63211 Conflict Prevention and Reconstruction (CPR) Unit CPR and Related Publications on Conflict and Development Publications are available on our website: www.worldbank.org/conflict SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT PAPERS Conflict Prevention & Reconstruction Conflict Prevention and Reconstruction (CPR) Unit CPR and Related Publications on Conflict and Development Table of Contents A. Conflict Prevention and Reconstruction Working Papers WP# Authors Working Paper Title Page 1 Marc Sommers Children, Education and War: Reaching Education for All (EFA) Objectives in 1 Countries Affected by Conflict 2 Klaus Rohland, and Sarah The East Timor Reconstruction Program: Successes, Problems and Tradeoffs 1 Cliffe 3 Alastair McKechnie Humanitarian Assistance, Reconstruction and Development in Afghanistan: A 2 Practitioner’s View 4 Jose Marques, and Ian Central America: Education Reform in a Post-Conflict Setting: Opportunities and 2 Bannon Challenges 5 Nicholas Sambanis Using Case Studies to Expand the Theory of Civil War 3 6 Salvatore Schiavo-Campo Financing and Aid Management Arrangements in Post-Conflict Situations 3 7 Sarah Cliffe, Scott Community-Driven Reconstruction as an Instrument in War-to-Peace Transitions 4 Guggenheim, and Markus Kostner 8 Mary Caprioli Gender Equality and Civil Wars 4 9 Patrick Barron, Rachael Do Participatory Development Projects Help Villagers Manage Local Conflicts? 5 Diprose, David Madden, Claire Q. Smith, and Michael Woolcock 10 Jacques Bure, and Pierre Pont Landmine Clearance Projects: Task Manager’s Guide 5 11 John Conroy Timor-Leste: Independent Review of the Credit Component of the Community 6 Empowerment Project 12 Paul Richards, Khadija Bah, Social Capital and Survival: Prospects for Community-Driven Development in 6 and James Vincent Post-Conflict Sierra Leone 13 John Bray MIGA’s Experience in Conflict-Affected Countries: The Case of Bosnia and 7 Herzegovina 14 Henrik Urdal The Devil in the Demographics: The Effect of Youth Bulges on Domestic Armed 8 Conflict, 1950-2000 15 Uwe Kievelitz, Thomas Practical Guide to Multilateral Needs Assessments in Post-Conflict Situations. A 8 Schaef, Manuela Leonhardt, Joint UNDG, UNDP and World Bank Guide, prepared by GTZ with the Support Herwig, Hahn, and Sonja of BMZ Vorwerk 16 Jordan Schwartz, Shelly The Private Sector’s Role in the Provision of Infrastructure in Post-Conflict 8 Hahn, and Ian Bannom Countries: Patterns and Policy Options 17 Swarna Rajagopalan Within and Beyond Borders: An Independent Review of Post-Conflict Fund 9 Support to Refugees and the Internally Displaced 18 William Byrd, and Drugs and Development in Afghanistan 9 Christopher Ward 19 Patrick Barron, Claire Smith, Understanding Local Level Conflict in Developing Countries: Theory, Evidence 10 and Michael Woolcock and Implications from Indonesia 20 Sonia Margallo Addressing Gender in Conflict and Post-Conflict Situations in the Philippines 11 21 Paul Richards, Steven Community Cohesion in Liberia: A Post-War Rapid Social Assessment 11 Archibald, Beverlee Bruce, Watta Modad, Edward Mulbah, Tornorlah Varpilah, and James Vincent 22 John Bray International Companies and Post-Conflict Reconstruction: Cross-Sectoral 12 Comparisons 23 Claire Smith The Roots of Violence and Prospects for Reconciliation: A Case Study of Ethnic 12 Conflict in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia 13 24 Salvatore Schiavo-Campo, The Mindanao Conflict in the Philippines: Roots, Costs, and Potential Peace and Mary Judd Dividend 25 Patrick Barron, and Counting Conflicts: Using Newspaper to Understand Violence in Indonesia 13 Joanne Sharpe 26 Gary Barker, and Young Men and Construction of Masculinity in Sub-Saharan Africa: Implications 14 Christine Ricardo for HIV/AIDS, Conflict, and Violence 27 Juana Brachet and Conflict-Sensitive Development Assistance: The Case of Burundi 15 Howard Wolpe 28 Barbara Müller Survey of the German Language Literature on Conflict 15 29 Piet Goovaerts, Martin Demand-Driven Approaches to Livelihood Support in Post-War Contexts: A Joint 16 Gasser, and Aliza Belman ILO-World Bank Study Inbal 30 Rob Verheem and Reinoud Strategic Environmental Assessments : Capacity Building in Conflict-Affected 16 Post, with Jason Switzer, and Countries Bart Klem 31 Patrick Barron, Melina Consolidating Indonesia’s Democracy: Conflict, Institutions, and the “Local� 17 Nathan, and Bridget Welsh 2004 Legislative Elections 32 Marc Sommers Fearing Africa’s Young Men: The Case of Rwanda 17 33 Sanam Naraghi Anderlini Mainstreaming Gender in Conflict Analysis: Issues and Options 18 34 Aly Rahim, and Facilitating Transitions for Children and Youth: Lessons from four Post-Conflict 19 Peter Holland Fund Projects 35 Shobhanna Rajendran The Impact of Armed Conflict on Male Youth in Mindanao, Philippines 20 David Veronesi Nasrudin Mohammad, and Alimudin Mala 36 Thania Paffenholz, and Civil Society, Civic Engagement, and Peacebuilding 20 Christoph Spurk 37 Kirsti Samuels Rule of Law Reform in Post-Conflict Countries: Operational Initiatives and 20 Lessons Learnt 38 Samuel Munzele Maimbo Remittances and Economic Development in Somalia: An Overview 21 39 Patrick Barron, and Decentralizing Inequality? Center-Periphery Relations, Local Governance, and 22 Samuel Clark Conflict in Aceh B. Joint, Related Publications and Occasional Papers Authors Title Page HNP/ Florence Baingana, and Ian Integrating Mental Health and Psychosocial Interventions into World Bank 23 CPR Bannon Lending in Conflict-Affected Populations: A Toolkit CPR Dee Hahn-Rollins, Stephanie ACS Staff Working in Conflict-Affected Countries: Listening to their Voices 23 Schalk-Zaitsev, and Alan Tidwell HNP Florence Baingana, Ian Mental Health and Conflicts: Conceptual Framework and Approaches 23 Bannon, and Rachel Thomas HDN Flavia Bustreo, Eleonora Improving Child Health in Post-Conflict Countries: Can the World Bank 24 Genovese, Elio Omobono, Contribute? Henrik Axelsson, and Ian Bannon HDN Ian Bannon, Peter Holland, Youth in Post-Conflict Settings 24 and Aly Rahim WBI Mitchell O’Brien Parliaments as Peacebuilders: The Role of Parliaments in Conflict-Affected 24 Countries SAR Finance and Private Sector The Investment Climate in Afghanistan: Exploiting Opportunities in an Uncertain 24 Development Unit Environment ILO/ ILO and World Bank Demand –Driven Approaches to Livelihood Support in Post-War Contexts 25 WB PRMGE PREM Gender and Gender, Justice, and Truth Commissions 25 SDV/LEGJR Development Group, Conflict Prevention and LCSPS Reconstruction Team, Legal and Judicial Reform Practice Group, and LAC Public Sector Group C. Conflict Prevention and Reconstruction Dissemination Notes DN# Dissemination Note Title Page 1 Rebuilding the Civil Service in a Post-Conflict Setting: Key Issues and Lessons of Experience 26 2 Aid, Policy and Growth in Post-Conflict Settings 26 3 Child Soldiers: Prevention, Demobilization and Reintegration 26 4 The Structure of Rebel Organizations: Implications for Post-Conflict Reconstruction 26 5 The Conflict Analysis Framework (CAF): Identifying Conflict-Related Obstacles to Development (also available in 26 Spanish) 6 Colombia: Development and Peace in the Magdalena Medio Region 26 7 Conflict and Labor Markets in Manufacturing: The Case of Eritrea 26 8 The Economic and Social Costs of Armed Conflict in El Salvador 26 9 Aid, Policy and Peace: Reducing the Risks of Civil Conflict 26 10 ‘Mind the Gap’: The World Bank, Humanitarian Action and Development—A Personal Account 26 11 Nigeria Strategic Conflict Assessment: Methodology, Key Findings and Lessons Learnt 27 12 Financing and Aid Arrangements in Post-Conflict Settings 27 13 Mental Health and Conflict 27 14 Building Capacity in Post-Conflict Countries 27 15 Social Change in Conflict-Affected Areas of Nepal 27 16 Redefining Corporate Social Risk Mitigation Strategies 27 17 Colombia: The Role of Land in Involuntary Displacement 27 18 Rwanda: The Impact of Conflict on Growth and Poverty 27 19 Local Conflict in Indonesia: Incidence and Patterns 27 20 Landmine Contamination: A Development Imperative 28 21 Guatemala: The Role of Judicial Modernization in Post-Conflict Reconstruction and Social Reconciliation 28 22 Conflict and Recovery in Aceh: An Assessment of Conflict Dynamics and Options for Supporting the Peace 28 Process 23 The Dynamics of Conflict, Development Assistance and Peace-building: Sri Lanka 2000-2005 28 24 Post-Conflict Security Sector and Public Finance Management: Lessons from Afghanistan 28 25 What Role for Diaspora Expertise in Post-Conflict Reconstruction? Lessons from Afghanistan, and West Bank and 29 Gaza D. Books Authors (year) Book Title Page World Bank (2003) Breaking the Conflict Trap: Civil War and Development Policy. A World Bank Policy 30 Research Report Ian Bannon, and Paul Collier (2003) Natural Resources and Violent Conflict: Options and Actions 30 CPR (2003) The Role of the World Bank in Conflict and Development: An Evolving Agenda 30 Steven Holtzman, and Taies Nezam Living in Limbo: Conflict-Induced Displacement in Europe and Central Asia 30 (2004) Tsjeard Bouta, Georg Frerks, and Gender, Conflict, and Development 30 Ian Bannon (2004) World Bank (2005) Reshaping the Future: Education and Postconflict Reconstruction 31 World Bank (2005) Conflict in Somalia: Drivers and Dynamics 31 Paul Collier, and Nicholas Sambanis Understanding Civil War, Vols. 1 and 2 31 (2005) Jonathan Goodhand and Bart Klem, Aid, Conflict, and Peacebuilding in Sri Lanka 2000-2005 31 with Dilrukshi Fonseka, S.I. Keethaponcalan, and Shonali Sardesai (2006) Eluned Roberts-Schweitzer, with Promoting Social Cohesion through Education 32 Vincent Greaney, and Kreszentia Duer (2006) Ian Bannon, and Maria C. Correia The Other Half of Gender: Men’s Issues in Development 32 (2006) A. Conflict Prevention and Reconstruction (CPR) Unit Working Papers 1. Children, Education and War: development. Preparedness planning and reconstruction funds allowed for a smooth Reaching Education for All (EFA) contingent strategies require attention. The transition from humanitarian to development Objectives in Countries Affected by paper also warns against top-down, assistance and avoided gaps in reconstruction Conflict material-based educational solutions. activities. More than any other circumstance, war However, East Timor also demonstrates Marc Sommers makes the case for providing appropriate the inappropriate complexity of aid financing (June 2002) educational responses to the needs of mechanisms for post-conflict countries with children and youth at risk, and exposes the low capacity, which created barriers to Conflict’s path of devastation and chaos dangers of neglect. Education for children national ownership, and prevented the has dramatically slowed the ability of war- whose lives have been affected by war is a integration of all funding sources into the torn countries to reach the Education for vital protection measure. Appropriate formal national budget. All (EFA) goals adopted in Dakar in April and non-formal education can provide Government and donors largely overcame 2000. This paper sketches the situation important alternatives to child soldiering these constraints through the adoption of confronting children, their families and and other forms of exploitation (sexual and agreed reconstruction benchmarks covering governments in conflict countries and otherwise), social and cultural alienation, political, administrative, economic and social describes the challenges of reaching violence and self-destruction. War also reconstruction. The benchmarks, reviewed universal primary education. These exposes the dynamics of gender in and monitored every six months, proved a challenges are enormous—in answer to the education and socialization, and the useful way to maintain reconstruction question, “How can countries affected by vulnerability of boys as well as girls, momentum and ensure links between conflict arrive at EFA objectives?� an making responses to gender needs critical. different activities. Regular multi-donor emergency education expert answered, Lack of investment in and creative, sector missions to identify gaps, duplication “The short answer is, ‘They can’t.’� participatory work on education for children or new priorities helped. Close Government Whether this is true or not, it is certainly and youth at risk makes a return to peace and donor discussions over the recurrent the case that far more could be done to extremely difficult if not impossible. budget also improved sustainability. support education in countries suffering Reconstruction design and implementation. from conflict. The most logical starting The paper reviews progress made in each of point lies in supporting emergency 2. The East Timor Reconstruction the main reconstruction sectors during the education where it exists and dramatically Program: Successes, Problems and transition to independence. A key lesson expanding access to education where it Tradeoffs emerging relates to the trade-off between does not. speed of delivery and capacity building. In Yet, most primary-school-age children Klaus Rohland, and Sarah Cliffe East Timor the sectors which made more in war-affected areas are not in school and (November 2002) progress in establishing institutions were have no realistic hope of enrolling in one. often less strong initially in achieving Forced migrant children in refugee and Pre-mission planning and readiness. The physical reconstruction targets. To have real IDP camps and settlements have the best Bank started to plan for East Timor’s national ownership of the policy-making chance of going to school. Of these two, reconstruction early in 1999, forging strong process, a fairly long and inclusive process of support for refugee schooling is usually far relations with the UN and East Timorese. policy discussion is needed. Intensive efforts greater than anything available for The Joint Assessment Mission set clear to build human and institutional capacity also internally displaced children. Children not priorities, costings, and a shared take time away from the management of living in camps, whether in their country understanding on reconstruction priorities emergency rehabilitation and services. of origin or in an asylum country, are between the Timorese and institutions which Finding the right balance is an important likely not attending formal schools. In all were to finance reconstruction. Key lessons challenge. Early involvement of national cases, girls generally are far less likely to include the value of early engagement; clear counterparts, targeting training and be attending school than boys. roles and responsibilities within information to political leadership, and In addition, education for and efforts to international institutions, and a truly “joint� unified sectoral programming increase the engage with youths, remain limited. This planning approach with national focus on sustainable policies and institutions. creates a volatile and dangerous situation. counterparts and donors. Greater continuity The use of community-driven approaches, Youth programming, when it does exist, is between the pre and post-ballot periods in non-governmental and private sector usually poorly supported, and may not 1999 and earlier efforts to strengthen the capacities, and early attention to building offer much hope in terms of opening role of nascent Timorese government procurement and payment systems can help employment and income opportunities. It structures would have increased the benefit accelerate reconstruction and service generally faces stiff competition from of strong, coordinated advance planning. delivery. In deploying non-governmental aggressive military or criminal operatives Financial mobilization and aid service delivery, care should be taken to who recruit (or abduct) children and coordination. Financial mobilization strengthen rather than undermine nascent youths into their militias or gangs, achieved high per capita aid, quick- state capacities. Non-government promising rich and immediate rewards. disbursing and consistent over time, with implementation arrangements may be Periods before and immediately after very few delays in the realization of combined with explicit transitional sectoral conflicts require careful policy pledges. Early mobilization of strategies to strengthen national ownership 2 and control of policy decisions, and months after the Interim Authority emerged NGOs and UN agencies bidding to provide gradually transfer implementation into out of the Bonn agreements, but they do the services. government hands. provide insights into the challenges and Also important will be the future aid Within the Bank’s portfolio, project dilemmas that government and donors are architecture. The initial set up served the preparation time was cut from a Bank wide confronting. country well as it established its own average of 15 months to 3.5 months while The reconstruction of Afghanistan faced government structures, but as these are maintaining regular quality standards. The an enormous challenge resulting not only consolidated there is a need to ensure that TFET portfolio achieved fast results on the from two decades of war but also the legacy institutional arrangements put the ground in those program components of decades of failed development and poor government in the driver’s seat. In our view, executed through community or private policies. Moreover, the conflict is not fully the key instrument for aid coordination sector mechanisms. Larger reconstruction over and the country still confronts many should be the government budget, including a works lagged, largely due to difficulties in long standing issues regarding rolling multiyear framework of national managing standard procurement modernization, government structures and priorities defined and owned by the procedures in a post-conflict context. the relation of religion to the state. government. Donors would be encouraged to Specific measures are recommended to The needs assessment carried out jointly fund the budget directly and avoid address this for future operations. Overall, by the major international institutions projectizing assistance, with a few exceptions the volume of outputs via the TFET has involved in the country’s reconstruction, for large national projects. been high in the 2½ year period of its despite some limitations, provided a good Afghanistan has made remarkable progress existence and it has played a large part in framework for the initial reconstruction in a short period of time, especially meeting East Timor’s core reconstruction effort and facilitated a smooth flow of considering where it started. Although the needs. information between humanitarian and challenges and risks ahead remain The situation at independence provides development institutions. Policy priorities formidable, there are rays of hope, not least useful lessons for the transitional and have been generally appropriate for a post- of which are the resilience of its people, a reconstruction period. There is much good conflict country and the government has great deal of international goodwill toward news. Main development indicators were articulated a coherent strategy to stimulate Afghanistan and a number of able and by 2001 at or near pre-crisis levels, which the private sector. At the same time and dedicated government officials. is a surprisingly fast recovery given the cognizant of its limited absorptive capacity, depth of destruction in 1999. The the government also has a vision on the role Government has prepared a medium term of the state and how it wishes to rationalize 4. Central America: Education Reform national development plan, three-year government functions. in a Post-Conflict Setting, budget and one-year priority program, on Creating a secure environment remains a Opportunities and Challenges the basis of which it has secured donor difficult challenge and a key precondition commitments to meet its external financing for effective reconstruction and Jose Marques, and Ian Bannon requirement for the next three years. Oil development. While increasing wealth may (April 2003) and gas revenues from the Timor Sea help to achieve a more secure and less would provide an exit strategy from conflict-vulnerable environment, most The three Central American countries dependence on external financing by mid Afghan and foreign observers consider that examined in this study suffered violent decade. The future thus looks fairly expanding military resources to support the internal conflicts during the 1980s but faced optimistic. The Government faces, central government will be necessary for the 1990s largely at peace and with a however, a backlog of legislative and effective reconstruction. At the same time, renewed sense of hope. As in most post- capacity-building work to establish key aid effectiveness depends on good policies conflict societies peace brings not just a institutions; a serious crisis of capacity in and institutions. In Afghanistan, good cessation of hostilities, but also the the judiciary sector; and hard policy government will depend on civil service opportunity for transformation, especially in choices in relation to veterans’ policy, reform, transparency and accountability of terms of addressing the root causes of the property rights and cost recovery. aid funds, and effective aid coordination and conflict and building a better future for the Arguably, these issues should have been implementation. next generation. The immediate post-conflict addressed earlier in the transition. Government officials have been period offers a window of opportunity, often concerned over the balance between brief however, to undertake these humanitarian and reconstruction and transformations by adopting bold and longer- 3. Humanitarian Assistance, development assistance. Given large aid term reform processes. Transforming as well Reconstruction and Development in commitments (about one quarter of GDP), as rebuilding education systems is often at Afghanistan: A Practitioner’s View government officials are concerned as to the the center of post-conflict reconciliation and right balance between supporting the reconstruction agendas. The motivation for Alsatair J. McKechnie consumption of this generation versus this study was to try to understand why some (March 2003) investing the funds to raise the welfare of post-conflict countries are more successful future generations. Another area of concern than others in seizing this opportunity. This paper reviews progress and early is how the role of humanitarian institutions Although the conflicts in El Salvador, lessons on the transformation of should evolve as local capacity increases. Guatemala and Nicaragua had different Afghanistan, as it transitions from The emerging consensus is that service manifestations and resolutions, the fact that emergency relief to reconstruction and delivery should be competitive when the three embarked on major post-conflict development. The lessons are preliminary government or donor funds finance services, education reform programs with varying since the paper has been written only ten with the government as the contractor and degrees of success offers an excellent 3 opportunity to contrast and to try to learn 5. Using Case Studies to Expand the organized political violence. One way to do from their experiences. Theory of Civil War this is to further explore some of the selection The impact of education reforms has effects highlighted in the paper. In richer been positive, El Salvador having Nicholas Sambanis nations, the state may be stronger and progressed further than Guatemala and (May 2003) political institutions stable, all factors that Nicaragua. Education now is much more can reduce civil war risk. In poorer states, participatory and classrooms more This paper uses a comparative case study political institutions will be weaker and less democratic. Students and parents have a design to refine and expand the Collier- able to manage inter-ethnic conflict. The CH greater influence on education quality and Hoeffler (CH) model of civil war onset. model predicts that political variables do not classroom environments. Most increases The CH model develops an economic theory matter for civil war. But the influences in education funding have been earmarked of civil war and argues that the opportunity between economic and political variables for pre-primary and primary schooling, structure for rebellion—the financial and must be disentangled before this causal with an emphasis on rural areas. There are organizational aspects of insurgency—are inference can be drawn from the data. now more community-managed schools more important determinants of civil war What becomes clear from the case study and more bilingual education services have outbreak than grievances. While Collier and project is that it is difficult to see “greed� and been introduced. Hoeffler test their model using statistical “grievance� as competitive explanations of Independent school achievement methods on a dataset of 160 countries, this rebellion. Greed and grievance are often assessment systems have become more paper draws on 20 case studies that apply alternative interpretations of the same widespread and education ministries the CH model to explain over 30 civil wars. phenomenon—shades of the same problem. modernized. As civil society becomes The case study project was not designed We often see more political greed and more conscious of the importance of to test the CH model, but as a secondary line economic grievance than the other way education, communities are taking greater of inquiry designed to illuminate some of around. If political institutions can reduce interest in the school system and pressing the pathways through which independent grievances and if economic factors influence for improvements. Education systems variables influence the dependent variable political stability, then economic variables have become less politicized as and to explore interactions among the indirectly affect “grievance� factors in the stakeholders increasingly focus on quality independent variables. A key conclusion is CH model. And if state failure or government improvements and expanding the systems' that while the CH model accurately illegitimacy turns domestic politics into a reach. describes some associations that seem near-anarchic world, then what CH term The fact that education reform advanced significant in explaining many of the wars “greed� is really synonymous to the pursuit more swiftly in El Salvador was perhaps (and no-wars) in the sample, the causal of survival. Civil wars may be a response to because that country managed to forge a mechanisms that are implicit in the CH “greed� or “grievance� but most often they national consensus on the reforms' analysis are frequently incorrect or limited. will be the result of both. We must now importance and priority, firmly supported Through the case studies, a more nuanced move beyond the greed-grievance distinction by three successive governments from the approach is developed for the conditions to explain why some countries are more same party (the same Ministry of under which different variables exert a prone to civil war than others. Education authorities having served significant influence on the outbreak of civil throughout that period), and external war. donors who provided continued technical The paper suggests a number of 6. Financing and Aid Management and financial support. In Guatemala and improvements and additions to the CH Arrangements in Post-Conflict Nicaragua no such clear vision of model. First, it suggests that civil war needs Situations education reform took shape nor was the to be better defined and measured in order political commitment as strong, probably to augment the efficiency of empirical Salvatore Schiavo-Campo accounting for a lack of coordination and estimates and the certainty of our causal (May 2003) coherence in implementation, inadequate inferences. Second, some of the hypotheses funding and weak support for the reforms. derived from the CH model should be This paper is concerned with the specific The experiences examined here offer refined and clarified so that the model tests issues of financing modalities and aid general lessons for any country that clearly-defined theoretical propositions. management arrangements in post-conflict decides to embark on a comprehensive Ambiguities in the operationalization of situations. The lessons presented are based education reform process, but especially these variables create uncertainty as to what on experiences with multi-donor trust funds for post-conflict countries that have a brief it is they actually measure, so it is difficult (MDTFs) in the West Bank and Gaza, Bosnia window of opportunity to push through to interpret results with reference to the and Herzegovina, East Timor (Timor-Leste) bold and radical reforms and undo errors literatures on ethnic conflict and political and Afghanistan. While generally applicable of the past. Section IV of the paper, institutions and nationalism. recommendations do emerge from the presents a series of stylized Do’s and Third, different estimation methods review, the most important recommendation Don’ts for education reform in post- should be employed in the CH model, is to tailor the design and sequencing of conflict settings. Annex 1 presents a very including the addition of country-specific financing and aid coordination to the personal account of the lessons from El effects, time-decaying functions, and circumstances of the specific case. Each case Salvador's education reform process, controlling for spatial dimensions of has its own unique core features. viewed from within the reform process violence and neighborhood effects. Fourth, The first lesson of experience for aid in itself. further empirical testing should explore and post-conflict situations is the imperative of challenge the assumption of unit assuring robust linkages between the aid and heterogeneity among cases of large-scale the rebuilding of local institutions, and the 4 core challenge is the balancing of reconstruction. This paper discusses the role acknowledging their funding and involving immediate reconstruction priorities with of community-driven reconstruction (CDR) them in project management and design. long-term institutional development. and offers some guidance on design and A CDR approach carries a number of risks. Among structural and design issues, the implementation of CDR approaches. CDR Misuse of funds is a major risk, especially main conclusions are that an MDTF must has two main objectives: fast and cost- given that local capacity will invariably be fulfill both a fiduciary and an executive effective reconstruction assistance and an weak. To mitigate this risk it will be function, and a realistic, comprehensive emphasis on local choice and accountability. important to build in transparency of local and public government budget, consistent It also involves two policy choices— expenditure management and include with the reconstruction program, is decentralization and participation, which in extensive supervision from the center. Local essential. Also, there must be incentives turn lead to two key design features: support elites may also attempt to capture community for individual donors to join an MDTF, for democratic selection of local councils structures and funds. This can be partly offset including an MDTF design that gives them and provision of block grants directly to through open meetings, publication of comfort that their aid goes for priority community councils. council decisions and relatively frequent purposes while precluding earmarking of CDR explicitly recognizes that the council elections, de-linked from local or the aid. In consultations with, and process of decision-making is as important national party elections. The role of reporting to donors, clarity of as the decisions and ensuing outcomes. government gives rise to two opposing risks. arrangements and cohesion among the Transparency and accountability are That it is either too close or too distant from main donors are more important than features of CDR, which are especially the CDR process. organizational simplicity per se. The paper important in post-conflict contexts given the In order to move from CDR to CDD, at notes that the main advantage of an need to rebuild vertical and horizontal social least three elements need to be in place: (i) umbrella fund is the possibility of a closer capital. Preliminary evidence also suggests local development councils should be an linkage with the recipient country’s that a CDR approach leads to lower unit integral part of local government responsible budget, and hence more robust dialogue on costs per work completed. for community development; (ii) capacity fiscal and development policy. What must A CDR approach, however, will not needs to have been strengthened beyond the be avoided is fragmentation of funding always be appropriate, or at least not for the community councils; and (iii) as external vehicles, especially between financing of initial phase of post-conflict reconstruction. funding diminishes, sustaining a community- recurrent costs and investments. On There are a number of important driven approach will require fiscal balance, it is preferable for a Bank- preconditions. A basic level of internal decentralization. administered MDTF not to finance police security is critical. Without it, it may be or prisons. difficult to transfer funds to communities or Among the organizational and to hold community meetings and elections. 8. Gender Equality and Civil Wars procedural issues, the main observations CDR also requires some basic capacity in are that time is essential for aid local institutions and availability of Mary Caprioli interventions in post-conflict situations; provincial payments systems. Governance (September 2003) and that a pragmatic compromise is needed characteristics will also affect the speed between the extremes of waiting until all with which CDR can be developed, We know, most notably through Ted contributions are deposited, and of starting especially the presence of a strong and Gurr’s research that ethnic discrimination can MDTF operations as soon as the first influential sponsor within the government lead to ethno-political rebellion—intrastate pledges are made. No compromise can be for the decentralized, participatory conflict. Caprioli seeks to determine whether made, however, with the need to put in approach, as well as the ability of local gender inequality is also a meaningful place measures to minimize corruption and administrative structures to retain some predictor of intrastate conflict. Although leakages before the MDTF enters into any degree of political influence and capacity. democratic peace scholars and others commitment. Non-project technical The design of CDR needs to be adapted highlight the role of peaceful domestic assistance (TA for institutional to each post-conflict reconstruction setting, behavior in predicting state behavior, many development and capacity building) can be especially in terms of: (i) adapting scholars have argued that a domestic financed either as a component of an governance structures, particularly in terms environment of inequality and violence— umbrella MDTF or by a separate trust of community councils, and the role of structural and cultural violence—results in a fund. central and local governments; (ii) greater likelihood of violence at the state and addressing technical and implementation international level. This paper contributes to issues; (iii) allowing for more speed in the this line of inquiry and further tests the 7. Community-Driven early stages; and (iv) coordinating with grievance theory of intrastate conflict by Reconstruction as an Instrument in sectoral reconstruction efforts. CDR needs examining the norms that can lead to War-to-Peace Transitions to be viewed as part of a national recovery insurrection. In many ways, the author strategy rather than a self-standing provides an alternative explanation for the Sarah Cliffe, Scott Guggenheim, and reconstruction effort. Two factors are significance of some of the typical economic Markus Kostner important in encouraging donors to support measures—greed theory—based on the link (August 2003) a coordinated CDR approach. The first is to between discrimination, inequality, and encourage donors through their projects and violence. As the Bank has expanded its work in activities to strengthen communities and Caprioli tests whether states with greater post-conflict reconstruction, it has community councils. The second is to gender inequality are more likely to extended its community-driven provide for donor visibility by experience intrastate conflict. The basic development (CDD) approach to premise of this research predicts that the 5 presence of higher levels of gender support women’s rights in established groups, and between those groups and the inequality increase the likelihood that a doctrines of humanitarian intervention; and state, to local conflict mediation, and how state will experience intrastate conflict. gather and disseminate better measures of boundaries between different groups are According to the theories reviewed in the gender equality. constructed and sustained; (iii) does KDP paper, gender inequality should have a help communities manage conflict more dual impact on intrastate conflict. First, it constructively and can external agents help is a manifestation of structural and cultural 9. Do Participatory Development establish more inclusive, transparent, and violence with their inherent norms of Projects Help Villagers Manage Local accountable local-level institutions for discrimination and violence that result in Conflicts? mediating conflict; (iv) if so, for what types heightened levels of societal violence. of conflict and under what conditions; and Second, it facilitates a nationalist call to Patrick Barron, Rachel Diprose, David (v) if so, which elements of KDP appear to arms. Madden, Claire Q. Smith, and Michael be most influential. Fertility rate and percent of women in Woolcock As far as the authors can ascertain, this is the legislature are two of the best measures (September 2003) the first systematic and comprehensive effort in capturing the complex matrix of gender to establish whether and how a CDD project discrimination and inequality that includes This paper outlines a methodology that can help to improve local conflict mediation political, economic, and social seeks to determine whether and how processes. Also noteworthy are its reliance discrimination. Because of data development projects contribute to conflict on integrated—quantitative and qualitative— limitations, fertility rates are included in resolution and whether the social skills data sources, and the relatively long periods the final models as a measure of gender learned through group-based decision- of time spent by field staff in villages inequality. making—a key feature of community- collecting data. The model uses logistic regression to driven development (CDD) approaches— Outputs from the research will take a test the impact of gender inequality on the are transferable to the successful number of forms. Local field staff will have likelihood of intrastate conflict, covering management of local conflicts. The the opportunity to disseminate locally the 1960-97 and yielding an ‘N’ of 5,743. methodology uses as its empirical reference material from their case study narratives, and Controls for the possible influences on point Indonesia’s Kecamatan Development importantly, to provide feedback to the conflict include middle regime, Program (KDP)—KDP is a massive communities that originated the data. Too democracy, GDP per capita, GDP per community development project, the largest often data collection is a one-way process, capita growth rate, prior domestic conflict, in Southeast Asia, operating since 1998 and with researchers gathering data but rarely state capability, and the existence of and covering over 20,000 villages across returning to share the results. number of at-risk minorities. The fertility Indonesia. The paper spells out how Eight workshops are planned at the sub- rate is dichotomized in order to minimize qualitative and quantitative approaches are district level to disseminate and discuss any data inconsistencies and as a better being combined in two provinces—Nusa results. The researchers will be responsible estimate for missing years. The cut-off Tenggara Timur (NTT) and Jawa Timur for running these workshops. The material point for the dichotomous fertility rate (East Java)—to produce detailed collected in the research will also be publicly variable is set conservatively at 3. ethnographic accounts of the pathways by available once it has been cleaned up to The results confirm the hypothesis— which conflict is generated and then protect confidentiality. Other researchers, gender inequality increases the likelihood resolved or exacerbated. academics, NGOs, and the government will that a state will experience internal conflict The research first seeks to understand and be able to use the data collected by the study. (PRIO/Uppsala conflict dataset). High- map conflicts and tensions that exist in the In addition, the results of this research are fertility states are twice (2.07) as likely to research areas, as a preliminary step to expected to feed into the design and experience internal conflict as low-fertility understanding the capacity of communities implementation of follow-on KDP projects ones, controlling for other possible causes to cope with conflict. The research then (KDP2 and KDP3) but would also be of of internal conflict. A statistically looks at the conflict resolution mechanisms interest to researchers and practitioners significant cross tabulation shows that 88 that exist, whether they are successful or working on participatory mechanisms more percent of the PRIO/Uppsala coded not, and which mechanisms people turn to broadly. internal conflict is within states with a in times of trouble. The study seeks to fertility rate over 3.0. A decennial version integrate qualitative and quantitative tools, of the data produced a slightly higher in a way that takes advantage of the 10. Landmine Clearance Projects: result (2.27). strengths of each approach, while Task Manager’s Guide Caprioli concludes that measures of controlling for the weaknesses. A particular gender equality are not merely issues of feature of the methodology is that it elicits Jacques Bure, and Pierre Pont social justice since, as this research shows, information enabling comparisons to be (November 2003) they have more dire consequences in made between villages in which KDP was contributing to intrastate conflict. In present for three years, and statistically Land mines destroy not just lives, but addition to lowering fertility rates, she comparable villages in which KDP was not livelihoods. Even after armed conflict has draws six implications from her research: present. stopped, land mine contamination kills and provide opportunities for women; foster The research seeks to answer five maims innocent people, obstructs emergency economic growth but target women; questions: (i) what are the main factors that assistance, and hampers economic and social include basic women’s rights under the affect local level capacity to manage development. The removal of land mines is rubric of human rights in international law; conflict; (ii) how important is the nature and often essential to restart development and ensure that these laws are enforced; extent of interaction between different rebuild shattered communities, and the 6 lingering threat to physical and human CEP was not a financial sector project, its ‘intermediated credit’, with the former capital makes their removal a priority for use of credit to achieve post-conflict administered by government or quasi- humanitarian and development agencies reconstruction goals had implications for the government entities and the latter by alike. Since the end of the Balkan crisis, revival of financial services. Since the latter financial institutions. financial support for land mine clearance was also an important reconstruction goal, CEP experience offers no new lessons on has been a growing activity for the World CEP had an obligation to avoid microcredit, but reinforces those from Bank and an important component of its compromising the re-establishment of experience elsewhere. It does, however, evolving agenda on conflict and financial services. While a badly-conducted underline some limitations of microcredit in development. However, because land credit program may succeed in reviving the immediate post-conflict crisis setting: mine clearance is expensive and involves business activity, it might do so at an where decision-making is divorced from complex political and security issues, it unacceptably high cost in terms of negative risk, credit allocation is inefficient; requires special attention and approaches. impact on the credit culture. Whether subsidized credit tends to undercut The Conflict Prevention and significant negative impact has occurred in credit delivered by institutions striving Reconstruction (CPR) Unit in the World Timor-Leste as a result of the poor toward sustainability; Bank’s Social Development Department repayment performance of the CEP and the absence of any assurance of follow- has been active in addressing issues related Small Enterprise project (SEP) projects may up credit is a disincentive to repayment; to the effective removal of land mines in only become apparent as microcredit begins failure to recycle credit promptly post-conflict economic recovery. The to expand throughout the country. reduces the multiplier effect on CPR Unit follows closely the work of the Credit was an add-on feature to CEP, economic activity of a given amount of United Nations specialized agencies on something that could be attached to the loan capital; mine action and is a member of the Mine project to enhance its effectiveness. The the contamination of non-repayment Action Working Group of the United amount allocated to credits for economic spreads rapidly if immediate and Nations Mine Action Service (UNMAS). activities was only 13% of total subgrants in effective action is not taken; This guide complements Demining— the project, but credit is not an accessory microcredit is not well-adapted to the Operational Guidelines for Financing that can be added with minimal preparation. needs of seasonal agriculture; and Land Mine Clearance, which the Bank It requires specialist inputs for successful credit-management groups are organic issued in February 1997, bringing together operation, and in any case its promotion entities forged by training and sustained our experience in addressing this problem. may not be consistent with the most by mutual obligation, not arbitrary and The guide is also available in electronic immediate needs of post-crisis administratively-convenient format, together with background material, reconstruction. As the experience of project assemblages. on a companion CD-ROM available on implementation showed, the credit elements request from the CPR Unit (see Annex D of CEP probably caused operational for the list of documents included in the difficulties and diverted staff to a degree 12. Social Capital and Survival: CD-ROM). disproportionate to their weight in total Prospects for Community-Driven This Guide describes suggested good spending. Development in Post-Conflict Sierra practice for use by task managers in the Whenever credit is included in a package Leone design and implementation of land mine of assistance it must be taken seriously, in clearance projects financed by the World the sense that appropriate targets for Paul Richards, Khadija Bah, and James Bank. It is not a statement of Bank repayment should be defined and Vincent operational policy, and the analysis, views, appropriate measures for collection (April 2004) and opinions expressed herein are the sole determined. If this does not seem responsibility of the authors. appropriate, consideration should be given This social assessment study (SA) of to employing outright grants, rather than Sierra Leone seeks to analyze and evaluate loans, in order to finance activities how collective action functions in rural 11. Timor-Leste: Independent necessary to revive economic activity. Much communities recovering from the war in Review of the Credit Component of of this funding would be to recapitalize Sierra Leone. The objective is to better the Community Empowerment businesses which have been destroyed or understand poverty and vulnerability in order Project de-stocked by conflict, for micro- to strengthen the National Social Action entrepreneurs based on viable proposals Project (NSAP), a modality for funding John D. Conroy evaluated on business principles. direct community action administered by the (March 2004) Severe economic fluctuations in the National Commission for Social Action immediate post-crisis period will expose (NaCSA) as part of the Transitional Support This review analyzes experience with borrowers to high risks, which further Strategy for post-war recovery and poverty the Community Empowerment Project strengthens the case for grants vis-à-vis alleviation in Sierra Leone. (CEP) credit component, and draws a loans. These factors also point to the need to In the rural areas, the division between number of lessons and general principles. phase emergency stimulus from grants to ruling lineages and dependent lineages, and Credit contributed to a revival of rural credit over time considering the need to migrant “strangers� is perpetuated through economic activities, especially petty revive the financial system. The experience the control lineage that elders exercise over trading and the supply of manufactured of CEP validates the conclusions on credit marriage systems, and over the labor of goods, helping to re-establish markets and reached in the Implementation Completion young men. This is a strong push factor in stimulating production and marketing of Report (ICR) for SEP I, calling for a the decision of many to leave the rural areas, foodstuffs and higher-value crops. While transition from ‘intermediated grants’ to and opt instead for diamond digging where 7 they become vulnerable to militia The agrarian crisis is institutional; the One of the main lessons of BiH’s recruitment. Reversing this rural outflow rights of land-owners are over- experience is the need to press for will require a changed mindset, local legal protected and the rights of rural investment-related policy reforms as early as reforms and better rural market laborers under-protected. feasible. Donors are now fully aware of this, opportunities. High rural outflow The agrarian crisis is technical; the and are supporting rapid reform accordingly. represents a problem for community- opportunity structure is weak due to Opinions differ on the extent to which it driven development, since projects depend inadequate markets, roads, credit, might have been possible to accelerate on community contributions generally put training and technology policy. reforms at an earlier stage. It might have forward in the form of the labor, especially There is a lack of true cohesion in rural been difficult politically. However, there is of young men. communities to support community- no doubt that earlier reform would have been Nevertheless, there are still rural driven development. desirable, and this is one of the most institutions that work and are respected. There is evidence of extensive change important lessons for other post-conflict Membership cuts across the divide in social attitudes among marginalized environments. between leading lineages, commoners and groups in the countryside, and these PRI is of most value to investors when strangers. Evidence is presented that club changes need to be understood and they can identify a turning point in a activity has increased as a result of war built upon. country’s fortunes. The opportunities and the and displacement. CDD is threatened by undemocratic turning points will come to different sectors As a result of humanitarian aid, ad hoc procedures, villagers’ lack of at different stages in the recovery process. committees appointed by relief agencies knowledge of their rights, and lack of For banks the turning point has already emerged, generally known as Village local capacity to handle project inputs. arrived. Partly because of their internal Development Committees (VDCs). These CDD is threatened by fraud, and a financial disciplines, banks value PRI more tended to be dominated by leading failure to understand that fraud is an than other industries. Recent reforms have lineages, and are argued to have added to institutional failure, not a cultural opened up new opportunities to foreign the divisions between rural elites and the failure. banks, and MIGA’s BiH portfolio reflects bulk of the poor. this. Banks are important both as investors in CDD implies that international and Furthermore, the report argues the their own right but also because they local implementing partners need to failure of chiefdom governance was a facilitate the development of other develop new roles and skills. cause of the war. A consultative process businesses—including SMEs. They are CDD requires collective action, which launched by government in rural among the building blocks that would-be in turn is underpinned by a distinction chiefdoms in 1999 and 2000 revealed a investors require. It therefore makes sense for between the sacred and the profane. pattern of local complaints about failed policy as well as practical commercial Agencies will need to “do no harm� local institutions. Local people voiced reasons for MIGA to focus on financial and to respect the sacred as an aspect many good reform ideas, but the institutions at an early stage in the post- of local culture. consultation was not extended to the newly conflict recovery process. accessible areas following the November If policy-makers wish to promote FDI in 10, 2000 Abuja agreement. post-conflict zones, they should look to small 13. MIGA’s Experience in Conflict- The paper considers how the state re- regional companies as well as large Affected Countries: The Case of established itself in the countryside multinationals. This conclusion reinforces the Bosnia and Herzegovina through restoration of chiefdom arguments in favor of three current aspects of administration and current progress toward MIGA policy. MIGA is trying to expand its John Bray administrative decentralization. Examples client base among small and medium (June 2004) considered are proposals which create a enterprises (SMEs); it is seeking to promote hierarchy of local management committees cross-border investment between developing This paper aims to draw lessons from the in the education sector. The emphasis on a countries; and it is working to expand the involvement of the World Bank’s hierarchy of management institutions capacity of smaller public insurance Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency apparently at the expense of parent power providers—such as the Slovene Export (MIGA) in the reconstruction of Bosnia and is indicative of concerns to retain political Corporation—by providing them with Herzegovina (BiH). Foreign and domestic control over a decentralized process. The reinsurance facilities. Regional export credit companies need certain building blocks to paper also discusses the nature of “the agencies will have far easier access to SMEs be able to operate effectively—as well as community� in rural Sierra Leone, and in their own territories than MIGA will. confidence that the conflict really is analyzes the main sources of poverty and MIGA sources confirm that the EU fund finished. These building blocks include a vulnerability. It argues that women, youth, enabled it to begin operations in BiH earlier legal and regulatory environment that is in and strangers have been politically than it otherwise would have done. This tune with the needs of private companies, marginalized, and that the rural community assessment reflects the agency’s measured and a viable financial infrastructure. BiH is typically divided between leading approach to the management of its own risk: scarcely met these requirements during the lineages and the rest. MIGA helps private sector clients negotiate 1990s. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, There are ten main conclusions of the turning points in countries’ fortunes, but first MIGA was in contact with several potential assessment six of which have specific it needs to get over a turning point of its own. investors whose projects never took off. operational implications for NaCSA. The fund was a success in that it helped Political risk insurance (PRI) is of no value The SA identifies an agrarian crisis as leverage investment worth more than six unless would-be entrepreneurs can first a major cause of rural poverty and times the value of the capital provided by the identify viable opportunities that are worth war in Sierra Leone. EU. Perhaps the key lesson is that it is a good insuring. 8 example of MIGA collaboration with can be explosive. This is bad news for includes recommendations on managing the another agency. Such collaborations, regions that currently exhibit both features, needs assessment process, from the whether in the form of special funds or often in coexistence with intermediary and preparatory phase to the lessons-learned reinsurance arrangements, give MIGA the unstable political regimes, in particular Sub- phase. It also presents indicative estimates of capability to take on larger and higher Saharan Africa and the Arab world. In the costs involved in mounting needs risks, especially important in post-conflict addition to economic performance, a key assessments missions. Throughout the guide, regions. factor that affects the conflict potential of the emphasis is on practical approaches and In the course of the 1990s, private sector youth bulges is the opportunity for recommendations, with a focus on sequenced insurers came to play an increasingly migration. Migration works as a safety valve steps, phases and responsibilities. important role both in trade-related PRI for youth discontent. and in investment PRI. However, even at the end of what had turned out to be an 16. The Private Sector’s Role in the expansionist decade for the private sector, 15. Practical Guide to Multilateral Provision of Infrastructure in Post- there was an acknowledgement that public Needs Assessments in Post-Conflict Conflict Countries: Patterns and sector insurers still had an important role Situations: A Joint UNDG, UNDP and Policy Options in long-term investment insurance in World Bank Guide, Prepared by GTZ difficult countries. This is the area that is with the Support of BMZ Jordan Schwartz, Shelly Hahn, and Ian MIGA’s forte. Events in the last three Bannon years have reinforced rather than Uwe Kievelitz, Thomas Schaef, Manuela (August 2004) weakened this argument. Post-conflict Leonhardt, Herwig Hahn, and Sonja regions need public sector PRI Vorwerk Countries emerging from a conflict interventions more than anyone. (August 2004) urgently need to provide access to basic infrastructure services for their populations, The Practical Guide is the product of a but they lack adequate public revenues, 14. The Devil in the Demographics: partnership between the United Nations government capacity and investor interest to The Effect of Youth Bulges on Development Group, the Bureau of Crisis re-establish these services quickly. Although Domestic Armed Conflict, 1950-2000 Prevention and Recovery of the United donors often support the early phases of post- Nations Development Programme, and the conflict reconstruction with generous aid Henrik Urdal Conflict Prevention and Reconstruction Unit packages, post-conflict public sectors are (June 2004) of the World Bank, with support from the often constrained by extremely weak German Federal Ministry for Economic absorptive capacity. At the same time, a It has been suggested that large youth Cooperation and Development. The large number of urgent policy priorities in the cohorts, so-called ‘youth bulges’, make German Agency for Technical Cooperation immediate post-conflict period means that countries more unstable in general, and (GTZ) was commissioned to prepare the governments rarely focus on establishing a thus more susceptible to armed conflict. In guide based on a review and analysis of welcoming investment climate that can spark the present study this notion is put to an recent past experiences, as well as research the interest of potential private investors in empirical test. The paper explores possible on other assessment methodologies that infrastructure. Thus, for the first few years links between youth bulges and violent could be useful. The aim is to provide a they confront a bitter paradox—they can conflict theoretically and attempts to concise and practical guide for the use of neither absorb fully reconstruction aid nor model under what conditions and in what country teams that will be involved in can they attract much private investment to kind of contexts youth bulges can cause multilateral post-conflict needs assessments. infrastructure sectors that could offset the armed conflict. The research hypotheses The present document constitutes the guide, state’s low absorptive capacity. are tested in an event history statistical which is supplemented by a number of This paper examines private investment model covering a high number of countries additional documents which provide patterns in post-conflict countries based on and politically dependent areas over the additional details and information, and the Bank’s Private Participation in period 1950–2000. The study finds robust which are available online from UNDG and Infrastructure database, and looks at some support for the hypothesis that youth CPR, and on request from GTZ. success stories that may offer useful policy bulges increase the risk of domestic armed The guide includes a discussion of the lessons for other post-conflict countries. The conflict, and especially so under conditions context in which post-conflict needs investment patterns show that telecoms of economic stagnation. Moreover, the assessments take place, its links with the investments, particularly mobile telephony, lack of support for the youth bulge post-conflict recovery phase, and a broad materialize immediately after (sometimes hypothesis in recent World Bank studies is typology of post-conflict settings that even before) the end of the conflict. found to arise from a serious weakness in influence the approach to the needs Electricity generation and distribution the youth bulge measure employed by assessment. The guide reviews some key projects start to emerge about three years World Bank researchers. conceptual issues, including the need to after the conflict and increase in frequency The author finds no evidence for the embed the process within a longer-term after year five. Private investment in claim made by Samuel P. Huntington that vision on reconstruction, linkages to other transport and water tend to come much later. youth bulges above a certain ‘critical level’ processes, the selection of priority sectors, Within the transport sector, seaports receive make countries especially prone to approaches to costing needs, integration of the majority of private investment. The conflict. The study, however, provides cross-cutting issues such as gender and experiences of a number of conflict-affected evidence that the combination of youth environment, and the need to focus on countries, such as the Philippines, bulges and poor economic performance institutional capacity building. The guide Mozambique, El Salvador and Guatemala, 9 however, suggest that there is much in the 17. Within and Beyond Borders: An of the grants may not be problematic, policy front that conflict countries can do Independent Review of Post-Conflict the need to keep raising funds could be. to speed up private investment in Fund Support to Refugees and the PCF does not meet the bar on infrastructure, and thus the contribution of Internally Displaced considerations of gender equity. Few of the private sector to reconstruction its approved program proposals factor processes and the resumption of growth. Swarna Rajagopalan gender relations into their needs Policy recommendations suggest that (October 2004) assessment, their evaluation standards or the timing of reforms is important. their assessment of impact. Stepped arrangements may also be This independent review assesses the PCF performs slightly better when it considered, including a planned performance of seventeen Post-Conflict comes to taking a rights-based approach progression from modest forms of private Fund (PCF) grants relating to Internally to working with situations of participation in infrastructure (e.g., service Displaced Persons (IDPs) and refugees. displacement, but that does not seem to or management contracts) to deeper forms These seventeen PCF grants adopt a wide be a function of design as much as sheer such as leases or long-term concessions. variety of approaches, have different serendipity. Governments can also encourage (and objectives, and are implemented by many PCF has a problem when it comes to especially refrain from constraining or different partners. They also represent a new recovering reports and evaluations from regulating out of existence) the area of work for the World Bank as refugees its grant recipients. Therefore, the development of small-scale private service and IDPs are not usually the focus of capacity for institutional learning is less providers. Although they are generally not development programs. As such, these than it might be given the resources of well captured in the data, a number of case seventeen PCF grants represent a valuable the World Bank. studies and user surveys suggest that these source of information. This review is an In light of the review of the seventeen entrepreneurs often play a key role in the attempt to learn from these experiences. grants, the review makes the following absence of fully-functioning states, First, this review assesses existing recommendations: established public utilities and major operational literature on the topic and Political and security assessments private investments. compiles a set of ‘best practices’. Second, it should be part of the needs assessment. The paper also examines the positive analyzes the seventeen PCF grants assessing Project proposals should be correlation between risk ratings and the their performance as per the ‘best practices’ accompanied by skills assessments. ability of post-conflict countries to attract and per their initial objectives. Third, it Short-term funding should be private investment in infrastructure. Given recommends ways in which IDP and accompanied by fund-raising assistance. the influence of the perceptions of risk on refugee needs can be better addressed by Gender equity issues should inform long-term investment, donors and PCF grants. While discussing PCF grants post-conflict project processes and governments may benefit from addressing directly, the recommendations are believed objectives. those elements of political and economic to be of a general character and, as such, PCF’s position on the place of rights risks that are within their control or relevant to development projects seeking to advocacy and the question of influence. Specifically, there is a role to address the needs of displaced people. return/resettlement should be debated play for donors that can assist with the re- The PCF does reasonably well vis-à-vis and articulated. establishment or deepening of short-term the ‘best practices’ list. On balance, PCF’s finance, banking and insurance, as well as strength stems from its flexibility and The PCF should prioritize information considering mechanisms to provide openness to fund innovative approaches in management. political risk insurance for foreign different situations, with a variety of Analytical end products should be made investors interested in infrastructure beneficiaries, and its willingness to work in available in the public domain. sectors. A key feature that affects country partnership with others. PCF however, Applicants should articulate a clear risk ratings is the government’s track performs less well on the following counts: conflict rationale as opposed to a purely record in the payment for publicly- In the assessment of what needs to be done, developmental one. contracted goods and services, respecting there also needs to be an assessment of what Skilled project partners should be used contracts, and allowing foreign investors to is possible given existing skill levels and as resources for training others. repatriate capital. Since telecoms what constraints exist in terms of security or operators are the first to arrive, the ability other factors. of the government to demonstrate good Political and security issues are seldom 18. Drugs and Development in contractual faith and establish an factored into proposals or rationales. Afghanistan appropriate regulatory framework can have However, for a program that operates a powerful demonstration effect on other in very sensitive contexts, some of the William Byrd, and Christopher Ward investors. first questions that should be raised in (December 2004) feasibility assessments should be those relating to political and security This paper analyzes the linkages between circumstances and consequences. drugs and development in Afghanistan. It PCF grants are generally implemented argues that the opium economy—including over a 1-2 year period and a lot is left its nexus with insecurity, warlords, state to the follow-up phase. This is not long weakness, and poor governance—constitutes enough for some of the development a central development problem for the projects to bear fruit. So while the size country. The Afghan drug industry is unprecedented in international experience in 10 terms of its relative economic size, its perspective, it would make sense for the including: insights from theory have often penetration of the polity, economy, and strategy to focus on the most damaging not been thoroughly tested empirically; society, and the insecure and lawless aspects of the opium economy, which would econometric approaches have helped in environment in which it has thrived. imply emphasis on interdiction of hypothesis development, but these While international experience can provide trafficking and processing and sanctions hypotheses have rarely been subjected to some useful lessons, Afghanistan’s own against drug industry principals and more in-depth qualitative study; largely unsuccessful experience in anti- sponsors. It is also very important that the measurement has often been made statically, drug efforts suggests the problem is of a strategy include measures to address the precluding an understanding of the different order of magnitude. adverse side effects of successful anti-drug mechanisms and processes by which The development implications of the actions in the macroeconomic, livelihoods, conflicts evolve; and much of the analysis opium economy include pluses as well as and poverty spheres. has compared states, thus excluding the minuses. Among the former are the The Government’s National Drugs examination of intra-state variations. support provided by the opium economy to Control Strategy provides a sound The authors look instead at local level overall economic activity and the balance framework, but there are tensions between (‘everyday’) conflicts, the dynamics shaping of payments. The opium economy has the cautious tone in much of the document their evolution over time, and the boosted rural incomes and has served as a and the ambitious targets it sets, as well as mechanisms by which different outcomes are coping mechanism helping large numbers pressures for quick and visible results, even achieved through engagement with (and of poor people through wage labor and if at the expense of longer-term sustainable interactions between) traditional and formal sharecropping and tenancy arrangements improvements. There are also dispute resolution mechanisms. Using which provide them with access to land implementation issues relating to detailed evidence gathered by twelve and credit, albeit on unfavorable terms. prioritization and sequencing between researchers over six months in forty-one Major drawbacks of Afghanistan’s interdiction, alternative livelihoods and villages in two Indonesian provinces, the opium economy, include large price and eradication, and enormous needs to build authors present an integrated framework for quantity volatility which can have a major capacity in governance, law enforcement, understanding the pathways that conflicts can macroeconomic impact, and the price and and the judicial and penal systems. All in take, the conditions under which they follow exchange rate effects of the economy’s all, and not surprisingly given past one trajectory rather than another, and the heavy reliance on opium which could experience and the size of the drug industry, characteristics that make for effective discourage production of other tradables there are no easy answers, only difficult intervention. Such a framework, they argue, through a “Dutch disease� effect. trade-offs in the search for a multi-pronged, can help enhance the capacity of citizens, Substantial numbers of poor farmers are sustained, and effective response to the drug policymakers, and practitioners in developing deeply mired in opium-related debt, which problem in Afghanistan countries to craft more constructive virtually requires them to continue precedents and procedures for preventing cultivating opium poppy and may everyday forms of conflict—an inevitable precipitate drastic measures like 19. Understanding Local Level and inherent feature of development—from mortgaging and losing land, or giving up Conflict in Developing Countries turning violent. their daughters in marriage to pay off The key elements of this foundation are opium debt. More generally, opium is Patrick Barron, Claire Q. Smith, and the importance of coherent and enforceable becoming “capitalized� in the economy Michael Woolcock rules and over-arching meta-rules, the and society, affecting agricultural (December 2004) malleability and political salience of different sharecropping and tenancy arrangements, identity group claims and the willingness, land prices, urban real estate, bride prices Previous research on conflict has focused capacity and legitimacy of mediators. in opium-producing areas, etc. Also, drug primarily on large-scale, high-profile Individually and collectively, these elements addiction in Afghanistan may be episodes of violence and framed them in can help to inform a corresponding set of substantial and appears to be growing. terms of ethnic/religious tensions, separatist policy recommendations for various actors The nexus of drugs with insecurity and discontent, thwarted economic focused on providing incentives, resources, warlords, a vicious circle that would keep opportunities, or weak institutions. Such and spaces for crafting viable mediating Afghanistan insecure, fragmented research, often derived from secondary institutions that enable otherwise weak, politically, weakly governed, poor, sources and/or from observations at a single competing, or incompatible rules systems to dominated by the informal/illicit economy, point in time, tends to offer cultural or co-exist. and a hostage to the drug industry, is structuralist explanations, and technocratic The authors also argue that these elements clearly the most serious problem. This solutions. provide a possible challenge to the idea of a threatens the entire state-building and The authors first examine some of the “policy recommendation� understood as a reconstruction agenda and as such ways in which conflict is conceptualized top-down instrument solely or primarily outweighs all the combined economic and researched within the literature, and designed and implemented by technocrats or benefits. discuss some of the limitations of previous other external elites. They argue that the Closely related is the corrosive effect of approaches. They group the literature on early detection and effective resolution of the drug industry on governance through conflict and violence into four broad camps, local level conflict, is in large part an massive corruption. which for convenience they refer to as “adaptive� rather than a “technical� problem, The positive and negative development cultural sociology, political sociology, one requiring an emphasis on the role of impacts of the opium economy need to be political economy, and legal anthropology. many different parties (government, donors, fully taken into account in the counter- The authors highlight some of the academia, and civil society), at different narcotics strategy. From a development weaknesses of this literature and research, levels, in establishing a basis for effective 11 dialogue, evidence-based decision making, Major recommendations include: reconstruction through community and enforceable agreements, the final Ensure use of accurate gender empowerment will, to a large extent, depend specification of which is not always likely disaggregated data on displaced upon the dismantling of these institutionally to be known at the outset. populations and other groups affected embedded distinctions between citizens and by armed conflict, and train program subjects. A genuinely inclusive, personnel in recording and appropriately targeted community-driven 20. Addressing Gender in Conflict consolidating disaggregated data; development (CDD) process could play a and Post-Conflict Situations in the Provide equal opportunities for male crucial role in shaping a different kind of Philippines and female demobilized combatants in society, but only if it incorporates livelihood activities and parallel benefit marginalized and socially-excluded groups in Sonia Margallo packages; the rebuilding process. (January 2005) Conduct men’s and women’s The rapid social assessment (RSA) reveals assemblies starting from the barangay that the assumptions of social cohesion, This working paper presents the level to the regional level, to community participation and consensus findings and recommendations of a review disseminate information, encourage underpinning some CDD activities in Liberia undertaken to identify how gender is involvement in the peace process, and are too optimistic given Liberia's dualistic addressed in various conflict and post- lobby to have women participate on legacy and should be reconsidered. conflict situations in the Philippines, with peace panels and/or have a seat at the Community in Liberia is a deeply contested a focus on Mindanao. Published and negotiations table; notion, reflecting historical inequalities in unpublished documents, books and Consider launching a regional gender access to land, and distinctions between websites were consulted to review recent and peace audit in Mindanao to persons considered to be "civilized" and and ongoing efforts to address gender and monitor the implementation of "aboriginal". A more realistic set of gender issues in communities affected by commitments toward gender and assumptions is required. Donors need to conflict, some of which are no longer peace; work with the Liberian government to change experiencing conflict while others are still Establish stronger and closer ground rules in relation to land, labor and affected by violence. To validate and coordination among the national and justice. Agencies need to invest in local- complement the findings from the desk local government, and gender-oriented level conflict resolution and rights-based review, twelve gender focal points and NGOs at the regional, provincial, and development activity to shape a new and program managers were interviewed in the local levels; more inclusive community dynamic. cities of Manila, Zamboanga, Davao, and Establish a focal government body to The report includes suggestions on how to Cotabato. coordinate all projects and programs address these issues. A key point is to trigger The review identified three major that provide assistance to post-conflict a process in which rural people are categories of issues in Mindanao and Mindanao; challenged to devise more inclusive notions corresponding interventions to address of community and social cohesion as part of Institutionalize gender and peace these issues: (i) access to basic services, the post-war rebuilding process. In order to education in the country’s education (ii) protection and security of internally contribute to stability in Liberia, CDD must system, starting with Mindanao, displaced populations, and (iii) firmly focus on the inclusion of socially including a review and revision of the disarmament, demobilization and marginalized groups. Further entrenchment elementary and secondary school reintegration. In all cases, while the of personal rule and the privileges of a rural curricula; and review notes important efforts to address minority will only hasten the return of war. Utilize the media to encourage gender concerns around these three sets of War in Liberia reflects a long-term community awareness and advocacy in issues, there is also a need for greater agrarian crisis based on inter-generational relation to gender and peace. coordination and a more systematic tensions and the failure of rural institutions. approach to mainstreaming gender in Addressing the roots of the crisis requires conflict-affected regions. The review also changes to institutional frameworks that 21. Community Cohesion in Liberia: notes the need to address gender through influence rural social solidarity, including A Post-Conflict Rapid Social multi-sectoral approaches. marriage and access to land. Assessment The paper also presents briefly five case Promoting CDD activities based on studies of interesting interventions or generalized assumptions about ‘community Paul Richards, Steven Archibald, Beverlee approaches which may offer lessons for participation’ and ‘consensus’ risks Bruce, Watta Modad, Edward Mulbah, future post-conflict reconstruction in empowering certain groups over others. Tornorlah Varpilah, and James Vincent Mindanao. The case studies cover the CDD processes should support, as far as (January 2005) psychosocial effects of conflict on practicable, community-led definitions of co- children, gender-sensitive community- operation and management structures. It must At the core of Liberia’s conflict lies a based education for peace, micro-lending also be recognized that some community- class of marginal young people who and entrepreneurial training in peace based ways of organizing serve to empower currently lack faith in any kind of zones, the Go and See Visit program for particular groups over others, and that institutions. They consider that family, internally displaced persons that are trying external agency/NGO-initiated structures marriage, education, markets and the to decide whether to return to their places typically do likewise. administration of justice have all failed of origin, and a livelihood assistance There is a danger in seeing CDD activities them. Many have preferred to take their program for ex-combatants and their only in technical terms, e.g., as an exercise in chances with various militia groups. families. simply providing infrastructure, or in Successful peacebuilding, and 12 transferring international procedures for regions has tended to focus on petroleum the risk of ‘doing harm’ has increased participatory development. To avoid this, and mining. This paper begins with a review interest in the concept of conflict impact communities themselves need to engage in of the extractive industries, but then assessment as a sub-category of social impact analysis of different forms of co-operation broadens the discussion to discuss three assessment. International Alert and other and solidarity to create social capital that other sectors: mobile phones, construction NGOS are now developing tools to assist encourages cohesion. This can only be and commercial banks. It cites examples with this process. attempted with the active involvement of from Afghanistan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Liberian groups seeking the return to Iraq, Somalia, Sierra Leone and Timor- constitutional rule. Leste. 23. The Roots of Violence and Successful social reintegration requires The four sectors vary in the scale of Prospects for Reconciliation: A Case support for local conciliation processes, investment that they need, and the time- Study of Ethnic Conflict in Central and mechanisms to encourage open, frame in which they expect to make returns. Kalimantan, Indonesia informed debate around issues of justice These calculations in turn influence their and human rights. Peace will largely attitudes to conflict-affected countries. Claire Q. Smith depend on the successful reintegration of ‘Junior’ petroleum and mining companies (January 2005) ex-combatants and the larger group of are willing to taken on high political and dispossessed, uprooted young people security risks in the hope of making major Following the fall of Suharto in 1998, vulnerable to future militia recruitment. discoveries before their larger, more risk- incidents of ethnic, religious and separatist Jobs and skills training are only part of averse competitors. However, ‘major’ violence have broken out across Indonesia. what is needed. Processes of conciliation, companies in the extractive industries This paper seeks to show the way in which and examination of issues of justice and normally expect a reasonable prospect of cultural, socio-economic and institutional rights, will also be important. Without long-term stability before committing to elements combine to produce violent conflict, support for community-driven peace- large-scale projects which may last for 20- by exploring the 2001 ethnic conflict in making activities, alongside CDD 30 years. Central Kalimantan and the impact on activities, social fund projects may do no By contrast, mobile phone companies Madura, East Java. It aims to show that more than rebuild some of the societal make smaller investments, and start getting ethnic violence was not inevitable—it was a causes of conflict. a return as soon as the first subscriber makes result of socio-economic marginalization of The report includes the following a call: they may be able to recover their one group coupled with failed state recommendations: (i) ensure equal initial outlay within two or three years. interventions, in the context of the weakened opportunities for CDD participation; (ii) Construction and engineering companies role and capacity of informal and traditional ensure consistent dissemination of will take on short-term reconstruction organizations for managing conflict. information; (iii) ensure that vested contracts, but will hesitate to commit to The paper outlines the main explanatory interests do not dominate CDD processes; long-term investment—for example in factors for ethnic violence in Central (iv) support community-led creation of utilities—unless there is a stable Kalimantan, and argues that they are representative structures; (v) address government and legal system. Banks will intrinsically linked to the weakness of formal barriers to CDD in remote areas; (vi) not set up operations unless there are viable and informal institutions for managing enhance agrarian employment banking laws and foreign exchange conflict between different ethnic and opportunities; (vii) promote participatory regulations. Initially, they tend to religious groups. Formal and traditional and accountable local governance; and concentrate on international customers, such mechanisms for mediating inter-group (viii) promote rights-based and conflict as diplomats and aid workers, and may not conflict were weakened by two parallel resolution approaches to reintegration. develop a retail market for many years after processes: internal migration and the the end of the conflict. breakdown of authority. The paper also Large companies—the truly global illustrates why the role of culture is 22. International Companies and players—will seize opportunities in post- nevertheless important to understand ethnic Post-Conflict Reconstruction: conflict countries if these are commensurate violence in Central Kalimantan. Cross-Sectoral Comparisons with their size and capabilities, for example The paper also examines the Madurese in Iraq. In smaller economies, large expulsion and their return to Madura. With John Bray international companies are rarely willing to unemployment of over 90% among the (January 2005) take high risks for returns that—on the scale displaced community in Madura, most of their balance sheets—are likely to be displaced Madurese hoped to return to The role of international companies in marginal. The most active foreign investors Central Kalimantan. Conflicts between the post-conflict reconstruction is an essential will be niche players with a higher tolerance local community and the displaced were complement to the work of international of risk, or regional companies with regional triggered by competition over resources and aid agencies. However, if policy-makers development strategies. emergency aid for the displaced. The are to secure the maximum benefits from Most larger international companies now majority of the displaced were unable to private investment, they need to emphasize corporate social responsibility integrate in Sampang. Conflict mediation understand how different companies and including charitable programs. However, capacity in Sampang was already limited sectors view opportunity and risk, and take companies’ most significant social impact before the displaced arrived, especially with account of their overall impact in post- will come from the way that they conduct high levels of violent crime, and as a result, conflict settings. their core activities, and in particular from local authorities were overstretched in In development circles, the debate about their relationships with local communities managing local conflicts between the the role of business in conflict-affected and sub-contractors. Greater awareness of competing groups. 13 From the Dayak perspective, the scope specifically to the Bank’s community-driven improved access to services, especially by for reconciliation with the Madurese in development platform, implemented the poor. They suggest that whether these Central Kalimantan would depend on the through the Kecamatan Development dividends materialize will depend critically role of the elite Dayak leaders in the Project (KDP) and the Support for Poor and on the adoption an inclusive approach in region, reconciliation within the Dayak Disadvantaged Areas Project (SPADA). post-conflict reconstruction, breaking the community, the capacity of local More broadly, the recommendations link to vicious cycle of weak-capacity-low mediating mechanisms, and the role of the Bank’s governance agenda, as autonomy-weak capacity, and attention to individual mediators. articulated in the 2003 CAS. environmental and social risks. Several key factors affect the possibility Recommendations for the Government The paper also includes an Annex for Madurese to return to Central focus on the need to improve local discussing three cross-country studies of the Kalimantan—government policy on return governance, raising standards in the security output effects of civil wars which were of displaced Madurese; the role of local agencies, and designing more inclusive applied to available data on the Mindanao mediation mechanisms in conflict rather than targeted projects for conflict to estimate the overall economic mediation and reconciliation between marginalized communities in conflict areas. costs for the Philippines. The authors also Madurese groups in Madura; and the role provide a brief comparison with economic of individual mediators, both from the costs for the conflict in Sri Lanka. displaced and the host communities. 24. The Mindanao Conflict in the Informal, non-governmental mediators Philippines: Roots, Costs, and have had relatively more success at leading Potential Peace Dividend 25. Counting Conflicts: Using inter-ethnic mediation than formal Newspaper to Understand Violence in government mediators. However, the role Salvatore Schiavo-Campo, and Mary Judd Indonesia of informal local mediators in bridging (February 2005) inter-group conflicts was constrained when Patrick Barron, and Joanne Sharpe their influence was limited to one This paper briefly reviews the historical (May 2005) particular ethnic or identity group; and roots and the current status of the conflict when they did not have trust from or and peace negotiations in Mindanao. By far Responding to conflict, in Indonesia and legitimacy with the other group(s) the heaviest costs of the conflict to the elsewhere, requires an understanding of its involved in the conflict. Bangsamoro people and the Lumads, to distribution, forms, and impacts. Given that There were some notable exceptions to Mindanao, and to the Philippines as a whole different types of conflicts may require the general rule that formal government have been qualitative and dynamic. The different policy and programmatic institutions had limited success in inter- paper provides a quantitative assessment of approaches, an understanding of the type and group reconciliation. Government leaders the direct economic costs of conflict nature of conflicts in different areas and how had more success when they worked estimated in traditional comparative statics they are similar, and/or how they differ is through inter-village community forums terms as a base on which to add the more vital. and development forums with dynamic and less quantifiable costs. Relatively little is known about the representatives from each The paper finds that the direct costs of the incidence and costs of conflict in Indonesia. community/identity group involved in conflict have been substantial but only at the ‘Headline’ conflicts such as those that have decision making; and relied on facilitation local level, with a comparatively small taken place in the Malukus, Central Sulawesi, by trusted community leaders. Local impact on the rest of Mindanao and the Papua and Aceh have received significant communities and community leaders country as a whole. While bearing in mind attention. However, there is an increasing stressed three factors to prevent violence: the severe methodological limitations, the realization that conflict is not confined to (i) representation from each community at paper estimates the direct output loss from these ‘high conflict’ provinces alone, but that decision making meetings or forums and the conflict during 1970-2001 in the range it can be found across the country. In large adaptation of local forums to include all of $2-3 billion, which is low compared to part this is because of the methodological groups; (ii) account taken of the post- estimates for other civil conflicts. difficulties associated with mapping conflicts, conflict needs of the local and host The costs are much higher, although including through household surveys, key communities; and (iii) mediation by difficult to quantify, when the authors add informant interviews, and the use of police or trusted community leaders who held human and social costs (e.g., deaths and other secondary data. authority over each group. injuries, displacement, increased poverty In this paper, the authors outline an attempt The paper suggests three main and increases in criminality), indirect to use local newspaper monitoring to measure challenges. First, recognizing that this type economic costs (e.g., decreased agricultural the levels and impacts of violent conflict of violence may not be temporary or productivity, deterioration in the investment from 2001-2003 in two Indonesian provinces isolated. A second challenge is the climate), and governance and social costs (East Java and NTT), and to assess variation exclusion of the grassroots or community (weakening in security and the rule of law, in incidence, impact, and form across and level from mediation and peace brokering. disruptions to social services). within areas. The third challenge is managing the The authors argue that the potential peace There are a number of significant findings. complex issues surrounding competition dividend is high, especially in terms of First, the levels and impacts of conflict are far for natural resources and displacement. improved governance, lower spending on higher than previously expected, and even Specific project interventions for the Bank security, improvements in fiscal outcomes areas thought of as not being particularly within its current and projected project and investment climate, recovery and prone to conflict report high conflict impacts. portfolio are suggested. The four project exploitation of Mindanao’s considerable Comparing the authors’ data with that of a interventions recommended relate hydropower and tourism potentials, and previous attempt to use newspapers to map 14 conflict (UNSFIR), they find six times as 26. Young Men and the Construction discussions of masculinities in educational many deaths. Much of the difference is of Masculinity in Sub-Saharan Africa: activities; (ii) creation of enabling because the UNSFIR survey uses Implications for HIV/AIDS, Conflict, environments in which individual and group- predominantly provincial sources; the and Violence level changes are supported by changes in authors use district level newspapers, social norms and in institutions; (iii) broader which pick up far more fatalities than those Gary Barker, and Christine Ricardo alliance-building; and (iv) the incorporation more remote from the locations where (June 2005) of the multiple needs of young men. conflict takes place. Key challenges include: (i) the need for Second, there is significant variation Gender is increasingly used as an better impact evaluation; (ii) the scope for between districts not only in the impacts of analytical framework in program and policy scaling up and engaging the public sector; conflict, but also in the forms conflict development for youth in Africa, but in and (iii) the need for documentation, takes. This suggests that many of the most cases gender refers almost exclusively dissemination and technical exchange on causes of conflict are localized and shows to the disadvantages that women and girls program experiences and lessons learned. the limitation of theories that focus only on face. Given the extent of gender inequalities Throughout the report, the authors make national factors. Different types of conflict in sub-Saharan Africa, an almost exclusive references to alternative, non-violent versions exist in different areas and result in focus on women and girls has been of manhood and to elements of traditional different impacts. Integrating evidence appropriate. However, a gender perspective socialization in Africa that promote non- from qualitative fieldwork in the same and gender mainstreaming have too often violence, and more gender-equitable attitudes areas where the survey was conducted, we ignored the gender of men and boys. The on the part of young men, and to forms of argue that local violence is a function of aim of this paper is to explore what a gender socialization and social control that reduce the interaction between local cultures and perspective means when applied to young the vulnerabilities of young men and reduce actors. Local cultural norms help to men in Africa focusing on conflict, violence violence. Included in this section are explain the particular forms that conflict and HIV/AIDS. It explores the construction examples of young men whose stories takes in different areas. However, there is of manhoods in Africa and argues for the represent ways in which young men can significant variation in levels of conflict application of a more sophisticated gender question and counter prevailing norms. within areas with similar cultural heritages, analysis that also includes men and youth. These stories and the emerging literature pointing to the important role of local The authors carried out an extensive point to some of the following protective leaders and institutions in shaping norms literature review, identified promising factors that promote gender equality, health- and managing conflicts. Given that the programs applying a gender perspective to seeking or health-protective behaviors and nature of conflict differs at the local level, work with young men, carried out 50 non-violence: (i) a high degree of self- policy responses must also be locally informant interviews with staff working reflection and space to rehearse new tailored. with young men in Botswana, Nigeria, behaviors; (ii) having witnessed the impact of Finally, the authors explore potential South Africa and Uganda, and 23 focus violence on their own families and sources of bias in the data, through group discussions and interviews with constructed a positive lesson out of these interviews with editors and journalists young men in Nigeria, South Africa and experiences; (iii) tapping into men’s sense of from the newspapers used in the study. Uganda. responsibility and positive engagement as The authors find that in general A gendered analysis of young men must fathers; (iv) rites of passage and traditions newspapers can be used to provide a take into account the plurality of that have served as positive forms of social reasonably accurate conflict map but that it masculinities in Africa. Versions of control, and which have incorporated new is necessary to use sources below the manhood in Africa are socially constructed, information and ideals; (v) family members provincial level. The creation of a national fluid over time and in different settings, and that model more equitable or non-violent monitoring system utilizing local plural. The key requirement to attain behaviors; (vi) employment and school newspapers would provide important manhood in Africa is achieving some level enrollment in the case of some forms of insights into the impacts, distribution and of financial independence, employment or violence and conflict; and (vii) community nature of violence in Indonesia. income, and subsequently starting a family. mobilization around the vulnerabilities of The analysis in this paper shows that Older men also have a role in holding power young men. violent conflict is significant in areas of over younger men and thus in defining Changing gender norms is slow, and it is Indonesia not normally associated with manhood in Africa. Initiation practices or made even slower by the fact that those who having high levels of conflict. A vital rites of passage are important factors in the make program and policy decisions often component of a strategy to promote socialization of boys and men throughout have their own deep-seated biases about violence-free development must be to the region. For young men in Africa, as for gender and are frequently resistant to understand better the distribution, impacts young men worldwide, sexual experience is question those. Efforts to question the sexual and nature of violent conflict across frequently associated with initiation into behavior of men in the African context, for Indonesia. While there has been an adulthood and achieving a socially example, have sometimes run into resistance increasing realization that violent conflict recognized manhood. by national level leaders who perceive that is spread across the archipelago, little is There are a handful of important program African men themselves are being “bashed� known about its nature or impacts in many examples that explicitly include discussions or maligned. The challenge to promote parts of the country. of gender socialization in their work with changes in gender norms is to tap into voices young men. Some key operating principles of change and pathways to change that exist emerge from the various experiences in in the context of Africa. Ultimately it will be working with young men in a gender- the voices of these young men and adult men, specific context, including: (i) explicit 15 and women, who will promote the are working to dampen the conflict or have areas. The research included literature from necessary individual, community and an uncertain impact. The large number of Germany, Switzerland and Austria. social changes. “on the brink� factors suggests that there are Due to the complexity of the issue, and the still many opportunities for development limited time frame, no comprehensive assistance, and traditional and Track II overview was attempted but rather a 27. Conflict-Sensitive Development diplomacy to assist in the consolidation of compilation of interesting concepts, as well Assistance: The Case of Burundi Burundi’s peace process. as practical experiences, as food for thought The paper notes eight principles to guide and inspiration. Emphasis was given to Juana Brachet, and Howard Wolpe development assistance: (i) “do no harm� practice-oriented concepts and to approaches (June 2005) particularly to avoid reinforcing or that may be little known and that have triggering conflict causes; (ii) make peace potential for wider applicability. Since its independence in 1962, Burundi dividends visible to the population; (iii) The main focus is on post-Cold War has been mired in an unending cycle of include short-term issues, especially the literature, as the end of this conflict pattern conflict. Successive waves of violence restoration of security; (iv) limit the marks a clear turning point in the writing on have increased ethnic and regional potential for mass mobilization; (v) address conflict. Additionally, globalization emerged divisions, while deepening already the structural causes of conflict; (vi) address as a new, structuring force in the 1990s. extreme poverty. Although Burundians the perceptual and attitudinal legacy of the Since then, different subject areas have traditionally did not mobilize politically conflict; (vii) ensure that development emerged, and more attention has been given around their Hutu and Tutsi ethnic assistance is consistent and sustained; and to conflicts on a regional or local level. Much identities, the chronic post-independence (viii) consider the regional context. writing centers on approaches that are violence inserted a mass dimension to The paper reviews a number of considering suitable structures for global or what is fundamentally an elite-driven and development areas where there are regional problem solving. Much of this manipulated conflict. Repeated inter- opportunities to incorporate the above relates to the global governance discourse. communal massacres have rendered the principles, including: the PRSP process; Others use the European idea and its visions population susceptible to ethnically framed rural development; infrastructure; security as reference point. Two other themes are political appeals. sector reform and demobilization and related to the causes of war on the one hand The still-evolving peace process begun reintegration of ex-combatants; land tenure; and the conditions for and the meaning of in Arusha, Tanzania in 1996 offers an employment generation; governance; and peace, on the other. Much of this literature is opportunity for Burundi to break out of the the social sectors. not primarily meant for practical application. zero-sum game that has characterized its In terms of project design and Since most of the concepts of this survey political and social life since shortly after implementation, the paper emphasizes the have been developed independently, they do independence. Although active conflict has need to: engage the elites on the side of not relate to each other. As a comprehensive diminished, peace and reconciliation peace; invest in bottom-up approaches, framework, the concept of "prevention" and remains fragile—as tragically especially through inclusive and its application to different phases of conflict demonstrated by the August 2004 community-driven interventions; include was used to organize the review of concepts. massacre of Congolese Banyamulenge in a peace-building components in projects; In a systematic attempt, the concepts are refugee camp in Burundi and sporadic carefully monitor and assess development presented according to the level they are eruptions of violence in Bujumbura Rurale interventions in terms of explicit peace- aiming at, starting with the global arena and province. In this context, the paper building objectives and indicators; map and ending at the micro-project level. In all, 58 explores ways in which development consider the multiplicity of variables that concepts have been identified and described. assistance can contribute to the affect the peace process; and complement To gain a proper understanding of the consolidation of peace, framed within a regional stabilization efforts. delicate nature of conflict intervention, the contextualized assessment of Burundi’s Contingency Model provides some key conflict using the Bank’s Conflict Analysis insights and serves to select appropriate Framework. 28. Survey of the German Language interventions according to the stage of The conflict analysis finds ethnicity is Literature on Conflict conflict. It therefore seems to provide the only one of several cleavages in Burundian most significant additional benefit by being society. Although the ethnic divide is Barbara Müller the only comprehensive conflict management perceived to be more prominent because of (October 2005) model that has not been completely translated four decades of manipulation of socio- into English. A proper frame to shape actors ethnic identities, there are also important Theoretical frameworks, approaches and and issues might be offered by the Systemic clans, regional and class-based divides. concepts in the non-English language Conflict Transformation approach. These divides have been exacerbated by: literature on conflict may differ substantially Development organizations generate their differential social opportunities; a history from those developed in English, yet are own instruments for conflict analysis or of violence and impunity; poor economic only occasionally taken into account in the needs assessments; monitoring indicators; performance, inequality and environmental conflict-related work of international and conflict impact and risk analysis. This stress; failed governance and institutions; development agencies. This survey survey suggests that there are a number of and the spillover effects of regional identifies German-language theoretical concepts and approaches that might deserve a conflict among Burundi’s neighbors. frameworks, concepts and findings in the closer look. Four years into the transition that began study of conflict. It follows a very broad Several concepts from the economic area in November 2001 some factors threaten to approach with regard to phases, levels, can be employed in conflict prevention. Ideas escalate Burundi’s conflict, while others causes of conflict and overlap with related for integrating peacebuilding and preventive 16 objectives into economic development are flows on economic opportunities, threats, 30. Strategic Environmental offered by concepts such as the Civilizing needs and locally available resources; (ii) Assessments: Capacity Building in Hexagon, Systemic Competitiveness, repairing community rifts and rebuilding Conflict-Affected Countries Welfare Politics or the World Economy social and business networks necessary for Triangle. economic growth; (iii) combating social Rob Verheem and Reinoud Post, with Jason Development organizations need in- exclusion and facilitating more equitable Switzer, and Bart Klem depth analytical capacity to properly economic growth processes; (iv) enhancing (December 2005) address the violent patterns and dynamics flexibility and decentralization of livelihood with which they are confronted at the local support to better suit local opportunities and The World Bank asked the Netherlands level. While a systematic overview is still address needs; (v) counteracting problems Commission for Environmental Assessment lacking, case studies deserve special associated with weak or destroyed formal to prepare a first discussion draft on a attention. They cover the emergence of institutions supporting livelihoods; (vi) potential role for a Strategic Environmental networks around Ethnicity, Violence, and empowering communities in their relations Assessment (SEA) in countries affected by Fear, and the Shifting Dynamics of with donor organizations and government to armed conflicts, such as the Democratic Violence. Others describe male cultures of meet livelihood needs; and (vii) enhancing Republic of Congo (DRC) and Haiti. The violence in the context of transitional the purchasing power capacity of local paper focuses on questions such as: what countries as Male Adolescents' Cultures of markets. should be the purpose of an SEA and when to Violence; and in Africa as Shifting Alongside these benefits, this study apply it? How to undertake an SEA most Patterns of Male Roles in Violence. presents three challenges: (i) tension effectively in those situations; is it different between achieving quick results to meet from emerging good practice in non-conflict urgent needs and engendering sustainable, situations? How to build capacity for an SEA 29. Demand-Driven Approaches to equitable and inclusive community in conflict-affected countries: what are Livelihood Support in Post-War processes; (ii) vulnerability to resource- priorities and where to start? Contexts: A Joint ILO-World Bank capture on the part of powerful, coercive The purpose of a SEA in conflict-affected Study elements present in most post-war contexts; countries should be first and foremost to help and (iii) danger of community processes preventing natural resources from becoming Piet Goovaerts, Martin Gasser, and reinforcing inequalities rather than a source for further conflict in the future. It Aliza Belman Inbal counteracting them. should aim at strengthening or restoring (October 2005) On the basis of the World Bank and the natural resource-based livelihoods in ILO’s experience, this study identifies eight resource-scarce settings. And to reduce This paper is a collaboration between the “operational principles� for application of opportunities for natural resource based-trade ILO and the World Bank, exploring demand-driven approaches for livelihood to fuel war economies. Added to this, the potential applications of demand-driven, support in conflict contexts: (i) begin with a SEA process itself should be designed such community-led approaches to livelihood comprehensive mapping exercise of that participants are not put at risk, ongoing support in post-war contexts. It is based livelihood opportunities and resources, peace-building initiatives are not jeopardized, on review of the two organizations’ building on local capacities, resources and and one side is not favored over another in a experience with such instruments in skills; (ii) implement both community-based way that exacerbates divides. On the other conflict-affected areas, the former in the and individual livelihood support activities; hand, the SEA process can be a relatively context of its Local Economic (iii) emphasize three areas essential to post- safe opportunity to bring disputants together Development (LED) approach and the war reconstruction—namely farming, over a shared concern with relatively low latter in the context of its Community fishing and construction—and their related visibility, i.e., the environment, and thus Driven Development (CDD) approach. support sectors including local trade contribute to peace building. The study is based on the premise that networks, as well as the support sector to SEA should only be applied when the demand-driven methods may be uniquely international donor activity; (iv) use short- environment is a priority and at the same suited to meeting challenges to livelihood term “aid sector� opportunities as a time certain preconditions in the country are support and economic revitalization posed springboard to sustainable, long-term met. Priorities include circumstances where by post-war environments. As a first economic growth; (v) prioritize credit environmental issues were or may be a initiative in an effort to link demand- provision from the outset; (vi) start with source of conflict, reconstruction actions driven approaches, conflict environments small scale livelihood activities, when badly planned may seriously damage and livelihoods, it is meant to provide a progressively expand scope as resources and the environment, or when environmental foundation for further discussion. It institutional capacities increase; (vii) link programming could open opportunities to includes an analysis of contextual factors the local economy with other district peace-building that could not be better in conflict-affected communities; a brief economies and with the national economic developed in other sectors. In terms of description of what demand-driven recovery strategy; and (viii) catalyze preconditions, an SEA will only be effective approaches entail; likely benefits of and information exchange on livelihoods where an institution (in most cases the state) challenges to applying these approaches; opportunities. exists in a country that has the mandate, the and operational principles and capacity and the willingness to follow up on recommendations for action. the key results of agreed actions in an SEA. The study suggests seven advantages Stakeholders in the country must also be associated with use of these approaches for willing to participate and able to do so livelihood support in post-war without being put at risk. These environments: (i) facilitating knowledge preconditions mean that in most cases an 17 SEA will not be a priority during the first step in Indonesia’s democratization process. These institutional shortcomings resulted in stages of reconstruction, when the main In order to evaluate conflict and conflict high levels of protest and, in some cases, focus will be on relief, rehabilitation and prevention, this study analyzed four diverse attacks against state institutions. institution building. It could be a priority, provinces—Bali, East Java, Maluku and The 2004 legislative elections were the first however, during the later stages, as peace NTT—from March 15 to May 15, 2004 time that the police was solely in charge of is consolidated and the country transitions covering the election campaign, polling day internal security and it successfully adopted into longer-term development. In these and the immediate aftermath. Studying the conflict prevention measures that resulted in cases, of course, SEA capacity building legislative elections provided a window peaceful elections. However, the police should start before, during the early through which to examine issues related to performed best at deterrence when its reconstruction phase. local conflict and the role institutions play in presence by sheer force of numbers reduced Carrying out a conflict-sensitive SEA is managing it. Given the extent to which the likelihood of clashes. This study no different from an ‘ordinary’ SEA, with decentralization has devolved power to the emphasizes, however, that successful conflict two notable exceptions: to ensure a local level, examining the process of local reduction occurs when police adopt conflict-sensitive design there is a need for competition helps shed light on the nature community policing approaches which a more careful preparation of the and state of Indonesia’s democracy and the involve consulting and working with a broad integrated plan/SEA process and to the institutions that underlie it. range of actors from local government and the selection of appropriate methods and Overall, the elections were peaceful. In the military, to community actors and approaches to stakeholder involvement in four provinces there were a limited number community-based organizations. This the SEA process. During preparation more of election-related conflicts, of which just underscores the need to deepen and broaden attention should be given to issues such as over 10 percent were violent. This is an police reform. At the same time, by adopting a the historical drivers of the conflict, the impressive achievement. The study shows supporting role and remaining neutral, the issues and individuals that can bring that the low level of election-related conflict military contributed positively to the ongoing parties together or drive a wedge between was the product of a number of factors, but security reforms required to consolidate them, sites that are contested, tensions especially the lack of interaction between democracy in Indonesia. between parties such as communities, the pre-existing forms of conflict and the local Finally, the study’s most significant finding state and armed factions. Along the same electoral processes, as well as a range of was the pivotal role local actors and lines, the methods of stakeholder conflict prevention measures. Local elites institutions played in preventing and participation should be selected in a way and grassroots initiatives, especially in high managing conflict. While national agencies that they do not worsen divisions among conflict areas, played a pivotal role in provided important policy guidelines, the conflicting groups, increase danger for minimizing tensions. success of conflict reduction measures participants, reinforce violence or Although the elections were relatively depended on local knowledge, ownership and disempowered local people. Working in peaceful, the study highlights institutional implementation at the regional levels of state conflict sensitive situations means that weaknesses and the need for increased institutions, the quality of cross-institutional even more flexibility is required in attention to three broad areas. First, the coordination and cooperation, and the role of applying SEA than in non-conflict settings. study found that one of the major factors other local actors. The importance of local Building capacity for an SEA is also not underpinning whether election-related knowledge and ownership underscores the different in conflict-affected countries conflict was likely to arise/escalate was prior need to recognize and support community- from other countries, yet should not create history of local conflict. While conflict driven peace-building efforts where they are tensions by itself. Therefore, the same prevention was by and large successful in successful and build capacity at this recommendations apply as stated earlier reducing electoral violence, in many cases grassroots level where efforts are less for stakeholder involvement. A specific the measures tended to address symptoms developed. point of attention is the conflict or rather than causes. This highlights the need reconstruction ‘context’: learning activities to rethink the way in which we should be focused on core functions of a conceptualize conflict and conflict 32. Fearing Africa’s Young Men: The (post conflict) government and not on resolution. Conflict in Indonesia is not just Case of Rwanda institutions destined for closure or major an episodic, event-driven occurrence, but is restructuring. a symptom of broader problems, cleavages Marc Sommers and interests. Thus, unresolved conflicts (January 2006) during the electoral period may potentially 31. Consolidating Indonesia’s feed into existing tensions and lead to future Male youth in Africa are leading the charge Democracy: Conflict, Institutions outbreaks of conflict. to cities, rapidly transforming the historically and the “Local� in the 2004 Second, these deeper more structural rural-based African population into a mostly Legislative Elections efforts to reduce conflict can only be urban one. Youth feature in military outfits undertaken by strengthening institutions that across the continent, are being devastated by Patrick Barron, Melina Nathan, and can positively channel tensions. One of the the AIDS epidemic, and their place on the Bridget Welsh major study findings was that the margins of most reconstruction and (December 2005) performance of institutions in Indonesia development efforts in Africa threaten to (both those focused on managing the undermine sustainable development. Despite widespread fears of potential electoral process, as well as state institutions Perhaps more than any other African violent conflict, Indonesia’s April 5, 2004 more broadly) was mixed: capacity, nation, Rwanda is at a crossroads. For years, legislative elections saw limited incidents professionalism, and constructive societal it stood as the least urbanized country in the of violence and represented a significant engagements were lacking in many localities. world, but now has the world’s highest 18 urbanization rate. Most male youth, some to support youth, but its implementation will sensitivity of the Bank’s Conflict Analysis of whom were foot soldiers of the 1994 require consistent and sustained efforts and Framework (CAF). It raises a number of genocide, remain pinioned on the margins, resources. issues and offers specific recommendations receiving little attention or support. This is If positive engagement and appropriate on ways to adapt the existing conflict a potentially disastrous situation, given support for members of the marginalized framework and its indicators to better reflect their significant demographic numbers, youth majority in Africa is to be enacted, it the fact that conflict affects women and men their legacy of being drawn and forced into will be necessary to remember that location differently. The report also includes a umber acts of extreme violence, and limited matters. A component of successfully of links where additional information and opportunities to contribute to Rwanda’s working with youth is to do it where they resources on gender can be found and should development. reside. Again, the example of post-war, be consulted as part of a conflict analysis This paper sets the case of Rwanda’s community-based reintegration work is process. male youth within the larger context of instructive. The term reintegration, in fact, Although the goal of conflict analysis is to Africa’s urbanization and burgeoning inaccurately describes what is actually enhance the sensitivity to conflict in the youth population. It investigates the required because it assumes that people seek operations of development agencies such as pervasive images of male urban youth as a to reintegrate. They may not. Youth in the World Bank, existing frameworks across menace to Africa’s development and its cities, for example, may wish to integrate agencies that use them focus too much primary source of instability. It then turns into new communities, not reintegrate into attention on the causes of conflict at the to the Rwandan case, examining the old ones—a decision that should be expense of the drivers of peace—i.e., those desperate conditions its young men (and recognized, respected, and supported. factors or social dynamics that may be acting women) faced before the civil war (1990- Similarly, people in rural or urban to strengthen a community’s resilience to 94) and 1994 genocide, as well as their communities may have very good reasons to conflict. experience of it. It draws on field avoid reintegrating themselves into social Most conflict assessment frameworks either interviews with Rwandan youth to and economic arrangements that existed neglect or include only cursory treatment of consider the situation male youth face in before war. The backward glance inferred gender issues. Perhaps more importantly, the post-war, post-genocide era. The paper by reintegration may be precisely what while conflict analysis frameworks tend to situates the Rwandan case within the many people, youth in particular, do not provide a macro-level strategic assessment of debate on whether concentrated numbers want. the drivers of conflict, the inclusion of of African male youth are dangerous (the The fact that this paper addresses the fear gendered perspectives provides a more youth bulge theory), as well as prospects and invisibility of Africa’s male youth ‘people-centered’ approach, and stands a for Rwanda’s male youth population. should in no way obfuscate the even greater better chance of allowing analysts to explore The case of Rwanda’s male youth invisibility and needs of their silent the drivers of peace. Without a gender lens, illustrates the inherent weakness of the colleagues—female youth. Research in 20 the analysis can lead to a skewed youth bulge theory and those who war-affected countries over the past decade understanding of the situation under study, argument that high concentration of and a half shows how no population group and lead to overlooking critical elements in African male youth is inherently is more at-risk and overlooked with more society that are withstanding or resisting dangerous. Their frightening, predictive regularity than adolescent girls and young conflict. At the same time, there is still very message reveals more about their women. The contrast between their plight limited understanding of the impact of proponents than their male youth subjects. and those of their male counterparts is conflict on men and their capacities to adapt It may be more useful to ask why certain instructive. In too many contexts, the to changes in socio-economic and political people are so threatened by some young relatively few youth programs and conditions. men rather than why those young men organizations that exist are dominated by Gender variables are missing in most seem so threatening. It is also useful to male youth. Meanwhile, existing women’s frameworks. This is partly the result of (i) a bear in mind the central irony surrounding programs and organizations are often general tendency to conflate gender with Africa’s urban youth: “…they are a dominated by more senior women. Stating women, (ii) insufficient data and information demographic majority that sees itself as an this is in no way intended to undermine or on the ‘gendered’ impact of the development, outcast minority.� The situation question the needs of other war-affected conflict and poverty nexus, and (iii) the fact confronting most Rwandan youth, and populations. On the contrary, it is intended that when and if gender is addressed, it is most of their counterparts in Africa to shed light on the unnoticed lives of most typically covered under social issues or remains alarming. Their plight constitutes female youth in war-affected contexts—the indicators, rather than mainstreaming gender a largely silent emergency. Tragically, results for them are frequently harsh and throughout the analysis. their general peacefulness makes them all hidden. A desk review of eight conflict analysis the more invisible. frameworks and a secondary review of three The situation facing Rwandan youth additional frameworks shows that the today is likely not as punishing as before 33. Mainstreaming Gender in Conflict majority make some mention of women the 1994 genocide in large part because an Analysis: Issues and and/or gender-related issues, but none devote urban outlet, to some degree, exists. But Recommendations sufficient space to the issues. Users are that does not mean that life for Rwanda’s generally advised to take note of particular youth has transformed from mainly Sanam Naraghi Anderlini gender issues but there is rarely any guidance hopeless to primarily hopeful. The plight (February 2006) on how this could be done or potential for the overwhelming majority remains impacts, both on conflict and on peace. In extremely serious. Rwanda’s National This report was commissioned by the CPR some agencies, there is recognition of the Youth Policy provides a potential platform Unit in an effort to improve the gender importance of gender in this type of analysis, 19 but there are constraints in terms of either 34. Facilitating Transitions for training and learning opportunities as their the availability of gender specialists, or Children and Youth: Lessons from male counterparts. gender groups within agencies tend to Four Post-Conflict Fund Projects Emergency Education. Emergency marginalized, making gender education programs can lessen the mainstreaming difficult. Aly Rahim, and Peter Holland psychosocial impact of war by providing The CAF itself can benefit from more (May 2006) physical, social and cognitive protection, and systematic integration of gender variables by disseminating vital survival messages. It into its current structure. Certainly the This review draws on international is critical that all children have access to collation of more gender disaggregated practices to highlight promising approaches some form of structured educational activity data and analysis of this information would and assesses four PCF projects that address to help them overcome the psychological have enormous benefit. The greater the needs of children and youth. Lessons disruption of conflict and take part in the challenge, however, is ensuring that from these projects are consistent with the restoration of cross-cutting and bonding analysts using the tool are themselves lessons from other post-conflict program social capital, that is, strong social cohesion aware of and recognize the significance of evaluations. The following guidance both within and between distinct groups. gender issues to conflict and programming emerged: Exclusion from education ultimately results for poverty reduction across all issues. Voice, Inclusion, and Community in a second-class group of children and youth This can be done through, first, a Participation. Voice and inclusion projects who become a post-conflict at-risk category. combination of short term training or should always involve youth and (to the Donors should not neglect local first workshop sessions as they prepare to use extent possible) children from design to responses to educational needs, but should the framework, as well as through completion; and staff must be willing to assimilate these community interventions exposure to sample studies or examples of listen to and act upon what they propose. into the emergency education strategy. where and how gender matters to The project might involve them in However, inappropriately designed local governance, security, economic participatory monitoring and evaluation, as responses can further entrench conflict, and development and social issues. a further means of empowerment. donors must discern between effective and Second, awareness needs to be matched Demobilization and Reintegration of potentially harmful local responses. with the ability to reflect on, analyze and Young Ex-Combatants. During link gender indicators into the broader demobilization, young ex-combatants picture being developed. Too often, there should be housed in dedicated facilities, 35. The Impact of Armed Conflict on is ad hoc mention of violence against with critical services such as psychosocial Male Youth in Mindanao, Philippines women, or youth unemployment, but support, family tracing, health, community insufficient attention is given to sensitization, and rehabilitation of social Shobhan Rajendran, David Veronesi, understanding the impacts or the gendered skills. Over the long term young combatants Nasrudin Mohammad, and Alimudin Mala nature of the issues and variables. Third, can benefit more from psychosocial support (July 2006) beyond awareness and analysis, teams provided through the family and need exposure to possible opportunities for communities than from institutionalized This study is a companion to an earlier alleviating the situation, in part by trauma programs. study on Gender and Conflict in Mindanao identifying existing efforts at mitigating Young ex-combatants consistently express that was heavily focused on the impact of conflict and poverty in their specific case, a desire to resume formal education but they armed conflict on women (including young or perhaps by drawing on experiences also face economic responsibilities, and women), and stems from a need to elsewhere. therefore require education programs suited understand the situation of young men in the The report includes a number of to their needs. Traditional vocational context of the conflict in Mindanao. It also recommendations on ways to gender training programs have had an inconsistent complements a study conducted in early 2005 sensitize the CAF, including: record; other programs, such as second- that examines the impact of the conflict on methodology, framework, variables, staff chance education opportunities for overage men, women and youth in five provinces of training, ToRs for consultants and and working youth, the rehabilitation of Mindanao. The specific objectives of this partners, contacts with counterpart family-based small enterprises and study are: governments, stakeholders and apprenticeship programs, have shown more To gain an increased understanding of consultations, report structure, promise. how the conflict has affected male documentation, and piloting of a gender Employment Generation and Livelihoods. youth; and sensitized CAF. Appendices include a Securing livelihoods can help to foster To develop recommendations that discussion of armed conflict and the stability in post-conflict environments. respond to their most immediate needs. feminization of poverty, details of the desk Employment generation programs should The study covered seven provinces in four review of conflict analysis frameworks capitalize on existing assets, and care must out of the six regions in Mindanao. The field utilized by other agencies, and suggestions be taken to match skills training with research focused on communities heavily of additional indicators to consider for the demand, by linking employers and trainers. affected by years of conflict. The research different categories of variables included Labor-intensive projects offer great was based on qualitative data collection, in the CAF. potential for broad-based growth, but including focus group discussions with male careful planning is needed to balance the youth, individual interviews, and key labor intensity and cost effectiveness of informant interviews with national and local infrastructure projects, and to ensure that experts. young women have access to the same The study shows that despite growing up in an environment shaped by violence, young 20 males in Mindanao continue to hope for The study provides an overview of the not based on a full understanding of civil change for a better life. Despite popular concept of civil society, its history and society and its composition; (iv) not all civil perception that the male youth are understanding in different contexts. It society functions are equally effective in all militarized, a large majority do not get elaborates an analytical framework of civil conflict phases; (v) civil society can also involved in the violence. In fact, the society functions derived from democracy have a dark side; (vi) the role of the state is conflict has propelled many of them into theory, development discourse and case equally important; (vii) civil society is more roles for which they were not prepared but study knowledge, which in turn is applied to than NGOs; (viii) NGO peacebuilding impact are coping with to the best of their ability. the context of peacebuilding. Peacebuilding must be critically assessed; (ix) the timing The harrowing experiences they have been theory and practice is analyzed in terms of and sequencing of various civil society through, such destruction of their homes its civil society functions and their validity, functions are crucial for achieving impact; and communities, loss of a parent or scope and content. The results show that the and (x) there is a need for a holistic and sibling, repeated displacement, life as a mere existence of and support for civil comprehensive approach to civil society. refugee in their own country and the society does not automatically lead to The study also suggests four areas for associated loss of self esteem, have not peacebuilding. A good understanding of further research: (i) the appropriateness and stopped them from hoping for lasting civil society’s roles and potential for impact of civil society functions; (ii) the role peace in Mindanao. Most of them have peacebuilding is required. It is also and selection of actors; (iii) the enabling managed to stay out of the cycle of important to recognize that certain roles and environment for civil society; and (iv) violence and revenge and display functions of civil society vary depending on questioning the role of service delivery as a considerable courage and resilience in the the phases of conflict and may not all be peacebuilding function. face of grave threats to their lives and equally relevant and effective in all conflict aspirations. They yearn for opportunities to phases. equip themselves with the education and Research suggests that merging the civil 37. Rule of Law Reform in Post- skills that their peers in other parts of the society discourse in democracy theory, with Conflict Countries: Operational country have access to. They are very the development and civil society Initiatives and Lessons Learnt receptive to new ideas and approaches, and peacebuilding discourse leads to a much constitute and important resource group clearer and focused understanding of the Kirsti Samuels impatiently waiting to participate in role of civil society in peacebuilding. In (October 2006) rebuilding their communities. particular, applying a functionalist analytical framework is a major contribution to the This paper aims to provide a tour d’horizon current debate. of common operational initiatives and policy 36. Civil Society, Civic Engagement, The study presents and applies an approaches adopted by agencies and and Peacebuilding analytical framework developed from the institutions involved in the area of rule of law fields of democracy and development, and reform in fragile or post-conflict countries, Thania Paffenholz, and Christoph Spurk based on seven core functions of civil and identify key lessons highlighted in the (October 2006) society: (i) protection; (ii) monitoring and policy literature. accountability; (iii) advocacy and public There is a growing focus on rule of law With the proliferation of conflicts in the communication; (iv) socialization and a reform in aid and development packages. 1990s and the increasing complexity of the culture of peace; (v) conflict sensitive social However, as discussed in this paper, the peacebuilding efforts confronting the cohesion; (vi) intermediation and numerous rule of law assistance programs international community, donors and the facilitation; and (vii) service delivery. implemented in post-conflict or fragile peacebuilding discourse increasingly The study also suggests the need to countries have had few lasting results on the focused on the potential role of civil analyze the enabling conditions for civil somewhat intangible social-end goals society. This led to a massive rise in civil society to fulfill a constructive role in associated with rule of law reform: (i) a society peacebuilding initiatives but it was peacebuilding and approach this from a government bound by law (ii) equality before not matched by a corresponding research holistic understanding of what are the needs the law (iii) law and order (iv) predictable agenda and debate on the nexus between of civil society. Not only is it necessary to and efficient rulings, and (v) human rights. civil society and peacebuilding. There has identify the relevant functions of civil Despite two decades of experimenting, still been little systematic analysis of the society within peacebuilding, but also the little is known about how to bring about these specific role of civic engagement and civil composition of civil society. This would difficult and interdependent social goods. society in the context of armed conflict avoid the common misconception that In the non-conflict development context, and even less regarding its potentials, conflates support to civil society with rule of law reform appears to have been limitations and critical factors. The aim of support to NGOs. Moreover, there is a need moderately more successful. However, even this study is to: for a better understanding of the conditions in those cases, there is little solid analysis in analyze existing research knowledge on and obstacles that affect civil society’s the literature evaluating why those strategies the nexus of civil society and ability to play a constructive role in were relatively effective, or how they could peacebuilding, peacebuilding, including the behavior of be adapted to post-conflict settings. It is clear examine operational experiences and potential or existing ‘uncivil’ society actors that the difficulties faced are severely lessons learned, and and the role of fragile or authoritarian states. heightened in the post-conflict context, where The study draws 10 major lessons: (i) civil capacity and the rule of law starting point are develop operational principles, society has important roles to play in very low and the country is often facing guidelines and questions for further peacebuilding; (ii) beware of simple civil urgent law and order and dispute resolution research. society enthusiasm; (iii) current support is problems. 21 The paper reviews some of the key years, could contribute substantially to the such as: the remittance businesses are owned lessons to have emerged from the last two evolution of the field of rule of law reform. by Somalis in Somalia; only the Somalia decades of rule of law experience, It would help give direction, centralize, diaspora transfers money through them; that typically undertaken in fragile or post- institutionalize, and render accessible some remittance organizations are not legal or conflict countries (and more generally in of the lessons that should be guiding future registered and do not pay taxes; and that developing countries) by a multiplicity of programming in this area. These case client funds are not safe. These companies uncoordinated actors and projects. There is analyses will be part of the second phase of are not as informal as often assumed. Instead, a striking lack of systematic results-based this work at the Bank with the aim of they have the full trust and confidence of evaluations of the programs, especially contributing to the rule of law programming their customers, have an extensive network independent rigorous cross country in post-conflict countries. of agents that service all towns and villages evaluations, or comprehensive case studies in Somalia, as well as all major cities in of all the programs in a country. The rule countries populated by Somali diaspora; run of law expertise that exists is not 38. Remittances and Economic operations that are more efficient than centralized or institutionalized, and resides Development in Somalia: An traditional financial services; and most in individuals who have often learnt Overview importantly, are well placed to serve rural through trial and error. The field lacks a areas that would be little served by traditional common foundation or basic agreement on Samuel Munzele Maimbo banking institutions. the goals of rule of law reform, on how (November 2006) Remittance companies face severe different aspects should be sequenced to challenges in setting up and sustaining avoid them working against each other, This collection of papers examines the role operations within and outside Somalia. In and fundamentally what sorts of strategies and impact of Somalia’s remittance system. Chapter V, Shire, an experienced remittance are effective. The paper highlights 11 After an introduction, Chapter II examines operator, lifts the veil on the complexities of important lessons: lack of coherent how a dynamic private sector, powered by remittance operations in conflict-affected strategy and expertise; insufficient remittances from abroad, has managed to countries. He links these challenges to the knowledge of how to bring about change; thrive in a country that is a failed state and dynamic business environment in which a general trend to focus on form over among the poorest in the world. Adapting companies have to engage with regulators; function; emphasis on the formal legal well and even flourishing in a stateless international, national and local authorities; system over informal and traditional conflict ridden economy, private sector global and local market competitors, the systems; short-term reforms in contrast to activities have emerged in trade, money media and the public. After discussing the longer term strategies; wholesale vs. transfer services, transport and threats and opportunities presented by each, incremental and context-determined telecommunications. At the household level, he offers recommendations on how change; the need for local change agents; recent studies show that remittances remittance companies, banks, regulators and how to engender local ownership; rushed constitute 40 percent at the income of urban the international development community and compromised constitution making; households. While recognizing the benefits can ensure the continuation of remittance poorly designed training and legal of remittances, it also cautions that further services, build trust and strengthen mutually education programs; and the need to private sector growth is limited in a country beneficial partnerships. To do otherwise, he sequence and prioritize change. without a functioning government and warns, would result in the disruption of a The paper also includes detailed annexes essential public goods. service that not only provides a lifeline on (i) key international actors involved in Chapter III illustrates the positive impact during periods of conflict, but also prevents rule of law reform (ii) comprehensive of remittances by focusing on the collapse humanitarian disasters in Somalia (another examples of rule of law interventions in of the public education system and mass wave of mass displacement and emigration, conflict-affected and developing countries, emigration as two features of the last two instability, and resentment and extremism). organized by actor, as well as (iii) a troubled decades of Somali history. The The final chapter focuses on the broader detailed reference list organized by major remittances received by a substantial financial sector, acknowledging that themes. minority of city-dwellers improve their rebuilding a financial system after a period of In this complex situation, it would be economic status and access to education. In sustained conflict is a challenging task. difficult, and probably unhelpful, to devise Hargeisa, the case explored in this chapter, Trying to do so while the political process of a rule of law strategy for the Bank without remittances often play a central role in the nation building is still at its nascent stages first undertaking comprehensive and well livelihoods of those that receive them and makes the task doubly challenging. structured evaluations of how the different help finance education, in some cases Managing the expectations of government, rule of law reform projects have interacted allowing the family to choose higher cost the private sector and the public is and played out in a range of post-conflict forms of education. Children in the complicated by the evolving assumptions countries, as well as in some of the households of people receiving remittances made about the likely direction of the apparently more successful non-conflict have relatively good school attendance political process and the resulting state countries. Given the state of development rates. Moreover migrants often encourage structure. The authors argue that it can be of this field, a literature review of the type families to whom they send money to done and offer a primer on rebuilding the undertaken in this paper can only serve as educate their children. Sibling solidarity financial sector after conflict, including the a starting point. However, a carefully plays a particularly crucial cultural role in types of reforms required, some of the designed, comparative field project based the education and welfare of children and necessary pre-conditions, and options to on systematic results-based case study young people. consider over the short to medium term, evaluations, and drawing on the expertise Chapter IV distinguishes myth from reality versus medium to long term. of those that have worked in this field for regarding Somali Remittance Companies, 22 39. Decentralizing Inequality? developmental purposes. In 2006, local Center-Periphery Relations, Local government in Aceh received revenues five Governance, and Conflict in Aceh times higher than before decentralization in 1999. The implementation of the MoU will Patrick Barron further increase the inflow of public Samuel Clark resources, and the US$ 8 billion tsunami (December 2006) reconstruction budget and ongoing post- conflict donor and central government Grievances over perceived inequalities in support will also provide a windfall. Yet resource distribution and political authority local government institutions do not between the center and periphery are often presently have the capacity to effectively a root cause of intra-country separatist manage and spend such resources. conflicts. Decentralization of political and Corruption is widespread. Mechanisms for economic powers is a commonly chosen managing political competition are weak. strategy for quelling separatist demands. Recent government expenditure has largely In Aceh, at the northwest tip of Indonesia, been concentrated in urban centers, captured demands from local elites for greater by politically-connected elites, and control of the resource pie have been continues to disenfranchise the rural poor. evident since the discovery of one of the It is largely on the basis of these inequalities world’s largest natural gas fields in the and grievances that GAM has been able to early 1970s and have helped fuel a near-30 mobilize resentment toward the center and year conflict over the political status of the forge a political identity at odds with province that claimed 15,000 lives. Jakarta; if such inequalities are not Demands for greater political authority to addressed, Aceh will continue to remain manage economic, social, and religious prone to conflict. affairs stretch back even further to the time The paper draws on data from the Aceh of Indonesian independence. Public Expenditure Analysis (APEA) and The Helsinki peace agreement (MoU) fieldwork associated with the World Bank’s signed by the rebel Free Aceh Movement support to the current Aceh peace process. (GAM) and the Indonesian Government in The authors argue that over the medium- to August 2005 is the latest of a series of long-run, the key challenge for securing special autonomy deals—many not fully peace in Aceh is ensuring resources and implemented—which aim to keep Aceh political power are equally and transparently within Indonesia. Key tenets of the distributed within Aceh. Ensuring such agreement, which follows and extends ‘internal equality’ is at least as important as Indonesia-wide decentralization, are tackling ‘center-periphery inequality’, both arrangements for the province to retain 70 to address community grievances and to percent of natural resource revenues and prevent elites from mobilizing based on additional resource allocations from local discontent. This requires building Jakarta. Significant devolution of political strong, just, accessible and legitimate powers include the allowance of local institutions with a focus on delivering political parties, independent candidates, services, fighting corruption, improving control over many areas of policymaking, transparency, increasing capacity, and and the incorporation of local cultural and ensuring participation. International actors religious symbols and practice into the can support this by engaging directly with political sphere. Redefining center- the state and by helping to create an periphery relations is seen as the means of enabling environment that allows good quelling separatist unrest and cementing governance to flourish. Long-term Aceh’s place within the Indonesian state engagement, working with a diverse range and nation. of partners, and local understanding are key. This paper challenges the notion that addressing center-periphery inequality will in itself result in sustainable peace in Aceh. The authors argue that an evaluation of the (potential) impacts of the decentralization intrinsic in the peace agreement on conflict must look at the flow of economic and political resources within Aceh, and, more specifically, at the local government institutions that manage their distribution. There will be plentiful resources within Aceh that can be used for 23 B. Joint Publications and Occasional Papers Integrating Mental Health and support of the National Institute of Mental well-being of ACS staff themselves. The Psychosocial Interventions into Health (NIMH) and the Center for Mental heavy workload under difficult conditions World Bank Lending for Conflict- Health Services (CMHS), both of the U.S. due to logistical and communications Affected Populations: A Toolkit government, during June 2002-November constraints was also an important concern. 2003. Support for the Bank’s mental health The need for training and managing stress Florence Baingana, and Ian Bannon work from the MacArthur Foundation and also rated high in ACS staff concerns. (September 2004) the World Federation for Mental Health ACS staff offered a number of HNP/CPR (WFMH) during February 1999-May 2002 suggestions for managers of country offices also contributed to the activities that made as well as advice for other ACS colleagues Among the many adverse effects of this Toolkit possible. that may face similar issues. For managers, conflict is the impact on the mental health ACS staff emphasized the need for support and psychosocial wellbeing of large parts of and training when new offices are opened, the population in countries and communities ACS Staff Working in Conflict- being a good listener and communicator, as affected by conflict. These effects are often Affected Countries: Listening to their well as being sensitive to the impact of referred to as the ‘silent wounds’ of conflict Voices conflict on the work of ACS staff. For because they frequently remain hidden, un- colleagues, ACS staff emphasized the need or under-reported in post-conflict needs Dee Hahn-Rollins, Stephanie Schalk- for teamwork, being accountable for their assessments, and consequently un-addressed Zaitsev, and Alan Tidwell own work, learning more about the Bank’s in most donor-supported post-conflict (February 2005) work and to help their own families better reconstruction programs. CPR understand the work they are involved in. The Toolkit is based on the premise that The report’s authors also include a set of failure to address mental health and Administrative and Client Support (ACS) recommendations. For headquarters, they psychosocial disorders in populations that staff working in the Bank’s local offices of emphasize the need for a targeted human have experienced mass violence and trauma conflict-affected countries play and resources strategy to support ACS staff in caused by conflict will impede efforts to important role in supporting the conflict-affected countries, which should enhance social capital, promote human organization’s post-conflict-reconstruction include the identification of a focal point in development and reduce poverty. It is also efforts. Local staff in these countries faces headquarters, tailored training programs for based on a growing body of evidence difficult challenges in their normal ACS staff, and a web-based information showing that interventions to address mental administrative work, but they are also source. They also include a set of health are both desirable and feasible, in directly and personally affected by the post- recommendations for country office order to support post-conflict recovery, the conflict tensions and constraints that play managers and staff, focusing on staff consolidation of peace and reconciliation, out in the societies they live in. development, systems and procedures, and the transition to sustainable Recognizing that ACS staff in conflict- sensitization of visitors, communications, development and poverty reduction. A affected country offices face more difficult and stress management. They also number of studies document the link and complex challenges, and as part of its recommend extending the project to other between mental disorders and psychosocial aim to support knowledge sharing and conflict-affected country offices and suffering and dysfunction. This dysfunction professional development, the Bank’s ACS reviewing the experiences of other agencies persists over time and is linked to decreased Network sought to better understand and in managing country offices in conflict- productivity, poor nutritional, health and learn from ACS staff in three conflict affected countries. educational outcomes for children of affected countries—Afghanistan, Bosnia- mothers with these problems, and inability Herzegovina and the Democratic Republic to participate in and benefit from of Congo—about the issues and problems Mental Health and Conflicts: development and poverty alleviation efforts. they face on a day-to-day to basis. Conceptual Framework and Support for mental health in conflict- This report picks up the experiences of Approaches affected countries can thus make an these staff. It is based on three structured important contribution to meeting then videoconference workshops where Florence Baingana, Ian Bannon, and Rachel Millennium Development Goals. participants were asked to respond to the Thomas The Toolkit discusses approaches and question, ‘How has the trouble in your (February 2005) offers guidance on integrating mental health country affected you and your work in the HNP and psychosocial interventions into Bank Bank?’ The areas covered included: job lending and support for countries emerging performance and management, security and The paper provides an overview of the from violent conflict. The Toolkit is the safety, work-life balance, workflow, Bank’s role in conflict and development, product of a partnership between the Bank’s occupational health and stress, and explores the links between poverty, Health, Nutrition and Population Team in communications, job design, and visiting social capital and mental and psychosocial the Human Development Network, and the missions. disorders in conflict settings. The premise of Conflict Prevention and Reconstruction Not surprisingly, in-country security and the paper is that increased understanding (CPR) Unit in the Social Development safety was a concern in the three country and targeted interventions to deal with Department. The Bank’s work on mental offices, including care and concern for mental health can play an important role in health was made possible by the generous visiting missions, as well as the personal effective post-conflict reconciliation and 24 reconstruction. It also argues that there are toolkits, and training staff on how to better which to address the divergent interests of effective approaches that can be adapted to incorporate child health in conflict and post- multiple groups because of the nature of the different conflict settings. The paper conflict operations, for example during the parliamentary process and parliaments’ presents a conceptual framework based on needs assessment phase of a program. ability to build relationships within experiences in and outside the Bank that can parliament and within the broader help guide interventions and approaches to community. The role of parliament in address mental health and psychosocial Youth in Post-Conflict Settings conflict-affected countries becomes even disorders in conflict-affected countries. The more pronounced when you consider the paper briefly examines mental health Ian Bannon, Peter Holland, and Aly Rahim correlation between poverty and conflict; by approaches adopted by the Bank in West (November 2005) addressing issues of poverty, equitable Bank and Gaza, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Youth Development Notes: 1(1) distribution of resources and economic Uganda, Burundi and Afghanistan. These development, parliamentarians can attempt brief country illustrations suggest there are a Youth development is an emerging focus to guard against the creation of an enabling variety of approaches and a growing body in World Bank across many sectors, yet environment that is prone to the escalation of experience on which Bank country teams much remains to be learned. This issue of of conflict. can draw. The paper concludes by noting youth Development Notes examines the Some of the strategies parliaments and areas where additional research would seem unique challenges confronting youth living parliamentarians can adopt in order to appropriate and presenting suggestions for in post-conflict settings: demobilization, reduce the incidence of conflict and further Bank analytical and operational reintegration, employment generation, effectively manage conflict when it does work. emergency education, as well as voice, emerge are discussed in broad terms. In inclusion and community participation. The particular, the paper looks at participation note highlights lessons from the literature and representation; parliamentary functions Improving Child Health in Post- and from the field on how to facilitate the and oversight; the role of civil society and Conflict Countries: Can the World simultaneous transitions that youth face, the media; the opposition; promoting socio- Bank Contribute? from conflict and childhood, to peace and economic equality; rule of law; adulthood. decentralization; and regional parliamentary Flavia Bustreo, Eleonora Genovese, Elio peacebuilding. It is hoped that by Omobono, Henrik Axelsson, and Ian developing a better understanding of the Bannon Parliaments as Peacebuilders: The nexus between parliament, poverty and (June 2005) role of Parliaments in Conflict- conflict, parliamentarians will be more Human Development Network (HDN) Affected Countries. aware of the array of options open to them when seeking to contribute to conflict The paper provides a number of key Mitchell O’Brien management in conflict-affected societies. messages. First, children, particularly under (2005) five years, experience the highest mortality, World Bank Institute (WBI) Working Paper The Investment Climate in morbidity and mental health impairment in WBI and Commonwealth Parliamentary Afghanistan: Exploiting conflict-affected settings. Second, a health Association (CPA) Opportunities in an Uncertain system's ability to provide adequate health Environment care to its population is severely affected by The changing nature of conflict and the conflict. Third, there are approaches that increase in intra-state conflict during the Finance and Private Sector Development have been effective in reducing the negative 1990s, followed by its slow decline since Unit, South Asia Region, and The World effects on conflict on children. Fourth, the the turn of the century has shifted the focus Bank case studies of World Bank operations away from the resolution of intra-state (December 2005) illustrate that the Bank has an important role conflict to examining how emerging conflict to play in conflict settings. Successful can be better managed to avert the incidence In a post-conflict environment, attracting operations exist and have been characterized of violent conflict. Parliaments are coming new foreign and domestic firms is central to by early engagement, partnerships and to the fore as natural forums which are private sector development. New decisions donor coordination, sound planning for the uniquely designed to address contentious about investment (in existing or new firms) transition from relief operations to longer- issues and relationships in conflict-affected usually depend on the availability of five term strategies, strong institutional support societies thereby contributing to basic factors: political and economic to Ministries of Health and other peacebuilding efforts. stability and security; clear unambiguous stakeholders, adequate and flexible The Working Paper builds upon a regulations; reasonable tax rates that are financing instruments and delivery basic Discussion Paper prepared for a WBI/CPA equitably enforced; access to finance and health packages. Fifth, the Bank can Study Group on “The Role of Parliament in infrastructure; and an appropriately skilled strengthen its efforts to address the health Conflict Affected Countries� held in workforce. In Afghanistan, these conditions needs of children affected by conflict by Colombo, Sri Lanka from 25-29 October are lacking. The challenges facing the making the needs of children an essential 2004 with the support of the Parliament of government of Afghanistan in addressing and explicit part of its work in conflict Sri Lanka. these constraints and in turn attracting settings, focusing more on the mental health The paper argues that one of the best tools further foreign and domestic investment of children, improving its formation sharing a nation has at its disposal for managing cannot be underestimated. This report was within the Bank, adapting and streamlining conflict and poverty is parliament. prepared to assist the government of procurement procedures, developing Parliament is a prime institution through 25 Afghanistan in addressing its private sector conceptual piece and core principles development challenges. developed in a previous study (see Working Following a description of the experiences Paper No. 29). in the three countries, the study focuses on Demand-Driven Approaches to the Peruvian case to illustrate how the Livelihood Support in Post-War Gender, Justice, and Truth formal and informal justice systems have Contexts: Progress Report, March Commissions, June 2006 responded to the gender-relevant findings of 2006 the Truth Commission. The study also This study reviews the gender-related provides general suggestions for the This dissemination note reports progress aspects of the work of Truth Commissions consideration of World Bank staff, on a partnership between the ILO and the in Peru, Sierra Leone, and South Africa, as particularly in the incorporation of gender World Bank’s Jakarta Office to lay the expressed in their daily work, in the drafting issues into the Bank’s post-conflict foundations for a common conceptual of the commission’s mandate, in the interventions in relevant sectors. Finally, the framework between the Bank’s community- participation of civil society institutions, study reviews some basic indicators of driven development (CDD) approach and and in the preparation of the final report. progress and impact in Bank-financed the ILO’s local economic development The study is the result of a collaborative interventions in post-conflict and (LED) approach through concrete effort between the Bank's PREM Gender transitional settings. collaboration in post-tsunami and post- Group, the CPR Unit, the Legal and Judicial peace agreement interventions in Aceh, Reform Practice Grou8p, and the LAC Indonesia. The collaboration builds on the Public Sector Group. 26 C. Conflict Prevention and Reconstruction (CPR) Unit Dissemination Notes 1. Rebuilding the Civil Service in a The note was prepared by Jeremy 8. The Economic and Social Costs of Post-Conflict Setting: Key Issues and Weinstein, then a Visiting Scholar in Armed Conflict in El Salvador Lessons of Experience DECRG. (January 2003) (March 2002) El Salvador’s civil war (1979-81) had 5. The Conflict Analysis Framework Recreating a professional, meritocratic devastating economic and social costs. This (CAF): Identifying Conflict-Related civil service is especially challenging in a note estimates the ground lost in terms of Obstacles to Development post-conflict setting. The experiences of growth forgone, higher poverty and East Timor and Kosovo offer a number of (October 2002) worsened social indicators. Had the conflict lessons and suggest the types of issues that The Conflict Prevention and been avoided, income per capita could be need to be addressed. Reconstruction (CPR) Unit has developed a almost double in 2000, the poverty rate The note was prepared by Robert Beschel Conflict Analysis (CAF) to integrate lower by 15 percentage points and Jr. (SASPR). sensitivity to conflict in Bank assistance, Millennium Development Goals social and to enable Bank teams to consider indicators substantially better. El Salvador’s 2. Aid, Policy and Growth in Post- factors affecting conflict when formulating experience shows that conflicts are not only Conflict Countries development strategies, policies and extremely costly in economic and social (April 2002) programs. terms, but the recovery takes an inordinate This note was prepared by Shonali amount of time, even with very good post- Aid is considerably more effective in Sardesai and Per Wam of the CPR Unit conflict policies and reforms. augmenting growth in post-conflict The note was prepared by Humberto situations than in other situations, but the 6. Colombia: Development and Lopez (LCC2C) pattern of aid matters. Key post-conflict Peace in the Magdalena Medio priorities should be social policies first, Region 9. Aid, Policy and Peace: Reducing followed by sectoral policies and macro (November 2002) the Risks of Civil Conflict policies last. The note was prepared by Paul Collier, The Program for Development and Peace (February 2003) then Director of the Bank’s Development in Magdalena Medio, supported by a Bank This note, summarizing recent research Research Group (DECRG). Learning and Innovation Loan, promotes a by Collier and Hoeffler, presents a community-based participatory approach to theoretical and empirical analysis of the 3. Child Soldiers: Prevention, development and peace in one of the most effects of economic policy and aid on the Demobilization and Reintegration conflictive regions in Colombia. With a risks of conflict. It finds that aid and policy (May 2002) heavy emphasis on the strengthening of do not have direct effects on conflict risk. social capital and productive sub-projects, However, both directly affect growth and Demobilization and reintegration of child the Project offers important lessons on dependence on primary commodity exports, soldiers is difficult, but country case studies development interventions in conflict- and these in turn affect conflict risk. show they can become productive members affected regions. Simulating the effect of a package of policy of their communities. Key factors are The note was prepared by Jairo Arboleda reform and increased aid on the average aid political will, including child soldiers in (LCCO) and Elsie Garfield (LCSER). recipient country, it finds that if sustained peace agreements, resources to meet their for five years, the risk of conflict is reduced special needs, and community and family 7. Conflict and Labor Markets in by nearly 30%. involvement. Manufacturing: The Case of Eritrea This note was prepared by Ian Bannon The note summarizes the findings from a (CPR Unit) based on research by Paul study by Beth Verhey published in the (December 2002) Collier and Anke Hoeffler. Africa Region Working Paper Series. Eritrea is facing a critical labor shortage, partly the result of recent conflict. 10. ‘Mind the Gap’: The World Bank, 4. The Structure of Rebel Mobilization has drained white collar and Humanitarian Action and Organizations: Implications for Post- skilled workers, resulting in high female Development—A Personal Account Conflict Reconstruction participation rates, rising wages and declining employment. High unit labor costs (March 2003) (June 2002) are affecting private sector competitiveness Although the Bank was created to help Applying organizational dynamics to the and export potential. Swift implementation rebuild European countries after World War study of rebel groups yields a number of of the demobilization program coupled with II, putting the ‘R’ back in the International interesting findings. Whether a rebel group appropriate training is urgently needed. Bank for Reconstruction and Development is organized around material incentives or The note was prepared by the CPR Unit, has been a case study in institutional change shared identities has dramatic implications drawing on a Bank Investment Climate for the multilateral agency. for how the organization behaves during the Assessment for Eritrea by the Africa Private This note was written by Collin Scott and conflict, for negotiations to end the conflict, Sector Group. Ian Bannon of the CPR Unit. and for the design of demobilization, disarmament and reintegration programs. 27 11. Nigeria Strategic Conflict provisions, and six proposed general lessons easier to uproot populations. Providing Assessment: Methodology, Key for more sustainable capacity building. assistance to displaced populations does not Findings and Lessons Learnt The note was prepared by Alastair J. reduce their propensity to return. Together (June 2003) McKechnie, Country Director for with other measures, a land policy that Afghanistan. increases tenure security for those at risk of This note reviews experience in displacement and improves access to land conducting a multi-donor conflict 15. Social Change in Conflict- can not only help to reduce the incidence of assessment in Nigeria, which included Affected Areas of Nepal displacement but also make it easier for the participation and support from DFID, displaced to cope. Public spending, UNDP, USAID and the World Bank, as (January 2004) especially on education is also critical. well as Nigeria’s national Institute for Peace This note reports on the findings of a The note was prepared by Ian Bannon and Conflict Resolution. recent DFID-commissioned study to assess (CPR) based on the findings of a World The note was prepared by Sarah Lyons social change in conflict areas of Nepal. It Bank report, Colombia: Land Policy in (JPA) and Dirk Reinermann (AFR). looks specifically at the impact on Transition. hierarchical relations based on gender, caste 12. Financing Aid Arrangements in and ethnicity. All parts of society have been 18. Rwanda: The Impact of Conflict Post-Conflict Settings affected by positive and negative social on Growth and Poverty (May 2003) changes. Most of the positive changes have not yet become imbedded in the fabric of (June 2004) This note, summarizing the analysis and social relations but are enforced through The human, social and economic costs of recommendations of a subsequent CPR coercion and the threat of violence. The Rwanda’s Genocide have been staggering. Working Paper, looks at issues related to challenge for development actors will be to Although the country has made remarkable financing modalities and aid management capitalize on these positive changes and progress over the last ten years, especially arrangements in post-conflict situations. It effectively address problems of exclusion in terms of recovering some of the ground makes a number of recommendations based and social inequality. lost on education and health, GDP per on a review of several recent case studies, of This note was prepared by Lynn Bennett capita remains much lower that what it which four are assessed in detail: West (SDV Nepal) and Ian Bannon (CPR Unit), would have been without the Genocide. Per Bank and Gaza, Bosnia and Herzegovina, based on the findings of the report Social capita GDP today would probably be East Timor, and Afghanistan. It focuses on Change in Conflict Areas, commissioned by between 25-30% higher if the conflict had the lessons of experience on multi-donor DFID Nepal. not taken place. About one fourth of the trust funds and on the recipient population in poverty today can be said to government’s aid management architecture 16. Redefining Corporate Social Risk be poor as a result of the Genocide. in post-conflict settings. Mitigation Strategies This note was prepared by Humberto This note was prepared by Salvatore Lopez (PRMPR), Quentin Woodon Schiavo-Campo (consultant). (February 2004) (AFTPM) and Ian Bannon (CPR Unit). This note looks at how companies engage 13. Mental Health and Conflict with stakeholders in areas with high social 19. Local Conflict in Indonesia: (October 2003) or political tensions. It argues that most Incidence and Patterns social risk-mitigation strategies often This note discusses the relevance and exacerbate tensions and risks to companies. (July 2004) design of mental health care interventions in The note offers a checklist of risk indicators Local conflict characterizes many post-conflict situations. Mental health and a set of questions companies can use to countries such as Indonesia, but research disorders and psychosocial problems arising gauge the state of relations with has tended to focus on large-scale, from conflict need to be addressed as part of communities and other stakeholders. The ‘headline’ conflicts. Using a unique dataset post-conflict reconstruction and real risk to corporations is not whether they that maps conflict incidence across all of reconciliation efforts. The note presents a take measures to benefit local communities, Indonesia’s 69,000 villages, and combining conceptual framework for mental health but the types of relations they build—not so quantitative and qualitative methods, the interventions in post-conflict settings and much what they do, but rather how they do study applies an empirical framework to illustrations from a number of countries. it. analyze potential links between conflict and The note was prepared by Florence The note was commissioned by the CPR poverty, inequality, shocks, ethnic and Baigana (Senior Health Specialist), with Unit and prepared by Luc Zandvliet from religious diversity, and community-level contributions from Ian Bannon and Sigrun Collaborative for Development Action associational and security arrangements. Aasland of the CPR Unit. (CDA). Positive correlations with conflict include unemployment, inequality, natural disasters, 14. Building Capacity in Post- 17. Colombia: The Role of Land in changes in sources of incomes, and Conflict Countries Involuntary Displacement clustering of ethnic groups within villages. (December 2003) (March 2004) The note was prepared by Ian Bannon This note looks at the challenges of (CPR Unit) based on the report Local Internal displacement in Colombia has Conflict in Indonesia: Measuring Incidence capacity building in post-conflict countries, become more prevalent and serious. including options for creating capacity and and Identifying Patterns by Patrick Barron Expulsion of land users to gain territorial (EASES), Kai Kaiser (PRMPS) and Menno the trade-offs between speed and longer- control is increasingly a tactical element in term impact, the need to ensure that aid Pradhan (EASPR). the conflict. High land inequality makes it management agencies include sunset 28 20. Landmine Contamination: A 22. Conflict and Recovery in Aceh: development partners in Sri Lanka. While Development Imperative An Assessment of Conflict Dynamics this is drawn solely from the Sri Lanka (October 2004) and Options for Supporting the experience, it is likely to have a broad Peace Process relevance to many such countries. More than 80 countries are affected by This note was prepared by Peter Harrold landmine contamination, of which (August 2005) (Country Director, Sri Lanka) and Shonali approximately 35 are seriously On August 15th the Government of Sardesai (Conflict Prevention and contaminated, most of them developing Indonesia and the GAM signed a Reconstruction Unit). countries. It has become clear that Memorandum of Understanding aimed at addressing the problem of landmine ending almost 30 years of armed conflict in 24. Post-Conflict Security Sector and contamination is not only a humanitarian Aceh. This note summarizes the results of a Public Finance Management: imperative, but is also a precondition for rapid conflict assessment prepared by the Lessons from Afghanistan sustainable development and the restoration World Bank to understand conflict of livelihoods in many mine-affected states. dynamics, to analyze possible scenarios after (July 2006) The Bank can assist to reduce landmine signing of the agreement, and to identify In recent years, international organizations contamination where there is country tools and mechanisms that the government, like OECD and the World Bank have demand, and in line with its mandate and donors, and other stakeholders could use to concluded that standard principles of Public operational guidelines for financing support the peace process. The assessment Finance Management (PFM) are equally landmine clearance. was carried out from July 26 to August 19, applicable to all areas of the national This note was prepared by Ian Bannon 2005. budget, including the security sector. To (CPR Unit) with the collaboration of Earl The note concludes that the improvement date however, very few reviews of PFM Turcotte of the UNDP Mine Action Team. in security that will result from the peace systems have included the security sector, process will provide new opportunities to not least because many governments tend to 21. Guatemala: The Role of Judicial reach the poorest in Aceh. The vertical be overly protective about scrutiny of public Modernization in Post-Conflict conflict between GAM and the government, finances in this sector, and as a result most Reconstruction and Social however, is likely to transform into a donors have been reluctant to engage. As a Rehabilitation horizontal scramble for resources and result, the bulk of public expenditure (January 2005) revenue streams, underpinned by violent reviews have focused on non-security criminality. Addressing these issues will components of the national budget, which The Peace Accords of 1996 brought an require the use of frameworks that take into represent an important but incomplete slice end to 36 years of armed conflict in account the multiple layers of conflict in of national spending. Despite growing Guatemala and signaled the beginning of a Aceh, as well as a focus on longer-term awareness of the importance of extending complex and challenging process of institution and peace-building. PFM reviews to the security sector, so far reconstruction and social reconciliation. A This note was prepared by Patrick Barron, the challenge of moving beyond basic central plank of the consensus expressed in Samuel Clark, and Muslahuddin Daud of the principles toward the adoption of a more the Peace Accords was the overhauling of World Bank, Indonesia. comprehensive approach to building an Guatemala’s public institutions, which were effective and fiscally sustainable post- seen to exacerbate the social and economic 23. The Dynamics of Conflict, conflict security sector remains elusive. In injustices that had contributed to the Development Assistance and Peace- countries such as Afghanistan, Iraq and conflict. The Judicial Branch was identified building: Sri Lanka 2000-2005 Sierra Leone, national authorities and as one of the key state institutions in a donors are struggling to regain control of position to create the necessary conditions (February 2006) unaffordable levels of security sector to help a divided and diverse population Significant transformations in the socio- spending, much of it financed directly by emerge from decades of conflict, social and political and economic landscape of Sri donors. In many cases long-term external economic exclusion, and mistrust in public Lanka in recent years encouraged five assistance may be required for the security governance. A World Bank supported development partners—World Bank, Asia sector, generating severe trade-offs with Judicial Modernization Project is in its third Foundation, and the governments of the other priority sectors which also require year of implementation and helping in this United Kingdom, Netherlands and Sweden, long-term external support. Overcoming the process along with other donors (UNDP, to collaborate on a conflict assessment in legacy of a fiscally unsustainable and poorly Sweden, Finland, IDB, Soros Foundation 2005. This reflects a growing trend in the managed security sector calls for full and others). development partner community of application of PFM principles to support the This note was prepared by Waleed Haider combining efforts, pooling resources, and establishment of checks and balances Malik, Lead Public Sector Management taking advantage of comparative strengths required to establish a wholly accountable Specialist in the Latin America and the to engage in conflict analysis exercises. security sector. The recent World Bank Caribbean Region of the World Bank. The multi-donor conflict assessment PFM review of Afghanistan, perhaps the revisits the underlying structures of conflict, first example of such a review, provides a identified in the previous conflict number of lessons, summarized in this note. assessment, and explores the current This note was prepared by Peter dynamics of conflict factors with a Middlebrook, Rima Simpson, and Karene particular focus on the peace process and Melloul, based on the report: Afghanistan, international engagement. This note Managing Public Finances for presents key findings of the assessment, in Development. particular, the approaches supported by 29 25. What Role for Diaspora Expertise tremendous challenge of translating only stop-gap and unless they build capacity in Post-Conflict Reconstruction? individual inputs into institutional capacity over the medium term, as donor funding Lessons from Afghanistan, and West building and as a result, both programs diminishes they are unsustainable for Bank and Gaza could not generate the expected increase in recipient governments. This dissemination (July 2006) capacity of the local civil service. Indeed, note aims to capture lessons learned from strengthening management and technical the AEP and PEPP programs. The Afghanistan Expatriate Program (AEP) capabilities of the ministries and agencies in This note was prepared by Rima Simpson and the Palestinian Expatriate Professional both projects was achieved only based on evaluations conducted by Karene Project (PEPP) recruit expatriates through a sporadically. The one real value of the Melloul and Colin Scott. merit-based system to build capacity in expatriate programs was the expatriates’ government departments and agencies in knowledge of the local language and Afghanistan and West Bank and Gaza environment and, in the case of the AEP, a respectively. Beyond individual success single window funding for short-term stories, both initiatives faced the consultants. However, such programs are 30 D. Books World Bank. 2003. Breaking the Ian Bannon and Paul Collier (eds.) The review is intended as a form of Conflict Trap: Civil War and 2003. Natural Resources and Violent stock-taking following approval by the Development Policy. A World Bank Conflict: Options and Actions. Board of Executive Directors of the Bank’s Policy Research Report. Washington, Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Operational Policy on Development D.C.: World Bank and Oxford University Cooperation and Conflict (OP2.30). The Press. Violent conflict can spell disaster for views and analysis presented in the review developing countries and their neighbors, come largely from the global, corporate Civil wars are a core development issue. stunting and even reversing the course of perspective, fully recognizing that much of Intrastate conflicts can dramatically slow a economic development. World Bank the innovation and creativity in dealing with country’s development process, especially research on the causes of conflict and civil conflict and development takes place in the in low-income countries, which are more wars finds that the countries most likely to Bank’s regional and country units. vulnerable to civil conflicts. Conversely, be affected by conflict are those whose The review was prepared by Ian Bannon development can reduce the risks of civil economies depend heavily on natural and staff of the CPR Unit in the Social war. When development succeeds, countries resources. Natural Resources and Violent Development Department. become safer; when development fails, Conflict first explains the links between countries experience a greater risk of being resource dependence and conflict, and then Steven Holtzman and Taies Nezam. caught in a conflict trap. Ultimately, civil considers what can be done to help reduce 2004. Living in Limbo: Conflict- war is a failure of development. the risk of civil war in these countries. Induced Displacement in Europe and Breaking the Conflict Trap identifies the In this collection of previously Central Asia. Washington, D.C.: World dire consequences that civil war has on the unpublished essays by experts in the field, Bank development process and offers three main contributors consider the risks of corruption, findings. First, that civil war has adverse secessionist movements, and rebel The conflicts in Europe and the former ripple effects, which are often not taken into financing. They also consider the roles Soviet Union of the 1990s left in their wake account by those who determine whether played by government, the international nearly 10 million refugees and internally wars start or end. Second, some countries development community, country displaced persons. Even where peace are more likely than others to experience government’s, and propose an agenda for treaties or ceasefires have brought an end to civil war and therefore the risks of civil global action. Focusing on what we can do open conflict, about half of those originally conflicts differ considerably according to a collectively to reduce the likelihood of civil displaced remain caught between two country’s characteristics, including its war, contributors to this volume suggest worlds. They cannot go home. At the same economic structure and performance. practical approaches and policies that could time, they face a range of difficulties in Finally, Breaking the Conflict Trap explores be adopted by the international settling where they are. viable international measures that can be community—from financial and resource Long-term, conflict-induced displacement taken to reduce the global incidence of civil reporting procedures to commodity tracking creates both conceptual and operational war and proposes a practical agenda for systems and enforcement techniques, challenges for development agencies action. including sanctions, certification concerned with poverty reduction. Living in The report was prepared under the requirements, and aid conditionality. Limbo analyzes the special nature of supervision of Nicholas Stern, Chief displacement-induced vulnerability along Economist and Vice President at the World several dimensions, including material well- Bank. It was written by a team led by Paul CPR. 2003. The Role of the World being, employment, shelter, and human and Collier (Director, Development Research Bank in Conflict and Development: social capital. The study draws on the Group) and consisting of V. L. Elliott, An Evolving Agenda. Social authors’ field work as well as an extensive Havard Hegre, Anke Hoeffler, Marta Development Department. Washington, review of surveys, studies, and poverty Reynal-Querol, and Nicholas Sambanis. It D.C.: World Bank. assessments in 13 countries. builds on research by the Economics of Civil, War, Crime, and Violence project in The Role of the World Bank in Conflict the World Bank Development Research and Development review’s the Bank’s Tsjeard Bouta, Georg Frerks and Ian group. The project received funding from experience in conflict and development. It Bannon. 2004. Gender, Conflict, and the Norwegian, Swiss, and Greek traces the evolution of thinking inside the Development. Washington, D.C.: World governments; the World Bank Post-Conflict institution, how it has sought to adapt to Bank Fund; and the World Bank Research more complex international challenges and Committee. how it is adapting instruments and The book provides a comprehensive approaches to better integrate sensitivity to analysis of gender and conflict and focuses violent conflict into its projects, programs on the policy relevance and implications for and strategies. It also identifies a number of development institutions. It is the first book cross-cutting themes where the Bank is to link the World Bank’s work on gender working to better understand the drivers and mainstreaming with its agenda on conflict impacts of conflict, and areas that will and development. require further work over the coming years. The authors explore several gender dimensions of conflict: female combatants, 31 sexual violence, formal and informal peace Department under the leadership of Peter and Anke Hoeffler has proven to be processes, legal frameworks, work, Buckland, builds on work already especially influential. Using large-N rehabilitation of social services, and undertaken in the Bank and in consultation econometric tests, Collier and Hoeffler community-driven development. Within with the CPR Unit, and draws on a review demonstrated that, for given levels of each of these dimensions, they examine how of literature, a database of key indicators for political and social grievance, the greater conflict changes gender roles. Moreover, 52 countries affected by conflict, and a the opportunity for organized rebellion they suggest policy options to take review of 12 country studies. within a country, the more likely civil war is advantage of opportunities afforded by to occur. Additionally, they argued that the conflict to encourage development of existence of such opportunity is largely inclusive and gender-balanced social, World Bank. 2005 Conflict in Somalia: determined by particular socioeconomic economic, and political relations in post- Drivers and Dynamics. Washington, conditions, such as widespread poverty, low conflict societies. Finally, the authors D.C.: World Bank. levels of education, and heavy dependence identify challenges and questions requiring on natural resources. additional research and analysis. After more than a decade without an Understanding Civil War uses the “Gender, Conflict, and development� is active program in Somalia, the World Bank Collier-Hoeffler model as a point of the product of a collaborative effort between reengaged in 2003 in partnership with departure. Not only does it apply the model the Conflict Research Unit of the UNDP and with the collaboration of other to a set of case studies in order to learn Netherlands Institute of International development partners engaged in the more about them, but it also studies the Relations, “Clingendael,� and the CPR Unit. Somalia Aid Coordination Body model itself, using the cases to revise and The Social Development Team in the mechanism. While reengagement activities expand the model. In so doing, it moves Bank’s Africa Region also supported this over time would provide the Bank with vital beyond correlations and delves into how publication. knowledge about the country situation, and when the variables identified by Collier given the mosaic of complex conflict and Hoeffler lead to civil war. By tracing relations apparent in Somalia, the country out the process of conflict escalation, the World Bank. 2005. Reshaping the team decided to increase its knowledge base book takes the next step toward explaining Future: Education and Postconflict on the factors and dynamics at play through when, where, and why civil war is likely to Reconstruction. Washington, D.C.: a systematic study of conflict in the country. occur. The book advances our theoretical World Bank. The objectives of the conflict analysis and empirical understanding of civil war exercise is to increase the Bank’s and its and takes us closer to the goal of developing Every education system has the potential partners’ understanding of conflict sources appropriate policy interventions to reduce to exacerbate or mitigate the conditions that and dynamics in the three main regions of the prevalence of civil war. contribute to violent conflict. Therefore, Somalia to help guide policy/program every community or country needs to ensure development in the country. Separate that its citizens have access to appropriate background studies for this report were Jonathan Goodhand and Bart Klem, education, before, during, and after conflict. conducted in northwest, northeast, and with Dilrukshi Fonseka, S.I. Yet schools and education systems— south-central Somalia. Keethaponcalan, and Shonali Sardesai. whether contributing factors to the conflict In addition to resources from the World 2005. Aid, Conflict, and or not—are invariably debilitated by Bank (Africa Region, Social Development Peacebuilding in Sri Lanka 2000- conflict. This leaves them weakened, Department and the Learning Board), the 2005. Colombo, Sri Lanka: Netherlands damaged, and under-resourced just when study was made possible with funds Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Swedish communities, governments, and provided by UNDP, DFID and the International Development Cooperation international agencies need them to play a Government of Sweden. An advisory group, Agency, Asia Foundation, Government role in simultaneously rebuilding and comprising WSP-International, the World of the United Kingdom of Great Britain transforming themselves and the societies Bank, UNDP, DFID, the European Union, and Northern Ireland, World Bank. they serve. The book focuses attention on the UN Office for the Coordination of the key role of education in the Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), USAID, This study builds on a previous strategic reconstruction of societies after conflict and Life and Peace Institute, and the Swedish conflict assessment conducted in 2000 and in preventing the recurrence of violent Embassy in Nairobi, advised the conflict commissioned by the United Kingdom’s conflict. analysis exercise to ensure consistency with Department of International Cooperation. This twin mandate of reform and other efforts. This study represents a joint initiative by reconstruction offers significant five partners—the governments of the opportunities and enormous challenges to Netherlands, Sweden and the U.K., the societies emerging from conflict. Paul Collier and Nicholas Sambanis. World Bank, and The Asia Foundation—to Maximizing opportunities calls for 2005. Understanding Civil Wars, analyze political events since 2000 and strategies that can be carried out in the Vols. 1 and 2. Washington, D.C.: World prospects for a political solution to Sri context of depleted human and institutional Bank. Lanka’s ‘national question.’ resources and unpredictable cash flows. Like the previous study, this Strategic Reshaping the Future offers an overview Civil war has long inspired—and, indeed, Conflict Assessment aims to do three of the main findings of a study of education necessitates—significant research into its things: First, to provide an analysis of the and post-conflict reconstruction. The study, likely causes, its characteristics, and is structures and dynamics of conflict and undertaken by a small team in the Human consequences. In recent years, a model of peace in Sri Lanka since 2000. Second, to Development Network Education civil war onset developed by Paul Collier examine how international engagement has 32 interacted with conflict and peace dynamics, education; the role that changes in the of gender and development, with the goal of with a particular focus on aid donors during education system can play to encourage moving closer to a more holistic gender this time period. Third, to identify how the respect for diversity; the role of textbooks in framework that addresses gender as it strategies and approaches of international diversity; the role of textbooks in Apartheid pertains to both women and men and donors can best engage with and help and post-Apartheid South Africa; the examines gender as a system. strengthen domestic peacebuilding efforts. experience of Romani children in European Men and gender issues are analyzed The primary end users of this assessment schools; textbooks and diversity in the US; from a variety of approaches and are expected to be aid donors, but it is social analysis in the design of Bank experiences, with a strong emphasis on hoped that it will be of interest to a wider education projects, with an application to young men and their transition to adulthood, audience inside and outside Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka; and guidelines for international as well as links to violence and conflict. It assistance. starts with an overview chapter that examines gender issues across countries and Eluned Roberts-Schweitzer (ed.), with then moves into specific topics, first in Vincent Greaney and Kreszentia Duer . Ian Bannon and Maria Correia (eds.). Latin America and the Caribbean and then 2006. Promoting Social Cohesion 2006. The Other Half of Gender: in Sub-Saharan Africa. A final chapter through Education. Washington, D.C.: Men’s Issues in Development. summarizes some of the key messages and World Bank. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. suggests policy directions. The book, produced by WBI, is part of Country cases covered in this volume the World Bank’s effort to understand the This volume provides a contribution to include the Caribbean, Colombia, the positive role education can play in fostering the nascent but growing interest in male favelas in Rio de Janeiro, Rwanda and the respect for diversity and to redress the gender and masculinity issues as it relates to role of excluded youth in the genocide, potentially negative role education can play development policy and practice. It attempts masculinity in Africa and its links with in sustaining the social divisions and to bring the gender and development debate conflict and HIV/AIDS, masculinity in rural prejudices that help perpetuate generations full circle. From a focus on empowering Kenya, and the role of youth in the axis of of inequality and protracted conflict. women during the late 20th century, the first conflict in West Africa. The book’s eight chapters cover: the years of the new millennium are witnessing links between violence, democracy and a wider examination of the entire spectrum