26384 ° º~ æ Ø L ª 338.43 65.32 52 , , . , , . , , , , , . : .. : .. This work was originally published by the World Bank in English as Land Policies for Growth and Poverty Reduction in 2004. This Russian translation was arranged by Ves Mir Publishers. In case of any discrepancies, the original English language will govern. "Land Policies for Growth and Poverty Reduction" 2004 . « ». . ISBN 5 7777 0259 7 © 2003 by The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank © 2005 -- « » . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XIII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XLI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . . . . . . . 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 . . . . . . . . . 172 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 . . . . . . . . . 215 . . . . . . . 222 . . . 227 : 1975 . . . . . . . . . . 235 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 (, , 3--6 2002 .) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 (, 29 --2 2002 .) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 (, , 19--22 2002 .) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 (, , 3--6 2002 .) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 2.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 2.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 2.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 2.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 2.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 3.2. . . . . . . . . . 155 3.3. , . . . . . . . 158 VI 4.1. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 4.2. : , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 4.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 4.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 4.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 4.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 4.7. : . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 4.8. : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 2.1. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 2.2. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 2.3. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 2.4. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 2.5. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 2.6. , , 1990--1995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 3.1. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 3.2. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 4.1. , , 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 2.1. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 2.3. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 VII 4.1. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 4.2. , , , 1990 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 4.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 VIII , , , . , , , , . , . , , , , . . , , -- , , , . . : , , , , , . , . , , , . : , , , , ; , , , . , , , , . , , , , , , , , -- , . : . , , , , , , . , X . -- . , , , . , , , , . . 1975 . . , , , . , , , . , , , . 2003 . . , ; , XI . (, ), ( , ). , , , . , , , . , , . , , , , . , , , , , . , , XV , , . . , , , , . , , , , . , , , , , . , . , , , . , , . , , , . , , , , , . , , , , , XVI . . . , , , . , , , . , , , , . . , , , , . , , : , . , , , ­ , , , , ­ , . , , , , , , . , XVII , . , , , . . , , , ; , . , , ; . , , , , , 1,3% . , , , , . . , 50 60% . o , , , . , , XVIII ­ . , , , , , ­ , , ­ . , : ) ; ) ; ) , ; ) / . , , , , , , , . , , , . , . , , . , , , /, , , , . . , XIX , , , , . , . . , , , . . , . , , . , 2 10% . , , , , , , , ; . , , , . , ; XX , , . , , , , . , , . . , , , , , , . , , , . , , , , , , . ., , , . , , , , , . , , , , . , , XXI , , . , , , , , , , . , , , , , , . , , , . , , . , , , . , , . , , , , (, ), , , . , , , , , , , . XXII , . , , . , , . , , , , , 90% . , , , . , , , . ­ , . ­ ­ . , , , , . , , , , , , . XXIII , , ; ; , , ; . , , . , , , , . , . , , . , , , . , , . , . , , . , , , : , , , , , , , . XXIV . , , , , , . , , , , , , , . , , . , , , . . , , , ; ­ ; ; ; , , . , 50% 40% . , , , . , XXV , , . , , . , , . , 30-- 80% , , . , , , , . ­ ­ , . , 50%. , , . , , . , , , , , , , , , , , . , , , , . , , , , XXVI . , , , , , 1992 ., , , . , , . , , , , , , , . , , , . , . , , , . , , , . , , . , , , . XXVII , , ­ , ­ . , , , , . , , , , , , , , . , , , , , , . , . , , . , , , , , , . , , , ­ , . , , . XXVIII , , . . , , , , , , , . ( , ) , , . , , , , ­ , ­ . , , . , , , , , , , . , , , , , . , , XXIX , , , , . , , , . , , , , , , , . , , . , . , , , , , , . , , , , , . , , , , . XXX , , , , . , . , , , , . , , , , , , . , , , , , , . , , , , , . , ­ , , ­ , . , , XXXI , , , , , . , . , ­ , , ­ . , , , , , . , , , , , . , , , . , . , , , . , , . . , , , , . , , , ­ , . , , XXXII , , , , , , . , , , , , , . , , , , , , , , . . , . , , , , , . , , , , . , , , , , , . , , ­ XXXIII , . , , , , , . , , , , , , . , , , , , . , 70% , , ­ . , , , , . , , , , . , . () , , XXXIV . , , , . , . . : , , . , , . . , , , . , , , . , , , , , , , , . , , . XXXV . , , , , , . , , , . , , , , . , , , , , . , , , , . , , , , . , , , , , . , , , , , , , . , , , XXXVI . , , , , , , . , , ; , , . , , , , , . , , . . , , , , . , , , , . , , , . , , , , . , XXXVII , , , . , , , , , , , . , , , . 1990 ., . , , : , , ­ , , , . , , , . , , , . , , , , , . . : , XXXVIII , . , , , , , . , . ; . , , : . , , . , , , , . , , , , , , , . : , . , XXXIX ­ , ­ , , . , , . , , , , , , , . , , , . , . , , . , , : ­ , , ­ , , . , , , , , , , . , , , , , , , . , , ­ , ­ ; , . , , , XL . . , , . , , . , , . , , , . , ­ . , , , , , , , , . . , , , , , . , , , . XLI , , , . , , . , , , , , , , , . , , , , . , , , , , . , , , , 1990 . , , , , . , , , ­ , . , , , , , , , , . XLII , , . , . , , , , , , , , , . , , , . , , , , . , , . . , , , . , , , , . , , . ( , (), ); , , . XLIII , . , , , , , , ; . , , , , , , . ( ), , . , , . , , . , , , ; , ; , . , , . , , , , . , , , . XLIV , , , , , , . . , , , , ­ ­ , , , . , , , . , . , , , , «» , ­ , , , ­ . . . , , , , , , , , . XLV , . , , . , , . , , , , , , . , , , , . , , , , , , . , , , . . , XLVI , , , , , . , , , , , , . . , , . , . , , , , , . , , . , , , , . , , , , , , . XLVII , , , , , , , , , , , . , , , , , , . , . : , , , , , , . , , , , , , . , : , ­ , , , . , , , . , , , , , , XLVIII . , , , ­ . , . , , . , , . , , , , , , . , , , , , , . , , , , , . , , , ­ , , . , , , , XLIX . , , , . , . , , , , , . « » 1975 ., , , , , , . , 1975 . , . , 1975 . . , , , 1975 ., , . , , , , L . , , , , , , . , , , , , , , , . , , , . , , , , , . . , , , , . . , , , , , , , . , , , , , LI . , , , , . , , . , , , . , , 1975 . , , , . , , ; , , . , , . , , , , , , , . , , . , , , . . , , , , , , , , , . , . 1 , , , , , , . , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . , , , . « » (ESSD), , , . , , , (3--6 2002 .), (29 -- 2 2002 .), (19--22 2002 .) (3--6 2002 .), , (13--14 2003 .). , 1 http:/www.worldbank.org/devforum/ forum_prr landpolicy.html , , . , , , ; , ; ; () , . , , , . , , , , , , , . , , , . , . , , , , , , , . , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . , , , ' ; -- ; , -- ; -- . XIV 1 . , , , , , . ; , ; ; , , ­ , , . , , , . , , , , . , ­ , 1 , . , . . , , . , , , , . , . , . , . , , , . , , , , . , , , , 1,3% . , , 2 , . : ( 90%) , , , . , . , , . , , , , , , , . , , . , , , , . . , , . , , , , , , . 3 , , , , . , , , , , , , . , , , , . , , , , , , . , , , . , . , , . , , , , . 4 , , , , . , ; , , , , , . , , , , , . , , , , . , , , , , , , . , , ´ , , , , . . , 5 . . , , , , , , . , , . , , , . . , , , ­ 2002 . . , . ­ , , , . , , , , . , « » 6 , , , , . , , , , , , . , , , , . , , , . , , , . , . , , . , . , , , , , , , . , , , , , 7 , , , ­ . 2 , , , . , , , . , , . , , , . , , , , , . , , : ) ; ) , ; ) , . , , , , . 9 , , ( ) , , . , , , , , . , , , , . , , , ; ; . , , , . , , , , . . , , , , , ­ , , 10 (hasiendas) , . , . , , , , . , . (Hayami and Ruttan, 1985) , , . , , , , , . , , , , . , , . . , , , , . , . . , , . , 11 , , , , , . , (Boserup, 1965) . 1 , . , . , . , , , , . , , , , . , , . , , , . , , . , , , . / , , . , . , , , , , 12 , . , , XIX . , , , . , 1826 . , , (Feeney, 1988). , , , , . , , , . , , (Eggertsson, 1996; Grossman, 2001, 2002; Grossman and Kim, 1995). , , , . . , , , . , , , . . , , 13 , , , , , . , , (Binswanger, Deininger and Feder, 1995). , , , , , . (Conning, 2002), , , ( ) . , : · , « » , , , , ( . 2.1 ). , , , , , , , , . · , ( , ). 14 2.1. , , , , . 1840 . , 1849 . , 1871 . , 1873 . 1880 . , 1875 . , 1838,1865 . , 1840 . XVI . () , 1840 . , 1856 . , 1920 1930 . 1905 . , , 1908 . . 1900 . , 1918, 1926, 1939 . 1930 .: , · ; 1926 . · ; · ; · . , 1940 . , , 1894 . . 1910 . , 1880 . «», XIX . , 1899 . , 1892 . , 1930 . , XIX . , 1804 . () , XIX . , XIX . , 1911 ., 1951 . , 1930 . , 1894 . , . 1950 . , , . 1912 . · ; · ; · . , , () 1890 . , 1896 . , 1902 . ( ), . , 1931 . 15 2.1. , () , () , 1940 . , 1896 1931 . , 1896 . , 1909 . , 1924 . · · , 1939 . () I . , IV . .. , II . , . 500 . () , . 500 . , 1400 . , , 700 . 723 . , , XIX . 1870 . , XIX . «» , XVI . «» , XVI . ( , 1840 . , 1818 . ) , XIX . , XIII . , 1550 . , 1790­1850 . , XIV . : · , (, 1400­1450 . ), 1565 · , 1588 . · , 1597 . · , 1661 . , 1580 . , 1597 . , 1830 . , XVI . «», XVI . , XVII . , 1890 . , 1950­1960 . , 1825 . , 1857 . , 1847 . , 1882 . , XVI . , 1540 . «», . 1600 . , («peonage»), 1877 . 16 2.1. , () , , 1540 . «», 1490 . , , XVII . 1850 . , («peonage»), 1790 . , 1843 . , 1877 . , 1540 . «», 1530 . , 1570 . , 1550 . , 1580 . , XVII . : Binswanger, Deininger, and Feder (1995). . , , , , (. 2.1). XIX . , , . · (, , ) , , , , . «» (prazo) . , 1950 . , , . , . 17 2. , , , . , , . . , , , , . , , , ; , , , , , , , . , , , o . . , (Palmer, 1977) 3. , , , , , , , , , . 4 , , . . , , , , ( ), , . 18 , , , . , . , , . , , (), (, , , , , , ), ( () ), , (, , , , ) ( ). , . , . , (Swinnen, 2002), (Acemoglu and Robinson, 1999). , , , , . . 19 ; , , , . , : , , . , , , , . . , , , , , , ( ), , , . , , , . , , , , , , (Otsuka and Hayami, 1988). , , (Callison, 1983; Dorner and Thiesenhusen, 1990; King, 1977; Koo, 1973; Wariner, 1969), , , , , , . . , 20 , , . , , , . . , , , . , . , , , , , . , , , , , , , . , , , , . (Ibbotson, Siegel and Love, 1985), , , , , 60%, , 5. , , , , , 21 2.1. , , 1960­2000 ., % 8 () 6 . 4 . 2 0 . . ­2 0,9 0,7 0,5 0,3 ( ) : () . , , . , . 0, ( ), 1, ( ). : Deininger and Squire (1997); ( 2002 . -- Statistical Information Management and Analysis). , (Berry, 2001). , (Adelman, Morris and Robinson, 1976). , , , , (Birdsall and Londono, 1997). , 22 (Keefer and Knack, 2002), , (Birdsall and Londono, 1997; Deininger and Squire, 1998; Rodrik, 1998) 6. . 2.1 , 1960 2000. . , (Deininger and Olinto, 2000). XIV . , , -- (Brenner, 1997; Hilton, 1978). , , , , : , , (Allen, 1998). , , , , , , , , , , . , , , . , : . 23 , . , . , , 30 (Hayami, 2001). , . , ( ), ( , ) . , , ­ . , , , , , , XIX . . , , , , , . ( , ), . , , , . XIX . (. 2.2). . 2.2 , , , , 40 , , . 7 24 2.2 , 1870­1880 1820­1840 1870 1870 , , 10 , % 61,0 42,2 13,1 13,5 , , 50 , % 14,0 37,5 79,5 57,1 , % 1900 49 76 56 83 1929 55 58 77 93 , % 1900 34 36 12 26 1910 40 50 13 26 1930 52 67 18 27 1980 85 91 54 64 , . , 1995 . 6 130 5 850 3 340 2 610 51 33 117 112 , 1994 . 1958 1948 1996 1992 -- -- : Nugent and Robinson (2002). , , , , , , . , (Platteau and Baland, 2001). , (Bardhan and Ghatak, 1999), , , , , (Banerjee, 1999; Dayton Johnson, 2000). , (Foster and Rosenzweig, 2001). , , , 25 , , (Cardenas, ). , , « », , , , . «» (zamindari), , «» (zamindars) , . , «» (mahalwari), , , , , . , , , XIX . , , . , , , , ( ), , . , , , (Banerjee, Gertler and Ghatak, 2002). , , 20--60% , 40% , 5% , . , , , 25% , , , ( 45% ), ; 26 , . , ( ), « , , , , » (Sjaastad and Bromley, 2000, . 367). , , , . , , , . , -- . -- , , , (de Soto, 2000). , , . , , , , , , , , , . , , , , , , , , . , . , 8 , 27 (Powelson, 1988). . , . , , . , , , . , , , , , , . , , , , . , , , , , . , , . , . . , , , 28 , , , (Allen and Lueck, 1992). , , , (De Meza and Gould, 1992; Feder and Feeny, 1991; Hotte, 2001; Malik and Schwab, 1991). , , (Grossman and Mendoza, 2001). , , , , . , , , , . , , . , , . , , , , , . , , . , , . , , , . 29 , . , , , , , , , , , , . , , . , , , , , , , , , . , , , ­ ­ . , , , , , , ; . 30 «» , . , ( ), . , , , , , . . . , , , , , , . , , , , . , , . , , . , . , (70 50 ); , . (Wang and Murie, 2000). 31 99 , , (Kalabamu, 2000). , , « , » « », . , , , . , , , , , , . , , , , , , , , . , (de Soto, 2000), 50 , . 9 , , , , , . 32 , , , , 46 1916 ., , , , ­ , (Baker, 2001). , , , , , , , . , , , , 10 . , , , , , , . , , , , , , , , , . , . , , , , (, ) , . , , ( ). , 33 , , . , , , . , . , , , , , . , , ; , , , . , , , , , , , , , , , . , , , , , . . , . 34 , , , , , , , , , . , (Elickson, 1993). , , . , , , , , . , , , , . , , , , . , , . , , , ; , , . , , (Me arns, 1996) (Boserup, 1965; Dong, 1996)11 . , , , , , 35 . , , , , . , . , , , , . , , , , , , , , , , . , , , , , . , , , , , , , (Ellickson, 1993). , 40 , ( ) , , , , , , , (Anderson and Sweimmer, 1997). , , , . , . , 36 , . , , , . , , , , , . , , , , . , , , . , , , , , (McKean, 1996). , , , , , , . , , , . , , , , , . , , , (, . .). , , , «» . , , , 37 , , . , , , , . , , , , . , . , , , , , , . , , . , , , , , , , , , . , , , , . , . , 38 , , . , , , , (Kung, 2000). . , , , , , (Deininger and Jin, 2002). (Boserup, 1965), , . , , , ­ , . ' , , (Firmin Sellers, 2000), (Joireman, 2001). , , (Kantor, 1998). , , , , (., , Feeny, 1989) , , . , , , . 39 , , , , , , , (de Soto, 2000; Umbeck, 1977). ; , , , , , , , . , ; , , , , , . , , , , , , , . , , , , , ; , , . , , , , . , , 40 2.1. , e , , (Valetta, 2000). , , , , . , , , , , . , , . , , . , , , . , , , , , , , . . , . , , , , , . , , , , . , , « » (Arwood, 1990; Pinckney and Kimuyu, 1994). , , , , . , . 41 ­ 2.1 ­ , . , , , . , , , , , . , , . , , , , , , , , , . . , . , «» , , . XIX ., , , , , , . (Gerard, 2001). 42 , , , , , , , . , , . , , , , , , , (Barzel, 2000). , , . , , , , , , . , , , 12. , , , , . , , , «», . , , « », , , , 43 , (Berry, 1993). , . , , , , , : ) ; ) , , , o , ; ) , , , . , , , , , , , (Berry, 1993). , , , , , , . , , , , ' (Chauveau, 2000). , , , . , , , , , 13 ; 44 2.2. , , % 60 51,4% 50 41,2% 40 30 26,4% 25,9% 20 10 5,7% 0 : Angel (2000). , , , , , . , . , , , , . . 2.2 , , , , , . , 45 , , 50% , (Angel, 2000). , . , , , . , , (Deininger and Chamorro, ). , , 50% 40 . (Dei ninger and Olinto, 1998), , , , . , , , , : , , , , (Durand Lasserve and Royston, 2002). , , , , (Brasselle, Gaspart and Platteau, 2002; Gray and Kevane, 2001; Place and Otsuka, 2001). , . , , , , , , (Dein inger, Jin, Adenew, Gebre Selassie and Nega, 2003). 46 , , , , . , ­ , (Fafchamps and Quisumbing, 1999). , , , , (Schulz, 1999). , , , , . . , , , , . , , , (Leroy de la Brie`re, 1996; Doss, 1996; Fafchamps and Quisumbing, 2002; Haddad, 1997). , , , , (Katz and Chamorro, 2002). , , . , , , , . 47 , , . , , , (Arwood, 1990; Carter and Wiebe, 1990; Migot Adholl, 1993; Pinckney and Kimuyu, 1994), , (Durand Lasserve and Royston, 2002a). , , . , , , , (Firmin Sellers and Sellers, 1999)14 . , . . , . , , , , . , , . , , (Werlin, 1999), , , , 48 . , , , (UNCHS, 1999). , , . , , , , , , . , , , , . , , () , , , . , , . , , , . . (Field, 2002), 17%, 50% 45 49 . , , , . , , , , (Burgess, 2001). , . , , , (Yang, 1997). , , , , , , (Murphy, 2000). , , , , , , . , , , , , , «» . , , , (Messick, 1996). , , , . 50 (Alden Wily, 2002). , , . , 1992 . «» (ejido) , , , , , , (Gordillo, de Janvry and Sadoulet, 1998). , , , , , «», (World Bank, 2002a). , . , , , , , . (Cattaneo, 2001) , , , , . (Ahuja, 1998), , , . , , , , (Kijima, Sakuria and Otsuka, 2000; Otsuka, 2002). , , , (Nelson, Harris and Stone, 2001). , 51 (Angelsn, 1999). , , , , (Godoy, 1998). , . , , , . , , , , . , , , , , (Baland, 1996). , , , (Key and thers, 1998; McCarthy, de Janvry and Sadoulet, 1997), , , . , , , , , , (Kijima, Sakuri and Otsuka, 2000). , , , , , . 52 , . , , , . , . , , , , , , , , . , , . , , , , . , , , , , . , , , . . , . , , , , , . 53 2.3. , , % 200 181% 172% 156% 150 143% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100 50 0 , 1996 , 1984 , 1996 , 1988 , , : Feder (2002). , . , , , . , , , , , , , . , , . , , , ( ). (., , 54 Besley, 1995; Feder, 1988), , , , , , , , , . , , , . , , . . 2.3 . , , , , (Lin, 1992; McMillan, 1989). , , , , , , , . , , , , ­ , , ­ . , . , , , . , . . (Jacoby, Li and Rozelle, 2002) , , , , , , , 55 . , , 15% , , , , (Pender and Kerr, 1998). ( ), , , . , , 14--25% , , (Feder, 1988). , , , , 58%, 18% , (Feder and Nishio, 1999). , , . . . (Do and Iyer, 2002) , , , , . , , , (Yao, 1996). , , (Carter, 2002). , , , (Pender and Kerr, 1998). 58%, (Jimenez, 1984). , , 73% , , 56 2.4. , , % 250 217% 204% 200 150 148% 100% 100% 100% 100 50 0 , 1996 , 1998 , 1996 , , : Feder (2002). (Dowell and Leaf, 1992). . 2.4 . , -- , , -- , , , (Bes ley, 1995). , , . , , ; , , , 57 , , , , . , , , , (Gavian and Fafchamps, 1996). , , , (Otsuka, 2001). . . (Briggs and Mwamfupe, 2000) , , , . , , , , , , , , , , , (Crisologo Mendoza and Van de Gaer, 2001; Otsuka, 2001; Shepherd, 1991). , , -- , , , , , -- , , , , (Aw Has san, 2001) 15 . , , , , , (Suyanto, Tomich, Otsuka, 2001). , , , , 30%. , , , ( ). , , 58 , , (Deininger and Chamorro, ). ­ 24%. , , ; , , , , (Lanjouw and Levy, 1998). 1965 2000 . , , 40--60% , (Delahaye, 2001). , (Alston, Libecap and Schneider, 1995, 1996). , , . . (Anderson and Lueck, 1992), , , , 85--90 30--40% , , . . (Salas, 1986) , , , 0,53, . (Stanfield, 1990) , . : , , . (de Soto, 1993) , . , , , , 59 2.5. , , % 500 433% 400 323% 300 200 100% 100% 100 0 , 1988 , 1996 , , : Feder (2002). . , , , . -- -- , . , , , , . (Siamwalla, 1990). , , 60 , , , . . 2.5 . , , (Feder, 1988), : . . (Lopez, 1997) . . , , , , , , . , , , . , , . , , . , , , : ) ; ) / , ; ) , , . . 61 , , , , , , . , , , , , (Atwood, 1990). , . , , . . (Pender and Kerr, 1999) , . , , , , . , , . , , , , , , . . , , (Carter and Olinto, 2003). , , 20 , , . , , 62 2.6. , , 1990­1995 . 1 , 0,8 0,6 0,4 , 0,2 0 0 5 10 15 20 ( ) : Carter and Salgado (2001). , . . 2.6, , , , , , , . , , , , 20 ; , , . . (Mushinski, 1999) , . , , -- , 63 , . , , , , , . , , , . , , , , , , . , , (Adams, 2000). , , , , , , , . , , . , , , , . , . , , , , , , , , . 64 , , , , , ; , , , . , ( ) , . , , . 1970 . , ; , , , ; , , , , (Adams, 2000; Toulmin and Quan, 2000). , , , . . , , , «» (ejidos) 1917 ., . , , , , . , , , , , , . , 65 . , . , , , (Downs and Reyna, 1978; Noronha, 1985). , , , , , , , (Feder and Feeny, 1991; Feder and Noronha, 1987). , , . , , , , , , , . , , ­ , , , , , , , . , , , , / . , , , , , (Heath,1994). , . 66 , . , , , , . , , , , . , , , , . , , , , , (, , , ) (Lavigne Delville, 2000). , , , . , , . , , , , , . , 49 99 (Lerman, 2001). , , ­ , , , , , . , , . , , 1978 . 67 15 , 30 . , , , 2.2. 1998 . 20 50 ­ ; (World Bank, 2000). , . , , . , , , 2.2. , 1980 ., (Li, 2002). , 1999 . 1986 . (Lin, 1992; McMillan, Whalley and Zhu, 1989). , 30 , , . (Li, Rozelle and Brandt, 1998), , (Prosterman, 2001). (Jacoby, Li and Rozelle, , 2002 . ). , , , , , , , , , , , (Chen and Davis, 1998). , , , , (Schwarzwalder, 2002). 68 , . , , , , , -- , , , , , , -- . , , . , , . , . , , , , , , , ; , . , , , , (de Soto, 2000); , ; , , . . . , , 69 . , , , , , , , , , , , . . , , 16 , , . , , . , , , , , , , , , . , , , , . , , , . , , , , , , 17 . , . 70 , . , , , , , . , , . , , , , . , , , . , . , , , , , , o , , . , . , , , , , , . , , 71 ; , , . , (Wadhwa, 2002), , , , . , , , , . , , , . , , , , . , , , , , . , , , , , , , , . , , . , 72 , . , , , , , , . , . . . , , , , . , , , , (Agrawal, 1994; Deere and Leon, 2001). , , , , , 6% (Udry, 1996). , , , . , , , ', , , , (Adesina and Djato, 1997). , , , , , , . , , , , , 73 , , . , , , (Kevane and Gray, 1999), (Dolan, 2001). , , , «» . , ­ , , ­ , , , (Quisumbing and Otsuka, 2001). , . , , (Saxena, 1999). /, , , . (Ntozi and Ahimbisibwe, 1999), , , (Deininger and Castagnini, 2002). , , , , . , , , , (Lastarria ornhiel, 1997). , . , 74 , . , . . , , , , ­ , , (Agarwal, 1994). , , , , , , . , , , , , . , , , 1998 ., , (Yngstrom, 2002). -- . , , , . , , , . , , , , , , , , , , . / , 75 , , , (Fourie, 2002). , (. 2.3), ; (Deere and Leon, 2001). , , , , , , , . , , , , , (Saxena, 2002). , , , , , , (Walker, 2002). , , , , , , , . (Khadiagala, 2001) . , , 2.3. ( 1998 .), (1990), (1993), , (1997 ., ), (1998), . (1999), (1999) (2001, -- 1988 .), ( 1981 .), (1988), . (1990), (1991), (1994), , , (1996), (1998) , , (1999). / , , , . : Deere and Leon (2001) 76 , , , , , ­ . , , . , , , . , , , (Gopal and Salim, 1998). , , , , , , , (Gray and Kevane, 2001). , , . , , , , . , , , . , , , , , ­ (Deere and Leon, 2001). 77 , . , , , , . , , , , . , , , . , , , , , , , , , (World Bank, 1975). , , , , «» , , «» , , . , 2--10% (Osterberg, 2002), o , . , , , , , , 78 2.3. , , / , , , . . 1 . . ' . . . . . . . . . 1 . : Alden Wiley (2002). . , , , , , . , , , , , , , , , . . 79 , , , (. 2.3), . , , ­ ­ , (Toulmin and Quan, 2000). , , , . , , , , , . , , , , '. , 2000 . , , 10 , . . , , , , , , , . , , ( ­ ) , . , . 80 , , . , , , . , , . , . (Tan ner, 2002). , , . , , , ; 2.4. , , 20 , , , . , , , . . , , ( ), , , , . , , . , . . , , , , , , . , , . , , . , . : Juma and Christensen (2001). 81 . , , , (Pescay, 2002). , ­ , , , (. 2.4), ­ , . . 2.3, . , , . , , , , , , , (Deininger and Castagnini, 2002; McAuslan, 1998). , , , , . , , , . , , , , , ; (Fourie, 2002). , , , . 82 30 40% , (Cavendish, 2000; Jodha, 1996). , «» , (Heltberg, 2001; Shackleton, Shackleton and Cousins, 2001). , , , , , , , (Arnold, 2001). , , . 50 , 10,5% , . , , ( 71%), (66%), (47%) (43%). , ( 14%), 90% . 100 120 ( 30% ) , (Poffenberger, 2002). . , 1997 . , , , . , , . , , , 83 18. , , , . , , , , , (Hvalkof, 2002). , , , , , . , , , (Amanor, Brown and Richards, 2002). , , . , , , , , (Nugent and San chez, 1998; Steele, 2001). , , , , . , , , , . , , , , , / 84 , (van den Brink, Bromley and Chavas, 1995). , , ; . , o´ , . , , (Breusers, 2001; Niamir Fuller, 1999; Turner, 1999). , . , , , (Leybourne and others, 1993; Nordblom and Shomo, 1995; Osman, Bahhady and Murad, 1994). , , , , , , , , , , . , , (Blewett, 1995). , , , 85 . , , , , , , (Masri, 1991; Nesheiwat, Ngaido and Mamdoh, 1998). , , , , (Swallow and Kamara, 1999). , , , , (Ngaido, 1993). , , « » (gestion du terroir) , , , . (Delville, 2002), . , . , (Jarvis, 1991). , , . , , . (Banks, 2001; Ho, 2000). , , , 86 . , (Ngaido and McCarthy, 2002). , , , , , . , , , ; , , , , . , , , , , . , , , , ( ) . , , . , , , (UNECE, 1996). , , 87 . , . , , , . , . , , . , , , , ; , , . , , , , , , . , 19 . , , , , . , , , , , , ­ ­ . , , , , , , 88 , , , . , , ­ , , , ( ), , , . , , , , , , . (de Soto, 1993; Kawagoe, 1999). , , , , ­ . , , , . , . , ( , ). , , , , , , . , 2.5, . . , , . . 89 , , . , , , , , , (Aldington, 2002; Sanjak and Lavadenz, 2002). , , , , . , . . , , (Moll, 1996). , (Brits, Grant and Burns, 2002). , , , , 2.5. : . . . prima facie [ -- .] . . , , , , . 90 , . , , . , « », 72% , o (World Bank, 1998). , , (Kasanga and Kotey, 2001), (Wallace and Poerba, 2000) (Abt Associates, 1999). , , , , ­ , , , , 20. , . , (Munoz and Lavadenz, 1997). , , , . , , , , , . , , , , , (Deininger and Binswanger, 1995). (Downs and Reyna, 1978). 91 , . . , , , . (Wadhwa, 2002). , , , , , , , (Butler, 2002). , , . , , . , , , , . , , , (Adling ton, 2002; Sanjak and Lavadenz, 2002). , , 300 . 1984 . 1,2 1995 . (Brits, Grant and Burns, 2002). , , , 92 . . . ; , , . , . , . . , , . , , . , , , , . , , , , . , , , , , , , . , , . 93 , , , . , , , . , . , ( , ), , , , , , . , , , . , , , , . , , , , . , , , . , , 94 , . , , ( , ), . , , , . , , , , , . , , , . , , , , . , , . , , , . , , . , . , . , , , , , , 95 ­ , , ­ . , , , , . , , , . , , . , , . . 1 , , , , . ( , , , , ) , . 2 , , , . , . , , , , ; . , () ; , , , . 3 . 2.1 , , , 96 . , , , , , (Eckstein and 1493 ., Zolcha, 1994; Galor and Zeira, 1993) , , . . , 4 , , , , , , . . , , , 1793 . (Aghion, Caroli and Garcia , , Penalos, 1999; Bowles, Bardhan and Gintis, 2000). , 8, 2200 . . . . . 5 . (, Lopez and Valdez, 2000). , , . , (. 1700 . . .) . (1250­750 . . .) , , , , , (Finan, Sadoulet and de Janvry, 2002). . 9 , . 6 , (Kana , zawa, 1996). 10 , , , (Actmoglu and Robin son, 1999; Easterly and Levine, 2001). , , , 7 . (Acemoglu and Robinson, 11 2000; Bourguignon and Verdier, 2000). (, , , , ) , , 97 , , , , , , . 15 , (Ellickson, 1993). 12, , , , , , (Baland and , , Platteau, 1998), , , , , . , , , (Sjaastad and Bromley, 1997). , 16 , . 13 , , , , , , , , , , , , . 17 «» (ryot , ­ wari), , 1820 ., , . 14 , , . 1974 ., «» , . . 18 17 , , , , , , . , , , , 98 . , (Arrunada and Garoupa, 2002). , 20 , . , , , , , . . , 19, , , , , , . 3 ­ , , , , . : ) , , ; ) ; ) , . . , , , . , , , , , , . , , , , . , , , . 101 , , , , . , . , , , . , , , , . , , , , , , . , . , , , , . , , , , , . , ´ , , , . , . 102 , , , , (Feder, 1985). , . , , . , , , , , , , , , (Jensen and Meckling, 1976). , , (Calvo , and Wellisz, 1978; Eswaran and Kotwal, 1985 a,b). , , . , , , 1. , , . , , , , , , 103 . , . , , , , ­ . , , . , , , . , , , . , , , , , , , , 2. , , , . , , . ( 104 . ­ . .)(Stiglitz and Weiss, 1981). , , . , , . , , . , , , , , . , , , . , , . , , , , , . , , , , . , . (Bummer and Loy, 2000; Kochar, 1997). «» . 105 , , , . , , , , , . , , , ( ). , , , . , , , , 3. , , , , , . , (Adesina and Djato, 1995; Townsend, Kirsten and Vink, 1998). , , , , . , , (Berry and Cline, 1979; Burgess, 2001; Carter, 1984; Kutcher and Schandizzo, 1981; Newell, Pandya and Symons, 1997; Udry, 1997); , (Burgess, 1997; Dong and Putterman, 2000; Feder and others, 1992; Lanjouw, 1999; Olinto, 1995; Wan and Cheng, 2001). , 106 (Benjamin, 1995; Bhalla and Roy, 1988; Verma and Bromley, 1987). , , . , . , , , , . , , , (Kevane, 1996). , , , , , , , . (David and Cordova, 1994). , , , (Dorward, 1999). , , , , , , , (Brooks and Koester, 1997). , , (Mathijs and Swinnen, 2001). . , , , . , 107 , , , . , , , . , , , , , . . , , , , , . ­ , , ( ) , ­ , , , . , , . , , , . , ­ ­ , , , 108 , , . , . , ) , , , ; ) , , , ; ) , , , , , , . .; ) ; ) (. . , ) , , , (de Janvry and others, 2001). , ­ . , , , . , 109 , , , . , , , , , . , (Skou fias, 1991). , . , , , , , . , , , , , , , . , , , . , , , , (Carter, Yao and Deininger, 2002). , , . , , . , , , , , , , ; , (Deininger, Jin, Adenew, Gebre Selassie and Demeke, 2003). 110 , , . , /, , , , . , , ­ , , (Drimie, 2002). , , , , , , . , (Reid, 1977). (Boucher, Barham and Useche, 2001) ­ (Carter and Chamorro, 2002). , , , , , . , , , , , . , . , , , . , , , 111 , . , , , , , . , , . , . , , , , . , , , , . , , , , , . : , , , . , ­ ­ . , . , , 112 . , , , . , , , , , , . « ­ », , . , , , . , , , , . , , , , , . , , , , . , . , , , , , , (Conning and Robinson, 2002; Mookherjee, 1997). , 113 , , . , , , . . , , (Cheung, 1969). , , . ( ) , , , , . , , , , , , . , , ( ), , , , . , ­ (Chaudhuri and Maitra, 2001). 114 , (Lanjouw, 1999) , (DeSilva, 2000). , , , , . . , . . (Sadoulet, Fukui, de Janvry, 1994), , . , , , , , . , , , , . , , , (Jodha, 1984; McCarthy, Sadoulet and de Janvry, 2001; Sharma and Dreze, 1996). , , , , (Ai, Arcand and Ethier, 1997; Arcand and Rambonilaza, 1999). , , , 115 (Ray and Singh, 2001; Shetty, 1988). , , ­ , , ­ , , . ( ), , , ; ­ (Basu, 1992; Ghatak and Pandey, 2000). , , , . , , , , . , , , . , , , , , (Otsuka, Chuma and Hayami, 1992). , , 4. , , . . . . (Laffont and Matoussi, 1995) . , 116 , 5. , , , . , , , , , , . , , ­ , . , , . , , , (Quibria and Rashid, 1986). , , (Shaban, 1991). , , , . , , , . , , , , . , , , . 117 , , . , 75% , (Skoufias, 1995). , , . , . , , , 16% (Shaban, 1991). , , , , . , , , , . , . , , , , , , 16% , , . , , , , , (Hayami and Otsuka, 1993). , , , , (Lansink, Pietola and Backman, 2002; Otsuka, 2002; Quisumbing, 2001; Sadoulet, Fukui and de Janvry, 1994; Sharma and Dreze, 1996). , , , , 118 (Galassi and Cohen, 1994). , , , , , , . , , , , . , . . (Dubois, 2002) , , , . , , , . , , ­ , ; , , , (Otsuka, Chuma and Hayami, 1993, Roy and Serfes, 2000). , , , (Bandiera, 2002). , , , , 119 , . , , , , , , (Jacoby and Mansuri, 2002). , , , , , . , , . . , , , , , . ­ , ­ , . , , , , . , , , , . . , . , , , . , . , , 120 , , , . , , , . , , , . , , (Lence, 2001), , ­ , , . , , . , , , , , . , , , ­ , , ­ . , , , , , , , , . , . , , , . 121 , . . . (Rosenzweig and Wolpin, 1985) , , , , , . , , , , (Bidinger and others, 1991; Kranton and Swamy, 1999). , . , (Feldstein, 1980). . , , , , . , . , . . (Falk, Lee and Susmel, 2001), . . (Just and Mirnowski, 1989), , , , . 1966--1989 . , 6% 28% ­ (Branda~o and de Rezende, 1992). , . . , . . (Robison, Lins and Venkataram, 1985), , , . , , , , , . , , 122 , , . , , , , , , , . , , , , , , . , , . , . , , , . . 6 , , , , (Foldvary, 1998). , , , , , (Gunjal, Williams and Romain, 1996). , , . , . , ­ , , , 123 , ­ , , , . (Shih, 1992) (Takekoshi, 1967), (Hamid, 1983). , (Brockett, 1984). . (Cain, 1981) , , 1960 1980 ., , , . , , ( . ­ . .), , , , , , , , ­ , , , ­ , . , , , , . , , , , : , , , . , , , , . , , 124 , , , , (Rol fes, 2002). , , , (Brits, Grant and Burns, 2002). , , , , , (Moll, 1996). , . , (Balcazar, 1990; Carter and Zegarra, 2000; Munoz, 1999). , , . , . , . , , , , . , , , . , : , ; 125 , , , ; . , , , , , , , . , , , . , , , . , , , , , , , , , . , , , . , , , (Melmed Sanjak and Lastarria Cornhiel, 1998). , . 126 ­ () , . , XVIII ., , , , , , , , , , , (Swinnen, 2002). , , , , . , , , , , , , , . , . . (Swinnen, 2002), 71% , ­ 48%, ­ 47%. 35% 1950 . 43% 1992 ., ´ (Dasgupta, Knight and Lo ve, 1999). , , . , «» , (llen and Lueck, 1992). , , 127 , , , , (Bierlen, 2000). , , , ( ), , , . , , . , (Barry, 2000). , , , , . (Hernandez, 2001). , , , , (Feher, 2001). , , , , , , . () , 128 . , , . , , , , , , . (. Burger, 2001). , , , , , , , . 80% 440 . (Lerman, Csaki and Moroz, 1998). , , 2% , 7--8% , 40% ­ . , , , , . , , , , , , (Deininger and Savastano, 2002). , , , . , . , ( 7%) () . , , , , 7, , , (Lerman and Brooks, 2001). 129 8. , , , , , . , . , , ; , , , , (Duncan, 2000; Pomfret, 2000). , , , « » , , , . , , , , , . , , , , . , , . , , , , . , , , ´ , , 130 , , . , , . , . , , . , , . , , , , . , , , , , , , . , , , . , , , , , . , , , , , , . , 131 , . , , , , , , . , , , , (Deininger and Savastano, 2002). , , , , , . , , (), , , (Martijs and Swinnen, 2001). , , , , , . , , , , , , , . , 20 , 10 0,23 (Kopeva, 2002). ( , , . .) , , , . , , . 132 , (Deininger and Sarris, 2002), , , , , . , , , (Deininger and Savastano, 2002). , , , , , (Chiriac, 2002). , , , , , , , 2000 . 1 500 (Overchuk, 2002). , , . . , , . , , , ; , , , . 133 , , , , , , . , , , , , , , . , , , , (Uzun, 2002). , , , , . , , , ( . ), . , , , , , . , , , , ; ­ . XIX ., , ; , , 134 3.1. , , , . 50% («»), («») XIX . , . , , , , . , , , , . 1960 . 95% , . . , , . : Amanor and Diderutuah (2001). , , , ', (Adesina and Chianu, 2002; Amanor and Diderutuah, 2001; Chauveau, 2000; Edja, 2001; Manyong and Houndekon, 2000). (. 3.1) . , , , . , , . , , , , , . , , , , , , , , 135 (Otsuka, 2001; Place, 1995; Zeller, Diagne and Kisyombe, 1997). , , , , , , . , , , , . , , , , (Rahmato, 1997). , , , , , . (Baland and Platteau, 1998; Carter and Wiebe, 1990; Place, 1995; Plat teau, 1996). , ; , , , 13% 1992 . 36% 1999 . (Deininger and Mpuga, 2002). , , . , , , (Kevane, 1996). , . , . . (Estudillo, Quisumbing and Otsuka, 2001) . , , , (Place, 2002). , (Delville, 2002). 136 . , , . , , (Deininger and Mpuga, 2002). , , , , , , , , , , , (Deininger, Jin, Adenew, Gebre Selassie and Demeke, 2003). , , . , , , , (Feder and Noronha, 1987). 58% , 1950 . (Barrows and Roth, 1990), , , (Place, 1995; Roth, Bruce and Smith, 1994). 18,8% , , , , 4 5% (Quisum bing and Otsuka, 2001). , , , , (Lyne and Darroch, 1997). , , , , , . , , , , , , , , , , , , 137 . , , , , , , . (Deininger and Mpuga, 2002). , , , . , , . , , , , , , (Kironde, 2002), , . , , , , , . , , , . , , , , , ­ , ­ , . 1990 . , ( 138 ), , , ­ ­ . , , , , , , , , (Radharkishnan, 1990; Ray, 1996; Thimmaiah, 2001; Thorat, 1997). , , (Deshpande, 2002). . (Hossain, 1978), . . (Pant, 1983; Skoufias, 1995), , , , (Sarap, 1998; Sharma and Dreze, 1996; Swamy, 1988). , , . , , , , ­ 2,3% 1995 . 9,4% 2000 . , 22,4% , (Deininger and Jin, 2002), , . , , . , . 1992 . 3,8% , , , 1998 . 15,8%, , (Deininger and Jin, 2003). 139 3.1. , * 1,5 1,0 0,5 0 ­0,5 0 1 2 3 () 1,5 1,0 0,5 0 ­0,5 0 0,5 1,0 * 1 ( -- . .) = 0,067 . : , BootStrap ( «». ­ . .). : Deininger and Jin (2001). 140 , , (Benjamin, Brandt and Rozelle, 2000). . 3.1, ( 5% ) , , , . , , . , , . , , . , , , , , , , , , . , . , , , 141 12% (Deininger and Jin, 2002). , , , , , . , , , , , (Turner, Brandt and Rozelle, 1998). , , , , , , . , . , , , , , , , . , , , , (Deininger and Jin, 2003). ., . . (Sumarra, Suyanto, Tomich and Otsuka, 2001) , , , , . , , 142 , . , , , , , . . , , , , , , 2,3 1960 . 1,1 1988 . (Jaramillo, 2001). . , . , . 1998 ., , 11%, 1960 .; , (Deiningwer and Gonzalez, 2002). 1998--1999 . 22% . , , , , , , , 1995 . , (Deininger, Zegarra and Lavadenz, ). . 3.2, , 1998 . , , . , , , , , , 143 3.2. , ( ) 10 8 6 1995 4 ( ) 2 0 1998 ( ) ­2 0 20 40 60 80 100 , , ( ) : 1 ( -- . .) = 0,699 . : Deininger and Chamorro ( ). (Bastiaan and Plata, 2002; Jaramillo, 1998; Zegarra Me´ndez, 1999). , , . , , ; , . , , , , , , , 1990 . (Barham, Carter and Deininger, 2003). , 144 , , , , , , , . , . . (Deininger and Gonzalez, 2002) , , , , (Deininger and Jin, 2002). , , . , , , , , , , , . , 1990 . 70% (Bastiaan and Plata, 2002), , . , , (Lavadenz and Deininger, 2002). , , , , . , . : , 5,0%, ­ 2,0 3,5% ; ­ 1,4 9 2,0% ­ 1,0% (Jaramillo, 2001). , , 145 . (Carter and Chamorro, 2002). , ­ , (Barham, Carter and Sigel ko, 1995). , , , . . , (3 ), , , 1 , , (Barham, Carter and Sigelko, 1995). , , , , , . , , , (Carter and Galeano, 1995). , , , , , , , (Carter and Salgado, 2001). , , , , . , , , 146 , , , (Carter, Barham and Mesbah, 1996), , (Jarvis, 1989; Ortega, 1988). , 20 30% , (Echenique and Rolando, 1991). , 1970 1980 . , , , , , . , , . , , , , , , , , , . , , ; , , . 147 . , , , , , . . , ­ , , , , , . , , , , , , , , , . , , , (Deininger and Jin, 2003). , ; , (Macours, 2002). . . (Deininger and Chamorro, ) , . . , . . (Brits, Grant and Burns, 2002) , , . , , , (Deininger, Jin, Adenew, Gebre Selassie and Demeke, 2003). , . , , ( ) 148 ( ). . , , , . , , , , , . , , , , , . , , , , , . , , , , , , . , , , , , ­ 10. , , ; (Ray, 1999). , , , , , , 149 , , . , , , 100 , , , 30% (Appu, 1997). , , , , , , , , . , , , . ; : ) ; ) ; ) , . , . , , , 1973 . . , (Banerjee, Gertler and Ghatak, 2002). , (Rawal, 2001). , (Besley and Burgess, 2000), , 150 . , . , , , , (Basu and Emerson, 2000). , , , . , , , . , , , , . , , , , , , , , . , , , . , , . , , , , , , . 151 . , , , , , , (Renaud, 1999). , , . , , . (Saxena, 2002). , , , (, « »), . , , , , , , . , , , , , , , , . . , , , , . , 152 , , , , . , , , , , , . . , , , , , , . , , , , ( ) , . , , ­ ­ , . , , , , , , . , , , , , . , , 153 . (ollier, 1989) , 10% . , , , . . «» , , , , , , (Deininger, Bresciani and others, 2002). , , . , «» 1920 1930 ., «» «» (Gonzalez and Velez, 1995). , , , , , , , , , , , (Zepeda, 2000). 3.2, , , , , (World Bank, 2002). , , , , , . , 154 3.2. «», 1992 . , , . , «», , , . ­ , . , , , «». ­ «» . , , , , , , . 75% , «» , , , . , , , «» , . . , , «» . «» , , , , , «». , . : World Bank (2002). , , , . , , . , , , , , , , , . , , , 155 , , . . , , , . , , . , , , . , , , , , , , , , . , , . ­ , . ­ , , . , , . , . , , , , , , . , , , 156 , . , , , , . , , () , (Hayami and Otsuka, 1993). (King, 1977) (Chuma, Otsuka and Hayami, 1990), . , , , . (Jarvis, 1985) . , , , , , , . , , , , . , , , . , , , , (Strasma, 2000). ; , 157 3.3. , , , , . . , , , , . . : Csaki, Feder and Lerman (2002). , , , , . , (. 3.3). , , , 11. , , , . , . , , . . , (Libecap, 1986), , (Barrows and Roth, 1990). 158 , . , , , . , , , (Andolfatto, 2002). , . , , , , . , «» . , (World Bank, 2002). , , , , . , , , , , . , , , . (Appu, 1997), 6% , . , , ( ) 159 , , , , . , , , , , , . , , , . , , , , , , ­ , (Deininger, Maertens and others, 2002). , , , , , , (Hayami and Kikuchi, 2000). ; , 50%, (Abt Associates, 1999). , , , , , , , , . , , ­ , , ­ , , , , . 160 (Cain, 1981; Mahmood, 1990), . , , , , , 1 . , , , . . , «» , . , , , , . , , , , , , . , . , , , , ; , , (Csaki, Valdes and Fock, 1998). , , (, , 161 , , , , ), , (Hodgson, Cullinan and Campbell, 1999). , , , , , , . . , , , , , , , , . , , , , . . , , ­ , , , . , , , (Platteau and Baland, 2001). , . 162 , (Tran, 1998). , , , , , , , . , , . , , , , , , . , , . , : , , (World Bank, 2002). , . . (Graziano da Sil va, 2001) , . . . , , , ; , , ; 163 , , . ; , , , , , , (Blarel and others, 1992; Fenoaltea, 1976; McClos key, 1975). , , , , , , , . , , , . , , , , (Bentley, 1987). . (Simons, 1987) , , , 40%. , , , , . , . . (Heston and Kumar, 1983) , , , , . , (Ali, Parikh and Shah, 1996). , , , : , 164 , (Wenfang and Ma keham, 1992). 1988 . , , « », , . , ­ , , 7,6 3,4%, 6--7% , , (Chen and Brown, 2001). , 1998 . ­ . , , , (Lin, Cai and Li, 1997). , , 15%, , (Wan and Cheng, 2001). : , . , ­ , , . , , , . , , , 165 , , , , . (Giovarelli, 2002) 12. , , , , , , . , , , . , . , , . , , , , . , , , ; . , , , , . . , , , , 166 , . , , , , . , , , , . , , , , . , , , , . , , , , , . , , , , . , , , , , , , . , , , . , , , 167 , , , . , , , , , 13. , , , . , , , , , . , , , , , , , . . , , . , , , , . , , , , . , , , . , , 168 , . 1 , . . , , 6 (Frisvold, 1994). . 2 , 3% , , 1,5% ­ , , 1­1,5% ­ , , 0,5% ­ (Moll, 1988). . 3 , , , , , , (Binswanger and Elgin, 1988; Carter and Mesbah, 1993). , (Brits, Grant and (Glo Burns, 2002). ver, 1990). 7 4 , , . 8 , (Braverman and Stiglitz, 1982), , , , , (Otsuka, Chuna and , Hayami, 1992). ­ . 5 9 . , , , 12%, , 2,5­3,0% , 169 , 1,5­2,0% , . (Delahaye, 2001). 10 ­ . , , , , (Malpezzi, Chun and Green, 1998). , , . , 12 , , . , . , , . . 13 (Ravenscroft, Gibband and Markwell, 1998). , 11 , . , 1990 . . 4 , , , , , , , . , : , ­ , , . , . , . , . , ­ ­ , . , , , : , 171 ; , , ; , , . () , , . , , , , , . , , , . 1989 . . , , , , , . , 172 , , . . , , , , , , , , , , , , , (Deininger, 1995). , (Melmed Sanjak and Carter, 1991; Merlet and Pommier, 2000), , 1990 . (Rahmato, 1993). , 1978 . (Lin, 1992; McMillan, Whalley and Zhu, 1989) ­ , 1980 . (Ravallion and van de Walle, 2001; Tran, 1998). , , . , . , , . , , , , , (Lerman, 2001; Macours and Swinnen, 2002). 1990 . , , . , 173 , , , (Amelina, 2000), . , , , , , . , . , , . ­ , ­ 10% , , , (Macours and Swinnen, 2000b). , , , , , (Cungu and Swinnen, 1999). , , , , (. 4.1). , 174 4.1 , , , , , , , , , , . , , ( ) , , , , , ( ) , , , , : , Csaki, Feder and Lerman (2002). 175 , , . 1 , , , . , , , , , , , . . , 2 , , . 75% , (Csaki, Valdes and Fock, 1988). 1991 . 20 (Giovarelli and others, 2002), (Overchuk, 2002). , . . (Davidova and oth ers, 2001) , , , . , , , , , . , , . , , , , , , . , , 176 , , , . . (. . 4.1) , , . , , , , , , , . , , , , , . 3 , , , , . . 4.2 , , , , 21% 1990 . 78% 2000 ., 33 . , 90% , . ­ , , 4% 1999 . 22% 2000 . 2000 . , , , , , , (Deininger, 2002). , , , , , (1917­1992 .) « » 100 . 30 , 11 , , 177 4.2 , , , 1990 2000 . , , ( ) 1990 2000 ( ) 1,1 4 100 1,08 6,2 13 96 5,15 5,9 6 54 2,83 2,4 5 95 2,16 3,5 9 67 2,03 18,4 77 82 0,92 14,8 12 67 8,14 . 4,9 5 99 4,61 0,5 92 96 0,02 . 4,3 5 80 3,23 4,5 6 65 2,66 66,6 21 78 32,82 4,4 3 33 1,32 1,4 4 7 0,94 9,4 7 17 0,94 3,0 7 26 +25 1,32 222,0 -- 29 63,94 . 11,0 1 23 2,42 2,3 9 84 1,73 195,0 2 13 21,45 1,1 2 38 0,40 40,3 -- 16 6,37 26,7 2 28 6,94 43,0 7 26 7,98 558,6 4 22 115,73 -- (0,2). 1997 . . : Caski and Kray (2001); Caski and Nucifora (2002). , 2 , () 0,5 0,2 . , . « », , , , , , . , , , 178 , . , , . , , , , , , . , (Lerman, 2001). , , , ­ , , . , , , , , , (Csaki and Nucifora, 2002). , , , , . , . , . , , , 2000 . 195 , 126 , 65% . 126 118 (, ) 12 179 , , , , , . o , , . , , 6­7% ( 6% ). , 84% , (Rolfes, 2002). , , . , , . , (Uzun, 2002; Yanbykh, 2002). . , , , , , , (Gardner and Serova, 2002). , , , , , . , ­ , , . 180 «» , . , , , , . , , , , , , , , , . , , . , . , , , . , , , , . , , , , , , . . , , 181 , , , . , , , , , . , , , , , . , , , , , , , (Pomfret, 2000). , , , , , , , , , , , «» . . (Csaki and Nucifora, 2002). , , , , (Lerman, Csaki and Moroz, 1998). . , , , , , , , , , 182 , , , (Duncan, 2000; Lerman and Brooks, 2001; Pomfret, 2000). , , , . , , , , , (Yanbykh, 2002), , . , , , , (Csaki and Lerman, 2000). , , , , . , , , . , , . , , , . 183 , , . , , , , , , , « » (de Janvry and Sadoulet, 1989). , , , (Di az, 2000; Horowitz, 1993). , ­ (Binswanger, Deininger and Feder, 1995). , , . . 4.3 , . , , . , ( ), , , . , ­ 2,7 , . , , , 5 . , (Jeon and Kim, 2000). , 184 4.3 (.) () (. ) (%) 390 15,4 438 10,0 0,89 1952­1978 2 371 11,9 40 3,1 59,28 1980­1987 403 1,6 34 1,6 11,85 1961­1970 , . 577 27,3 1 646 45,5 0,35 1948­1958 , 235 26,9 383 62,5 0,61 1949­1953 1 092 10,8 1 511 24,2 0,72 1940­1985 2 000 33,3 4 300 60,9 0,47 1946­1949 13 375 13,5 3 044 67,5 4,39 1915­1976 3 186 47,1 172 56,7 18,52 1978­1987 401 27,9 95 16,8 4,22 1932­1989 9 792 32,3 237 47,5 41,32 1953­1970 13 100 11,3 266 5,4 49,32 1964­1994 8 599 28,1 375 30,8 22,93 1969­1979 9 517 60,1 58 12,7 164,09 1973 : Eckstein and Horton (1978); El Ghonemy (1990); Grindle (1990); Hall (1990); Hayami, Quisumbling and Adriano (1990); McClintock (1981); Powelson and Stock (1987); Prosterman, Temple and Hanstad (1990); Scott (1976). , , , , (Appu, 1997). 300 . , , , « », (Scott, 1976). , , , , (Kinsey and Bingwan ger, 1993). 1980 ., 185 , 250 . . . (Gunning and others, 2000). , 1972 ., . « » (Otsuka, 1991). , , , (Deininger, Maertens and others, 2002). , , (Borras, 2001), , (Hirtz, 1998). , . ( 1954 .), . , 1960 ., , , , , ( 1973 .) . , , ( ­ . .) . 1979 ., (Enriquez, 1992). , (Seligson, 1995). , 186 1970 ., , , , (Jarvis, 1985). , , , . , , , (de Janvry and others, 2001). , , . (Fearnside, 2001). , . , , , , , , , (Alston, Libecap «» and Mueller, 1999b, 2000). , . , , , , (Warriner, 1969). , , , , . 4.1 , . , (Herring, 1999). 187 4.1. , 1994 . 1936 ., , , , ( 70% , ), (Grusczynski and Jaramillo, 2002). , . 1961 . , -- , (Instituto Nacional , de Colonization y Reforma Agraria). , , (Rojas, 2001). , , , , , , , , , , . : , 0,84 1960 . 0,81 1990 . (Lavadenz and Deininger, 2002). , . 4 ( ), . , , (Barraclough, 1970). , , , , , (Alston, Libecap and Mueller, 2000; Deininger and Gonzalez, 2002; Fearnside, 2001). , , , , , , , , (. 4.2), , (Teofilo, 2002). 188 4.2. : , , , , , . , , , , , , , 2,5 . 1964 . , , , -- . , 30 , 10 , , 300 . 75 . 14 . , , , , , 1995 . , . 584 . (Teofilo, 2002), 18,7 . -- , (Buainain and others, 2002). , , -- 1995 2000 . , , (Teofilo, 2002). , . , , , , , , , . , , , , ( , , ), . , , , , (Fi nan, Sadoulet and de Janvry, 2002), , 189 . , 1960 ., , , , , , , . 5 , , , , , , , . , . , , , , , , , ­ , , , , , (Hayami, Quisumbing and Adriano, 1990). , , , , , , 30 50 , , . , , , , 1970 . (McClintock, 1981). , 190 , . , , (Deininger, 1999). , , , , , . , , , , . , , , , (Moyo, Rutherford and Amanor Wilks, 2000). , , , , (. 4.3). , , , , (Carter and Zimmerman, 2000). , , , (Jacoby and Mansuri, 2002). , , . , , . 1990 . , , 191 4.3. , . , , , . , ; , . , , , : , 1994 1999 . , 30% , , 99,07 . . 200 . 200 . , 1994 . . (Zimmerman, 2000). , , , -- , (Deininger and May, 2000), , , (Cliffe, 2000; Hall, 1998). . , 6 , : 3,9 (Hamman and Ewert, 1999). , , «» , (, -- , . .), 0,8 , , 1,3 , , , , , . « (Graham and Darrock, 2001), », , , , , 1913 . 90% , , , 2000 . , . (Layne and Darroch, 1997). , , , . 2 500 . , , , , , . , . , , 192 , . , , , , . , , , . , , , , (), , , , . , , . , , , , , , , . , , , , , . , , , , (Hayami, Quisumbing and Adriano, 1990). , , , , , ­ , , , , , . , , , , 193 , , , , , , , , , , . , , , , , , , . , , , , , , , . , , , , , (Guinnane and Miller, 1997). , , , , , (Jonakin, 1996), (Alston, Libecap, Mueller, 1999), , (Jarvis, 1985), (Hayami, 2000). , . , , , (Barraclough, 1999; El Ghonemy, 1999). . , 194 (Bardhan, Bowles and Gintis, 2000). , , , (Carter and May, 1999), , , , , . , , , , ­ , (Deininger, 1999). , , , (de Janvry, Sadoulet and Wolford, 2002). (Molina, 2002), , . , , , , , , . , . , , , , (). , , , . , , , , , , . 195 , , , , , , . , , , , , . , , . , . : ; ; , ; ­ . , , , , , . , , , , : · , , , , , , , , , . · ex ante [ ­ .] , , , , , 196 , , , . , . · , , . , , , , , . (. 4.2), , , , , , , , . , , , , ; , ; ; , , (de Janvry and Sadoulet, 2002). , , , , , , . , , , , , , : · , , , , , 197 , , . 6 , . , , . · , , , , , . , . · , , , , ; ; , . , ­ , , , , ­ , . · , , 7 . , , , , , , , . · , , , , , 198 , . , 8 . · , , , , , . , , , , , , , . · , . , , . , ­ , . · , , , , . , , . · , , , , . 199 , , . , , , . , , , . , . , , , . , , , , , , , . , : ) ; ) , , ; ) / . , , ­ , , ­ , , , . , , , , , , ', . , , , 200 , , , . , , , , , , . , , . (Goldstone, 1991; Huizer, 1972; Kriger, 1992; Migdal, 1974; Moore, 1966; Rueschemeyer, Huber and Stephens, 1992; Scott, 1976; Skocpol, 1979; Wickham Crowley, 1991). , , , , , ­ , , 1930 ., ­ . , , . , , , , , . , , , , , , , , (. 4.4). , , . , , : ) 201 4.4. 1879 . , , , , 1979 ., , . «» . , . , , , 1951­1954 ., , , , , 1954 ., , . 1992 . , . , , , , . , 3 . (Brockett, 1984). 1920 . . 1920 . 1930 . , , , , 1936 ., ; , , , , , (Grusczynski and Jaramillo, . 2002). . , ( 1940 1856 . , 1965 .). , , 1961 1968 . , , , , . , 1888 . , (de Janvry and Sadoulet, 1989; Zamosc, 1989). . , 1970 . , 1932 . , , 1974 . (Mason, 1986). , . ; ) , , , ; ) , , , 20 25% , , , , 202 , , ; ) ­ ­ ; ) , , , ­ , , ; ) . , , . . 5 , , , . , , , , 200 , 50 . (Negrao, 2002). , , , (Tanner, 2002). (Ayalew, Dercon and Krishnan, 2000). , , , 6 , , (Zimmermann, 2002). , , , . 203 1990 . , , . , , , , , , (Everingham, 2001). ­ , , 1,5 2 . ­ , , , , . , , , , , . , , , , . , , , . , , , , . «» , , , , , (Kasanga and Kotey, 2001; Merlet and Pommier, 2000). , , , , 204 4.1. , , 2001 . 1 () 4 2 0 0 1 2 3 4 () : . . , Bootstrapped, . : Deninger and Castagnini (2002). 30% (Deininger and Castagnini, 2002). . 4.1 , , . , . , , , , , , , , . , , . , : ) ; ) , , ; ) , ; ) 205 , , , , , , ; , ; ) , ; ) , , , . , , , , , , , , , . . , , , «»; ­ , . . , , : ) , ; ) , ; ) , , . , , (Kuran, 1993). 1988 1993 . , 206 , , 1994 . (Andre and Platteau, 1998). , , , , (Fred Mensah, 1999) ' (Chauveau, 2000), . , , , , , , , . , , ­ , , . , , . , , , , . , , , , . , , , , , , , , 42 . , , . , , , , , (Zepeda, 2000). 207 , , , , . , , , . . , , , , -- (Kevane and Gray, 1999). , , , . , , , , . , (Lavigne Delville, 2002). , , , , , , «» , , , , , , . , , , , , , , ( ) . 208 , , , . , , . , (Merlet and Pommi er, 2000). , « » , , , , . . , (Prosterman and Hanstad, 1999). , , , ­ . , , , , , -- , . . , , (Li, 2002). (Bird, 2000). 209 , , , , . , , , . , , , . , , , (Boadway, 2001; Eaton, 2001). , , . , , , . , , , , . 9 , , . (Brueckner, 2000). , , , , , . , , , 210 (Oates and Schwab, 1997)10. , , , , , , . , , 11 . 1990 . 40% , 35% ( 30% ) ­ 12% (Bird and Slack, 2002). 1990 . , , 10% ­ . , , , , . , (), , . , , , , , (Bird, 1974). , , , . , . , , , , 211 . , , , , . , , , . ­ ­ , , (Strasma, 1965; Tanzi, 2001). , , , . , , , , , , , . , , , (Skinner, 1991). , , , . , , . , , , , , ; , , , , , ; , , , 12 . , 212 , , , , , , . , , , . , , , , . 13 . , , , , . , , , , ( . Dale and Mclaughlin, 2000). , , , . , , , 33% 20 70% . , , . , . , , . , 3­4%, , , , 50% 70% ­ . 213 , , , ( ) , . H. (Hamid, 1983) . , , (Hoff, 1991). , , . , , . , , , . , . , , , , . , , , , . , , , . , , , , , , 214 , , . (Hayami, Quisumbing and Adriano, 1990). , , , , , . . , , , , , . , , , (Bird, 1974; Strasma and others, 1987). , , , . , , , . , , ex ante , , , , (. 4.5). , . , , , 215 4.5. . , , -- -- , . 0,5% , , , , . , , . , . , , , , , (Bird and Slack, 2002). , , ­ ­ , , . , , , , , , , , 40% , (Kasanga and Kotey, 2001). , , , ­ ­ , , , . , , , . : ) , , , , , ; ) , , , , , , ; ) 216 , . , , , , , , . 1970 , , , (Mabogunje, 1992). , ­ , , , , , ­ , , , . , , , , , , , . , 10 , , , , , (Durand Lasserve and Royston, 2002b)14 . , , , , , , . -- -- , . , 217 , «» (usuca pios) (Fernandes, 2002), , «» (pattas) (Banerjee, 2002). , . , , , , , , . , , , , , , . , , , (Negrao, 2002). , , , , . , , . , . , , , . , . , (Kaganova and Nayar Stone, 2000) 15, 218 4.6 10% , 70% , , , , 1,1 , . , 1,7 . . 75% , 1999 . , , , , . . 800 . , . (Csaki and Nucifora, , 2002). , 2 . . (Gueye, Quedraogo and Toulmin, 2002) , (Gharbi, 2002). , , , , , , , , . , , , , o , o (. 4.6). , , , , . . , , , , , , , , (Csaki and Lerman, 2000). 219 «» , . . , . , , , , (Rolfes, 2002). . , ( ) , , , (Dowall, 1993). , . , , , , . , . , , , , , . , , , , 220 , , . , , . , , , , « », , . , , , , . , 20% , , . , , (Li, 2002). ­ ­ (Kasanga and Kotey, 2001; Kironde, 2002). , , . , 10--20% , (Ki ronde, 2002). , , , . , (World Bank, 2002b). 221 , , , , , , , , , , , , , . , , , , , , , , , , . , , , , , . , , ; , , , , ; ; , , , . , , , , , , , , , . , , , (, ) . 222 , , , , , , , , , , , . , . , , , , ; , (Brandao and Feder, 1995). , , , . , , , , , , . , . , , , , , (Malpezzi, 1998). , , . , . 223 , , . , . , , , , ­ , ­ , (Curtis, 1991). , , , , (Jodha, 1996), (Jodha, 1996), (Thompson and Wilson, 1994) (Feeny, 1989), , . , , (Ngaido and McCarthy, 2002). , , . , , , , , , , ; , . , , . , . , . , 224 , . , , . , , , , (Malpezzi and Mayo, 1997). , , , 55% , ; 40% 22% , (Durand Lasserve and Royston, 2002b). , , , , , . , , , , , (Deininger and Minten, 2002). , , , : , , , . , , , , , . , , , . , , , , , , , . , 225 , , , (Mabogunje, 1992). , , , . , , , (Butler, 2002). , . , , , . , , . , , , , . , , , , . , , . . , , , . , , , , 226 , , , . , , , , , 16. , , : , , , , , . , , (Gueye, Ouedraogo and Toulmin, 2002). , , ­ , ­ . , , , , , , . , . , , , , , , , . , 227 , , . , , . , , . , , « » . , , , . , , , , , . , . , , , , , , , , . , , , , , , , , ( ) . , (. 4.7, ), , , 228 4.7. : , () , , , , ( : , , , · ). . , , , 78% , . · . (20%), , , , -- (2%). , . , , , , . , , , , , , , . , . , , , (, , , ). . · , · , . , . , , , , , . , , , . , , , , . , , . , , , . , , , , . · , . . · . , , , , , . : Kasanga and Kotey (2001). 229 . , , , , . , , , , . , , , , , , , , . , , , . , , , : ) , ; ) , ; ) , . 4.8 . o , , , . , , , , , , , . . , , 230 4.8. : , ? , . . ? . ? , , , ? , ? , ? . , , . , -- ? -- , ? ? , , , ? ? ? (, . .)? , ? ? , , ? ? ( , ? , , ), ? ? ? , ? ? . ? , ? , ( )? , , ? , , ? , , ? ? «» , , ? , ? ? , , , , , , 231 4.8. ? , ( )? ? , ? ? , ? ? . , ­ , , . , , , , . , . , , ( ), . , , , . , , , , . , , , . , , , , , . , 232 , , , . ( ), . , , . , , , , , , , , , , . , , , , . , , , , , , , , ­ ­ , . , , , . , . , , . , 233 , . , , , , , , , . , , . , , , , , , . , , , , , , , . , , , , , , . 5 -- -- . , , (Tanner, 2002). , , , 1994 ., . , , 1995­1997 . , 234 (Grusczynski and Jaramillo, 2002). , , , . , , , . , . , , , , . , , . , . : 1975 . , . , , « » (1975), , ­ , 235 , , . , , , . , , , , , . , , , , . , , , . , , . , 1975 , : ; , ( ) . , , , , . 236 , , , , , . , , , . , , , , , , . ­ ­ . , , o , , , . , , , . . «» , , , ­ , ­ . , , , . , 237 , , , . , , . , , ­ ­ , . , , , . . , , , , , . , , , , . , , , ; ; , , , . ­ ­ , , , , . . 238 , , , , , , . , , , , . , , , -- , , , , , , . . . , , , , . , , , . , , , , , . , , , , , , , , , , , , , 239 , . « » , , , . , , , , , . , , , , , , , , , . ­ ( ). , , , , , , , , . ; , , , ; . , , , . , , , , , . 240 , , . , , , , , , . , , , . , , , , , , , , , . , , ­ , ­ , . , , , , . , , , , . , , 241 , . , , , , , , , , , . , ­ , , , , , , , . , , , , , . , , , , , . : ; ; ; ; , , , , , , , , , . , , , 242 , . , , -- . , . , , . 1 , , 25% ­ , , , ,­ (Rojas, 2001). . 6 , , , , . 2 , , , , , , , (Dumitru, 2002). , 3 . 1930 , 7 , , , , . «» 4 , . , , , . , . 8 (Horowitz, 1993). 5 , 75% 243 , , (2,9%) , (2,5%). . , 9. (Fischel, 2001), , . , 12 , , , , . , , , , , , , , , (Boadway, 2001). 13. (Bird, 2000) . , , , . , 14 (, , , , . 10 (Durand Lasserve and Royston, , 2002b). , 15 , , , , ; , , , ; . , , . , , , , , , . (Daniels, 2001). 11 , , , (1995) , , (4,1%) . 244 16 , . , , , , . , , ( , , , ), . , , 3­6 2002 . : : , : , , : , , , . , , : , , , , : , , : , , , : , , 247 : , : , , : , , , , , xa, , , M, , : , , : , , : , , , , , , , : , : , , , : , , , , , , , 248 : , , , , : , : , , , , : , , , , , , , , : , , : , , . , KPMG, : , , , , : , : , : , , : : M, : , 249 : , : , , , 29 -- 2 2002 . : : : . , , , : , , : , , ' , : , , , , : .. , , : . , , , LandNET , : , , , , , , , 250 : , , : : , : , , , : , , , , , , , : , , : , , , , : , , , , , ' : , : , , , , , : , , 251 , , , , : , , : , , : , , , LandNET , : , , , , : , , : , , , : , , , , , , , : , : , , , : , , . . , , : , , , : , , , : , , 252 : , , , , ' : , , , : , , , , : , , , , , , ': , : , : , : , : , : , : .. , : , : , LandNET : , , : , : , , : , . , , LandNet 253 , , 19--22 2002 . : : , , , , : , , : , , , , : , , , : , , : , , , : , , , , , , , , 254 : : , , : , , , : , , , , , , , : : , : , , , : , , , , , , , : , , : , , , : , , , 255 , , , , , : , , : , , : , , , , , , , : , : , , , : , , , , , : , : , , , , : , , , Dev Tech Systems, : , , : , , , : , , , 256 : , , : , : , : , : , : , : , : , , : , , , 3--6 2002 . : , : , , , : , : , , , : , , , , 257 : , , : , , , : , , , . . . , , , : . . , , : , , : , , , , , : : , , : , , .. , : , , , , , , , : , , , 258 : : , , , : , , , , , , , , , : , , : , , , : , , , , : : , , : , : . , : , : , : : . . . . . , 259 (): , , . , , . , , : . , : , -- , , , -- . , , . : , , , , , / . , , , , . . : , : , 261 : , , , , , , , . , , : . , . , : , , . , , : , , , . , : , . . . processed , . 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