Training module How to integrate gender issues in climate-smart agriculture projects Training module How to integrate gender issues in climate-smart agriculture projects This work is a co-publication of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and The World Bank Rome, 2017 The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of The World Bank or of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by The World Bank or FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. 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FAO information products are available on the FAO website (www.fao.org/publications) and can be purchased through publications-sales@fao.org. The publication will be available on the World Bank and FAO websites. Cover image: FAO Project GCP/UGA/041/EC Global Climate Change Alliance: Agricultural Adaptation to Climate Change in Uganda. Objectives: The overall objective is to contribute to the sustainable improvement of livelihoods and food security of rural population in Uganda ©FAO/Isaac Kasamani Contents Acknowledgements.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v Acronyms and abbreviations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi Executive summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii 1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2. Learning objectives and structure of the training module. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3. Climate change, climate-smart agriculture, and gender roles in CSA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 3.1 Climate change and CSA terminology and concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 3.2 Reaching a common understanding of gender concepts and of what gender analysis is. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 4. Gender analysis in CSA project identification.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 4.1 Gender issues in stakeholder, livelihood, and context analyses, as well as in needs assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 4.2 Tools and methods for gender analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 5. Gender mainstreaming in CSA project formulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 5.1 Gender analysis during project formulation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 5.2 Tools and methods to support gender-responsive project formulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 6. Gender integration in CSA project implementation, monitoring and evaluation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 6.1 Gender-responsive project implementation, monitoring and evaluation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 6.2 Tools and methods to support gender mainstreaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 7. Introduction to group exercises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Appendix.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 1: A model agenda for a two-day training workshop.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 2: Glossary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 3: Checklist with gender-relevant questions to guide data collection and project formulation, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 4: Tools to support gender analysis and gender mainstreaming. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 5: Material for working group discussions on agroforestry and conservation agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 6: Introduction to the Margolis Wheel Tool. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 7: Pre-workshop needs assessment questionnaire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 8: References and additional materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 iii Table 1: Outline for session on climate change, CSA, and gender roles in CSA.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2: Examples of CSA practices adopted in eastern Africa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 3: Some potential CSA practices and related gender implications .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 4: Outline for session on gender analysis in CSA project identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 5: Examples of projects designed to meet practical and strategic gender needs. . . . . . . . . 17 6: Outline for the session on gender mainstreaming in CSA project formulation.. . . . . . . . 20 7: Gender questions in the logical framework. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 8: Outline of the session on gender integration in CSA project implementation, monitoring and evaluation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Figures 1: Men and women perceive climate change differently in Rakai, Uganda.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 2: Possible scenarios for temperature and precipitation changes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 3: How climate change exacerbates gender inequalities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 4: The steps of a project cycle.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 5: Example of a logframe.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 6: Considerations for gender integration in the project design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 7: Issues to consider in an institutional assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 8: Considerations for project implementation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Boxes 1: Key messages related to addressing gender issues in climate-smart agriculture (CSA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2: Key concepts related to climate change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 3: Gender-related concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 4: Checklist for gender analysis during project design and implementation. . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Examples 1: Some gender-responsive interventions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2: The gender analysis can focus on and reveal... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 3: Conservation agriculture in Zambia.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 4: Oxfam International’s successful gender analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 5: Examples of gender-sensitive quantitative indicators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 6: Illiterate women and printed manuals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 7: Gender differences in information dissemination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 8: Corrective action following evaluation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 9: Indicators used for monitoring and evaluation in Kyrgyzstan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Tips 1: Checklist for a context analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 2: Questions to initiate a gender analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 3: Setting gender-sensitive indicators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 4: Questions for gender integration in project formulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 5: What can be done to mainstream gender in project implementation?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 6: Organizing a workshop. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 7: Checklist for gender integration in monitoring and evaluation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 iv Acknowledgements This training module on How to Integrate Gender Issues FAO, and IFAD 2015), in addition to other materials. in Climate-smart Agriculture Projects was prepared The training materials presented in this module were jointly by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) tested in a May 2016 workshop organized in Dar es and World Bank Group (WBG), with financial support Salaam, Tanzania by the World Bank with FAO, the from the Department for International Development Alliance for Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa, and (DFID). The module was developed by Kaisa Karttunen CARE International. The team thanks Karl Deering (International Consultant) and Ilaria Sisto (Gender (CARE), Aichi Kitalyi (consultant), and Sarah Simons and Development Officer, Training and Capacity (World Bank) for their valuable contributions during Enhancement, FAO) under the guidance of Marc that training workshop and in testing the training Sadler (World Bank). The coordination team consisted materials. The team also appreciates the substantive of Sanna-Liisa Taivalmaa (World Bank), and Minna suggestions and contributions of reviewers Daniel Kononen (World Bank). John Kirkwood, Allan Bomuhangi, Patti Kristjanson The training module builds on work presented in (all working for the World Bank), and Ilaria Firmian “Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture,” Module 18 (IFAD). The team is very grateful as well to Preeti Ahuja of the Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook (World Bank, (Practice Manager) for valuable guidance and support. v Acronyms and abbreviations CCAFS CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture, and Food Security CSA Climate-smart agriculture DAP Draught animal power DFID Department for International Development, United Kingdom FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change NGO Non-governmental organization SEAGA Socio-Economic and Gender Analysis Programme (FAO) UN United Nations WB(G) World Bank (Group) WEAI Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index vi Executive summary Climate change poses an increasing risk to the As a follow up, the World Bank and FAO decided agricultural sector and food security, affecting poor to collaborate on the development of this training men and women who live in rural areas and depend on module on How to Integrate Gender Issues in Climate- agriculture, forestry, and fisheries for their livelihood. smart Agriculture Projects, with the aim of enhancing Changing climatic conditions jeopardize agricultural the technical capacities of development practitioners production and food security at a time when the world to address gender issues in CSA-related projects. The is working to eradicate hunger under the second module builds on the following five key messages: Sustainable Development Goal: “End hunger, achieve ▪▪ Rural men and women have different access food security and improved nutrition, and promote to productive resources, services, information, sustainable agriculture.” and employment opportunities, which may Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is an approach hinder women’s productivity and reduce their that addresses food security and climate challenges contributions to agriculture and broader jointly. The approach has three pillars: (1) sustainably economic and social development goals. increase agricultural productivity and incomes, ▪▪ Climate change poses an increasing risk to the (2)  adapt and build resilience to climate change, and agricultural sector, food security, and nutrition. (3)  reduce and/or remove greenhouse gas emissions ▪▪ Climate-smart agriculture is an approach that where possible. jointly addresses food security and climate The gender gap in agriculture means that women challenges. and men farmers have differential access to the ▪▪ A gender-responsive approach to CSA identifies resources and services required to prepare for and and addresses the different constraints faced by respond to climate change. In most developing men and women and recognizes their specific countries, women have less access than men to capabilities. productive resources, financial capital, and advisory ▪▪ Gender-responsive CSA projects reduce gender services. Women tend to be excluded from decision inequalities and ensure that men, women, making and may not benefit from technologies and boys, and girls can equally benefit from CSA practices that could help them adapt to new climatic interventions and practices, thus achieving conditions. When it comes to developing and adopting more sustainable and equitable results. CSA practices, men and women are not starting at the same point. There is now an international consensus With those key messages in view, this training module that the design and implementation of climate change provides theoretical and practical approaches for response strategies and projects must consider designing gender-responsive CSA projects. It uses gender-specific differences in the capacity to adapt to lessons from previous work to illustrate ways of and mitigate climate change. integrating gender issues throughout the project cycle In 2015 the World Bank, the Food and Agriculture to ensure that the specific needs and priorities of men Organization of the United Nations (FAO), and the and women are adequately addressed. The module also International Fund for Agricultural Development provides an overview of a gender-responsive planning (IFAD) developed the latest module of the Gender in and implementation processes, approaches and tools Agriculture Sourcebook, “Gender in Climate-Smart for conducting a gender analysis, a glossary of key Agriculture.” The module includes tested good terms and concepts of CSA and gender, and some practices, innovative approaches, and technologies for checklists for gender integration in each phase of the gender mainstreaming in CSA. project cycle. vii 1 Introduction Climate change poses a huge threat to the agricultural are often excluded from decision making and may not sector and food security: about 75  percent of the benefit from CSA technologies and practices that help world’s poor men and women live in rural areas and agriculture adapt better to new climatic conditions. depend on agriculture, forestry, and fisheries for their This situation has negative impacts not only on women livelihood. Climate change jeopardizes agricultural but also on their households, communities, and on production and food security at a time when the society as a whole, in addition to affecting agricultural world is working to achieve the second Sustainable production and sustainable development. Development Goal, which aims to “end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote This gender gap means that when it comes to sustainable agriculture.” At the same time, agriculture developing and adopting CSA practices, men and and other land-use sectors are one of the largest women are not starting at the same point. To succeed, emitters of greenhouse gases. CSA practices depend on institutional and behavioral changes that are not possible to achieve without first Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is an approach analyzing the social and gender issues influencing to developing the technical, policy, and investment policies, projects, and other interventions aimed at conditions to achieve sustainable agricultural achieving sustainable CSA. A growing body of evidence development for food security under climate demonstrates that more equal gender relations change. The CSA approach integrates the economic, within households and communities lead to better environmental, and social dimensions of sustainable agricultural and development outcomes, including development by jointly addressing food security and increases in farm productivity and improvements climate change challenges. The three main pillars in family nutrition. There is now an international of CSA – increasing agricultural productivity and consensus that the design and implementation of incomes; adapting and building resilience to climate climate change response strategies and projects must change; and reducing and/or removing greenhouse consider gender-specific differences in the capacity to gas emissions where possible – are all integral to adapt to and mitigate climate change. sustainable development. Projects in Africa have generated concrete evidence on the acceptance of CSA practices among men Climate change affects men, women, boys, and girls and women farmers. The practices of zero-grazing, in different ways, and for CSA interventions to be reduced tillage, improved manure management, more effective and sustainable, they must be designed agroforestry, soil and water conservation, crop rotation to address gender inequalities and discrimination and mulching, and improved cooking stoves were all against people at risk. Women farmers are more tested in Kenya and Tanzania by smallholder farmers. exposed to climate risks compared with men, for many Data show that the adoption rate differed to some of the same reasons that farm productivity is lower for extent between male- and female-headed households, female farmers than males – namely, women have fewer suggesting that differences in their access to labor and endowments and entitlements, they have less access other resources, information, and extension services to information and services, and they are less mobile. shaped the capacity of these households to seize these Access to markets may reduce certain climate-related climate-smart opportunities (Rioux et al. 2016). A risks for women (by reducing the risk of on-farm project in Zambia to scale up conservation agriculture storage losses), but it can also increase them (through among small-scale farmers gave special attention increased exposure to market price volatility). Women to addressing the barriers to rural women’s socio- 1 1. Introduction economic empowerment, including their limited access practitioners, policy makers, civil society organizations, to labor-saving technologies and productive resources research, academia and the private sector with such as credit, and established a target of 50 percent tested good practices, innovative approaches, and for women among the participants (FAO 2016a). In technologies for gender mainstreaming in CSA. Mali, a gender analysis of stakeholder perceptions The experiences and approaches shared in the of climate change and the barriers to adoption of module are expected to help governments and other resilient practices has highlighted the need to design stakeholders in integrating gender into climate and and implement inclusive, locally adapted strategies agriculture strategies and policies, and in designing that also give particular attention to female farmers and implementing gender-responsive CSA projects (Diiro et al. 2016). Box 1 presents some key messages and programs. related to addressing gender issues in CSA. As a follow-up to this collaboration, the World Bank and FAO have jointly developed this training In 2015, the World Bank, FAO, and IFAD jointly module on How to Integrate Gender Issues in Climate- developed “Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture,” the smart Agriculture Projects. Use of this module is latest module for the Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook. intended to enhance the technical capacities of The module provides development agencies and development practitioners to address gender issues in CSA-related interventions and policies, in order to improve the lives of smallholder farmers, fishers, and foresters and achieve more sustainable and equitable Box 1 results. The demand for this training module came Key messages related to addressing gender from practitioners who expressed a need for hands-on, issues in climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practical training in approaches and tools to integrate gender issues in CSA projects. ▪▪ Rural men and women have different access to productive resources, services, information, and employment This training module builds on several recently opportunities, which may hinder women’s productivity and reduce their contributions to agriculture, food developed sources, including the Gender in Climate- security, nutrition, and broader economic and social Smart Agriculture module just mentioned (World Bank, development goals. FAO and IFAD 2015), the Training Guide: Gender and ▪▪ Climate change poses an increasing risk to the agricultural Climate Change Research in Agriculture and Food Security sector, food security, and nutrition. for Development (FAO and CCAFS 2013), the Gender ▪▪ Climate-smart agriculture is an approach that jointly and Inclusion Toolbox (Jost, Ferdous, and Spicer 2014), addresses food security and climate challenges. and A Gender-Responsive Approach to Climate-Smart ▪▪ A gender-responsive approach to CSA identifies and Agriculture (Nelson and Huyer 2016). It also builds addresses the different constraints faced by men and on the approach and tools available in FAO’s Socio- women and recognizes their specific capabilities. Economic and Gender Analysis (SEAGA) Programme, ▪▪ Gender-responsive CSA projects reduce gender inequalities FAO’s e-learning course on Gender in Food and Nutrition and ensure that men, women, boys, and girls can equally Security (FAO 2014a) and FAO’s Guide to mainstreaming benefit from CSA interventions and practices, thus achieving more sustainable and equitable results. gender in FAO’s project cycle (FAO 2017 forthcoming). For links to these and many other relevant sources, see Appendix 8. 2 2 Learning objectives and structure of the training module The main objective of this training module is to help module provides recommendations for improving the project designers and implementers develop their integration of gender issues in national CSA policies capacity to integrate gender issues in CSA projects and strategies. and programs. As a result of the training, learners The module starts by outlining what learners are expected to have a better understanding of the are expected to understand upon completion of the gender roles in CSA and their critical impact on training. It moves on to analyze the following topics project outcomes and sustainability. The training will that are relevant for gender integration in CSA projects: also provide different methods and tools enabling 1. Climate change, climate-smart agriculture and learners to identify, formulate, implement, monitor, gender roles in CSA. and evaluate gender-responsive actions and practices 2. Gender analysis in CSA project identification. in CSA development projects. 3. Gender mainstreaming in CSA project formulation. Through the training, learners will become familiar 4. Gender integration in CSA project with the main concepts of gender, climate change, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation. and CSA. They will also understand the relevance of 5. Working group exercises to apply lessons the gender dimensions in climate change adaptation learned. and mitigation and in developing gender-responsive CSA interventions. Furthermore, they will learn the The module also offers tips for project designers steps to take and become familiar with the tools and provides examples of lessons learned through and approaches available for conducting a gender experience with CSA practices and projects. The analysis and integrating gender issues in CSA project appendices include a detailed glossary, checklists, design, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation. participatory gender analysis tools, material for the The training module also presents gender, climate working group discussions during the workshop, change, and CSA guidelines and other materials references, and additional materials to support that learners can use in planning and implementing CSA project design, implementation, monitoring, gender-responsive interventions. and evaluation. This training module provides basic knowledge The training module is primarily targeted to teams and and materials for organizing a two-day training individuals who are responsible for organizing gender workshop to develop gender mainstreaming and CSA training for development practitioners, and capacities in CSA-related projects, throughout also for people who are involved in the design and the whole project cycle. When preparing for the implementation of gender-responsive projects. The workshop, the facilitators can develop a PowerPoint users include individuals from different backgrounds presentation with the main messages of this module – such as government, development agencies, advisory or write them on a black/white board or flip charts services, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), to stimulate discussion during the workshop. If civil society organizations, research, academia, and it is not possible to provide all participants with a the private sector – who work on CSA projects and copy the module, it is recommended that at least programs. The training participants are expected to Appendices 2–6 and 8 are copied and distributed as have basic knowledge of gender issues in agriculture handouts. The module focuses mainly on activities in and climate change. The training module can also be the field. It is important to recognize, however, that used to raise gender awareness and as a stand-alone gender-responsive CSA development also requires tool for individual learning by project designers and actions at the institutional and policy levels, as well implementers committed to integrating gender issues as changes in social and cultural norms, and this in CSA projects and programs. 3 2. Learning objectives and structure of the training module The training is designed as a two-day workshop The team charged with planning and conducting (see the model agenda in Appendix 1), but its duration, the training workshop should include both a gender content, and materials can be adapted in a flexible specialist and an agriculture and climate change expert manner according to the specific needs, knowledge, to ensure that technical capacities in gender analysis and experience in these areas of the workshop as well as CSA are both adequately covered. If possible, participants. In the model agenda, Topics 1–4 listed a separate facilitator could be included to help with the above will each require approximately 1.5–2 hours, group exercises and plenary discussion. while the working group discussions on agroforestry Prior to organizing the training workshop, the and conservation agriculture can be split into two organizers and facilitators might want to carry out a sessions of 1 hour. pre-workshop needs assessment. Appendix 7 presents a needs assessment questionnaire that could be adapted to the specific context of the training and target group, in order to identify their specific needs, experience, and knowledge of the issues that will be discussed in the workshop. 4 3 Climate change, climate-smart agriculture, and gender roles in CSA The purpose of this session is to familiarize learners 3.1 Climate change and CSA terminology with climate change and CSA terminology and concepts, and concepts and also to give them a better understanding of gender concepts and gender analysis. The session helps Warming of the climate system is learners discuss the relevance of gender dimensions unequivocal, and since the 1950s, many of in climate change adaptation and mitigation when the observed changes are unprecedented developing gender-responsive and climate-smart over decades to millennia. The atmosphere interventions. The proposed structure of the session is and ocean have warmed, the amounts of described in Table 1 with a list of materials that could snow and ice have diminished, sea level has be used. risen, and the concentrations of greenhouse gases have increased. IPCC (2013) Climate change has severe impacts on agriculture and on all dimensions of food security and nutrition. At the same time, the agricultural sector is among the largest emitters of greenhouse gases (carbon Table 1 Outline for session on climate change, CSA, and gender roles in CSA Topics of the session Duration Learning tools and facilitation notes Introduction of climate 30 min Video: Understanding climate-smart agriculture change and CSA terminology (FAO, link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lUdNMsVDIZ0) and concepts and/or Gender gap in agriculture (FAO, link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uDM828TpVpY (Download the videos in advance as the internet connection may fail) Handout: Glossary (see Appendix 2) Presentation Reaching a common 30 min Presentation and a short exercise. understanding of gender Exercise: Think about common proverbs and sayings and how they can concepts and what is gender affect gender relations, to start introducing gender issues. For example, analysis; relevance of gender you could refer to the proverb: “A family is like a forest. When you are dimensions in climate change outside, it is dense. When you are inside, you see that every tree has its and CSA place.” How does this proverb relate to gender roles in a household or a community? Experiences in integrating 30 min It is recommended to invite a ministry representative to provide gender issues in agriculture/ highlights of how gender issues are integrated in the national agriculture/ climate change strategies climate policy or strategic work. and policies Group exercise 30 min Exercise using the Margolis Wheel tool (Appendix 6) to discuss problems with gender integration in projects and generate potential solutions. Total estimated time 2 hours 5 3. Climate change, climate-smart agriculture, and gender roles in CSA Continued emissions of greenhouse gases In this module, the focus is on CSA, an approach will cause further warming and changes to transforming and reorienting agricultural systems in all components of the climate system. to support development and food security effectively Limiting climate change will require and sustainably under a changing climate (FAO 2016b). substantial and sustained reductions of To make agricultural systems climate-smart greenhouse gas emissions. IPCC (2013) requires actions at different levels: policies, institutions, investments, and practices. Any actions taken should dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide): agriculture alone be based on evidence, generated (for example) by produces 10–12  percent of gases, and with land use, identifying potential gender-responsive options for land-use change, and forestry the proportion rises to increasing agricultural productivity and incomes under 24 percent (IPCC 2013). The first step in understanding existing agro-ecological conditions; analyzing historical these relationships is to become familiar with basic and recent changes in relevant climate/weather concepts related to climate change. variables; examining potential returns of different options (for example, returns in terms of productivity, Box 2 presents some key concepts; others are explained food security, and resilience) under a range of climatic in Appendix 2. conditions; and assessing the potential mitigation benefits of the different options identified. Enabling institutions and policies are essential when making use of the evidence base to design more effective Box 2 and sustainable interventions. The steps to build an Key concepts related to climate change enabling environment for CSA include: 1. Assessing the major barriers to the adoption of ▪▪ Climate change: A change in climate attributed directly or CSA options. indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of 2. Analyzing the potential of local institutions to the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural variability observed over a comparable period of time. overcome these barriers. 3. Engaging in dialogues with local communities. ▪▪ Climate change adaptation: Initiatives and measures to 4. Developing capacities at different levels. reduce the vulnerability of natural and human systems against actual or expected climate change effects. Various 5. Supporting policy coordination. types of adaptation exist, for example anticipatory and reactive and autonomous and planned adaptation. Finally, securing financing for the necessary actions is ▪▪ Climate change mitigation: Implementation of key to their implementation (FAO 2014b). technological changes, such as cultivation practices, or As described previously, when selecting appropriate substitution of technologies (such as substituting fossil fuels) to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and enhance CSA practices for a specific area, we need to analyze greenhouse gas sinks. the site-specific socio-economic and institutional ▪▪ Climate-smart agriculture: Integrates the three dimensions context, as well as the prevailing agro-ecological of sustainable development by jointly addressing food conditions and potential climate change scenarios, security and climate challenges. It is composed of three risks, impacts. Furthermore, instead of assessing main pillars: (1) sustainably increasing agricultural single practices we can widen our scope, for example productivity and incomes; (2) adapting and building resilience to climate change; and (3) reducing and/or by considering changing practices and at the farm, removing greenhouse gas emissions, where possible. ecosystem, or landscape levels. CSA often also calls ▪▪ Disaster risk reduction: Systematic efforts to analyze and for integration at different levels: integrating crops, manage the causal factors of disasters, including through livestock, aquaculture, and trees; research, policy, and reduced exposure to hazards, lessened vulnerability practices; or along the value chain from production of people and property, wise management of land to consumption. Table 2 presents an example of CSA and the environment, and improved preparedness for adverse events. practices adopted in eastern Africa, explaining their specific components and how they are climate-smart. 6 3. Climate change, climate-smart agriculture, and gender roles in CSA Table 2 Examples of CSA practices adopted in eastern Africa Practice Components How it is climate-smart Conservation ▶▶ reduced tillage ▶▶ carbon sequestration agriculture ▶▶ crop residue management – mulching, intercropping ▶▶ reduction in existing emissions ▶▶ crop rotation/intercropping ▶▶ resilience to dry and hot spells Integrated ▶▶ compost and manure management including ▶▶ reduced emissions of nitrous soil fertility green manuring oxide and CH4 management ▶▶ efficient fertilizer application techniques (time, ▶▶ improved soil productivity method, amount) Small-scale ▶▶ year round cropping ▶▶ creating carbon sinks irrigation ▶▶ efficient water utilization ▶▶ improved yields and food security Crop diversification ▶▶ popularization of new crops and crop varieties ▶▶ food security ▶▶ pest resistance, high yielding, drought tolerant, ▶▶ resilience, improved incomes short season Improved livestock ▶▶ reduced open grazing, zero grazing ▶▶ improved livestock productivity feed and feeding ▶▶ forage development and rangeland management ▶▶ GHG reduction practices ▶▶ feed improvement ▶▶ CH4 reduction ▶▶ livestock breed improvement and diversification Other ▶▶ In situ water conservation/harvesting ▶▶ resilience of agriculture ▶▶ early warning systems and weather information ▶▶ improved incomes ▶▶ alternative energy – biofuels, efficient stoves ▶▶ reduced emissions ▶▶ crop and livestock insurance ▶▶ reduced deforestation ▶▶ livelihood diversification (api/aquaculture) ▶▶ reduced climate risk ▶▶ post-harvest technologies ▶▶ reduced losses Source: FAO 2016a. The following examples of CSA practices as well as 3. Improved livestock management practices: the examples in Table 2 are context specific and will Improved feed management, manure manage- be applied differently in each type of environment. In ment, destocking, switching to livestock species or the adaptation of these practices, the different social breeds that are more adapted to water scarcity and and gender dimensions related to the area and culture resistant to disease, and pasture management. where they are implemented need to be identified and addressed (World Bank, FAO, and IFAD 2015): 4. Other practices: Improved post-harvest practices, more efficient 1. Improved land and water management practices: cooking stoves, and fisheries and aquaculture Agroforestry, terraces and bunds, water harvesting technologies. structures and systems, improved water manage- ment in agriculture, planting pits, and crop residue Smallholder farmers may face several barriers to the mulching. adoption of CSA. Addressing these barriers is critical, for example by ensuring an enabling policy and 2. Improved soil fertility and crop management institutional environment; securing men and women practices: farmers’ access to extension and information services, Composting, cover cropping, conservation productive inputs, land, markets, and financing; and agriculture, efficient use of fertilizers, stress- developing the necessary capacities at all levels. tolerant varieties, no tillage or minimum tillage, and alternate wetting and drying of rice. 7 3. Climate change, climate-smart agriculture, and gender roles in CSA Figure 1 Men and women perceive climate change differently in Rakai, Uganda Increase in variability of rainfall More droughts Men (n=152) Decrease in overall rainfall Women (n=180) Increase in temperature Any change 0 20 40 60 80 100 Source: Twyman et al. 2014. Last but not least, CSA is not gender-neutral, and Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture, therefore a socio-economic and gender analysis will be and Food Security (CCAFS) in Rakai, Uganda. critical for achieving sustainable and equitable results When looking at climate change scenarios, we need which will benefit both men and women. An example to understand that significant uncertainty is attached is provided in Figure  1 of how men and women to them. We do not have precise answers to a number of perceive climate change differently, based on an intra- questions: What will happen to rainfall patterns? How household survey conducted by the International high can average temperatures get? What will be their Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and the CGIAR impact on agriculture? How can we better forecast Figure 2 Possible scenarios for temperature and precipitation changes RCP 2.6 RCP 8.5 (a) Change in average surface temperature (1986–2005 to 2081–2100) 32 39 (°C) -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 3 4 5 7 9 11 (b) Change in average precipitation (1986–2005 to 2081–2100) 32 39 (%) -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 Source: IPCC, 2013 Assessment report. 8 3. Climate change, climate-smart agriculture, and gender roles in CSA extreme climatic events? Some indicative information 3.2 Reaching a common understanding on the direction of climate trends is available, of gender concepts and of what however. For instance, the Intergovernmental Panel on gender analysis is Climate Change (IPCC) 5th Assessment Report (IPCC 2013) states that in many mid-latitude and subtropical Closing the gender gap in agriculture would dry regions, mean precipitation will likely decrease, raise total agricultural input in developing while in many mid-latitude wet regions, it is likely to countries by 2.5–4 percent, reducing the increase (Figure 2). National meteorological and agro- number of hungry people by 12–17 percent meteorological institutions often have more location- in the world. If women had the same access specific scenarios available. Which of the climate change to productive resources as men, they scenarios will materialize in the future depends mostly could increase yields on their farms by on the future quantities of greenhouse gas emissions. 20–30 percent. Female farmers are just as We also need to differentiate between time efficient as male farmers but they produce horizons and forecasts. Are we talking about weather: less because they control less land, use fewer for instance, will it rain tomorrow? Or are we inputs and have limited access to labour and talking about seasonal forecasts: will it rain more important services such as extension. than normal in the next growing season (an effect Extracts from FAO (2011) and O’Sullivan et al. (2014) of El Niño, for example)? Or do we rather have a historical perspective: what is the average onset date The gender gap in agriculture refers to the fact that of seasonal rains over the past 20 years? Weather women typically have less access to and control over and climate information becomes more useful when productive assets, inputs, productive resources, and it is communicated together with expected levels of services needed to make the most productive use of uncertainty and “translated” into information that their time. Moreover, women often have less decision- can be used to make decisions for action. A good making authority in the household and community. example of such an approach is CARE’s Adaptation These social and institutional barriers lead to a gender Learning Programme, which promotes a mechanism gap that hinders women’s productivity and reduces for improving the access to and the interpretation of their contributions to agriculture and achievement of forecasts, bringing together community members, broader economic and social development goals. meteorology experts, local government stakeholders, In many developing countries the agricultural and local organizations to jointly analyze the forecasts sector is underperforming for a variety of reasons. and downscale them to correspond with the agro- One of the main underlying causes is that women lack climatic zones of the region (CARE 2016). resources, services, and employment opportunities, although they play a major role in agriculture as The current knowledge of what makes agricultural farmers, workers, and entrepreneurs. Closing the practices climate-smart but also gender-responsive is gender gap in agriculture produces significant gains still quite limited. Both are very site-specific concepts. not only for women but for society as a whole, by When localized projections for climate change increasing agricultural productivity, reducing poverty impact are not available, a “no-regrets” approach and hunger, and promoting economic growth. is recommended. This approach involves adopting Governments, donors, and development adaptive and CSA practices that will be beneficial even practitioners recognize that agriculture is central to if future impacts are not certain and climate change economic growth and food security, but they are often threats do not occur exactly as anticipated. No-regrets less committed to promoting gender equality and actions can have significant development benefits women’s empowerment. Gender may be mentioned as under a range of climate change scenarios; they may an issue in many national and regional agricultural and include, for example, rainwater harvesting techniques food security policies and plans, but it is not adequately and water reservoirs, increase in soil organic matter, elaborated. Many agricultural policies and plans still and improved access to weather information. Another fail to consider basic questions about the differences in important approach is “do no harm.” In this context, resources available to men and women, their roles, and doing no harm means (for example) that new practices the constraints they face – and how these differences or changes in farming systems for climate change might be relevant to proposed interventions. As a result, adaptation, mitigation, or CSA will not compromise it is often assumed that interventions in areas such as food security and create greater social inequality. technology (in this case, CSA practices), infrastructure, and market access have the same impacts on men and women, when in fact they may not. 9 3. Climate change, climate-smart agriculture, and gender roles in CSA The agricultural sector is becoming more Women, like men, can be considered “productive technologically sophisticated, commercially oriented, resources,” but they are also citizens who have an and globally integrated; at the same time, migration equal claim with men on the production opportunities patterns and climate variability are changing the rural and services provided by their governments and the landscape across the developing world. These forces pose international community. Therefore, agricultural challenges and present opportunities for all agricultural policy makers and development practitioners must producers, but women face additional legal and social ensure that women are able to participate fully in and barriers that limit their ability to adapt to and benefit benefit from the process of agricultural development. from change. Governments and donors have made Moreover, promoting gender equality in agriculture major commitments aimed at revitalizing agriculture can help reduce extreme poverty and hunger. The roles in developing regions, and their efforts will yield better and status of men and women in agriculture and rural results more quickly if they maximize the productive areas vary widely by region, age, ethnicity, and social potential of women by promoting gender equality. class, and they are changing rapidly in some parts of Box 3 Gender-related concepts Gender refers to socially constructed attributes and assemblies and councils. Women’s role can be identified opportunities associated with being male and female. as reproductive, productive, and community managing, It has to do with how society defines masculinity and while men’s roles are categorized mainly as either femininity in terms of what is appropriate behavior productive, community, or politics. Women’s multiple for men and women, and both play a crucial role in the and competing roles lead to their time poverty, which social construction of gender. can imply asset and income poverty. The unequal value Gender analysis is the study of the different roles of placed on roles of women compared with men is mainly men and women in order to understand what they responsible for their inferior status and the persistent do, what resources they have, and what their needs gender discrimination they experience. and priorities are. It provides the basis for addressing Gender equality is when men and women enjoy equal inequalities in policies, programs, and projects, and rights, opportunities, and entitlements in civil and it can be conducted at multiple levels (household, political life, in terms of access, control, participation, community, and national), across different life stages and treatment. and in the various roles men and women play. Gender equity means fairness and impartiality in treating Gender relations refers to ways in which society defines men and women in terms of rights, benefits, obligations, rights, responsibilities, and identities of men and women and opportunities. At times, special treatment/ in relation to one another, in all spheres of life – in affirmative action/positive discrimination is required. private (family, marriage, and so on) and public domains (schools, labor markets, political life). Other intersecting Gender mainstreaming is the process of assessing the factors to consider are ethnicity, age, class, religion, and implications for men and women of any planned action, geographic location. Gender relations determine: including legislation, policies, and programs, in any area and at all levels. It is a strategy for making the concerns ▪▪ Gender entitlement systems: assets, opportunities, and experiences of women and men an integral part of capabilities, and choices. the design, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation ▪▪ Gendered divisions of labor and employment of policies and programs in all political, economic, opportunities (such as unpaid and temporary work). and societal spheres, so that they benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated. The ultimate goal is to ▪▪ Gendered patterns of production. achieve gender equality and gender equity. ▪▪ Power sharing at all levels: decision making, control Gender-sensitive approaches consider gender as a of resources, and so on. means to reach a development goal. Gender roles include: (1) productive roles that generate Gender-responsive approaches recognize and address an income – women engage in paid work and income- the specific needs and priorities of men and women, generating activities, but gender disparities persist in based on the social construction of gender roles. terms of wage differentials, contractual modalities, and informal work; (2) reproductive roles related to Gender-transformative approaches seek to social reproduction, such as growing and preparing transform gender roles and promote gender-equitable food for family consumption and caring for children; relationships between men and women. The ultimate (3) community managing roles that include unpaid and aim of gender equality is for men and women to have voluntary activities, mainly carried out by women, equal participation in decision making; the same access to complement their reproductive role for the benefit and control over productive resources, services, and of the community, such as fetching water for the technologies; equal benefits from project results; and school; and (4) community or politics roles related to the same opportunities to access decent employment decision-making processes, such as membership in and livelihood systems. 10 3. Climate change, climate-smart agriculture, and gender roles in CSA Figure 3 How climate change exacerbates gender inequalities Climate change impacts Impacts exacerbate gender inequalities Crop failure Household food provision; increasing work load Fuel shortage Household fuel provision; more time for fuelwood collection Household water provision; contaminated water; Water scarcity more time for water collection Natural disasters Women’s greater incidence of mortality Disease Lack of access to health care; women’s burden as care givers Displacement Forced migration increases women’s vulnerability Conflict Loss of lives and livelihoods; violence against women Source: Adapted from WEDO 2012. the world. To plan gender-responsive interventions women play, address unequal access to resources and in the agricultural sector, policy makers, donors, and services, and recognize the important contributions of development practitioners need information and women in agriculture. In the worst-case scenario, the analysis that reflect the diversity of contributions men project may not only fail but may actually create greater and women make and the challenges that they confront. inequality and discrimination. For these reasons it is Let us now clarify what is meant by gender, gender vital that strategies designed under a CSA approach equality, and other concepts related to gender (Box 3; take into account specific contexts and capacities, see also Appendix 2). as well as prevailing economic, environmental, and Climate change can exacerbate existing gender social situations, including gender relations. A gender- inequalities in agriculture, but it may also increase responsive approach in CSA projects will achieve more the role of women as agents of change. Some possible effective, equitable, and sustainable outcomes, reduce gender-related implications are as follows: increased project risks, and decrease the gender gap because it (male) migration; changes in the division of labor, better reflects the realities of agricultural communities often with an increased work burden for women (World Bank, FAO, and IFAD 2015). and children; comparatively higher vulnerability for Because of the gender gap, much of the gender women and youth; changes in livelihood strategies and climate change research and actions focus on the and income opportunities; women having less, or in constraints that hinder women’s potential to benefit some cases more, control of resources and services; from CSA. The intersection of gender and CSA is and new household consumption patterns. In some more complex, however, and it is good to remember places and instances, for example, when men migrate that men’s lives and opportunities under the changing to cities or die prematurely, women are more able to climate are also shaped by gender and other social make decisions and control resources. Figure 3 shows factors (Nelson and Huyer 2016). some examples of climate change impacts on women The aim of integrating gender in CSA practices and gender inequality. is thus to reduce gender inequalities and ensure that Development interventions often perform poorly men, women, boys, and girls can equally benefit from because they do not take gender-based differences interventions that sustainably enhance agricultural into account, nor do they address existing inequalities productivity and incomes; adapt and build resilience and discrimination. A project can easily fail if it does of agriculture to climate change; and reduce and/ not pay attention to the different roles that men and or remove greenhouse gases where possible. See 11 3. Climate change, climate-smart agriculture, and gender roles in CSA Example 1 for some gender-responsive interventions. access to productive resources as men – would generate Additionally, closing the gender gap in agriculture – significant productivity gains, help to reduce poverty for example, by ensuring that women have the same and hunger, and ultimately lead to more success in terms of the overall development objectives. Example 1 Analyzing how men’s and women’s constraints Some gender-responsive interventions and opportunities may differ is the first step in understanding the range of issues that must be taken ▪▪ Substitute conventional technologies with more efficient into account in project design to make agricultural ones for men and women, in terms of reducing time and systems more climate-smart and gender-responsive. energy requirements. Table 3 describes the relative contributions of a given ▪▪ Create new incentives for adoption and financing mechanisms, practice to CSA goals – adaptation, mitigation, and making them accessible to both men and women. food security and nutrition – as well as its gender ▪▪ Introduce gender-sensitive technologies and methodologies impact from the perspectives of income and time use. (such as machinery and tools easily handled by women As Table 3 indicates, women usually have more control and children). over the income produced by home gardens, fodder ▪▪ Build on men’s and women’s indigenous knowledge of local shrubs, herbaceous legumes, and improved grasses, resources and climate change. which require different amounts of time to yield ▪▪ Increase women’s access to advisory services, education, benefits. Common CSA practices such as conservation information, and decision making. agriculture and on-farm tree planting require a long ▪▪ Organize tailor-made training on leadership and negotiation time to yield benefits, and often women have limited skills for men and women. control over the resulting income. ▪▪ Raise gender awareness of policy makers. We are now approaching the end of the first ▪▪ Support the design of gender-responsive policies, strategies, workshop session. Before closing, it is recommended and action plans. that participants carry out an exercise using the ▪▪ Organize gender-responsive capacity development and Margolis Wheel to discuss experiences and problems communication. with gender integration in projects and generate ▪▪ Support men’s and women’s organizations and networks. potential solutions (the Margolis tool is introduced in Appendix 6). Table 3 Some potential CSA practices and related gender implications Contribution to CSA goals Gender impact Potential Women’s Relative CSA option/practice Climate Climate household food control of amount of time change change security and income from until benefits adaptation mitigation nutrition impact practice are realized Stress-tolerant varieties High Low High Low Low High-yielding varieties Low Low High Low Low Conservation agriculture High Medium High Low High Improved home gardens High Medium High High Low On-farm tree planting High High Low–medium Low High Composting Medium Medium Medium Medium Low Small-scale irrigation High Low High Low–medium Low Fodder shrubs High Medium–high High High Medium Herbaceous legumes High Medium High High Medium Improved grasses High Medium High High Low Livestock genetic improvement High Medium Medium–high Low–high High 12 Restoration of degraded rangeland High High Medium Low High Source: Adapted from World Bank, FAO, and IFAD 2015. 4 Gender analysis in CSA project identification Mainstreaming gender in the project The purpose of this session is to present the relevance, cycle is a strategy for making women’s during project identification, of gender issues in and men’s concerns and experiences an stakeholder, livelihood, and situation analyses – as well integral dimension of the cycle, so that as needs assessment – to give learners an overall view of they can benefit equally from development how to conduct an in-depth gender analysis (Table 4). interventions and so that inequalities are Tools and methods to support gender analysis are not perpetuated. ECOSOC (1997) presented, and users will have the opportunity to learn from the experience of conducting gender analysis in a project related to climate change. Table 4 Outline for session on gender analysis in CSA project identification Topics of the session Duration Learning tools and facilitation notes Gender issues in stakeholder 30 min Presentation to introduce the topic and different types of analyses analysis, livelihood analysis, context analysis, and needs assessment Tools and methods available to 20 min Presentation and handouts: checklists and questions, tools for data support gender analysis collection for gender analysis, and references and additional materials (Appendices 3, 4, and 8) Extracts from FAO’s e-learning tool on Gender in food and nutrition security Case study on local 20 min A representative of a local institution will present findings and lessons experiences of conducting from their work gender analysis in a climate change project Buzz groups and discussions 20 min Question for the buzz groups: “How can gender analysis support your in plenary project identification? Please mention three issues.” Total estimated time 1.5 hours 13 4. Gender analysis in CSA project identification Figure 4 The steps of a project cycle 1 Identification Every step of the cycle has its own gender issues to consider. A gender 6 Closure 2 Formulation analysis at an early stage is key as it builds the basis for formulation of gender-responsive impact, outcomes, outputs and activities. Gender analysis results will also inform the selection 5 Evaluation 3 Appraisal and approval of implementation strategies as well as setting of a baseline, indicators and data collection for the monitoring and 4 Implementation and monitoring evaluation system. Addressing gender concerns in the project cycle ▪▪ What is the adaptive and mitigation capacity of (Figure 4) means understanding how men and women men and women? allocate their time, as well as their specific needs and access to and control over productive resources, Hence, the right time to start a gender analysis is early services, and decision making; addressing gender in the project, during identification, but the results of issues from the very start of project identification and the analysis can be used during various stages of the throughout the whole project cycle, to achieve gender project cycle to: equality and women’s empowerment; and monitoring ▪▪ Design projects that transform gender and evaluating gender impacts and taking corrective dynamics and power relations to address the action, if needed. In practical terms, addressing gender underlying causes of gender inequality. concerns throughout the project cycle implies an ▪▪ Build differentiated strategies for women and analysis of how the project influences the role and/or men, based on their particular roles, relations, status of rural men and women, especially those most and strategic and practical needs. vulnerable to risk, and the inclusion of gender-related ▪▪ Be accountable to the project’s beneficiaries to special measures and components in the project’s design. avoid or minimize unintended harm. The ultimate aim of promoting gender equality ▪▪ Assess how the project activities have in the project cycle is to ensure that men and women contributed to the intended changes and have equal participation in decision making; the monitor results. same access to and control over productive resources, ▪▪ Build an evidence base that facilitates services and technologies; equal benefits from project documentation and contributes to broader results; as well as equal opportunities for decent advocacy in favor of equal rights for men and employment and livelihoods. women. Understanding and addressing differences between men’s and women’s roles, resources, needs, and 4.1 Gender issues in stakeholder, priorities is key for successful interventions. At the livelihood, and context analyses, CSA project identification stage, we need to analyze as well as in needs assessment the potential climate scenarios for the project location and integrate elements of social and gender analysis At the outset of planning a CSA project, a gender in vulnerability, risk, and impact analysis of climate analysis is necessary to study the different roles change. Some possible issues that need clarity are: and priorities of men and women by answering ▪▪ What are the impacts of climate change on the following questions (adapted from Nelson and individuals, households, and communities? Huyer 2016): ▪▪ Are men and women affected differently by ▪▪ Who (men or women) has what and why? climate change? ▪▪ Who does what and why? ▪▪ How do men and women perceive climate ▪▪ Who needs what and why? 14 change? ▪▪ Who decides on what and why? 4. Gender analysis in CSA project identification Men and women engage in crop and livestock 2. Men and women from different socio-economic production, forestry activities, fisheries and groups who are disadvantaged or discriminated aquaculture, marketing, and wage labor to secure against are a priority because they are the most their basic needs and to earn income. This activity vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. depends on their access to resources, such as land, Additionally, reducing their poverty is essential water, capital, and technology. Within any given to achieve sustainable adaptation and mitigation society, this access varies by gender, age, wealth, caste, solutions. Women are often disadvantaged in and ethnicity. Responsibilities and opportunities vary comparison with men, but not necessarily always. within households by gender, age, and the individual’s They are not a homogenous group, and other social position in the household (male or female head, attributes need to be taken into account, including husband, wife, elder, or youth) (FAO 2001). age, social and marital status, education, the land tenure system they live under, race, ethnicity, In preparation for CSA interventions, a gender analysis religion, income level, and location. will contribute to a better understanding of the site- specific gender, cultural, and socio-economic context. 3. Participation is essential for sustainable This analysis explores the differences between men development – for example, local stakeholders and women in terms of: should participate in identifying climate change ▪▪ Vulnerability to climate risks. solutions because they will be responsible for ▪▪ Willingness and capacity to take on risk. implementing the project activities. Climate change ▪▪ Needs and participation rates. solutions often require that multiple institutions ▪▪ Access to and control over assets and productive work together; if they are engaged from the resources. beginning, this will strengthen their commitment. ▪▪ Power relations (for example in decision- making) within the household and the community. ▪▪ Access to information, services, and markets Example 2 needed for CSA. The gender analysis can focus on and reveal... The analysis also identifies the underlying causes of The gender analysis (with data disaggregated by sex and age) gender inequalities, such as social, economic, legal, can focus on: political, and cultural factors that affect men’s and ▪▪ Access to and control of land and water. women’s participation and productivity. Example 2 and ▪▪ Access to services, including credit, training, extension Example  3 give concrete ideas for conducting gender and supply sources, and markets. analysis. ▪▪ Use of seeds, fertilizers, and agrochemicals. FAO’s SEAGA Programme provides the following ▪▪ Farming tools (for example, their ergonomic differences guiding principles for gender analysis, with a focus and mechanization). on climate change and agriculture projects (FAO 2001; ▪▪ Livestock (restocking and processing, training and workload). FAO and CCAFS 2013): ▪▪ Fisheries (boats, equipment, division of labor). 1. Gender roles and relations are of key importance: ▪▪ Governance (participation in civil society and transparency In the context of climate change, the differences of public management). and similarities in terms of rights, opportunities, The gender analysis can reveal, for example: situations, outcomes, and agency between men ▪▪ A project aimed at increasing cash crop production may and women mean that they often have different add to women’s workload (as weeding and harvesting are capacities to adapt to or mitigate climate change. considered their tasks) and provide them with few benefits (as cash crops are usually under men’s control). Their perception of risk and their willingness to adapt and act are important additional components. ▪▪ In the case of an irrigation project, a gender analysis may reveal the differences between men and women in the use of irrigation on their plots and access to and control of water, and also their specific roles in making decisions about water use. These differences need to be considered when planning an irrigation project to make sure that both men and women can equally benefit from it. 15 4. Gender analysis in CSA project identification Example 3 Tip 1 Conservation agriculture in Zambia Checklist for a context analysis The Conservation Agriculture Scaling Up project, carried out ▶▶ What are the most important environmental, by FAO in Zambia, works with small-scale farmers to adopt economic, institutional, and social patterns? conservation agriculture practices to enhance agricultural ▶▶ Do men and women have the same or productivity and output, while also strengthening the resilience different views on the patterns related to of agricultural systems and thus their capacity to adapt to climate change? climate change. In addition, the project addresses the barriers to rural women’s socio-economic empowerment, such as their ▶▶ How does the climate change affect the lack of access to labor-saving technologies and productive livelihoods of men and women? resources. The gender-responsive CSA practices promoted by the project are developed on the basis of sex-disaggregated ▶▶ Who (men and women) uses available data, followed by an in-depth gender analysis of men and resources and services, and for what purpose? women farmers’ different activities and needs. ▶▶ What types of households are there? How many households are female-headed? Are Source: Nelson and Huyer, 2016. these increasing? ▶▶ What were the past climate conditions like, what are they now, and what are the projections? ▶▶ Do men and women report changes or How to conduct a gender analysis? impacts due to climate change? What are their specific  perceptions on what is getting Different types of gender analyses – a context analysis, better or worse in terms of climate? stakeholder analysis, livelihood analysis, and needs ▶▶ What policies and institutional support assessment – are briefly described below: mechanisms exist for climate change adaptation and mitigation, CSA activities, and gender mainstreaming? What are the 1. Context analysis: In this type of analysis we screen constraints on implementing them? a number of socio-economic patterns that influence ▶▶ Are men and women affected in different how men and women make a living, their strategies ways by these policies and institutions? for coping with climate change, and their options for development (see Tip 1). These socio-economic Source: FAO, 2001; FAO and CCAFS, 2013. patterns can either support or constrain the adoption of CSA. To collect data for the context analysis, the following participatory tools can be of great Some possible questions are: help: Village resources maps, Transect walks, Venn ▪▪ Who are the (male and female) stakeholders? diagrams, and Institutional profiles (see Appendix 4). ▪▪ What do they have at stake? ▪▪ What are the stakeholders’ priorities? 2. Gender-sensitive stakeholder analysis: This ▪▪ Are there gender-linked differences among type of analysis identifies the male and female stakeholder groups? stakeholders or institutions/groups to be involved in the project; establishes how a problem affects To conduct a gender-sensitive stakeholder analysis it is different stakeholders and their views on what will important to set up mechanisms to let women express contribute to solving problems related to climate their views and concerns; to not consider “women” change; determines their priorities and decides and “men” as homogeneous categories, but take into how to best address their interests and needs; account other issues such as age, class, ethnicity, and overcomes the constraints on their participation or socio-economic status; and to let stakeholders from access to the project’s benefits; and finds out how specific socio-economic groups that might lack power different male and female stakeholders are likely and capacities at organizational and institutional to affect or be affected by the project, in order to levels make their voices heard while identifying project make appropriate decisions on involving each priorities. As women and girls are often not adequately stakeholder. Possible participatory tools to use for represented and have fewer opportunities than men to the stakeholder analysis are: Stakeholder Venn participate in decision making within households and diagrams, Pairwise ranking matrix, Flow diagrams, communities, it is recommended to set up mechanisms and Problem analysis charts (see Appendix 4). to let them express their views and concerns. 16 4. Gender analysis in CSA project identification 3. Gender-sensitive needs assessment involves There is no absolute division between the two types of determining the specific needs and priorities of needs. In some cases a project may address practical different socio-economic groups, setting priorities needs, whereas in a different context the same project for action, collecting data disaggregated by sex and would meet strategic needs. Table 5 presents examples age for planning, and determining the anticipated of practical and strategic needs. impact of the project on the men and women most vulnerable to the risk of climate change. 4. Livelihood analysis: This type of gender analysis tries to answer the questions of who does what, It is also important to distinguish between practical who uses what, and who controls what. It allows for and strategic gender needs: learning about the activities of different people and ▪▪ Practical gender needs relate to men and women’s their relative access to resources for basic needs basic and material needs for their day-to-day and income, as well as their sources of expenditures survival, and refer to their living conditions (for and income. Gender and socio-economic group example, employment opportunities, education, differences are shown with respect to labor and financial conditions, and natural resources) and decision-making patterns. The participatory can be seen immediately, as they are shorter and data collection tools to use in livelihood analysis urgent needs (namely, food, water, and income). comprise, among others: Farming system diagrams, In meeting these needs, the existing division Daily activity clocks, Seasonal labor calendars, of labor is accepted and gender roles are not Capacity and vulnerability analysis matrices, challenged. These needs can be satisfied without Changing farming practices, and Seasonal food changing the status of women in society, and security calendars (see Appendix 4). in some cases they enforce traditional roles. Practical needs are related to improvements Possible questions to address are: in the conditions of men and women, by ▪▪ How do men, women, boys, and girls make their promoting the efficient use of resources, rather living? Are there differences between various than addressing empowerment or equity. socio-economic groups? ▪▪ Strategic gender needs challenge the existing ▪▪ How do the livelihood systems of men and gender identities and relationships between women from different socio-economic groups men and women in favor of equity for all. These compare? needs are long-term interests and therefore ▪▪ What are the most important sources of sustainable and continuous needs (namely, social income for men and women? What are their structures). After meeting the strategic needs, main sources of expenditures? the division of labor would no longer be broadly ▪▪ What are the likely climate change impacts determined by gender. Similarly, restrictions on on current livelihoods? Are certain sectors or access to and control of resources and benefits socio-economic groups more or less vulnerable would be independent of gender. Strategic needs than others? Why? What are the perceptions of are related to the position of men and women men and women? (for example, working position, role in local ▪▪ How diversified are the livelihoods of men associations, social structure, role in household, and women? What specific solutions have they and participation in decision making) in the applied in response to the changing climate? pursuit of empowerment and equity. Table 5 Examples of projects designed to meet practical and strategic gender needs Practical gender needs Strategic gender needs ▶▶ Training on ecosystem services of agroforestry ▶▶ Incentives and land renting agreements for for women landless women ▶▶ Fishing gear maintenance skills training for men ▶▶ Primary education for girls ▶▶ Improved stoves and other labor-saving practices ▶▶ Recruitment of both men and women for building for women and maintaining canals 17 4. Gender analysis in CSA project identification 4.2 Tools and methods for gender analysis Tip 2 Questions to initiate a gender analysis The gender analysis can be divided into three main steps (adapted from FAO 2014a): To start a gender analysis, you may consider the following set of questions, disaggregating data by sex and age: 1. Planning: During this step, we need to select the framework for the gender analysis, what are the ▶▶ Labor: Who does what? How? Where? When? Why? potential target groups (both men and women), what needs to be explored, what questions have to be ▶▶ Access: Who uses what? How? Where? When? Why? asked, and what are the best methods for collecting sex-disaggregated data. Several alternative or ▶▶ Decision making and control: Who controls what? How? Where? When? Why? complementary analytical frameworks exist for gender analysis, such as the Moser Gender Planning ▶▶ Information: Who knows what? Where? When? Why? Framework, Harvard Analytical Framework, and Women’s Empowerment Framework and Gender ▶▶ Benefit sharing: Who benefits from what? How? Where? When? Why? Analysis Matrix,1 and they can prove helpful when planning gender analysis. ▶▶ Participation: Who is included in what? How? Where? When? Why? 2. Data collection: Data required for gender analysis Source: FAO and CCAFS, 2013. can be collected from different sources, using various data collection methods and tools, such as sex-disaggregated statistics (if available), meetings, interviews, focus group discussions, key Using participatory tools for data collection is highly informant interviews, discussions with different recommended to engage the intended beneficiaries stakeholder groups, and participatory data from the start and also to give voice to disadvantaged collection methods. It is important to combine and vulnerable groups of men and women. quantitative and qualitative data to gather the Appendix 4 describes some common participatory perceptions and points of view of men and women tools for the context analysis, livelihood analysis, and and different stakeholders, and to also employ stakeholder analysis, and it discusses how those tools triangulation, which uses different data collection can be used to collect data for a gender analysis in methods and compares data from different sources CSA interventions. Detailed guidance on the use of to obtain a more reliable and comprehensive view participatory gender analysis tools can be found in the of the situation. “Training Guide: Gender and Climate Change Research in Agriculture and Food Security for Development” 3. Analysis: Data and information are then processed (FAO and CCAFS 2013), the “Gender and Inclusion and analyzed to assess the most relevant gender Toolbox: Participatory Research in Climate Change issues. The results help in making informed and Agriculture” (Jost, Ferdous, and Spicer 2014), decisions about the most effective project activities and the “SEAGA Field Level Handbook” (FAO 2001). and how to implement and monitor the project in a Appendix 8 lists additional guidance documents, and gender-responsive way. Tip 2 proposes helpful questions to initiate a gender analysis. For more detailed sets of questions to guide gender analysis, see Appendix 3. 1  For additional information on the frameworks, see for example http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TO- PICS/EXTSOCIALDEVELOPMENT/EXTTOPPSISOU/ 0,,contentMDK:20589207~menuPK:1442609~page- 18 PK:64168445~piPK:64168309~theSitePK:1424003,00.html 4. Gender analysis in CSA project identification Example 4 Oxfam International’s successful gender analysis ▪▪ To support the integration of gender dimensions enable women’s leadership? What are the risks, in the climate change adaptation process in the types of violence, or life-cycle events specific to United Republic of Tanzania, Oxfam International women? How will change happen in women’s rights used the Gendered Enterprise and Market tool, and within households? which focuses on the market system, women’s ▪▪ At the market level, the key questions asked took economic leadership, and climate change adaptation into account gender differences: Which sectors and risk reduction. The situational analysis focused or types of markets hold the highest potential for on three levels: farm, household, and market. At improving livelihoods? What is the market demand? the farm level, the analysis aimed to understand Who are the market actors and service providers? the community’s agricultural production practices, What are the market power imbalances? gender roles, and relations; to see what men and women do, and why; and to identify potential crop ▪▪ The answers to these questions helped to determine options for a sustainable and equitable approach to which crops/products and value chains offer the market-driven development. greatest potential for poverty reduction and the economic empowerment of the most vulnerable ▪▪ At the household level, the questions addressed women and men in the project area. Moreover, the were, among others: What time, labor, finance, analysis helped identifying the constraints that men resources, and skills would be required for successful and women face in their roles as suppliers or other production and marketing of potential products? actors in those value chains. These findings informed What assets do typical households have, and what the project design: the team set a gender-responsive access and control do women have over these? How impact and outcome for the project, identified many producers have the resources and business gender-responsive outputs and activities (with skills to work in markets? Can women access these related gender-sensitive indicators), and selected resources and skills, and what gaps exist? What is appropriate implementation strategies to meet the the baseline weekly workload for women and men to provide the goods and services essential for needs of both poor men and women. household welfare? How could household tasks be redistributed or made more time-efficient so as to Source: Based on an Oxfam International presentation at a workshop in Tanzania on gender in CSA. CARE International has developed a “Good We are now approaching the end of the session. Practices Framework for Gender Analysis,” which Before closing, it is recommended that participants identifies a series of guiding questions that include engage in a buzz group discussion to reflect some of topics such as productive assets, decision making, the session’s key messages. One possible discussion and division of labor, space, and services. CARE’s point is: “How can gender analysis support your project teams can choose which of these questions project identification? Please mention three issues.” best correspond with their interests, resources, time, The facilitators can also formulate other questions for and constraints.2 the buzz groups. Each buzz group reports back to the Not all questions and tools are relevant for every other groups in a plenary discussion. intervention, and the scope of the analysis should be planned for the size and complexity of the program/ project. For a single project, the analysis may have a narrower focus than that of a comprehensive and long-term program (see Example  4 on Oxfam’s experiences in Tanzania). Time and the financial and human resources available will also affect the scope and magnitude of data collection and analysis. For this reason, it is important to partner with others and, if feasible, combine data collection for gender analysis with other data collection activities. 2  The CARE framework is accessible at http://gendertoolkit. care.org/Pages/core.aspx. 19 5 Gender mainstreaming in CSA project formulation The purpose of this session is to explain how to address During project formulation, gender analysis can gender issues during the CSA project formulation generate insights on how the project can contribute phase and to identify the potential roles of men and to men’s and women’s equitable access to resources women in the project (Table  6). This work includes and services by addressing their different needs and assessing the potential impacts of the proposed CSA capacities. To set priorities we need to consider the practices in terms of labor and time requirements, and expected gender impacts, outcomes, and outputs that of how women and men are expected to benefit from will be measured through gender-sensitive indicators. the planned activities. If a problem severely affects women, specific gender- responsive outcomes, outputs, and activities must be included. It is also important to conduct an institutional 5.1 Gender analysis during project assessment to identify gender capacity gaps, and to formulation see if the budget has allocated sufficient human and financial resources to ensure women’s participation Depending on the project context and the depth and benefits. Possible questions to ask for the gender of gender analysis conducted during project analysis at this stage are as follows: identification, data collection and analysis may need to be continued or supplemented during the Regarding the gender division of labor formulation phase. If an adequate understanding of ▪▪ How are roles and responsibilities distributed gender relations in the project area already exists, the among men, women, boys, and girls in the formulation phase can focus on setting/determining agricultural sector relevant to the CSA project? gender-responsive priorities and strategies, impacts, ▪▪ What activities and tasks do each of them do in outcomes, and outputs, complemented by gender- relation to relevant livelihoods, and how have sensitive quantitative and qualitative indicators. they been adapted due to climate change? Table 6 Outline for the session on gender mainstreaming in CSA project formulation Topics of the session Duration Learning tools and facilitation notes Gender analysis during project 20 min Presentation formulation Tools and methods available to 20 min Presentation and material from FAO e-learning tool on Gender in Food support gender mainstreaming and Nutrition Security Handouts: checklists and questions, tools for data collection for gender analysis, and references and additional materials (Appendices 3, 4, and 8) Case study on local 20 min A representative of a local institution presents findings and lessons experiences in gender from their work integration in formulating a climate change project Buzz groups and discussion 30 min Question for the buzz groups: “In your view, is it better to have a gender in plenary specialist in the project team, or to ensure that all team members are familiar with gender issues? Why?” Total estimated time 1.5 hours 20 5. Gender mainstreaming in CSA project formulation ▪▪ How is men and women’s time divided between ▪▪ Do women have control over, and do they household and productive activities? benefit from, the resources and assets derived ▪▪ Are there any changes due to new climatic from their work or their participation in project conditions? activities? ▪▪ Who decides on the farming systems and the Regarding the access to and control of resources access to information and inputs, productive and services activities, and the processing and marketing ▪▪ Are there legal restrictions (within statutory or of produce? Can women participate equally in customary law systems) to women’s ownership decision making? or inheritance of land or other assets? ▪▪ Do women and men have access to technologies First, a clear, gender-responsive objective or impact and services that might improve their resilience in relation to CSA needs to be defined for the overall to climate change and the efficiency of their project and for each component. This task is followed work in the agricultural sector? by the development of a gender-responsive logical ▪▪ What is their level of participation in training framework or results chain for the project: what and access to extension services relevant to the outcome(s) is/are needed to achieve the objectives/ project? impacts, and furthermore what outputs, activities, and inputs will generate these outcomes (World Bank, FAO, Regarding participation and decision making and IFAD 2015). When defining outputs and activities, ▪▪ Are women represented in associations, tailor them to the specific needs and priorities of producer organizations, or cooperatives active men and women of different ages, class, caste, socio- in the sector(s) of interest to the project? Do economic status, ability (and so on) as defined in the they actively participate in decision-making gender analysis (see Table 7 and Figure 5). bodies and processes? Do they have leadership positions? Table 7 Gender questions in the logical framework Gender questions Objective/impact ▶▶ Is gender equality one of the overall objectives to which the project aims to contribute? ▶▶ Are men and women of different ages and socio-economic groups going to benefit equally from this long-term impact? Outcome ▶▶ Does the outcome include clear reference to men and women, and to the existing inequalities between them? Does the intervention have the potential to improve women’s access to productive resources, services, technologies, information, training, markets, and employment opportunities? Outputs ▶▶ Do the outputs respond to the different needs and priorities of men and women, as identified in the gender analysis? ▶▶ Do the outputs challenge/redress existing gender inequalities and discriminatory norms and practices? Activities ▶▶ Are men and women given equal opportunities to plan, participate, monitor, and evaluate the project’s activities? ▶▶ Do the planned activities take into account the roles and responsibilities of men and women in order to ensure equal opportunities and benefits from participation? ▶▶ What will be the implications in terms of labor and time requirements for men and women? Source: FAO 2017. 21 5. Gender mainstreaming in CSA project formulation Figure 5 Example of a logframe Impact: Increased food and nutrition security for all household members Outcome: Crop production increased by 30 percent for men and women small landowners, tenants, sharecroppers Ouputs: Improved irrigation, equal access for men and women to microcredit and extension services Activities: Irrigation training for male/female smallholders, and access to microcredit for men and women Source: Adapted from FAO 2017. Gender-sensitive indicators can reflect quantitative or qualitative aspects of change in the contributing Tip 3 factors and livelihood outcomes for men and women Setting gender-sensitive indicators (see Tip 3). These indicators may include the number of men and women engaged in testing or applying Make sure your indicators are: CSA practices, and they may also measure long-term ▶▶ Relevant to the needs and capabilities of change. These changes include increased control of the users. productive assets, participation in decision making, ▶▶ Easy to collect, use, and understand. greater knowledge, changes in behavior and attitudes, ▶▶ Defined clearly, unambiguous, accurate, and increased awareness, and improved economic reliable. status and food security and nutrition of men and ▶▶ Sensitive to recorded changes induced by women (Example  5) (Nelson and Huyer 2016). It is the project. good to remember that “men” and “women” are not ▶▶ As few as possible, concentrating on homogenous groups. A more nuanced view of the measuring important project features. groups may be necessary – one that distinguishes, ▶▶ Based on data disaggregated by sex; for example, between male-headed households, quantitative and qualitative. female-headed households, women in male-headed households, male agriculture workers, female agriculture workers, spouses, young men, young women, elderly men, elderly women, and others, as well as their ethnic group or education level. 22 5. Gender mainstreaming in CSA project formulation Gender-responsive budgeting and implementation Example 5 structures are also important for allocating sufficient Examples of gender-sensitive human and financial resources to ensure equal quantitative indicators participation and benefits for both men and women. The budget must allocate funds for the activities ▪▪ Number or percentage of men and women identified in the logical framework or results chain, attending CSA-related farmer field schools or ensuring that financial and human resources are farmer-to farmer extension adequate to address gender equality. For example: ▪▪ Number or percentage of men and women ▪▪ Funds are earmarked to support mainstreaming working as farmer trainers in promoting CSA gender equality in the project, for instance ▪▪ Number of female heads of household that by hiring a consultant, conducting gender received training in CSA practices analysis, and planning awareness-raising and ▪▪ Yield increases (in kilograms) in men’s and capacity-development activities for project women’s plots staff and national counterparts. ▪▪ Number and type of trees planted by men and ▪▪ Funds are allocated for specific women’s women empowerment activities, such as literacy ▪▪ Number of gender-responsive CSA technologies classes, capacity development, and sensitization demonstrated in the area on their legal rights. ▪▪ Changes in property owned and controlled by ▪▪ The budgeting of project activities is gender- men and women (e.g., land, livestock, trees) in responsive – for example, in the way that credit different age and ethnic  groups funds and agricultural extension resources ▪▪ Proportion of CSA-focused credit and services are divided between men, women, female- going to men and women headed households, male-headed households, wealthier and poorer individuals, and so on. At the end of project formulation, we need to check It is important to complement the information once more that the project takes into consideration collected through quantitative indicators by also the priorities, opportunities, needs, constraints, and including some qualitative indicators to learn knowledge of both men and women, as identified in about men’s and women’s perceptions of changes the gender and stakeholder analysis. Furthermore, we in behaviors, knowledge, skills, self-reliance, and need to check that the project includes activities and satisfaction with the training. Possible issues to outputs that address existing gender inequalities and consider are: the perception of men and women on ensure that men and women benefit equally. the quality of their participation and the impact of the project’s activities on their lives; the degree to which they are aware of their legal rights; the perception of 5.2 Tools and methods to support whether women are becoming more empowered, and gender-responsive project formulation the reasons why; and their opinion on how they were involved in CSA practice selection, and whether the Several checklists and guidebooks presented in CSA technologies and practices that were introduced Appendices 3 and 8 can support gender-responsive have either improved or worsened their lives. project formulation. For gender-sensitive CSA project During the project preparation phase, an design and indicators, see Technical Note 3 in “Gender institutional assessment may reveal gender-related in Climate-Smart Agriculture” (World Bank, FAO, and capacity gaps in the participating organizations IFAD 2015) and “A Gender-Responsive Approach to that the project will need to address (such as gaps Climate-Smart Agriculture” (Nelson and Huyer 2016). in the number of men and women participating in Section 3.2 (“Designing Gender-responsive Food and these organizations, and how they benefit from the Nutrition Security Projects and Programs”) of FAO’s services provided). For this assessment, it is essential e-learning tool on Gender in Food and Nutrition to ensure that the project team has an adequate level Security (FAO 2014a) provides tips for gender- of knowledge and experience of gender issues. More responsive project design, including budgeting. Tip 4 information on institutional assessment is available and Figure 6 provide practical guidance for integrating in Chapter 6. gender issues when formulating projects. 23 5. Gender mainstreaming in CSA project formulation Figure 6 Considerations for gender integration in the project design ▪ Identifying joint priorities together with stakeholders ▪ Assessing options and their synergies and trade-offs ▪ Considering alternatives to mitigate negative trade-offs (e.g. combining various techologies and approaches) ▪ Setting gender-sensitive impact, outcomes, outputs and activities and related indicators ▪ Developing gender-responsive implementation strategies ▪ Designing gender-responsive budgets Source: Adapted from FAO 2017. When designing the project monitoring framework, it is important to incorporate gender- Tip 4 specific financial indicators into the monitoring Questions for gender integration in process, so that expenditure for promoting gender project formulation equality can be periodically tracked. For example, the list of outputs might include the following items of ▶▶ What are the potential roles of men and expenditure, given as a percentage of the total budget women in the project? and disaggregated by sex (FAO 2014a): ▶▶ What are the implications of adopting new ▪▪ Training of women and agricultural extension CSA practices in terms of labor and time requirements for men and women? workers. ▪▪ Research into male- and female-managed crops. ▶▶ How will their different access to land, water, inputs, credit, and labor be considered in ▪▪ Subsidized credit to poor women and men project design? producers. ▶▶ In case of a change in household agricultural ▪▪ Training to raise gender awareness of line/ practices and farming systems, energy project managers/service delivery personnel. systems, or water use, how is the change likely ▪▪ Expenditures on irrigation for female-managed to affect men and women? and male-managed crops. ▶▶ What will be the role of women, men, or youth ▪▪ Expenditure on male- and female-defined groups during project implementation? priorities. ▶▶ Does the project’s results chain or logical framework take into account gender differences? We are now approaching the end of the session. Before ▶▶ What are appropriate gender-responsive closing, it is recommended that participants engage in indicators to monitor progress and a buzz group discussion to reflect some of the session’s achievements? key messages. One possible discussion point is: “In ▶▶ Is the project budget formulated in a gender- your view, is it better to have a gender specialist in the responsive way? project team, or to ensure that all team members are ▶▶ Does the project team include adequate familiar with gender issues? Why?” The facilitators gender expertise? can also formulate other questions for the buzz groups. ▶▶ Is there a distinct budget allocated for Each buzz group reports back to the other groups in a gender activities (funds for gender expertise, gender analysis, gender training of staff and plenary discussion. stakeholders, and actions targeted at women or youth)? ▶▶ Is the budget structured in a gender- responsive way: for example, are credit funds split between men and women? ▶▶ Does the project capacity development plan reflect gender needs? 24 6 Gender integration in CSA project implementation, monitoring and evaluation The purpose of this session is to familiarize learners 6.1 Gender-responsive project with ways of reinforcing gender integration during implementation, monitoring project implementation, monitoring, and evaluation and evaluation (Table 8). It starts by referring to project appraisal as some project cycles include an appraisal step. This In most cases, a new project needs to be appraised session also gives tips on how to adjust the project and approved before implementation of the planned in case it becomes apparent that the project is not on activities begins. Possible gender questions to consider track to achieve gender-responsive results. in the appraisal phase are: ▪▪ Have women’s and men’s needs, priorities, constraints, and challenges in relation to the project been mapped? ▪▪ Have their specific roles and responsibilities within the household, community, and sector(s) been analyzed? Table 8 Outline of the session on gender integration in CSA project implementation, monitoring and evaluation Topics of the session Duration Learning tools and facilitation notes Gender-responsive project 20 min Presentation implementation, monitoring, and evaluation Tools and methods available to 20 min Presentation and FAO e-learning tool on Gender in Food and support gender mainstreaming Nutrition Security in project implementation, Handouts: checklists and questions, tools for data collection for gender monitoring, and evaluation analysis, and references and additional materials (Appendices 2, 3, and 7) Case study on local 20 min A representative of a local institution will present findings and lessons experiences in gender- from their work responsive project monitoring and evaluation Buzz groups and discussion 30 min Questions for the buzz groups: “Could you mention some examples in plenary of appropriate gender-sensitive indicators for CSA projects? How would you best ensure that decision makers are supportive of gender integration?” Total estimated time 1.5 hours 25 6. Gender integration in CSA project implementation, monitoring, and evaluation ▪▪ Are constraints and discrimination based on gender being mapped? Tip 5 ▪▪ Have both women and men (of different ages What can be done to mainstream and socio-economic groups) been engaged in gender in project implementation? project planning and implementation? ▪▪ How does the project take into account the ▶▶ Secure an enabling environment (political priorities, opportunities, needs, constraints commitment and leadership). and knowledge of both women and men, as ▶▶ Select appropriate implementation identified by the gender analysis? strategies and methods to ensure that women also benefit. ▪▪ Does the logframe define beneficiaries (disaggregated by sex, age, and socio-economic ▶▶ Sensitize and train project staff in gender issues. status)? ▪▪ Does the logframe include gender-responsive ▶▶ Watch emerging gender-related issues, such as widening disparity. outputs and activities to address existing gender inequalities? ▶▶ Share information with and listen to men, women, boys, and girls affected by the project. ▪▪ Does the project aim to ensure that women and men benefit equally? ▶▶ Integrate gender-responsive activities in work plans, to be monitored and reported. ▪▪ Does the project document provide information on women’s and men’s access to assets, ▶▶ Ensure the engagement and adequate gender skills of implementing and partnering agencies. resources, services, technologies, and markets? ▪▪ Do activities/outputs have the potential to increase women’s access to assets, resources, services, technologies, and markets? ▪▪ Does the monitoring and evaluation framework limited availability of gender expertise in the project include gender-sensitive indicators? team, lack of monitoring of progress and results, Source: Adapted from FAO 2017. or insufficient funds dedicated to gender-related activities. All of these circumstances may affect the Careful planning and appraisal do not always successful implementation of a gender-responsive guarantee that gender will be adequately integrated in project (Nelson and Huyer 2016). the implementation of a project to generate sustainable ▪▪ Overcoming these challenges may require and equitable results. Given that some additional some extra effort during project planning and challenges may emerge during implementation, it is implementation, including awareness raising important to define potential risks and assumptions and training sessions on why gender matters that could influence the results and impact of in CSA, as well as gender-responsive budgeting the project. and incentives (Nelson and Huyer 2016). It could be that the government continues to be One of the emerging challenges may be a weak committed to climate change actions or that enabling environment for gender equality. A lack strategic partnerships are established with of political commitment or leadership on gender relevant institutions (training centers) working equality can prevent the uptake of a gender-responsive on gender and climate change issues. Specific approach and represent another relevant risk (see the actions might also be taken to reduce these first bullet point in Tip 5). This risk can be caused by risks, and well-defined assumptions must be a lack of gender awareness, or by resistance to change included in the logical or results framework. and to incorporating gender issues in the work. ▪▪ Unless conducted earlier during the planning Barriers can include lack of staff capacity or funding, cycle, this is the right time for an institutional or cultural barriers that limit women’s participation assessment to examine the gender capacity of and leadership. Addressing gender equality can the implementing institutions (See Figure 7). be perceived as an “add-on” to the main work and hence not be given the importance it needs. Another group of challenges relates to time constraints, 26 6. Gender integration in CSA project implementation, monitoring, and evaluation Figure 7 Issues to consider in an institutional assessment If not conducted during project formulation, do it now! ▪ Assessing the gender capacity of the implementing institutions. The outcome could be to include gender capacity development activities in the project to fill capacity gaps and raise gender awareness; ▪ Institutional culture: gender policies, strategies and institutional decision-making mechanisms; ▪ Existing gender expertise, competence and capacity in terms of gender mainstreaming in programmes and projects, including monitoring and evaluation systems; and ▪ Existing capacity of institutions /organizations representing the interests of the most marginalized men and women Source: FAO 2014a. During the project design, the outcomes, outputs, and activities were identified. Thanks to the results Example 6 of the analyses, we are now able to define what kinds Illiterate women and printed manuals of activities will be implemented for which groups of people. When defining the details of the activities In a rural area affected by food and nutrition insecurity, an and how they will be carried out, we have to adjust NGO sought to increase agricultural production by introducing high-quality seeds and improved use of fertilizer. But in the our implementation methods to the different socio- project area, illiteracy rates among women were very high economic groups, taking into account their needs and (70 percent) compared with men (30 percent). Men provided priorities as they emerged from the gender analyses the labor to clear the field, while women planted, weeded the (see Example 6). fields, and also took care of fertilizer application. Both men and women participated in harvesting. As farmers had never The gender analysis may have shed light on used this type of fertilizer before, it was important for them differences in seasonal and daily activities between to understand how to apply it correctly. The NGO distributed men and women. Furthermore, a gender gap might a manual, “Maximizing fertilizer use efficiency,” to each farmer, but project staff did not realize that most of the women who have been found in women’s access to weather and were going to use the fertilizer were illiterate and could not climate information, extension services, agricultural gain access to this critical information. As women were in inputs, land, and credit. When designing project charge of fertilizer use, most benefits were lost. implementation strategies, these differences and Source: FAO 2014a. gaps need to be taken into account. As our aim is for both men and women to benefit from the project, we must ensure, for example, that the extension methods are such that women can also participate (in terms of sex of the extension agent, timing and geographic Tip 6 location of the extension events, childcare, separate Organizing a workshop men’s and women’s groups or mixed groups, women’s time poverty, and other considerations; see Tip 6). ▶▶ The training methodology should target the different Demonstrations and study tours are usually an effective knowledge and skills of men and women. way of exposing farmers to new CSA practices, but ▶▶ Avoid workshops lasting several days, as women usually enabling women’s participation may require special cannot stay away for the night. Avoid locations that are too far away, because poor people will not be able arrangements. When improving farmers’ access to to reach them, and women will not be able to get there credit, men and women farmers may need different alone. Organize childcare facilities during the workshop. solutions, especially if land is used as collateral. To Source: FAO 2014a. cite another example, if we want to improve men’s and 27 6. Gender integration in CSA project implementation, monitoring, and evaluation women’s access to weather and climate information, In project monitoring and mid-term evaluation, we may need to use different channels for men and we need to assess if the priorities set by men and women if we are to reach both groups (Example 7). women in the identification and formulation phases It is important for the project team to be aware of have been met. We also must ensure that all groups the gender-related issues in their field of technical have an opportunity to voice their views on the CSA expertise and how to use this knowledge to make the practices that have been implemented and whether project gender-responsive. If staff members do not those practices respond to their needs. As part of the have these requirements and are already employed, project monitoring and reporting system, the project on-the-job training could be considered to develop progress reports (quarterly, biannual, and annual) gender skills and competences. This would include the should also reflect any progress that has been made in planning of capacity development for staff on gender- gender integration and describe problems that were related topics in their field of work (FAO 2014a) encountered or may possibly be encountered. The project should have a mechanism to adjust its activities Gender-sensitive monitoring and evaluation provides on the basis of monitoring information (see Example 8) feedback on how the activities affect the various (World Bank, FAO, and IFAD 2015; FAO 2014a). beneficiary groups, including women and men, At an early stage of project implementation, disaggregated by age, caste, education, employment, a baseline will be set to monitor the project’s and location. It helps assess whether the project’s achievements. The final setting of gender-sensitive planned activities are achieving gender equality goals. indicators and performance targets for a CSA project Gender-sensitive monitoring and evaluation also can be done only when adequate baseline data are allows us to measure and evaluate gender-related collected. The information collected for gender changes over time, showing how far and in what ways analysis can often establish part of the baseline. the gender equality objectives are being achieved. Whenever possible, monitoring should be carried out in a participatory way, for example through regular meetings or workshops with men and women farmers, field staff, government representatives, Example 7 and community organizations. Participatory impact Gender differences in information assessments enable community members to provide dissemination feedback and express their views on the project’s progress and impact. ▪▪ In the United Republic of Tanzania and in Malawi, Farm To draw lessons and recommendations for future Radio International and Farm Radio Trust, together with interventions, the final evaluation will analyze CCAFS, interviewed 1,280 male and female farmers and and document (1)  progress achieved by the end of pastoralists to assess the potential for interactive radio to deliver climate services. Farmers and pastoralists rated implementation, (2)  the project’s strengths and radios and mobile phones as having great potential to be weaknesses, and (3)  the differential effects and trusted and effective channels for climate information. potential long-term impacts on women and men. Women and men had different habits with respect to the amount of time they spent listening to the radio and the amount of mobile phone airtime they purchased. Women were more interested in radio listening clubs than men, and more men owned mobile phones than women, who Example 8 borrowed airtime from friends and family. The gender differences, however, were not as large as expected. Corrective action following evaluation ▪▪ Based on the study results, Farm Radio International and Farm Radio Trust are developing interactive radio A project aimed to increase food security and programming for climate services that best respond to nutrition in an area where local market prices for men and women farmers’ climate information needs fresh produce were extremely high. It assisted low- and preferred channels. Short weekly radio programs income women farmers in establishing backyard are anticipated, with the option of daily forecasts or vegetable gardens. The evaluation showed that interpretations (women’s preference), together with food availability in the households did not improve services via mobile phone (mostly accessible by men). significantly, because men would bring the produce to the market but would not then use the revenues Source: Adapted from World Bank, FAO and IFAD 2015. to buy food for their families. Corrective action was taken, which included a door-to-door campaign and community training to raise awareness on gender equality and nutrition at the household level. Source: FAO 2014a. 28 6. Gender integration in CSA project implementation, monitoring, and evaluation 6.2 Tools and methods to support ▪▪ Will men and women from different socio- gender mainstreaming economic groups have an opportunity to voice their views on the CSA practices that have During implementation, monitoring, and evaluation, been implemented and whether those practices we need to reinforce gender integration by making any respond to their needs? changes needed in the project if it becomes apparent ▪▪ Are the activities taking place as scheduled? that the anticipated gender-responsive results will not How are male and female beneficiaries be achieved and that existing inequalities will not be responding to the project? reduced. The following questions can help to secure ▪▪ Are the gender-related assumptions identified gender integration into project implementation: in the logical framework relevant? Have any ▪▪ Is gender integrated in the project new risks of reinforcing existing inequalities implementation plan and other relevant and discrimination appeared? documentation? ▪▪ Does the project environment support gender Figure  8 presents additional considerations for integration? If not, should the project take designing a project implementation strategy. special measures to overcome resistance to addressing gender issues? What kind of Possible methods for generating feedback on the measures? implementation process include: ▪▪ Does the chosen implementation strategy take ▪▪ Male and female beneficiary tracking: to into account the results of the gender analysis, understand which categories of people the such as differences in seasonal and daily project is reaching and to make mid-term activities of men and women? adjustments to better target poor households, ▪▪ How are the baseline data collected? Will sex- women, youth, ethnic minorities, and others. disaggregated data be part of the baseline? ▪▪ Beneficiary assessment: to generate direct ▪▪ Will the monitoring and evaluation system feedback from male and female beneficiaries gather relevant sex-disaggregated data and at different levels on their perceptions of the gender-sensitive indicators? project, its benefits and weaknesses, and areas ▪▪ Is there a mechanism for taking corrective for improvement. action in case the project monitoring reveals that gender targets are not likely to be met? Figure 8 Considerations for project implementation 29 Source: FAO 2014a. 6. Gender integration in CSA project implementation, monitoring, and evaluation A useful tool for monitoring a project’s impact from a Climate-Smart Agriculture” module of the Sourcebook gender perspective is the Women’s Empowerment in (World Bank, FAO, and IFAD 2015). Tip 7 provides a Agriculture Index (WEAI), which was launched in 2012 checklist for integrating gender in project monitoring by IFPRI, the Oxford Poverty and Human Development and evaluation. Initiative, and USAID’s Feed the Future. The WEAI is a standardized measure to directly capture women’s We are now approaching the end of the session. Before empowerment and inclusion levels in the agricultural closing, it is recommended that participants engage in sector. The index can be used to measure changes in a buzz group discussion to reflect some of the session’s the roles and extent of women’s engagement in the key messages. Possible discussion points are: “Could agricultural sector in five domains: decisions about you mention some examples of appropriate gender- agricultural production; access to and decision-making sensitive indicators for CSA projects? How would power over productive resources; control over use of you best ensure that decision makers are supportive income; leadership in the community; and time use.3 of gender integration?” The facilitators can also formulate other questions for the buzz groups. Finally, Example 9 and general guidance for gender-sensitive each buzz groups reports back to other groups in a project implementation, monitoring, and evaluation plenary discussion. can be found in Module 16 of the Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook4 (World Bank, FAO, and IFAD 2008). Additional useful tips and examples for gender- Tip 7 sensitive monitoring and evaluation are presented in Checklist for gender integration in “Technical Note 3: Monitoring and Evaluating Gender monitoring and evaluation through the CSA Project Cycle,” of the “Gender in Check that: ▶▶ The indicators and targets are gender- sensitive. Example 9 ▶▶ The baseline reflects gender equality issues. Indicators used for monitoring and evaluation ▶▶ The project has a mechanism for corrective in Kyrgyzstan action. ▶▶ In data collection, sex-disaggregation is the At the design stage of an agricultural area development minimum, and it is also important to consider project in Kyrgyzstan, rural women were identified as a age, ethnic group, and social status. highly disadvantaged group. Particular attention was given to mainstreaming gender issues, and efforts were made ▶▶ Project expenditures are monitored from a to increase the project’s inclusiveness. The monitoring gender perspective. and evaluation system examined the project’s effects with ▶▶ The project has mixed male-female teams for respect to gender, including women’s ownership of land; their data collection and possibly also for project access to and membership in producer organizations; their implementation. participation in training events and the types of training they were given; changes in women’s incomes compared with men; ▶▶ The project beneficiaries (both men and and the relative social position of women-headed households. women) can participate in monitoring and evaluation. Source: World Bank, FAO, and IFAD 2008. ▶▶ Opportunities for self-evaluation are considered. 3  Additional information and guidance on the use of the WEAI can be found at http://www.ifpri.org/topic/weai- resource-center. 4  Available at http://siteresources.worldbank.org/ 30 INTGENAGRLIVSOUBOOK/Resources/CompleteBook.pdf. 7 Introduction to group exercises The purpose of the group exercises is to familiarize the The second working group session relates more training participants with the gender dimensions of closely to project design and implementation. The agroforestry and/or conservation agriculture, which questions for the groups are as follows: When you are widely considered to be climate-smart practices start designing a gender-responsive agroforestry or in many countries. Appendix 5 presents background conservation agriculture project, what are the first material to introduce the gender considerations of three steps to take? Why these three? What gender these two practices and support the group discussions. issues do you need to consider in the design of the As time may not allow all groups to discuss both topics, activities and implementation strategy for a gender- it is advisable that the groups select either agroforestry responsive agroforestry or conservation agriculture or conservation agriculture. project? The first working group session focuses on gender analysis. The participants are asked to discuss two topics centered on the following questions: What are the three main gender issues when promoting agroforestry or conservation agriculture in your country? Why these three? Would these issues create barriers to adoption of agroforestry or conservation agriculture? If yes, how could they be overcome? 31 Appendix 1 A model agenda for a two-day training workshop Training Workshop for Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture for Development Practitioners Agenda Day 1 Day 2 Time Topic Time Topic 08:30 – 09:00 Registration and welcome 08:30 – 09:00 Session 6: Opening session ▶▶ Recap of the previous day 09:00 – 10:30 Session 1: Introduction ▶▶ Opening, introductions and 09:00 – 10:30 Session 7: Gender mainstreaming in objectives of the workshop CSA project formulation ▶▶ Review of the results of the ▶▶ Gender analysis during formulation; pre-workshop survey good practices and tools and methods available 10:30 – 11:00 Coffee Break ▶▶ A local case study by an NGO or 11:00 – 13:00 Session 2: Climate change, climate- other practitioner, and discussions smart agriculture and gender 10:30 – 11:00 Coffee Break ▶▶ Terminology and concepts ▶▶ Gender dimensions in climate change 11:00 – 12:30 Session 8: Gender integration into adaptation, mitigation and CSA CSA project implementation and M&E ▶▶ A local case: Gender integration ▶▶ Gender-responsive project into national level agriculture and implementation and M&E; climate policies (preferably by a good practices and tools and representative of the local Ministry methods available of Agriculture) ▶▶ A local case study by an NGO or other practitioner, and discussions 13.00 – 14:00 Lunch Break 12:30 – 13:00 Session 9: Preparing for the Working 14:00 – 15:30 Session 3: Gender analysis in CSA Groups project identification ▶▶ Gender in stakeholder analysis, 13.00 – 14:00 Lunch Break livelihood analysis, needs assessment 14:00 – 15:00 Session 9 continues: Working Groups, and situation analysis second session ▶▶ A local case study by an NGO or ▶▶ Gender issues in conservation other practitioner, and discussions agriculture and agroforestry 15:30 – 16:00 Coffee Break project cycles 16:00 – 17:00 Session 4: Working Groups, 15:00 – 15:30 Session 10: Discussion first session ▶▶ Presentation of the main findings ▶▶ Gender issues in conservation of the working groups agriculture and agroforestry 15:30 – 16:00 Coffee Break 17:00 – 17:30 Session 5: Discussion and closing 16:00 – 17:00 Session 11: Summary, evaluation and of Day 1 closing of the workshop 32 Appendix 2 Glossary Climate: Climate is usually defined as the “average Disaster risk reduction: The concept and practice of weather” or more rigorously as the statistical reducing disaster risks through systematic efforts to description of the weather in terms of the mean analyze and manage the causal factors of disasters, and variability of relevant quantities over periods including through reduced exposure to hazards, of several decades. These quantities are most often lessened vulnerability of people and property, wise surface variables such as temperature, precipitation, management of land and the environment, and and wind, but in a wider sense the “climate” is the improved preparedness for adverse events (FAO 2013). description of the state of the climate system (IPCC).5 Gender: Gender refers to culturally based expectations Climate change: A change in climate that is attributed of the roles and behaviors of men and women. The directly or indirectly to human activity that alters term distinguishes the socially constructed from the composition of the global atmosphere and which the biologically determined aspects of being male or is (in addition to natural variability) observed over a female (IFAD).6 comparable period of time (IPCC). Gender analysis: The study of the different roles of Climate change adaptation: Initiatives and measures to women and men in order to understand what they do, reduce the vulnerability of natural and human systems what resources they have, and what their needs and against actual or expected climate change effects. priorities are. Various types of adaptation exist, such as anticipatory and reactive, private and public, and autonomous and Gender discrimination: Refers to any exclusion or planned. Examples include raising river or coastal restriction made on the basis of gender roles and dikes, or substituting temperature-sensitive plants relations that prevents a person from enjoying full with plants that resist temperature shocks, among human rights (FAO). others (IPCC). Gender equality: Equal participation of men and Climate change mitigation: Technological change women in decision making, equal ability to exercise and substitution that reduces and/or removes net their human rights, equal access to and control over greenhouse gas emissions or emissions per unit of resources and the benefits of development, and equal output. Mitigation means implementing policies to opportunities in employment and all other aspects of reduce greenhouse gas emissions and enhance sinks their livelihoods (FAO and CCAFS 2013). (FAO 2013). Gender equity: Fairness and impartiality in the Climate-smart agriculture: Agriculture that treatment of men and women in terms of rights, integrates the three dimensions of sustainable benefits, obligations and opportunities (FAO). development (economic, social, and environmental) by jointly addressing food security and climate change Gender mainstreaming: The process of assessing challenges. It is composed of three main pillars: the implications for women and men of any planned (1)  sustainably increasing agricultural productivity action in all areas and at all levels (UN). Gender and incomes; (2)  adapting and building resilience to mainstreaming is the globally recognized strategy for climate change; and (3)  reducing and/or removing achieving gender equality. greenhouse gas emissions, where possible (FAO 2013). 5  IPCC (www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_ 6  IFAD (2015) gender glossary (available at www.ifad.org/ and_data_glossary.shtml). gender/glossary.htm). 33 Appendix 2. Glossary Gender-responsive: Gender-responsive policies and Gender gap in agriculture: The constraints in practices recognize and address the specific needs accessing productive resources, markets, and services and realities of women and men based on the social are usually more severe among women farmers, farm construction of gender roles (World Bank, FAO, and workers, and rural entrepreneurs than among men. IFAD 2015). This gender gap affects women’s productivity and reduces their contribution to output of the agricultural Gender-responsive approach to climate-smart sector (FAO 2011). agriculture: An approach where the particular needs, priorities, and realities of men and women are Vulnerability: The degree to which a system (or an recognized and adequately addressed in the design individual) is susceptible to, and unable to cope with, and application of CSA, so that both men and women adverse effects of climate change, including climate can equally benefit. variability and extremes. Vulnerability is a function of the character, magnitude, and rate of climate change Gender-transformative: Gender-transformative and variation to which a system is exposed, as well as interventions seek to transform gender roles and its sensitivity and its adaptive capacity (IPCC). promote more gender-equitable relationships between men and women. They challenge the underlying causes Weather: Climate and weather are often used of gender inequality that are rooted in broad political, interchangeably, but this is not correct – each refers economic, and socio-economic structures (World to conditions and behavior of the atmosphere over a Bank, FAO, and IFAD 2015). These interventions different period of time. Weather is what is happening encourage awareness of gender roles, improving the now, today, yesterday, this season, or over the past few position of women, challenging the imbalance of years – the temperature, cloud cover, humidity, wind power between men and women, and addressing power direction and speed, and rainfall. Climate refers to differences between women and service providers. average weather conditions over a longer period of Gender-transformative approaches seek to challenge time, generally a period of 30 years or more, and how rigid gender roles and relations, and often go beyond the atmosphere has behaved on average over this time the individual level to focus on interpersonal, social, period (Simpson 2016). structural, and institutional practices that address gender inequalities. 34 Appendix 3 Checklist with gender-relevant questions to guide data collection and project formulation, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation This appendix, which is mostly based on FAO’s SEAGA ▪▪ What are the most important environmental, Field Handbook (FAO 2001)  and FAO’s and CCAFS’s economic, institutional, and social patterns in Training Guide: Gender and Climate Change Research the village? Do men and women have the same in Agriculture and Food Security for Development (FAO views on these patterns? What are the main and CCAFS 2013), provides examples of questions differences between the views of men and that can guide: (1)  gender-responsive information women? collection during project identification and design ▪▪ How do these environmental and economic and (2)  gender-responsive project implementation trends impact the livelihoods of men and and monitoring and evaluation. The relevance of the women? questions depends, for example, on the size and focus ▪▪ What are the main natural resources and the of the project or program as well as on resources available services? Who uses them and for what available for data collection and analysis. This is purposes? why the questions need to be adjusted and the most ▪▪ What types of households are there? How many relevant ones selected for each context. households are female-headed? Is the number While the answers to these questions can be growing? If so, why? obtained through different means – for instance, ▪▪ What were the past climate conditions like, through farmer interviews, key informant interviews, what are they now, and what are the projections? farmer workshops, and national/local statistics – the Do men and women report seeing changes use of participatory research tools is encouraged. or impacts? What are men’s and women’s Whatever the means, it is important to ensure that perceptions of those changes or impacts? men, women, boys, and girls from different socio- What is getting better in the village in terms of economic groups have a chance to speak and be climate, and what is getting worse? adequately represented. ▪▪ What are the policies and institutional support During project identification it is important to mechanisms for climate change adaptation analyze the relationship between the nature of the and mitigation, CSA activities, and gender problem to be addressed and the stakeholders affected, mainstreaming? What are the constraints in particular the target beneficiaries. caused by policies or institutions? 1. Questions for a context analysis 2. Questions to guide a vulnerability and capacity analysis Rural life is continually changing due to environmental crises, economic trends, social patterns, and It is important to assess the main sources of institutional changes. These forces influence the vulnerability of men and women, who are most affected livelihoods and development opportunities of rural by climate change, and to strengthen their resilience, men and women and require them to adjust to, taking into account their existing capacity. cope with, and survive numerous changes. Possible ▪▪ Who in the household is vulnerable to climate questions to be asked in assessing the context, taking change and why? How is this vulnerability gender into account, are: differentiated according to gender, age, and other social indicators? 35 Appendix 3. Checklist with gender-relevant questions to guide data collection and project formulation, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation ▪▪ Who in the community is most vulnerable to ▪▪ Who participates and who has a say in decision climate change? making (including young people, and women- ▪▪ What do men and women perceive to be at risk and men-headed households)? due to changes in climate? ▪▪ What adaptation and resilience-building ▪▪ How do men and women currently deal with activities do different men and women propose? climatic risks? ▪▪ What kind of CSA activities best support the ▪▪ What is the existing capacity of affected men goal of men and women benefiting equally from and women to cope with climate change? Do the project? they have access to resources and services to ▪▪ What kind of activities best support the better cope with the impacts of climate change? principle of giving priority to disadvantaged What is the difference between men’s and groups? women’s capacities? ▪▪ Is equal access to resources and information ▪▪ What are the coping mechanisms of men and among stakeholders ensured? women? ▪▪ Is participation of women ensured? ▪▪ Who decides what risk reduction and ▪▪ Is the participation of disadvantaged groups adaptation strategy to implement? Who takes ensured? actions and implements the strategy, and is he/ she involved in the decision-making? ▪▪ What are the implications of a given risk 4. Questions for assessing the reduction and adaptation strategy on men’s and institutional setting women’s use of time and labor? ▪▪ What information is needed to implement the It is important to identify relevant local groups and risk reduction and adaptation strategy? Is this institutions, clarifying decision-making roles and information shared in the household? existing linkages between institutions at different ▪▪ How is the risk reduction and adaptation levels (such as the field and macro levels). strategy likely to affect household and ▪▪ Are there local groups that are organized around individual food security and nutrition? natural resources and environmental issues (for example, climate change, water and forest use)? Do both men and women participate in 3. Questions for a stakeholder analysis these? ▪▪ Are there local groups that are organized Identifying relevant stakeholders helps us to make sure around an economic issue, such as savings and that interventions are realistic and that we identify credit or agriculture? both partnerships and possible conflicts in order to ▪▪ Are there local groups that are organized reach consensus and build commitment. around social issues, such as health and youth? ▪▪ For each adaptation, mitigation, or CSA activity ▪▪ Are there linkages between local groups and being considered, who are the stakeholders macro-level institutions? (individuals, households, communities, ▪▪ Are there groups exclusively for women or organizations, and others)? Do they include men? Are there groups from which women or women, men, boys, and girls? Do they include men are excluded? Which ones? Why? different socio-economic groups? ▪▪ Are poor men and women excluded from any of ▪▪ Are there certain groups that stand to gain or these local groups? lose more than others? Men and women? Rich ▪▪ Are boys or girls excluded from any of these or poor? groups? ▪▪ Is there a conflict between the different ▪▪ Are there groups exclusively for youth? stakeholders? Are there partnerships? ▪▪ What are the institutional supports and ▪▪ How do different stakeholders perceive the constraints for gender-responsive CSA risks associated with climate change? How development at the local level? do they perceive the benefits of mitigation, adaptation, or CSA activities? 36 Appendix 3. Checklist with gender-relevant questions to guide data collection and project formulation, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation 5. Questions for a livelihood analysis 6. Questions for analyzing access to resources and services A livelihood analysis answers the questions of who does what, who uses what, and who controls what, We need to understand the gender-based use and allowing us to learn about the activities of different control of resources within the household and the people and their relative access to resources, both for community, in order to see who has access to and basic needs and income. control over these resources and services. ▪▪ How do men, women, boys, and girls make their ▪▪ What are men’s and women’s resources for living? Are there differences between different coping with climate change? socio-economic groups? ▪▪ Do men and women access climate and weather ▪▪ How do the livelihood systems of men and information? In what form? How do they use women (or those of different socio-economic this information? groups) compare? ▪▪ What information is available to men and ▪▪ What are the most important sources of income women, and male- and female-headed of different groups, including men and women? households, about the various CSA practices ▪▪ What are the most important expenditures of and farming systems? different groups, including men and women? ▪▪ What are the formal and informal institutions ▪▪ What are the likely climate change impacts that supply men and women with the resources on current livelihoods? Are certain sectors or needed for adaptation, mitigation, or CSA groups of people more or less vulnerable than activities, including information, financial others? Why? What are the perceptions of men resources, and inputs? and women on these questions? ▪▪ Do men and women have access to the labor ▪▪ Are households and individuals able to meet market to earn income in times of need? their basic needs? ▪▪ Are men and women able to access the resources ▪▪ How diversified are the livelihoods of men and they need (such as cash, labor, and land)? women? What solutions have men and women ▪▪ Do men and women, and male- and female- applied in response to the changing climate? headed households, have access to agricultural ▪▪ What are the patterns for use and control of key inputs? resources by gender, age, and socio-economic ▪▪ Who owns, controls, and uses the agricultural group? resources in the household (specifically land, ▪▪ How is climate change likely to affect the use of trees, water, seeds, manure, livestock, pest resources among men and women? control systems, and other resources)? ▪▪ How is work in agriculture, forestry, and fisheries/aquaculture shared between men and women? What are the main sources of the work 7. Questions for a needs assessment burden for women? How can we reduce their time poverty? We need to identify both practical and strategic needs ▪▪ What are men’s and women’s roles in decision of men and women in order to better respond to their making on agricultural/forestry/fisheries/ priorities and develop their capacity. aquaculture practices? Do they participate ▪▪ What are men’s and women’s priorities in equally? terms of short-term and long-term adaptation ▪▪ Does land tenure of men and women differ, and and CSA needs? does it affect their decision making on which ▪▪ Does meeting men’s needs compromise agricultural practices to employ? women’s needs, and vice versa? ▪▪ Is a gender-differentiated climate vulnerability analysis available to assess the needs and constraints of men and women? 37 Appendix 3. Checklist with gender-relevant questions to guide data collection and project formulation, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation ▪▪ What is the literacy level among men, women, 9. Questions to guide gender-responsive boys, and girls? project implementation, monitoring, ▪▪ Do the proposed adaptation, mitigation, and and evaluation CSA activities meet the food security and nutrition needs of men, women, boys, and girls? During implementation, monitoring, and evaluation, ▪▪ Do these activities entail changes that affect we need to reinforce gender integration by making any men and women? What kind of changes and changes needed in the project, if it becomes apparent within which sector? that the anticipated gender-responsive results will not be achieved and that existing inequalities will not be reduced. 8. Questions to guide project ▪▪ Is gender integrated in the project formulation implementation plan and other relevant documentation? The gender analysis guides the formulation of the ▪▪ Is the project environment supportive of project so that it will provide benefits for both men and gender integration? If not, should the project women or reduce the gender gap. During this phase, take special measures to overcome resistance the questions become more concrete and future- to addressing gender issues? What kind of oriented. Some examples are provided below: measures? ▪▪ What are the potential roles of men and women ▪▪ Does the chosen implementation strategy take in the project? into account the results of the gender analysis, ▪▪ What are the implications of adopting the such as differences in seasonal and daily new CSA practices in terms of labor and time activities of men and women? requirements for men and women? ▪▪ How is the baseline data collected? Will sex- ▪▪ How will men’s and women’s different access to disaggregated data be part of the baseline? land, water, inputs, credit, and labor be taken ▪▪ Will the M&E system gather relevant data from into account in project design? the gender perspective, with the inclusion of ▪▪ In case of a change in agricultural practices and gender-sensitive indicators? farming systems, how is it likely to affect men ▪▪ Is there a mechanism to take corrective actions and women? in case the project monitoring reveals gender ▪▪ In case of a change in household energy systems, targets are likely not to be met? how is it likely to affect men and women? ▪▪ Will men and women from different socio- ▪▪ In case of a change in water use, how is it likely economic groups have an opportunity to voice to affect men and women? their views on the CSA practices that have been ▪▪ Are women’s, men’s, or youth groups active in implemented, and on whether those practices the community, and what could their role be in respond to their needs? project implementation? ▪▪ Are the activities taking place as scheduled? ▪▪ What are the gender-responsive objectives, How are male and female beneficiaries outcomes, and outputs in relation to CSA for responding to the project? the overall project and for each component? ▪▪ Are the gender-related assumptions identified ▪▪ What are appropriate gender-sensitive in the logical framework relevant? Have any indicators for monitoring progress and new risks of reinforcing existing inequalities achievements? and discrimination appeared? ▪▪ Does the project staffing plan include adequate gender expertise? ▪▪ Is a distinct budget allocated for gender- responsive activities (for example, funds for gender expertise, gender analysis, gender training of staff and stakeholders, and actions specifically targeted at women or youth)? ▪▪ Does the project capacity development plan reflect gender needs? 38 Appendix 4 Tools to support gender analysis and gender mainstreaming This appendix is mostly based on FAO’s SEAGA 1. Context analysis toolkit Field Level Handbook (2001)  and FAO’s and CCAFS’s Training Guide: Gender and Climate Change Research In a particular community, a number of socio- in Agriculture and Food Security for Development economic patterns influence how people make their (2013). Additional information on the tools mentioned living and their options for change. Using the context in this module and other participatory tools can be analysis tools helps us to understand these patterns. found in the following guidelines and materials: ▪▪ FAO (2001), “SEAGA Field Level Handbook” Village resource map: helps us to learn about a (available at www.fao.org/docrep/012/ community and its resource-base. The primary ak214e/00.ppdf). concern is with getting useful information about local ▪▪ FAO and CCAFS (2013), “Training Guide: men and women’s perceptions of resources. Users Gender and Climate Change Research in should determine the contents of the map focusing Agriculture and Food Security for Development” on what is important to them. The map may include (available at www.fao.org/docrep/015/md280e/ some of the following information: roads, houses, md280e00.htm). buildings, water sites and sources, agricultural lands, ▪▪ FAO’s e-learning tool on Gender in Food and forest lands, fish ponds, grazing areas, shops, markets, Nutrition Security (2014) (available at http:// health clinics, schools, and waste sites, among others. www.fao.org/elearning/#/elc/en/courses/ GEND). Transect walks: for learning about the community’s ▪▪ FAO (2017), “Guide to mainstreaming gender in natural resource base, land use, location, sizes of FAO’s project cycle” (2017, forthcoming) farms, availability of infrastructure and services, and ▪▪ Jost, C., Ferdous, N., & Spicer, T.D. (2014), economic activities. Transects build directly upon the “Gender and Inclusion Toolbox,” CCAFS, ICRAF Village resource map. It is a kind of one-dimensional and CARE (available at https://ccafs.cgiar.org/ map of a line cut through a village. The purpose of the gender-and-inclusion-toolbox-.WG-zC5LQ_sl). walk is to organize and clarify spatial information and ▪▪ Mwongera, C., Shikuku, K.M., Winowiecki, summarize local conditions in the area in question. The L., Twyman, J., Läderach, P., Ampaire, E., van information is gathered through direct observations Asten, P. & Twomlow, S. (2015), “Climate-smart while walking a straight line through the community. Agriculture Rapid Appraisal (CSA-RA): A Prioritization Tool for Outscaling CSA. Step-by- Venn diagram: helps us to learn about local groups step guidelines” (available at https://ccafs.cgiar. and institutions and their linkages to outside org/publications/climate-smart-agriculture- organizations. This exercise is used to document the rapid-appraisal-csa-ra-prioritization-tool- key local groups and institutions which operate in the outscaling-csa#.VwdgK3o-7Ao). area and are utilized by the project target population, or that are part of providing a specific service. Additionally, it can be used to illustrate linkages, conflicts, and collaborations between different groups and institutions. A Venn diagram can be used on its own or serve as a foundation or a supplement for the institutional profiles tool. 39 Appendix 4. Tools to support gender analysis and gender mainstreaming Institutional profiles: help us to learn about the Daily activity clocks: for learning about the division goals, achievements, and needs of local groups and of labor and labor intensity by gender and socio- institutions. They help to clarify decision-making roles economic group. These clocks can illustrate all and identify potential areas of conflict. Moreover, they the different types of activities carried out by an can be used to identify the extent to which men and individual in one day. They are useful for looking at women farmers can get support (information, advice, relative workloads between different groups of people resources, credit, and so on) from existing institutions, in the community (men, women, wealthy, poor, young, and to identify areas for improvement. A chart of key and elderly). Daily activity clocks can also illustrate institutions that are potentially involved in the CSA seasonal variations in workload, or the workload project is prepared jointly with the participants. at a particular time of the year. Furthermore, they provide a baseline of what people do now in order to understand how modifications to farming practices 2. Livelihood analysis toolkit may increase or decrease the tasks and work burdens of different groups. Livelihood analysis focuses on how individuals, households, and groups of households make their living, Seasonal calendars are used to learn about the as well as their access to resources to do so. It reveals seasonality of men’s and women’s labor, food and water the activities men, women, boys, and girls undertake availability, income and consumption patterns, and so to meet basic needs and generate income. Gender and on. They also guide farmers’ perceptions of typical socio-economic group differences are shown with seasonal conditions, including rainfall amounts and respect to labor and decision-making patterns. timing. It is useful to discuss the entire year, rather than the growing season only, as events over the year Farming system diagram: helps us to understand have an impact on each other. This tool allows for household members’ on-farm, off-farm, and non- discussion of the linkages between climate variability farm activities and resources. It thus clarifies how and specific key activities and resources that occur or rural households’ livelihoods are assembled. It are available at different points during the year. The works with input-output diagrams and stream lines. tool also helps to determine whether workloads or The diagram is designed to highlight the farming timing of the activities have shifted from one season system, including on-farm activities (such as crop to another compared with previous years, by inquiring and livestock production), off-farm activities (such whether the seasonal calendar has changed over time. as paid employment in urban areas), and non-farm activities (such as marketing). It also shows the flow Capacity and vulnerability analysis matrix: used to of resources to and from the household and who understand the resources and needs of men and women. is involved, by gender. The diagram may show how It supports long-term planning to address underlying livelihoods depend on different resources and how population vulnerabilities. Data disaggregated by sex, vulnerable they are to weather and climate change. In age, disability, health status, location, ethnicity, and addition, the diagram can illustrate men’s and women’s other sociocultural factors are key: they enable a better specialized knowledge linked to different areas of the understanding of the vulnerabilities and capacities of farming system – knowledge that can be built upon for different socio-economic groups. Three components adopting CSA practices. of capacities and vulnerabilities are considered: physical and material resources; social and other institutions and relationships; and motivational and attitudinal factors. 40 Appendix 4. Tools to support gender analysis and gender mainstreaming Changing farming practices: this tool documents how Pairwise ranking matrix: helps us to learn about the a change in farming practices (planting trees, change priority climate-related problems of men and women in use of external inputs, new soil management and different socio-economic groups. It also allows for practices) affects the activities of men and women. easy comparison of different people’s profiles. Many It can also augment discussion on how the change in priority problems are related to the day-to-day struggle farming practice came about, roles in decision making, to meet basic needs, while others relate to aspirations and access to any benefits created by the change. for the future. Some problems are gender-related, such as women’s lack of control over resources, or Seasonal food security calendar: documents the gender-based division of labor. Pairwise ranking connections between seasonal climatic conditions highlights how the priority problems of men and and food security over the course of the year. Creating women differ, and where they overlap. Similarly, the two seasonal food security calendars, one for normal ranking reveals needs of members of different socio- climatic conditions and one for abnormal climatic economic groups. conditions (e.g. a very dry year), makes it possible to document how food security shifts under different Flow diagram: helps us to understand the causes and conditions. It can also be used to document coping effects of priority problems in the area. It builds on strategies and to assess if food security has changed the Pairwise Ranking Matrix and provides views on over time. people’s understanding of the causes of their problems and the effects resulting from these problems. It can Climate-related risk management practices: this tool also be used for identifying possible solutions. The captures men and women farmers’ perceptions of diagram can show which problems have local solutions, cause and effect of a major past climate-related event, which ones require external assistance to solve, and as well as the impact and responses, particularly as which ones (such as extreme weather events) require regards food security. The tool helps also to understand risk reductions (such as preparedness). various risk management strategies. Problem analysis chart: brings together the priority problems of all different groups in the community 3. Stakeholders’ priorities analysis toolkit to help explore local coping strategies and identify opportunities to address the climate change-related These tools help to identify people and institutions problems. With this tool, all the different problems who have a stake in, and who stand to gain or lose are presented and discussed with the community as from, the proposed activities. For every adaptation, a whole, showing where different people’s priorities mitigation, and CSA activity proposed, the different overlap and where they differ. We can also learn about stakeholders are identified, also revealing conflicts and the causes of problems and coping strategies and partnerships. In this toolkit, the focus is on learning whether efforts to address a particular problem have about people’s priority problems and the opportunities already been made. The chart process will also look to address them. at opportunities for CSA practices. For this phase, external expertise is required to provide information Venn diagram of stakeholders: helps us to learn on different solutions and to assess people’s ideas. about the insider and outsider stakeholders for each action proposed. This is the same Venn diagram as in the context analysis toolkit. A stakeholders’ conflict and partnership matrix can be added to learn about conflicts of interest and common interests among the stakeholders. 41 Appendix 5 Material for working group discussions on agroforestry and conservation agriculture This appendix provides materials related to Background information on the gender agroforestry development and conservation agriculture dimensions in agroforestry development7 that workshop facilitators can use to organize group discussions aimed at making learners reflect on the Agroforestry practices include fodder shrubs, gender implications of these potential CSA practices. “fertilizer trees” to improve soils, fruit and vegetable Depending on the interests of the participants, production and processing, nuts, and woodlots, they may choose to discuss topics related either to among others. Fodder shrubs are usually protein-rich agroforestry or conservation agriculture. For each legumes grown along boundaries and pathways or in exercise, the appendix provides a detailed description lines forming terraces, and are used to reduce erosion, of the expected results and suggests steps to guide provide fuelwood, and feed cows and goats. They can be the discussion in the working groups, along with beneficial to women for the income obtained, and can background information on gender-related evidence also free up their time for other productive enterprises. from past interventions. Promising “fertilizer tree” options include improved tree fallows (planting fast-growing leguminous trees or shrubs in rotation with crops), biomass transfer Working group session 1: Agroforestry (cutting and incorporating leaf biomass from trees Exercise: Analyzing gender and shrubs as green manure) and mixed intercropping aspects to identify an agroforestry (planting nitrogen-fixing trees). development project Agroforestry practices for replenishing soil fertility are attractive to women farmers in particular because, Expected result: like fodder shrubs, they involve low inputs and At the end of this exercise, the trainees are expected labor, often have high returns (high maize yields, for to become more aware of the gender dimensions of example), produce fuelwood, and reduce weeds. Other agroforestry development, and be able to better analyze relevant agroforestry practices include woodlots, fruit gender issues when they identify a CSA project. and vegetable production and processing practices, medicine, gums, resins, nuts, and local fruits, which Proposed steps: can provide women with significant income (from 1. Form small working groups of four to five processing and selling jam, wine, and juice from participants. indigenous fruits, for example). By providing nutrients 2. Review and discuss the background information for crops, these agroforestry practices can potentially on the gender dimensions in agroforestry help farmers improve their soils and incomes, thereby development. increasing food security. 3. Answer the probing questions described at the Women are attracted to agroforestry because of end of the handout to guide the discussion and the minimal inputs and labor required, particularly reporting. with regard to cash outlays, and also because of the 4. Report the results of the working groups in substantial benefits in terms of food, fuelwood, fodder, plenary. and other products and services that they receive (particularly in times of need). These practices play an important role in enterprises that are considered to be women’s domain, such as indigenous fruit and vegetable products and processing, fodder, and mulch. 42 7  Adapted from Kiptot and Franzel (2011). Appendix 5. Material for working group discussions on agroforestry and conservation agriculture Some crops, such as Vitelleria paradoxa (shea) and CSA technologies, there is evidence that they Gnetum africanum, can also be used as vegetables. adopt those technologies, resulting in stronger Timber products are considered a cash crop and resilience to climate change for their households, primarily reserved for men’s use. communities, and food systems. Women are frequently responsible for managing trees and carrying out most of the work, especially 3. Women’s involvement in agroforestry during the establishment stages (planting, weeding, product markets: and watering). Men and women often have different Women’s involvement in marketing agroforestry objectives when planting trees: men are more products is usually confined to small retail trade, interested in trees for commercial purposes, while while men dominate the wholesale trade. Female women prefer tree products for subsistence use such traders also tend to receive lower marketing as fuelwood, soil fertility, improved fodder, and fruit. margins than men. The reason for this disparity Women are usually limited to products considered to is that men usually have more stock than women, have little or no commercial value, while men reserve as they have better access to capital and to market higher-value products for themselves. information systems. Women’s lower literacy level represents another important disadvantage in marketing that prevents them from benefiting from Key gender issues to consider in expanding national and international markets. agroforestry development 1. Women’s access to productive resources What can be done to increase women’s and services: participation in agroforestry? Agriculture is underperforming in many developing countries in part because women lack Based on experience, a series of technical, policy, resources, services, and employment opportunities and institutional recommendations can be made to make the most productive use of their time. It to promote the active participation of women in is important to identify specific “gender gaps”; agroforestry, taking care to adapt to the local context: invest in programs and policies that eliminate discrimination against women under the law (such Technological interventions as land tenure laws that do not allow women to own 1. Domestication of agroforestry species: land); and make rural institutions gender-aware Many tree products that benefit women are collected to ensure that both men and women are equally from forests, woodlands/rangelands, parklands, or served by these institutions. These efforts start on farms. With the increase in population, some by the creation of an evidence base (through sex- products are becoming scarce, and women must disaggregated data and performance indicators) walk longer distances to obtain them. Promoting to support policy makers with gender-responsive participatory domestication will help integrate planning and assessment of the gender impacts of valuable species into appropriate farming systems agroforestry interventions. and technologies that are socially, culturally, and economically acceptable. Such initiatives can 2. Women’s access to agroforestry information result in the uptake of appropriate propagation and training: methods and cultivars that meet a range of market Men typically receive more support than women requirements (such as fruit meeting specific from extension services. Women’s low engagement criteria for size, taste, and maturity period), results from the bias of predominantly male allowing farmers, especially women, to have a year- extension workers to focus mainly on men; local round flow of cash from agroforestry products. sociocultural barriers that limit communication between male extension workers and women; 2. Development of appropriate storage and women’s lack of time to participate in extension processing methods: activities and off-farm training; and their limited Many agroforestry products, particularly fruit, education and ability to use technical information. have a very short shelf-life. It is important to In cases where female farmers have increased develop techniques that improve the post-harvest their knowledge and access to information about quality of fruit, such as regulating harvest time to 43 maximize post-harvest fruit color and sweetness; to market information, women farmers can greatly improving artificial ripening under different post- reduce losses caused by wastage – the result of lack harvest incubation regimes; and extending shelf- of buyers – as they will be able to make informed life with and without refrigeration. Where there is decisions about when to produce, what to produce, a demand, marketing products that are processed for whom to produce, and when and where to sell appropriately can also increase women’s incomes. their products. Most women still use traditional processing techniques that are strenuous and time-consuming. 3. Improving women’s access to finance from Tools and practices that help reduce the drudgery microcredit institutions: and time requirements of women’s tasks, such as To increase women’s access to financial services, de-husking, drying kernels, land preparation, and governments need to intervene and encourage weeding, will free up their time considerably for the development of rural institutions (such as other productive activities. Such interventions microcredit institutions) whose regulations are should be accompanied with training to develop friendly to women and respond to their specific women’s business, marketing, and leadership skills. needs. Potential interventions include accepting alternative forms of collateral other than land, Policy interventions such as machinery, furniture, and other tangible 1. Increasing women’s access to extension services: assets that women may have; strengthening the Entry points to increase women’s access to extension capacity of existing social organizations (such services include: training women extension as women’s groups); and linking these groups to officers and/or volunteer women farmer-trainers, financial institutions. particularly to serve communities that have strong traditions prohibiting male extension officers Institutional interventions from interacting with women farmers; targeting 1. Strengthening local institutions and farmers’ women’s groups for assistance; supporting local organizations: advisory centers, where men and women can Women producers are largely still trapped at access technical agricultural information; finding the production end of the agrifood value chain. out from women in which periods of the season Governments, NGOs, and the private sector can and day they are free to attend meetings/field days/ intervene by fostering the emergence of women seminars; holding separate meetings for men and entrepreneurs, facilitating them to form and women; creating video tutorials for women who are strengthen farmers’ groups, and linking them not able to participate in tours; establishing a fixed up with markets and industry. By engaging in quota for women (for instance, that at least half of collective action, women can gain a more powerful the participants must be women); and ensuring position in the value chain, which is advantageous that extension activities address different group in several ways: it gives them stronger bargaining interests (for example, women are more interested power and capacity to buy and sell inputs in bulk in products such as fruit, fuelwood, and vegetables, (ensuring sustainable productivity); it reduces whereas men prefer trees for timber and poles). their transaction costs; it helps them to attract more and larger buyers; it increases their access 2. Supporting women’s access to market to outside resources (such as extension and information: development assistance) and markets (including For women to benefit from market information, lucrative fair-trade and other certified markets); deliberate efforts must be made by governments, and above all, it allows them to contribute to the the private sector and NGOs to specifically target policy formulation process. their needs and priorities. Efforts might involve subsidizing the provision of mobile phones to 2. Development of new products: women, or offering specialized training on how to For women to equally compete and have an edge, use available agricultural services (such as market they must expand and diversify into new high- price services, texting for agricultural advice, farm value products such as oil, soap, juices, body radio and television shows, and so on). With access lotions, wine, and leaf meal. 44 3. Investment in gender-aware research: Working group session 2: Agroforestry Key research areas for further investigation include: Exercise: Analyzing gender aspects (1)  measuring actual income women receive during the design, implementation, from agroforestry, relative to non-agroforestry monitoring, and evaluation of gender- enterprises; (2)  assessing the effectiveness responsive agroforestry projects and impact of alternative dissemination methods on women’s participation and benefits; Expected result: (3)  determining how different categories of At the end of this group exercise, the training women (such as female-headed households and workshop participants are expected to have acquired women in male-headed households) benefit a better understanding on how to analyze the gender from agroforestry; (4)  identifying success stories dimensions of agroforestry development when they and assessing the factors that contributed to design, implement, monitor, and evaluate a CSA their success; (5) documenting cultural beliefs project, and to be able to identify the most relevant or taboos regarding tree planting and how they gender issues related to their own projects. influence adoption of agroforestry by women; (6)  developing mechanisms to help increase Proposed steps: women’s participation in marketing and income 1. Form small working groups of four to five generated from marketing; (7)  determining how participants (preferably the same group as in gender roles influence women’s adoption of the session 1 working group described above). agroforestry practices; and (8) increasing women’s 2. Review and discuss the case study described participation in the production of tree crops that below related to an agroforestry development are traditionally the domain of men, such as coffee, program. cocoa, and oil palm. 3. Analyze the checklist included in the box to start a discussion on the gender implications of the proposed program. Probing questions to guide discussion 4. Answer the last two probing questions and reporting mentioned at the end of the handout to guide the reporting. 1. What are the three main gender issues to 5. Report the results of the working groups in consider when you identify a project aimed at plenary. agroforestry development? Why these three gender issues? 2. Would these gender issues create barriers to Case study on agroforestry the adoption of agroforestry practices? If yes, how could they be overcome? An agroforestry program is to be launched. The agroforestry systems promoted through the program aim at increasing productivity, improving soil and water conservation, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. These systems constitute a transformation from the traditional slash-and-burn method of farming to an integrated production system that allows farmers to control soil erosion and water retention by growing staple crops interspersed with native trees. The four pillars of the proposed systems are: 1. Integration of tree and crop species in the farm management system. 2. Avoiding use of fire to clean up the land. 3. Use of mulching and minimum tillage. 4. Use of good quality seeds sown at an adequate planting distance. 45 The traditional system combines staple crops with 2. Analyze the political, legal, and institutional trees, and consists of letting crop residues decompose, framework, and identify conditions and which creates mulch. Together with the trees, this restrictions regarding adoption and practice helps to restore and maintain soil humidity dissemination of agroforestry systems. and fertility. Other annual crops, like maize, beans, 3. Promote a policy dialogue with government and sorghum, are combined with trees using the slash stakeholders to strengthen agroforestry systems. and mulch technique (with no burning), with yearly 4. Identify and disseminate agroforestry practices, thinning and pruning of trees and vegetation to ensure taking into account local knowledge. adequate light for crops, improve soil water retention, 5. Enhance the capacity of national and and decrease erosion. subnational stakeholders to promote adoption It is expected that 800 households will benefit of agroforestry systems. directly from the program, and at least 55 percent of participants will be women. Result 2: Enhanced sustainable productivity and conservation of soil and water through the use of The expected results and proposed activities of the agroforestry systems and technologies that reduce program are as follows: wood consumption and increase water availability. Activities: Result 1: Improved knowledge and awareness on the 1. Identify a target area and beneficiaries using part of the local, national, and regional civil society participatory methods and gender analysis. and government institutions as to the importance of 2. Implement and adapt agroforestry systems climate-smart agroforestry systems in public policies. suitable to local socio-economic and agro- Activities: ecological conditions. 1. Strengthen national and local platforms for 3. Develop a system for monitoring and evaluating multisectoral dialogue on management of soil erosion and water retention of existing climate change risks for the promotion of agroforestry systems. agroforestry systems. 4. Strengthen the capacity of extension services, local institutions, and civil society on soil and water conservation and the use of efficient stoves. Box 4 5. Introduce efficient stoves and water harvesting Checklist for gender analysis during project practices in pilot areas. design and implementation Based on the above information as well as your own 1. Does the program recognize the differences in the roles knowledge and expertise, analyze which are the main and needs between men and women in agroforestry? gender implications to take into account prior to What can be done to address these issues? implementation. You may use the checklist presented 2. Based on your own experience in agroforestry, whose in Box 4 to start the discussion prior to focusing on the access to resources will be improved? last questions proposed for the reporting. 3. How can the program ensure that both men and women will benefit? 4. Whose participation in decision-making will be Questions for reporting strengthened? 5. Will the program meet both practical and strategic 1. When you start designing a gender-responsive gender needs? agroforestry project, what are the first three 6. How can the program empower women? steps to take? Why these three? 7. What factors may inhibit women’s full participation in 2. What kind of gender issues do you need to the program? How may they be overcome? consider in the design of your activities and 8. What will be the likely impact of the program on the implementation strategy for a gender- women’s workloads? Will it be necessary to take any responsive agroforestry project? remedial measures? 46 Working group session 1: labor and the allocation of land and other resources Conservation agriculture between men and women. CA practices may have Exercise: Analyzing gender positive implications for women in terms of improving aspects in conservation agriculture their conditions and increasing their agricultural project identification production, and often imply some changes in gender relationships that support women’s empowerment. Expected result: Usually women have good knowledge of managing At the end of this exercise, the training workshop natural resources, which represents an important participants are expected to become more aware of the advantage in pursuing CA. This practice can also gender dimensions of conservation agriculture, and be provide some economic benefits for women – for able to better analyze gender issues when they identify example, by reducing the workload and enabling and design a gender-responsive CSA project. involvement in other productive activities – especially if CA operations are mechanized. Proposed steps: Gender is a determining factor in defining who 1. Form small working groups of four to five does what, who has what, who decides what, and who participants. has power. To date, however, cropping and farming 2. Review and discuss the background information system research and development has paid little on the gender dimensions in conservation attention to gender issues. agriculture. Unless gender differences are adequately taken 3. Answer the probing questions described at the into account, the promotion of CA for smallholders in end of the handout to guide the discussion and developing countries may have undesired effects from reporting. a gender perspective, specifically concerning drudgery, 6. Report the results of the working groups in nutrition and food security, residue use, assets, plenary. mechanization, and extension. Many agricultural development interventions (including home gardening, livestock, mixed garden and livestock production, cash The gender dimensions in conservation cropping and irrigation) have indeed increased food agriculture8 production, but they have not necessarily improved food and nutrition security in the target populations. Conservation agriculture (CA) involves maintaining CA practices may affect nutrition in terms of a permanent organic soil cover by using cover availability of particular crops, wild plants, insects, and crops, intercrops, mulch, or residues of previous small animals. They also have important implications crops; minimizing soil disturbance from tillage and for labor requirements and allocation both within and cultivation; and diversifying crop rotations, especially outside the household, which can either reduce or by including high-protein legumes. CA can enhance increase women’s workloads – even though usually CA soil health, contribute to higher and more stable yields, reduces workloads overall, especially after the initial and reduce production costs. years of implementation. The direction and magnitude It is important to introduce good agricultural of potential trade-offs depend on the local context and practices that are adapted to the specific agro- the specific intervention. ecological and socio-economic context, so that they can In this respect, it is important to identify who build climate resilience by improving soil structure, benefits from CA and in what way, taking into account fertility, and moisture retention, thus lessening gender relations within the specific social context, the effects of drought and reducing irrigation gender roles in decision making over technology requirements. Promising solutions often focus on adoption, the form of farming practiced (plow- or technology, however, and do not necessarily take into hoe-based), access to and control over productive account gender and social disparities. assets, and women’s specific roles in the production CA interventions are not always gender-neutral system. Cultural norms and gender-biased access to in terms of labor requirements, empowerment, or productive resources, such as livestock or mechanized economic benefits and costs. It is not necessarily equipment, affect women’s roles differently in animal- possible to predict how the introduction of new drawn tillage systems as opposed to mechanized tillage agricultural technologies may affect patterns of systems. Although women generally do not access 8  Text adapted from: Beuchelt and Badstue (2013); World Bank, FAO, and IFAD (2015). 47 small-scale farm machinery when farmers can afford post-harvest operations. In this case, the peak labor it, they may benefit indirectly in terms of labor-saving. requirement shifts from land preparation to harvesting It is important to analyze the gender division of and from men to women, with positive or negative labor. For instance, in hoe-based systems in Southern effects depending on the importance of women’s labor Africa, women are responsible for land preparation; as a source of income. CA disturbs the soil on a smaller area because they dig Promoting herbicide use as a CA practice can planting basins rather than following the traditional have negative consequences by eliminating weeding, practice of inverting soil across the entire field. which can be an important source of wage income for Digging planting basins increases women’s labor in the women. It is also important to define what we mean first years of adopting CA, but over time their labor in by “weeds,” as many plants destroyed by herbicides land preparation decreases compared with traditional may be important foodstuffs collected by women hoe tillage. when they weed, and therefore herbicides affect their By contrast, in areas farmed with plows, men are household food and nutrition security. Herbicide typically responsible for land preparation, and the application can negatively affect intercrops, especially practice of minimum tillage reduces the time spent when instructions on how to apply them are not fully in preparing the land. Nevertheless, this practice understood or adequate products are not available. actually increases women’s labor requirements for Some herbicides like glyphosate or atrazine can weeding, because more weeds grow when using contaminate groundwater and affect human and minimum tillage. Weeds can also increase in hoe- animal health. Labor-saving technologies for land based minimum tillage systems, so in both cases it is preparation, sowing, weeding, or threshing can also important to address concerns related to economizing reduce traditional work, resulting in less income women’s labor, including issues with obtaining opportunities for poor women or landless groups. herbicides and the potential negative impacts on The farming household should not be assumed to health (herbicides affect women and men in different operate as a unified economic entity. It is important ways and to various degrees) and the environment. to consider women’s and men’s roles and work When a new agricultural technology is characterized responsibilities in the farming household, and how as labor-saving, it is important to determine whose decisions are taken on allocating resources or adopting labor is saved, at what point during the agricultural technologies in farming systems. Resources are usually season, and in which specific production tasks. allocated according to the priorities of the most Leaving crop residues on fields to create mulch, powerful household member, in most cases a male. another common CA practice, can make weeding more The introduction of improved technologies, like labor-intensive and reduce the fodder for livestock a mechanical thresher or plastic row/drum sowing (although not in all instances, as the rotation crop can technologies, usually helps to reduce family farm labor be grown for livestock). Women responsible for feeding and does not require hired labor. Nevertheless, these the livestock or grazing small stock may be forced to technologies may negatively affect poor and landless travel longer distances or purchase a resource that women, who can lose an important source of income was previously provided freely in the field. Conflicts and have less access to extension services to learn about may also arise between CA adopters and pastoralists. new technologies. In Zambia, women were reluctant To avoid these situations, prior to CA introduction to introduce maize-bean intercropping because they and adaptation it is essential that the crop-livestock feared to lose control over bean cropping and their interactions are adequately understood and resolved entitlements to the beans, which are considered among farmers and local stakeholders, with local by- women’s crops. The use of other technologies can be laws explaining to rural men and women what the role exhausting for women and can reduce their capacity and benefits of residues for CSA and CA practices are. to perform other household chores, implying trade- Crop residues or living cover crops can be used for offs with their reproductive role. Although men improving soil organic matter and soil fertility, and typically focus on crops with higher market value, for building the resilience of soils to climate change prioritizing yield, appearance, and market demand, effects. Soil cover can reduce the work burden as it women prioritize crops that are more nutritious, may suppress weeds. better tasting, and easier to cook, and also less risky in Where land is plentiful, reduced tillage may terms of food security. These different priorities must encourage men to enlarge the area they farm, be recognized to avoid resistance against adoption of generating more labor for women in harvesting and these new technologies. 48 Checklist to explore potential effects of CA on women and men in smallholder agricultural systems Category Questions for exploring potential effects of CA on women and men Food security ▶▶ Is there potential for a yield increase? Who benefits from this? and nutrition ▶▶ Will crop rotation/intercropping affect nutrition diversity and food security? How? diversity ▶▶ Will herbicides and mulch layers affect traditional intercrops and wild vegetables (often planted/ controlled by women)? If so, will this affect nutrition diversity, food security, or increase gender disparities? ▶▶ Does anyone depend on crop residues? Is there a risk that livestock farmers will be negatively affected if residues are retained for mulching? What are the gender implications? ▶▶ Will food or cash crops be grown? If cash crops are used, who controls the income, and is it allocated to household food and health expenditure? ▶▶ What is the risk of yield reduction, and how will it affect food security? ▶▶ What types of crops provide more/less risks for food security? Who will be most affected? ▶▶ What types of crops for intercropping provide more/less risk for food security? ▶▶ Who decides, and who will be most affected by, decisions taken by others? Is there any specific gender impact? Health ▶▶ Will yield increase or crop diversification improve nutrition? How? Will household members benefit equally? How will this lead to better health? ▶▶ Is there a risk that herbicide use may lead to health hazards? How? Who will be affected? ▶▶ What are the effects of increased labor requirements on household members, especially women and children? For example, is there a risk that children’s welfare and nutrition may be negatively affected? Access to ▶▶ Do extension services target women and men equally? Are the extension services gender- information responsive – i.e., do they consider women’s special needs? and ▶▶ Will the understanding of agricultural management practices be increased? Whose understanding? technology Is there a risk this may increase gender disparities? Who will be targeted and who will benefit? ▶▶ Will other sustainable agricultural technologies be discussed as alternatives to CA? ▶▶ What are women’s specific needs and constraints in the farming system? Are these taken into account? Is there a risk that women may be excluded from the use and benefits of mechanization due to prevailing gender norms? Resources and ▶▶ How will the introduction of CA change the division of tasks and the roles of men and women? labor ▶▶ Who will benefit from reduced drudgery due to mechanization and/or reduced tilling? ▶▶ Will labor requirements for land preparation increase in the short term? Who will do this labor? ▶▶ Whose labor will be reduced when herbicides are introduced? To whom is this a benefit? ▶▶ Who can lose out from a reduction in labor requirements? ▶▶ Are herbicides available and affordable? To whom? Who decides on herbicide use? ▶▶ Who has access to and control over land? Is there a risk that land improvement through CA can lead to loss of access to land and/or water? ▶▶ Is there a risk that crop rotation/intercropping will lead to “men’s crops” encroaching on females’ plots? Is there a risk that women may lose access to land or control of traditional “women’s crops” and/or related income? ▶▶ Is there a risk that labor requirements to obtain alternative livestock feed or fuel will increase if residue availability is reduced? Who will be affected by this? ▶▶ Who, if anybody, is affected when herbicides/mechanization replace labor? Women or men? Do they have alternative income opportunities? What does it mean for their families and for food security? Income, ▶▶ Who benefits from and decides on the use of additional income or savings? Is there a risk that marketing, this may lead to an increase in gender disparities? and value ▶▶ Who is affected when wild plants can no longer be harvested and consumed or sold? chains ▶▶ What are the effects when crop residues left in the field become private property? How does this affect shepherds/livestock producers? ▶▶ What are the effects of investment in CA technologies on households’ financial situations? ▶▶ Who (men or women, or both) markets the crops? ▶▶ Are CA products recognized by traders, retailers, and consumers? ▶▶ What types of markets are accessible to men and women, such as group marketing, local markets, 49 supermarket chains, and retailers? Land tenure is another relevant issue because Working group session 2: of the significant and long-term investment in soil Conservation agriculture improvement. Where land tenure is uncertain, farmers Exercise: Analyzing gender aspects during may be reluctant to adopt CA because they risk losing the design, implementation, monitoring, their investment if the land is reallocated or reclaimed and evaluation of gender-responsive by others. Farmers often prefer to experiment with conservation agriculture projects new technologies, including CA, on a rented plot. If they decide to adopt new technologies, they typically Expected result: do so on their own land, where they have secure control At the end of this exercise, the training workshop of their investment. Another important issue to take participants are expected to have acquired a into account is the access to water and the related better understanding of how to analyze the gender gender differences. dimensions of conservation agriculture when they For all of these reasons, it is important to conduct design, implement, monitor, and evaluate a CSA broad consultations with both men and women project, and to be able to identify the most relevant prior to introducing CA practices, with an adequate gender issues related to their own projects. assessment of how they will be affected. Moreover, some aspects require additional knowledge generated Proposed steps: by research and experimenting. 1. Form small working groups of four to five participants (preferably the same group as in the session 1 working group). Questions for reporting 2. Review and discuss the case study described below related to a conservation agriculture 1. What are three main gender issues when project. promoting conservation agriculture? Why 3. Analyze the checklist included in the box to these three gender issues? start a discussion on the gender implications of 2. Would these issues create barriers to adopting the proposed project, taking into account your conservation agriculture? If yes, how could they own experience with these issues. be overcome? 4. Answer the last two probing questions mentioned at the end of the handout to guide the reporting. 7. Report the results of the working groups in plenary. Why do we consider gender issues when introducing conservation agriculture? Fostering the adoption of conservation agriculture (CA) has the potential to address three areas of crucial importance to smallholder farmers: 1. Food security: CA can contribute to household food security by making more efficient use of rainwater and by increasing soil fertility, through the introduction of nitrogen-fixing cover crops. 2. Demands on household labor: HIV/AIDS and other diseases, and urban migration and education, reduce labor availability in rural households and increase the burden of labor- intensive activities among women and children. CA technologies can reduce labor requirements (especially in peak seasons) for land preparation and weeding. 50 3. Household incomes: CA could reduce ▪▪ For some activities, gender roles take expenditure on hiring farm power services precedence over household type: men benefit and purchasing fertilizer, while generating from the time saved using DAP or tractors more additional revenue through production of efficiently, while women benefit from DAP- fodder and cash cover crops. related technologies (such as the no-till planter or the ripper planter) that reduce planting A program plans to introduce CA with an emphasis activities and time spent weeding. on reduced tillage systems to address concerns about the impact of conventional tillage practices on land degradation. The main farming system in the region is Checklist to address gender issues in small-scale mixed farming with hand-hoe and draught conservation agriculture animal power (DAP). The poorer households struggle to make a living, principally through casual labor ▪▪ What changes are made in the farming system? augmented by petty sales of crops and small livestock. ▪▪ Who decides to make the change, women or They may own a few chickens or goats, depending men? entirely upon hand power; or they may look after the ▪▪ Who implements the changes, women or men? livestock owned by wealthy groups. Poor households ▪▪ Who needs the new CA technology, men or cultivate less than 1 hectare or rent it from middle- women? income households in return for labor. They rarely ▪▪ If the change requires new technology, who purchase inputs, and make limited use of DAP. owns the technology, women or men? Who uses Interestingly, female-headed households (which it, women or men? constitute 30  percent of total households) are ▪▪ Because of this new practice, do the overrepresented among the wealthier households responsibilities of men and women change? in one area and among the poor in another pilot Do some members of the household have new area. In addition to selling their produce, female- responsibilities? headed households earn extra income by working in ▪▪ Do men and women have more free time businesses such as hotels, shops, bars, and schools. because of this change? The gender division of labor is influenced by the ▪▪ Are there any financial benefits or burdens source of farm power, activity, sex of household head, from making this change? For whom? and household wealth. ▪▪ Will the change create any problems? For ▪▪ From field data it is found that: All operations women or men? Are there any measures to directly related to the use of DAP or tractors mitigate the trade-offs? are performed by men in both conventional and reduced tillage systems. ▪▪ Women sometimes plant behind the draught Questions for reporting animals, but only men plant behind tractors; herbicide applications are done only by men. 1. When you start designing a gender-responsive ▪▪ In hoe and DAP households, the household CA project, what are the first three steps to head (female or male) tends to take the lead in take? Why these three? many activities. 2. What kind of gender issues do you need to ▪▪ In richer households, most of the operations consider in the design of your activities and are performed by hired male laborers (female the implementation strategy for a gender- household members sometimes help with responsive CA project? weeding and harvesting). ▪▪ There is a slight tendency for women to play a greater part in weeding, but often the associations noted above are more dominant. ▪▪ In many instances, who (men or women) benefits from the labor saving associated with reduced tillage combined with cover crops is household specific. 51 Appendix 6 Introduction to the Margolis Wheel Tool It is suggested that this Margolis Wheel exercise 3. After 3 minutes, the outside circle rotates by be carried out at the beginning of the workshop to one chair, bringing a new client to face each encourage the exchange of experiences and lessons consultant. learned among the participants and the organizers/ 4. Give another 3 minutes for discussion. facilitators. 5. Then give 2 minutes for all clients and Objectives: consultants to write down a summary of ▪▪ Give participants the opportunity to discuss problems and solutions. real problems with gender integration in their 6. After this process is complete, the clients and project and generate potential solutions. consultants change circles and reverse roles. ▪▪ Encourage participants to share problems and The exercise is repeated. actively seek experiences and suggestions from each other. Comments Materials: ▪▪ Two sets of five or six chairs arranged in two You could give an example from your own experience concentric circles, the inside ones facing the to demonstrate this exchange. The exercise is most outside; or people can stand in two concentric effective when there has been prior discussion of circles with those inside facing out. problems and constraints, for example if participants ▪▪ A watch or electronic timer to time each round. are with colleagues from the same institution, programs, ▪▪ Object to make a noise (cup and spoon, bell, and or department, discussing what should happen after so on). the workshop. Break the discussion by using the Margolis Wheel, as this will permit participants to Time: 20 minutes discuss problems and relevant solutions. This exercise usually generates highly animated discussions. It is important that participants write Procedure down a clear statement of the problems and potential solutions. These statements can then be used in a 1. Ask participants to reflect on particular follow-up discussion, such as the elaboration of their problems they will face when dealing with participant action plan approach. gender integration in their project. This Basically, the exercise allows people to realize that reflection can be focused on a recent session very often the solutions to what seem very difficult and could include: problems lie within us (individually or as a group) ▪▪ Challenges in identifying gender-related and can be discussed given the right setting, time, and issues. circumstances. This tool can be very empowering if ▪▪ Problems/difficulties likely to be used properly! encountered when you involve women in Source: Alan Margolis, personal communication the project’s activities. 2. Then ask participants to sit in any seat, or stand in circles opposite someone else. Instruct them that those sitting in the inside circle will be the consultants or solution-suggesters. Explain that each pair has 3 minutes to discuss problems and potential solutions. 52 Appendix 7 Pre-workshop needs assessment questionnaire Prior to the workshop, participants are kindly The results of this needs assessment will assist the requested to complete the attached needs assessment facilitators in designing the content for the sessions questionnaire and return it by (DATE) to: of the workshop and selecting the most appropriate (NAME AND E-MAIL ADDRESS) materials for the participants. We look forward to having the opportunity to work with you! 1. Professional profile 1.1 Name: 1.2 Sex: Female_____  Male_____  1.3 Where do you work, and what is your title? 1.4 What are your main tasks and responsibilities? 2. Gender 2.1 How would you define gender? 2.2 How is your work related to gender and climate change issues? 2.3 What have been the major challenges in your work (if any) to integrating gender issues? In general: In climate change or climate-smart agriculture work: 2.4 List at least three ways in which you (or your organization) address these challenges Do you use gender analysis in your work? If so, which tools/methods/models do you use? 2.5 Have you ever attended a course on gender analysis, gender integration or gender mainstreaming? 2.6 Yes_____  No _____    If yes, describe briefly: 3. Workshop topics 3.1 Please prioritize the following areas in terms of issues you would like to see covered: H = High priority, M = Medium priority, L = Low priority Topic H, M or L Gender analysis and gender concepts: this helps in understanding how men and women manage and negotiate their roles and responsibilities in their households, communities and society, as well as changes in divisions of labor, decision-making patterns, and so on Analysis of impacts of climate change on women, men, boys and girls, as well as related socio- economic issues Climate change and climate-smart agriculture terminology and concepts Situation analysis: analysis of gender dimensions of climate-smart agriculture, exploring existing gender relations and inequalities, their causes, and their impact on socio-economic development Stakeholder analysis: indicates the different priorities, risks and vulnerabilities linked to climate change, what people have at stake, what they are willing to invest in changing, and what benefits they can expect to get from a proposed intervention Livelihood analysis: a gender-sensitive analysis that allows us to understand men’s and women’s options; their access to services, education and markets; their vulnerabilities to climate change; and their coping strategies and opportunities Identification of gender issues in needs assessment and targeting of CSA interventions Gender mainstreaming in CSA project and program formulation Gender-sensitive monitoring and evaluation systems in CSA interventions 53 Appendix 8 References and additional materials Aguilar, L., Granat, M., and Owren, C. 2015. “Roots for the Future: The Landscape and Way Forward on Gender and Climate Change.” International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and Global Gender and Climate Alliance (GGCA), Washington, DC (available at https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2015-039.pdf). 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WEDO, 2012. “Women making the case for U.S. action on climate change.” Article by Rachel Harris (available at http://wedo.org/women-making-the-case-for-u-s-action-on- climate-change/) Westermann, O., Thornton, P., and Förch, W. 2015. “Reaching More Farmers: Innovative Approaches to Scaling up Climate-smart Agriculture.” CCAFS Working Paper no. 135. CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), Copenhagen (available at https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/60041/retrieve). World Bank. (no date). Conceptual Framework for Gender Analysis and Planning (available at http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/ EXTSOCIALDEVELOPMENT/EXTTOPPSISOU/0,,contentMDK:20589207~menuPK:144 2609~page-PK:64168445~piPK:64168309~theSitePK:1424003,00.html). World Bank. 2015. “The Cost of the Gender Gap in Agricultural Productivity in Malawi, Tanzania, and Uganda. Washington, DC (available at http://documents.worldbank. org/curated/en/2015/10/25155021/cost-gender-gap-agricultural-productivity-malawi- tanzania-uganda). World Bank, FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization), and IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural Development). 2008. Gender Issues in Monitoring and Evaluation. Module 16 of the Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook (available at http://siteresources.worldbank.org/ INTGENAGRLIVSOUBOOK/Resources/CompleteBook.pdf). World Bank, FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization), and IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural Development). 2015. Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture. Module 18 for the Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook (available at www.fao.org/3/a-az917e.pdf). Videos, e-learning courses and websites FAO/MICCA: Understanding Climate-Smart Agriculture https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lUdNMsVDIZ0 FAO/MICCA: Climate-Smart Agriculture in Action https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OzFSNZfBcFc&list=PLzp5NgJ2-dK7wTr_- SNbSEzBd98a32OZX&index=11 FAO: Gender Gap in Agriculture https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uDM828TpVpY World Bank Institute: Climate-Smart Agriculture – A Triple Win https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G0YTZ9K3CCE CIAT: Gender inclusive research; Why and How https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ony2GHjYEro FAO e-learning tool 2014: Gender in Food and Nutrition Security http://www.fao.org/elearning/#/elc/en/courses/GEND World Bank Group: CSA guide of the Climate-Smart Agriculture Global Solution Group https://csa.guide 59 Training module How to integrate gender issues in climate-smart agriculture projects Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is an approach aimed at sustainably increasing agricultural productivity and incomes; adapting and building resilience to climate change; and reducing and/or removing greenhouse gas emissions. When it comes to developing and adopting CSA practices, men and women are not starting at the same point, due to their different access to productive resources, financial capital, and advisory services. There is now an international consensus that the design and implementation of climate change response strategies and projects must consider gender‑specific differences in the capacity to adapt to and mitigate climate change. The training module How to Integrate Gender Issues in Climate-smart Agriculture Projects provides practical approaches for designing gender‑responsive CSA projects. It uses lessons from previous work to illustrate ways of integrating gender issues throughout the project cycle to ensure that the specific needs and priorities of men and women are adequately addressed. The module also provides an overview of gender‑responsive planning and implementation processes, approaches and tools for conducting a gender analysis, a glossary of key terms and concepts of CSA and gender, and checklists for gender integration in each phase of the project cycle. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy www.fao.org