students Program students, providing legal advice on their understand the material they have spent the past venture plans. several months studying. At the end of the school year, each team of What is the Local Context students competes in an internal new venture Self-selected students who apply for and are competition where they defend their plans. A accepted to the McGuire Program are highly panel of business professionals and motivated and well-educated. To be eligible for entrepreneurs judges the students, and selects the program, students must be enrolled in or first, second, and third place winners. Typically, six have completed a college degree. Students who or seven teams launch their ventures each year. [132] are selected tend to be at the top of their non-entrepreneurship business graduates and classes—representing an upper echelon of U.S. 105 for the entrepreneurship graduates. college-educated students. Doctoral students who apply for a minor in the program are Response rates were generally uniform across interviewed; other applicants are not. levels of degrees and types of programs, however, it should be noted the response rate The McGuire Program is housed within the was extremely low at 21 percent. University of Arizona’s Eller College of Management. All classrooms are well-equipped Entrepreneurship education increased the for learning—this is a technologically advanced probability of an individual being involved in a campus where students can do online research new business venture by 25 percent over non- anywhere and use a variety of libraries. Students entrepreneurship graduates. Entrepreneurship can safely traverse the campus, and have the students were 11 percent more likely than non- option to live at the university or in nearby entrepreneurship students to own their own housing. businesses after graduation. Further, entrepreneurship education contributed to the Entrepreneurs magazine ranked Arizona in the growth of firms, especially smaller emerging top 10 of U.S. states for starting a business, firms. On average, smaller emerging firms that noting the state’s large awards and tax credits for were owned by or employed entrepreneurship starting businesses. graduates had greater than five times the sales and employment growth than those that A Look at the Program Evaluation employed non-entrepreneurship graduates. Researchers from the University of Arizona, Entrepreneurship graduates received an average financed by the Kauffman Center for annual income that was 27 percent higher Entrepreneurial Leadership, analyzed the McGuire compared to the average annual income of non- Program’s impact on both the University of entrepreneurship graduates. And Arizona and on the program graduates’ entrepreneurship education increased a business 59 aspirations in a 2000 publication . A tracer survey school graduate’s probability of being associated was developed to achieve this. with a high-tech firm by nearly 13 percent and of developing new technological products by almost The evaluation studied the trajectories of 9 percent. business entrepreneurship and non-business entrepreneurship cohorts from 1985 to 1998. The Entrepreneurship education enhanced the evaluation assessed the formation of new transfer of technology from the University to the ventures, likelihood of self-employment, sales private sector, and promoted technology based growth rate of emerging firms, accumulation of firms and products. Among self-employed graduates’ assets, and technology transfer from entrepreneurship graduates, nearly 23 percent the University to the private sector. A total of owned a high-technology firm, compared to less 2,024 surveys were mailed to graduates from the than 15 percent of non-entrepreneurship non-entrepreneurship business school graduates graduates who owned a firm. and 460 entrepreneurship graduates, all of whom had graduated from the university between 1985 and 1998. The final response rate was 511 for the 59 Charney, Alberta and Libecap, Gary D., (2000) “Impact of Entrepreneurship Education”, Insights: Kauffman Research Series, Recover from: http://entrepreneurship.eller.arizona.edu/Docs/Evaluation/Im pactevaluation_Entrepreneurshipprogram_UA.Pdf [133] Summary Program Details Program McGuire Center for Entrepreneurship Program Name Country USA (at the University of Arizona) Program Year-long entrepreneurship program at the University of Arizona’s Eller College of Type Management Target University and graduate students Audience Age 20-35 year olds Gender 75 percent male To improve students’ entrepreneurial thinking and skills—preparing them for self- Objective employment or to join a firm Program Started in 1983 Maturity http://mcguireexperience.com/ Contact Depending on the track of courses taken, and whether students are from Arizona, Cost tuition rates range from $5,200-$15,825. Costs to the McGuire Center to deliver the program are approximately $900,000 annually. Evaluation Charney, Alberta and Libecap, Gary D., (2000) “Impact of Entrepreneurship Education”, Insights: Kauffman Research Series, Recover from: Evaluator http://entrepreneurship.eller.arizona.edu/Docs/Evaluation/Impactevaluation_Entreprene urshipprogram_UA.Pdf Evaluation 2 tier Evaluation Methodolog Tracer survey y [134] Entrepreneurship Development Centre | Bosnia- Herzegovina Program Overview Who Participates The Entrepreneurship Development Centre (EDC) The typical participant was 18-35 years old ran a comprehensive business training program for and a resident of Tuzla. He or she either existing and potential entrepreneurs who had owned a business or was trying to start one loans at Partner Microcredit Foundation in 2009. with a Partner Microcredit loan. Potential Participants were young adults in Bosnia- participants were called to see if they were Herzegovina who had small businesses or who interested in taking part in the training. 60 were developing a new enterprise. EDC developed a curriculum around the basics of How the Program Works running a business and required participants to EDC ran its entrepreneurship training in seven complete a strategic plan. More than 100 people locations around Tuzla in 2009. EDC participated in the nine-hour training program consultants, including professors from the over three days, which culminated with a University of Tuzla, served as instructors. Class certificate. size was between six and ten participants. Program Objectives The training took place over three days, with three-hour intensive meetings each day. EDC focused on participants’ status—how they Participants learned the basics of running a could effectively use the capital from their loans to small business—accounting, investment, and form or expand a promising business, with a growth strategies. During the course, each particular focus on management skills, profit and participant developed a business plan. If sales, market expansion, and productivity. participants completed the business plan and Socio-emotional Skills abided by the mandatory attendance rule, Mindsets Entrepreneurial Willingness Entrepreneurship Theory  they received a certificate of completion. Management Skills   Capabilities Vocational Skills Who Teaches the Program Networking Skills  Firm Formation   EDC trainers and consultants served as Status Self-Employment  instructors. They came from a variety of Employability Income and Savings  backgrounds—accounting, marketing and  Network Formation  business—and some were professors from the Profits and Sales  University of Tuzla. EDC gave instructors a Job Creation Market Expansion  curriculum to follow. Performance  Productivity  Reinvestment Program Partnerships Innovation   The EDC trainings were held at seven different locations, including the Tuzla Chamber of Commerce, in order to limit travelling for the project beneficiaries. 60 Current program information gathered from discussions with Entrepreneurship Development Centre’s Selma Cilimkovic (Market Research Officer, Partner Microcredit Foundation). [135] performance, business growth, business practices What is the Local Context and investments, and loan behavior. Participants had varying degrees of business The training program did not influence the knowledge. Many already owned small business survival. Training did improve the businesses, and others were new to business practices, investments and loan terms entrepreneurship. for businesses, as well as improving business and Bosnia-Herzegovina has high youth financial knowledge on average (after the 61 unemployment—61 percent. Further, the training, the total score of the exit test had economy is post-conflict and is still struggling. increased from a baseline of 2.6 to 2.9). At The country has a difficult climate for new or follow‐ up, the average treatment effect of the developing businesses. The IFC ranks Bosnia- training on business and financial knowledge was Herzegovina the lowest in Eastern Europe for positive, but not statistically significant. small and medium-sized enterprises per capita The strongest effects of the training were on and the World Bank ranks the country 110th for improvements in business practices and doing business. investments: the treatment group was 17 percent more likely to implement new production A Look at the Program Evaluation processes than the control group, and 11 percent The evaluation aimed to study the impact of a more likely to inject new investment into the comprehensive business and financial literacy business. program on firm outcomes, specifically among The training also increased business profits for young entrepreneurs in emerging post-conflict entrepreneurs with above median financial economy. A randomized control trial took place literacy at baseline by 54 percent, although the in 200962, using a sample size of 445 active results were not statistically significant at business loan clients—all between 18 to 35 years conventional levels. old-- who were interested in the training at the initial phone screening. No impact was found on loan amounts, but there were significant impacts on loan restructuring. The evaluation design suffered some changes The treatment group was 3.4 percent more likely over time, and by the end, the treatment group than the control group to refinance its loans. This was composed of 117 individuals (39 percent of effect was large, indicating that the treatment the individuals who were invited to the training) almost doubled the likelihood of refinancing and 148 in the control group. loans. A baseline survey was conducted in April and May 2009, and the implementation of the business training was carried out between June and December 2009. An exit test was administered at the end of the training to all participants. Finally, a follow‐ up survey was conducted in May and June 2010, one year after the baseline survey. Outcomes were based on business creation and survival, business 61 KILM, Key Indicators Labour Market Youth, Beta version 2008. 62 Bruhn, Miriam and Zia, Bilal, (2011) “Stimulating Managerial Capital in Emerging Markets: The Impact of Business and Financial Literacy for Young Entrepreneurs”, Policy Research Working Paper No. 5642, World Bank. [136] Summary Program Details Program Name Entrepreneurship Development Centre Country Bosnia-Herzegovina Program Type Entrepreneurial training program for young adults Potential and practicing entrepreneurs, many of whom were exiting Target Audience loan clients of MCF Partner Age 18-35 years Gender One-third women To help participants create an effective business plan for Objective implementation after receipt of loan The World Bank, Kaufman Foundation and Partner Microcredit Foundation provided financing. It was free for beneficiaries, who Cost and Financing were also provided a stipend of US$35 for the cost of their time and received transportation to and from the program location. Implementing Agency Partner Microcredit Foundation Program Maturity Two-month program run in 2009 Contact office@cerpod-tuzla.org Evaluation Details Bruhn, Miriam and Zia, Bilal, (2011) “Stimulating Managerial Capital in Emerging Markets: The Impact of Business and Financial Literacy Evaluator for Young Entrepreneurs”, Policy Research Working Paper No. 5642, World Bank. Evaluation Methodology Randomized control trial Evaluation Tier 1 [137] Economic Empowerment of Adolescent Girls and Young Women (EPAG) | Liberia Program Overview Program Objectives Led by the Liberian Ministry of Gender and The program focuses on participants’ mindsets, Development, the Economic Empowerment of capabilities and status—the program wants more Adolescent Girls and Young Women (EPAG) young women who are employable and/or focuses on improving young women’s prepared to open their own businesses. employment opportunities. Over six month of Socio-emotional Skills  classroom training and a subsequent six months Mindsets Entrepreneurial Willingness  of placement and support, participants receive life Entrepreneurship Theory skills training, as well as learn business Management Skills  63  development or job skills. Capabilities Vocational Skills  EPAG started in December 2009, and has trained Networking Skills  2,500 women—with 1,000 more anticipated in the Firm Formation  summer of 2013. EPAG’s first two years were Self-Employment  financed by the Nike Foundation and the Danish Status Employability  International Development Agency; and its Income and Savings  incoming group of trainees will be supported by Network Formation  the World Bank’s Umbrella Facility for Gender Profits and Sales Empowerment. Job Creation  Market Expansion  Performance  Who Participates Productivity  Reinvestment  Selection criteria for EPAG participants are that Innovation  women be:  Aged 16-27; How the Program Works  Not in school the past six months (this requirement has since become more flexible if The program is structured to ensure seamless potential participants have returned to school); transition from training to job placement. The  Have basic literacy; and training takes places over six months, and includes  Live in one of the eleven EPAG communities. a classroom component of life skills training (The first years of EPAG included nine followed by segmentation of the class into training communities around Monrovia and Kakata in business development skills (70 percent of City. In 2013, trainings will also take place in participants) and job/entrepreneurial skills (30 Grand Bassa County.) percent of participants). Those receiving job skills training have their curriculum specifically tailored to In its current form, prospective participants apply sectors that are hiring. Throughout the training, for the program and, if they meet the criteria, are participants receive stipends, contingent upon their placed in a training session. attendance. Upon completion of the classroom component, 63 Information about the current program drawn from trainees receive six months of job and internship discussions with Sarah Elizabeth Haddock (Knowledge placement assistance as well as micro-enterprise Management Officer, World Bank) and Peter Darvas (Senior Education Economist, World Bank). advice. Further, participants receive a bonus of $20 [138] if they’ve completed the training, which goes young women have a 57 percent literacy rate; towards opening a savings account. Each classroom compared to 65 percent among Liberian men. has an instructor as well as an EPAG coach, a local Further, gender based vulnerabilities are prevalent businesswoman who volunteered to mentor throughout Liberia. Schools are often unsafe for students. Additionally, EPAG participants form peer young women. Almost one-third of 15- to 24-year groups to mentor each other throughout the year. old women have reported physical violence, and rape is the most documented crime in Liberia. To accommodate participants’ outside jobs and family demands, classroom sessions are held in the A Look at the Program Evaluation morning and afternoon, with free childcare on site. Throughout the six-month training, there are a A World Bank study used a randomized pipeline series of incentives to ensure attendance—prizes, research design to assess EPAG, randomly assigning business plan competitions, contests, etc. beneficiaries to receive training in either the first round (March 2010-February 2011) or the second Who Teaches the Course round (July 2011 to June 2012). Four NGO service providers provided the instructors for the trainings and helped lead the job Approximately 2,500 young women were accepted placement among participants. The instructors had to participate in the program. The evaluation extensive training in this kind of teaching, and their randomized participants into a control group as pay was withheld until they placed their participants well as a treatment group which included two types in jobs. of treatments (a) training package on business Program Partnerships development and life skills or (b) training package on job, entrepreneurship and life skills. The service providers had strong ties to the private sector to ensure job placement of participants. Further, in the most recent iterations of the Impact was defined as the change in outcomes program, the coach in each class is a practicing between the time the program started and six businesswoman in the community. months after the classroom training ended, as compared to a statistically similar control group What is the Local Context (the second round trainees). The evaluation measured the impacts of the skills packages on In Liberia, EPAG decided that literacy would be a employment, behaviors, empowerment and agency, requirement for selection because international and family welfare. experience suggests that youth training programs are generally more effective for beneficiaries with The study revealed that the program was well some basic literacy skills. However, the girls who received-- the retention rate was 95 percent and were interested in the program were mostly attendance averaged 90 percent. Further, EPAG illiterate. As a result, the project piloted a literacy increased employment among trainees by 50 and numeracy component in the second round of percent, compared to those in the control group. training. Positive employment outcomes were driven th In 2010, Liberia ranked 11 out of 47 countries in primarily by the business development skills the corruption index; the country is also hindered trainees, whose monthly income increased by US$ by poor infrastructure and expensive elective 75 per month. Additionally, EPAG increased the power. Liberia ranked 151 out of 183 in the World girls' savings compared to the control group. At Bank’s 2012 Doing Business report. midline, the treatment group had a total of US$ 44 more in savings compared to the control group. Liberia’s difficult job market is especially prohibitive However there were no significant changes to for women. Society prioritizes young men’s borrowing or lending among beneficiaries. education over women’s, meaning women are more likely to be illiterate. According to the UNESCO, [139] Summary Program Details Economic Empowerment of Adolescent Girls and Young Program Name Women Country Liberia Six month course that included business or entrepreneurial skills Program Type training in a classroom, microenterprise counseling and job placement services Young Liberian women who aren’t in school and live in Monrovia, Target Audience Kakata City or Grand Bassa County Age 16 to 27 year olds Gender All women To improve participants’ employability by sharpening business Objective and/or entrepreneurial skills The program cost between $1,220 and $1700 per participant, Cost and financing depending on their track Implementing Agency Liberian Ministry of Gender and Development Program maturity In Liberia since 2009 Contact www.worldbank.org/gender/agi Evaluation details World Bank, (2012) “Can Skills Training Programs Increase Evaluator Employment for Young Women? The Case of Liberia”, Adolescent Girls Initiative, Results Series Evaluation Methodology Randomized pipeline research design Evaluation Tier 1 [140] TechnoServe ǀ El Salvador Program Overview In 2002, TechnoServe started to do work in El $20,000 in assets. Participants were from across Salvador, creating a business plan competition to the country, including San Salvador, Santa Ana, promote entrepreneurship. Existing entrepreneurs Sonsonate, Cabanas and Libertad. who wanted to grow their businesses and potential entrepreneurs who wanted to create Program Objectives new businesses entered a 40- hour training course to learn the basics of creating a business The program focuses on taking small businesses plan. Upon completion of the course, the to the next level—specifically zeroing in on participants entered a business plan competition, participants’ performance. with the potential to win seed funding. Originally, 296 participants took the course, with 114 Socio-emotional Skills completing a business plan. Mindsets Entrepreneurial Willingness Entrepreneurship Theory  Soon, TechnoServe will be launching a revised  Management Skills version of its entrepreneurship training program  Capabilities Vocational Skills in El Salvador, training existing entrepreneurs in Networking Skills  writing business plans and ultimately assigning  them business advisers to help in the Firm Formation implementation of the plan. Self-Employment  Status Employability  Started in 1968, TechnoServe is a global NGO Income and Savings  that aims to promote private enterprise in areas  with rural poverty. Its business plan competition Network Formation  component spread from El Salvador throughout Profits and Sales  Central America and into Africa. In addition to Job Creation business plan competitions, TechnoServe has a Market Expansion  Performance  series of tailored entrepreneurship training Productivity  programs for developing countries around the 64 Reinvestment  world. Innovation  Who Participates In its original business plan program in El How the Program Works Salvador, potential participants applied to the Over six months, participants completed a 40- program and were selected if they exhibited the hour training over seven days in how to create a potential of growing their business through the business plan. The training focused on program. The basic requirements were that developing both technical business skills and core participants had to own a small business—with entrepreneurial behaviors. During this time, they no more than five employees—and have less than worked to create their own plan—a 30-40 page document. Each class’s business plans were 64 Information about current and past TechnoServe programs judged, one against the other, and the top 30 in El Salvador provided from interviews with TechnoServe’s scoring plans proceeded into a third phase of the Andrew Eder (marketing and communications officer) and program. Oscar Artiga (Central American regional director). [141] In the program’s final phase, participants received A Look at the Program Evaluation one-on-one assistance from volunteer consultants, who helped them refine their Researchers looked at results of past business plans. This last phase concluded with competitions in Latin America between 2002 and 66 another business plan competition, this time 2005. The evaluation assessed whether business segmented by sector, with the top-placing training for SME entrepreneurs or potential participants receiving between $6,000 and entrepreneurs could lead to an increase in the $15,000 to go toward the implementation of their number of business start-ups or an expansion in businesses. the size of existing businesses. The methodology exploited a quasi-experimental approach (regression discontinuity) where the number of Who Teaches the Program participants was fixed exogenously and provided a cut-off in the scoring of applications. The TechnoServe typically chooses instructors—whom sample size was 655 applications in the three they call “business advisors”-- with strong countries, where 377 received at least some backgrounds in education and business. Business training, and 278 were rejected applicants who advisors are typically from the region and have did not receive any training. The outcomes been trained by TechnoServe in the curriculum. measured were related to starting or expanding Program Partnerships businesses. In the original version of the El Salvador program, The evidence suggested that receiving business TechnoServe partnered with the United Nations training significantly increased the probability of Council on Trade and Development’s Empretec to business start-ups and expanded existing implement the curriculum. business. TechnoServe led to an effect of a higher probability-- 9 to 11 percentage points-- of opening a business (for individuals without a What is the Local Context business before the start of the program) in the In its initial format, participants chose to apply, treatment group and a 23 to 26 percentage point and needed to match criteria that indicated a higher probability of expanding a business (for likelihood of being able to expand an existing individuals with an existing business before the business (or create a new one). This self-selection program) in the treatment group. indicated a more ambitious baseline among Winning TechnoServe’s business plan participants. competition led to economically significant TechnoServe programs take place in rural, changes in the probability of starting or poverty-ridden areas. This makes the formation expanding a business, suggesting the presence of and sustainment of new businesses difficult. El financial constraints. Of note-- financial Salvador in particular is a difficult economic constraints were more important for women who climate for entrepreneurs—crime is high in the wished to start or expand a business than for region, adversely affecting businesses. World men.. Bank data indicates that losses from theft, robbery, vandalism, or arson represent 2.6 percent of company sales in El Salvador, the highest rate in Latin America and the 10th highest 65 in the world. 66 Klinger, Bailey and Schündeln, Matthias, (2007) “Can 65 World Bank’s 2013 Doing Business in El Salvador Entrepreneurial Activity be Taught? Quasi-Experimental http://www.doingbusiness.org/data/exploreeconomies/el- Evidence from Central America”, CID Working Paper No. 153, salvador/ Harvard University. [142] Summary Program Details Program Name TechnoServe Country El Salvador Week-long training session for potential and practicing Program Type entrepreneurs, followed by a business plan competition Target Audience Potential and practicing entrepreneurs Age All ages Gender More males To improve participants’ business skills and core entrepreneurial Objective competencies so they can grow their businesses Participants paid an application fee of $15. The implementation cost Cost and Financing to run the initial program was $343,420. Implementing Agency TechnoServe In El Salvador in 2002; subsequent program anticipated to begin in Program maturity late 2013 Contact http://www.technoserve.org/ Evaluation details Klinger, Bailey and Schündeln, Matthias, (2007) “Can Entrepreneurial Evaluator Activity be Taught? Quasi-Experimental Evidence from Central America”, CID Working Paper No. 153, Harvard University. Evaluation Methodology Quasi-experimental (Regression Discontinuity) Evaluation Tier 1 [143] FINCA | Peru Program Overview Who Participates Operating in Peru since 1993, FINCA-Peru is a FINCA-Peru primarily serves women who run micro-finance institution that trains low-income small businesses in one of their three regions. To entrepreneurs using a village-banking become eligible for the program, a participant methodology. FINCA clients receive loans and needs to have overseen her business for at least meet once or twice a month to repay their six months. installments and receive training. Participants use their loan money to invest in their businesses and Women apply for the FINCA loan and become a are required to save money each month. FINCA’s FINCA client once they’ve presented a copy of ultimate goal is to provide clients with financial their ID and a utility receipt to confirm where and non-financial services while helping them they live, as well as gone through a site visit to develop their businesses. 67 verify they live there and have a business. Each FINCA client has some experience running a Program Objectives business and comes to FINCA for loans and training in small business fundamentals. The The program hopes to impact its clients’ status program uses both experiential and peer-based and to some extent their mindsets. The biggest education, and participants are required to make focus is on participants’ capabilities around biweekly or monthly deposits into their savings saving and reinvesting in their companies. accounts. Socio-Emotional Skills FINCA has over 16,000 clients throughout Peru, Mindsets Entrepreneurial Willingness operating a 3,000 client program in the low- Entrepreneurship Theory income neighborhoods of Lima and larger Management Skills  programs throughout two high-poverty Andean Capabilities Vocational Skills provinces, Ayacucho and Huancavelica. Networking Skills Participants are predominantly female—90 Firm Formation percent of whom lack formal education beyond Self-Employment secondary school. FINCA-Peru maintains that Status Employability women who are able to achieve a higher level of income will be able to pass along their earnings Income and Savings  directly to all members of their families. In Network Formation  addition to its entrepreneurship micro-finance Profits and Sales  program, FINCA also offers trainings on preventive Job Creation health care, gender equality, and personal Market Expansion  Performance development. Productivity Reinvestment  Innovation 67 Current program information gathered from discussions with Ms. Iris Lanao Flores (CEO) and Ms. Viviana Salinas (Manager of Solutions for Human Development), FINCA Peru. [144] FINCA training coordinators teach the instructors How the Program Works group facilitation skills, the materials covered in When a client joins FINCA, she is given a small FINCA modules, and financial preparedness. loan to help her business. The loan amount FINCA’s instructors have their salaries tied to the varies by region—the initial disbursement quality and number of sessions they deliver each ranging from $80 to $360. The group of women month, as well as financial indicators of growth in each region who gather for instruction and and past due loans. bank disbursements is called a “village bank.” In each of these FINCA banks, clients elect a board Program Partnerships of their peers to oversee the bank’s finances. FINCA-Peru partners with organizations in This board helps guide their bank’s functioning certain communities that can provide technical and leads group decision making. assistance. In rural areas, alliances provide Once or twice a month, groups of about18 assistance on how to better produce crops. In clients meet for a 45-minute training session quasi-rural or urban areas, FINCA partners with about a topic relevant to growing a business. A universities where students help carry out case study is discussed, and then the clients evaluations of the program’s efficacy. Volunteers break into small groups to weigh questions put also provide significant help with evaluations. forward by the instructor. The session then reconvenes to hear the three to four take-aways What is the Local Context from the session, which will again be discussed at the next meeting. There is significant variation in education and literacy levels among participants in Lima and After each training session concludes, clients the two other regions. In Lima, the majority of take turns discussing problems in their clients have at least completed secondary businesses and seeking advice from their school, whereas in Ayacucho and Huancavelica, colleagues. Every month or two, clients receive some of the clients are illiterate. internal loan disbursements from their bank at the conclusion of the day’s session. Clients participate at varying levels. Some find it hard to attend training sessions because of The length of the course varies by region but family concerns. Some cannot always take the can go from six months to a year. Clients receive time to leave their business and travel for the trainings that focus on improving their basic once or twice-monthly sessions. business practices in subject areas like how to treat clients, how to use profits, where to sell, There is no cost to take the program. Instead, how to use special discounts, and credit sales. the interest rate for each participant’s loan FINCA- Peru places a strong emphasis on saving covers the cost of participation. Because there is money; at each meeting clients are encouraged variation in the amount each bank gives, there is to add to their savings. a varying amount owed to participate. There is significant economic variation among Who Teaches the Program FINCA’s regions. The job market in Lima is FINCA-Peru identifies potential instructors strong and well-developed—in 2011 (called “promoters” by FINCA) based on their unemployment fell to 7 percent in the capital 68 ability to work with a group and facilitate city. However rural Peru is a different story-- in training sessions. Instructors are frequently 2008, an overwhelming 49 percent of rural 69 chosen from a pool of former FINCA-Peru clients female workers were unpaid family members. and are trained in the basics of being a loan officer, since they will also serve in this role with 68 http://www.goinglobal.com/articles/1041/ the village banks. 69 Peruvian Ministry of Labour’s 2008 Annual Report “La mujer en el mercado laboral peruano” as cited by Janina V. León, Professor in the Department of Economics at the [145] Further, Ayacucho and Huancavelica—two of Positive changes in four business skills and FINCA’s outposts-- have struggled with terrorist practices outcomes were significant at 95 activities, creating a more trying setting to start percent (keeping records, an index of business or enhance a business. knowledge, the use of profits for business growth, and implementation of innovations in A Look at the Program Evaluation the business). But no training impact was found The evaluation 70 looked at whether micro- on household decision making. entrepreneurs were maximizing their profits The training led to a 4 percentage point increase given the resources available to them, and in the client retention rate – generating an whether lessons on business development increase in net revenue for FINCA. But the improved FINCA-Peru clients’ profits. A training had no effect on loan size or randomized control trial was conducted to accumulated savings. Further, sometimes the evaluate the effectiveness of integrating stronger training effects were found for those business training with microfinance services, clients who expressed less interest in the using a sample of FINCA Peru’s preexisting training in the baseline survey. lending clients. Typically, the clients were organized into groups of twenty women randomly assigned to control and treatment groups, stratified by credit officer. The distribution included 139 groups assigned to the treatment and 101 to the control. The evaluation used three key data sources: FINCA financial transaction data, a baseline survey before the randomization results were announced, and a follow-up survey up to two years later. The response rate was 76 percent for the follow- up survey, was lower in the treatment group (75.2 percent) compared to the control group (77.9 percent). The results of the analysis were divided into four categories: (1) business outcomes, (2) business processes and knowledge, (3) household outcomes, and (4) microfinance institutional outcomes. Basic business training to preexisting clients did not lead to higher profits or revenues on average. However, difference-in-difference specifications, found a positive but small impact on enterprise revenues. Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú. http://www.focal.ca/en/publications/focalpoint/368- december-2010-janina-v-leon-en 70 Karlan, Dean and Valdivia, Martin, (2011) “Teaching Entrepreneurship: Impact of Business Training on Microfinance Clients and Institutions”, The Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 93 Issue 2, pp 510-527. [146] Summary Program Details Program Name FINCA Entrepreneurship Program Country Peru Classroom-based micro-finance and entrepreneurial training Program Type program for existing small business owners Small business owners of at least 6 months; serving 16,000 practicing Target Audience entrepreneurs around Peru Age Adults of mixed ages Gender 90 percent women To improve business outcomes and overall welfare for clients and to Objective improve institutional outcomes for the microfinance institution Program Maturity Evaluation in 2002-2003 Contact http://www.fincaperu.net/cms/index.php/es/ Evaluation Karlan, Dean and Valdivia, Martin, (2011) “Teaching Entrepreneurship: Evaluator Impact of Business Training on Microfinance Clients and Institutions”, The Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 93 Issue 2, pp. 510-527. Evaluation Randomized control trial Methodology Evaluation Tier 1 [147] National Rural Savings Programme (NRSP) | Pakistan Program Overview Program Outcomes At the time of its evaluation in 2007, the National NRSP is strongly focused on its participants’ firm Rural Support Programme (NRSP) in Pakistan tied performance and their capabilities in saving and a series of its micro-loans to entrepreneurial around business development. By participating in training sessions. Over 46 hours of training, group learning and saving sessions, NRSP also participants studied business planning, values participants’ status, specifically regarding marketing, and financial management. Upon network formation. completion of the training modules, NRSP Socio-emotional Skills identified the participants that were eligible to 71 Mindsets Entrepreneurial Willingness apply for a larger loan size. Entrepreneurship Theory NRSP’s approach to micro-finance lending Management Skills  includes a requirement that its members join Capabilities Vocational Skills community organizations. These local Networking Skills organizations typically have between 15 and 30 Firm Formation members and number over 150,000 across Pakistan, occupying nearly one-third of Pakistan’s Self-Employment micro-finance market. NRSP members must meet Status Employability regularly with their community organizations, Income and Savings  contribute towards their group’s savings as well Network Formation  as their own, and both receive and repay their Profits and Sales  loans. Job Creation With a presence in 54 districts in Pakistan, NRSP Performance Market Expansion   Productivity now works with more than two million low- income households in the country. Started in Reinvestment  Innovation 1991 with a focus on reducing poverty and increasing rural development, NRSP works within rural regions of Pakistan to help communities How the Program Works implement a variety of programs aimed at increasing productive employment, alleviating In 2007, NRSP randomly selected over 1,200 rural poverty and improving the quality of life. Pakistanis who had applied for loans. These participants each received a loan of $1,000 and Who Participates were required to attend a series of trainings on better business practices. Over several weeks, they NRSP works in low-income, rural communities. attended sessions on expenditures, financial The participants are more likely to be male, who outlook, marketing, and business planning. run at least one business. Participants were given a travel allowance, a snack and lunch for the six- day session that ran daily from 9am to 4pm. The training took place in a 71 Information about the program drawn from discussions classroom, involving a series of group work with Mr. Rashid Bajwa, NRSP CEO. activities and an off-site field visit to local markets, [148] area suppliers, and wholesalers. The final day of the The focus of this program on rural populations training included a business creation exercise, created barriers to providing vast, equitable where participants created a micro-business plan. trainings. Some participants had to travel long The training concluded with an awards ceremony. distances to participate; making regular access of trainings more difficult and creating variation in the Loan officers followed up with each participant amount learned. after the training was completed to make sure their businesses were still running, and to ensure the A Look At the Program Evaluation loan money was going toward business development. With the completion of the business University researchers from the World Bank training, the sign-off of loan officers and proof of conducted a field experiment to understand the being in good financial standing (i.e. having main barriers to entrepreneurship in a country, success-fully met loan repayment deadlines), specifically around access to human capital and participants were eligible to apply for another, credit for entrepreneurship. Taking place in rural larger loan. Pakistan with a subset of male and female microfinance clients of NRSP organized in Of all participants in the 2007 training and micro- Community Organizations (COs), the experiment finance program, no one has had loan delinquency. offered training to a randomly selected group-- half of the 747 COs from five different branches of three different districts (treatment group)-- while Who Teaches the Program the other half did not receive training (control NRSP staff members—who had a background in group). classroom instruction— underwent a 31-day A baseline survey was conducted in November training session, organized by ECI, a local firm 2006, and the business training sessions were held specializing in capacity building activities for micro- in 2007. A follow-up survey was conducted in entrepreneurs. December 2008, six months after the loan lottery concluded and about 13 months after the loan Program Partnerships orientation meetings. The attrition rate between NRSP worked with ECI, a local firm specializing in the baseline and follow-up (about two years after) capacity building activities for micro-entrepreneurs, was 16 percent. The evaluation focused on intent- to train instructors and create an appropriate to-treat estimates, and the outcomes were related curriculum for the micro-lending/training program to business knowledge, creation and performance. in 2007. Business training led to increased business knowledge (estimate value of 0.058, with What is the Local Context significance at 10 percent level), but no business Participants were randomly selected to be part of training effect was found on business creation the program. As such there is significant variation either with or without access to the larger loan in education and literacy levels. Further, male and (estimate value of -0.006). Business training offers female participants had remarkably different levels did lead to improvements in business practices of success upon completing the program—despite such as recording the sales on a piece of paper as having an increase in business knowledge (87 well as separating business from household percent), women reported being unable to put into accounts. practice their newly acquired knowledge. Similarly Female CO members who had lower levels of the training had positive effects on men’s business business knowledge at baseline increased their failures but no effect on women’s businesses-- business knowledge by about 87 percent (p-value perhaps indicating that a future intervention might 0.12). However differently from men, they were need to have a more intense focus on engaging unable to put into practice their newly acquired women entrepreneurs. knowledge. Further, business training led to a [149] reduction in business failure by 6.1 percent among male business owners, compared to the control group, but there was no effect among business women (p-value of 0.98). Access to the larger loan, in contrast, had little effect on anyone. [150] Summary Program Details Program Name National Rural Support Programme (NRSP) Country Pakistan Six-day intensive entrepreneurial skills training for existing Program Type entrepreneurs who wanted to take a loan Target Audience Rural Pakistanis who own at least one business Age Mix Gender 60 percent male To hone skills around financial management and business planning Objective to enhance effective use of microloans and timely repayment One-time program in 2007. NRSP plans to run similar programs in Program Maturity the near future. Contact http://nrsp.org.pk/index.htm Cost and Finance Pakistan Poverty Alleviation Fund financed the training Evaluation Giné, Xavier, and Mansure, Ghazala, (2011) “Money or Ideas? A Field Evaluator Experiment on Constraints to Entrepreneurship in Rural Pakistan” Mimeo. Evaluation Field experiment Methodology Evaluation Tier 1 [151] Interise | United States Program Overview Who Participates Interise is a nonprofit organization that teaches Interise’s executive education program is small business owners how to sustain and grow intended for small business owners. Potential their businesses. Through an interactive peer- participants apply and frequently go through an based curriculum, the program aims to help interview process before selection. Further, business owners grow their enterprises, create 72 participants’ businesses must meet these criteria: jobs, and strengthen their communities.  It needs to have achieved initial growth but Initially started as a regional program in then hit barriers that prevented second- Massachusetts in 2004, Interise is now a national stage growth program in the United States, imbedded in over 35 communities. Interise promotes the economic  Its annual revenues must be between revitalization of lower income communities $250,000 and $10 million. through its StreetWise ‘MBA’™ curriculum. By the  At least one employee must be on the end of 2015, Interise will be serving payroll other than the CEO/owner. approximately 1,000 practicing entrepreneurs per year.  It must have been in business for a minimum of 3 years. Program Objectives Interise aims to help underserved populations. Interise wants its participants to grow their Over 90 percent of Interise’s clients are minorities, businesses—placing a strong emphasis on Native Americans, recent immigrants, or business performance. owners located in lower-income communities. Between one-third and half of participants are Socio-emotional Skills women. Mindsets Entrepreneurial Willingness  Entrepreneurship Theory How the Program Works Management Skills   Capabilities Vocational Skills Interise uses a peer based learning model with a Networking Skills  case study based curriculum. Participants meet Firm Formation  for 3 hours biweekly for 13 sessions in class sizes Self-Employment  of 15 to 18. Participants also form peer mentoring Status Employability  groups during the first session. These groups Income and Savings  allow for further in-depth discussion of classroom  Network Formation  materials and individuals’ particular business Profits and Sales  concerns. Job Creation  Market Expansion The case studies are based on each participant’s Performance  Productivity  business—a kind of live case study. The class Reinvestment  analyzes one of their colleagues’ business Innovation situations, providing real-time feedback.  Throughout the course, each participant will present about their business. 72 Information about the current program drawn from discussions with Ms. Jean Horstman, Interise CEO. [152] By the end of the course, each participant has a 3.01 score—each state was ranked on a one point three-year strategic growth action plan, which they scale for a state’s percentage growth and per capita present to colleagues and business experts. growth of business establishments, its business formation rate, the number of patents per thousand After completion of the curriculum, each participant residents, and income per non-farm proprietor in receives a Certificate in Small Business th each state. Nearby states ranked 7 (New Entrepreneurship from Boston University's th Hampshire, at 1.55), 12 (Connecticut, at 1.44), and Entrepreneurial Management Institute. Participants th 19 (Rhode Island, at 1.191. become part of Interise’s membership, through which they can identify volunteer business experts A Look at the Program Evaluation who can coach them as they implement their growth plans. Also of note—in 2011, among the Interise does an extensive evaluation of its program 74 600 past Interise participants who completed the each year. In 2011, an annual survey was sent out annual survey, more than $13 million worth of to past participants to get a sense of the social and business was done through their Interise contacts. economic impact of the program. Of the 451 alumni that received the surveys, 61 percent responded. The responses to the survey conducted in 2011 Who Teaches the Program indicated that 62 percent of Interise participants Interise selects instructors through a network of had added jobs to their companies or maintained referral partners and local agencies. They look for all jobs; and 61 percent of businesses offered health people who have a track record of successful small insurance to their employees and gave out an business growth and of enabling adult learning or average salary to new employees of about $41,000. facilitative instruction. Over half of Interise participants also reported a Program Partnerships growing business—with increased revenue (57 percent) and government grants averaging Interise licenses the use of StreetWise ‘MBA’™ to a $325,000 per business (47 percent of the network of partners, selecting the partner that is businesses). Further, nearly 80 percent of Interise best for that locale. Partners can be universities, participants reported being actively involved in the government agencies, or trade associations, among community—and the majority (58 percent) others. Interise trains and supports its partners in encouraged their employees to be active as well. the delivery of the curriculum and also provides annual impact data. Since 2008, the U.S. Small Business Administration has contracted with Interise to be the instructional provider for an emerging leader’s initiative. What is the Local Context Participants come from a variety of industries and backgrounds. While all have built successful businesses, they can vary greatly in the extent of their personal networks, in their formal education, and in their access to capital. Interise’s StreetWise MBA program is limited to Massachusetts, ranked as the best U.S. state in 2012 73 for starting a business. Massachusetts received a Entrepreneurship rankings http://newsroom.unl.edu/blog/?p=1354 73 74 University of Nebraska’s Bureau of Business Interise.org, “Interise 2011 Report Card” (Boston: Research and Department of Economics State of Interise.org: 2011). [153] Summary Program Details Program Name Interise Country United States Program Type Classroom-based peer learning course for existing entrepreneurs Small business owners with annual revenues between $250,000 and $10 million and at least two employees; over 90 percent from Target Audience underserved communities. In 2013, Interise anticipates 700 participants. Age 22 – 65 years old Gender One-third to one-half female To help participants grow their businesses and become more active Objective leaders in their communities Each partner sets their own tuition rate, ranging from $500 to $2,000 per participant. Corporations, foundations, and government Cost and Financing agencies provide organizational support for Interise. Partners secure their own local funding. Implementing Agency Interise Program Maturity 2004 Contact www.interise.org Evaluation details Evaluator Interise.org, “Interise 2011 Report Card” (Boston: Interise.org: 2011). Evaluation Methodology Survey of participants Evaluation Tier 3 [154] ANNEX 6 ǀ PROGRAM DESCRIPTIONS Entrepreneurship Education – Secondary Education Students (EESE) Name Country/Region Program Program Evaluation Reference BizWorld The Netherlands Beneficiaries Evaluation tier Rosendahl Huber, Laura, Sloof, Children in the final grade of primary 1 Randolph and Van school The study evaluated the direct (short-term) effects of early Praag, Mirjan, Description entrepreneurship education on the development of (2012). “The Effect cognitive, non-cognitive entrepreneurial skills, and of Early The program aims to teach children aged entrepreneurial intentions using a randomized field Entrepreneurship 11-12 the basics of business and experiment. The evaluation took place between February Education: entrepreneurship as well as to promote and July 2010, and over the same period in 2011. The Evidence from a teamwork and leadership in the sample consisted of 85 schools (that had signed up for the Randomized Field classroom through an experiential program and had consented to participating in the research; Experiment”, learning program that takes five days. about 75 percent of all schools that signed up in 2010 and Discussion Paper BizWorld launched in the Netherlands in 2011)-- a total of 118 classes and 2,751 students in the last Series No. 6512, 2004, and is a global entrepreneurship year of primary school. The response rate was 87.7 percent. IZA. education programs geared toward Since the program was delivered at the class level, the unit primary school students. Over 350,000 of analysis was the class level rather than the school. The children from 84 countries have schools and classes were assigned to a treatment or a participated in the program to date. The control group. For both groups, the study applied a pre- program includes five lessons with a test/post-test design to allow an unbiased difference-in- practical orientation, as well as differences estimate of the non-treatment effect. The study facilitating student groups through a collected data on (a) non-cognitive skills including: self- firm's business cycle from start-up to efficacy, need for achievement, risk taking, social liquidation. Jointly financed by a public- orientation, persistence, motivating, analyzing, proactivity, private partnership, the program takes and creativity; (b) cognitive skills including places in hundreds of Dutch classrooms entrepreneurship knowledge; and (c) entrepreneurial each year. Companies sponsor a class of intentions including children’s intentions to become an students-- typically aged 11-12-- for the entrepreneur intensive four day program. A businessperson from the sponsoring company co-teaches with the class’ Highlights: regular instructor, leading students through a business development  The treatment effect was positive and statistically exercise. In 2013, BizWorld’s Dutch significant for seven of the nine non-cognitive skills [155] program anticipates taking place in 450 tested, namely self-efficacy (0.149***), need for schools and reaching over 11,000 achievement (0.166***), risk taking propensity students. (0.114**), persistence (0.105**), analyzing (0.127***), creativity (0.096*), and proactivity (0.144***). Analysis on the heterogeneity of treatment effects showed that The BizWorld curriculum is standard the treatment effects remained or increased slightly across countries, with a few adjustments when controlling for individual, school and made. In the case of BizWorld in the neighborhood characteristics, and year of data Netherlands, the program is delivered by collection. Also, the size of treatment effects were an entrepreneur in cooperation with the substantial and comparable to being eligible to one track classroom teacher rather than by the level in entering high school (i.e. form the baseline of classroom teacher alone as is the case in pre-vocational to general secondary education); other countries.  The estimated effect on cognitive entrepreneurial skills (entrepreneurship knowledge) was positive although not significant (0.015); and Costs: US$ 1,300 for each school  The estimated effect on entrepreneurial intentions (sponsoring a classroom and providing a (owning business) for children was negative and businessperson who serves as a significant (0.134***). The study acknowledged that the volunteer instructor). measures used for entrepreneurial intentions were not validated for children and could potentially alter the results. EOEAS- Austria Beneficiaries Evaluation tier Frank, Herman, Entreprene Karunka, Christian, Students at general and vocational 2 urial Lueger, Manfred secondary education schools (focusing on Orientation The study assessed how entrepreneurial thinking was and Mugler, Josef, business, technical careers, trades and and promoted in vocational and general secondary education (2005). commerce) Education and the extent to which targeted instruction in start-up “Entrepreneurial in Austrian Description related and entrepreneurial knowledge supported the Orientation and Secondary development of a positive attitude toward entrepreneurship Education in The EOEAS program aims to enhance Schools as a goal in life. Austrian students’ startup related instruction and Study, Secondary entrepreneurial knowledge teaching The study focused on the following outcomes: (a) Austria Schools”, Journal of improved students’ attitudes toward personality (achievement, motivation, locus of control, Small Business and entrepreneurship. Searches for innovative orientation); (b) resources (attention to business Enterprise information on whether the program is and economics, knowledge of business and economics, Development, Vol. still under implementation did not yield experience in leadership and organization, network and 12 No.2, pp. 259- information. At a variety of secondary activities inside and outside school; (c) start up inclination 273. schools in Austria—among both general (startup probability); (d) environment (entrepreneurs in the and technical schools--students found a student’s surroundings, use of technology, supportive company and sell their products in a upbringing), and (e) and process (entrepreneurship [156] school market. orientation of the school, independence/criticism as values in instruction, entrepreneurship-oriented instruction methods, and team oriented methods. The study was conceived as an interdisciplinary project and designed to include various types of secondary schools. The sample included six general secondary schools, four commercial academies, three secondary technical schools and one secondary school for technical and business professionals. In addition, a sample of Austrian participants in an international junior entrepreneur contest (“Junior”) was selected. A total of 875 students and 36 contest participants were surveyed in 2001. Survey participants were 15 to 18 years old. Highlights:  Self-employment was the least preferred option in all school types;  Commercial academy and secondary technical schools graduates were more likely to start a career after graduation;  Commercial academy students had more opportunities to gain practical experience and demonstrated the strongest entrepreneurship orientation, though these conditions did not lead to higher start up inclinations or a pronounced entrepreneurial orientation; and  Education processes seemed to fulfill an important function in the development of entrepreneurial orientation. Schools could influence this effect by reinforcing business and economics knowledge. However, the development of startup inclinations seemed to be more closely linked to social influences in the micro social environment. For example, the most important predictors of startup inclinations included: entrepreneurs in the surroundings (0.31***); innovative orientation (0.27***); experience in leadership and organization (0.19***); and team-oriented instruction methods (0.11***). INJAZ – Morocco, Beneficiaries Evaluation tier Reimers, Fernando, Junior Lebanon, Jordan, Dyer, Paul, and [157] Achieveme Saudi, UAE and Students in upper secondary that 2 Ortega, Maria nt Egypt participated in the INJAZ Company Elena, (2012), The evaluation assessed the impact of entrepreneurship Program. “Entrepreneurship education on producing skills to initiate and sustain a Education in the Description business. The methodology was based on matching pre and Middle East”, post surveys of treatment and comparison groups. The Junior Achievement (JA) programs Mimeo. Interested beneficiaries were not randomly assigned to aims to provide basic business skills and either group and due to limitations in implementation, they financial literacy to students to start up could only match pre and post surveys in limited cases. The and run their own businesses, and to pool of students came from a small number of cities in six promote work readiness among students. countries. Its total size was 1,454 where 617 were The beneficiaries are upper secondary interviewed for the baseline of the comparison group and students in Morocco, Lebanon, Jordan, 837 for the treatment group. The baseline questionnaire was Saudi Arabia, UAE and Egypt. The collected in December 2010 and January 2011, and the program is delivered as part of either the follow-up survey was collected in July and November 2011. school curriculum or through The outcomes studied included student knowledge, skills extracurricular activities by private and attitudes, and behavioral intentions about sector volunteers in coordination with entrepreneurship. school administrators and ministries of education. The JA program delivery Highlights: method, the Company Program, is  Participants in the JA programs had very high levels of experiential learning based-- students access to entrepreneurs in their lives. Around 80 develop a business idea and a business percent had siblings who were entrepreneurs, and 30 to plan design, ultimately producing a 74 percent indicated that their parents or neighbors product and service, marketing them and were entrepreneurs; closing the business. This all takes place  They had medium levels of knowledge of basic over course of 4-6 months. entrepreneurial concepts;  Participants had high and positive aspirations, views of self and others, self-efficacy and interest in business creation; and  Participants had favorable attitudes towards entrepreneurship and business. JACP – Sweden Beneficiaries Evaluation tier Elert, Niklas, Junior Andersson, Upper secondary level students in 2 Achieveme Fredrik, and Swedish schools nt Company The evaluation assessed the relative effects of Wennberg, Karl, Program Description entrepreneurial performance (in the long term) of those in (2013) “The JACP, relative to those who did not participate. The Impact of The program objective is to provide methodology was a quasi-experimental design based on Entrepreneurship opportunities to train and develop Education in High- [158] creativity, entrepreneurship, and Propensity Score Matching (PSM) of individuals who School on Long- practical business skills. The participated in JACP during mid-1990s with those who did Term beneficiaries are students in upper not by using publicly available databases. The pool of Entrepreneurial secondary level in Swedish schools. The individuals for the treated was around 166,606. The sample Performance”, training and materials are provided by size was 224,838 individuals of whom 10,103 comprise the Mimeo. the Swedish branch of Junior treatment group (individuals who participated in the JACP Achievement, a voluntary organization between 1994 and 1996) and 214,735 comparable non- that works with schools to promote participant individuals. The outcomes measured were the entrepreneurship and encourage probability of starting a business, entrepreneurial income connections between enterprises and and firm survival. schools. The program focuses on Highlights: “learning-by-doing” the tasks of entrepreneurs, in the context of setting  Participation increased the likelihood of starting a new up, organizing, producing and selling a business by at least 20 percent (*) when compared to product, and closing a firm. The same the non-participants of JACP; type of educational concept is applied in  JACP participation had a positive effect of expected other nations that are members of Junior income in the range of 7 percent (**) – 18 percent (***); Achievement. and  There was no significant effect on firm survival due to JACP participation. JAN- Junior Namibia Beneficiaries Evaluation tier Mahohoma, Eliam, Achieveme Upper secondary level students in 3 Muyambo, nt Namibian schools Maxwell, (2008), The study’s objective was to appraise the impact of “Impact of the Description entrepreneurship education among Namibian youth in areas Junior of entrepreneurship, financial literacy and work related life The program objective is to educate and Achievement skills acquisition. The methodology involved qualitative and inspire youth around entrepreneurship, Programmes in quantitative analysis via structured questionnaires. The financial literacy and work related life Namibia”, Report, scope of the study was 6 regions in Namibia; gathering skills. The program reached 32,000 Recover from: information of parents, teachers and learners from students in 2007. The JA Company http://www.pdfio. randomly selected schools from each region. In total 13 Program is based on learning by doing com/k- schools participated, 13 teachers, 130 learners and 90 the whole business cycle. 1858298.html parents. The outcomes were assessed in terms of entrepreneurship education, financial literacy and work- related life skills from the teachers, learners and parents’ perspective. Highlights:  82 percent of the teachers acknowledged that students [159] were learning entrepreneurship abilities, social and financial skills, and employability, as well as responsibility, social involvement and critical thinking;  Parents indicated that benefits from the programs were derived from learning the use of money, budgeting, business related subjects, intentions and appreciation skills. Parents also acknowledged helping the students with their own business in bookkeeping, start-ups, and business related needs;  86 percent of parents indicated that the program led to positive changes in their child’s behavior; and  80 percent of students joined the program to learn skills and knowledge on starting their own business, and 93 percent confirmed they learned entrepreneurship abilities, financial literacy and work related skills. 72 percent indicated a positive impact on their life in the same areas they learned skills. KAB- Know Syria Tier The evaluation assessed the programs’ efficacy in training Bikhazi, R. and About students in entrepreneurial and business skills. Using a two- Kabbani, N., (2010) 3 Business part impact analysis of KAB in Syria, students were given a “Assessing the Beneficiaries questionnaire before the program and after, using a sample Impact of the ILO of 871 students (591 female) from four governorates. Know About Vocational secondary schools in five Further, the focus groups provided a better understanding Business (KAB) governorates of the program’s effects by interviewing KAB instructors, Entrepreneurship parents, alumni and current students. Education Programme: Description Highlights: Lessons Learned KAB aims to help its participants  KAB participants reported on the program’s positive from the Middle seamlessly transition from school to the impact on their knowledge, skills, and attitudes towards East” ILO and labor force by building entrepreneurial starting a business 18 months after completing the Silatech and business skills; as well as raising program; presentation. awareness about self-employment. Active  KAB participants were more aware of self-employment in eight Arab countries since 2008, KAB’s as a future career option and a higher knowledge about Syria program has reached over 66,000 the basics of sustainable enterprises. There was, young people. In 2007-2008, KAB was however, no significant difference in participants’ labor integrated into the curriculum of force outcomes; and vocational secondary schools and  For former KAB participants, only 11 percent said the [160] intermediate institutes in 5 governorates. program was not helpful. KAB is an interactive classroom-based entrepreneurship education program. NFTE – United States Beneficiaries Evaluation tier Nakkula, Michael, Network for Lutyens, Miranda, Currently in 18 high schools in Boston, 2 Teaching Pineda, Claudia, Massachusetts. The program targets high Entreprene The evaluation of the NFTE program in Boston, Dray, Amy, Gaytan, schools where at least half of the student urship Massachusetts, was carried out in two phases. The first Frank, and body is eligible for free or reduced-priced (Previously phase surveyed students from two large public high schools Huguley, Jay, lunch National in 2001/2002. The second phase expanded the universe of (2004) “Initiating, Foundation Description schools from two to six public high schools to allow the Leading and for analysis of possible program impacts in a wider range of Feeling in Control NFTE aims to teach students Teaching learning contexts. The sample included a total of 17 of One’s Fate: entrepreneurial skills that help them Entreprene classrooms, 13 teachers and 268 students, out of which 158 Findings from the create a business plan. A global program urship) students received the NFTE program (treatment) and 110 2002-2003 Study that started in New York in 1987, students were selected for comparison classes (control). of NFTE in Six students are taught over a semester or The evaluation studied the role of NFTE in promoting the Boston Public High year-long course. NFTE targets high development of entrepreneurship, including Schools”, Harvard schools where at least half of the student entrepreneurship thinking and behavior. The study University, Recover body is eligible for free or reduced-priced measured entrepreneurial behavior (EB) using an from: lunch, having reached over 500,000 entrepreneurial activities checklist (49 activities organized http://www.nfte.c students who are typically at risk of around different domains and dimensions), locus of control, om/sites/default/f dropping out of school. Lessons include and applied new scales to measure healthy or positive iles/harvard- the concepts of competitive advantage, development (using the values in action scale that gauge nfte_study_02- ownership, opportunity recognition, originality, curiosity, industriousness and hopefulness). 03_full_report_6-6- marketing, finance, and product 04.pdf development - and all tie back to core Highlights: math and literacy skills. NFTE trains  Entrepreneurial behavior (EB) increased for NFTE existing teachers to teach its curriculum, students compared to the control group. The EB score and relies on local businesspeople to for NFTE students registered a significant increase of 7.5 serve as volunteer mentors to students as percent (p<.01). The changes in the two groups were they create their business plans. Each large and significant for the starter dimension and student’s business plan is ultimately business domain; presented to a panel of judges for a  In contrast, the EB score for comparison students did chance to win seed capital. not register significant changes, although in some domains the trend declined;  Although the results for locus of control were not [161] significant, the scores followed the hypothesized pattern. While NFTE students began with marginally lower locus of control scores than the comparison group, they increased their score by about 3 percent after the intervention, outscoring the control group. Similarly, immigrant students participating in the program improved in their locus of control by about 4.5 percent while the score of similar students in the comparison group declined by approximately 2.5 percent;  Locus of control findings were strongest for students taught by one particular teacher in one of the schools with a strong track record of effective teaching (i.e. had received recognition);  Results on students’ connectedness were generally negative;  Results from the values in action scales (originality, curiosity, industriousness and hopefulness) were not found to be significant. Although not significant results, NFTE students scored marginally higher than the comparison group in the pretest, meanwhile the gap narrowed at posttest with the comparison group increasing their score and the NFTE students decreasing the score;  Overall, NFTE students trained by top-notch teachers showed a higher degree of general student teacher connectedness, unlike the comparison group; and  Similar to the findings from the first phase, relative to the comparison group, NFTE students expressed increasingly strong interest in occupations requiring advanced training or formal education, including college. SAIE - South Africa Beneficiaries Evaluation tier South African South Institute for Primary and secondary school students 3 African Entrepreneurship, in South Africa Institute for Two evaluations were carried out to test entrepreneurial (2006) “Business Entreprene Description knowledge, skills and attitudes for those using the business Ventures Full urship ventures course in the economic management and science Impact Report”, SAIE aims to influence students’ curriculum. The first evaluation took place in 2003 using a Retrieved August 8, entrepreneurial knowledge, skills and sample of five schools in the greater Cape Town metro area. 2013, from: attitudes by improving the educational [162] process through quality materials and The second evaluation took place in 2005 using a sample of http://www.entre educator training. Started in 1996, SAIE 41 schools in two provinces. The evaluations included a preneurship.co.za/ has developed and implemented treatment (business venture curricula delivered over a page/business_ven entrepreneurship education programs in period of time) and a control group (no intervention). There tures_full_impact_r over 2,500 South African schools. To is no information on whether there was randomization in eport date, a total of 5676 schools have the assignment to the treatment. implemented the Business Ventures (BV) Highlights: course. About one-third of the schools are primary and two-thirds are secondary  The 2003 evaluation showed that, compared to a control schools. group, schools implementing the business venture (BV) curricula had significant positive effects on students’ entrepreneurial knowledge, skills, and attitudes; and  The 2005 study confirmed the 2003 results, but pointed to a picture far more complex than originally thought. The results showed that (a) extraneous factors (socio- economic profile) were a powerful influence on student performance at time more influential than teaching materials; (b) entrepreneurial skill acquisition was not a neat, linear process, but proceeded haphazardly over a longer period of time than originally thought-- stronger performance improvements over a two year period were associated with the use of BV after a 2 year period rather than a one year period); and (c) schools were complex, fluid and challenging environments for educational interventions, therefore implementation issues were critical to improving student performance. YE- Young Denmark Beneficiaries Evaluation tier Moberg, Kare, Enterprise (2012). “ The Secondary school students 3 Impact of Description The evaluation assessed the effects of entrepreneurship Entrepreneurship education among secondary students in Denmark using a Education and The entrepreneurship education model is stepwise regression among 2,000 randomly selected 15-year Project-Based expanding in Denmark—with a focus on old students’ 2011 surveys. Education on students’ own ideas and thus strongly Students’ Personal connected to emotional experience as the Highlights: Development and problems are felt, not only conceived.  At the earlier secondary level of the education system, Entrepreneurial Currently, the Danish system has project- the effects of entrepreneurship education are mediated Intentions at the based education and entrepreneurship by its effects on students’ self-conception; and Lower Levels of the education in secondary schools. Many  Entrepreneurship education by itself has an impact on Educational [163] schools use both teaching methods. students’ personal development. But when System: Too Much entrepreneurship and project-based education are of Two Good combined, the effect of these two approaches become Things?” negative. European Summer University Conference [164] Entrepreneurship Education – Higher Education Students (EEHE) Country/Regio Name Program Program Evaluation Refernece n APSB- Edo State, Beneficiaries Evaluation tier Idogho, PO, Auchi Nigeria Ainabor, AE, Tertiary students at Auchi Polytechnic 3 Polytechnic (2011) Auchi Description The evaluation assessed the efficacy of entrepreneurship “Entrepreneurship education on their employability. The study used a sample of Education and APSB aims to teach students the skills 300 final year tertiary school students who had filled out Small-Scale around managing a small-scale business as surveys. Business a way of preparing them for gainful Management Skill employment after graduating. This is an Highlights: Development initiative of the Nigerian federal  A positive correlation was found between among Students of government to introduce entrepreneurship education and managerial skill Auchi Polytechnic entrepreneurship education programs in development; and Auchi, Edo State, tertiary schools.  Students who received instruction in entrepreneurship Nigeria.” education showed a greater desire to set-up small-scale International businesses after graduation. Journal of Business and Management. Vol 6, No 3. BEP- Berger United States Beneficiaries Evaluation tier Charney, Alberta Entreprene and Libecap, Gary Business undergraduate and graduate 3 urship D., (2000) “Impact students at the University of Arizona Program A tracer survey was developed to assess how BEP affected of (McGuire Description the entrepreneurial intentions and achievements of students Entrepreneurship Entreprene it graduated over the years. The evaluation studied the Education”, The McGuire Entrepreneurship Program urship trajectories of business entrepreneurship and non-business Insights: Kauffman aims to prepare students to successfully Program) entrepreneurship cohorts from 1985 to 1998. The Research Series, apply entrepreneurial principles whether evaluation assessed the formation of new ventures, Recover from: they start their own business or go to likelihood of self-employment, sales growth rate of emerging http://entreprene work in a corporation. Specifically, the firms, accumulation of graduates’ assets, and technology urship.eller.arizona program focuses on students’ capabilities transfer from the University to the private sector. A total of .edu/Docs/Evaluati and status. 2,024 surveys were mailed to graduates from the non- on/Impactevaluati Based at the University of Arizona’s Eller entrepreneurship business school graduates and 460 on_Entrepreneursh College of Management, the program entrepreneurship graduates, all of whom had graduated ipprogram_UA.Pdf attracts top tier undergraduate and from the university between 1985 and 1998. The final graduate students from the University response rate was 511 for the non-entrepreneurship [165] who wish to major in entrepreneurship (if business graduates and 105 for the entrepreneurship undergraduates) or receive a graduates. Response rates were generally uniform across concentration in entrepreneurship (if MBA levels of degrees and types of programs, however, it should students). All participants—about 80 each be noted the response rate was extremely low at 21 percent. year—spend their two semesters taking Highlights: marketing and finance, as well as a venture development course. These face-  Entrepreneurship education increased the probability of to-face classes complement the students’ an individual being involved in a new business venture year-long focus on creating a new venture by 25 percent over non-entrepreneurship graduates. that will ultimately compete with other Entrepreneurship students were 11 percent more likely students’ plans for awards totaling than non-entrepreneurship students to own their own $10,000. businesses after graduation; Costs: Tuition rates range from $5,200-  Entrepreneurship education contributed to the growth $15,825, depending on the track of of firms, especially smaller emerging firms. On average, courses taken, and whether students are smaller emerging firms that were owned by or from Arizona. Costs to deliver the program employed entrepreneurship graduates had greater than are approximately $900,000 annually. five times the sales and employment growth than those that employed non-entrepreneurship graduates;  Entrepreneurship graduates received an average annual income that was 27 percent higher compared to the average annual income of non-entrepreneurship graduates;  Entrepreneurship education increased a business school graduate’s probability of being associated with a high- tech firm by nearly 13 percent and of developing new technological products by almost 9 percent; and  Entrepreneurship education enhanced the transfer of technology from the University to the private sector, and promoted technology based firms and products. Among self-employed entrepreneurship graduates, nearly 23 percent owned a high-technology firm, compared to less than 15 percent of non-entrepreneurship graduates who owned a firm. BPTC - Tunisia Beneficiaries Evaluation tier Premand, Patric, University Brodmann, Undergraduate students enrolled in 1 Entreprene Stefanie, Almeida, Tunisian Universities urship The evaluation used a randomized control trial methodology Rita, Grun, Track/Busi to estimate the impact of the program. For the academic REbekka, Barouni, [166] ness Plan Description year of 2009/10, 1,702 students (about 9 percent of all Mahdi, (2012), Thesis eligible students nationwide) participated in the “Entrepreneurship BPTC is aimed primarily at increasing self- Competitio entrepreneurship track--some students applied in pairs so a Training and Self- employment, fostering an n total of 1,506 projects were registered. The evaluation Employment entrepreneurship culture among assigned 757 projects to the treatment group and 742 to the among University university graduates, and more broadly control group. Information was collected at the beginning of Graduates: improving participants’ employment the five-month program (February 2009) and nine to twelve Evidence from a outcomes. In 2009 the Government of months after graduation from the program (April-June Randomized Trial Tunisia introduced this entrepreneurship 2011). Information collected included indicators on socio- in Tunisia, Policy track in the tertiary education curriculum. economic characteristics, labor, aspirations for the future, Research Working Students may opt into the personality traits and behavioral skills related to Paper No. 6285, entrepreneurship track, which consists of entrepreneurship. World Bank. business training (from a local employment office), coaching to develop a business plan (from entrepreneurs), and Highlights: supervision from university faculty. The business plan is an alternative option to  Approximately one year after graduation, graduates of the thesis requirement that all the entrepreneurship track had a higher probability of undergraduate students must complete to being self-employed. Although the effects were small in graduate. Students who opt to participate absolute terms (ranging from 1 to 4 percentage points), in this track can submit their business given the low prevalence of self-employment in the plan to a competition with a chance to win control group, the small absolute effects imply that seed capital to finance their venture. beneficiaries were on average 46 to 87 percent more likely to be self-employed compared to the control group;  There was no evidence that the program significantly affected overall employment as captured by the likelihood of being employed in the last seven days. In fact, estimates were negative and pointed to a reduction in the probability of holding wage employment; and although not significant, the decrease was of the same magnitude as the increase in self-employment, suggesting the possibility of substitution effect from wage employment to self-employment;  The program did not promote higher quality jobs among participants. There were no significant program impacts on employment in the formal sector, firm size, hours of work, or earnings;  The intervention produced strong impacts on [167] participants’ self-reported business skills and networking proxies. About 77 percent of program graduates reported knowing how to produce a business plan, compared to 45 percent in the control group;  Intervention led to measurable, significant and robust changes in several domains of the Big Five, including a decrease in agreeableness (0.23-0.25 sd compared to control group) and an increase in extraversion (albeit a less robust finding compared to the previous trait). There was no evidence to indicate that the entrepreneurship training positively affected conscientiousness and emotional stability, and other entrepreneurial traits such as tenacity or power motivation remained unchanged; and  Participants were found to be more likely to be confident in obtaining credit and to have applied for credit (conditional on having a business idea), but they were neither more likely to know how to apply for credit nor to have obtained credit. BØDO- Norway Beneficiaries Evaluation tier Kolvereid, Lars and Bødo Moen, Oystein, Business school students entering their 3 Graduate (1997), fifth year School of The evaluation assessed entrepreneurial behavior and “Entrepreneurship Business Description entrepreneurial intention among business school graduates. among Business The methodology consisted of a tracer survey of alumni who Graduates: Does a The objectives of the Bødo graduated from the business school between 1987 and1994. Major in entrepreneurship major are A total of 720 questionnaires were mailed while 374 were Entrepreneurship entrepreneurship awareness and small received. The final sample was found to be representative of Make a business development. Founded in 1985, the alumni. Difference?”, the Bødo entrepreneurship track offers a Journal of major in entrepreneurship to its students Highlights: European enrolled in the master’s degree in business  Entrepreneurship was found to be a function of factors Industrial Training, program. Since 1987, the annual number which can be altered through education; Vol. 21 Issue 4, pp. of students selecting the entrepreneurship  Having a major in entrepreneurship was positively 154-160. major has ranged from 15 to 30. associated with new firm formation (a major in Costs: Public education in Norway is no entrepreneurship was the only variable that was cost to students. significantly related to new firm formation r = 0.20 p<.0.001); and [168]  Having a major in entrepreneurship was positively associated with entrepreneurial intentions (r= 0.26 p<.0.001). CCOE- China Beneficiaries Evaluation tier Zhang, Guifang, College Cheng, Peng, Fan, Undergraduates in China 3 Carve-Out Luqing, and Chu, Education Description The evaluation analyzed five variables, including carve-out Ziqi, (2012), “An education, business knowledge, entrepreneurial abilities, Empirical Study on In Chinese universities, carve-out psychological quality and entrepreneur intention. A survey Impact of College education aims to encourage students to was designed for undergraduates in universities and Carve-Out start their own businesses. A big colleges in China. A total of 300 questionnaires were Education on component of carve-out is to impact distributed, 214 were completed, of which 200 were valid Entrepreneur entrepreneurial intention among students. (response rate of 93 percent). The evaluation used a Intention”, SSRN, structure equation model (SEM) to study the complex Recover from: relations among these five variables. The SEM consisted of http://ssrn.com/a two models; one was an equation model, which was used to bstract=2034168 verify the linear relationship between potential independent variables (education, business knowledge, ability, psychological quality) and potential dependent variables (business knowledge, ability, psychology quality and intention), while another measurement model was used to verify the linear relationship between potential variables and real variables. Highlights:  The evaluation found a positive and significant correlation between (a) college carve-out education and business knowledge (estimate 0.513***), entrepreneurial ability (0.641***), and psychological quality (0.385***); (b) business knowledge and intention (.0243***); (c) entrepreneurial ability and intention (0.201***); and psychological quality and intention ( 0.276***); and  The evaluation did not find a significant correlation between education (0.077) and intention or knowledge and ability (0.006). [169] FEE- Finland Beneficiaries Evaluation tier Brannback, M, Finland Heinonen, J, Hudd, Students at business colleges in Finland 3 Entreprene I, Paasio, K, (2005) urial Description The evaluation assessed students’ interest in “A Comparative Education entrepreneurship and likelihood of starting a business. In Study on Two Finnish business colleges in the same the two Finnish schools, undergraduate business students in Entrepreneurial town aim to teach entrepreneurship skills 2004 were sent surveys-- among school A students, 237 Opportunity to students. Searches for information on questionnaires were sent (191 returned, i.e. 80.6 percent Recognition and whether the program is still under response rate) and among school B students, 74 the Role of implementation did not yield information. questionnaires were sent out (72 returned, i.e. 97 percent Education Among The two differences of note between the response rate). Finnish Business schools are that one school is taught in School Students.” Highlights: Finnish (School A) and the other in http://sbaer.uca.ed Swedish (School B). Additionally, School A  The students who took entrepreneurship classes u/research/icsb/2 requires that every student take two seemed to have an opportunistic view whereas the other 005/paper27.pdf entrepreneurship courses and there is an groups only saw entrepreneurship as a necessary last entrepreneurship major as well as a Small resort type alternative; Business Research and Development  The probability that any of the respondents would start Center on campus. In School B, students a firm within five years was very low in both types of have the option of one course on respondents; entrepreneurship (of which 30 students  The study could not determine whether enroll). entrepreneurship education would increase the probability of students starting a firm, only that education appeared to impact the perception of entrepreneurship. GE - Grande France Beneficiaries Evaluation tier Klaper, Rita, Ecole (2004), Undergraduate and master’s students in 3 “Government Goals France The study evaluated students’ attitudes towards and Description entrepreneurship and entrepreneurs as well as their desired Entrepreneurship career choices, with the intention to identify differences Education – An The Ecole Superieur de Commerce (ESC) between first and second year ESC students. Between Investigation at a Rouen offers three different types of December 2002 and February 2003, two groups of young Grande Ecole in entrepreneurship courses that differ both people were surveyed. The sample consisted of a group of France”, Education in content and duration—all of which aim undergraduates, aged between 19 and 22 years, who were + Training, Vol. 46 to expand students’ familiarity with either about to enter the program (first year students) or No. 3, pp. 127-137. entrepreneurship. The first program is the had just completed the program (second year students). The “Projet Entreprendre” which is geared survey was sent to 280 first year students, of which 82 toward first year students—they use the [170] course to turn a business idea into a responded, and 276 second year students, of which 60 business plan. The focus is on getting students responded. The evaluation investigated students’ students to develop a blend of knowledge, perspectives on entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship, skills, and attitudes to enable them to students’ attitudes towards entrepreneurship, and the recognize the links between management influence of entrepreneurs as family members on the career theory and entrepreneurial practice. The choice of students. second one is a “dominante” program Highlights: consisting of an 11-week intensive course (180 hours) that aims to deepen the  There was an upward shift in students’ attitudes entrepreneurship knowledge among towards entrepreneurship as a career choice between third-year Master’s students. Finally, the first and second year students. While only 26.5 percent third one is comprised of short courses (6- of first-year students surveyed saw themselves as 12 hours) focusing on topics such as potential entrepreneurs, the percentage for second year “Entrepreneurship in Europe” and students surveyed was 50. Similarly, while 30.9 percent “Female Entrepreneurship”. These courses of first year students could envisage setting up their are part of the general ESC program own business, 53 percent of second year students and/or specialized Master’s program. imagined setting up their own business;  About 81 percent of first-year students surveyed mentioned wanting to work in a large organization upon completion of their studies compared to 60 percent for second-year students; and  The proportion of students who mentioned wanting to work in a small and medium enterprise dropped from 54 percent for first year students to 31.7 percent for second year students. STEP - Uganda Beneficiaries Evaluation tier Gielnik, Michael, Student Frese, Michael, Undergraduate students in their final 1 Training for Kahara-Kawuki, semester Promoting The evaluation investigated how action-based Audrey, Wassawa Entreprene Description entrepreneurship training transmitted its effects on Katono, Isaac, urship entrepreneurial action and creating a startup. A randomized Kyejjusa, Sarah, The STEP program aims to shape students’ controlled field experiment evaluated the effectiveness of an Munene, John, psychological skills-- such as leadership, action based entrepreneurship training program on Muhammed, the psychology of planning, personal entrepreneurial self-efficacy, action knowledge, action Ngoma, Namatovu- initiative, and persuasion and negotiation. planning, entrepreneurial goals, entrepreneurial action, Dawa, Rebecca, STEP targets undergraduate students from business opportunity identification, and business Nansubuga, all disciplines (except business ownership. Of the 651 applications received, 200 were Florence, Orobia, administration) who are in the last selected to receive the training immediately (treatment Laura, Oyugi, Jacob, semester of their undergraduate studies at Sejjaaka, Samuel, [171] Makerere University (University A) and group) and 200 were placed in a waiting group (control Sserwanaga, Uganda Christian University (University group) that received the training after the completion of the Arthur, Walter, B). To participate in the training, students study. The data were collected using a pre-test/post-test Thomas, Bischoff, apply and, if accepted, pay a $10 deposit design at three points in time. The first measurement (T1) Kim Marie, and which is refunded at the end of the took place the month prior to the training, the second Dlugosch, Thorsten training to students who attend all measurement (T2) took place in the month after the J. (forthcoming), modules. The training features 12 training, and the third measurement (T3) took place 12 “Action and Action- modules on entrepreneurship training, months after the first measurement. All data were collected Regulation in taught on a weekly basis. Two experienced using personal interviews and questionnaires. Entrepreneurship: lecturers from the two universities deliver Evaluation of a Highlights: the program using action regulatory Student Training theory training delivery methodologies.  Action knowledge was a central factor promoting the for Promoting During the course, students form teams of initiation and maintenance of entrepreneurial activity. Entrepreneurship”, four to six students that start a real Compared to the control group, the training increased Mimeo. Recover business during the training using $100 the likelihood of starting a business by 50 percent, and from: for start-up capital. The training is not compared to the initial status in the training group, the http://www.uni- part of the regular university program-- training increased the likelihood of starting a business kassel.de/fb07/file participants do not receive any credits or by 219 percent; admin/datas/fb07 grades for participation but receive a  The training had a positive and significant effect on: (a) /5- certificate at the end of the training. entrepreneurial self-efficacy (F = 10.44, p <0.01, Institute/IVWL/Fo interaction effect = .03 and group effect after training rschungskolloquiu 0.44); (b) action knowledge (F = 17.65, p<0.01, m/SS12/121219_S interaction effect = .05 and group effect after training TEP_Evaluation_v0 0.61); (c) action planning (F = 5.53, p<0.05, interaction 9.pdf effect = .02 and group effect after training 0.47), and business opportunity identification (F=7.70, p<.01, interaction effect = .02 and group effect after training 0.42). The effect of training on entrepreneurial goals was marginally supported (F = 2.88, p<0.10, interaction effect = .01 and group effect after training 0.31); and  Entrepreneurial action at T2 had a significant effect on entrepreneurial action at T3 (β = 0.26; p<0.01) and action knowledge had a significant and positive effect on entrepreneurial action (β = 0.13; p<0.05). The coefficient on entrepreneurial self-efficacy on entrepreneurial action was not significant. UTES - Sweden Beneficiaries Evaluation tier Johannisson, Bengt, (University Landström, Hans, Business undergraduate and engineering Training for and Rosenberg, [172] Entreprene graduate students at two Swedish 2 Jessica, (1998). urs) universities “University The evaluation used three tests to assess entrepreneurial Training for Description action capability (EAC), locus of control (LoC) and an Entrepreneurship entrepreneurial value index (EVI). Between 1994 and 1995, The program, as tested for in the – An Action Frame the tests were administered to 265 business students at evaluation, aimed to influence of Reference”, Vaxjo and Halmstad University, 110 engineering students at entrepreneurial action capability, locus of European Journal Halmstad University and 213 business owner-managers of control and entrepreneurial values. The of Engineering small firms (less than 20 employees)—the latter group was program was intended for business Education, Vol. 23 subdivided into traditional or single venture owner- administration undergraduate students at No. 4, pp. 477-496. managers and genuine or multiple venture owner-managers. Vaxjo and Halmstad Universities, The LoC test was not applied to the owner-managers. engineering students at Halmastad University, and small-business owners. Highlights:  Contrary to expectations, no significant differences in entrepreneurial action capability (EAC) were found between single owner managers and multiple owner managers;  The EAC and EVI results were highest for business students participating in entrepreneurship programs (7.11 and 3.28, respectively), followed by engineering students (6.51 and 2.47, respectively) and lastly owner- manages (6.03 and 2.29, respectively); the differences between business students and owner managers were significant at p<0.01, and between engineering students and owner managers significant at p<0.10;  Business students enrolled in entrepreneurship programs showed higher entrepreneurial action capability compared to business students from conventional programs (significant at p<0.01). However, business students in conventional programs scored higher on the entrepreneurial value index and locus of control, suggesting that showing entrepreneurial value did not necessarily lead to orientation in entrepreneurial action (locus of control was significant at p<0.01);  Contrary to expectations, there was no evidence that students in entrepreneurial programs with an engineering orientation had higher scores on [173] entrepreneurial action capability compared to students enrolled in parallel business programs (significant at p<0.01); and  Academic training had an impact on students' entrepreneurial action capability; however, the short- term effects were stronger than the long-range effects. [174] Entrepreneurship Training – Potential Entrepreneurs (EETPo) Country Name Program Evaluation Reference /Region AAC- Nicaragua Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier Macours, Karen, Atención a Premand, Patrick, Agricultural households that faced increased 1 Crisis and Vakis, Renos, exposure to weather shocks linked to The evaluation design consisted of a randomized control (2012). “Transfers, changes in rainfall and temperature trial to estimate the program impacts on consumption, Diversification and patterns. The program was targeted income, income diversification, participation and returns in Household Risk primarily towards women nonagricultural activities. The sample included 3,002 Strategies: Description eligible households in the treatment communities (56) and a Experimental random sample of 1,019 eligible households in the control Evidence with The Atención a Crisis program was a one- communities (50). Eligible households were assigned to one Lessons for Climate year pilot program that combined a of three packages: (a) the basic CCT ($145 plus $90 per Change traditional safety net with interventions to household for households that had children between 7 to 15 Adaptation”, Policy improve households’ ex ante risk years old attending primary school plus an additional $25 Research Working management through income diversification. per child; (b) the basic CCT plus a scholarship for vocational Paper No. 6053, The program had two objectives: (a) to serve training (training focused on diversification outside World Bank. as a short-term safety net by providing cash subsistence farming as well as the labor market, and transfers to reduce the need for adverse business skills training workshops), and (c) the basic CCT coping mechanisms and (b) to promote long- plus the productive investment grant ($200 to encourage run upward mobility and poverty reduction starting non-agricultural activities). Baseline data was by enhancing households’ income collected in April-May 2005; the first follow up took place in diversification and risk-management July-August 2006 nine months after the receipt of payments capacity. The program targeted agricultural but before the full implementation of the training and the households that faced increased exposure to productive grant components. A second follow up took place weather shocks linked to changes in rainfall in August 2008 and May 2009, or on average about two and temperature patterns. The program was years after households had stopped receiving payments. targeted primarily to women and complemented an ongoing conditional cash transfer program with two interventions to Highlights: promote income diversification: (a) a vocational training scholarship and (b) a  Two years after the end of the intervention, both the productive investment grant. The program productive investment grant and the training helped to targeted a total of 3000 households for a protect against the negative impact of shocks and reduce one-year period in six municipalities. the variability of consumption and income, while the basic CCT package did not offer protection against the negative effect of shocks; [175]  The productive investment grant and training showed positive and significant results in increasing consumption (12 percent and 9 percent respectively) as shock intensity increased by one standard deviation;  The effect of only the training package on consumption showed a strong positive and significant impact. Conversely, there was no significant impact found for only the vocational training package on consumption; and  In terms of household participation and returns to nonagricultural activities, results showed that the households that received the productive investment grant package were 13 percentage points more likely to engage in nonagricultural self-employment, though no significant impact was found on nonagricultural wage employment. The magnitude of the impact on returns is large, amounting to a 15-20 percent annual return on the initial investment of $200. For households that received the training package the increases shown were not significant. EPAG - Liberia Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier World Bank, Economic (2012) “Can Skills About 2,500 beneficiaries in nine 1 Empowerme Training Programs communities in Monrovia and Kakata City nt of The evaluation measured the impacts of the skills packages Increase Adolescent Description on employment, behaviors, empowerment and agency, and Employment for Girls and family welfare. The study used a randomized pipeline Young Women? EPAG’s objective is to smooth young research design—randomly assigning beneficiaries to The Case of Young women’s transition from school to wage or receive training in either the first round (March 2010- Liberia”, Women self-employment. The program offers a six- February 2011) or the second round (July 2011 to June Adolescent Girls month classroom training component 2012). Approximately 2,500 young women were accepted to Initiative, Results (business development skills or job skills, participate in the program. The evaluation randomized Series life skills, and entrepreneurship skills; participants into a treatment group, which included two followed by six months of job placement and types of treatments (a) training package on business support. The program is targeted to young development and life skills or (b) training package on job, women aged 16 to 27 who are not currently entrepreneurship and life skills--and a control group. in school and reside in one of the nine target Impact was defined as the change in outcomes between the communities in and around Monrovia and time the program started and six months after the classroom Kakata City. Participants receive small training ended, as compared to a statistically similar control stipends contingent on classroom [176] attendance and a small bonus for completing group (the second round trainees). the training program (US$ 20). Highlights: Costs: Per unit cost range from US$ 1,221  The program was well received-- the retention rate was (business skills training) to US$ 1,678 (job 95 percent and attendance averaged 90 percent; skills training).  The program increased employment among trainees by 50 percent, compared to those in the control group;  Positive employment outcomes were driven primarily by the business development skills trainees, whose monthly income increased by US$ 75 per month;  The program increased girls' savings compared to the control group. At midline, the treatment group had a total of US$ 44 more in savings compared to the control group; and  There were no significant changes to borrowing or lending among beneficiaries. JE - Juventud Dominican Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier Ibarrarán, Pablo, y Empleo Republic Rosas, David, and Young people aged between 16 and 29 from 1 Soares, Yuri, disadvantaged backgrounds who did not The study evaluated the impact of job training interventions (2006) “Impact have secondary education on reducing the search time for employment and Evaluation of a Description unemployment, increasing employability, income and the Youth Job Training duration of employment. The evaluation applied an Program in the The program objective was to increase experimental design where the eligible population was Dominican employment opportunities for the low- randomly selected to training. The sample consisted of 786 Republic” Expost income population; achieved by facilitating individuals in the treatment group and 563 in the control Project Evaluation access to the labor market through training, group. About 93 percent of the individuals who started the Report, IDB, counseling and modernization of the training completed it, and of these 84 percent started an Recover From: country’s labor regulations. The program internship. Baseline data was collected in May-July 2005 and http://www.iadb.o aimed to: (a) increase the employability of a follow up interview was carried, on average, about 13 rg/en/publications the beneficiaries by adapting to the labor months after completion of the program. /publication- demands of employers; (b) assess the detail,7101.html?id effectiveness of different job and training Highlights: =18088 programs; and (c) establish ongoing  There was no impact found on the employment rate of dialogue on policies to modernize the labor participants. Employment rate post-intervention was 57 market; and (d) strengthen the capacity of percent for the treatment and 56 percent for the the Ministry of Labor to improve its policy controls; and program effectiveness. The program  Although there were caveats in the estimation, the [177] trained 27,000 low-income young people treatment group had higher monthly labor earnings-- aged 16- 29 who did not have secondary about 17 percent higher than the control group (about education. Training institutions interested in 10 percent on average). The earnings effects were larger providing training were selected through for the youngest age group, for residents of Santo bidding processes that started with a call for Domingo, and for those with some secondary education; proposals. A total of 121 training institutions  There were no large or systematic effects on hours participated in the program. worked per week in the overall sample or by subgroups; and  There was no evidence of a large or systematic quality Costs: About US$ 700 per person (estimate). effect in terms of training institutions. JEA – Jóvenes Colombia Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier Attanasio, Orazio P. en Acción , Kugler, Adriana Young people between the ages of 18 and 25 1 D., Meghir, Costas, in the two lowest socio-economic strata of The evaluation assessed the impact of the program on (2009) the population, living in the seven largest employment and earning effects as well as formal sector “Subsidizing cities, were eligible for the program employment and earnings. A randomized control trial was Vocational (Barranquilla, Bogota, Bucaramanga, Cali, conducted, and the total sample consisted of 3,300 Training for Cartagena, Manizales and Medellin). individuals broken down into a treatment (1,650 Disadvantaged Description individuals) and a control group (1,650 individuals). Youth in Anticipating a level of attrition of 24 percent for program Developing Jóvenes en Acción had the objective of participants and 40 percent for non-program participants, Countries: providing a combination of in-classroom the samples were increased to 2,040 for the treatment and Evidence from a training and on-the-job training to urban 2,310 for the control group. Baseline data was collected in Randomized Trial”, young people between the ages of 18 and 25 2005 and a follow-up individual interview was carried out Discussion Paper in the two lowest socio-economic strata. between August and October 2006. Telephone updates were Series No. 4251, Runbetween 2001 and 2005, the training done 4 months after completion of the program and the IZA, Recover from: institutions in Colombia’s seven largest individual interviews were carried out between 9 and 11 http://ftp.iza.org/d cities chose their respective programs. Each months after the telephone update. p4251.pdf institution was asked to select more applicants than they had the capacity to Highlights: enroll. From this pool of applicants, the  Individuals who were offered the training did better in program randomly offered the available the labor market. They were more likely to be employed, slots. Remaining applicants were placed in a to show an increase in paid employment by about 6.8 control group and were not offered the percent, and to have about 12 percent higher wage and training. salary earnings compared to those not offered training; The program reached 80,000 over the 2001  Women offered training were more likely to have paid to 2005 period (approximately 50 percent of employment and to be employed in the formal sector [178] the target population). Training providers and earn higher overall and formal wages (results for were selected through a bidding process men were estimated imprecisely); that included the following criteria: legal  Training increased the probability of having a formal registration, economic solvency, quality of sector job by 0.053 and a written contract by 0.066; teaching and ability to place trainees in  Training increased wage and salary earnings in the internships with registered employers. In formal sector but not in the informal sector; and 2005 there were 114 training institutions (43 percent private), offering 441 types of  A cost-benefit analysis using an average monthly courses and 989 classes with total slots for increase in earnings of 25,500 Colombian pesos for men 26,615 trainees. Training providers were and 30,000 Colombian pesos for women and a discount paid according to market prices and rate of 5 percent over a 40 year period yielded a net gain payment was conditional on trainees’ of US$ 2,344 for men and US$ 2,749 for women. Using a completion of the course. A total of 1,009 5 percent discount rate and depreciation in earnings of companies participated in the program, 10 percent annually, the results were still positive for many offering internships for an average of men US$ 906 and women US$ 1,066. 2 hours of training per day. The program provided a cash transfer of US$ 2.20 per day for six months to young men and women without children and US$ 3.00 per day for young women with children under the age of 7. This transfer was conditional on participation in the program. Costs: USD 750 per participant. WINGS - Uganda Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier Blattman, Women’s Christopher, Green, 1,800 beneficiaries (86 percent poor 1 Income Eric, Annan, women) in 120 villages, across two districts Generating The program evaluated the impacts of providing Jeannie, and in Northern Uganda Support beneficiaries with business skills training, a cash grant, and Jamison, Julian, Program Description follow‐up support (home visits). A randomized control (2013). “Building experiment with mixed-methods data collection was used to Women’s The objective of the program was to help gather information on beneficiaries at different points in Economic and beneficiaries create small businesses that time, starting in April 2009 and ending in August 2012. The Social generated earnings and to serve as an sample consisted of 1,800 poor, (mostly) women, aged 14- Empowerment earnings opportunity for the women of the 30 from 120 villages (15 beneficiaries per village). The through household. WINGS was implemented as evaluation built a wait-list control group whereby 900 of the Enterprise: An collaboration between AVSI Uganda (the beneficiaries were randomized in the program in phase 1 Experimental implementers) and Innovations for Poverty (mid 2009) and another 900 in phase 2 (early 2011). For Assessment of the Action (IPA) (the researchers). It was an phase 1, the program the evaluation randomized Women’s Income innovative 3-year program of economic [179] assistance and social support for the young participants into three groups: one received the WINGs Generating women and their children who were most program, another group received the core package plus the Support (WINGS) severely affected by conflict in northern cross-cutting design package (support for business Program in Uganda. AVSI Uganda has been active in networks), and the last group acted as the wait-listed Uganda”, IPA, Northern Uganda for almost three decades. control group. The evaluation measured program impacts Recover from: The WINGS core program package consisted on earnings, earnings opportunities, distribution of poverty http://www.pover of: (a) a few days of business skills training impacts, savings, characteristics of individual success, health ty- (5 days), (b) an individual start-up grant of (sick days, hunger, health status, index of depression and action.org/sites/de US$150 (on average) to be used for anxiety) , empowerment (indices of economic decision fault/files/wings_f approved business plans, and (c) regular making, gender attitudes, interpersonal violence, ull_policy_report_0. follow-up visits by trained community independence household support), and social capital pdf workers (3 visits). Optional components of (groups and networks, trust, social cohesion, collective the program included: (a) group training action). (cross cutting design component) and (b) Highlights: spousal training to support participants in their new endeavors.  A year after the intervention, monthly cash earnings doubled from 16,500 to 31,300 Uganda Shillings 31,300 (US$ 6.60 to 12.52), cash savings tripled, and short-term Costs: Total cost per participant expenditure on goods and services, and durable assets approximately US$688.00. The breakdown increased 30 to 50 percent relative to the control group of this unit cost per person: grant US$ 120, (the average treatment effect is 16,200 Uganda Shillings targeting and disbursement costs US$ 100, per month and the median treatment effect is 9,700 business training US$99, group dynamics Uganda Shillings per month); training US$ 65, follow up US$ 279,  The treatment was most impactful on the people with overheads US$ 25. the lowest initial levels of capital and access to credit;  Among who responded to treatment with more economic success (rather than average levels of economic success), the study found that women have lower success and individuals with higher levels of access to credit at baseline see fewer gains;  There was no large positive effect of skills/education, patience or good health on response to treatment;  There were little health and social effects (positive or negative) of the intervention on beneficiaries;  There was little effect on psychological or social well- being from the observed reduction in poverty;  There was no effect found on women’s independence, status in the community, or freedom from intimate [180] partner violence;  Involving male partners and training the couples brought some more positive results on the couples’ interactions and on women’s physical and mental health, but not on women’s empowerment;  There were large spillovers in the small village economies, including more women becoming traders, an increase in imports from major trading centers and a fall in the consumer price index;  Close supervision and advising by the NGO led to slight increases in economic success; and  The rate of return calculated for the WINGS full package plus administration (using an increase in income of 6,200 Uganda Shillings per month for 15 years) was -33 percent when applying a discount rate of 15 percent for 15 years, +36 percent when applying a 3 percent discount rate for 15 years. Although the return of the intervention using the average income effect was positive at a lower discount rate, it was not possible to determine whether the inputs that went into the program were the most appropriate or optimal combination, versus their individual contribution to the outcome. YOP – Youth Uganda Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier Blattman, Opportuniti Christpher, Fiala, Poor and underemployed youth aged 16 to 1 es Program Nathan, and 35 in Uganda’s north The evaluation looked at whether capital market Martinez, Description imperfections hold back occupational choice, income and Sebastian, (2013). employment growth, and play a role in the shift from “Credit Constraints, The program aims to expand skilled non- agriculture to non-agriculture. The methodology was a Occupational agricultural employment, reduce poverty randomized control trial; the treatment group received a Choice, and the and spur the north’s economic catch-up with one-time transfer (and the survey indicated those funds Process of the rest of Uganda. The beneficiaries are were not diverted by district officials). From the pool of 535 Development: Long young adults-- aged 16-35 years old. The groups, 265 were randomly assigned to the intervention Run Evidence form government of Uganda administers the (treatment) and the remaining 279 to the control. They Cash Transfers in program, with groups submitting proposals surveyed 2,675 treatment and control youth three times: Uganda” , Working to receive grants. The program is a one-time baseline, two and four years post- intervention. With an Paper Series, transfer of $7,487 per group (in 2008 attrition rate of 9 percent after two years and, 16 percent SSRN, Recover [181] dollars), and only one group is financed by after four years. The outcomes were measured in terms of from: the community. A church, government investment, occupational choice/levels, and income. http://papers.ssrn. extension office or an NGO provides training. Additional outcomes in social issues were also measured. com/sol3/papers.c fm?abstract_id=22 Highlights: 68552  Treated youth invested most of the grant in skills and business assets, and after for years they were 65 percent more likely to practice the skilled trade;  Earnings were 49 percent greater than the control group and 41 percent greater after four years.  The treatment group was more likely to engage in business practices such as keeping records, register and pay taxes;  There was a shift in occupational choice towards skilled work, where the treatment group was around 38 percent higher than the control, and it was larger for women;  Labor supply increased in response to the increase in capital for both men and women;  Earnings were larger for the treatment group and for both genders, but there was a catch up by the control group after 4 years, primarily among men;  Wealth index was 0.2 standard deviation greater for the treated than for the control; and  There was limited and weak evidence of a positive social impact after 2 years and none after four. GATE – United States Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier Karlan, Dean, Growing Fairlie Robert W., Potential entrepreneurs within 7 sites in 3 1 America and Zinman, states. Through The evaluation aimed to test the effectiveness of offering Jonathan, (2012), Entreprene Description free training on business start-ups or improving its “Behind the GATE urship performance. The methodology was based on a randomized Experiment: The program objective is to provide training Project control trial. The sample consisted of 4,197 Individuals Evidence on the to individuals interested in start-ups or seeking training had to attend to an orientation meeting Effects of and improving their own business. The program which made them eligible. They all had to fill a baseline Rationales for was delivered by Small Business application form. The applications were reviewed and Subsidized Development Centers and non-profit randomly assigned 2,094 to treatment and 2,103 to control. Entrepreneurship community based organizations (up to [182] fourteen organizations total) in 7 cities Attrition was not big, but it was larger for the control group Training”, serving both rural and urban population: than for the treatment. Application and intervention were Economics Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Minneapolis/St. administered between September 2003 and July 2005, and Department Paul, Duluth (Minnesota), Virginia follow-up surveys were gathered at 6, 18 and 60 months Working Paper No. (Minnesota), Portland (Maine), Lewiston after the intervention. The outcomes measured were related 95. Yale University. (Maine), and Bangor (Maine). The program to business ownership, business performance and size, and Recover from: delivered one-on-one assessment, and a labor market related (employment, household income and http://ssrn.com/a “bundle” of training by business consultants work satisfaction). Additionally, it looked at heterogeneous bstract=2008446 in classrooms and one-on-one settings. The treatment effects over various rationales for providing estimated cost of providing training to GATE training subsidies (credit constraints, human and recipients was around $850 to $1,300 per managerial capital constraints, labor market discrimination, person. and unemployment insurance frictions). Highlights:  Training significantly increased short run business ownership and employment, but these effects vanished over the long-term;  Business ownership impacts are mainly driven by differences on business starts only, and not by business exits.  There is no evidence that entrepreneurship training had an effect on the firm size distribution in the sense of producing high-revenue or high-employment firms after 5 years of intervention.  There was no evidence of significant effects on business performance, household income and work satisfaction in the short, medium and long term;  There was evidence on lasting effects of the provision of training on credit constraints effects, nor on human and managerial capital constraints, and nor on labor market discrimination.  However, the provision of entrepreneurship training had a significant effect on the short term on business ownership for those unemployed, but the effect disappears in the long-run. MEP- Argentina Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier Almeida, Rita and [183] Microeprend All beneficiaries of Jefes, a large scale 2 Galasso, Emanuela, imientos workfare program in Argentina (2007). “Jump- Productivos starting self- The evaluation assessed the short-term effects of promoting employment? Description self-employment as part of an exit strategy of a safety net Evidence Among program. The evaluation methodology was a quasi- Welfare The program objective is to promote the experimental design, exploiting administrative delays or Participants in development of productive activities as part cancelations to construct comparable groups. The sample Argentina”, Policy of an exit strategy from the workfare covered 553 beneficiaries of whom 309 are program Research Working program. The beneficiaries are all eligible participants (301 households and a total of 1,340 Paper No. 4270, member of Jefes, a workfare program that individuals) and 244 non participants (244 households and World Bank. provides direct income support to heads of a total of 1,116 individuals). The attrition rate was 14 households with dependents. The program percent, and the final sample was 476 beneficiaries of whom is delivered nationwide through the 279 were program participants and 197 were non- municipalities, and is administered by the participants. A baseline survey was gathered in 2004 with a Ministry of social Development. It provides follow-up survey in 2005. The outcomes measured were grants to purchase inputs and equipment, labor market related (labor market participation, hours of and local institutions (e.g. universities work, individual and household income). technical institutes and NGOs) deliver technical assistance. Highlights:  Program participants substituted away from other jobs and significantly increased their total weekly hours work, however this did not happen for other household members;  There was no evidence of a significant increase in individual income or total household income;  Effects were differentiated across gender, where women were more likely to combine self-employment with other jobs; and  Income effects were targeted to a subset of younger and more educated beneficiaries, and for those for whom the self-employment was related to an ongoing activity. ACTiVATE- USA Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier Sage Policy Group Achieving and Nearing Group, Each year, 30 mid-career women from either 3 the (September 2010). technology or business backgrounds in Commerciali The ACTiVATE evaluation assessed the firm achievements of “Economic Impacts Maryland zation of its past participants, drawing on data for the classes from of ACTiVATE at Technology Description 2005 through 2009. UMBC.” Submitted [184] in Ventures ACTiVATE’s objective is to help mid-career Highlights: to bwtech@UMBC through women start new businesses after learning Research and  At the time of the 2010 publication, each of these classes Applied new technologies. Started at the University Technology Park. had generated between five and six companies; and Training for of Maryland Baltimore County (UMBC) in Entrepreneu 2005, ACTiVATE recruits about 30 qualified  As of 2010, at least 77 jobs had been created by rs women from either technology or business ACTiVATE companies; leading the report writer to backgrounds in Maryland each year. They deduce that the very low cost of the program (about meet at least once a week in a classroom, $200,000 a year in Maryland) creates a remarkable separated into diverse interdisciplinary number of jobs. teams. Up to three instructors lead sections on business plan development, the market of emerging technologies and the actual formation of companies. BACIP- Pakistan Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier Zia, Umm E, Building & (2007). “Building 545 unemployed youth and young people 3 Construction and Construction Improvemen Description The project evaluation assessed BACIP’s impact on Improvement t Programme unemployment rates and income for youth and women in Programme: The program aimed to teach participants Pakistan as well as housing construction. The study Entrepreneur how to construct and repair better homes, concluded that the BACIP program was successful in Training & with the objective of becoming housing achieving its objectives. Employment entrepreneurs and thereby decreasing Generation.” Hope unemployment rates. BACIP trainings were Highlights: ’87 End of Project held in 39 villages around Pakistan from  The project added to the skill set of youth participants, Evaluation 2004 to 2007. Focused on improving the life helping them generate incomes; quality of unemployed youth and young adults (aged 16-35) in remote and poor  Many participants who would have otherwise been villages with marginal literacy rate, BACIP unemployed are now employed either as entrepreneurs focused on housing sector related enterprise or skilled laborers in the area; and development and promotion. There were  The community benefited from having more house three training tracks for the 545 builders—bringing down the cost of home building and participants—the first, in hard labor fixing. including carpentry, masonry, electrical wiring, stove making, plumbing and painting. The second in home maintenance. And third track—for 33 participants—in serving as sales agents of BACIP houses. From this pool of 545, 60 participants were given money to start their own home [185] improvement or sales businesses. DDEI- Dade USA Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier Mann, P, (1990). County “Nontraditional Minority business owners in Dade County 3 Entrepreneu business education rial Institute Description There was no thorough evaluation of the program; however for black the Metropolitan Dade County evaluates the program each entrepreneurs: DDEI aims to reduce the disparity among the year and has continued to fund it. Seven separate Observations from African-American community in such areas institutions of higher education have worked together a successful as housing, education, economic seamlessly to carry out the program. program” Journal development, and the criminal justice of Small Business system. Searches for information on Management. whether the program is still under implementation did not yield information. The program provides small business training and technical assistance to minority business owners and operators in Dade County (Florida, USA). Started in 1983 and supported by Metro-Dade County, the three five-week courses each year, costing $15 (that goes towards course materials), are designed specifically to train participants in becoming entrepreneurs. Upon completion, participants receive an institute certificate listing all courses completed. A second component of the institute is providing direct technical assistant to six African- American owned businesses each year, drawing on the expertise of the Dade County office of business development as well as three public/private sector seed capital funds. ENBDP- Sweden Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier Klofsten, Magnus, Entrepreneu (2000). “Training Potential entrepreneurs in technology-based 3 rship and entrepreneurship enterprises New The evaluation assessed the possibility of stimulating at universities: a Business Description entrepreneurial behaviors in a way that will lead to positive Swedish case.” Developmen outcomes, like an improvement in the quality of new Journal of The program aims to train individuals in the [186] t Programme start-up of new technology-based or projects or firms. The evaluation was carried out using a European knowledge-intensive enterprises. Financed series of follow-up surveys of past program participants. Industrial Training by public money from the Swedish National 24. 6: 337-344. Highlights: Board for Technical Development and the Technology Bridge Foundation in Linkoping  Participants noted that the program benefited them by in 1994, ENP has its participants develop a providing: a better structure in their business because business plan, attend workshops on the their business plan had been gone through thoroughly; process of developing a business have a and senior entrepreneur serve as a mentor,  Participants pointed to a supportive environment with check-in with a program manager to discuss ample pressure to perform; a network that stimulated their progress, network through formalized development; the ability to analyze a business idea groups, have the ability to rent space in an and/or plan. incubator space at a nearby science park, and have access to seed financing in the form of grants or soft loans. SEWA- India Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier Field, E., SEWA Banks Jayachandran, S., 597 female SEWA Bank clients 3 and Pande, R., Description The evaluation assessed the program’s impact on (January 2010). participants’ financial literacy, business skills and firm “Female The program aimed to teach participants the development. For the experiment, 597 women were Entrepreneurship? basic of financial literacy and business skills surveyed, all of whom had actively saved with SEWA in the A Field Experiment to spur improvements in their businesses. past two years and were employed (drawn from a random on Business This was a one-time intervention in 2006- pool that met this criteria). Two-thirds of the women were Training in India.” 2007.Participants were SEWA bank clients placed in the treatment groups. All participating women Centre for Micro who had a savings account and took a two- were categorized into sub-castes based on their surname Finance, IMFR day training course that covered financial (Muslims, Hindu SCs and Hindu UCs, non-scheduled castes Researcher, literacy (including basic accounting skills, and others). Working Paper interest rate and life-cycle planning), Series No. 36. business skills (cost reduction, investment, Highlights: customer service) and an aspirational  Training led to a significant increase—13 percentage module (including a short film highlighting points—of taking out loans within four months of successful SEWA members who used good training among Ucs, and none borrowed beyond their financial practices to pull themselves out of means; poverty). For homework, participants filled out a worksheet identifying a financial goal  Training had no effect on savings; they wanted to achieve over the next six  There was a positive and significant effect of the training months, and during the second day on business income only among Ucs, suggesting that the participants broke it into short-run steps. new loans were put toward business investments; [187]  Uc women were more likely to talk frequently with family members about their business plans; and  The evaluation suggested that the training encouraged Ucs to start or expand their microenterprises. SIYB- Start Vietnam Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier Goppers, K., & and Improve Cuong, M. T. Over 1 million farmers 3 Your (2007). Business Business Description The evaluation assessed the program’s efficacy in helping Training for program participants improve their business performances. The Entrepreneurs in The original program aimed to train micro evaluation included a visit to a dozen locations where SIYB Vietnam: An and small business owners in basic business programs took place during 2006, with interviews of at least Evaluation of the management, and helped them—as well as 10 different beneficiary entrepreneurs in each location. The Sida-supported aspirational entrepreneurs—start up or participants had positive things to say about the program; Start and Improve improve the performance of their however the program’s consistency and rigor were noted as Your Business businesses. The students had regular course limitations. (SIYB) project. work, refresher training and post-training Swedish support. From 1998 to 2004, the Vietnam Highlights International Chamber of Commerce and Industry (VCCI)  Available information indicated that the SIYB training Development and the International Labor Organization program helped the businesses of participants; and Cooperation (ILO) implemented Start and Improve Your  While increased profits weren’t always recorded, the Agency, Sida. Business (SIYB) program in Vietnam. majority of firms benefited from being better run, Today, SIYB has partnered with Vietnam’s owners having a better understanding of the market and General Department for Vocational Training an increase in confidence and business outlook among (under the Ministry of Labor) to deliver the participants. program to over 1 million farmers over the next seven years. Participants will get skill training around agriculture and rural occupations in one of 800 vocational outlet training locations around the country. WEMTOP- India Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier Neill, C., Sreedhar, Women's K., Kapadia, K, Over 1,000 rural producer women 3 Enterprise (1998). “A Final Management Description The study assessed the program’s impact on women’s soft Evaluation Report Training and business skills. Evaluated in 1996, staff interviews from of the Women’s The program aimed to improve the Opportunity across WEMTOP and participating NGOs were used to Enterprise enterprises of rural producer women in Program understand the program; as were the findings of a pilot Management India. A pilot program, WEMTOP ran from impact survey, monitoring and evaluation data that had Training Outreach [188] 1992 until 1996. WEMTOP training was in been prepared about the 1,077 women who took part in the Program credit, market linkages, technical skills pilot program. (WEMTOP), training and management training as well as prepared for the Highlights: empowerment. Women learned in groups Economic around the country—by the end of 1995  A large proportion of the participating women became Development over 1,000 women had participated in the more self-confident and more involved in group decision Institute program. The Economic Development making; and of the World Bank.” Institute designed the training, bringing in  Women benefiting from WEMTOP were those who EDI Evaluation expertise on Indian development, and hadn’t previously been part of a group, women who Studies, Number ultimately partnering with 21 NGOs to carry have since organized themselves for income-generating ES98-3 out the training. activity for the first time, and women who already working on enterprises have become more systematic in their efforts. WSBP/MBD Vermont, Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier Bauer, K., (2011). P - Women’s USA “Training Women Women in Vermont with business ideas 3 Small for Success: An (WSBP); low-income Vermonters who want Business The evaluation assessed participants’ motivation to start Evaluation of to start their own business (MBD) Program and their own businesses, participants’ definitions of success, the Entrepreneurship Micro Description barriers they faced, and the trainings’ impact on their Training Programs Business interviewing skills. A qualitative approach was used, with in Vermont, USA” Mercy Connections Women’s Small Business Developmen area college students interviewing 27 graduates of WSBP Journal of Program (WSBP)’s objective is to train t Program and 16 graduates of MBDP in 2008. Entrepreneurship women in the skills needed to own, run, and Education, Volume staff a business. Women participating in the Highlights: 14 WSBP seek help at different stages of their  Participants were extremely positive about their business – some have a concept, others have entrepreneurship trainings; an enterprise but need help with marketing, financing, etc. WSPB accepts woman  The skills the majority emphasized having gained were: trainees of all income levels. a solid business plan, financial training, some education in marketing education, and a higher confidence level; The Micro Business Development Program  The most common negative responses were that the (MBDP) of the Vermont Community Action bulk of experience-based teaching was directed towards Agencies aims to provide technical those who only had an idea for a business even though assistance and training to low to moderate many of the women participants had already opened income Vermonters who want to start or their business and were looking to refine their skills; expand a small business. and For the purposes of evaluation, participants  Another gap was inadequate preparation for dealing from both programs were trained in with labor issues. interviewing skills—with practice questions [189] and coaching provided by mentors and instructors. [190] Entrepreneurship Training – Practicing Entrepreneurs (EETPr) Country Name Program Evaluation Reference /Region EDC — Bosnia- Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier Bruhn, Miriam and Entrepreneu Herzegovina Zia, Bilal, (2011). 18 to 25 year old clients of Partner 1 rship “Stimulating Microcredit Foundation around Tuzla, Developmen Managerial Capital Bosnia Herzegovina t Center in Emerging The evaluation assessed the impact of a comprehensive Markets: The business and financial literacy program on firm outcomes of Impact of Business Description young entrepreneurs in emerging post-conflict economy. and Financial The methodology consisted of a randomized control trial The objective of the program was to identify Literacy for Young with a sample size of 445 active business loan clients — the determinants of entrepreneurship in Entrepreneurs”, between 18 to 35 years old—who were interested in the emerging market economies where there Policy Research training at the initial phone screening. The evaluation design are stringent constraints on business Working Paper No. suffered some changes over time. By the end, the treatment growth. Carried out in 2009, participants 5642, World Bank. group was composed of 117 individuals (39 percent of the were young adults in Bosnia-Herzegovina individuals who were invited to the training) and 148 were who had small businesses or who were in the control group. A baseline survey was conducted in developing a new enterprise. The program April and May 2009. The implementation of the business was run in partnership with Partner training was carried out between June and December 2009. Microcredit Foundation (a group that An exit test was administered at the end of the training to all operates within and near the city of Tuzla). participants. Finally, a follow‐up survey was conducted in It consisted of comprehensive business May and June 2010, one year after the baseline survey. training for existing and potential Outcomes were based on business creation and survival, entrepreneurs who had loans at Partner business performance, business growth, business practices Microcredit Foundation. The training was and investments, and loan behavior. provided by Entrepreneurship Development Center, a local NGO in Tuzla. The training included six comprehensive modules; and Highlights: participants were provided a stipend of US$35, and given free transportation to the  The training program did not influence the business training location. survival; it did improve the business practices, investments and loan terms for businesses;  The training improved business and financial knowledge Costs: free for beneficiaries. on average (after the training, the total score of the exit test had increased from a baseline of 2.6 to 2.9). At follow‐up, the average treatment effect of the training on [191] business and financial knowledge was positive, but not statistically significant;  The strongest effects of the training were on improvements in business practices and investments: the treatment group was 17 percent more likely to implement new production processes than the control group, and 11 percent more likely to inject new investment into the business;  The training increased business profits for entrepreneurs with above median financial literacy at baseline by 54 percent, although the results were not statistically significant at conventional levels; and  No impact was found on loan amounts, but there were significant impacts on loan restructuring. The treatment group was 3.4 percent more likely than the control group to refinance its loans. This effect was large, indicating that the treatment almost doubled the likelihood of refinancing loans. END- South Africa Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier IFC, (2008). “Do Endeavor Programs The target is mostly small and medium 1 Supporting High enterprises that are particularly conducive An external evaluation of Endeavor South Africa was Growth to innovation in South Africa completed in March 2007, assessing if programs supporting Entrepreneurs Description high growth entrepreneurs worked. The evaluation was Work? Evaluating based on a quasi-experimental design where the 19 selected the Endeavor- The program objective is to support small enterprises (EEs) comprised the treatment group (those South Africa and medium enterprises in order to promote who received the whole arrange of Endeavor’s services) and Project”, Monitor economic development and job growth. 33 non-selected (non-Ees) applicants were the control No. 45322, IFC. Endeavor, headquartered in New York City, group. The review included an online survey, interviews http://www.ifc.org launched its operations in 1997 in Latin with Ees, and with other applicants who were rejected (non- /wps/wcm/connec America and now has operations around the Ees). The surveys and interviews provided quantitative and t/56f787804aaaac world. Its South African program started in qualitative information. The outcomes aimed to estimate the 8980fdd29e0dc67f 2003. As with all Endeavor programs, effect of being chosen as a program participant on firms; as c6/Endevr.pdf?MO participants go through a highly selective well as assessing total sales, export sales, number of D=AJPERES vetting process ensuring only potentially employees, and income. high impact entrepreneurs take part in the training. On average 4-6 entrepreneurs are selected each year, and supported by Highlights: successful entrepreneurs, business school [192] professors and students in business plan and  The program had positive effects on sales growth; strategy development, as well as being  On average, sales for Ees increased by approximately assisted by their mentorship as they develop R2-R3 million more than non-Ees; their businesses. The non-profit Endeavor  The effect on the percentage of export sales was not Global delivers the program. statistically significant; and Ees’ most used services were the mentoring, training course and networking opportunities, but not all the services were used, showing that achieving all program objectives required some additional effort. FINCA- Peru Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier Karlan, Dean and Entrepreneu Valdivia, Martin, Clients of FINCA microfinance institution 1 rship (2011). “Teaching (approx. total of 16,000 clients in Lima and Program The study tested whether micro-entrepreneurs were Entrepreneurship: two Andean Provinces) maximizing their profits given the resources available to Impact of Business Description them, and whether lessons on business development Training on improved FINCA-Peru clients’ profits. A randomized control Microfinance The program aims to teach entrepreneurial trial was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of Clients and skills that improve business practices to integrating business training with microfinance services, Institutions”, The clients of FINCA-Peru, a micro-finance using a sample of FINCA Peru’s preexisting l ending clients. Review of institution that trains low-income female On average, they were organized in groups of twenty women Economics and entrepreneurs using a village-banking randomly assigned to control and treatment groups, Statistics, Vol. 93 methodology. In Peru since 1993, FINCA- stratified by credit officer. The distribution of the groups Issue 2, pp 510- Peru provides training sessions for 16,000 was 139 groups were assigned to treatment and 101 to 527. clients. Participants use the money to invest control. The evaluation used three key data sources: FINCA in their businesses, and are required to save financial transaction data, a baseline survey before the money each month. FINCA’s ultimate goal is randomization results were announced, and a follow-up to provide clients a financial service while survey up to two years later. The response rate was 76 helping them develop their businesses. percent for the follow-up survey, and it was lower in the Training typically lasts 22 weeks and is in treatment group (75.2 percent) compared to the control Lima and two more rural provinces. The group (77.9 percent). The results of the analysis were training materials were developed by FINCA, divided into four categories: (1) business outcomes, (2) Atinchick and Freedom for Hunger, and business processes and knowledge, (3) household outcomes; training was timed with the loan cycles. and (4) microfinance institutional outcomes. Highlights:  Basic business training to preexisting clients did not lead to higher profits or revenues on average. However, difference-in-difference specifications, found a positive [193] but small impact on enterprise revenues;  Positive changes in four business skills and practices outcomes were significant at 95 percent (keeping records, an index of business knowledge, the use of profits for business growth, and implementation of innovations in the business);  No training impact was found on household decision making;  The training led to a 4 percentage point increase in the client retention rate – generating an increased net revenue for FINCA;  The training had no effect on loan size or accumulated savings; and  Sometimes the stronger training effects were found for those clients who expressed less interest in the training in the baseline survey. GNAG- Ghana Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier Mano, Yukichi, Ghana Iddrisu, Alhassan, Aprox.1,000 metalwork entrepreneurs in 1 National Yoshino, Yutaka, the Suame Magazine, located in the city of Association The evaluation assessed how micro and small enterprises in and Tetsushi, Kumasi, Ghana of Garages Sub-Saharan Africa could become more productive. The pool Sonobe, (2011). Description of entrepreneurs was 167 metalwork entrepreneurs “How Can Micro randomly selected from the GNAG member list. However, and Small The program objective was to provide due to attrition and implementation problems, the final Enterprises in Sub- management training to Micro and Small sample was 113 entrepreneurs. The treatment group had 47 Saharan Africa Enterprises in order to become more entrepreneurs while the control consisted of 66. The data Become More productive. The program ended in 2007. The were gathered before and after the management training. A Productive? The beneficiaries were individuals from Suame survey of metalwork entrepreneurs was conducted in early Impacts of Magazine, a large cluster of garage 2005, with a follow-up study in November 2008, about a Experimental Basic mechanics and of metalwork enterprises year after the training sessions were completed. The Managerial that produce a variety of metal products in outcomes were measured in terms of practice adoption and Training”, Policy Kumasi, Ghana. The program was funded by financial outcomes. Research Working the Policy and Human Resource Paper No. 5755, Development Trust Fund from the Highlights: World Bank. Government of Japan, and the training was  The training had a strong impact on the adoption of the modeled on the Business Course provided recommended practices, although the firms experienced by the Japan international Cooperation [194] Agency. The training was delivered by the decreased profitability due to new competition; Suame Branch of the National Vocational  After the training, the percentage of firms in the Training Institute. The program consisted of treatment group keeping records increased by 36 three modules of classroom training and percentage points whereas the increase was 6 each module lasted for five weekdays, 2.5 percentage points in the control group; hours per day.  Similarly, the percentage of firms in the treatment group analyzing business records increased by 34 percentage points while the increase was about 3 percentage points Costs: US$ 40,000 to setup and to run the in the control group; program ($740 per participant).  However, these effects were not homogeneous because between a third and half of participants did not adopt these practices;  The decrease in the sales and gross profits after the training were somewhat smaller for the treatment group than for the control group, respectively -12.9 percentage point compared to -19.6 for the sales, and - 2.8 percentage points compared to -6.9 for the gross profits. Also, the effects of the training on the gross profits are much more significant than the effects of the training on sales revenues; and  Participation in the training program increased the probability of survival by 8 or 9 percentage points. MIDA- FBO Ghana Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier Institute of Training- Statistical, Social Farm-based organizations (FBOs) in 30 1 Millennium and Economic districts in the Northern Agricultural Zone, Developmen The evaluation aimed to measure the impact of the FBO Research, (2012). the Central African Basin Zone, and the t Authority- training program on farmers’ farm productivity and crop “An Impact Southern Horticultural Belt Farm-based income. The evaluation methodology was a randomized Evaluation of the organization Description phase-in approach where farmers were put into early and MiDA FBO training late treatment categories to enable the estimation of Training: Final The program aimed to increase the program impact. Approximately 1,200 FBOs were ex ante to Report”, University production and productivity of high-value be interviewed as part of the evaluation. The surveys were of Ghana cash and food crops while enhancing the conducted over a three year period during the lifespan of the competitiveness of these crops in targeted program, from November 2008 through January 2011. geographical local and international markets Under the evaluation design, each farmer was to be in 2006-2011. The beneficiaries were the interviewed twice – in rounds one (baseline) and two farmers in the Northern Agricultural Zone, (follow-up). The overall attrition rate was about 10 percent The Central African Basin Zone, and the over the baseline and follow-up. The outcomes measured [195] Southern Horticultural Belt in Ghana. The were loan accessed and estimates on behavioral (cultivated program organized the farmers in Farmer land size, chemical use and value, labor hours, and seed use). Based organizations (FBOs), composed of Highlights: five farmers. The FBO training sessions lasted 27 days, over three days a week. The  There was no evidence of intervention impact on crop training was performed by Millennium yields and crop incomes overall, but there were Development Authority (MiDA). Every significant zonal differences with on crop incomes; farmer who was trained received a starter  Training positively impacted the loan amounts that pack to pilot the knowledge and skills household received, but were driven by MiDA loans; acquired during the training. The content of  Training increased farmers’ use of more formal sources the starter pack included fertilizer, seeds for for loans; and an acre, protective clothing and some cash amount for land preparation, all valued at  The intervention led to an increase in the use of US$230. improved seeds and fertilizers by farmers, but that was mainly driven by the starter pack that participants received. NRSP — Pakistan Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier Giné, Xavier, and National Mansure, Ghazala, Over 300 groups of borrowers (CO) at five 1 Rural (2011). “Money or branches of a microfinance institution in Support The evaluation assessed the main barriers to Ideas? A Field three districts of rural Pakistan Program entrepreneurship in a country, specifically around access to Experiment on Description human capital and credit for entrepreneurship. The Constraints to methodology consisted on a field experiment in rural Entrepreneurship The program’s objective is to enhance Pakistan with a subset of male and female microfinance in Rural Pakistan” participants’ business knowledge, and their clients of NRSP organized in Community Organizations World Bank, firms’ creation and performance. At the time (Cos). The experiment offered training to a randomly Mimeo. of its evaluation in 2007, NRSP tied a series selected half of the 747 groups of borrowers (Cos) from 5 of its microloans to entrepreneurial training different branches of three different districts (treatment sessions. The program developed a field group), while the other half did not receive training (control experiment where a subset of male and group). A baseline survey was conducted in November 2006, female NRSP clients in rural Pakistan were and the business training sessions were held in 2007. A offered 8 full time days of business training follow-up survey was conducted in December 2008, six and the opportunity to participate in a months after the loan lottery concluded and about 13 lottery to access business loans of up to months after the loan orientation meetings. The attrition 100,000 Rs (USD 1,700—about seven times rate between the baseline and follow-up about two years the average loan size). Over 46 hours of after was 16 percent. The evaluation focused on intent-to- training, participants studied business treat estimates. The outcomes were related to business planning, marketing and financial knowledge, creation and performance. management. Upon completion of the training modules, NRSP identified the [196] participants that were eligible to apply for a Highlights: larger loan size.  Business training led to increased business knowledge NRSP’s more typical approach to (estimate value of 0.058, with significance at 10 percent microfinance lending includes a requirement level); that its members join community  No effect of business training was found on business organizations. NRSP members must meet creation either with or without access to the larger loan regularly with their community (estimate value of -0.006); organization, contribute towards the group’s  Offer of business training led to improvements in savings as well as their own, and both business practices such as recording the sales on a piece receive and repay their loans. With a of paper as well as separating business from household presence in 54 districts in Pakistan and accounts; started in 1991, NRSP now works with more than two million low-income households in  Female CO members who had lower levels of business the country—providing uncollateralized knowledge at baseline increased business knowledge by microloans to individual clients, who then about 87 percent (p-value 0.12), but differently from must become members of a community men, they were unable to put into practice their newly organization (CO). Additionally, NRSP offers acquired knowledge; training in vocational skills and provides up  Business training led to a reduction in business failure to 80 percent financing for infrastructure by 6.1 percent among male business owners, compared projects in the villages. to the control group, but there was no effect among business women (p-value of 0.98); and  Access to the larger loan, in contrast, had little effect on anyone. PRIDE Tanzania Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier Bjorvatn, K; Tungodden, B. The more than 300 clients of PRIDE 1 “Teaching Business microfinance in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania The evaluation aimed to answer the question “what is the in Tanzania: Description impact of training on small-scale entrepreneurs in terms of Evaluating business skills?” The evaluation included a randomized Participation and The program objective was to help clients’ control trial, conducted in 2009, approximately six weeks Performance.” business results. Run in Tanzania between after completion of the training program. Clients were Journal of the 2008 and 2009, PRIDE Bank provided randomly placed in treatment and control groups from the European microfinance training to 300 small-scale pool of clients at intermediary loan levels (500,000 and 1 Economic entrepreneurs in Dar es Salaam. Participants million Tanzanian Shillings –TZS--, US$ 300–600). A Association April– attended 21 sessions lasting 45 minutes randomly selected subset was drawn from the pool clients May 2010 8(2– after each client’s weekly loan meeting. In who were offered training. The sample size included 126 in 3):561–570 total, 319 clients were offered free training, the treated group and 126 in the control group. There was [197] and 325 clients were placed in the control an attrition rate of 15 percent for the treatment group and group. Clients who attended at least 10 out 13 percent for the control group, but it did not affect the of the 21 sessions received a diploma from randomization. The final sample was 107 for the treatment the University of Dar es Salaam’s and 104 for the control. Monetary incentives helped keep Entrepreneurship Centre (who had helped the response bias low. The evaluation focused on two developed the training). criteria: participation and performance (the latter measured as entrepreneur business skills). Costs: free for participants. Highlights:  The mean attendance for the sub-sample of the treated participants was 15.9 out of 21 sessions (76 percent), indicating that the training was perceived as beneficial for the businesses;  More schooled, more skilled (in terms of math), and more experienced (in terms of age) entrepreneurs had higher attendance than those who scored lower on these dimensions. The values of attendance were respectively 1.70 (significant at 10 percent), 1.62 (significant at 10 percent), and 2.26 (significant at 5 percent);  On average, the treatment group had a 9 percent higher score on the business knowledge test than the control group. Based on the business knowledge results, the treatment group received in incentives price an average 1,810 TZS compared to 1,662.50 TZS for the control group; and  The effect of training appeared to be highest for entrepreneurs who participated frequently in the course, who initially did not have a lot of formal education, but who did have strong cognitive skills. ROT- Rules Dominican Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier Drexler, A., Fischer, of Thumb Republic G., & Schoar, A. 1,200 Clients of ADOPEM microfinance 1 (2010). Keeping it institution in Santo Domingo, Dominican The evaluation assessed the impact of different financial Simple: Financial Republic accounting classes on firm-level and individual outcomes. A Literacy and Rules Description randomized control trial was constructed with two of Thumb. UT treatment groups (one for each type of courses offered) and Austin, London ROT’s objective was to improve participants’ a control group. The 1,200 person sample was selected out School of [198] business practices and firm performance. of the existing clients of ADOPEM who had expressed an Economics, Between November 2006 and July 2008 in interest in training. A baseline survey was conducted in Innovations for Santo Domingo, 1,200 loan clients from November 2006 and due to errors the sample reduced to Poverty Action, and ADOPEM (one of the Dominican Republic’s 1,193 people. The distribution across the groups was 402 Jammel Poverty largest banks) were randomly assigned a assigned to accounting courses, 404 to ROT courses and 387 Action Lab, and basic accounting course, a Rule of Thumb to the control group. The baseline survey collected MIT, NBER, and entrepreneurship course or no training. The information on household and business characteristics, ideas42. Rule of Thumb course was about simplifying business practices and performance, business skills, training financial decision making without explaining history, and interest in future training. An ex-post survey the motivation—separating out personal was conducted during the summer of 2008, at least 12 and business expenses. The course—held months after training was completed. The attrition rate for once a week for three hours over five this survey was of 13 percent. The outcomes were based on weeks—taught participants how to estimate business practices and performance. business profits, how to pay oneself a fixed Highlights: salary and how to reconcile accounts when business funds have been used for personal  The impact of financial literacy training varied by its purposes (and vice versa). delivery method: the training program based on simple rules of thumb led to significant improvements in the Additionally, in order to understand the way SMEs managed their finances relative to groups not potential limitations to classroom-based, offered training or offered the standard accounting financial training, some of participants training; (randomly chosen) received in-person financial trainer visits to the micro-  ROT training increased by 6 to 12 percent the likelihood entrepreneur’s business. The follow-up that individuals reported separating business and visits ensured that individuals understood personal cash and accounts, kept accounting records, the material and were capable of and calculated revenues formally, in comparison with implementing their newly-acquired financial the control group, which did not receive training. The accounting skills in their businesses. The estimates were significant at the 5 percent-level. No courses were offered at seven schools statistically significant effects were found on the throughout Santo Domingo. business practices of those assigned to the accounting treatment;  Individuals assigned to the ROT treatment reported a Costs: The overall program cost was substantial increase (about US$31) in revenues during approximately US$17 per participant. Some bad weeks. This value was significant at the 5 percent- fees were randomly assigned (up to US$5) to level. No discernible effects of the accounting program test for selection effects among the were found on revenues; participants.  Economically large increases in savings (6 percent) were found for the participants in the ROT trainings, and it was significant at the 10 percent level. No effect on savings was found for the group that received the basic [199] accounting training; and  Follow-up visits did not affect the outcomes for clients in the rule-of-thumb based training. In contrast, the follow- up visits to the participants of the basic accounting training showed a significant increase in savings levels of about 10 percent and an increase in the probability of implementing the accounting practices taught in class. But there were no improvements on real outcomes of the businesses such as sales were found. This suggested that effectiveness might be a matter of delivery method or the likelihood of implementing techniques conditional on understanding them. SIYB – ILO’s Sri Lanka Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier Mel, Suresh de, Start and McKenzie, David, Women who operate subsistence 1 Improve and Woodruff, enterprises and have been out of the labor Your The evaluation assessed how business training and grants Christopher, force but are interested in starting a Business affect the running of a business and their profitability. The (2012). “Business business training methodology was based on a randomized experiment Training and program Description conducted among women in urban Sri Lanka. The sample Female Enterprise included: (a) 628 current business owners- a random Start-up, Growth The program aims to help women start new sample of women working full-time in businesses and and Dynamics”, businesses and to make existing businesses earning below the median profit level (5000 Rs, or about Policy Research more productive. The beneficiaries are $40/month); and (b) 628 potential business owners - a Working Paper No. women who operate subsistence enterprises random sample of women aged 25-45 who were out of the 6145, World Bank. and those who are out of the labor force but labor force and were planning on starting a business in the are interested in starting a business. The next year. program is the ILO’s Start and Improve Your Business (SIYB), which provides 5-6 day Each of the two samples were randomly allocated into three training courses designed to help potential groups: (a) training only: 200 individuals invited to training; entrepreneurs set up a new business (e.g. (b) training plus grant: 200 individuals invited to training, selection of products, pricing, organization who received a grant of 15,000 Rs (US$130) conditional on of staff, purchasing of equipment, and other finishing training; and (c) control group of 228 individuals. inputs) and to help existing businesses grow Four follow-up surveys were conducted, at time intervals (e.g. marketing, buying, costing, stock corresponding to 4, 8, 16 and 25 months after training. control, record-keeping, financial planning). Attrition rates were relatively low, ranging from 6-12 The training was provided by the Sri Lanka percent, with information on business ownership available Business Development Centre. for 97 percent of firms. Measurements were done on business practices and business outcomes for both sets of [200] groups (business owners and potential business owners). Costs: The training is offered for free. The Highlights: training cost for the program is $126-131  Training alone did not appear to be enough to get per current business owner and $133-$140 subsistence businesses run by women to grow, although per potential business owner. results were more encouraging for using business training to help women out of the labor force as well as for improving profits and management of these businesses;  Training led to improvements in business practices for existing firms, although the magnitude was relatively small;  Training (with or without grants) had no impact on the survival of existing firms;  Training along with grants had no significant impact on the profits or sales of existing firms;  Training sped up the creation of new businesses; and  Businesses started by trained entrepreneurs were more profitable up to two years later, with profits and sales that were up to 40 percent higher. TECH- Central Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier Klinger, Bailey and TechnoServe America Schündeln, Individuals or existing small and medium- 2 Matthias, (2007) scale enterprises in Central America who are The evaluation assessed whether business training for SME “Can interested in setting up a new business or entrepreneurs or potential entrepreneurs could lead to an Entrepreneurial expanding business services increase in the number of business start-ups or an Activity be Taught? Description expansion in the size of existing businesses. The Quasi- methodology exploited a quasi-experimental approach Experimental The program aims to promote (regression discontinuity) where the number of participants Evidence from entrepreneurship and competitiveness at was fixed exogenously and provided a cut-off in the scoring Central America”, the national level through a Business Plan of applications. The sample size was 655 applications in the CID Working Paper Competition. The beneficiaries are three countries, where 377 received at least some training, No. 153, Harvard individuals or existing small and medium- and 278 were rejected applicants who did not receive any University. scale enterprises who are interested in training. The outcomes measured were related to starting or setting up a new business or gain the expanding businesses. necessary skills and abilities to expand their current businesses. In Central America, the [201] program attracts entrepreneurs with Highlights: existing businesses of about 10 employees  The evidence suggested that receiving business training on average. TechnoServe offers business significantly increased the probability of business start- training programs in Central America ups and expanded existing business; (Guatemala, Nicaragua and El Salvador).  The training program led to an effect of a higher probability-- 9 to 11 percentage points-- of opening a The program that previously ran in El business (for individuals without a business before the included a business plan development start of the program) in the treatment group and a 23 to component, with the potential to win seed 26 percentage point higher probability of expanding a funding. The financial prize was between business (for individuals with an existing business $6,000 and $15,000 (depending on country before the program) in the treatment group; and year), conditional on investment in the  Winning the competition led to economically significant business, plus some additional business changes in the probability of starting or expanding a development services. The number of business, suggesting the presence of financial applicants admitted into the program and constraints; and the number of participants that  Financial constraints were more important for women subsequently progressed to each stage was who wished to start or expand a business than for men. fixed before the competition began. Costs: Participants paid an application fee of $15. The implementation cost to run the initial program was $343,420. ULTP - Peru Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier Valdivia, Martín, Urban Land (2011). “Training Micro-entrepreneurs who were beneficiaries 1 Titling or Technical of a titling program in Lima Program The evaluation aimed to understand whether a business Assistance? A Field Description training program can complement titling to improve female Experiment to micro-entrepreneurs’ access to credit and increase their Learn What Works The objective of ULTP was to help women possibilities to escape from poverty. A randomized control to Increase grow their businesses and emerge from trial was conducted in which eligible female micro- Managerial Capital poverty. This was a pilot intervention of the entrepreneurs were randomly assigned to control and for Female Micro- program, and searches for information on treatment groups. entrepreneurs”, whether the program is still under Grade, Lima, Peru. implementation did not yield information. Eligibility was based on women having family businesses, a Recover from: Eligibility for the training was based on titled plot and expressing interest in participating in the http://siteresource women having a family business, a titled training program. There were 1,983 eligible women who s.worldbank.org/I plot, and expressing interest in participating were placed in two treatment and one control groups. The NTGENDER/Resou [202] in the training program. The training was distribution of women was 709 in Treatment 1 (T1) group rces/336003- organized into two components: a general which received only the general training component; 709 in 1303333954789/fi training component (GT) and a technical Treatment 2 (T2) group which received both the general nal_report_bustrai assistance component (TA). The business training component first and the technical assistance (TA) ning_BM_march31. training (GT) included 36 three-hour component; and the remainder 565 were assigned to the pdf sessions over approximately 12 weeks control group. A baseline survey was applied before (regular training). In addition, half of the randomization and a follow-up survey completed about four women who received the GT were offered an months after the end of the treatment. Follow-up surveys individualized support in the form of went from March to November of 2010. A total of 1,627 technical assistance (TA) over a period of women were interviewed, which implies an attrition rate of three extra months. The general training 18 percent, although attrition was slightly higher for the focused on best practices, with modules on control group (21 percent). A method of treatment-control personal development; business (T-C) differences based on the randomly allocated intention development and management; and to treat (ITT) was adopted. The outcomes were in terms of management and productivity improvement. business practices. The program was done in consortium with Highlights: three organizations (Centro de Servicios para la Capacitación Laboral y el Desarrollo,  Treatment induced women to make important Centro Latinoamericano de Trabajo Social, adjustments to their business practices, although they and Instituto de Promoción del Desarrollo differ across the type of treatment; Solidario).  Positive differences in business sales were found among the treated micro-entrepreneurs, but they were not statistically different from zero. The sales increases came mainly from those for whom the treatment included GT+TA. In a normal month, those treated with GT+TA sold 19 percent more than their control counterparts;  No significant employment effect was found due to the training, so the sales increases imply a productivity gain for the GT+TA treatment group;  GT+TA trained women were 5.7 percentage points more likely to participate in business-related associations;  GT treated women were more likely to close their old businesses (3.5 percentage points) once they realized that it was not profitable, while those who received GT+TA were more prone to plan and implement innovations in their current business (about 3.5 percentage points); [203]  Business results effects accrued among the businesses run by single women (0.34 s.d.), with a more entrepreneurial attitude index (0.36 s.d.), in households with titled dwellings (0.09 s.d.), and where the woman´s business was relatively more important for the household´s budget (0.25 s.d.), and for larger businesses (0.11 s.d.);  The aggregate standardized index for business practices showed statistically significant positive average effects of the training (0.037 s.d.), in particular, for those who received full treatment (0.049 s.d.); and  Increased participation in savings/borrowing for family or personal purposes was found. WEP- South Africa Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier Botha, M., (2006). Women “Measuring the Women who want to start their own 1 Entrepreneu Effectiveness of the business or have one and seek to improve rship An evaluation, conducted in 2004-2005, assessed the Women’s their entrepreneurial and management Program effectiveness of the training program on potential, new and Entrepreneurship skills. established women entrepreneurs in South Africa. The Programme, as a Description evaluation was an experimental design with a treatment Training group of 116 and a control group of 64. The information was Intervention, on The Women Entrepreneurship Program gathered through three research questionnaires. The Potential, Start-Up (WEP) aims to promote and encourage methodology involved factor analysis on the validity of and Established women entrepreneurs in South Africa and measuring instruments and perform the comparison Women address the lack of entrepreneurial training between treatment and control groups. The relevant Entrepreneurs in and education. The beneficiaries are women outcomes were measures of gained skills and knowledge on South Africa.” who want to start own business or have one running a business, increase in number of employees, University of and seek to improve their entrepreneurial turnover, productivity and profit. Pretoria. and management skills. The program involves screening, profiling, selecting, Highlights: training, development of business plans,  There were statistically significant gains in the four mentoring and access to finance to skills transfer factors (entrepreneurial characteristics, beneficiaries and was done in different entrepreneurial orientation, business knowledge, phases. The training phase is 6 days long entrepreneurial and business skills) between treatment and carried out through the University of and control group. Pretoria. Topics include networking and support; the use of role models; confidence  There were statistically significant (at a 5 percent level) building; and post-care training using differences in effectiveness between treatment and control group in relation of business improvement [204] mentors and counselors. factors.  There was improvement in the number of employees and the number of costumers for the treatment group (statistically significant) whereas this was not the case for the control group.  However, in business performance indicators (annual sales/turnover, value of capital assets, number of employees, number of customers per month, success of the businesses, probability of the businesses, satisfaction of the customers, and break-even point), both groups presented improvements before and after (mainly due to improvement in external factors of the economy). But they were statistically significant for the treatment group in 5 out of 6 indicators, while only 2 out of 6 indicators were statistically significant for the control group;  98.12 percent of the treatment group were satisfied with WEP and indicated that they would recommend it to a friend or a colleague; and  96.94 percent of the experimental group stated that WEP had helped them grow their businesses and 97.96 percent indicated that WEP had some effect on their businesses six months after the training. DDFET- Netherlands Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier Bergevoet, R.H.M., Dutch Dairy Giesen, G.W.J, Van Less than 100 dairy farmer beneficiaries per 2 Farming Woerkum, C.M.J, cohort in the Netherlands Entrepreneu The evaluation assessed the training’s influence on farm and Huirne, R.B.M, rship Description characteristics and the farmers’ entrepreneurial (2005). “Improving Training competencies; using a case-control study methodology. Two Entrepreneurship The program objective is to improve groups of full-time Dutch dairy farmers were selected to in Farming: The entrepreneurial competencies of dairy participate in the study. One group (n= 75) participated in Impact of a farmers. In this training program, farmers the training program, the second group (n=180) served as a Training develop and implement a strategic control group. The sample size was 164 of which 50 Programme in management plan, drawing on their comprised the treatment group and 114 the control group. Dutch Dairy strategic, opportunity and information- Two identical questionnaires measured the competencies of Farming”, 15th seeking competencies. The training program participating farmers at the start and at the end of the study Congress – consists of eight sessions. In these sessions, (two and half years later). The outcomes were based on Developing groups of farmers discuss aspects related to farm and farmer characteristics and entrepreneurial Entrepreneurship [205] entrepreneurial competencies. Each meeting competencies. Abilities to Feed lasts about four hours, during which time a the World in a Highlights: different part of the strategic plan was Sustainable Way, discussed; as are the previous day’s  On average, all participants benefitted from the Campinas, SP. assignments. Searches for information on program, irrespective of farmer, farm characteristics or Recovered from: whether the program is still under the level of competencies at the start of the program; http://www.ifmao implementation did not yield information.  It was possible to improve entrepreneurial nline.org/pdf/cong competencies of dairy farmers through similar training ress/05Bergevoet programs; and %20et%20al.pdf  Strategic competencies of dairy farmers had a positive relationship with farm size; supporting the general idea that when farms become larger, it becomes more important for farmers to be able to set, implement, and evaluate a strategy. FTDAP — Honduras Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier NORC, (2012). Farmer “Impact Evaluation 7,500 smallholder farmers in 16 2 Training and of the Farmer departments of Honduras Developmen The evaluation assessed any changes in agricultural Training and t Assistance Description productivity or income through training and technical Development Program assistance. A rigorous impact evaluation was designed but it Activity in The program aimed to increase the skills could not be undertaken due to implementation problems. Honduras: Final and productivity of farmers through four The evaluation was based on a quasi-experimental design Report”, University activities: (a) farmer training and that relied on a model-based approach (modified of Chicago. development, (b) facilitation of access to regression-adjusted-propensity-score-based estimator). Recovered from: credit by farmers, (c) upgrading of farm to Two rounds of surveys yielded 7,262 completed interview http://www.oecd.o market roads and (d) provision of an questionnaires, of which 4,526 were from the baseline rg/countries/hond agriculture public grants facility. The surveys (round 0) conducted in 2009 and 2010, and 2,736 uras/report- program ran from 2007 to 2010.In addition were from the follow-on survey round (round 1) conducted 100512- to training, eligible farmers also received a in 2011. Outcomes were measured in terms of increase evaluation-hon- limited amount of financial support to install cultivation of horticultural crops, household income and farmer-training- better irrigation systems. The project goal employment. and- was to increase employment levels by development.pdf improving farmers’ yield with improved Highlights: technology and mixing crops to emphasize  FTDAP had a positive impact on activities related to horticultural over basic crops. Implemented horticultural crops, but a broader positive impact on by Fintrac, FTDAP provided technical household income and expenditures was not detected; assistance and training to 7,500 smallholder  The results also showed that net income change from [206] farmers in 16 departments of Honduras. other crops was on average 11,360 lempiras (US$ 601) Eligible farmers also received a limited higher for program participants than for amount of financial support to install better nonparticipants; irrigation systems.  All of the income/expense components for other (horticultural) crops had positive effects;  There was no effect on the proportion of farmers growing horticultural crops; and  There was an effect on income, net income, expenditures and labor expenditures for other crops. PBS- El Salvador Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier Blair, Randall, Production Campuzano, Over 13,500 participants in El Salvador’s 2 and Business Larissa, Moreno, Northern Zone over approximately four Services The evaluation assessed the impact of PBS assistance on Lorenzo, and years employment creation and producers’ investment and Morgan, Seth, Description income, household income, and intermediate outcomes. The (2012). “Impact methodology was a randomized rollout design, in which Evaluation The project’s aim was to improve the some producers were offered PBS assistance several months Findings After One business ventures—profitable and before other producers were offered similar assistance. The Year of Productive sustainable-- of poor El Salvadorian farmers pool of beneficiaries was around 15,000 individuals. The and Business in the Northern Zone. From 2008 to 2012, sample size was 1,736 of which 518, 593 and 625 Activity of the PBS in El Salvador was funded by the individuals were distributed in dairy, horticulture and PRoductive Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC) handicrafts chains respectively. In all three value chains, Development and implemented by El Salvador’s individuals were randomized into treatment and control Project, El Millennium Challenge Account. Over four groups. Treatment groups were offered PBS assistance in Salvador”, years, 13,500 residents were provided the first implementation phase, and control groups were Mathematica Policy technical and material assistance in offered PBS assistance roughly one year after the treatment Research. industries like tourism, forestry, coffee group. Outcomes were measured in producer level and Recovered from: growing and produce. The program included household level. http://www.oecd.o three activities: Production and Business rg/countries/elsal Services (PBS), Investment Support, and Highlights: vador/report- Financial Services. The PBS activity offered  The offer of PBS had a positive and statistically 102012- training and technical assistance, in-kind significant effect on employment in the handicrafts evaluation-slv- donations, and other business development chain, but not in the dairy or horticulture chains; production-and- services to small farmers and business  Among all artisans in the treatment group, PBS biz-services.pdf owners. The program was administered primarily by FOMILENIO in partnership with assistance resulted in 0.13 additional jobs (Intention to different organizations. Treat Effect - ITT);  Among artisans who participated in the intervention, Cost: The cost of the Production and PBS assistance resulted in 0.19 additional jobs [207] Business Services activity amounted to (Treatment on the Treated Effect - TOT). This difference about $57 million. was equivalent to nearly 50 days of full-time employment per year;  Only in the dairy value chain did the offer of PBS have a significant positive impact of around $1,850 on dairy producers’ productive income (ITT), with a p-value of 0.01. At over $3,000, this impact was even larger among individuals who participated in PBS assistance (TOT);  Across all three value chains, there was no significant impact of PBS on producers’ investments and costs detected using ITT and TOT approaches;  No statistically significant impact of PBS on net household income was found in any value chain; and  No impact of PBS on household consumption was found in any value chain. 10kw- India Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier International 10,000 Center for More than 10,000 businesswomen 3 Women Research on worldwide are expected to participate by the The evaluation assessed past participants’ business Women. (2012). end of 2013. development since completion of the program, using a Catalyzing Growth Description quasi-experimental design, with participant interviews, in the Women-Run surveys, literature reviews, and business expert interviews. Small and Medium The program aims to provide support that 41 women responded to the surveys and interviews. Enterprises Sector otherwise wouldn’t have existed for (SMEs): Evaluating women’s enterprise development in India’s Highlights: the Goldman Sachs growing economy. Launched in 2008, the  Past participants reported newfound skills that 10,000 Women Goldman Sachs 10,000 Women Initiative strengthened their business’ performance as well as an Initiative. works with over 80 academic and nonprofit enhanced network; Washington D.C.: organizations globally to create programs  Half of respondents saw their revenue double over 18 International and coursework that is specific and relevant months, and respondents said their businesses grew by Center for to each of its locales. In India, the program is 6-10 employees; and Research on available in several major cities, and focuses Women. on small and medium sized enterprises.  Several respondents talked about their increase Over the last four years, more than 550 confidence and their involvement in the community women entrepreneurs have done the mentoring other women on business skills. program across Bengaluru, Delhi, Hyderabad, Mumbai and Pune. [208] CEM- Nigeria Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier Adiele, M., (2011). Certificate in “Certificate in Over 600 business owners (and aspiring 3 Management Entrepreneurial business owners) in Nigeria during its first The evaluation assessed past participants’ employability, Management six years firm performance and business skills. The program was (CEM) Training Description evaluated in 2011 using a non-comparative retrospective Programme, 2005- design of an online questionnaire completed by past CEM 2011: Impact The program aims to train potential and participants (n=192) and three focus groups of male and Evaluation Report. practicing entrepreneurs in business female participants from all class years. “ management and entrepreneurial skills, with the ultimate goal of improving Highlights: functional and operational deficiencies that  CEM has had a positive impact on skills improvement are prevalent at small companies in Nigeria. and capacity of participants as well as the performance Six years after its inception in 2005, CEM of their businesses; and had graduated 600 business owners/managers from its program. It was  74 percent of participants saw an increase in revenue in launched out of the Pan-African University. their firms. CREA- Mexico Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier Calderon, G., Capacitacion Cunha, J., and de 928 female entrepreneurs in Mexico’s State 3 y Giorgi, G. (2011). of Zacatecas Reclutament “Business Literacy o and Development: The evaluation sought to assess the program’s impact on Empresarial Evidence from a Description women’s businesses using a randomized controlled trial in a Americana Randomized Trial sample of 17 villages – seven treatments and 10 controls — The program aimed to help female in Rural Mexico.” of 928 women.. The participants completed a follow-up entrepreneurs enhance their basic business Capacitacion y survey several months after completion of the program. I skills. Held in 2009, the entrepreneurship Reclutamento must be noted that the randomized evaluation results have training program was offered to female Empresarial yet to be finalized and available results are preliminary entrepreneurs in a handful of localities in Americana Mexico Mexico’s State of Zacatecas. Led by (CREA Mexico) and university professors, graduate and the Department of Highlights: undergraduate students, the women used Economics, practical examples in their intensive class  Those with the training saw a significant effect on Stanford over six weeks. Modules ranged from weekly revenue, as well as daily and weekly profit; and University. marketing to price setting, with a set  The women who underwent the training also knew their curriculum of introducing the main concept, profit levels. applying the concept to simple examples and [209] using those concepts in their homework. DFCU- Uganda Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier McKenzie, D., Developmen Weber, M., (2009). Several dozen female entrepreneurs in 3 t Finance “The results of a Uganda each year Company’s The study evaluated the program’s impact on women’s pilot financial pilot Description networks, firm formation and business skills, using two literacy and financial evaluation methods. In 2009, the course was offered to 75 business planning This program aims to help women literacy and female DFCU clients. But low participation made the sample training program entrepreneurs enhance their business skills planning size too small leading to the use of a different methodology for women in and create a more thorough network. Small training for a subsequent evaluation. The second evaluation Uganda.” Finance and micro enterprise female business program for compared the change in firm outcomes over the 2007 to and PSD Impact, owners in Uganda took part in a women mid-2009 period for firms in the first training group in 2007 Issue 8. comprehensive training program, held at (treatment group) to that in firms whose owners started DFCU Bank. The training focused on training in mid-2009 (control group). potential borrowers, and took place over 12 days. The content included banking Highlights: requirements, processes, financial literacy,  Among the treatment group, 72 percent say the training separation of business and personal significantly improved their firm’s performance; accounts, and the provision of opportunities for business network and mentoring. The  Trainings made participants more likely to separate first training in 2007 included 51 women. their personal and business finances, but there were no other clear business skill impact; and  The training was not associated with greater access to finance or higher sales. ELP- Northern Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier Leitch, Claire M., Executive Ireland Harrison, Richard About 10 business leaders each year in 3 Leadership T., (1999). “ A Northern Ireland Programme The evaluation assessed the program’s effects on process model for Description participants’ skills and management education acquisition. entrepreneurship This was a three-part evaluation—first, a survey of education and Ireland’s Executive Leadership Programme participants and businesses (n=34), and of these responses, development.” aims to aid senior executives from large and 25 were probed for the program’s impact on business skill International small companies develop the knowledge, development. Finally, three of the participants sat for an in- Journal of skills and awareness to better communicate depth interview about the program. Entrepreneurial their values and move toward team-based Behaviour & leadership. In its first six years, 64 business Research 5. 3: 83+. leaders participated in the program. Highlights:  The program effectively mixed executive education and [210] on-the-job training—specifically around skill acquisition and management education. GOWE- Kenya Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier ILO, (2010) “ILO Growth- Evaluation Series: 700 female entrepreneurs in Kenya 3 Oriented Growth-Oriented Women The evaluation assessed the program’s efficacy in traini ng Women Entrepreneu them. Evaluated in 2010, the methodology included focus Entrepreneurs Description rs groups and one-on-one conversations among past (GOWE)-Kenya The program aimed to improve participants’ participants. Program.” access to capital, mentorship and enhance Highlights: http://www.ilo.org business knowledge and skills. Focused on /wcmsp5/groups/ female entrepreneurs in Kenya, the program  The trainings were highly rated by participants, but public/---ed_mas/- involved (1) participants’ access to finance there was a common belief that the program needed -- at the African Development Bank, (2) better mentorship and experiential learning; eval/documents/p training and business mentorship, (3) Past participants believe the program should have  ublication/wcms_1 improving the capacity of local business better follow-up around financing and to set training 42992.pdf service providers to help with the delivery of prices as market rates. services better targeted to beneficiaries. Running from 2007 to 2010 and implemented by the ILO, over 700 women participated in the training. INT-Interise United States Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier Interise.org, (2011).“Interise In 2013, Interise anticipates 700 3 2011 Report Card” participants This evaluation assessed the social and economic impact of http://www.interis Description the program. Interise does an extensive evaluation of its e.org/sites/interise program each year, and in 2011, an annual survey was sent .org/files/INTERIS The objective of the program is to provide out to past participants. Of the 451 alumni that received the E_REPORT_CARD_2 existing small employers with the resources surveys, 61 percent responded. 011_WEB.pdf they need to sustain and grow their businesses. Initially started as a regional Highlights: program in Massachusetts in 2004, Interise  62 percent of Interise participants had added jobs to is now a national program in the United their companies or maintained all jobs; States, imbedded in over 30 communities. Interise aims to help disadvantaged  61 percent of businesses offered health insurance to communities—its inaugural program in their employees and gave out an average salary to new Boston focused on the city’s lower-income employees of about $41,000; communities. From these initial courses,  Over half of Interise participants also reported a Interise gathered data to better understand growing business—with increased revenue (57 percent) [211] what aspects of its curriculum were most and government grants averaging $325,000 per effective. By the end of 2013, Interise will be business (47 percent of the businesses); and serving approximately 1,000 entrepreneurs  Nearly 80 percent of Interise participants reported per year. In addition, it offers entrepreneurs being actively involved in the community—and the the possibility of accessing a national majority (58 percent) encouraged their employees to be network designed to provide continued active as well. support and accountability as they implement their growth plans. Costs: Local partners set their own tuition rate, ranging from $500 to $2000 per participant. MSETTP — Kenya Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier World Bank, Micro and (2005) “Project Nearly 32,000 MSE proprietors between 3 Small Performance 1994 and 2002 Enterprise The evaluation of the project aimed to compare changes in Assessment Training and Description performance of trainees. The methodology was a Report: Kenya Technology performance evaluation—beneficiaries (both trainees and Micro and Small The program aimed to provide skills training Project trainers) were surveyed on the projects outcomes; there Enterprise and appropriate technology knowledge for was also an assessment based on project reports, legal Training and micro and small business owners, and to documents, project files, and interviews with people Technology encourage technological innovation in this involved. In 2005 the World Bank conducted a Project Project”, Report sector. Running from 1994 to 2003, MSETTP Performance Assessment Report to evaluate if the expected No.: 32657 also aimed to increase entrepreneurial results were produced, and to disseminate lessons drawn development of the private sector, as well as from the experience. increasing employment and incomes among informal-sector (Jua Kali) micro- and small- Highlights: scale enterprises (MSEs). The beneficiaries  The tracer studies conducted showed that the VTP were the Jua Kali workers in the improved profits, sales and investment in a significant manufacturing sector. The project was proportion of trainees, relative to a control group. It also financed by a World Bank loan. A critical encouraged business start-ups; component to the program was the voucher training program that subsidized skills and  Nearly 35,000 MSEs received training, compared to the management training to workers in the project’s official target of 32,000; manufacturing sector and develop a private  Four out of five trainees reported that the relevance and [212] market for training services. Nearly 35,000 quality of the training they received under the VTP was small enterprises were trained under the good or excellent. Trainees surveyed reported that program. thanks to the training they improved the quality of their product (43 percent), introduced a new product or service (71 percent), increased sales (66 percent), or Costs: 10 percent of the cost of training, and found new markets (58 percent). A lower proportion this percentage increased with additional (20 percent) reported that they enjoyed easier access to vouchers to the same individual. credit after receiving training;  The program encouraged some training providers to expand their training business (38 percent reported using their VTP revenues to improve their training business), but the long-run impact of the project on markets for training services appeared to have been modest, as many trainers returned to their previous activities once the program ended; and The efficiency of the project was negligible mainly due to implementation problems. PAVCOPA- Mali Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier Sangho, Y. (2003). Agricultural Mali Agricultural Merchants, producers and processing 3 Trading and Trading and industries in Mali Processing The 2003 World Bank report indicated the project never Processing Promotion Description operationalized its monitoring and evaluation unit. Further, Promotion Pilot Pilot Project the statistics made available were prepared ex post, by a Government of The program objective was to help monitoring and evaluation officer hired two months before Mali/PAVCOPA, producers, processing industries and for the project’s completion. No reliable quantitative CECI, CIDA, Japan merchants improve to the quality of their information exists on the impact of project activities on the Trust Fund, (2003) products and increase exports; as well as to beneficiaries. “Project bridge the gap between agricultural (PAVCOPA): processing/marketing enterprises and Highlights: Implementation financial institutions. Implemented as a five  PAVCOPA organized more than one hundred negotiation Completion Report year pilot program in 1991, as Mali faced sessions between private enterprises and the small (PPFI-P9210.” IDA- severe economic and political instability, number of financial institutions in the project, giving 27370; TF-23053. PAVCOPA had several components, bankers an opportunity to familiarize themselves with Document of The including the “Access to Credit”. This was the specific characteristics of local agribusinesses; and World Bank. done by organizing workshops and meetings  The project helped design and implement financial (Report No: between entrepreneurs and banks and schemes that opened up alternative financing 25884) financial institutions; and by organizing training and study tours on agricultural opportunities for producer groups (e.g., the importation processing for banking and financial sector of potato seeds) and got micro-credit institutions [213] staff. Financed by and implemented by the involved in agribusiness activities. World Bank, the entrepreneurship component included workshops, training modules and study tours were supposed to cover the key industries-- mango, green bean and hide/skin sub-sectors, among others. WETVBI- Tanzania Beneficiaries Evaluation Tier Bardasi, E., Holla, Women's A., (2010). “Impact 500 businesswomen in Tanzania 3 Virtual Evaluation of the Business Description The study assessed the efficacy of training and mentorship Tanzania Women’s Incubator on business skills and firm production. 500 women were Virtual Business The pilot program aimed to improve divided into two possible trainings—one with mentorship Incubator.” World women’s existing businesses by teaching and technical assistance, the other without. An additional Bank, Dakar. participants business and production skills. 250 women in the control group received no training. All The program trained 500 women in Dar es 750 women were given a baseline survey before the Salaam, and included a virtual incubator, trainings, and a follow-up survey in 2011 after the program tailored resources and support, a market ended. Results are pending. focus and the development of a mentorship network. The women underwent entrepreneurship and business management training, technical training around production skills as well as specialized technical assistance and mentoring. [214]