70112 v3 1 ................................... SCHOOL-BASED VIOLENCE PREVENTION IN URBAN COMMUNITIES OF LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN WORLD BANK SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT .3 LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN REGION .2011 Case Studies 3. Case Studies.indd 1 8/9/11 9:49 AM Preface & Acknowledgements This School-Based Violence Prevention Toolkit was Latin American and Caribbean School Environment produced by a team at the World Bank led by Berni- (key elements for reducing schools’ vulnerability to 2 ce van Bronkhorst (Senior Urban Specialist, LCSUW), disasters). Ximena Anwandter (Violence Prevention Specialist, Consultant, LCSUW/LCSSO), and Lorena Cohan (So- The Tools and Case Studies were prepared by Joan Se- cial Development Specialist, LCSSO) with extensive rra Hoffman (International Violence Prevention Expert, background research and technical input from Joan visiting scholar at Brandeis University). Safe School Serra Hoffman (International Violence Prevention Spaces was prepared by Macarena Rau (Architect Expert, World Bank Consultant), and under the overall and President of Corporacion CPTED Region), Paulina guidance of Guang Chen (Sector Manager, LCSUW) and Castillo Fajardo and Carlos Gutierrez Vera. Disaster Maninder Gill (Sector Manager, LCSSO). Risk Reduction in the Latin American and Caribbean School Environment was prepared by Magnolia San- The development of this Toolkit would not have been tamaria (Disaster Risk Management Specialist) and possible without the generous �nancial support of the Diana Rubiano (Disaster Risk Management Specialist). Bank-Netherlands Partnership Program (BNPP) and the The Practical Guide was prepared by Ximena Anwand- UK Department for International Development (DFID). ter (Violence Prevention Specialist) and Adriana Loche (Sociologist and Violence Prevention Specialist) based This Toolkit is composed of the following �ve publi- on extensive background research carried out by Joan cations: 1) Practical Guide (a primer on violence and Serra Hoffman. violence prevention, the role of schools and commu- nities in preventing violence, a �ve stage method The Tools, Case Studies, Practical Guide, and Disaster for the design and implementation of a school-based Risk Reduction in the Latin American and Caribbean violence prevention program and the recommenda- School Environment publications bene�tted greatly tions from the piloting workshops in Colombia and from technical input provided by the following Peer Nicaragua); 2) Tools (a variety of selected tools to Reviewers: Carmen Clavel Arcas (AECID), Alberto assist in developing the school-based violence pre- Concha-Eastman (PAHO), Joanne Klevens (CDC), An- vention action plan); 3) Case Studies (successful, drew Hahn (Brandeis University), Deborah Prothrow- evidence-based school violence prevention practices); Stith (Harvard School of Public Health), Ron Slaby 4) Safe School Spaces (a practical tool for the design (Children’s Hospital Boston/Harvard Medical School), of safe schools from the CPTED/environmental design Brenda Mirabal (University of Puerto Rico School of perspective); and 5) Disaster Risk Reduction in the Medicine), Monica Zalaquett (CEPREV). Excellent CASE STUDIES. Preface & Acknowledgements 3. Case Studies.indd 2 8/9/11 9:49 AM research assistance and contributions for the Practical one in Managua, Nicaragua (2009). Special mention Guide, Tools, and Case Studies were also provided by should be given to the schools whose input and 3 Elizabeth Gozzer (Consultant) and Erik Alda (Violence participation were critical in the finalization of the Prevention Specialist, and World Bank Consultant). Toolkit. In Colombia: Colegio María Josefa Marulanda; Colegio Monseñor Alfonso Uribe Jaramillo; Colegio The team is also grateful for valuable technical input Bernardo Uribe Londoño; Colegio Francisco María provided by staff from the World Bank, including: Cardona; Colegio Concejo; Colegio La Paz. In Nicara- Carine Clert (Senior Social Development Specialist, gua: Escuela Comunal Las Torres; Instituto Nacional LCSHS), Erika Vargas (LCSDE), Martha Valverde (Se- Maestro Gabriel; Colegio Salomón Ibarra; Colegio nior Education Specialist, LCSHE), Wendy Cunninghan República de Venezuela; Escuela Ramírez Goyena; and (Lead Specialist, HDNCY), Andrea Guedes (Senior Ope- Colegio Benjamín Zeledón. rations Officer, ECSH2), Joaquin Toro, (Senior Disaster Risk Management Specialist, LCSUW) Osmar Velasco (Disaster Risk Management Specialist, LCSUW), Fer- nando Ramirez (Disaster Risk Management Specialist, LCSUW) and Rodrigo Serrano-Berthet (Senior Social Development Specialist, LCSSO), as well as by out- side experts such as Mario Velazquez Duque (Former Secretary of Education of the Municipality of la Ceja ), Giovanna Daly (Head of the School Advisory Unit of Nicaragua’s Ministry of Education) Pamela Orpinas (University of Georgia), Gonzalo Rivera (Alianza Edu- cacion para la Construccion de Culturas de Paz) and Maria Eugenia Carvajal de Guerrero (Carvajal Foun- dation). The team also benefitted from the excellent translation, editing and design services of Janice Molina, Susan Skinner, and Gaea Honeycutt, Pilar Kraemer and Paulina Rau. This Toolkit was validated by school and community stakeholders through two piloting workshops, one in the Municipality of Antioquia, Colombia (2008) and 3. Case Studies.indd 3 8/9/11 9:49 AM .3 Case Studies1 TOO GOOD FOR VIOLENCE (TGFV): A SCHOOL-BASED VIOLENCE PREVENTION PROGRAMME 4 TGFV is a universal school-based prevention program- me that targets all children, girls and boys, from all backgrounds and ethnicities. TGFV is implemented widely across many states in the US. It is also used in Canada, the Netherlands, Antilles and further across the Caribbean. The age range is kindergarten to eighth grade (age �ve to 12). Between 9th – 12th grades (age 13 – 18), the programme merges with its companion programme, Too Good for Drugs to form Too Good for Violence and Drugs. Description TGFV aims to create positive environments in which children make healthy choices without resorting to violence (and drugs, between grades 9 and 12 [age 13 to 16]). TGFV involves all students within schools, boys and girls, and those from all ethnic backgrounds. The programme is designed to bene�t everyone in schools by providing education in social and emotio- nal competencies and by reducing risk factors (such as violent tendencies and alcohol and substance abuse) and building upon protective factors (such as student bonding and drug awareness). 1. Cases studies accessed from the Dartington Social Research Unit Website (http://commonlanguage.org.uk/pages/effecti- ve%20services/) on February 26th, 2008. CASE STUDIES 3. Case Studies.indd 4 8/9/11 9:49 AM Process • Alienation • Drug dealing Each grade-level receives a ‘kit’ including a scripted • Early onset of aggression and/or violence curriculum, workbooks and teaching materials (pos- ters, games, visual aids and CDs). The teachers utilize Protective Factors these curriculum resources through interactive tea- ching methods that encourage students to bond and • Student bonding respect one another’s values and beliefs. The trained • Bonding between parents and children teacher receives training from staff at the Mendez • Pro-social school involvement Foundation, either through a one-day intensive cour- 5 se, or through 10 separate sessions. The teaching is • Drug awareness tailored to each grade. For example, the seven lessons delivered in Kindergarten teach the children about Expected Outcomes sharing and staying ‘peaceable’ whereas lessons in 6th grade teach about bullying and discrimination. All grades incorporate, what the programme calls, a • Improved social resistance skills ‘C.A.R.E-ing approach’: • More effective communication skills - Conflict resolution - Anger management grades) - Respect for self and others • Improved pro-social school involvement - Effective communication • Improved Drug awareness and reduced rates of smoking, drinking and drug use amongst children 9th The above four concepts are interwoven into the – 12th grade lesson features such as role-playing, co-operative learning games, small group activities and classroom Logic Model discussions. This promotes student bonding and encourages respect for individual values. Interactive There is no stated speci�c logic model or theory of exercises for parents and children help strengthen change within the programme description but the the bond between family members to help transcend evaluation provides the following theory of change: protective factors into the home environment Violence and aggression are socially learnt, from the social environment (peers, family, the media) and Risks targeted personal perception, which are linked to pro-social and anti-social behaviors. TGFV utilises social lear- • Tobacco, alcohol and other drug related problems ning theory by addressing social influences, such as • Association with delinquent and/or aggressive peers peers, and corrects misperceptions of social norms by • Delinquent beliefs and/or general delinquency informing students of the positive consequences of involvement engaging in pro social behavior. The programme pre- • Anti-social behavior vents the (further) development of anti-social skills 3. Case Studies.indd 5 8/9/11 9:49 AM and exposure to risk factors (drug and alcohol abuse) and instead make healthy lifestyle choices. by providing rewards and recognition for adopting positive values and attitudes. The school and classroom were used as a unit of analysis. Teacher and student scores were examined Evaluation with the classroom post-test scores and follow-up (20 weeks) scores. The evaluation was carried out in 2003 in Hillsbo- rough County, Florida. It involved ten randomly se- Expected Outcomes lected elementary schools in a district within Florida. 6 The aim of the evaluation was to observe whether • Higher levels of emotional competency those pupils participating in TCFV displayed higher levels of emotional competency, better social and • Higher levels of communication skills conflict resolution skills, communication skills and • Improved personal and social skills more positive perceptions of interactions with other • Improved pro-social behaviors students. • Fewer inappropriate behaviors • Improved social and resistance skills The evaluation population comprised 999 third • Improved interaction with others grade pupils (aged eight years-old) and 46 teachers, across 10 elementary schools within a large district Logic Model or Theory in Florida, and it was diverse in terms of gender and ethnicity, and social economic status. Five schools The evaluation does not explicitly state a logic model were assigned to an intervention group and �ve to a or theory of change but within its theoretical back- control group. The intervention sample participated ground it is stated that violence and aggression are in TGFV for the �rst quarter of the school year. The socially learnt from the social environment (peers, fa- control sample received services as usual. mily, the media). TGFV utilizes social learning theory by addressing social influences, such as peers, and Process corrects misperceptions of social norms by informing students of the positive consequences of engaging in Questionnaires were administered at three points pro-social behavior. The programme prevents the (fur- during the evaluation. First before the programme ther) development of anti-social skills and exposure was delivered; second immediately after the delivery to risk factors (drug and alcohol abuse) by providing of the programme; and third 20 weeks after delivery. rewards and recognition for adopting positive values Teachers received a ‘Teacher Checklist of Student Be- and attitudes. haviors’ in order to report their perceptions of student social skills, prosocial behavior and inappropriate behavior. A student questionnaire - the ‘Student Pro- tective Factor Survey Questionnaire’ - focused on key risk and protective factors associated with children’s ability to resist pressures to engage in risk behaviors CASE STUDIES 3. Case Studies.indd 6 8/9/11 9:49 AM Results outcomes • Improved personal and social skills: 11% higher than control • Improved pro-social behaviors: 13% higher than control • Fewer inappropriate behaviors: 1% higher than the control • Improved emotional competence: 5% higher than the control 7 • Improved social and resistance skills: 1% higher than control • Improved communication skills: 6% higher than control • Improved interaction with others: 1% higher than the control Source and contact information: Programme Developer, Brooke Wheeldon-Reece, Mendez Foundation, Tel: (001) (813) 251- 3600 ext. 208, www.mendezfoundation.org 3. Case Studies.indd 7 8/9/11 9:49 AM TRIBES LEARNING COMMUNITIES and positive interaction with one another is promoted by the children and teachers honoring four principles: Tribes is a preventative programme offered in schools (1) listening attentively to each other; (2) showing to all school children up to 18 years of age. It creates appreciation and avoiding ‘put downs’; (3) showing a positive learning environment by dividing children respect for each other; and (4) accepting that all pu- within classrooms into groups that work together pils have the ‘right to pass’ on activities led by peers (‘tribes’) and by honoring four basic agreements that in which they prefer not to participate. As children promote positive interaction. This promotes both become better at working together and honoring the social and academic development. four agreements throughout the school year, respon- 8 sibility for goal setting, monitoring of progress and Scope problem-solving is gradually transferred from the teacher to the children. The programme developers estimate that about two million children to date have been educated with the The four agreements are part of 12 skills the chil- Tribes approach. It was �rst developed in the 1970s. dren are taught in three stages. In the �rst of these, The training has been implemented in most states in the stage of inclusion, the skills are: participating the US, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Colombia, fully, listening attentively, expressing appreciation Mexico, Ecuador, Venezuela, the Dominican Republic, and reflecting on experience. The (second) stage of Senegal, Micronesia, Saipan, Tonga, Samoa, the Mars- influence revolves around valuing diversity of culture hall Islands, Japan and the UK. and ideas, thinking constructively, making responsible decisions and resolving conflict. The (third) stage of Target population community teaches creative problem-solving, working together on tasks, assessing improvement and cele- Tribes is a public health intervention offered to all brating achievement. Celebrating achievements is an children aged 5 to 18 attending a participating school important part of the programme. Every lesson has (this can be in either a rural or an urban setting). Its a twofold objective: learning academic content and public health nature means that boys and girls from practicing a particular social skill in collaboration. all ethnic backgrounds may bene�t from the interven- tion. There are no additional inclusion or exclusion Tribes is not a curriculum but a process. The teacher criteria. explains the objectives, which can be determined with the children’s input, at the start of a lesson; the Description tribes assess how far they have achieved those objec- tives at the end of the lesson. Tribes aims to create a positive learning environment, in turn promoting children’s social and academic Tribes strategies can be used for all subject areas development. To this end, pupils are organized into throughout a child’s school career. However, the small groups of three to six individuals (‘tribes’) extent to which teachers use Tribes will vary depen- by their teacher and work together in these groups ding on individual teaching styles, the lessons to be throughout the school year. In addition, cooperation learned and what the classroom needs at the time. CASE STUDIES 3. Case Studies.indd 8 8/9/11 9:49 AM Teachers and administrators at a Tribes school also Hypothesized Logic Model work in small groups called ‘collegial learning com- munities’ so that the Tribes experience extends to the When children work in small groups and honor the entire school community. four agreements, they can practice social skills and are also supported in their academic performance. There is an international network of certi�ed Tribes This process is supported by a school-wide culture, in trainers. Teachers must complete a 24-hour training which teachers focus on encouragement and deve- course before they can work according to the Tribes loping children’s strengths. Together, these promote system in their classrooms. children’s social competence (self esteem, ability to participate and collaborate, leadership skills, 9 Risks targeted problem-solving skills and social skills) and, in turn, their academic development (cooperative learning, • Learning climate that has more attention for risks engaging in the classroom). and failure than for care and success • Schools having low and negative expectations of Evaluation children considered at risk of developing problems Eight sixth-grade classrooms (twelve-year-olds) in a participation in society (leadership skills, taking on middle school in Tulsa, US were randomly allocated responsibility) to two teams of teachers in 1993. Only one of these • Poor social skills in children teams had completed a Tribes training. There were • Underachievement academically approximately 140 children in each of the experimen- tal and control groups. Not more than �ve children • Low expectations/aspirations for the future dropped out of each group. After the �rst semester the number of discipline refe- Outputs rrals and the reason for them, as logged by the school • More positive learning climate in schools computer, was compared between the two groups. Two categories of discipline referrals were measured: Outcomes referrals because of a refusal to work or to follow • Improved social competence directions, and referrals for disruptive behavior. Both • Improved academic development types of referral data were measured using teacher as • Increase in problem-solving skills well as pupil data. • Greater autonomy • Instilling a sense of purpose and a belief in a bright future 3. Case Studies.indd 9 8/9/11 9:49 AM Type Other notes Tribes was evaluated using a random allocation trial Because of this study further training in the Tribes (RCT). Randomization was conducted at the classroom approach was funded by the school district. Several level. An experimental group of classes receiving other studies also found positive programme effects. training in Tribes were compared to a control group providing tuition as usual. Comparison 10 The comparison group received tuition as normal. The teachers who took part in the Tribes training had selected themselves. Outputs • Number of discipline referrals written by teachers • Number of discipline referrals received by children • Reasons for referrals using information at teacher level • Reasons for referrals using information at child level Results outputs • Far fewer discipline referrals were written by tea- chers in the Tribes classrooms than in the non-Tribes classrooms (41, or 27% of both teams’ totals for the Tribes classrooms, compared to 113, or 73%, for the non-Tribes classrooms) • When referrals were measured at the student level, including referrals written by all staff members (such as teachers, bus drivers and administrators), the Tribes children also did better than the non-Tribes children: they received 33% of discipline referrals, compared to 67% for non-Tribes children Contact details programme because of disruptive behavior or a refusal to work or CenterSource Systems, LLC Tel.: +1 707 8381061 or +1 800 810 1701 follow directions (no p-values reported) Fax: +1 707 8381062 Email: carol@tribes.com http://www.tribes.com CASE STUDIES 3. Case Studies.indd 10 8/9/11 9:49 AM STRENGTHENING FAMILIES PROGRAM Description Strengthening Families targets children aged 10-14 Strengthening Families is a community-based inter- and their parents, teaching skills and offering exer- vention for children aged 10 to 14 and their parents cises to improve communication and relationships that seeks to enhance parenting skills and build between parents and children and thus preventing stronger families, thereby reducing problem beha- or reducing future behavior problems and drug and viors and substance use in adolescents. Child pro- alcohol use by young people. blem behavior and substance use is more likely when parenting is ineffective (e.g. harsh discipline, lack of Scope warmth and supervision/monitoring in the parent- 11 child relationship, high levels of conflict). Negative The programme has been delivered in its current form peer influence is another important factor; hence the since 1998 (see ‘links to other programmes’ for a children are taught social skills which enable them, brief history) to American children and their families amongst other things, to refuse inappropriate re- of white and other ethnic backgrounds in the US: quests from peers. African American, Hispanic, Haitian, Native American etc. There is some evidence that culturally speci�c The intervention, which has eight to thirteen fami- versions of the programme, reducing dosage and/ lies taking part per group, comprises a seven-week or eliminating some core content, resulted in more curriculum of two-hour sessions in consecutive weeks, successful recruitment and retention of families, but with four booster sessions that start six months to a outcomes tended to be not as strong as in the origi- year after the end of the �rst seven sessions. It en- nal programme. This demonstrates the importance of hances parent-child communication and relationships, �delity. Strengthening Families is being adapted for parents’ child management skills and children’s com- use in the UK. Data about how many families have petencies. In the �rst hour of each session, parents participated so far are not available; the programme and children attend separate skill-building sessions; developers estimate that ‘thousands’ of families have in the second hour they undertake supervised acti- completed Strengthening Families to date. vities together to practice their skills and reinforce what they have learned. Each session addresses risk Target population: Strengthening Families is consi- and protective factors that have been proven by the dered suitable for all children (boys and girls) aged literature (see below) to be associated with problema- 10-14 and their parents in urban and rural settings by tic behavior and substance misuse. The sessions take the programme developers, but would seem particu- place in settings such as schools, community centers larly useful for families at risk of poor family functio- or churches and are run by three facilitators, one for ning. the parent groups and two for the young people. The parents learn how to have a positive and effec- tive relationship with their children (e.g. setting appropriate limits, providing nurturing support), the children learn how to deal with peer pressure, setting 3. Case Studies.indd 11 8/9/11 9:49 AM pro-social goals for the future, appreciating parents Protective Factors targeted by the Programme and other elders, and dealing with stress and strong emotions. In the family sessions, listening and com- • Supportive family environment municating with respect is practiced, as is identifying • Good parent-child relationship family strengths and values, teaching and learning • Consistent discipline taking responsibility, and problem solving. The focus • Empathetic family communication is on the strengths the family has and how love and • Social skills limits can strengthen the family. For all sessions, • Peer refusal skills there are videotapes modeling positive behaviors and • Clear parental expectations regarding substance use 12 interactions, discussions, games and skill-building activities. There also are didactic presentations for the parent sessions and social bonding activities for Outcomes the children. • Reduced substance use in adolescence (alcohol, There is a manual for instructors, who take part in tobacco and other drugs, e.g. marijuana) at least two days of training. They need to have • Reduced behavior problems in adolescence (particu- experience in working with parents or children, with larly delinquency) strong presentation and organizational skills. Group • Increase in parenting skills (e.g. nurturing beha- leaders can be, for example, teachers, ministers, viors, limit setting) mental health workers or family and youth service • Improved pro-social behavior in children workers. • Increase in both parents’ and children’s communica- tion skills The cost of the programme depends on the size of the agency providing it; some sample budgets are The programme is thought to �rst improve the parent- available on the programme website (http://www. child relationship and the choice of peers who have a extension.iastate.edu/sfp). An analysis of the Natio- positive influence on the child. This subsequently re- nal Institute of Drug Abuse in the US showed that sults in more positive outcomes in terms of smoking, every dollar spent on the programme resulted in a drinking, use of other drugs and aggression. $10 saving in social service expenditure. Speci�ed Logic Model / Theory of Change Risks targeted Ineffective care giving predicts child problem be- • Harsh and inappropriate discipline havior, and early adolescence is a critical period in • Poor parent-child relationship which later problems can be prevented. This is why • Poor communication skills in family members the intervention targets families with ineffective care giving practices where children are aged 10-14. Evidence suggests that families with poor relations- • Poorly managed parental stress hips between parents and children, with higher levels • Poor social skills in children of conflict and insuf�cient monitoring and supervi- CASE STUDIES 3. Case Studies.indd 12 8/9/11 9:49 AM sion, are more likely to have children who engage Of the 1309 families recruited, 51% (667 families) in problem behavior (e.g. aggression and substance completed pre-tests, and 83% of these 667 families use). On the other hand, families where parents are completed post-tests six months after the pre-tests. warm and supportive, set clear limits and employ Complete data for analyses were available from 523 clear and consistent discipline techniques are less families. In 51% of cases the child attending the likely to have children who engage in problem beha- participating school was a girl; almost all participants vior. Thus, teaching parents and children to interact were Caucasian (98.6%). All participating family more positively, use constructive conflict resolution members completed standardized self-report ques- strategies and appropriate and consistent discipline tionnaires with a measure of parent-child affective helps prevent behavior problems (of which substance quality; general child management (General Child 13 use is regarded as one instance) in children later on. Management Measure) and parenting behaviors. In It also helps children adopt more pro-social behavior addition, a home visit took place with the child and strategies, resulting in interactions with peers who parents completing three interaction tasks about (a) have a positive influence on the child and reinforcing family life, (b) sources of disagreement in the family positive behavior choices. and (c) an attempt to resolve this issue. Indicators of the three outcomes measures (see below) were deri- Evaluation ved from factor analyses of responses to the question- naire and observations of sections of the videotaped A randomized controlled trial took place in autumn interactions. 1993 (pre-test) and spring 1994 (post-test) with families whose children were in 6th grade (age 12) of Data were analyzed using latent-variable structu- 33 rural schools in a Midwestern US state. Selection ral equation modeling, comparing each of the two criteria applied to schools were that 15% or more of interventions to the control group. An evaluation the families in their district had to be eligible for conducted one year after the post-test found that free or reduced-cost school lunches and the commu- the programme still had a positive effect on general nity had to have a size of 8,500 or fewer. Schools child management, parent-child affective quality and were allocated to one of three conditions: the Iowa parenting behaviors. Strengthening Families Program (ISFP), the Preparing for the Drug Free Years Program (PDFY) or a minimal- Type contact control condition. The programme was evaluated in a randomized con- Both intervention programmes aim to develop family trolled trial with two other conditions: another family competencies, but the ISFP has two more sessions, programme and a minimal-contact control group. has more intensive child involvement and has separa- te and joint sessions for parents and children, whe- Comparison reas the PDFY only requires child involvement in one of the �ve sessions; the other sessions are for parents Parents in the control group received a mailing about only. youth development and information about drug and alcohol use prevention. They did not receive the pro- 3. Case Studies.indd 13 8/9/11 9:49 AM grammes; there was no waiting list. nile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, a universal programme by the American National Institute on Outcomes Drug Abuse, and an exemplary programme by the US Department of Education Three latent parenting variables were measured: • Improved parenting behavior (e.g. communicating speci�c rules and consequences for using substances, controlling anger when communicating with the child, and better communication with the child) 14 • Improved general child management (consistent discipline, standard setting, monitoring and supervi- sing the child) • Increase in quality of parent-child affect (e.g. posi- tive involvement with the child) The evaluation focused on the impact the programme had on parenting; the way it affected the children themselves was not measured by this evaluation. Results outcomes Improved parenting behavior (d=.51) Improved general child management (p < .01) Increase in quality of parent-child affect (p < .01) Other notes The design of this evaluation, which was carried out by researchers other than those who originally deve- loped the programme, explicitly involved both mother and father (85% of families were dual-parent house- holds). There have been a number of replications of the programme with several cultural groups, although Contact details programme two evaluations with urban African-American samples Virginia Molgaard, Ph.D. found only a small effect of the programme. The qua- Institute for Social and Behavioral Research lity of these replications is not clear. Iowa State University Phone: (515) 294-8762 There is evidence that the SFP delays the onset of Fax: (515) 294-3613 substance use. Strengthening Families is considered Email: vmolgaar@iastate.edu a model programme by the American Of�ce of Juve- Website: www.extension.iastate.edu/sfp CASE STUDIES 3. Case Studies.indd 14 8/9/11 9:49 AM RESOLVING CONFLICTS CREATIVELY PROGRAM (RCCP) skills and promoting positive relationships between students by changing the way children think about RCCP is aimed at children from kindergarten up to aggression and violence and suggesting different grade 8 (ages 5-13). It teaches them conflict resolu- kinds of behavior (new strategies) when they interact tion skills and promotes positive relationships bet- with peers. ween students by changing the way they think about aggression and violence and suggesting different A school wishing to implement RCCP can do this kinds of behavior when interacting with peers. through the ‘Educators for Social Responsibility’ (ESR) organization, which offers a planning meeting for Scope schools wishing to participate; collects data about 15 the needs of the school; offers teachers a three- to The service was �rst developed in 1985 as an initia- four-day workshop (25 hours) to learn to work with tive of the New York City Public Schools and the New the method, followed by site visits and coaching ses- York City chapter of the Educators for Social Respon- sions; offers peer mediation training to school staff sibility (ESR Metro). It is currently in use in a number (who act as coaches) and children; runs workshops for of school districts in states across the US, including parents about conflict resolution; and delivers skills Alaska, Massachusetts, New York, Louisiana, New training to other staff working in the school environ- Jersey, California, Georgia, Oregon, and Arizona. The ment (e.g. paraprofessionals, bus drivers). programme has also been run in Brazil, Puerto Rico and Israel. Figures for how many children have recei- The programme consists of 51 lessons, delivered in a ved RCCP are not available, but in New York City alone workshop format in the classroom; the teacher does the service has been provided to more than 200,000 not impart knowledge but facilitates small-group dis- children. cussion, role playing, brainstorming and interviewing. Each lesson lasts between 30 minutes and one hour. Target population RCCP lessons take place at least once a week. The main skills the lessons aim to develop are countering RCCP is targeted at all children from kindergarten up discrimination, resolving conflicts, promoting coo- to grade 8 (ages 5-13) living in both urban and rural peration, appreciating diversity, expressing feelings, settings. It therefore covers girls and boys as well as dealing with anger, problem solving, being assertive, different ethnic groups. There are no additional inclu- and communicating clearly (including active liste- sion or exclusion criteria. ning). To this end, the lessons are grouped into the themes of peace, diversity, building communication Description skills, cooperation, conflict resolution and peer me- diation. Several lessons are dedicated to each theme. RCCP is a prevention programme delivered in a school setting to children aged 5-13 (kindergarten - grade All RCCP trainers must have had classroom experien- 8). Its main aims are to reduce aggression and vio- ce with the programme for three to �ve years before lence in children and promote positive interpersonal they can become an RCCP trainer. They all have a behaviors. It involves teaching conflict resolution background in education (the majority hold masters 3. Case Studies.indd 15 8/9/11 9:49 AM degrees in education). They lead the workshops for Outcomes parents, which take place at school in four to six two-hour blocks after work. This provides parents and • Reduce aggressive and violent behavior children with a common language when talking about • Increase caring and cooperative behavior conflict and helps parents to resolve conflicts in the home. Hypothesized Logic Model Implementation of the programme in a school takes place gradually, over the course of a few years, since Research has identi�ed three areas of social-emo- 16 training an entire school system takes time. In the tional development that predict future aggressive ‘beginning’ phase, a few teachers offer a few RCCP and violent behavior: (1) teachers’ perceptions of lessons. In the consolidation phase, more teachers in- children’s aggressive and pro-social behaviors; (2) troduce it, peer mediation starts and the school admi- self-reported conduct problems, depressive symptoms nistrator is trained, followed by the saturation phase, and aggressive fantasies; and (3) cognitive processes in which even more teachers and classes implement such as perceived threat and a high accessibility of the programme. Finally, in the ‘full model’ phase, RCCP aggressive responses in one’s memory. Future aggres- is delivered in the whole school. sion and violence also become more likely if the child has been experiencing harsh parenting and if violent A new version of the curriculum was introduced in behavior is normative in the peer group. Spring 2007, ensuring a better �t with US curriculum standards. The main assumption made by RCCP is that aggressive and violent behaviors are learned and that children Risks targeted can therefore also be taught not to behave in that way. Stated differently, teaching children that there are other ways of resolving conflict than violence • Child behaving violently and/or aggressively when (e.g. talking things out, mediation) enables them to in a situation of conflict make wiser choices in interacting with others gene- • Peer culture that is accepting of violence and ag- rally. By making children more knowledgeable about gression conflict resolution skills, promoting positive relation- ships with others, teaching them non-aggressive ways Outputs of dealing with discrimination and furthering respect for diversity, it is thought that the likelihood of • Promote intercultural understanding children developing aggressive and violent behavior is • More positive learning climate in the classroom and reduced, that their conflict resolution strategies will in school become less aggressive and that they will start dis- playing more pro-social behavior. Furthermore, using non-violent conflict resolution in school and demons- trating respect for diversity creates a role model and influences the peer culture within the school, thereby CASE STUDIES 3. Case Studies.indd 16 8/9/11 9:49 AM also creating a better learning environment. Work- all time points. The following measures were used: shops for parents impact on the conflict resolution style used in the home. Self-reports for children: Home Interview (measure of hostile attribution bias Evaluation and aggression in negotiating with others) Social Problem Solving Measure (competence in nego- In four New York school districts four elementary tiating with others) schools were recruited (16 schools in all, one of Seattle Personality Inventory (conduct problems, which dropped out). Within each district, each school depression) represented one of four stages of programme imple- What I Think (aggressive fantasies) 17 mentation: (1) non-intervention (i.e. school had yet to start implementation); (2) beginning stage; (3) Teachers: implementation of some components of the program- Teacher Checklist (teacher’s perception of child’s me; and (4) implementation of all components. Across aggressive behavior) schools, students’ ethnicity, poverty status and school Social Competence Scale (teacher’s perception of size had been selected to be similar for the schools in child’s pro-social behavior) each implementation phase. These groups were also representative of the elementary public school popu- Children’s developmental trajectories were estimated lation in New York City. using Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM). This proce- dure allows for estimating data for a child at missing Data collection took place in the Autumn and Spring time points. of the school years 1994-1995 and 1995-1996 (wave 1-4). Demographic characteristics are only speci�ed Type for the sample as a whole (11,160 children): 52% boys and 48% girls, with 41% of the children being The effect of RCCP was studied by means of a quasi- Hispanic, 40% black, 14% white and 5% ‘other’. The experimental longitudinal design. children’s mean age was 8.8 years at wave 1 and 9 years at wave 4 (the sample included children from Comparison grade 1 through 6 in all data collection waves and in both years of the study). Most of the children (86%) The gradual implementation of RCCP meant that received free school lunches. children who did not receive the service at the outset would be receiving it at some later stage. Rates of participation within waves varied from 75 to 84% for children and from 80 to 87% for teachers, Outputs who �lled in questionnaires. The level of exposure to RCCP was operationalised using only two RCCP com- Although promoting inter-group understanding is an ponents: amount of teacher training in the program- objective of RCCP, it was not included in the evalua- me and amount of classroom instruction in RCCP. All tion because no appropriate measure of it could be children in all participating schools were assessed at identi�ed. ‘Creating a positive learning climate in the 3. Case Studies.indd 17 8/9/11 9:49 AM classroom and in school’ is an output speci�ed by the • A decrease in aggressive negotiation strategies programme but it was not looked at by the evalua- when interacting with others (p<.001) tion. Where a teacher had received more instruction in the Outcomes programme, children: • Had a greater hostile attribution bias than children instructed by a teacher who had received less RCCP situation training (p<.05) • Decrease in conduct problems • Displayed a greater increase in hostile attribution 18 • Reduction in aggressive fantasies bias over time (p<.001) • Increase in pro-social behavior • Had a greater number of aggressive fantasies over time (p<.01) (e.g. increase in social problem solving skills and • Demonstrated fewer positive negotiation skills when reduction in hostile attribution bias) interacting with others (p<.01) • Reduction in depressive symptoms (not a hypothesi- • Became more aggressive in interacting with others zed effect of RCCP) over time (p<.001) • Displayed more conduct problems over time (no p- Results outcomes value stated) • Showed a slower increase in aggressive behavior Higher levels of classroom instruction in RCCP resul- over time (p<.05) ted in: • Increased more rapidly in pro-social behavior • Lower degree of hostile attribution bias (p<.01) (p<.01) • Reduced acceleration of aggressive fantasies • Accelerated faster in the display of depressive (p<.01) symptoms (p<.01) • Improved interpersonal negotiation strategies (p<.001) The researchers’ explanation of these contradictory • Decrease of conduct problems over time (no p-value results for children instructed by teachers who had stated) received a greater amount of training was that the • Slower rate of acceleration of depressive symptoms teachers required more support from RCCP staff, in over time (p<.01) part because the teachers did not supply the intended • Levels of teacher-observed aggressive behavior amount of RCCP instruction in the classroom. Thus remaining the same and not increasing over time (no the results are interpreted as reflecting a need these p-value stated) teachers had. Teachers who received lower rates of • Increase in pro-social behavior over time (no p- training and coaching may have been implementing value stated) the programme correctly from the start, thus not requiring additional support. Taking part in the programme also resulted in: (p<.001) CASE STUDIES 3. Case Studies.indd 18 8/9/11 9:49 AM Other notes QUANTUM OPPORTUNITIES PROGRAM Although the programme is hypothesized to be effec- The Quantum Opportunities Program (QOP) is a youth tive for children up to the age of 13, no evaluation development programme that provides year-round ser- appears to have been conducted with children not vices to socio-economically disadvantaged young peo- in primary school. Furthermore, ESR’s claim that the ple over four years of high school (ages 15-18). The programme is tailored to the needs of the individual programme aims to improve school achievement and school raises questions about its �delity. The im- graduation rates and reduce rates of teenage preg- portance of the amount of training that the trainers nancy and crime. It also seeks to establish long-term themselves receive, as well as the dosage of the inter- meaningful relationships between the participants 19 vention, is clearly demonstrated by this evaluation, and mentors/case managers, and build a sense of although programmes do not often highlight this. It commitment and involvement within the community should be established for RCCP how these two factors and school. can be influenced so as to optimize the bene�cial effects of the intervention. Participants, known as ‘associates’, are engaged in three types of activity: education, development and community service. They are rewarded �nancially for completing various stages within the programme. The programme is delivered in school, in the community and at a ‘central facility’ after school hours. Type This is an early intervention programme for high- school students (aged 15-18) designed to foster edu- cational and social development in order to increase graduation rates and decrease rates of violence and teenage pregnancy. It aims to reach these goals by offering mentorship and intensive case management. Scope In 1989, when the programme was �rst developed, Contact details programme 125 disadvantaged young people from �ve Ame- Lisia Morales rican high schools (in San Antonio, Philadelphia, Program Director Milwaukee, Oklahoma City and Saginaw) received the Phone: 001 617 4921764, extension 31 programme. More recently the programme has been Fax: 001 617 8645164 replicated for a further 600 students in seven cities: Email: lmorales@ esrnational.org Cleveland, Fort Worth, Houston, Memphis, Philadel- http://www.esrnational.org/es/rccp.htm 3. Case Studies.indd 19 8/9/11 9:49 AM phia, Washington DC and Yakima. Implementation has �nancial incentives to remain in the programme primarily in the US. The total number of children the (approx. $1.25 per hour spent on programme activi- programme has now serviced is unknown. ties plus a similar amount added to an account for the participant to use when they have graduated Target population from high school – or similar, and a bonus for having reached or exceeded targets or goals). High school students (male and female) from the ninth grade (15 years old) from low-income fami- The programme incorporates the use of case mana- lies (where low income is de�ned as receiving food gement, mentoring, computer-assisted and other 20 stamps and public assistance). As the programme has multimedia instruction, work experience and �nancial developed there has been a shift towards children incentives. It consists of 96 courses (48 academic who regularly miss school and have poor grades. Most and 48 functional) that develop understanding of and of the schools involved to date have been from urban engagement with, for example, employment, health settings, although this is not part of the inclusion and consumer topics. The pace is set according to criteria. the preferences and abilities of the individual par- ticipants. Each case manager (whose quali�cations Description are not speci�ed) works with 15 to 25 young people. The case manager is bound to the young person for The programme aims to encourage participants to the four-�ve year duration of the programme by way �nish high school, enroll in college and avoid risky of an annual contract involving monthly progress behaviors such as substance abuse, crime and teenage reports, participation in service activities and weekly pregnancy. The programme provides “quantum oppor- meetings. The coordinator is also able to individua- tunities� across three types of activity (community lly tailor activities to the needs of each associate in service, education and development) for four years of order to accommodate short- and long-term goals. high school (15-18 year-olds). The programme motto is “Once in QOP, Always in Education activities include tutoring, computer-assis- QOP�. This means that no participants are ever taken ted instruction and homework assistance (with par- off the programme and those who drop out are trac- ticular help with basic reading and maths skills). De- ked and contacted (including if they are in prison). velopment activities include acquiring life and family Drop-outs can also return to the programme at any skills, and planning for college and jobs. Community point during the four years. Programme costs genera- service activities include community service projects, lly range from $22,000 - $28,000 per participant for helping with public events and holding regular jobs. the whole �ve years of the programme (higher costs have been recorded). Participants spend 250 hours per year on each of the three types of activity (750 hours in total), even if they drop out of school or move to another district. The programme offers transportation services, child care and emergency �nancial assistance alongside CASE STUDIES 3. Case Studies.indd 20 8/9/11 9:49 AM Risks targeted pant to imagine and pursue an alternative lifestyle for themselves. Participation in the programme also �lls in the time in which participants may have engaged adult in more negative or risky behaviors; instead they • Academic underachievement participate in more positive activities. This should • Lack of involvement in community also lead to upward social mobility and a greater • Engagement in risky behavior (delinquency, crime, commitment to the community. substance use and risky sexual behavior) Evaluation Outcomes 21 A randomized controlled trial was conducted between • Higher rates of graduation 2004 and 2006 on 1,069 young people eligible for the • Sense of commitment to and involvement in com- programme. The young people came from seven im- munity and school. plementation sites (Cleveland, Philadelphia, Washing- • Improved school achievement ton DC, Fort Worth, Houston, Memphis and Yakima), • Lower teenage pregnancy rate with roughly equal numbers from each area (roughly • Lower rates of involvement in criminal activity 80-100) except in Philadelphia and Yakima (50 each). Hypothesized Logic Model The evaluation involved four assessments over a num- ber of years. The previous three follow-ups collected The Quantum Opportunities Program combats the data on short-term impacts whilst the programme real and perceived lack of opportunities accessible to was still being delivered and on longer-term im- socio-economically disadvantaged youth via a number pacts at one year after implementation and two plus of different methods: by promoting the notion that years after implementation. The focus here is on the success and upward social mobility are obtainable; fourth and �nal assessment with data collected more through participation in a meaningful and enduring than four years after implementation. A survey was relationship with the co-coordinator who, to the conducted by telephone six years after most of the youth, represents a role model and surrogate parent; sample members should have graduated from high by enhancing academic and functional skill levels, to school aged between 23 and 25 years old. Data was equip young people for success; and �nally by rein- also collected from reading and maths tests and high forcing and rewarding positive action and consequent school transcripts. achievements. In the original sample 580 young people were enro- All of these interventions and services theoretically lled in the programme and 489 were assigned to the compensate for the de�cits apparent in impoverished control group. Participants were predominantly black areas. They should result in lower rates of pregnancy or Hispanic and came from urban areas. The response and violence and higher rates of graduation in disad- rate for this study is not clear but for the previous vantaged young people. This is because the opportu- study (the third assessment) the response rate was nities presented within the programme enable partici- 76%. 3. Case Studies.indd 21 8/9/11 9:49 AM The survey included questions on high school com- Community service activities were designed to enhan- pletion, post-secondary education, training, em- ce the participants’ sense of responsibility for others ployment, earnings, risky behaviors, physical and living in their neighborhood. mental well-being and family life. No other details are provided in this study. Results were assessed by Results outcomes differences between means and regression adjustment estimates. • The programme did not increase the likelihood of graduating from high school with a diploma (60% Type graduation rates for those receiving QOP and those in 22 the control group). A randomized controlled study comparing long-term outcomes between experimental and control groups. mathematics and reading test scores. • Despite previous increases in post-secondary edu- Comparison cation and training at earlier time-points, signi�can- ce was not sustained with low rates of both groups The control group was eligible for the programme but reporting to currently be on a college course program- were randomly allocated to the control group and not me group (38%) and control group (34%). allowed to participate in QOP. and control groups in terms of percentages in current Outcomes employment (67% vs. 68% respectively) or average current earnings ($12,700 vs. $13,200 respectively). • Increased likelihood of completing high school • To improve achievement in maths and reading tests likely to have been using drugs in the past month in • Increased participation in post-secondary education their early twenties than the control group (12% vs. or training 18% respectively). • Increased earnings and employment rates • Avoidance of risky behaviors less likely to have been binge drinking in the last month than the control group (25% vs. 31% respecti- Logic Model or Theory vely). • No other risky behaviors (such as smoking or teen Education services such as the development of an in- pregnancies) were reported to change signi�cantly dividual education plan were intended to increase the between control and experiment groups academic achievements of participants and increase • School achievement in reading and maths had not the likelihood of further education. Life skills training improved for those receiving the programme (a small was included to reduce the likelihood of participants reduction of 0.4%) engaging in behaviors such as substance abuse, criminal behavior and teenage parenthood. CASE STUDIES 3. Case Studies.indd 22 8/9/11 9:49 AM • As young adults the experimental group were signi- �cantly more likely to have committed a crime in the last three months than the control group (5% vs. 2% respectively) or have been arrested in the past two years (11% vs. 5% respectively) Other notes The focus here is on the fourth and �nal assessment. Although the overall results are modest (and in some 23 ways negative), the impact of the programme varied across sites and for some speci�c populations (e.g. age, site). Earlier evaluations showed greater impro- vements that were not sustained up to this evaluation time-point. Contact details programme C. Benjamin Lattimore Opportunities Industrialization Centers of America Inc. Telephone 001 215 236 4500 Fax 001 215 236 7480 Internet: There is no dedicated website. 3. Case Studies.indd 23 8/9/11 9:49 AM EXPERIENCE CORPS Volunteers spend most of their time working one- to-one with children in the classroom, mostly on Experience Corps is an early intervention programme academic subjects but also on building close relation- targeted at elementary school children (aged 6-11 ships and providing emotional support. Their time is years) in inner city schools identi�ed with learning not always spent with just one particular child but and behavior problems. It aims to improve learning with several children as and when they need help. and classroom behavior in schools using older vo- Volunteers could also take the lead in providing lunteer mentors and tutors to support and guide the after-school activities focused on music, sport and children. dance and in encouraging parental involvement in the 24 school and their child’s education. Scope Volunteers must be at least 55 years old and be able This programme was founded in 1995 and currently to make a �rm time commitment to the programme. has 2,000 members across 19 cities who help to tutor They work in teams but other than the training and and mentor 20,000 elementary school children every basic in-school structure each programme implemen- year. It has been implemented in cities across the tation can vary in its speci�c method and content, US including Baltimore, Boston, Chicago, Cleveland, especially in terms of after-school activities. There Grand Rapids, Indianapolis, Mesa, Minneapolis, New is no identi�ed curriculum in the Experience Corps York, Oakland, Philadelphia, Port Arthur, Portland, San programme, rather the volunteers’ work alongside Francisco, St. George, St. Paul, Tempe, Tucson and teachers to support and encourage the children with Washington. their work. Volunteers can continue their efforts in after-school clubs where they may be able to develop Target population the same issues further so that children learn to cope with their problems across different contexts. Children in elementary schools (aged 6-11 years) in urban areas that have been identi�ed as having a Risks targeted high need in literacy and behavior performance. No other inclusion/exclusion criteria are identi�ed. • Low income areas • Indication of poor performance academically and Description behaviorally Experience Corps brings older adults into the clas- Protective factors targeted by the programme sroom as volunteers for 15 hours per week throughout the school year. These volunteers receive training as tutors and mentors and are then placed in a school change for a year. Training includes sessions on child develo- • Active school (and community) involvement pment, literacy, conflict resolution, tutoring, parent • Experienced and committed volunteers outreach, and school policies and procedures. CASE STUDIES 3. Case Studies.indd 24 8/9/11 9:49 AM Outputs were randomly assigned to a control group which did not receive the programme but could receive other • Increased learning for the children services as per normal. A total of 1,194 Kindergarten • Help for teachers to grade three children (aged �ve to eight years) were • Communities use their older adult resource better assessed at pre- and post-test time points with a follow-up assessment three months after the inter- Outcomes vention (experimental group n=688, control group n=506). The gender split in the sample was roughly • Improved children’s academic achievement equal (46% female, 54% male) and the main ethnic • Improved children’s social skills group was African American (95%). Assessments took 25 • Improved older adult well-being place during normal school hours in individual ses- • Decreased disruptive behavior sions and were run by six trained interviewers. The as- sessments included measures on alphabet recognition, Speci�ed Logic Model / Theory of Change listening comprehension, verbal ability, the Com- prehensive Test of Basic Skills (CTBS), the Maryland Experience Corps focuses on elementary schools in School Performance Assessment Program (MSPAP) and inner city areas as the academic and social needs school behavior records. School and teacher outcome of low-income children are great. Participation in assessments were also conducted to measure tea- Experience Corps leads to increases for children in cher self-ef�cacy, teacher perception about seniors academic stimulation, behavioral management and in the classroom and school climate. The results of readiness for learning. This in turn leads to increases the children’s outcomes were analyzed using General in their vocabulary, alphabet recognition, reading, Linear Modeling. social skills, school attendance, motivation to learn and concentration. It also leads to a decrease in their Type disciplinary action and aggression (or in all improved reading and academic performance and improved clas- Pilot evaluation based on a randomized controlled sroom behavior). The programme tries to strike a ba- design (RCT). The control group did not receive the lance between what volunteers give and receive from intervention. their experience in terms of learning and growth. It incorporates a large group of older adult volunteers Comparison to highlight the impact a group could have within a speci�c school or neighborhood. The control group consisted of three schools that did not receive the programme but which were able to Evaluation receive other services as per normal. This evaluation was conducted in 1999/2000 in six schools from Baltimore. Three schools were randomly assigned to an experimental group which received the Experience Corps programme, and three schools 3. Case Studies.indd 25 8/9/11 9:49 AM Results outputs • The overall percentage change on the scores for the CTBS measure of basic skills was higher for the experi- • Most teachers felt they were making a difference in mental group (mean=49.3) than for the control group the lives of their children; there were no signi�cant (mean=30.7) but the differences were not signi�cant differences between the two groups, although more • Scores on the MSPAP reading measure for chil- teachers in the intervention group (100%) than the dren in the third grade were statistically signi�cant control group (91%) believed they were making a between the two groups (p<.02), with children in the difference experimental group performing better than those in • Teachers in the experimental group had more favo- the control group 26 rable attitudes towards seniors than teachers in the • Principals of the experimental group schools repor- control group, although the differences were not sig- ted a 50% decrease in the number of referrals to their of�ces for behavioral issues. This was not seen in the had a good or very good perception of seniors in the control groups classroom compared with 73% in the control group • Although differences between the groups were not signi�cant the teachers in the experimental group were more likely than those in the control group to feel that teachers had more strategies to adapt instructions for children as necessary (68%, control group 57%), felt more part of a team effort (61%, control group 50%) and felt that most classrooms had a clearly de�ned set of rules about appropriate behavior (89%, control group 82%) Results outcomes • Alphabet recognition scores were higher for children in the Kindergarten experimental group (mean=25.1, ES=0.17) than for the Kindergarten control group (mean=23.4, ES=0.1, p<.004) alphabet recognition due to ceiling effects (ES=0.11 for experiment group and 0.13 for control group) • Differences between the two groups regarding sco- res on the listening comprehension and verbal ability were not statistically signi�cant (p=.11) but the ES Contact details programme for the experimental group was 0.32 for Kindergarten Experience Corps National Of�ce Phone: 202-478-6190 (control group 0.07) and 0.24 for �rst grade (control Email: info@experiencecorps.org group 0.12) www.experiencecorps.org CASE STUDIES 3. Case Studies.indd 26 8/9/11 9:49 AM OLWEUS BULLYING PREVENTION (1) SCHOOL: A bullying prevention coordination committee is The programme is designed to prevent and reduce formed to ensure programme �delity. This committee bullying in elementary and secondary schools. It normally comprises 8-13 members, including a school seeks to promote more positive behavior in children administrator, a teacher representative from each gra- who bully and to enhance the self-con�dence and de, a parent, a non-teaching staff member, a school- social acceptance of victims of bullying. The activities based mental health professional and, if applicable, a aimed at achieving these outcomes operate at the playground supervisor and a school resource of�cer or levels of the school, the classroom and the individual school-based law enforcement of�cer. child. The activities include, for example, a bullying 27 prevention coordinating committee, classroom mee- Committee members are trained for two days by tings about bullying and talks with bullies and vic- certi�ed trainers and can consult with a trainer tims. The programme works with teachers and parents during the school year over the telephone (typically as well as children. this consultation takes place each month and takes about an hour). There is also an on-site coordinator Scope if the school is large. Other staff members receive training as well (half a day to a day) and are involved The Bullying Prevention Programme was set up in in discussion groups. The committee coordinates the 1983 in northern Norway. It has since been introdu- school’s efforts to reduce bullying, meeting at regular ced in Iceland, the UK, the USA and Germany. No in- intervals, planning the implementation of programme formation could be obtained about the total number components and liaising between school staff and of children who have been receiving the programme programme consultants. to date, but has been implemented on a large scale. Once these organizational conditions have been met, Target population each student in the school completes a questionnaire (anonymously) to establish the nature and extent of All students attending elementary and secondary bullying in the school. This is repeated at the end of school (6 to 18 years of age) are targeted, whilst the two-year programme. The questionnaire is inten- students identi�ed as bullies or bully victims receive ded to give an insight into the nature and prevalence additional individual interventions. of bullying in the school. For example, “hot spots� for bullying in school grounds are identi�ed by students Description �lling it out, so that the school can increase teacher supervision in those spots. The Olweus Bullying Prevention Programme is delive- red in a school setting during a two-year period by School-wide anti-bullying rules are established. The school staff members to all children attending parti- wording of these rules varies across schools but typi- cipating schools. Activities aimed at preventing and cally captures that other students will not be bullied, reducing bullying operate at the levels of the school, that students will try to help those that are bullied the classroom and the individual child. and that they will make a point to include students 3. Case Studies.indd 27 8/9/11 9:49 AM who tend to get left out. A coordinated supervision Risks targeted system is introduced for break periods, increasing the amount of supervision provided by staff. The commit- Risk factors for bullies are as follows: tee also decides on appropriate positive and negative consequences for children’s behavior. For example, standing up for someone who gets bullied can be At the individual level: rewarded by a prize draw, additional privileges, or • Impulsive, dominant personality coupons to be redeemed at the school store. • Lack of empathy • Struggling to conform to rules 28 Bullying can result in a one-to-one discussion with • Low frustration tolerance a staff member about the bullying behavior, a loss • Positive attitude towards violence of privileges in school or a meeting between the • Gradually decreasing interest in school student, school staff and the student’s parents. The • For boys: physical strength school involves parents in the project, for example by offering parent-staff meetings in which the parents At the family level: receive information about the project, or discussing • Little parental warmth and involvement bullying in individual meetings with parents whose • Lack of supervision from parents child bullies or is bullied. • Harsh discipline / physical punishment • Very permissive parenting (2) CLASSROOM: School-wide anti-bullying rules are reinforced in class At the peer level: and there are regular classroom meetings with stu- • Friends/peers with positive attitudes towards dents to make them more aware of the problem and violence increase empathy. In addition, there are informational meetings with parents of the children in a particular At school: class. • Teachers indifferent towards or accepting of bullying behavior (3) CHILD: • Pupils indifferent towards or accepting of bu- There are individual meetings with children who bully llying behavior and children who are the victims of bullying. This level also includes meetings at an individual basis with parents of children involved, offering them help and support. CASE STUDIES 3. Case Studies.indd 28 8/9/11 9:49 AM Outputs in general anti-social behavior, including vandalism, �ghting, theft and truancy (although this is not an • Prevention, reduction and, ultimately, elimination explicit objective of the programme). of direct and indirect bullying (direct bullying invol- ves explicit attacks, including verbally and through Evaluation facial expressions and physical contact, whereas indirect bullying concerns social exclusion in the The study involved a quasi-experimental design in classroom) which 18 middle schools in rural South Carolina, US, • Better peer relationships for both bullies and vic- were allocated either to the programme (11 schools) tims or to a control group (7 schools) for one year (the 29 • More positive social functioning of bullies within control group schools also received the programme and outside school, including reduced aggressive be- in the second year). The schools in the programme havior and more positive ways of asserting themselves and control group came from six participating school - districts and were matched in terms of student and llying community demographics. • Making victims feels more secure at school • Ensure that victims feel more accepted by at least Measures were taken at baseline (March 1995), after a some of their peers year (March 1996) and after two years (March 1997). Students aged 11-13 years were asked a number of Hypothesized Logic Model questions, mostly developed by the authors, except for self-reported bullying, which was measured using A permissive environment contributes to bullying, so one item from the Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire. implementing school rules on bullying and training teachers send out the message that bullying is not The analysis used data on 2,649 children at baseli- tolerated. Research also indicates that lack of paren- ne (1,113 in the programme group and 1,536 in the tal warmth and parents being too permissive contri- control group), 3,173 after the �rst year (1,175 and butes to children being aggressive, so these issues 1,998 respectively) and 883 after two years (experi- are addressed by offering a non-permissive environ- mental group only). The researchers do not report the ment at school (in terms of bullying) and conveying attrition rate. There were slightly more girls than boys the message to parents and children that bullying is in the sample. Information about ethnicity at the not accepted. At the peer level, it is expected that school level was not available. The programme develo- the change in school climate and the reinforcement of per was consulted in the study in order to strengthen anti-bullying rules helps bullies reduce poor beha- programme �delity. vior and improve their behavior with peers in school, extending to their lives outside of school as well. Collectively these activities improve the social climate at school, reduce the number of new bullying victims and make children more satis�ed with school life. In turn, it is anticipated that there will be reductions 3. Case Studies.indd 29 8/9/11 9:49 AM Type • Both boys and girls reported a moderate decrease in the number of occasions at which an adult addres- 18 middle schools in rural South Carolina, US, were sed children who bullied or were bullied, although selected for the study in early 1995 and allocated after two years this was no longer signi�cant for to programme or control condition by means of a boys, whereas it became more signi�cant for girls. quasi-experimental design. Of the 18 schools, eleven The authors of the study suggest that this may have implemented the programme. The other seven schools resulted from a decrease in the number of bullying formed a control group in the �rst year of delivery incidents. and commenced implementation afterwards. • Self-reported attitudes towards bullying did not 30 change for boys. Girls, however, became more tolerant Comparison of bullying behaviors in year two. The control group did not receive the programme in Findings related to anti-social behavior were not year one but were placed on a waiting list so that reported. More importantly, standardized mean scores they did start receiving the programme in year two. were compared within the experimental group, i.e. only differences within the experimental group were Outcomes analyzed and the analysis did not extend to the control group. After the second year of the study (so • Reduced bullying among middle-school students after the control group schools had been applying the • Reduced related anti-social behavior in middle- programme for a year) there were no positive effects school students, including frequency of engagement of the programme for the control group and they have in �ghts and vandalism not been described further. The authors suggest that the programme appeared to have no effect on the Results outcomes control group schools because of poor �delity. The extent to which there were differences within the • A large decrease in self-reported bullying of others programme group, and their accompanying p-value, in the current semester at one-year follow-up (but the was not reported. level was similar to baseline at two-year follow-up). Other notes being bullied after a year. There was no such differen- ce in this respect for girls and, after two years, both Although acknowledged to be a model programme, boys and girls reported similar levels of victimization not every evaluation of the Olweus Bullying Preven- as at baseline. tion Program is positive; e.g. a study in Austria found no programme effects whatsoever. A weakness of boys, particularly in the �rst year, but did not change the evaluation reported on above is that some of the for girls. outcomes speci�ed in the original programme, such • Bullying incidents reported to parents decreased as increased self-con�dence among victims, were not signi�cantly for both boys and girls over the two examined. years of the programme. CASE STUDIES 3. Case Studies.indd 30 8/9/11 9:49 AM Contact details programme Dr Dan Olweus The Olweus Group Phone: (+47) 55 58 28 08 Fax: (+47) 55 58 98 87 Email: for written information about programme materials: olweus@online.no For contacting Dr Olweus himself: olweus@psyhp.uib.no Team members’ email: olweus-gruppen@uib.no www.clemson.edu/olweus 31 3. Case Studies.indd 31 8/9/11 9:49 AM