WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 © 2020 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000; Internet: www.worldbank.org Some rights reserved 1 2 3 4 23 22 21 20 This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the govern- ments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. 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Examples of components can include, but are not limited to, tables, figures, or images. All queries on rights and licenses should be addressed to World Bank Publications, The World Bank Group, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org. ISBN (paper): 978-1-4648-1532-4 ISBN (electronic): 978-1-4648-1533-1 DOI: 10.1596/978-1-4648-1532-4 Design: Takayo Fredericks and Fathom Creative The Library of Congress Control Number has been requested. CONTENTS i CONTENTS ii Foreword 1 Findings 22 Data Notes 36 Summaries of Reforms Women, Business and the Law 2020 44 Economy Data is the sixth in a series of studies that analyze laws and regulations affect- 49 Acknowledgments ing women’s economic opportunity in 190 economies. Eight indicators—structured around women’s interactions with the law as they begin, progress through, and end their careers—align with the eco- nomic decisions women make at vari- ous stages of their lives. The indicators are Mobility, Workplace, Pay, Marriage, Parenthood, Entrepreneurship, Assets, and Pension. Data in Women, Business and the Law 2020 are current as of September 1, 2019. The indicators are used to build evidence of the relationship between legal gender equality and women’s entrepreneurship and employment. By examining the economic decisions women make as they go through dif- ferent stages of their working lives, as well as the pace of reform over the past two years, Women, Business and the Law makes a contribution to policy discussions about the state of women’s economic opportunities. ii WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 FOREWORD Women, Business and the Law 2020 tracks how the law affects women at various stages in their lives, from the basics of transportation to the challenges of starting a job and getting a pension. This year’s study shows that progress is being made, with all regions improving their average scores. Still, the results are uneven — high-income countries tended to have the best scores, leaving women in many countries with only a fraction of the rights of men. That’s not acceptable. Women should be as free as men to travel. They should be paid the same as men for work of equal value. They shouldn’t face gender discrimination when applying for a loan or starting a business, and they should have the same rights to property and inheritance as men. Legal rights for women are both the right thing to do and good from an economic perspective. Research shows clearly that reforms and policies that empower women boost economic growth. When women can move more freely, work outside the home and manage assets, they’re more likely to join the workforce and strengthen the economy. This year’s study has been expanded to cover the last 50 years. Over that period, important progress was made in closing the gender gap, as women increasingly entered the workforce and started businesses. The gains were especially dramatic in the ability of women to start a job. Unfortunately, gender barriers persist, and laws and regulations continue to restrict women’s economic decision making and employment prospects. The study recognizes that creating good development outcomes is hard. Governments can use the Women, Business and the Law index to identify legal impediments to wom- en’s economic opportunities. The latest study tracks legal equality between men and women in 190 economies. It’s important to note that Women, Business and the Law measures only the formal laws and regulations governing women’s ability to work or own businesses — a country’s norms and practices aren’t captured by the indicators. There’s reason for optimism in this year’s study. Social mores are improving, and many countries have improved the regulatory environment for women over the last two years. Among the 10 economies that advanced the most, nine are from the Middle East, North Africa, and Sub-Saharan Africa. Many of their efforts were focused in the areas of starting a job and working after having children. The result has been an improvement in women’s ability to enter the workforce and remain in it. Much work remains. We shouldn’t be satisfied until every young girl can move through her life without facing legal barriers to her success. At the World Bank Group, we stand ready to help. David R. Malpass President The World Bank Group FINDINGS 1 FINDINGS •• Better performance in the areas measured by the Women, Business and the Law index is associated with more women in the labor force and with higher income and improved development outcomes. •• Since 2017, 40 economies have enacted 62 reforms enhancing gender equality. •• The economies that improved the most are Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Nepal, South Sudan, São Tomé and Príncipe, Bahrain, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Djibouti, Jordan, and Tunisia. •• On average, women have just three-fourths of the legal rights afforded to men. •• With a recent reform to parental leave, Canada joins seven other economies that score 100 on the Women, Business and the Law index: Belgium, Denmark, France, Iceland, Latvia, Luxembourg, and Sweden. Binh lives and works in Vietnam. As a little girl, she liked science and studied hard to get good grades. Her parents were supportive and invested money in her education. The result: she became one of the first female forensic pathologists in her country. But after just a few years of work, she was prohibited from continuing at her job. A new decree had labeled it an inappropriate job for women, forcing her employer to terminate her. All over the world, discriminatory laws continue to threaten women’s economic security, career growth, and work–life balance. Such barriers to employment and entrepreneurship at every stage of life limit equality of opportunity, creating a business environment that does not adequately support working women. In the Middle East and North Africa, women have only half the legal rights of men; worldwide, it is just 75 percent. Although many economies have acted to reduce barriers to women’s economic participation over the last 50 years, the progress made cannot be equated with success. Women, Business and the Law emphasizes the work still to be done by making a contribution to research and policy discussions about the state of women’s economic opportunities. Since its inception in 2009, it has measured laws and regulations that restrict women’s economic inclusion. This year, the project explores the relationship between women’s empowerment and economic outcomes. Women, Business and the Law 2020 finds that over time, reforms increasing women’s equality of opportunity contribute to more successful economies, higher female labor force participation, and better development outcomes. Over the last two years, 40 economies from all regions and income groups have made women’s eco- nomic empowerment a priority by executing 62 reforms facilitating women’s entry into 2 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 the workforce. Such reforms allow governments to cultivate a business environment that benefits women entrepreneurs and employees, enhancing economic productivity and accelerating development. Measuring laws and regulations To demonstrate where laws facilitate or hinder women’s economic participation, Women, Business and the Law 2020 presents an index covering 190 economies and structured around the life cycle of a working woman. To ensure comparability, the woman in question is assumed to reside in the main business city of her economy and to be employed in the formal sector. Eight indicators constructed around women’s interactions with the law as they begin, progress through, and end their careers are used to align different areas of the law with the economic decisions women make at various stages of their lives (figure 1.1). The indicators were chosen based on statistically significant associations with outcomes related to women’s economic empowerment, including women’s labor force participation rates. The Mobility indicator, for example, assesses laws affecting women’s agency and freedom of movement—two factors likely to influence their decision to enter the labor force. Each subsequent indicator also looks at a specific set of regulations and the ways in which they affect women’s economic participation as entrepreneurs and employees. Policy makers interested in encouraging women to work can look at their economy’s scores for each indicator as a starting point for reform. This methodological approach builds on the experience of the World Bank’s Doing Business project, which develops objective indicators of impediments to entrepreneurship and employment, by viewing such constraints through a gender lens. The Women, Business and the Law data set is constructed using laws and regula- tions that are currently in force. Unless they are codified, religious and customary laws are not considered. Because the indicators serve as a basis for legal equality of opportunity, implementation of laws is also not measured. In total, 35 questions are scored across the eight indicators (table 1.1). Overall scores are then calculated by taking the average of each indicator, with 100 representing the FIGURE 1.1 EIGHT INDICATORS MEASURE LEGAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN AS THEY TRANSITION THROUGH DIFFERENT STAGES OF WORKING LIFE Mobility Pay Parenthood Assets Examines constraints on Measures laws and regulations Examines laws a ecting women’s Considers gender di erences freedom of movement a ecting women’s pay work after having children in property and inheritance Workplace Marriage Entrepreneurship Pension Analyzes laws a ecting Assesses legal constraints Analyzes constraints on women’s Assesses laws a ecting the women’s decisions to work related to marriage starting and running businesses size of a woman’s pension Source: Women, Business and the Law team. FINDINGS 3 TABLE 1.1 WHAT DOES THE WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW INDEX MEASURE? Mobility 1. Can a woman choose where to live in the same way as a man? 2. Can a woman travel outside her home in the same way as a man? 3. Can a woman apply for a passport in the same way as a man? 4. Can a woman travel outside the country in the same way as a man? Workplace 1. Can a woman get a job in the same way as a man? 2. Does the law prohibit discrimination in employment based on gender? 3. Is there legislation on sexual harassment in employment? 4. Are there criminal penalties or civil remedies for sexual harassment in employment? Pay 1. Does the law mandate equal remuneration for work of equal value? 2. Can women work the same night hours as men? 3. Can women work in jobs deemed dangerous in the same way as men? 4. Are women able to work in the same industries as men? Marriage 1. Is there no legal provision that requires a married woman to obey her husband? 2. Can a woman be head of household in the same way as a man? 3. Is there legislation specifically addressing domestic violence? 4. Can a woman obtain a judgment of divorce in the same way as a man? 5. Does a woman have the same rights to remarry as a man? Parenthood 1. Is paid leave of at least 14 weeks available to mothers? 2. Does the government administer 100% of maternity leave benefits? 3. Is paid leave available to fathers? 4. Is there paid parental leave? 5. Is dismissal of pregnant workers prohibited? Entrepreneurship 1. Does the law prohibit discrimination in access to credit based on gender? 2. Can a woman sign a contract in the same way as a man? 3. Can a woman register a business in the same way as a man? 4. Can a woman open a bank account in the same way as a man? Assets 1. Do men and women have equal ownership rights to immovable property? 2. Do sons and daughters have equal rights to inherit assets from their parents? 3. Do female and male surviving spouses have equal rights to inherit assets? 4. Does the law grant spouses equal administrative authority over assets during marriage? 5. Does the law provide for the valuation of nonmonetary contributions? Pension 1. Are the ages at which men and women can retire with full pension benefits equal? 2. Are the ages at which men and women can retire with partial pension benefits equal? 3. Are the mandatory retirement ages for men and women equal? 4. Are periods of absence due to child care accounted for in pension benefits? Source: Women, Business and the Law database. 4 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 highest possible score. The resulting data set allows the index to function as an easily replicable way to benchmark the regulatory environment for women as entrepreneurs and employees. As demonstrated over the last 10 years, the knowledge and analysis provided by Women, Business and the Law make a strong economic case for laws that empower women. The project demonstrates that equality before the law and of economic oppor- tunity are not only wise social policy but also smart economic policy. Given the eco- nomic significance of women’s empowerment, the ultimate goal of Women, Business and the Law is to encourage governments to reform laws that hold women back from working and doing business. Equality of opportunity is good economics Women, Business and the Law takes as its starting point that the equal participation of women and men will give every economy a chance to achieve its potential. Equality of opportunity allows women to make the choices that are best for them, their families, and their communities. It is also associated with improved economic outcomes. A significant body of research links reforms and policies aimed at achieving gender equality to women’s economic outcomes. For example, removing barriers that restrict the ability of women to move freely, sign contracts, work outside the home, or manage assets has been associated with a more abundant female labor supply.1 In addition, fewer legal barriers are associated with access to better jobs for women, such as those requiring higher skill levels, offering higher wages, or presenting an opportunity to manage others.2 Reforming discriminatory laws captured by the Mobility and Entrepreneurship indicators is also associated with higher levels of entrepreneurship and better access to finance for women.3 Furthermore, raising the retirement age of women to match that of men is correlated with an increased female labor supply, which should facilitate larger pensions and better financial security for women of retirement age.4 Earlier evidence on the relationship between legal reforms and women’s economic outcomes was generally limited to a certain number of economies, points in time, or aspects of the law. However, new research using Women, Business and the Law data— covering 50 years, 190 economies, and 35 aspects of the law—confirms that these positive relationships hold when studied on a global scale.5 Analysis shows that where the law ensures greater equality of economic opportunity between women and men, female labor force participation is higher. This result holds after taking into account important factors—including income levels, fertility rates, and female education—and when using different statistical methods. The 50 years of Women, Business and the Law data also suggest a correlation between legal reform and a reduction of the wage gap (figure 1.2). It is not only women’s economic outcomes that improve with higher Women, Business and the Law index scores. Several studies also demonstrate that where women and men are given equality of opportunity, positive development outcomes ensue. Research shows that having fewer discriminatory laws and policies in place results in larger investments in health and education (both for women themselves and for the next generation) and lower rates of sexually transmitted diseases.6 Such results FINDINGS 5 FIGURE 1.2 |  WHERE THE WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW INDEX SHOWS GREATER EQUALITY, FEMALE LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATES ARE HIGHER AND THE WAGE GAP BETWEEN WOMEN AND MEN IS LOWER a. Female labor force participation b. Wage gap 29.60 Female labor force participation (percent) 45.70 Gender wage gap (percent) 36.80 20.01 31.34 15.71 26.67 16.37 15.24 20.65 1st quintile (worst) 2nd quintile 3rd quintile 4th quintile 5th quintile (best) 1st quintile (worst) 2nd quintile 3rd quintile 4th quintile 5th quintile (best) WBL index WBL index Sources: Panel a: Women, Business and the Law (WBL) database; World Development Indicators (WDI) database. Panel b: Women, Business and the Law (WBL) database; World Development Indicators (WDI) database; ILOSTAT; OECD.Stat. Note: Panel a: The relationship between the WBL index and female labor force participation is statistically significant after controlling for income (measured as GDP per capita provided in the WDI database), fertility rates, industrial composition, female education, the male working-age population, and economy-level and time fixed effects. Regression of female labor force participation on the WBL index includes 176 economies for the period 1991–2018, as determined by data availability. This statistical relationship should not be interpreted as causal. For full results of the empirical analysis of the relationship between WBL scores and women’s economic outcomes, see Hyland, Djankov, and Goldberg (2019). Panel b: The relationship between the WBL index and the gender wage gap is statistically significant after controlling for income (measured as GDP per capita provided in the WDI database), fertility rates, industrial composition, female education, the male working-age population, and economy-level and time fixed effects. Regression of the gender wage gap on the WBL index includes 68 economies for the period 1973–2017, as determined by data availability. The gender wage gap represents the ratio of male to female earnings. This statistical relationship should not be interpreted as causal. suggest that giving women more economic rights strengthens their bargaining power within the household, resulting in better outcomes not only for themselves but also for their children and families.7 Correlating Women, Business and the Law data with development outcomes also reveals that in economies where women have greater economic opportunity, there are lower rates of maternal mortality and higher levels of female education.8 These positive development outcomes may stem, at least in part, from improved economic outcomes benefiting women when the legal playing field is more level.9 Findings such as these extend to entire economies as well. Several studies show that inequality between women and men can harm economic growth. For example, one study found that without the increase in female labor force participation between 1890 and 1980 in the United States, income per capita could have been as much as 14 percent below its actual level.10 More recent research confirmed this link between female labor supply and growth in other contexts.11 Inequality in education, in human capital more broadly, and in wage rates has also been tied to negative consequences for the wider economy.12 Indeed, suggestive evidence of the positive relationship between gender equality and development is illustrated by a simple correlation between Women, Business and the Law index scores and income per capita. 6 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 By developing a time series and further researching the interaction between inequal- ity of opportunity for women and labor market dynamics, Women, Business and the Law strengthens insights into how women’s employment and entrepreneurship are affected by legal gender discrimination, and in turn how this affects economic out- comes. Analysis based on the time series finds that at the global level, discrimination matters.13 Identifying where gaps remain furthers this exploration of progress toward gender equality and economic development. Insights from new data Based on a review of reforms since 2017, Women, Business and the Law 2020 updates the index presented in its 2019 study, A Decade of Reform. In 2019, the average global score is 75.2, up from 73.9 as measured in 2017. Eight economies—Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Latvia, Luxembourg, and Sweden—score 100, meaning that women are on an equal legal standing with men across all eight indicators (table 1.2). Of the 40 economies with scores higher than 90, 27 are Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) high-income economies and nine are in Europe and Central Asia. The remaining four are in Latin America and the Caribbean, East Asia and the Pacific, and Sub-Saharan Africa. No economy in the Middle East and North Africa or South Asia scores higher than 90. Regional distribution patterns have remained unchanged since 2017. OECD high- income economies score the highest, followed by the Europe and Central Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, and East Asia and the Pacific regions. Economies in Sub- Saharan Africa have an average regional score of 69.9, while economies in South Asia score 62.3 on average. Economies in the Middle East and North Africa have the lowest average score, 49.6. While all regions improved their scores on average, it was the lowest-scoring regions that made the most progress toward gender equality over the last two years (figure 1.3). FIGURE 1.3 | R  EGIONS WITH THE LOWEST WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW SCORES MADE THE MOST PROGRESS TOWARD EQUALITY 100 94.0 94.6 83.8 84.2 78.7 79.2 75 70.8 71.3 69.9 68.5 WBL index 62.3 59.1 49.6 50 44.9 25 High income: OECD Europe & Central Asia Latin America & Caribbean East Asia & Paci c Sub-Saharan Africa South Asia Middle East & North Africa 2017 2019 Source: Women, Business and the Law database. FINDINGS 7 TABLE 1.2 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 INDEX Economy Score Economy Score Economy Score Economy Score Economy Score Belgium 100.0 Bulgaria 90.6 Montenegro 81.9 Benin 74.4 Papua New Guinea 60.0 Canada 100.0 Romania 90.6 Bahamas, The 81.3 Gambia, The 74.4 Niger 59.4 Denmark 100.0 Ecuador 89.4 Puerto Rico 81.3 India 74.4 Comoros 58.8 France 100.0 Hong Kong SAR, China 89.4 Zambia 81.3 Maldives 73.8 Marshall Islands 58.8 Iceland 100.0 El Salvador 88.8 Philippines 81.3 Nepal 73.8 Myanmar 58.8 Latvia 100.0 Malta 88.8 Grenada 80.6 Angola 73.1 Palau 58.8 Luxembourg 100.0 Uruguay 88.8 Kenya 80.6 Burundi 73.1 Tonga 58.8 Sweden 100.0 Lao PDR 88.1 Malawi 80.6 Russian Federation 73.1 Vanuatu 58.1 Estonia 97.5 South Africa 88.1 Costa Rica 80.0 Uganda 73.1 Algeria 57.5 Finland 97.5 Guyana 86.9 Samoa 80.0 Kazakhstan 72.5 Gabon 57.5 Germany 97.5 Zimbabwe 86.9 San Marino 80.0 Bhutan 71.9 Cameroon 56.9 Greece 97.5 Cabo Verde 86.3 Belize 79.4 Ethiopia 71.9 Solomon Islands 56.9 Ireland 97.5 Dominican Republic 86.3 Burkina Faso 79.4 Madagascar 71.9 United Arab Emirates 56.3 Italy 97.5 Namibia 86.3 Fiji 79.4 Central African Republic 71.3 Brunei Darussalam 53.1 Netherlands 97.5 Nicaragua 86.3 Panama 79.4 St. Kitts and Nevis 71.3 Lebanon 52.5 Portugal 97.5 São Tomé and Príncipe 86.3 Azerbaijan 78.8 Guatemala 70.6 Equatorial Guinea 51.9 Spain 97.5 Georgia 85.6 Congo, Dem. Rep. 78.8 Saudi Arabia 70.6 Libya 50.0 United Kingdom 97.5 Switzerland 85.6 Kiribati 78.8 South Sudan 70.0 Malaysia 50.0 Australia 96.9 Bosnia and Herzegovina 85.0 Tajikistan 78.8 Tunisia 70.0 Bangladesh 49.4 Hungary 96.9 Korea, Rep. 85.0 Ukraine 78.8 Eritrea 69.4 Pakistan 49.4 Norway 96.9 North Macedonia 85.0 Vietnam 78.8 Djibouti 68.1 Somalia 46.9 Peru 95.0 Venezuela, RB 85.0 Rwanda 78.1 Jamaica 68.1 Bahrain 46.3 Austria 94.4 Moldova 84.4 Thailand 78.1 Sri Lanka 68.1 Congo, Rep. 46.3 New Zealand 94.4 Tanzania 84.4 Chile 77.5 St. Vincent and the Grenadines 68.1 Eswatini 46.3 Paraguay 94.4 Togo 84.4 Israel 77.5 Uzbekistan 67.5 Mauritania 45.6 Slovak Republic 94.4 Liberia 83.8 Barbados 76.9 Antigua and Barbuda 66.3 Egypt, Arab Rep. 45.0 Croatia 93.8 Mexico 83.8 Kyrgyz Republic 76.9 Chad 66.3 Iraq 45.0 Czech Republic 93.8 St. Lucia 83.8 Mozambique 76.9 Suriname 66.3 Guinea-Bissau 42.5 Lithuania 93.8 Côte d’Ivoire 83.1 Argentina 76.3 Guinea 65.0 Jordan 40.6 Poland 93.8 Timor-Leste 83.1 Seychelles 76.3 Indonesia 64.4 Oman 38.8 Serbia 93.8 Armenia 82.5 Belarus 75.6 Botswana 63.8 Afghanistan 38.1 Slovenia 93.8 Bolivia 82.5 China 75.6 Senegal 63.8 Syrian Arab Republic 36.9 Kosovo 91.9 Mongolia 82.5 Lesotho 75.6 Nigeria 63.1 Kuwait 32.5 Mauritius 91.9 Singapore 82.5 Morocco 75.6 Sierra Leone 63.1 Qatar 32.5 Albania 91.3 Turkey 82.5 Cambodia 75.0 Dominica 62.5 Iran, Islamic Rep. 31.3 Cyprus 91.3 Brazil 81.9 Ghana 75.0 Haiti 61.3 Sudan 29.4 Taiwan, China 91.3 Colombia 81.9 Honduras 75.0 Micronesia, Fed. Sts. 61.3 Yemen, Rep. 26.9 United States 91.3 Japan 81.9 Trinidad and Tobago 75.0 Mali 60.6 West Bank and Gaza 26.3 Source: Women, Business and the Law database. 8 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 When classified by income level, high-income economies score the highest, with an average score of 84.9. Upper-middle-income economies are not far behind, scoring 74.9 on average. Lower-middle- and low-income economies have similar average scores of 68.8 and 67.2, respectively. However, one noteworthy finding is that low-income economies outperform both middle-income groups on the Workplace and Pension indicators. One reason for this could be the introduction of new labor codes in these economies after conflict or independence. The data also indicate that retirement ages are more equal between women and men in lower-income economies. Unequal retirement ages can leave women with smaller pensions in old age. A push for greater fiscal sustainability has driven many economies to change laws in this area because women tend to live longer, but often retire earlier, than men. Of the indicators, the one with the most room to improve is Parenthood, where the average score is just 53.9. In other words, about half of the economies measured by Women, Business and the Law do not have the good practices identified by this indica- tor. For example, 115 economies guarantee paid maternity leave of 14 weeks or more. However, in almost 50 percent of economies that provide any form of paid maternity leave, the burden falls fully or partially on the employer, making hiring women more costly than hiring men. However, the provision of paid maternity leave can improve the retention of female employees, reducing turnover cost and improving productivity, which can generate returns for employers that outweigh any short-term costs.15 While more than half of the economies covered mandate paid leave specifically reserved for fathers, the median duration of that leave is just five days (figure 1.4). Only 43 economies have paid parental leave that can be shared by mothers and fathers. In 2019, the European Union (EU) passed a new directive aimed at increasing the amount of leave available to both parents and redistributing child care responsibilities between women and men. EU states now have three years to adopt legislation complying with ECA OECD LAC MENA SA FIGURE 1.4 | MEDIAN LENGTH OF PAID LEAVE BY REGION East Asia Europe & High income: Latin America Middle East Sub-Saharan & Paci c Central Asia OECD & Caribbean & North Africa South Asia Africa GLOBAL Maternity leave 91 421 276 91 70 87 98 98 DAYS DAYS DAYS DAYS DAYS DAYS DAYS DAYS Paternity leave 5 10 56 5 3 8 3 5 DAYS DAYS DAYS DAYS DAYS DAYS DAYS DAYS Source: Women, Business and the Law database. Note: Maternity leave refers to the sum of paid maternity leave and paid parental leave, excluding any paid parental leave specifically reserved for fathers. Paternity leave refers to the sum of paid paternity leave and any paid parental leave specifically reserved for fathers. Of the economies covered, 184 guarantee at least one day of maternity leave, and 105 guarantee at least one day of paternity leave. FINDINGS 9 the directive. Because of this advance, Women, Business and the Law expects more reforms in this area among the top-scoring economies. Another indicator area in which there is room to improve is Pay. Ninety economies still have at least one restriction on the jobs women can hold (table 1.3). However, in Europe and Central Asia, whose economies have the longest lists of jobs prohib- ited for women, progress is being made. Many economies have been driven to lift restrictions on women’s employment because of labor shortages in male-domi- nated industries and the recognized economic benefits of higher female labor force participation. For example, Uzbekistan abolished its list of over 450 professions that were off-limits to women. Similarly, Kazakhstan reduced the types of jobs prohibited to women from 287 to 219. Moldova also lifted legal restrictions on women’s employment by limiting them to pregnant, nursing, and postpartum women. In the Russian Federation, where women are currently banned from working in 456 types of jobs, the Ministry of Labor issued an order to reduce the types of jobs to 100. However, the new list will not be effective until 2021. Also covered by this indicator are workplace protections, which can facilitate a woman’s ability to secure and sustain employment. Less than half of the economies covered have legislation mandating equal remuneration for work of equal value. With the recent debate around equal pay, this is an important area of reform for govern- ments hoping to reduce the gender wage gap. Which economies improved the most? In the last two years alone, 40 economies implemented 62 reforms toward equality of opportunity across the eight indicators measured. At the same time, three economies implemented changes that reduced equality: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Moldova, and West Bank and Gaza. Top-performing economies continue to reform. Canada introduced a new parental leave sharing benefit that reserves 35 days for the father. With this, Canada joins the group of economies that score 100. Cyprus, the Czech Republic, and the United States14 TABLE 1.3 NINETY ECONOMIES FORBID WOMEN FROM PERFORMING CERTAIN TASKS Industry Economies with at least one restriction Examples Agriculture  21 Skinning animals (Lebanon)  Construction  35 Working in industrial paint jobs (Colombia)  Energy  26 Exploratory drilling of oil and gas wells (Russian Federation)  Manufacturing  48 Cleaning, lubricating, or adjusting any part of machinery (Bangladesh)  Mining  60 Working in any underground mine (Sierra Leone)  Transportation  16 Driving a railway, metro, or locomotive train; driving a bus with more than 14 seats (Azerbaijan)  Water  23 Working in jobs that require soaking body in dirty water (Vietnam)  Source: Women, Business and the Law database. 10 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 also reformed laws related to paternity and parental leave, giving parents more oppor- tunity to share child care responsibilities. Two other top-scoring economies enacted reforms as well. In Italy, the age at which men and women can retire with full pension benefits is now the same. In Slovenia, the same is true of the age for partial pension benefits. The 10 economies that improved the most were Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Nepal, South Sudan, São Tomé and Príncipe, Bahrain, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Djibouti, Jordan, and Tunisia. These economies represent three regions and comprehensive reforms implemented across a range of indicators (table 1.4). In par- ticular, economies in the Middle East and North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa make up nine of the top-10 reforming economies. By contrast, no economy in East Asia and the Pacific, Europe and Central Asia, or Latin America and the Caribbean is a top reformer. Although most economies in Europe and Central Asia perform well in the Women, Business and the Law index, constraints remain, especially in the form of restrictions on women’s work. In East Asia and the Pacific and Latin America and the Caribbean, performance is more uneven. There are opportunities to improve across many of the areas measured. Each of the top improvers saw a score increase in at least two Women, Business and the Law indicators. Reforms in Workplace and Parenthood were the most popular, with seven of the 10 top improvers implementing at least one reform in each area. However, only one top improver reformed in the area of Entrepreneurship, and none introduced changes affecting the Assets indicator. TABLE 1.4 ECONOMIES THAT HAVE EXHIBITED THE MOST PROGRESS TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY SINCE 2017 WBL 2020 Change in Economy score score Mobility Workplace Pay Marriage Parenthood Entrepreneurship Assets Pension Saudi Arabia 70.6 38.8         United Arab 56.3 29.4      Emirates Nepal 73.8 18.1     South Sudan 70.0 18.1    São Tomé 86.3 11.9   and Príncipe Bahrain 46.3 8.8   Congo, 78.8 8.8   Dem. Rep. Djibouti 68.1 8.8   Jordan 40.6 8.8   Tunisia 70.0 8.8   Source: Women, Business and the Law database. FINDINGS 11 Reforms in the Middle East and North Africa region represent nearly a third of the economies with a significant positive shift in progress observed over the last two years. Economies in Sub-Saharan Africa follow closely, with 26% of reforms captured. Together, these two regions account for more than half of all reforms since 2017. Many of the reforms in the Middle East and North Africa were supported by the work of specialized councils committed to improving gender balance in the workforce. Their success was anchored in governments’ strong commitments to improving the busi- ness environment, and they were often led by finance ministries that executed reform agendas in this area. More work remains, however, because the Middle East and North Africa continues to be the region with the most room to improve. Saudi Arabia has made the biggest improvement in the index since 2017, increasing by 38.8 points. Reforms were enacted in six out of the eight indicators over the two-year period covered by the index. Under the Mobility indicator, Saudi Arabia made changes affecting a woman’s freedom of movement. For example, Saudi Arabian women no longer need permission from a male guardian to travel abroad or to obtain a passport. Saudi Arabia also amended the Civil Status Law to allow a woman to choose where to live in the same way as a man by removing a provision that made the husband’s home the default residence. In addition, a husband can no longer sue his wife for leaving the marital home. This has implications for the Marriage indicator because the law that required a woman to obey her husband was repealed. In 2018, Saudi Arabia further criminalized sexual harassment in public and private sector employment. Groundbreaking reforms to allow women greater economic oppor- tunity were also enacted in 2019. Legal amendments now protect women from discrimi- nation in employment, including job advertisements and hiring, and prohibit employers from dismissing a woman during her entire pregnancy and maternity leave. Saudi Arabia also equalized the retirement age for women and men at 60 years, extending women’s working lives, earnings, and contributions. Finally, Saudi Arabia also encouraged wom- en’s entrepreneurship by prohibiting gender-based discrimination in accessing financial services. These reforms build on other historic changes in Saudi Arabia, which in 2015 for the first time allowed women to vote and run as candidates in municipal elections and in 2017 gave women the right to drive. These reforms are spurred by an understanding that women play an important role in moving Saudi Arabia closer to its “Vision 2030.” This ambitious plan to modernize the Saudi Arabian economy by diversifying it beyond oil and gas, promoting private sector growth, and supporting entrepreneurship also includes the goal of increasing women’s labor force participation from 22 percent to 30 percent. The Women, Business and the Law index provides a list of the remaining legal constraints on women’s participation in the economy, which, if addressed, could increase their economic contribution in Saudi Arabia. The United Arab Emirates also reformed in five indicators, resulting in the second- largest improvement. Over the last several years, Emirati authorities have shown a com- mitment to removing legal barriers to women’s work. In 2005, authorities established the Gender Balance Council, a federal agency responsible for implementing initiatives 12 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 to enhance women’s representation in the country’s private and public sectors. Recognizing that women’s equal participation in the economy is central to achieving sustainable growth, the council developed the Gender Balance Guide, which offers organizations instructions on how to create a better working environment for women. The council works closely with international organizations to implement recommended gender policies, including protection from discrimination, gender-responsive budgeting, and parental leave. Five other economies in the Middle East and North Africa implemented nine additional reforms. Bahrain, for example, adopted provisions on sexual harassment in employ- ment, including criminal penalties for perpetrators. It also began allowing women to be recognized as heads of their households. In Bahrain, the advisory Bahraini Supreme Council for Women was formed in 2001. The council recently adopted a second National Plan for the Advancement of Bahraini Women for 2013–2022, which focuses not only on supporting women’s entrepreneur- ship, career opportunities, and financial independence, but also on enhancing their physical and psychological well-being and protection from domestic violence. The council earlier commissioned a study on violence against women in Bahraini society that included data on workplace sexual harassment. Bahrain’s labor minister has explained that the amendments to the labor law banning sexual harassment and discrimination in the workplace aim to bring national legislation in line with international standards. Also in the region, Jordan eliminated legal restrictions on women’s ability to work at night and introduced the principle of equal remuneration for work of equal value. Djibouti, Morocco, and Tunisia enacted legislation specifically addressing domestic violence, reflecting a movement toward protecting women from violence. Djibouti also introduced legislation and criminal penalties for sexual harassment in employment. The reforms recorded in Tunisia were driven by a desire to align the country’s laws with its progressive 2014 Constitution, which enshrines the principle of equality between women and men. In August 2017, the Individual Freedoms and Equality Committee was created by the president of Tunisia to support the legal reform agenda. The committee recommended several measures to achieve complete and effective equality between women and men, including in the areas of inheritance and violence against women. Such political will, coupled with an active civil society advocating for women’s rights, has facilitated the enactment of one of the region’s most comprehensive laws on vio- lence against women. Nepal, the economy with the third-largest improvement in the index, introduced a new labor law that makes women’s entry into the labor market easier by prohibiting discrimination in employment. It also improved women’s employment opportunities and pay by allowing women to work at night and prohibiting discrimination in remuneration for work of equal value. In addition, Nepal introduced 15 days of paid paternity leave, making it easier for women to share child care responsibilities with their partners. New regulations introducing a mandatory old-age pension scheme for private sector workers also established the same retirement age for women and men and therefore directly protect women’s financial security in old age. Three other South Asian economies—India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka—have enacted reforms as well. The Indian state of Maharashtra eliminated restrictions on women’s FINDINGS 13 ability to work in jobs deemed dangerous. Pakistan and Sri Lanka both increased the period of paid maternity leave to exceed 14 weeks. South Sudan also improved significantly in the index. In 2017, the country adopted its first labor law since independence. The new law protects women in the workplace from gender discrimination and sexual harassment. It also substantially improves women’s opportunities to enter the labor force by opening up new sectors for female employ- ment. Women are no longer categorically barred from working at night, underground or underwater, or in jobs deemed hazardous, arduous, or harmful. The law also prohibits pay discrimination and requires employers to “take steps to guarantee equal remunera- tion for every employee for work of equal value.” Finally, the introduction of two weeks of paid paternity leave recognizes and supports the redistribution of unpaid care work. Ten other economies in Sub-Saharan Africa implemented 13 reforms enhancing gender equality, with many placing among the top reformers in the Women, Business and the Law 2020 index. For example, in 2019 São Tomé and Príncipe adopted a new labor code to meet job market demands and bring laws into compliance with interna- tional standards. The legislation lifted restrictions on women’s ability to work at night, in mining, and in jobs deemed hazardous. It now restricts only work that is likely to “pose a risk to the genetic heritage of the worker,” without specifying gender. The new labor code further prohibits the dismissal of pregnant workers. Other economies in the region have also passed a variety of reforms. In Côte d’Ivoire, spouses now have equal rights to own and manage property. Mali mandated both non- discrimination in employment based on gender and equal remuneration for work of equal value. Niger removed restrictions on women’s employment in mining, construc- tion and manufacturing. In Uganda, passport application procedures are now the same for women and men. Overall, reforms in the Sub-Saharan Africa region have affected nearly every indicator. Three economies implemented changes to their laws that reduce women’s oppor- tunities. Bosnia and Herzegovina and Moldova amended legislation related to pension systems and retirement to increase and gradually equalize the ages at which men and women can claim benefits. This gradual increase, however, introduces temporary inequality because in the interim period the age at which men and women can retire is different. West Bank and Gaza suspended its social security system. There is no longer a pension system that covers the private sector, and maternity benefits have to be paid by the employer. In what indicators are economies reforming the most? The Parenthood indicator has been the most popular area of reform, with 16 economies enacting positive changes (table 1.5). With the exception of Latin America and the Caribbean, every region enacted reforms in this area. Reforms included expansion of the amount of paid maternity leave available to mothers, introduction of paid paternity leave, and prohibition of dismissal of pregnant employees. 14 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 TABLE 1.5 MOST ECONOMIES REFORMED IN THE PARENTHOOD INDICATOR Number of Indicator Which economies? Example of reforms economies Mobility 4 Grenada, Saudi Arabia, Uganda, United Arab Emirates Grenada, Saudi Arabia, Uganda, and the United Arab Emirates made passport application procedures the same for men and women. Workplace 10 Bahrain, Barbados, Djibouti, Georgia, Mali, Nepal, Saudi Mali prohibited discrimination in employment based Arabia, South Sudan, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates on gender, making it easier for women to start a job. Pay 12 Germany, India, Jordan, Mali, Moldova, Nepal, Niger, São Tomé The United Arab Emirates removed all job restrictions and Príncipe, South Sudan, Thailand, United Arab Emirates, on women, allowing them to work the same hours Uruguay and in the same jobs and industries as men. Marriage 10 Armenia, Bahrain, Burkina Faso, Djibouti, Eswatini, Liberia, Armenia enacted legislation protecting women from Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates domestic violence. Parenthood 16 Canada, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Democratic Republic of The United States introduced paid parental leave with Congo, Fiji, Jordan, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, São Tomé and the introduction of New York State’s paid family leave Príncipe, Saudi Arabia, South Sudan, Sri Lanka, United Arab policy.a Parents can now receive up to 10 weeks of Emirates, United States, Zambia paid leave after the birth of a child. Entrepreneurship 2 Georgia, Saudi Arabia Georgia made access to credit easier for women by prohibiting gender-based discrimination in access to financial services. Assets 1 Côte d’Ivoire Côte d’Ivoire granted spouses an equal right to own and manage property during marriage. Pension 7 Argentina, Democratic Republic of Congo, Italy, Nepal, Saudi Saudi Arabia equalized the retirement age for men Arabia, Slovenia, Timor-Leste and women at 60 years. Source: Women, Business and the Law database. a Women, Business and the Law measures the law applicable in the main business city. The main business city in the United States is New York. The state of New York introduced paid family leave that currently entitles each parent to 70 days of leave for the birth of a child. Along with Pakistan, Fiji, the Philippines, and Zambia increased the duration of paid maternity leave to meet or exceed 14 weeks. Eight economies introduced paid leave for fathers for the first time, including Canada, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Fiji, Jordan, Nepal, South Sudan, and the United States. The United States is the only economy to introduce paid parental leave since 2017, with the passage of New York State’s paid family leave policy. This leave, however, is not available at the federal level. As for work- place protections, São Tomé and Príncipe, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates amended legislation to protect pregnant workers from discriminatory dismissal. Twelve economies improved their laws in the area of Pay. Since 2017, seven econo- mies from all regions except Europe and Central Asia introduced legislation mandating employers to grant equal remuneration to women and men for work of equal value. Germany and Iceland also have introduced innovative laws that tackle the wage gap. In Germany, certain companies with more than 500 employees must publish reports on their efforts to promote equal pay. In Iceland, companies employing 25 or more workers are now required to obtain equal pay certification from the government. The Workplace and Marriage indicators also saw many reforms from 2017 to 2019, especially in the enactment of laws that protect women from violence. Fifty years ago, FINDINGS 15 no economy in the world guaranteed women legal protections from violence in the context of family or domestic relations. At that time, it was considered a private matter not subject to external regulation. Since 2017, however, eight economies have enacted legislation on domestic violence for the first time. Four economies in the Middle East and North Africa—Djibouti, Morocco, Tunisia, and the United Arab Emirates—are in this group. This legislation reflects a trend, beginning with the Arab Spring in the early 2010s, of protecting women from violence. In its aftermath, Lebanon issued its first domestic violence law, followed by Algeria, Bahrain, and Saudi Arabia in 2015. Also for the first time, Burkina Faso, Eswatini, and Liberia enacted legislation specifi- cally addressing domestic violence. As of September 1, 2019, 30 of the 48 economies in Sub-Saharan Africa had domestic violence legislation in place. Worldwide, it is 155 economies. Some economies are adopting progressive provisions to ensure that women’s labor force participation is not affected by domestic violence. In New Zealand, for example, the private sector became increasingly concerned about the country’s high rates of domestic violence and the costs associated with it, including loss of employees and high rates of absenteeism. After several companies enacted policies to support victims of domestic violence, the Government of New Zealand enacted the Family Violence Act in November 2018, repealing its Domestic Violence Act of 1995. The new act introduces for the first time 10 days of paid leave for victims of domestic violence, giving them time to leave their partners, find new homes, and protect themselves and their children. As for sexual harassment, several economies have also moved to protect women in the workplace. The enforcement of legislation aimed at protecting women from domes- tic violence and sexual harassment is associated with a reduction in gender inequality and discrimination in the labor market.16 Studies have shown that sexual harassment not only reduces employees’ productivity, leading to a higher employee turnover and increased absenteeism, but also is associated with a decrease in companies’ returns and profitability.17 Globally, 50 economies still lack legislation granting protections to women from sexual harassment in employment. From 2017 to 2019, seven economies enacted new legal protections against sexual harassment in employment, resulting in a positive change in score. Six economies, five in the Middle East and North Africa—Bahrain, Djibouti, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia, and the United Arab Emirates—and one in Latin America and the Caribbean—Barbados— enacted legislation on sexual harassment in the workplace, including redress avenues such as criminal penalties or civil remedies. In Europe and Central Asia, Georgia adopted legislation to provide for civil remedies in the case of the unfair dismissal of a victim of sexual harassment. To complement already-existing legislation on sexual harassment in employment, France, São Tomé and Príncipe, and South Sudan also implemented civil remedies, whereas Gabon, Montenegro, and Peru enacted criminal penalties. The Entrepreneurship and Assets indicators saw the fewest reforms, with only three economies reforming in these areas. Georgia and Saudi Arabia made access to credit easier for women by prohibiting gender-based discrimination in access to financial services. This legal provision, which has been proven to increase women’s access to finance, is still not in place in 115 economies. Perhaps the reason is that this fairly 16 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 new legal principle was only first introduced into national legislation in the late 1970s. Reform uptake has increased since the early 2000s, with more economies now following early adopters’ leads. From 2017 to 2019, Côte d’Ivoire granted spouses equal rights to own and manage property during marriage. Reforms related to property ownership and inheritance are the most difficult to pass, especially in economies where social norms dictate how assets are passed to surviving spouses and children. Equalizing women’s rights to own, manage, and inherit property, however, increases their ability to start and grow busi- nesses because access to assets gives them the collateral needed to secure credit. The reforms captured by Women, Business and the Law 2020 reveal that economies in every region and income group have made legal changes increasing women’s equality of opportunity. The average improvement globally since 2017 has been approximately 1 point, but the average improvement among reforming economies has been 6.6 points. Economies that have reformed within three or more indicators have seen their score increase by more than 20 points, whereas those with only one reform have improved by just a few points. The average score of economies that implemented at least one reform increased from 69.8 in 2017 to 76.4 in 2019, a score higher than the current global average. As more economies implement reforms, legal gender equality becomes an attainable goal on a global scale. While the Parenthood and Pay indicators have the largest gaps to close, they are also the areas in which economies are reforming the most (figure 1.5). Five decades of reform Building on the time series developed by Women, Business and the Law 2019, the data in Women, Business and the Law 2020 have been expanded to cover the last 50 years. This expansion allows extensive research on the pace of reform in the areas measured, FIGURE 1.5 | THE PARENTHOOD AND PAY INDICATORS HAVE THE LARGEST GAPS TO CLOSE Parenthood 53.9 Pay 66.1 Pension 73.2 Marriage 78.4 Workplace 78.5 Assets 81.8 Entrepreneurship 82.8 Mobility 87.2 Average score, 2019 Remaining Source: Women, Business and the Law database. FINDINGS 17 as well as an ability to track trends and causes of change. Some initial findings of this study are discussed here, with more results scheduled for publication in the future. The average Women, Business and the Law index score in 2019 is 75.2, indicating that women have approximately three-quarters of the rights of men in the areas cov- ered by the index. This score represents a significant improvement in the five decades covered by the data. In 1970, the global average Women, Business and the Law index score was 46.5. Altogether, every economy measured has made at least one regulatory change each year since 1970, for a total of 1,517 reforms over 50 years. Although the pace of reform has differed significantly across economies, some regional patterns have emerged. The regional average score in 2019 is highest in OECD high-income economies, whereas in 1970 it was highest in economies in Europe and Central Asia (figure 1.6). OECD high-income economies made significant strides toward gender equality throughout the period covered by the data. At 70 percent, the percent- age change in the average score of OECD high-income economies was the second- highest among the regions. It was only in Sub-Saharan Africa that the relative increase was greater. The 1970s saw greater attention to women’s issues. The United Nations declared 1975–85 the Decade for Women and encouraged economies to focus on policies such as equal pay, preventing violence against women, and land ownership. By the end of the decade, OECD high-income economies had surpassed Europe and Central Asia as the region with the highest average score, which it retains. Despite Europe and Central Asia’s initially high scores, the region’s average score remained relatively flat over the 1970s and 1980s. However, economies in this region appeared to embrace a more aggressive reform agenda in the 1990s, and in particular in the decade from 2000 to 2009. FIGURE 1.6 |  CHARTING THE PATH OF REGIONAL REFORM BY WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW INDEX SCORE 100 High income: OECD 90 Europe & Central Asia 80 Latin America & Caribbean East Asia & Paci c 70 Sub-Saharan Africa South Asia WBL index 60 50 Middle East & North Africa 40 30 20 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2019 Source: Women, Business and the Law database. 18 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 Two other regions that provide an interesting contrast are East Asia and the Pacific and Latin America and the Caribbean. In 1970, the Women, Business and the Law index scores in these two regions were extremely close, at 48.8 and 49.3, respectively. Over the course of the five decades covered by the data, the score in Latin America and the Caribbean increased by 60 percent, to 79.2. The score in East Asia and the Pacific, however, only increased by 46 percent, to 71.3. Legal reform in these two regions tracked quite closely throughout most of the 1970s. In the 1980s and 1990s, however, economies in Latin America and the Caribbean made important strides toward lifting restrictions placed on women. In that region, the pace of reform slowed somewhat from 2010 to 2019, whereas during the same period reforms in East Asia and the Pacific expanded, partially bridging the gap between the two regions. The pace of reform has also been notable in Sub-Saharan Africa. From 1970 to 2019, the average score in the region rose by 81 percent, which is higher than that of any other region. Progress began from a low base, however. In 1970, women in Sub-Saharan Africa faced more legal restrictions than those in any other region apart from the Middle East and North Africa. But by the mid-1980s, Sub-Saharan African economies had surpassed the average score of South Asian economies. This progress was in part attributable to the relatively flat index score of South Asia throughout the 1970s, which even fell slightly during the 1980s. Yet this finding should not diminish the progress made by economies in Sub-Saharan Africa to remove the legal barriers faced by women. The decade from 2000 to 2009 is particularly notable for the progress made. By 2019, the average score in the region, 69.9, was just slightly more than 1 point below that of East Asia and the Pacific, 71.3. The slow progress of the Middle East and North Africa region is also notable. With an average score of 31.0 in 1970, women in this region had less than one-third of the rights of men in the areas covered by the index. In 2019, the average score is 49.6, indicating that some progress has been made. In fact, many of these advances were made in the recent past. Throughout the 1970s, the 1980s, and, to a lesser extent, the 1990s, the average score in the region remained relatively flat. However, in the 20 years from 2000 until 2019, women’s economic opportunity in the region has improved. In the 10 years from 2000 to 2009, the average score increased by 4.9 points, and then by a further 7.7 points between 2010 and 2019. Despite this improvement, women in the region still face significantly more legal obstacles relative to men and to women in other parts of the world.18 Today in several OECD high-income economies, there are no legal inequalities between women and men. However, this was not always the case. Belgium, for example, receives a score of 100 in 2019, but in 1970 its score was 38.1, the same score that Afghanistan receives today. This finding implies that 50 years ago women had less than half the rights of men in the areas covered. For example, married women in Belgium could not sign a contract, get a job, or administer property without their husbands’ permission until 1976. Dependent on patterns of colonization, economies in other regions inherited such provisions. In Sub-Saharan Africa, for example, the Democratic Republic of Congo inher- ited the Belgian civil code, while Kenya inherited British marriage laws. Restrictions in colonial versions of labor and family codes persist in many economies to this day. FINDINGS 19 A close look at the path of reform for each of the eight indicators shows that, on average, the most dramatic reforms occurred in laws covered by the Workplace indicator (figure 1.7). The global average score for this indicator was only 17.6 in 1970, indicating that women had less than one-fifth of the legal rights of men in this area. By 2019, the score had increased to 78.4. In both 1970 and 2019, women faced the fewest restrictions in terms of their free- dom of movement. On the other hand, in 1970 women faced the greatest number of constraints in laws that affected their work after having children—a fact that remains true to this day.19 This preliminary analysis of 50 years of data offers a glimpse of how women’s rights have evolved all over the world. The regional and global patterns identified here indicate that although much reform has occurred, especially among OECD high-income and Sub- Saharan African economies, there is still progress to be made. By identifying the gaps that remain and their consequences for economic development, Women, Business and the Law intends to serve as an important tool for those working toward reform. The team continues to explore the results of this time series, in particular those shedding light on the causes of reform. What’s next? Over the last 10 years, the Women, Business and the Law team has updated its data set on a biennial cycle. However, as the pace of reform increases and to give any economies improving their laws more real-time recognition, the project plans to update the data and report annually. At the same time, the team will undertake further research and consider additional areas of inclusion in the index, such as child care and implementation measures. FIGURE 1.7 | CHARTING THE PATH OF INDICATOR REFORM BY WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW INDEX SCORE 90 Mobility Entrepreneurship 80 Assets Marriage Workplace 70 Pension Pay 60 Parenthood WBL index 50 40 30 20 10 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2019 Source: Women, Business and the Law database. 20 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 Understanding how reforms happen and what motivates economies to reform requires stepping back and seeing the progress that has been made. Analysis of the newly collected data covering 50 years and 190 economies helps identify interesting trends to better explain the interaction between inequality of opportunity and labor market dynamics. The data and analysis of the laws and reforms made since 1970 are available on the Women, Business and the Law website (http://wbl.worldbank.org). Notes 1. Amin and Islam 2015; Htun, Jensenius, and Nelson-Nuñez 2019; Zabalza and Tzannatos 1985. Although many studies are based on correlations, Field et al. (2016) provide experimental evidence that depositing wages in a woman’s own bank account (as opposed to that of the male head of household) increases her labor supply, thereby illustrating that financial autonomy can exert a causal impact on female labor force participation rates. 2. Zabalza and Tzannatos 1985. 3. Islam, Muzi, and Amin 2019. 4. Atalay and Barrett 2015; Staubli and Zweimüller 2013. 5. Hyland, Djankov, and Goldberg 2019. 6. Anderson 2018; Branisa, Klasen, and Ziegler 2013; Deininger, Goyal, and Nagarajan 2013; Deiniger et al. 2019; Roy 2015. Branisa, Klasen, and Ziegler (2013) also show that where social institutions limit women’s autonomy, fertility rates are higher. Higher fertility rates may have long-term impacts on economic growth, as discussed by Ashraf, Weil, and Wilde (2012). 7. Harari (2019) suggests that greater bargaining power may be the channel through which more economic rights for women result in better outcomes. 8. Based on a cross section of data for 2017, the correlation coefficient between the Women, Business and the Law score and the maternal mortality rate is –0.31. Based on data from 2015, the correlation between the Women, Business and the Law score and the average years of education for women age 25 plus is 0.57. 9. The relationship between legal gender equality and women’s economic outcomes is analyzed by Hyland, Djankov, and Goldberg (2019). 10. Goldin 1986. 11. Bloom et al. 2009. 12. Cavalcanti and Tavares 2016; Klasen 2018; Lagerlöf 2003. 13. Hyland, Djankov, and Goldberg 2019. 14 Women, Business and the Law measures the law applicable in the main business city. The main business city in the United States is New York. The state of New York introduced paid family leave that currently entitles each parent to 70 days of leave for the birth of a child. 15. Council of Economic Advisers 2014. 16. Malta et al. 2019. 17. Au, Dong, and Tremblay 2019; Newman 1995. 18. The relative progress of reform in the Middle East and North Africa region is also discussed by Hyland, Djankov, and Goldberg (2019). 19. Hyland, Djankov, and Goldberg (2019) examine how the average score for each of the eight Women, Business and the Law indicators changes when economies’ scores are weighted by their populations. References Amin, Mohammad, and Asif Islam. 2015. “Does Mandating Nondiscrimination in Hiring Practices Affect Female Employment? Evidence Using Firm-Level Data.” Feminist Economics 12 (1&2). Anderson, Siwan. 2018. “Legal Origins and Female HIV.” American Economic Review 108 (6): 1407– 39. Ashraf, Quamrul H., David N. Weil, and Joshua Wilde. 2012. “The Effect of Interventions to Reduce Fertility on Economic Growth.” NBER Working Paper 17377, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. FINDINGS 21 Atalay, Kadir, and Garry F. Barrett. 2015. “The Impact of Age Pension Eligibility Age on Retirement and Program Dependence: Evidence from an Australian Experiment.” Review of Economics and Statistics 97 (1): 71–87. Au, Shiu-Yik, Ming Dong, and Andreanne Tremblay. 2019. “Me Too: Does Workplace Sexual Harassment Hurt Firm Value?” SSRN Working Paper. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3437444. Bloom, David E., David Canning, Günther Fink, and Jocelyn E. Finlay. 2009. “Fertility, Female Labor Force Participation, and the Demographic Dividend.” Journal of Economic Growth 14 (2): 79–101. Branisa, Boris, Stephan Klasen, and Maria Ziegler. 2013. “Gender Inequality in Social Institutions and Gendered Development Outcomes.” World Development 45: 252–68. Cavalcanti, Tiago, and José Tavares. 2016. “The Output Cost of Gender Discrimination: A Model‐Based Macroeconomics Estimate.” Economic Journal 126: 109–34. Council of Economic Advisers. 2014. The Economics of Paid and Unpaid Leave. Washington, DC: Council of Economic Advisers. Deininger, Klaus, Aparajita Goyal, and Hari Nagarajan. 2013. “Women’s Inheritance Rights and Intergenerational Transmission of Resources in India.” Journal of Human Resources 48 (1): 114–41. Deininger, Klaus, Songqing Jin, Hari Nagarajan, and Fang Xia. 2019. “Inheritance Law Reform, Empowerment, and Human Capital Accumulation: Second-Generation Effects from India.” Journal of Development Studies 55 (12): 2549–71. Field, Erica, Rohini Pande, Natalia Rigol, Simone Schaner, and Charity Troyer Moore. 2016. “On Her Account: Can Strengthening Women’s Financial Control Boost Female Labor Supply?” Working paper, Harvard Business School, Cambridge, MA, November. https://www.hbs.edu/faculty/Pages/item. aspx?num=56847. Goldin, Claudia. 1986. “The Female Labor Force and American Economic Growth, 1890–1980.” In Long-term Factors in American Economic Growth, ed. Stanley L. Engerman and Robert E. Gallman, 557–604. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Harari, Mariaflavia. 2019. “Women’s Inheritance Rights and Bargaining Power: Evidence from Kenya.” Economic Development and Cultural Change 68 (1): 189–238. Htun, Mala, Francesca Jensenius, and Jami Nelson-Nuñez. 2019. “Gender-Discriminatory Laws and Women’s Economic Agency.” Social Politics 26 (2): 193–222. Hyland, Marie, Simeon Djankov, and Pinelopi K. Goldberg. 2019. “Gendered Laws.” Policy Research Working Paper WPS9080, World Bank, Washington, DC. Islam, Asif, Silvia Muzi, and Mohammad Amin. 2019. “Unequal Laws and the Disempowerment of Women in the Labour Market: Evidence from Firm-Level Data.” Journal of Development Studies 55 (5): 822–44. Klasen, Stephan. 2018. “The Impact of Gender Inequality on Economic Performance in Developing Countries.” Annual Review of Resource Economics 10: 279-98. Lagerlöf, Nils-Petter. 2003. “Gender Equality and Long-Run Growth.” Journal of Economic Growth 8 (4): 403–26. Malta, Vivian, Lisa Kolovich, Angelica Martínez Leyva, and Marina Mendes Tavares. 2019. “Informality and Gender Gaps Going Hand in Hand.” IMF Working Paper 19/112, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC. Newman, Meredith Ann. 1995. “Sexual Harassment and Productivity: It’s Not Just a U.S. Problem.” Public Productivity and Management Review 19 (2): 172–86. Roy, Sanchari. 2015. “Empowering Women? Inheritance Rights, Female Education and Dowry Payments in India.” Journal of Development Economics 114: 233–51. Staubli, Stefan, and Josef Zweimüller. 2013. “Does Raising the Early Retirement Age Increase Employment of Older Workers?” Journal of Public Economics 108: 17–32. Zabalza, Antoni, and Zafiris Tzannatos. 1985. “The Effect of Britain’s Anti-discriminatory Legislation on Relative Pay and Employment.” Economic Journal 95 (379): 679–99. 22 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 DATA NOTES Women, Business and the Law measures laws and regulations that constrain women’s entrepreneurship and employment. This year’s data set and report cover 190 econo- mies. Although progress has been made, analysis of the data clarifies the work still needed to ensure that women have equality of opportunity in obtaining jobs and start- ing businesses. Women, Business and the Law 2019: A Decade of Reform introduced an index and structured the data to reflect the different stages of a woman’s working life (figure 2.1). This framework helps align different areas of law with the economic decisions women make as they experience various milestones. By representing women’s inter- actions with the law as they begin, progress through, and end their careers, these indicators are an easily replicable measure of the legal environment for women as entrepreneurs and employees. Women, Business and the Law 2020 follows up on this work by presenting an update of the laws and regulations reformed from June 2, 2017 to September 1, 2019. Methodology Women, Business and the Law is based on an analysis of domestic laws and regulations that affect women’s economic opportunities. The indicators were selected through research and consultation with experts. They are also inspired by the international legal frameworks set out in the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against FIGURE 2.1 E  IGHT INDICATORS MEASURE LEGAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN AS THEY TRANSITION THROUGH DIFFERENT STAGES OF WORKING LIFE Mobility Pay Parenthood Assets Examines constraints on Measures laws and regulations Examines laws a ecting women’s Considers gender di erences freedom of movement a ecting women’s pay work after having children in property and inheritance Workplace Marriage Entrepreneurship Pension Analyzes laws a ecting Assesses legal constraints Analyzes constraints on women’s Assesses laws a ecting the women’s decisions to work related to marriage starting and running businesses size of a woman’s pension DATA NOTES 23 Women General Recommendations (CEDAW GR), the UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women (DEVAW), the International Labour Organization (ILO) Equal Remuneration Convention, 1951 (No. 100), the Maternity Protection Convention, 2000 (No. 183), and the Violence and Harassment Convention, 2019 (No. 190). The data set and analysis can be used to support research and policy discussions around the ways in which the legal environment influences women’s economic activity. Thirty-five data points are scored across eight indicators of four or five binary ques- tions, with each indicator representing a different phase of a woman’s career (table 2.1). Indicator-level scores are obtained by calculating the unweighted average of the questions within that indicator and scaling the result to 100. Overall scores are then calculated by taking the average of each indicator, with 100 representing the highest possible score. TABLE 2.1 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW INDICATORS Mobility (0–100) 1. Can a woman choose where to live in the same way as a man? (Yes = 1, No = 0) 2. Can a woman travel outside her home in the same way as a man? (Yes = 1, No = 0) 3. Can a woman apply for a passport in the same way as a man? (Yes = 1, No = 0) 4. Can a woman travel outside the country in the same way as a man? (Yes = 1, No = 0) Workplace (0–100) 1. Can a woman get a job in the same way as a man? (Yes = 1, No = 0) 2. Does the law prohibit discrimination in employment based on gender? (Yes = 1, No = 0) 3. Is there legislation on sexual harassment in employment? (Yes = 1, No = 0) 4. Are there criminal penalties or civil remedies for sexual harassment in employment? (Yes = 1, No = 0) Pay (0–100) 1. Does the law mandate equal remuneration for work of equal value? (Yes = 1, No = 0) 2. Can women work the same night hours as men? (Yes = 1, No = 0) 3. Can women work in jobs deemed dangerous in the same way as men? (Yes = 1, No = 0) 4. Are women able to work in the same industries as men? (Yes = 1, No = 0) Marriage (0–100) 1. Is there no legal provision that requires a married woman to obey her husband? (Yes = 1, No = 0) 2. Can a woman be head of household in the same way as a man? (Yes = 1, No = 0) 3. Is there legislation specifically addressing domestic violence? (Yes = 1, No = 0) 4. Can a woman obtain a judgment of divorce in the same way as a man? (Yes = 1, No = 0) 5. Does a woman have the same rights to remarry as a man? (Yes = 1, No = 0) Parenthood (0–100) 1. Is paid leave of at least 14 weeks available to mothers? (Yes = 1, No = 0) 2. Does the government administer 100% of maternity leave benefits? (Yes = 1, No = 0) 3. Is there paid leave available to fathers? (Yes = 1, No = 0) 4. Is there paid parental leave? (Yes = 1, No = 0) 5. Is dismissal of pregnant workers prohibited? (Yes = 1, No = 0) (continued on next page) 24 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 TABLE 2.1 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW INDICATORS Entrepreneurship (0–100) 1. Does the law prohibit discrimination in access to credit based on gender? (Yes = 1, No = 0) 2. Can a woman sign a contract in the same way as a man? (Yes = 1, No = 0) 3. Can a woman register a business in the same way as a man? (Yes = 1, No = 0) 4. Can a woman open a bank account in the same way as a man? (Yes = 1, No = 0) Assets (0–100) 1. Do men and women have equal ownership rights to immovable property? (Yes = 1, No = 0) 2. Do sons and daughters have equal rights to inherit assets from their parents? (Yes = 1, No = 0) 3. Do female and male surviving spouses have equal rights to inherit assets? (Yes = 1, No = 0) 4. Does the law grant spouses equal administrative authority over assets during marriage? (Yes = 1, No = 0) 5. Does the law provide for the valuation of nonmonetary contributions? (Yes = 1, No = 0) Pension (0–100) 1. Are the ages at which men and women can retire with full pension benefits equal? (Yes = 1, No = 0) 2. Are the ages at which men and women can retire with partial pension benefits equal? (Yes = 1, No = 0) 3. Are the mandatory retirement ages for men and women equal? (Yes = 1, No = 0) 4. Are periods of absence due to child care accounted for in pension benefits? (Yes = 1, No = 0) Source: Women, Business and the Law database. Examining the data for one economy illustrates how scoring works in the index. The Lao People’s Democratic Republic, for example, receives a score of 100 for five indicators: Mobility, Workplace, Marriage, Entrepreneurship, and Assets. This signifies that no legal constraints were found in the areas measured under these indicators. Under Pay, however, Lao PDR receives a score of 75 because the law does not mandate equal remuneration for work of equal value. Lack of paid parental leave also results in a score of 80 in Parenthood. Finally, Lao PDR receives a score of 50 under the Pension indicator because the age at which men and women can retire with full pension benefits is not equal, nor is the period of absence required for child care taken into account in pension benefits. Using this information, the overall score for Lao PDR is calculated as the unweighted average of all eight indicator scores on a scale of 0–100, with 100 representing the best score overall. Lao PDR scores 88.1. Women, Business and the Law 2020 data cover the period June 2, 2017, to September 1, 2019. The report’s indicators are constructed based on feedback from nearly 2,000 respondents with expertise in family, labor, and criminal law, including lawyers, judges, academics, and members of civil society organizations working on gender issues. Besides filling out written questionnaires, Women, Business and the Law respondents provide references to relevant laws and regulations. The Women, Business and the Law team then collects the texts of these laws and regulations and checks questionnaire responses for accuracy. Questionnaire responses are verified against codified sources of national law, including constitutions, codes, laws, statutes, rules, regulations, and procedures in areas such as labor, social security, civil procedure, DATA NOTES 25 tax, violence against women, marriage and family, inheritance, nationality, and land. The data in this report are current as of September 1, 2019. This unique approach has both strengths and limitations (table 2.2). Because the data must be comparable across economies, all indicators are based on standardized assumptions (box 2.1). For example, an assumption used for questions on maternity leave is that the woman in question is having one child. Although maternity leave benefits often differ for multiple births, only data for individual births are captured. Another assumption is that the woman in question is located in the largest business city of the economy. In federal economies, laws affecting women can vary by state or province. Even in nonfederal economies, women in rural areas and small towns could face more restrictive local legislation. Such restrictions are not captured by Women, Business and the Law unless they are also found in the main business city. In addition, where personal law prescribes different rights and obligations for different groups of women, the data focus on the most populous group, which may mean that restrictions that apply only to minority populations are missed. Furthermore, Women, Business and the Law focuses solely on the ways in which the formal legal and regulatory environment determines whether women can work or open their own businesses. Although many women in developing economies are employed by the informal economy, a goal of this project is to define some of the features of the legal framework that make it more difficult for women to transition from the informal to the formal economy. This study also recognizes the often-large gaps between laws on the books and actual practice. One reason for this may be poor implementation of legislation due to weak enforcement, poor design, or low capacity. Nonetheless, identifying legal TABLE 2.2 STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF THE WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW METHODOLOGY Feature Strength Limitation Use of standardized Makes data comparable across economies and Reduces scope of data; only regulatory reforms in the assumptions methodology transparent areas measured can be systematically tracked Coverage of largest Makes data collection manageable and data In federal economies, it could decrease representa- business city only comparable tiveness of data where there are differences in laws across locations Focus on the most Makes data comparable across economies Restrictions that apply to minority populations may populous group where there are parallel legal systems not be covered prescribing different rights for different groups of women Emphasis on the Keeps attention on the formal economy, Unable to reflect reality for women in the informal formal sector where regulations are more relevant sector, which may be a significant population in some economies Measure of codified Makes indicators actionable because the law Where systematic implementation of legislation is law only is what policy makers can change lacking, regulatory changes alone will not achieve the desired results; social and cultural norms are not considered Source: Women, Business and the Law database. 26 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 BOX 2.1  ASSUMPTIONS USED BY WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY The woman in question • Resides in the economy’s main business city. • Has reached the legal age of majority and is capable of making decisions as an adult, is in good health, and has no criminal record. • Is a lawful citizen of the economy being examined. • Is a cashier in the food retail sector in a supermarket or grocery store that has 60 employees. • Is in a monogamous first marriage registered with the appropriate authorities (de facto marriages and customary unions are not measured). • Is of the same religion as her husband. • Is in a marriage under the rules of the default marital property regime, or the most common regime for that jurisdiction, which will not change during the course of the marriage. For the questions on maternity, paternity, or parental leave, it is assumed that • The woman gave birth to her first child without complications on September 1, 2019, and her child is in good health. • Both parents have been working long enough to accrue any maternity, pater- nity, and parental benefits. For the question on inheritance rights of surviving spouses, it is assumed that • The deceased spouse is not survived by any children. For the questions on retirement and pensions, it is assumed that • The woman gave birth without complications to two healthy children. • The woman ceased all paid activity during periods of child care. If the period covered by a pension credit is conditioned on the age of the child, the period until the child reaches age 1 is counted. • If transitional provisions gradually increase, decrease, or equalize the statutory retirement age, the answer will reflect the retirement age as of September 1, 2019, even if the law provides for changes over time. DATA NOTES 27 differences is one step toward a better understanding of where women’s economic rights may be restricted in practice. Women, Business and the Law acknowledges that equal opportunities for women in business and the workplace depend on an interplay of economic, social, and cultural factors. For example, unless women have an opportunity to get an education or build their skills, equalizing laws affecting entrepreneurship and employment could mean little. Other factors, such as infrastructure, may also affect women’s ability and desire to work. In addition, social and cultural norms may prevent women from running busi- nesses or working outside the home. Women, Business and the Law recognizes the limitations of its standardized assumptions and focus on statutory law. However, even though such assumptions may come at the expense of specificity, they also ensure data comparability. Scored questions This section focuses on the 35 scored binary questions, grouped by indicator. Answers to the questions are based on codified law only; how the law is implemented is not considered. Customary law is also not taken into account unless it has been codified. Where the answer differs according to the legal system (for example, in mixed legal systems where different laws govern different groups of people within an economy), the answer used is the one that applies to the majority of the population. Supranational law, such as that enacted by the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA), is not considered when domestic law contravenes these supranational rules and limits the legal capacity of women. Mobility The Mobility indicator measures constraints on women’s agency and freedom of movement, both of which are likely to influence their decision to enter the labor force and entrepreneurial activity.1 This indicator has four components that measure •• Whether a woman can choose where to live in the same way as a man. A score of 1 is assigned if there are no restrictions on a woman choosing where to live. A score of 0 is assigned if there are explicit restrictions on a woman choosing where to live, if the husband chooses the family residence, or if the husband has more weight in determining where the family will live. •• Whether a woman can travel outside her home in the same way as a man. A score of 1 is assigned if there are no restrictions on a woman traveling alone do- mestically. A score of 0 is assigned if permission, additional documentation, or the presence of her husband or guardian is required for a woman to travel domestically. A score of 0 is also assigned if a woman must justify her reasons for leaving the home, or leaving the home without a valid reason is considered disobedience with legal consequences—for example, loss of her right to maintenance. •• Whether a woman can apply for a passport in the same way as a man. A score of 1 is assigned if there are no differences in passport application procedures. A score of 0 is assigned if an adult woman needs the permission or signature of her 28 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 husband, father, or other relative or guardian to apply for a passport. A score of 0 is also assigned if the passport application procedures require a woman to provide details about her husband, father, or any other relative or guardian, or additional documents such as a marriage certificate, while the same is not required for a man. •• Whether a woman can travel outside the country in the same way as a man. A score of 1 is assigned if there are no restrictions on a woman traveling alone inter- nationally. A score of 0 is assigned if permission, additional documentation, or the presence of her husband or a guardian is required for a woman to leave the country. A score of 0 is also assigned if the law requires a married woman to accompany her husband out of the country if he so wishes. Workplace The Workplace indicator analyzes laws affecting women’s decisions to enter the labor market, including women’s legal capacity and ability to work, as well as protections in the workplace against discrimination and sexual harassment. Antidiscrimination legislation is positively associated with women’s employment and earnings, while sexual harassment can negatively influence women’s career trajectories.2 This indicator has four components that assess •• Whether a woman can get a job in the same way as a man. A score of 1 is as- signed if there are no restrictions on a woman’s legal capacity and ability to work. A score of 0 is assigned if a husband can prevent his wife from getting a job or if permission or additional documentation is required for a woman to work but not a man. A score of 0 is also assigned if it is considered a form of disobedience with legal consequences, such as loss of maintenance, for a woman to work contrary to her husband’s wishes or the interests of the family. •• Whether the law prohibits discrimination in employment based on gender. A score of 1 is assigned if the law prohibits employers from discriminating based on gender or mandates equal treatment of women and men in employment. A score of 0 is assigned if the law does not prohibit such discrimination or only prohibits it in one aspect of employment, such as pay or dismissal. •• Whether there is legislation on sexual harassment in employment. A score of 1 is assigned if legal provisions specifically protect against sexual harassment in employ- ment, including unwelcome verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature. A score of 0 is assigned if there is no such legislation. A score of 0 is also assigned if the law addresses harassment in general but makes no reference to acts of a sexual nature or contact, or if it states only that the employer has a duty to prevent sexual harass- ment but no provisions prohibit it or provide sanctions or other forms of redress. •• Whether there are criminal penalties or civil remedies for sexual harassment in employment. A score of 1 is assigned if the law establishes criminal sanctions, such as fines or imprisonment, for sexual harassment in employment. A score of 1 is also assigned if the provision in the criminal code provides for reparation of damages for offenses covered by the code, or if the law provides for civil remedies or compensa- tion for victims of sexual harassment in employment or the workplace, even after dismissal of the victims. A score of 0 is assigned if the law establishes neither criminal DATA NOTES 29 sanctions for sexual harassment in employment nor civil remedies or compensation for victims of sexual harassment in employment or the workplace. A score of 0 is also assigned if the law only prohibits sexual harassment in employment and sets forth that the employer should apply discretionary sanctions. Pay The Pay indicator measures laws affecting occupational segregation and the gender wage gap. Restrictions on certain jobs have been found to be negatively correlated with female employment.3 This indicator has four components that assess •• Whether the law mandates equal remuneration for work of equal value. “Remuneration” refers to the ordinary, basic, or minimum wage or salary and any additional emoluments payable directly or indirectly, whether in cash or in kind, by the employer to the worker and arising from the worker’s employment. “Work of equal value” refers not only to the same or similar jobs but also to different jobs of the same value. A score of 1 is assigned if employers are legally obliged to pay equal remuneration to male and female employees who perform work of equal value in accordance with these definitions. A score of 0 is assigned if the law limits the principle of equal remuneration to equal work, the same work, similar work, or work of a similar nature. A score of 0 is also assigned if the law limits the broad concept of “remuneration” to only basic wages or salary, or if the law limits the principle of equal remuneration for work of equal value to the same place of business or same employer. •• Whether women can work the same night hours as men. A score of 1 is assigned if nonpregnant and non-nursing women can work the same night hours as men. A score of 1 is also assigned in the following cases: when restrictions on women’s abil- ity to work at night do not apply to the food retail sector, women’s consent to work at night is required, or an employer needs to comply with safety measures (such as providing transportation). A score of 0 is assigned if the law broadly prohibits wom- en, including those with children over the age of 1, from working at night or limits the hours women can work at night. A score of 0 is also assigned if the law gives the relevant minister or ministry the power to restrict or prohibit women’s night work. •• Whether women can work in jobs deemed dangerous in the same way as men. A score of 1 is assigned if no laws prohibit or restrict nonpregnant and non-nursing women from working in a broad and subjective category of jobs deemed “hazard- ous,” “arduous,” or “morally inappropriate.” A score of 0 is assigned if the law pro- hibits or restricts women from working in jobs deemed hazardous, arduous, or mor- ally inappropriate. A score of 0 is also assigned if the employer or relevant minister or ministry can determine whether particular jobs are too hazardous, arduous, or morally inappropriate for women but not for men. •• Whether women can work in the same industries as men. A score of 1 is as- signed if nonpregnant and non-nursing women can work in the mining, construction, manufacturing, energy, water, agriculture, and transportation industries in the same way as men. A score of 0 is assigned if the law prohibits women from working in these industries. A score of 0 is also assigned if women’s employment in the relevant 30 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 industries is restricted in any way, such as by prohibiting women from working at night in “industrial undertakings,” or by giving the relevant minister or ministry the power to prohibit or restrict women from working in certain jobs or industries. Marriage The Marriage indicator measures legal constraints related to marriage. Legal discrimination against women, including limits on their ability to be head of household, has been found to be negatively correlated with labor force participation.4 Unequal rights in marriage and divorce can also have negative effects on women’s intrahousehold bargaining power and jeopardize their financial security when a divorce is finalized.5 This indicator has five components that measure •• Whether there is no legal provision that requires a married woman to obey her husband. A score of 1 is assigned if there is no provision requiring a married woman to obey her husband. A score of 0 is assigned if there is an explicit provision stating that a married woman must obey her husband, or if disobedience of a husband has legal ramifications for his wife, such as loss of maintenance. •• Whether a woman can be head of household in the same way as a man. A score of 1 is assigned if there are no restrictions on a woman becoming head of household or head of family. A score of 0 is assigned if there are explicit restrictions, such as a provision designating the husband as head of household or stipulating that the husband leads the family. A score of 0 is also assigned if a male is designated as the default family member who receives the family book or equivalent document that is needed for access to services. •• Whether there is legislation specifically addressing domestic violence. A score of 1 is assigned if there is legislation addressing domestic violence that includes criminal sanctions or provides for protection orders for domestic violence. A score of 1 is also assigned when legislation addresses “harassment” that clearly leads to physical or mental harm in the context of domestic violence. A score of 0 is assigned if there is no legislation addressing domestic violence, if the domestic violence leg- islation does not provide for sanctions or protection orders, or if only a specific category of women or family member is protected. A score of 0 is also assigned if there is only a provision that increases penalties for general crimes covered in the criminal code if committed between spouses or within the family. •• Whether a woman can obtain a judgment of divorce in the same way as a man. A score of 1 is assigned if the process is equal for women and men or includes ad- ditional protections for women, such as prohibiting a husband from initiating divorce proceedings while his wife is pregnant. A score of 0 is assigned if divorce is not legally allowed, if there are procedural or evidentiary differences for women, or if only men can initiate divorce proceedings. •• Whether a woman has the same rights to remarry as a man. A score of 1 is as- signed if women and men have an equal right to remarry. A score of 0 is assigned if provisions limit a woman’s right to remarry, such as requiring a waiting period before remarriage to which a man is not subject. A score of 0 is also assigned if divorce is not legally allowed. DATA NOTES 31 Parenthood The Parenthood indicator examines laws affecting women’s work during and after pregnancy. Women are more likely to return to work if the law mandates maternity leave.6 This indicator has five components that measure •• Whether paid leave of at least 14 weeks is available to mothers. A score of 1 is assigned if mothers are legally entitled to at least 14 weeks (98 calendar days) of paid leave for the birth of a child through maternity leave, parental leave, or a combination of both. A score of 0 is assigned if the law does not establish paid leave for mothers or if the length of paid leave is less than 14 weeks. •• Whether the government administers 100% of maternity leave benefits. A score of 1 is assigned if leave benefits are fully administered by a government entity, in- cluding compulsory social insurance schemes (such as social security), public funds, government-mandated private insurance, or employer reimbursement of any ma- ternity leave benefits paid directly to an employee. A score of 0 is assigned if any of the cost is shared by the employer. A score of 0 is also assigned if contributions or taxes are mandated only for female employees, if the social insurance scheme that provides maternity leave benefits is optional, or if no paid leave is available to expectant and new mothers. •• Whether paid leave is available to fathers. A score of 1 is assigned if fathers are legally entitled to at least one day of paid paternity leave for the birth of a child, or if the law reserves a portion of paid parental leave specifically for fathers—that is, through “use-it-or-lose-it” policies or fathers’ quotas. A score of 1 is also assigned if fathers are individually entitled to paid parental leave. A score of 0 is assigned if the law does not guarantee fathers any paid paternity leave or other specific leave for the birth of a child. A score of 0 is also assigned if allowances for the birth of a child must be deducted from annual or sick leave. The scoring rule for this question was updated this year to include both paid paternity leave and paid parental leave that is specifically for fathers as an individual entitlement, through a fathers’ quota or a “use-it-or-lose-it” policy. •• Whether there is paid parental leave. A score of 1 is assigned if both parents are legally entitled to some form of full-time paid parental leave, either shared between mother and father or as an individual entitlement that each can take regardless of the other. A score of 0 is assigned if the law does not mandate any form of paid parental leave. •• Whether dismissal of pregnant workers is prohibited. A score of 1 is assigned if the law explicitly prohibits the dismissal of pregnant women, if pregnancy cannot serve as grounds for termination of a contract, or if dismissal of pregnant workers is considered a form of unlawful termination, unfair dismissal, or wrongful discharge. A score of 0 is assigned if there are no provisions prohibiting the dismissal of pregnant workers, or if the law only prohibits the dismissal of pregnant workers during mater- nity leave or for a limited period of the pregnancy or when their pregnancy results in illness or disability. Collective bargaining agreements are considered when they cover more than 50 percent of the workforce in the food retail sector and they apply to individuals who were not party to the original collective bargaining agreement. 32 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 Entrepreneurship The Entrepreneurship indicator measures constraints on women starting and running a business. Having access to bank accounts is strongly correlated with women’s labor supply.7 This indicator has four components that measure •• Whether the law prohibits discrimination in access to credit based on gender. A score of 1 is assigned if the law prohibits discrimination by creditors based on gen- der or prescribes equal access for both men and women when conducting financial transactions, or entrepreneurial activities or receiving financial assistance. A score of 1 is also assigned if the law prohibits gender discrimination when accessing goods and services (and services are defined to include financial services). A score of 0 is assigned if the law does not prohibit such discrimination, or if the law does not provide for effective remedies. •• Whether a woman can sign a contract in the same way as a man. A score of 1 is assigned if a woman obtains full legal capacity upon reaching the age of majority and there are no restrictions on her signing legally binding contracts. A score of 0 is assigned if a woman has limited legal capacity to sign a contract or needs the signature, consent, or permission of her husband to legally bind herself. •• Whether a woman can register a business in the same way as a man. A score of 1 is assigned if there are no restrictions on a woman registering a business. A score of 0 is assigned if a woman has limited legal capacity to register a business. This includes situations in which she needs her husband’s or guardian’s permission, signature, or consent to register a business. A score of 0 is also assigned if the reg- istration process at any stage requires a woman to provide additional information or documentation that is not required of a man. •• Whether a woman can open a bank account in the same way as a man. A score of 1 is assigned if there are no restrictions on a woman opening a bank account. A score of 0 is assigned if a woman has limited legal capacity or is required to provide any additional permission or documentation that is not required of a man. A score of 0 is also assigned if legal provisions limit the ability of a woman to open a bank account, such as stating that a married woman who is separately employed from her husband may open a bank account in her own name. Assets The Assets indicator examines gender differences in property and inheritance law. Improving property and inheritance rights is positively associated with female earnings and employment.8 This indicator has five components that measure •• Whether men and women have equal ownership rights to immovable property. A score of 1 is assigned if no legal restriction related to property is applied to women or men based on gender. A score of 0 is assigned if legal restrictions on property ownership are applied based on gender, or if there are gender differences in the legal treatment of spousal property, such as granting the husband administrative control of marital property. This includes instances in which legal systems are supported by custom and judicial precedent. DATA NOTES 33 •• Whether sons and daughters have equal rights to inherit assets from their par- ents. A score of 1 is assigned if there are no differences in the rules of intestate suc- cession for transfer of property from parents to children. A score of 0 is assigned if there are gender-based differences in the recognition of children as heirs to property. •• Whether female and male surviving spouses have equal rights to inherit as- sets. A score of 1 is assigned if surviving spouses of either gender have the same inheritance rights. A score of 0 is assigned if there are gender-based differences in the inheritance rights of surviving spouses. •• Whether the law grants spouses equal administrative authority over assets during marriage. A score of 1 is assigned if spouses retain administrative power over those assets each brought to the marriage or acquired during marriage, and their accrued value, without the need for spousal consent. A score of 1 is also assigned if spouses administer their separate property, but for major transactions, such as selling or pledging the property as collateral, spousal consent is required, or if both spouses have equal rights in the administration and transaction of joint property. A score of 0 is assigned if the husband has administrative rights over all property, including any separate property of the wife. •• Whether the law provides for the valuation of nonmonetary contributions. Nonmonetary contributions include caring for minor children, taking care of the fam- ily home, or any other nonmonetized contribution from a stay-at-home spouse. A score of 1 is assigned if there is an explicit legal recognition of such contributions and the law provides for equal or equitable division of the property or the transfer of a lump sum to the stay-at-home spouse based on nonmonetary contributions. A score of 1 is also assigned if the default marital property regime is full community, partial community, or deferred community, because these regimes implicitly recognize non- monetary contributions at the time of property division and benefit both spouses regardless of who purchased the property or holds title to it. A score of 0 is assigned if the default marital property regime is not full or partial community, or deferred full or partial community of property, and there is no explicit legal provision providing for equal or equitable division of property based on nonmonetary contributions. Pension The Pension indicator assesses laws affecting the size of a woman’s pension. Early retirement can widen the potential gender gap in pension levels and increase women’s risk of poverty in old age.9 This indicator has four components that measure •• Whether the ages at which men and women can retire with full pension benefits are equal. A score of 1 is assigned if the statutory age at which men and women can retire and receive an irrevocable minimum old-age pension is the same. A score of 0 is assigned if there is a difference in the statutory age or if there is no national law on pension benefits. •• Whether the ages at which men and women can retire with partial pension ben- efits are equal. Partial pension benefits refer to a reduced or proportional minimum old-age pension payable to workers who did not accumulate enough work experi- ence or contributions or have not reached the statutory age to qualify for a minimum 34 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 old-age pension. A score of 1 is assigned if the age at which men and women can retire and receive partial pension benefits is the same, or if the age at which men and women can retire and receive partial benefits is not mandated. A score of 0 is assigned if the age at which men and women can retire and receive partial pension benefits is different, or if there is no national law on pension benefits. •• Whether the mandatory retirement ages for men and women are equal. A score of 1 is assigned if the legally established age at which men and women must retire is the same, or if there is no mandatory retirement age. A score of 0 is assigned if the age at which men and women must retire is different. •• Whether periods of absence from work due to child care are taken into account in pension benefits. A score of 1 is assigned if pension contributions are paid or credited during maternity or parental leave, or the leave period is considered a qualifying period of employment used for the purpose of calculating pension ben- efits. A score of 1 is also assigned if there are mechanisms to compensate for any contribution gaps and to ensure that the leave period does not reduce the assess- ment base or pension amounts, or if there are no mandatory contributory pension schemes, but there is a noncontributory universal social pension conditioned on noncontributory requirements with no means test attached. A score of 0 is assigned if there are no compensating pension arrangements for periods of child care, or if there is no mandatory contributory pension scheme(s) for private sector workers and no noncontributory universal social pension. The scoring rule for this question was updated this year to include noncontributory universal social pension schemes as implicitly accounting for periods of child care in pension benefits when they are mandatory and not means-tested. It also was updated to examine legislation on maternity, paternity and parental leave that addresses pension benefits in addition to pension laws. More detailed data on each economy are provided on the project website. The team welcomes feedback on the methodology and construction of this set of indica- tors. We look forward to improving its coverage and scope. Comments can be offered by contacting the Women, Business and the Law team at wbl@worldbank.org. Notes 1. Htun, Jensenius, and Nelson-Nuñez 2019. 2. McLaughlin, Uggen, and Blackstone 2017; Zabalza and Tzannatos 1985. 3. Ogloblin 1999, 2005; Zveglich and Rodgers 2003. 4. Goldin and Olivetti 2013; Gonzales et al. 2015. 5. Berger and Waldfogel 2004. 6. Berger and Waldfogel 2004. 7. Field et al. 2016; Ladd 1982. 8. Heath and Tan 2018; Peterman 2011. 9. Chłoń-Domińczak 2017. DATA NOTES 35 References Berger, Lawrence M., and Jane Waldfogel. 2004. “Maternity Leave and the Employment of New Mothers in the United States.” Journal of Population Economics 17 (2): 331–49. Chłoń-Domińczak, Agnieszka. 2017. “Gender Gap in Pensions: Looking Ahead.” Study for the Femme Committee, Directorate-General for Internal Policies, European Parliament, Brussels. Field, Erica, Rohini Pande, Natalia Rigol, Simone Schaner, and Charity Troyer Moore. 2016. “On Her Account: Can Strengthening Women’s Financial Control Boost Female Labour Supply?” Working Paper, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA. Goldin, Claudia, and Claudia Olivetti. 2013. “Shocking Labor Supply: A Reassessment of the Role of World War II on Women’s Labor Supply.” American Economic Review 103 (3): 257–62. Gonzales, Christian, Sonali Jain-Chandra, Kalpana Kochhar, and Monique Newiak. 2015. “Fair Play: More Equal Laws Boost Female Labor Force Participation.” IMF Staff Discussion Note SDN/15/02, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC. Heath, Rachel, and Xu Tan. 2018. “Intrahousehold Bargaining, Female Autonomy, and Labor Supply: Theory and Evidence from India.” Working Paper, Department of Economics, University of Washington, Seattle. Htun, Mala, Francesca R. Jensenius, and Jami Nelson-Nuñez. 2019. “Gender-Discriminatory Laws and Women’s Economic Agency.” Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State and Society 26 (1). Ladd, Helen. 1982. “Equal Credit Opportunity: Women and Mortgage Credit.” American Economic Review 72 (2): 166–70. McLaughlin, Heather, Christopher Uggen, and Amy Blackstone. 2017. “The Economic and Career Effects of Sexual Harassment on Working Women.” Gender and Society 31 (3): 333–58. Ogloblin, Constantin G. 1999. “The Gender Earnings Differential in the Russian Transition Economy.” Industrial and Labor Relations Review 52 (4): 602–27. ———. 2005. “The Gender Earnings Differential in Russia after a Decade of Economic Transition.” Applied Econometrics and International Development 5 (3): 5–26. Peterman, Amber. 2011. “Women’s Property Rights and Gendered Policies: Implications for Women’s Long- Term Welfare in Rural Tanzania.” Journal of Development Studies 47 (1): 1–30. Voena, Alessandra. 2015. “Yours, Mine, and Ours: Do Divorce Laws Affect the Intertemporal Behavior of Married Couples?” American Economic Review 105 (8): 2295–2332. Zabalza, Antoni, and Zafiris Tzannatos. 1985. “The Effect of Britain’s Anti-Discriminatory Legislation on Relative Pay and Employment.” Economic Journal 95 (379): 679–99. Zveglich, Joseph E., and Yana van der Meulen Rodgers. 2003. “The Impact of Protective Measures for Female Workers.” Journal of Labor Economics 21 (3): 533–55. 36 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 SUMMARIES OF REFORMS In the two-year period from June 2, 2017, to September 1, 2019, Women, Business and the Law recorded 62 reforms aimed at improving gender equality in employment and entrepreneurial activity in 40 economies. During the same time, three economies implemented four reforms widening the legal gender gap. ✔ Reform increasing gender parity ✘ Reform decreasing gender parity Argentina ✔ Pension Argentina equalized the mandatory retirement age (70 years) for women and men. Armenia ✔ Marriage Armenia enacted legislation protecting women from domestic violence. Bahrain ✔ Workplace Bahrain improved the protection of women at work by adopting legislation and criminal penalties for sexual harassment. ✔ Marriage Bahrain began allowing women to be head of household. Barbados ✔ Workplace Barbados improved the protection of women at work by enacting legislation and civil remedies for sexual harassment. Bosnia and Herzegovina ✘ Pension Bosnia and Herzegovina adopted a new law that allows women and men to retire with partial benefits at ages 56 and 61, respectively. The ages are set to equalize in 2026. SUMMARIES OF REFORMS 37 Burkina Faso ✔ Marriage Burkina Faso enacted legislation protecting women from domestic violence. Canada ✔ Parenthood Canada introduced a new parental leave sharing benefit that reserves 35 days of paid parental leave for the father. Congo, Dem. Rep. ✔ Parenthood The Democratic Republic of Congo introduced social insurance maternity benefits. Maternity leave is now paid by the government instead of the employer. ✔ Pension The Democratic Republic of Congo equalized the retirement age (60 years) for women and men and established pension credits for periods of child care. Côte d’Ivoire ✔ Assets Côte d’Ivoire granted spouses equal rights to immovable property and equal administrative authority over assets during marriage. Cyprus ✔ Parenthood Cyprus introduced 10 days of paid paternity leave. Czech Republic ✔ Parenthood The Czech Republic introduced five days of paid paternity leave. Djibouti ✔ Workplace Djibouti introduced legislation and criminal penalties for sexual harassment in employment. ✔ Marriage Djibouti enacted legislation protecting women from domestic violence. 38 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 Eswatini ✔ Marriage Eswatini enacted legislation protecting women from domestic violence. Fiji ✔ Parenthood Fiji introduced five days of paid paternity leave. It also increased the duration of paid maternity leave from 84 to 98 days. Georgia ✔ Workplace Georgia improved the protection of women at work by introducing civil remedies for victims of sexual harassment. ✔ Entrepreneurship Georgia made access to credit easier for women by prohibiting gender-based discrimination in access to financial services. Germany ✔ Pay Germany introduced new legislation that mandates equal remuneration for work of equal value. Grenada ✔ Mobility Grenada made international travel easier for women by allowing them to apply for a passport in the same way as men, with no need for additional documentation. India ✔ Pay The state of Maharashtra eliminated restrictions on women’s ability to work in jobs deemed dangerous. Italy ✔ Pension Italy equalized the age (67 years) at which men and women can retire with full pension benefits. SUMMARIES OF REFORMS 39 Jordan ✔ Pay Jordan lifted restrictions on women’s ability to work at night. It also enacted legislation that mandates equal remuneration for work of equal value. ✔ Parenthood Jordan introduced three days of paid paternity leave. Liberia ✔ Marriage Liberia enacted legislation protecting women from domestic violence. Mali ✔ Workplace Mali enacted legislation that prohibits discrimination in employment based on gender. ✔ Pay Mali enacted legislation that mandates equal remuneration for work of equal value. Moldova ✔ Pay Moldova lifted restrictions on women’s ability to hold jobs deemed dangerous. It also eliminated restrictions on women’s ability to work in certain industries. Such restrictions are now limited to women who are pregnant, nursing, or postpartum. ✘ Pension Moldova introduced mandatory retirement ages that differ for women and men. Employers may now terminate the contracts of women at age 58 and 6 months and of men at age 63. The ages are set to equalize in 2028. Morocco ✔ Marriage Morocco enacted legislation protecting women from domestic violence. Nepal ✔ Workplace Nepal enacted new legislation that prohibits discrimination in employment based on gender. ✔ Pay Nepal lifted restrictions on women’s ability to work at night and mandated equal remuneration for work of equal value. 40 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 ✔ Parenthood Nepal introduced 15 days of paid paternity leave. ✔ Pension Nepal adopted its first old-age pension system that allows both men and women to retire with full pension benefits at age 60. The pension system does not mandate the age at which women and men can retire with partial pension benefits. Niger ✔ Pay Niger removed restrictions on women’s employment in mining, construction, and manufacturing. Women can now work in these industries in the same way as men. Pakistan ✔ Parenthood Pakistan increased the duration of paid maternity leave from 84 to 112 days. Philippines ✔ Parenthood The Philippines extended the duration of paid maternity leave from 60 to 105 days. São Tomé and Príncipe ✔ Pay São Tomé and Príncipe lifted restrictions on women’s ability to work at night, in mining, and in jobs deemed dangerous. ✔ Parenthood São Tomé and Príncipe prohibited the dismissal of pregnant workers. Saudi Arabia ✔ Mobility Saudi Arabia improved women’s mobility by removing restrictions on obtaining a passport and traveling abroad. New legal amendments also equalized a woman’s right to choose where to live and leave the marital home. ✔ Workplace Saudi Arabia enacted legislation and criminal penalties for sexual harassment in employment. It also prohibited gender discrimination in employment. ✔ Marriage Saudi Arabia began allowing women to be head of household and removed the legal obligation for a married woman to obey her husband. SUMMARIES OF REFORMS 41 ✔ Parenthood Saudi Arabia prohibited the dismissal of pregnant workers. ✔ Entrepreneurship Saudi Arabia made access to credit easier for women by prohibiting gender-based discrimination in financial services. ✔ Pension Saudi Arabia equalized the age (60 years) at which men and women can retire with full pension benefits. It also mandated a retirement age of 60 years for both women and men. Slovenia ✔ Pension Slovenia equalized the age (60 years) at which women and men can retire with partial pension benefits. South Sudan ✔ Workplace South Sudan prohibited gender discrimination in employment. It also adopted civil remedies for sexual harassment in employment. ✔ Pay South Sudan lifted restrictions on women’s ability to work at night, underground, underwater, and in jobs deemed dangerous. It also mandated equal remuneration for work of equal value. ✔ Parenthood South Sudan introduced 10 days of paid paternity leave. Sri Lanka ✔ Parenthood Sri Lanka extended the duration of paid maternity leave from 59 to 118 days. Thailand ✔ Pay Thailand introduced new legislation that mandates equal remuneration for men and women who perform work of equal value. 42 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 Timor-Leste ✔ Pension Timor-Leste explicitly accounted for periods of absence due to child care in pension benefits. Tunisia ✔ Workplace Tunisia improved the protection of women at work by adopting legislation and criminal penalties for sexual harassment. ✔ Marriage Tunisia implemented legislation protecting women from domestic violence. Uganda ✔ Mobility Uganda made international travel easier for women by allowing them to apply for a passport in the same way as men, with no need to provide additional information. United Arab Emirates ✔ Mobility The United Arab Emirates made international travel easier for women by allowing a married woman to apply for a passport without the written consent of her husband. ✔ Workplace The United Arab Emirates improved the protection of women at work by prohibit- ing discrimination based on gender in employment. It also adopted legislation and criminal penalties for sexual harassment in employment. ✔ Pay The United Arab Emirates lifted restrictions on women’s ability to work at night and in jobs deemed dangerous. It also eliminated restrictions on women’s employment in agriculture and in the mining, manufacturing, and energy industries. ✔ Marriage The United Arab Emirates began allowing women to be head of household and adopted legislation protecting women from domestic violence. ✔ Parenthood The United Arab Emirates prohibited the dismissal of pregnant workers. SUMMARIES OF REFORMS 43 United States ✔ Parenthood New York State introduced paid family leave that currently entitles each parent to 70 days of leave for the birth of a child. It will gradually increase to 84 days. Parents receive paid parental leave benefits through their employer’s insurance carriers. Uruguay ✔ Pay Uruguay introduced legislation that mandates equal remuneration for men and women who perform work of equal value. West Bank and Gaza ✘ Parenthood West Bank and Gaza reversed a previous reform that introduced the 2016 Social Security Law. Now employers are solely liable for paying maternity benefits. ✘ Pension West Bank and Gaza reversed a previous reform that introduced the 2016 Social Security Law. There is no longer a pension system for the private sector. Zambia ✔ Parenthood Zambia extended the duration of paid maternity leave from 84 to 98 days. ECONOMY DATA Indicators capture legal differences between men and women in the following areas: WBL 2020 MOBILITY WORKPLACE PAY MARRIAGE PARENTHOOD ASSETS SCORE Economy ENTREPRENEURSHIP PENSION Afghanistan 50 75 0 20 20 75 40 25 38.1 Albania 100 100 100 100 80 100 100 50 91.3 Algeria 75 75 50 60 60 75 40 25 57.5 Angola 100 50 50 100 60 100 100 25 73.1 Antigua and Barbuda 75 50 75 100 0 75 80 75 66.3 Argentina 100 75 50 100 60 75 100 50 76.3 Armenia 100 50 75 100 60 75 100 100 82.5 Australia 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 75 96.9 Austria 100 100 100 100 80 100 100 75 94.4 Azerbaijan 100 100 0 100 80 100 100 50 78.8 Bahamas, The 100 100 75 80 20 75 100 100 81.3 Bahrain 50 75 0 40 40 75 40 50 46.3 Bangladesh 100 50 25 60 20 75 40 25 49.4 Barbados 75 75 50 100 40 75 100 100 76.9 Belarus 100 50 50 100 80 75 100 50 75.6 Belgium 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100.0 Belize 75 75 50 100 60 75 100 100 79.4 Benin 50 100 50 80 60 75 80 100 74.4 Bhutan 100 100 100 80 40 50 80 25 71.9 Bolivia 100 75 50 100 60 100 100 75 82.5 Bosnia and Herzegovina 100 100 50 100 80 100 100 50 85.0 Botswana 75 25 75 100 0 75 60 100 63.8 Brazil 100 100 75 100 80 75 100 25 81.9 Brunei Darussalam 50 25 75 40 0 75 60 100 53.1 Bulgaria 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 25 90.6 Burkina Faso 75 100 25 80 80 75 100 100 79.4 Burundi 100 100 75 60 40 75 60 75 73.1 Cabo Verde 100 100 75 100 40 100 100 75 86.3 Cambodia 100 100 75 80 20 100 100 25 75.0 Cameroon 50 50 25 40 80 50 60 100 56.9 Canada 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100.0 Central African Republic 75 75 25 80 40 75 100 100 71.3 Chad 75 75 50 60 60 50 60 100 66.3 Source: Women, Business and the Law database. WBL 2020 MOBILITY WORKPLACE PAY MARRIAGE PARENTHOOD ASSETS SCORE Economy ENTREPRENEURSHIP PENSION Chile 100 75 75 60 100 75 60 75 77.5 China 100 100 25 100 80 75 100 25 75.6 Colombia 100 100 50 100 80 75 100 50 81.9 Comoros 75 75 100 40 40 75 40 25 58.8 Congo, Dem. Rep. 100 100 50 40 80 100 60 100 78.8 Congo, Rep. 50 25 25 40 20 75 60 75 46.3 Costa Rica 100 100 25 100 40 75 100 100 80.0 Côte d’Ivoire 100 100 50 60 80 75 100 100 83.1 Croatia 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 93.8 Cyprus 75 100 75 100 80 100 100 100 91.3 Czech Republic 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 93.8 Denmark 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100.0 Djibouti 100 100 50 20 60 100 40 75 68.1 Dominica 75 25 50 100 0 75 100 75 62.5 Dominican Republic 100 100 75 80 60 100 100 75 86.3 Ecuador 100 100 100 100 40 75 100 100 89.4 Egypt, Arab Rep. 50 75 0 0 20 75 40 100 45.0 El Salvador 100 100 75 80 80 100 100 75 88.8 Equatorial Guinea 75 25 100 20 60 0 60 75 51.9 Eritrea 100 100 75 60 20 75 100 25 69.4 Estonia 100 100 100 80 100 100 100 100 97.5 Eswatini 100 25 50 40 20 0 60 75 46.3 Ethiopia 100 100 25 80 20 75 100 75 71.9 Fiji 75 100 50 100 60 75 100 75 79.4 Finland 100 100 100 100 80 100 100 100 97.5 France 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100.0 Gabon 50 75 25 20 80 50 60 100 57.5 Gambia, The 100 50 75 100 60 75 60 75 74.4 Georgia 100 100 75 100 60 100 100 50 85.6 Germany 100 100 100 100 80 100 100 100 97.5 Ghana 100 100 50 100 20 75 80 75 75.0 Greece 100 100 100 100 80 100 100 100 97.5 Grenada 100 50 100 100 20 75 100 100 80.6 Guatemala 100 25 50 80 60 75 100 75 70.6 Guinea 75 75 50 20 40 100 60 100 65.0 Guinea-Bissau 75 25 0 60 20 25 60 75 42.5 Guyana 75 100 100 80 40 100 100 100 86.9 Haiti 50 50 100 40 20 75 80 75 61.3 Honduras 100 100 50 80 20 100 100 50 75.0 Hong Kong SAR, China 100 100 75 100 40 100 100 100 89.4 Source: Women, Business and the Law database. 46 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 WBL 2020 MOBILITY WORKPLACE PAY MARRIAGE PARENTHOOD ASSETS SCORE Economy ENTREPRENEURSHIP PENSION Hungary 100 100 75 100 100 100 100 100 96.9 Iceland 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100.0 India 100 100 25 100 40 75 80 75 74.4 Indonesia 100 50 75 40 40 75 60 75 64.4 Iran, Islamic Rep. 0 0 50 0 60 75 40 25 31.3 Iraq 25 100 50 0 20 75 40 50 45.0 Ireland 100 100 100 100 80 100 100 100 97.5 Israel 100 100 50 60 60 75 100 75 77.5 Italy 100 100 100 80 100 100 100 100 97.5 Jamaica 100 25 50 100 20 75 100 75 68.1 Japan 100 50 50 80 100 75 100 100 81.9 Jordan 0 0 75 20 40 75 40 75 40.6 Kazakhstan 100 50 50 100 80 75 100 25 72.5 Kenya 100 100 100 100 40 50 80 75 80.6 Kiribati 100 100 100 100 20 75 60 75 78.8 Korea, Rep. 100 100 25 100 80 75 100 100 85.0 Kosovo 100 100 100 100 60 100 100 75 91.9 Kuwait 50 0 0 20 0 75 40 75 32.5 Kyrgyz Republic 100 100 25 100 40 100 100 50 76.9 Lao PDR 100 100 75 100 80 100 100 50 88.1 Latvia 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100.0 Lebanon 100 50 50 60 20 75 40 25 52.5 Lesotho 100 75 75 80 20 75 80 100 75.6 Liberia 100 100 100 100 40 75 80 75 83.8 Libya 75 50 75 20 40 75 40 25 50.0 Lithuania 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 93.8 Luxembourg 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100.0 Madagascar 75 100 25 60 40 75 100 100 71.9 Malawi 50 100 100 100 20 75 100 100 80.6 Malaysia 50 50 50 40 0 75 60 75 50.0 Maldives 100 100 75 60 40 100 40 75 73.8 Mali 50 50 50 20 60 75 80 100 60.6 Malta 100 100 75 100 60 100 100 75 88.8 Marshall Islands 100 25 75 100 0 75 20 75 58.8 Mauritania 100 25 25 0 40 75 0 100 45.6 Mauritius 100 100 100 100 60 100 100 75 91.9 Mexico 100 100 75 60 60 100 100 75 83.8 Micronesia, Fed. Sts. 100 25 75 80 0 75 60 75 61.3 Moldova 100 75 75 100 100 100 100 25 84.4 Source: Women, Business and the Law database. ECONOMY DATA 47 WBL 2020 MOBILITY WORKPLACE PAY MARRIAGE PARENTHOOD ASSETS SCORE Economy ENTREPRENEURSHIP PENSION Mongolia 100 100 75 100 60 100 100 25 82.5 Montenegro 100 100 25 100 80 100 100 50 81.9 Morocco 100 100 50 60 80 100 40 75 75.6 Mozambique 100 100 50 80 60 75 100 50 76.9 Myanmar 75 25 50 80 60 75 80 25 58.8 Namibia 75 100 100 100 40 75 100 100 86.3 Nepal 100 100 100 80 20 75 40 75 73.8 Netherlands 100 100 100 100 80 100 100 100 97.5 New Zealand 100 100 75 100 80 100 100 100 94.4 Nicaragua 100 100 75 100 40 100 100 75 86.3 Niger 75 75 75 20 60 50 20 100 59.4 Nigeria 50 75 50 100 0 75 80 75 63.1 North Macedonia 100 100 50 100 80 100 100 50 85.0 Norway 100 100 100 100 100 75 100 100 96.9 Oman 0 100 25 20 0 75 40 50 38.8 Pakistan 75 75 25 60 20 50 40 50 49.4 Palau 100 25 75 100 0 75 20 75 58.8 Panama 100 100 50 80 80 75 100 50 79.4 Papua New Guinea 75 50 25 100 0 75 80 75 60.0 Paraguay 100 100 100 100 80 100 100 75 94.4 Peru 100 100 100 80 80 100 100 100 95.0 Philippines 75 100 100 60 80 100 60 75 81.3 Poland 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 93.8 Portugal 100 100 100 80 100 100 100 100 97.5 Puerto Rico 100 100 75 80 20 100 100 75 81.3 Qatar 25 0 50 20 0 75 40 50 32.5 Romania 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 25 90.6 Russian Federation 100 50 50 80 80 75 100 50 73.1 Rwanda 100 100 75 80 20 75 100 75 78.1 Samoa 75 100 75 100 40 75 100 75 80.0 San Marino 100 50 75 80 60 75 100 100 80.0 São Tomé and Príncipe 100 100 75 80 60 75 100 100 86.3 Saudi Arabia 100 100 25 60 40 100 40 100 70.6 Senegal 75 75 25 60 60 75 40 100 63.8 Serbia 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 93.8 Seychelles 75 50 75 100 80 75 80 75 76.3 Sierra Leone 100 25 50 100 0 75 80 75 63.1 Singapore 100 75 75 100 60 75 100 75 82.5 Slovak Republic 100 100 75 100 80 100 100 100 94.4 Slovenia 100 100 75 100 100 100 100 75 93.8 Source: Women, Business and the Law database. 48 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 WBL 2020 MOBILITY WORKPLACE PAY MARRIAGE PARENTHOOD ASSETS SCORE Economy ENTREPRENEURSHIP PENSION Solomon Islands 75 25 25 100 0 75 80 75 56.9 Somalia 75 50 50 20 40 75 40 25 46.9 South Africa 100 100 100 100 80 100 100 25 88.1 South Sudan 100 100 100 80 40 75 40 25 70.0 Spain 100 100 100 100 80 100 100 100 97.5 Sri Lanka 100 75 25 100 40 75 80 50 68.1 St. Kitts and Nevis 100 25 50 100 40 75 80 100 71.3 St. Lucia 75 100 100 80 40 75 100 100 83.8 St. Vincent and the 75 25 50 100 20 75 100 100 68.1 Grenadines Sudan 0 0 0 0 20 75 40 100 29.4 Suriname 100 25 75 80 0 50 100 100 66.3 Sweden 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100.0 Switzerland 100 100 100 100 60 75 100 50 85.6 Syrian Arab Republic 25 25 0 40 40 75 40 50 36.9 Taiwan, China 100 100 100 100 80 75 100 75 91.3 Tajikistan 100 50 50 100 80 100 100 50 78.8 Tanzania 100 100 100 80 60 75 60 100 84.4 Thailand 100 100 75 80 20 75 100 75 78.1 Timor-Leste 100 75 75 80 60 75 100 100 83.1 Togo 100 100 100 60 60 75 80 100 84.4 Tonga 100 25 75 100 0 75 20 75 58.8 Trinidad and Tobago 75 50 75 80 20 100 100 100 75.0 Tunisia 100 100 25 60 60 75 40 100 70.0 Turkey 100 100 75 80 80 75 100 50 82.5 Uganda 75 100 100 80 40 75 40 75 73.1 Ukraine 100 100 0 100 80 100 100 50 78.8 United Arab Emirates 25 75 75 40 20 75 40 100 56.3 United Kingdom 100 100 100 100 80 100 100 100 97.5 United States 100 100 75 100 80 100 100 75 91.3 Uruguay 100 100 75 80 80 75 100 100 88.8 Uzbekistan 100 50 50 80 60 75 100 25 67.5 Vanuatu 75 25 50 80 0 100 60 75 58.1 Venezuela, RB 100 100 75 100 80 75 100 50 85.0 Vietnam 100 100 50 100 80 100 100 0 78.8 West Bank and Gaza 25 25 0 20 0 75 40 25 26.3 Yemen, Rep. 25 25 25 0 0 75 40 25 26.9 Zambia 75 100 100 80 40 100 80 75 81.3 Zimbabwe 100 100 75 80 40 100 100 100 86.9 Source: Women, Business and the Law database. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 49 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Data collection and analysis for Women, Business and the Law 2020 were conducted by a team led by Tea Trumbic (Program Manager, Women, Business and the Law), under the general direction of Rita Ramalho (Senior Manager, Global Indicators Group, Development Economics). Overall guidance for the preparation of the study was pro- vided by Simeon Djankov (Director, Development Policy). Members of the core research team included Souad Adnane, Gharam Alkastalani Dexter, Nayda Almodóvar Reteguis, Nisha Arekapudi, Shirin Batshon, Julia Constanze Braunmiller, Nour Chamseddine, Claudia Lenny Corminales, Sheng Cui, Marina Elefante, Aida Hammoud Watson, Marie Caitriona Hyland, Viktoria Khaitina, Gloria Daniele Kuoh, Olga Kuzmina, Kook Hee Lee, Natalia Mazoni Silva Martins, Alena Sakhonchik, Isabel Santagostino Recavarren, Katrin Schulz, Aarushi Sinha, Gergana Tsvetanova Tsvetanova, Siyi Wang, and Yasmin Zand. The core research team was assisted by Paulina Maribel Flewitt and Consuelo Jurado Tan. Support for Women, Business and the Law is provided by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). The team is grateful for the valuable comments provided by colleagues, both within and outside the World Bank Group, and for the guidance provided by the World Bank Group’s Executive Directors. This report was made possible by the generous contribu- tions of close to 2,000 lawyers, judges, academics, civil society representatives, and public officials from 190 economies. Contact details for local partners are available on the Women, Business and the Law website at http://wbl.worldbank.org. The names of local partners wishing to be acknowledged individually are listed on the project website. The global and regional contributors listed are firms that have completed multiple questionnaires from their various offices around the world. 50 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 GLOBAL AFGHANISTAN Berta Grilo CONTRIBUTORS FBL Advogados Ahmad Fardin Howaida A4ID Tolo Legal Services Co. Vanessa Matos Mendes PLMJ Legal Network–Mozambique Ashurst LLP Abdul Basir Sarwari Desk Abdul Basir Sarwari Advocacy Baker McKenzie Company Edila Maria Melo Ribeiro Lawyer Dechert Sharif Sharafat DAI Musharikat Petra Nascimento Dentons Rede Mulher Angola Negina Sultani DLA Piper Legal Oracles Alexandra Do Nascimento Freshfields Bruckhaus Goncalves Durani Waziri MG Advogados Deringer Lawyer GRATA International Itweva Nogueira IN Sociedade de Advogados R. L. International Association ALBANIA of Women Judges (IAWJ)  Fernanda Ricardo Mirela Arqimandriti Rede Mulher Angola Gender Alliance for Development Latham & Watkins Center Antonio Tobias Simba Rafael Linklaters LLP SVC–Sociedade de Advogados, RL Adriatik Lapaj Morrison & Foerster LLP Lawyer Henrique Sungeti Eni Mazniku Rede Mulher Angola Shearman & Sterling Ruhr University Bochum Elsa Tchicanha White & Case BCSA Advogados Suela Qoqja Finman Holding Group Renata Valenti Megi Reçi Lawyer Civil Rights Defenders Bruno Xavier de Pina Suela Shundi Erida Visoçi ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA Prosecution Office of Vlora Sherrie-Ann Bradshaw S. Bradshaw & Associates ALGERIA Craig Jacas Radia Abdous Stapleton Chambers Ghellal & Mekerba Kari-Anne Reynolds Ayoub Boukhatem Hill & Hill Mohsen Khanniche Alexandrina Wong Women Against Rape Inc. Keltoum Ourak ARGENTINA ANGOLA Ana Alicia Ariet Guevara Inês Albuquerque e Castro Poder Judicial Pcia. de Mendoza FCB Sociedade de Advogados Úrsula Basset Sofia Chaves Universidad Austral & Pontificia Universidad Católica Argentina Elieser Corte Real Fátima Freitas & Associados– Carina Marcela Castrillón Sociedade de Advogados Bulló Abogados Fátima Freitas Graciela Beatriz De Oto Fátima Freitas & Associados– Suma Veritas Sociedade de Advogados Nicolás Demasi Igor Fortes Gabriel Estudio Grispo & Asociados FBL Advogados Milagros Etcheberry Isabel Gavião Cámara Argentina de Comercio y MG Advogados Servicios ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 51 Sebastián Ignacio Arpine Yeghikyan Verena Vinzenz Lulwa Alzain Fortuna Marseral LLC University of Innsbruck DLA Piper Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Lukas Wieser Ismaeel Elnasri Derecho AUSTRALIA Zeiler Partners Inovest Rechtsanwälte GmbH Marco Bianchino Noor Haqiqi Consuelo García Pearson Emerson Meyer Jasmin Rosita Zareie DLA Piper Consuelo García Law Firm Baker McKenzie–Diwok Christy Miller Balall Maqbool Hermann Petsche Jorge Daniel Grispo Clayton Utz DLA Piper Rechtsanwälte LLP & Estudio Grispo & Stephen Page Co. KG Eman Omar Asociados Page Provan Pty Zu’bi & Partners Diego Sebastián Kelly Limited AZERBAIJAN Attorneys & Legal Marval, O’Farrell & Consultants Susan Pearson Gulnaz Alasgarova Mairal, Lex Mundi Pearson Emerson Meyer Amr Omran Baku State University Association of Law Freshfields Bruckhaus Firms Angela Powditch Sharaf Asgarova Deringer Esteban Mancuso Justine Turnbull Ekvita Tax and Legal Services Sami Tannous Cámara Argentina de Pricewaterhouse Freshfields Bruckhaus Comercio y Servicios Coopers Jahan Bayramova Deringer Sofía Gabriela Nuñez Tabitha Vockler Ekvita Tax and Legal Services Mohammed Toorani Marval, O’Farrell & Clayton Utz DLA Piper Mairal, Lex Mundi Javid Hajiyev Association of Law Tineka Winter Pearson Emerson Meyer FINA LLP Firms BANGLADESH Jane Wright Gunel Ismayilbeyli Tamara Quiroga Lawyer Kazi M.U. Ahamed Cámara Argentina de Work Dynamic Australia Imperidus Law Comercio y Servicios Ummi Jalilova Associates AUSTRIA GRATA International Beatriz Ramos Sarmin Akther Universidad Católica del Verein Wiener Elmari Mamishov Bangladesh Law Uruguay Frauenhäuser Legal Analysis and Partners BDLP Research Public Union Carla Russo Petra Cernochova Shajib Mahmood Alam Shearman & Sterling Attorney-at-Law Shabnam Sadigova Bangladesh Law LLP GRATA International Partners BDLP Isabel Firneis Estefanía A. Santarelli Wolf Theiss Fidan Salmanova Monirul Azam Marval, O’Farrell & GRATA International Stockholm University Mairal, Lex Mundi Hans Georg Laimer Association of Law Zeiler Partners Shahla Samedova Md Rafinur Rahman Firms Rechtsanwälte GmbH Baku State University Bangladesh Law Partners BDLP Enrique Mariano Stile Birgitt Haller Marval, O’Farrell & Institute of Conflict BAHAMAS, THE Akram Hossain Rifat Mairal, Lex Mundi Research (IKF) Bangladesh Law White & Case LLP Association of Law Partners BDLP Firms Georg Krakow Ian-Marie Darville Baker McKenzie–Diwok Chitro Shahabuddin Bahamian Bar Hermann Petsche Auriol Association ARMENIA Rechtsanwälte LLP & Mehnaz Siddiqui Co. KG Ghulyan and Partners Judicial Administration Law Firm BAHRAIN Alexander Petsche Training Institute Baker McKenzie–Diwok Zeenat Al Mansoori Mariam Mkrtichyan Hermann Petsche Zeenat Al Mansoori & Hovhannisyan & Rechtsanwälte LLP & Associates BARBADOS Partners LLC Co. KG Shena-Ann Ince Reem Al Rayes Maria Petrosyan Clarke Gittens Farmer Gert-Peter Reissner Zeenat Al Mansoori & Hovhannisyan & Attorneys-at-Law University of Innsbruck Associates Partners LLC Jill St. George Eva-Maria Noor Al Taraif Gayane Virabyan University of the West Ségur-Cabanac Zu’bi & Partners K & P Law Firm Indies Baker McKenzie–Diwok Attorneys & Legal Liana Voskerchyan Hermann Petsche Consultants MTS Armenia CJSC Rechtsanwälte LLP & Co. KG 52 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 BELARUS Albert Djidohokpin BOSNIA AND BRAZIL SOS Children’s Villages HERZEGOVINA United Civil Party of Benin Barbosa Müssnich Belarus Jasmin Cengic Aragão (BMA) Prisca Ogoubi Erc Zipo DOO Sarajevo Andrei Neviadouski Josycler Arana Cierech, Neviadouski Aleksandr Draganic Universidade Federal and Partners Advocates BHUTAN Enterprise Development Fluminense Bureau Agency Sangay Chhedup Murilo Caldeira Oksana Puchkovskaya Bhutan National Legal Feđa Dupovac Germiniani Stepanovski, Papakul Institute Advokatska Kancelarija Machado, Meyer, and Partners LLC Spaho Sendacz e Opice Kinley Gyeltshen Advogados Natallia Raisanen Office of the Attorney Mervan Miraščija Cierech, Neviadouski General Open Society Fund Ligia Maura Costa and Partners Advocates Ligia Maura Costa, Bureau Sonam Tobgay Vildana Mutevelić Advocacia Bank of Bhutan Ltd. Law Office Vildana Katsiaryna Shmatsina Mutevelić Christiana Fontenelle Belarusian Institute for Bichara Advogados Strategic Studies BOLIVIA Dejan Pilipović University of Banja Jorge Gonzaga Andrea Bollmann Dzmitryj Shylau Luka Matsumoto Duarte Cierech, Neviadouski Bichara Advogados Salazar, Salazar & and Partners Advocates Lejla Popara Asociados Soc. Civ. Flávia Leite Leonel Bureau Attorney Iby Bueno Ayala Leite Leonel e Krystsina Sitkevich Maja Šimunac Cruz Sociedade de Salazar, Salazar & Playgendary Law Office Miljković & Advogados Asociados Soc. Civ. Development LLC Partners Andrea Giamondo Grisett Carrasco Guerra Juri Slepitch Emir Spaho Massei C.R. & F. Rojas Arzinger & Partners Advokatska Kancelarija Machado, Meyer, Abogados Spaho Sendacz e Opice Polina Chtchelok Advogados BELGIUM ESPCS Multidisciplinary Mehmed Spaho Advokatska Kancelarija Ludmila Murta Eleanor Jenifer Coets Consulting Spaho IFMG Campus Sabará Hill Dickinson LLP Asdruval Columba Jofre Selma Spaho João Pedro Póvoa Christoph Pixner AC Consultores Legales Advokatska Kancelarija Bichara Advogados ORYS Advocaten Syntia Vilma Cuentas Spaho Mauricio Quadros Stefanie Tack Zeballos Maja Vezmar Soares ORYS Advocaten Salazar, Salazar & Lawyer Quadros e Quadros Asociados Soc. Civ. Simon Troch Sociedade de Latham & Watkins Jinky Irusta Advogados Oficina Jurídica Para la BOTSWANA Catherine Van de Pedro Schor Mujer Garebamono & Pillar Heyning Machado, Meyer, Law Practice Artes Law Andrés Lema Sendacz e Opice Shearman & Sterling Tachilisa Badala Balule Advogados LLP University of Botswana BELIZE Meibel Ventura Dos Claudia López Bonolo Ramadi Santos Lacerda Natalia Bevans Monterrey Dinokopila Universidade Federal Bevans Consultancy ESPCS Multidisciplinary University of Botswana Fluminense Company Ltd. Consulting Lesego Gaetwesepe Stevanni L. Duncan Julieta Montaño Lobatse High Court BRUNEI Barrow & Williams LLP DARUSSALAM Mónica Novillo Mpho Leteane Sabita Maharaj Coordinadora de la Hasnah Hassan & Lawyer Supreme Court of Belize Mujer Associates Refilwe Mogwe Oscar Alejandro Reyes Hajah Norajimah Haji Aji BENIN Oviedo Keikantse Phele Ministry of Home Salazar, Salazar & Botswana Gender Affairs, Department of Evelyne Ahouadi Asociados Soc. Civ. Based Violence Labor Solidarité Mondiale Prevention and Support Sandra Salinas Centre Norizzah Hazirah Hj Agnila Rafikou Alabi C.R. & F. Rojas Awg Hussin Cabinet Rafikou A. Alabi Abogados Ministry of Home Affairs, Department of Labor ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 53 BULGARIA BURUNDI Darwin (Naryth) Hem Justine Lindner BNG Legal McCarthy Tetrault LLP Roza Dimova Association des Center of Women’s Femmes Juristes du Mengann Hoeurn Deepa Mattoo Studies and Policies Burundi Bun & Associates Barbra Schlifer Commemorative Clinic Kate Dinovska Salvator Minani Bunthea Keo Nova Jus Alpha Justice Chambers Cambodian Human Petra Molnar Rights Task Force Barbra Schlifer Boris Georgiev Odile Nduwingoma Commemorative Clinic Nova Jus Fondation Stamm Seakkeang Lim BNG Legal Meredith Strike Tatyana Kmetova Fabien Segatwa Latham & Watkins Center of Women’s Cabinet Segatwa Sopheary Ou Studies and Policies Fabien & Associés ActionAid Cambodia CENTRAL Albena Koycheva Jean Berchmans Ratana Pen Siboniyo AFRICAN Lawyer Heinrich Boell AMEBE/Mentorship Foundation REPUBLIC Diliana Markova Club Morgane Guyonnet Bulgarian Lawyers for Sopheap Ros Verena Marion Stamm Lawyer Human Rights Gender and Fondation Stamm Development for Raymond Ndakala Katerina Partenova Cambodia Barreau de Centrafrique Dimov & Tashev Law Firm CABO VERDE Kuntheapini Saing Kainda Zoungoula Teresa Teixeira B. Bun & Associates Lawyer Elitsa Pophlebarova Boyanov & Co. Amado Sinoun Sous Lawyer Bun & Associates CHAD BURKINA FASO Jessica Andre Dana Wallack Rachel Beida Lawyer The Cambodian NGO Cabinet Ndei Obed Mariam Lamizana Ilídio Cruz Committee on CEDAW Voix de Femmes (VdF) Jehu Gabnoh Ilídio Cruz & Associados, Gabkiambe Julie Rose Ouedraogo Sociedade de Judge CAMEROON Development Finance Advogados RL Institute Angelina Atabong Victoria Ouedraogo Roselma Évora Lega Ibrahim Garandi Judge Aleine Djessi Ndine Amanda Fernandes Cabinet d’Avocat Lega Tribunal Criminel Spécial Vininguesba Ouedraogo Ilídio Cruz & Ibrahim Direction Régionale Associados, Sociedade Nicaise Ibohn Bata Jules Londongoto de la Promotion de de Advogados RL INB Law Firm Cabinet Mianlengar la Femme du Centre Désiré Makondo Pierre Ouest Koudougou Bartolomeu Lopes Varela DM & Partners–Membre Bakari Thomas Fatimata Sanou-Touré Researcher and de HLB ACP Central Ronelingaye Cour d’Appel de Consultant Africa Ouagadougou Foba Toukpleye Clóvis Santos Franklin Njumbe Ngabe Orabank Souleymane Savadogo Ilídio Cruz & Associados, D. Moukouri & Partners Etat Burkinabe Sociedade de Law Firm Conseiller Technique Advogados RL CHILE Magistrat Dieudonné Takam Hernani Soares Cabinet Takam & Constanza Busquets Souleymane Sawadogo Unitel T+ Associés Escuer Judge Energía Llaima SpA Abdoulaye Sedogo CAMBODIA CANADA Manuela Cross Pey Unité de Coordination Carcelén, Desmadryl, The Cambodian Center Jennifer Bernardo de la Formulation du Guzmán & Tapia Second Compact du for Human Rights Baker & Mckenzie Burkina (UCF-Burkina) Beatriz Garfias Rachana Bunn Stefanie Di Francesco Abdoulaye Soma Klahaan Organization Cassels Brock Lawyers Juan Ignacio Ipinza Mayor Centre d’Études et Sophal Chea Meghan Hillstrom de Recherches sur le Lawyer Better Factories McCarthy Tetrault LLP Droit International et Lucía Planet Sepúlveda Cambodia les Droits de l’Homme Caroline Kim Defesoría Laboral (CERDIH) Chandy Eng Miller Thomson LLP Gender and Gabriela Puente Anne Levesque Montero Development for Cambodia University of Ottawa Carcelén, Desmadryl, Guzmán & Tapia 54 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 Luis Andrés Ulloa Sumita Ghosh CONGO, REP. CROATIA Martínez Grameen Foundation Laetitia Nadine Loko Women’s Room–Center Amy Watts Juan Camilo Guevara for Sexual Rights White & Case LLP Ortíz Franck Darnod Nguimbi Mbenze Vlatka Adler Secretaría de Paz y Cultura Ciudadana, Cabinet d’Avocats Law Office Adler CHINA Alcaldía de Santiago Claude Coeho Marko Borsky China Top Credit de Cali Sylvie Niombo Marko Borsky Law Financial Information Office Carlos Alberto López Issan Giska Ntsila Service Henao Cabinet d’Avocats Saša Divjak Sicen Hu Carlos López Abogados Ntsila Divjak, Topić & DLA Piper Bahtijarević Law Firm Adriana Martínez Welcom Romell Nzaba Danlong Li Piedrahita Nodjitolom Andrea Gubić China University of DG&A Abogados Cabinet d’Avocats Divjak, Topić & Political Science and Mabiala & Tsamba Bahtijarević Law Firm Paula Daniela Reina Law Martinez Germaine Onanga née Ema Marušić Jing Li Secretaría de Paz y Nguenoni Marko Borsky Law Kirkland & Ellis Cultura Ciudadana, Comité National des Office International LLP Alcaldía de Santiago Droits de la Femme de Cali Maja Mitrović Xiaofei Li Guangdong Wumei Law COSTA RICA Karlo Novosel Firm CONGO, DEM. REP. Law Office Karlo Rocío Amador Hasbun Novosel Xuekai Vincent Qian Justine Masika Bihamba Bufete Amador Dentons Synergie des Femmes Zdravka Sadžakov pour les Victimes de Carolina Flores Bedoya B.a.B.e–Be active, Be Alex Roberts Violences Sexuelle Arias emancipated (SFVS) Danping Shen Cristina Guerrini Andrej Žmikić Morrison & Foerster LLP Tiphaine Bueke Arias Divjak, Topić & Bolombo Bahtijarević Law Firm Jinlan Sun Lawyer Ana Priscilla Ortíz Kim & Chang Saborío Serge Faray Batalla Abogados CYPRUS Jeffrey Wilson Lawyer Jun He LLP Marianne Pál-Hegedüs Venetia Argyropoulou Kalasi Ngay Guy Ortega European University of Dylan Wu LatamLex Abogados Cyprus Eve Ingwa Ke Wu Daniel Rodriguez Molina Anna Demetriou Dechert LLP Fabien Kadima ERP Lawyers Elias Neocleous & Co. Robert Kionge LLC Xiaotong Wu Augusto Solís Rodríguez Guangdong Wumei Law Ministère de la Défense Katerina Georgiadou Firm Nationale CÔTE D’IVOIRE Nadia Kornioti Yinlan Xia Ezechiel Lwesso University of Central China University of Collège Georges Claude-Andrée Groga Lancashire–Cyprus Political Science and Misamu Cabinet Jean-François Law Chauveau Anna Brigitte Mawazo Koukkides-Procopiou Xiaowei Yin IFHD NGABO Moumouni Konaté Center for European Morrison & Foerster LLP Initiative Féminine Konfirm-Advies and International pour la Défense des Affairs–University of Anderson Zhang Droits Humains et le Eric-Didier N’dri ONG AVIDE (Africa’s Nicosia Dacheng Law Offices Développement Volunteers for Maria Koundourou Mariana Zhong Roger Mulamba International Elias Neocleous & Co. Dechert LLP RMK & Associés Development) LLC Kennedy Pampilio Simon-Pierre Mary COLOMBIA N’dri-Kouakou Koutselini-Ioannidou Fondation Bomoko ONG AVIDE (Africa’s Escandón Abogados University of Cyprus Patrick Unyon-Pewu Volunteers for Julieta Abello Watum International Nicholas Ktenas Development) Elias Neocleous & Co. Ana Julia Calderón Ossa Dunia Prince Zongwe LLC Walter Sisulu University Edwige N’Gouan Cabinet Jean-François Chauveau ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 55 Olga Lambrou DJIBOUTI Carolina León EL SALVADOR Mouaimis & Mouaimis Pellerano & Herrera LLC Mohamed Abayazid Lilian Arias Cabinet Avocats Nataly Santana Sánchez Arias Law Michalis Mouaimis Associés Djibouti SDS Abogados Mouaimis & Mouaimis Abayazid & Consultores Christian Bará Cousin LLC Abdourahman Bara Legal Corporation Laura Patricia Serrata Panayotis Mouaimis Ahmed Abdourahman Asmar María José Benítez Mouaimis & Mouaimis Cabinet Avocats Ontier Alburquerque Chávez LLC Associés Djibouti Xenia Díaz Abayazid & UNDP Susana Pavlou Abdourahman ECUADOR Mediterranean Institute Vanessa Granados Beryl Claire Asiago Daniela Estefanía of Gender Studies Arias Law Cabinet ZK Aguirre Salamea María Fernanda Aguirre Hilda Marianella Guidos CZECH REPUBLIC Sofia Curradi Salamea Espinoza Cabinet Avocats Arias Law Barbara Adamcová Associés Djibouti Mariuxi Paola Cedeño Lawyer Abayazid & Floril Silvia Juárez Anna Citterbergova Abdourahman Universidad ORMUSA, Asoc. Lawyer Metropolitana Organización de Abdoulkader Hassan Mujeres Salvadoreñas Lenka Droscová Mouhoumed Diego Jaramillo Terán por la Paz Řanda Havel Legal Cabinet d’Avocat Jaramillo Dávila Abdoulkader Hassan Abogados Carolina Lazo Veronika Ježková Arias Law proFem–Centre for Libertad Machado Victims of Domestic DOMINICA López Kelly Beatriz Romero and Sexual Violence Cara Shillingford Universidad Rodriguez Lawyer Metropolitana Nassar Abogados Zdeňka Králíčková Masaryk University Farith Simon Enrique Torruella DOMINICAN Arias Law Milanda Kurtosiova Cristina Valencia Araujo Kocián Šolc Balaštík REPUBLIC Afghanistan Center of Morena Zavaleta José Manuel Excellence Arias Law Radek Matouš Alburquerque Prieto Eversheds Sutherland Ontier Alburquerque Dvořák Hager EGYPT, ARAB REP. EQUATORIAL Merielin Almonte Dalia Abdel Ghany GUINEA Eva Ondřejová Merielin Almonte Sharkawy & Sarhan Sergio Esono Katerina Ronovska Estudio Legal Marwa AlSherif Javier Iñiguez Masaryk University Isabel Andrickson Soliman, Hashish & Lechêne, Iñiguez & Sasha Stepanova Pellerano & Herrera Partners Partners Kocián Šolc Balaštík Joan Carolina Arbaje Marwa Emara Serafina Sialo Bergés Soliman, Hashish & DENMARK Distrito Legal Partners ERITREA Elsebeth Lidia Aybar Inas Farah Aaes-Jørgensen Distrito Legal Suleiman Ahmedin Beyti–Joint venture of Norrbom Vindinq Almarai & PepsiCo UNHCR Eritrea Pamela Benzán Arbaje Hanne Hartoft Guzmán Ariza & Mahmoud Farouk Natnael Fitsum Tekeste Aalborg University Asociados Project on Middle East Ministry of Justice Democracy (POMED) Sebri Ibrahim Laust Hvas Mortensen Jonattan A. Boyero Statistics Denmark Galán Adham Hashish Ministry of Justice Caamaño–De Herrera Alexandria University Tina Reissmann Senay Kuflu & Boyero. Abogados Faculty of Law Labora Legal The School of Law (CDHB) Mohamed Hashish ACASS Mathilde Worch Jensen Yuleidi Galice Soliman, Hashish & University of Adam Teklehaymanot Merielin Almonte Partners Copenhagen, Faculty Lawyer Estudio Legal of Law Abd El-Rahman Khattab Temesgen Tesfu Dilia Leticia Jorge Mera Soliman, Hashish & Ministry of Justice DLJM Firma de Partners Abogados Awet Tewelde Ministry of Justice 56 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 ESTONIA Abhilasha Joshi Kataria Nita Rautakoski Thomas Fuad Touray Dittmar & Indrenius The West African Kelli Eilart Mahlet Mesganaw Getu Attorneys Ltd. Institute for Legal Aid Law Firm Sorainen Dagnachew Tesfaye (WAILA) and Mahlet Mesganaw Tiina Virtanen Merle Erikson Law Office Asianajotoimisto Bird & Fabakary Jammeh University of Tartu Bird Oy Gambia Center for Etsehiwot Sereke Victims of Human Triinu Hiob Njord Law Firm Sehin Teferra Rights Violations FRANCE Setaweet Movement Satang Nabaneh Vladislav Leiri Esperanza Barron Law Firm Sorainen Dunia Tegegn Think Young Women Baratech International Legal and Latham & Watkins Karin Madisson Business Services Group Law Firm Sorainen GEORGIA Jérémie Blond Cabinet Jérémie Blond Nino Begalishvili Rando Maisvee FIJI Advokaadibüroo Béatrice Collette Ekaterine Kokichaishvili Magnusson Shamima Ali MKD (Mgaloblishvili, Fiji Women’s Crisis Valentine Darmois Kipiani, Dzidziguri) Law Karin Neemsalu Center Latham & Watkins Firm Baltic Business Advisory OÜ Nicholas Barnes Zoé Evene Tamar Ruseishvil Munro Leys TNDA Cabinet Lauri Paulus D’Avocats Ketevan Shubashvili Law Office Legalia Stephanie Dunn Public Defender of Fiji Women’s Crisis Paul Gallix Georgia Eha Reitelmann Center Gallix Avocats Estonian Women’s Associations Morgane Guyonnet Régine Goury GERMANY Roundtable Lawyer Mayer Brown International LLP German Women Tamiana Low Lawyer’s Association, ESWATINI Munro Leys Allison Kramer Commission on Violence Latham & Watkins Against Women and Ministry of Justice and Seruwaia Nayacalevu Children Constitutional Affairs Shekinah Law Jeremy Lagelee International Energy Marco Daub University of Eswatini Agency sfh Schumacher FINLAND Nkosingivile Dlamini Steuerberantungsgesell- Noémie Lopes-Lemière Robinson Bertram Law Latham & Watkins schaft mbH Latham & Watkins Firm Petri Eskola Diclehan Demir Soraya Saou Colani Hlatjwako Backstrom & Co. Ashurst LLP Attorneys Ltd. TNDA Cabinet Women and Law D’Avocats Nancy M. Gage-Lindner in Southern Africa Duin Ghazi Hessisches Ministerium (WLSA)–Eswatini Isabelle Steyer für Soziales und Lisa Grans Isabelle Steyer Avocate Integration Olivia Lwabukuna Åbo Akademi University Konrad Adenauer Virginie Tassin Nicole Janssen Stiftung Leenamaija Heinonen Campanella Sidley Austin LLP Roschier VTA Tassin Simangele Mavundla Jan Tibor Lelley Women and Law in Pia Holm Véronique Tuffal-Nerson Southern Africa (WLSA) Buse Heberer Fromm Law Office Pia Holm TNDA Cabinet and University of Venda Ltd. D’Avocats Xenia Pisarewski Sidley Austin LLP Teea Kemppinen ETHIOPIA Asianajotoimisto Bird & GABON Heiko Recktenwald Dagnachew Tesfaye Bird Oy Khadidjatou Bärbel Schmidt Abetew Boussougou Hanna-Mari Manninen Independent Consultant Dagnachew Tesfaye B&Law Consulting Dittmar & Indrenius and Mahlet Mesganaw Group Alexander Schumacher Attorneys Ltd. Law Office Ashurst LLP Johanna Pakkanen Fikadu Asfaw GAMBIA, THE Jürgen Streng NYTKIS–The Coalition Fikadu Asfaw and Mayer Brown of Finnish Women’s Oludayo Fagbemi Associates Law Office International LLP Associations Institute for Human Yodit Gurji Rights and Development Juditha von der Heydt Sampsa Pekkinen Fikadu Asfaw and in Africa Ashurst LLP Roschier Associates Law Office Martin Wiesner Ashurst LLP ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 57 GHANA GUINEA GUYANA HONG KONG SAR, Dennis Adjei Dwomoh Diallo Alhousseynou Rocky Hanoman CHINA Law Plus Melville Boase Amara Bangoura Sherrie Hewitt Boase Cohen & Collins Lom Ahlijah Cabinet d’Avocats Guyana Sugar Ghana Grid Company Amaraya Corporation Cynthia Chung Incorporated Deacons Nicole-Marie Poku Youssouf Bangoura Sory @ Law Attorney-at-Law Ayana McCalman Citrine Ho The LAWRA Institute Kirkland & Ellis Grace Sackey Amadou Babahein Camara Charles Ogle Anne Scully-Johnson Judith Naa Ode Ministry of Labour, Stephens Siba Dopavogui The Chinese University Human Services and of Hong Kong Organisation Catholique Social Security pour la Promotion Nga Kit Christy Tang GREECE Humaine (OCPH) / Selwyn Pieters Barbara Angelopoulou Caritas Guinée Pieters Law Office Eunice Wu Avramopoulos & Deacons Mamadouba Nirvana Singh Partners Law Firm Doumbouya Sandy Yeung Cabinet d’Avocats Kayreen Stephenson Kirkland & Ellis Stavroula Lymousi Amaraya Ministry of Legal Effie Mitsopoulou Affairs, Attorney David Yun Kyriakides Frederic Loua Foromo General’s Chambers Kirkland & Ellis Georgopoulos Law Firm Aboubacar Koulibaly Kean Trotman Theodora-Iliana Cabinet d’Avocats Guyana Association of HUNGARY Papacharalampous Amaraya Women Lawyers Judit Budai Eleni Theodoropoulou Mohamed Lamine Szecskay Attorneys at Hogan Lovells Oularé HAITI Law AJAD (Association des Panagiota Tsinouli Ministère des Affaires Schalkház Eva Edit Juristes en Action pour Kyriakides Sociales et du Travail Schalkház Éva Edit Law le Droit) Georgopoulos Law Firm (MAST) Office Halimatou Martin Malamati Zachou Mimose André Royal Edina Gyenes Cabinet d’Avocats Ayiti Dapre Fanm Lawyer Amaraya Viktoria Zioga Peyizan ak Fanmi l Tossa Montcho (ADFPF) Szilvi Gyurko Olga Ziori Hintalovon Foundation Les Mêmes Droits pour Olga S. Ziori Law Office Eliere Dessources Tous Lilla Kiss Ayiti Dapre Fanm Germaine Pascaline Peyizan ak Fanmi l Szecskay Attorneys at GRENADA Tolno (ADFPF) Law Shornel Albert Les Mêmes Droits pour Máté Kiss Serette Devalcy Grenada Employers’ Tous Szecskay Attorneys at Ayiti Dapre Fanm Federation Peyizan ak Fanmi l Law Rosana John GUINEA-BISSAU (ADFPF) Zolnai Krisztina Wilkinson, Wilkinson & João Pedro C. Alves de Patrice Laventure Attorney-at-Law Wilkinson Campos International Labour Mariann Jesany Michel Camões IP Organization Minkó-Miskovics White & Case LLP Maimuna Gomes Sila Rátky és Társa Herricia Willis Instituto da Mulher e HONDURAS Attorneys at Law H.L. Willis & Associates Criança Guiné-Bissau Gina María Aronne Petra Ruzsvánszky Monica Indami Laitano Schmidt Law Office GUATEMALA Bissau First Instance Alma Coello Adrienn Tar Court, Commercial Pedro Aragón Division Edwin Ramón Flores Szecskay Attorneys at Aragón & Aragón Salinas Law Ismael Mendes de María Elena Barrientos ECIJA–Honduras Réka Török Medina Arias GB Legal–Miranda Shadia García Law Office of Marianna Alliance Toth Liz Gordillo Banco Centroamericano de Integración Marianna Toth Arias Helder Pires Económica (BCIE) Law Office of Marianna Gabriela Rivera Toth Roberto Alejandro Williams Cruz ECIJA–Honduras 58 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 Márton Leó Zaccaria INDONESIA Setareh Kermani IRELAND University of Debrecen Karimi & Associates Faculty of Law Dion Alfadya Law Firm Ivana Bacik Ginting & Reksodiputro Trinity College Dublin Csató Zoltán Parya Maleknia Csató Law Office Lany Harijanti Attorney-at-Law Sarah Benson Women’s Aid Bianca P. Putri Mahnaz Mehrinfar Kadarisman Roisin Aine Costello ICELAND International Law Office Soewito Suhardiman of Dr. Behrooz Akhlaghi Lambert FitzGerald Pierre Brule Eddymurthy Kardono Consulting & Associates Latham & Watkins Adella Kristi Negin Saberi Barbara Cronin Danni Davies HHP Law Firm Dechert LLP International Law Office Latham & Watkins Rusmaini Lenggogeni of Dr. Behrooz Akhlaghi Sarah Faulkner Hjördís Guðbrandsdóttir Soewito Suhardiman & Associates Arthur Cox Eddymurthy Kardono Manoochehr Sarhang Margrét Steinarsdóttir Roisin Liddy-Murphy Icelandic Human Rights Yeremia Gorby Nababan Khanlari Conyers Dill & Pearman Centre Prayogo Advocaten Karimi & Associates (DHP Lawyers) Law Firm Davíd Sveinbjörnsson ISRAEL Ijechi Nwaozuzu Khatereh Shahbazi International Law Office Gali Atzion INDIA Sugianto Osman of Dr. Behrooz Akhlaghi & Associates Pnina Broder Manor Priyanka Anand Ginting & Reksodiputro Naschitz, Brandes, Amir Indialaw LLP Indri Pramitaswari Sahar Sotoodehnia & Co. Guritno International Law Office Meghna Bal Yehuda Buckwald HHP Law Firm of Dr. Behrooz Akhlaghi Hammurabi & Solomon Lawyer & Associates Partners Dhanu Prayogo Rita Chaikin Shweta Bharti Prayogo Advocaten (DHP Lawyers) IRAQ Rita Chaikin Advocate Hammurabi & Solomon Partners Kiki Setiawan Hayder Alawady Yoram Fay Kiki Setiawan and Sawa For Human Rights Dr. Yoram Fay Law Benarji Chakka Organization Office Partners Law Office Alliance University Almadira Tamin Tameem Alazawi Roxanne E. Formey Sneha Dubey Tameem Alazawi HHP Law Firm Shoshana Gavish Indialaw LLP Law Firm and Legal Rahadiyan Yana S. Horowitz and Co. Aanchal Kapoor Consultations HHP Law Firm Irit Gazit Rajas Kasbekar Ahmed Al-Janabi CRK Legal Mena Associates Daniel Ovadia IRAN, ISLAMIC in Association with S. Horowitz and Co. Soumyashree Kulkarni REP. Amereller Lawyer Keren Ovadia Camelia Abdolsamad Bushra Al-Obaidi Naschitz, Brandes, Amir Manoj Kumar International Law Office & Co. of Dr. Behrooz Akhlaghi Fadhel Alqaseer Hammurabi & Solomon Partners & Associates Yes For Human Rights Shiri Shenhav Organization Morrison & Foerster LLP Shiju P.V. Behrooz Akhlaghi International Law Office Adnan Alsakban Indialaw LLP of Dr. Behrooz Akhlaghi Accountants & Audits ITALY Sweta Patel & Associates Association–Diwaniya Umberto Antonelli Vrajlal Sapovadia Fatemeh Azizi Maha Alsakban Ashurst LLP Azizi Law Firm Women’s Human Rights Umang Shirodariya Center Marco Calabrese Indialaw LLP Roza Einifar Studio Legale Calabrese International Law Office Summar Altaee & A. Adrija Thakur DLA Piper LLP of Dr. Behrooz Akhlaghi Lawyer Stefania Citone & Associates Saba Mustafa Studio Legale Calabrese Mohsen Ghorbani DLA Piper LLP & A. Tossanlou Suzannah Newboult Federica Di Mario Ghorbani Law Firm DLA Piper LLP Salonia Associati Studio Anooshiravan Karimi Legale Zeyad Saeed Iraqi Law Firm Francesca Elefante Studio Legale Elefante ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 59 Chiara Familiari JORDAN Kaysar Zaira Jongsoo Kim Ashurst LLP GRATA International Shin & Kim Amer Mohamed Andrea Gangemi Abu-Hassan Jieun Lee Portolano Cavallo Abu-Hassan & KENYA Liberty Law Office Associates, Lawyers & Arianna Mauri Consultants Ben Akech Yong Min Lee Ashurst LLP Kirui & Akech LLP YM Law Office Omar Aljazy Mauro Puzzo Aljazy & Co. (Advocates Peter Gachuhi Yeon Ha Park Lawyer & Legal Consultants) Kaplan & Stratton Kang Nam Labor Law Advocates Firm Riccardo Rao Rana Atwan Ashurst LLP Atwan & Partners Jane Kamangu Attorneys and Legal Women Achieve Africa KOSOVO Valentina Turco Trust Portolano Cavallo Raja Hiyari Adelina Berisha USAID Rule of Law Catherine Kiama Kosovo Women’s Program Akili Dada Network JAMAICA Samah Marmash Allan Maleche Genc Boga Deborah Dowding KELIN Boga & Associates Nunes, Scholefield, Arab Women’s Legal DeLeon & Co. Network Viktor Njenga Arbnore Bunjaku Samer Pharaon Kaplan & Stratton Medica Kosova Brittney Elliott-Williams Advocates University of the West SP Legal Consultants Sokol Elmazaj Indies Randa Qassos Valentine Njogu Boga & Associates Arab Women’s Njogu & Ngugi Gabrielle Elliott-Williams Advocates Zana Govori University of the West Organization of Jordan European Asylum Indies Juliet Nyamao Support Office KAZAKHSTAN Amnesty International Gavin Goffe Delvina Nallbani Myers, Fletcher & Legal Center for Elizabeth Onyango Boga & Associates Gordon Women’s Initiatives Kaplan & Stratton Sana Sezim Advocates Kujtesa Nezaj-Shehu Natasha Parkins SDP KOSOVË Caribbean Accreditation Aizada Arystanbek Sonal Sejpal Authority Lawyer Anjarwalla & Khanna Vjosa Pllana LLP Raiffeisen Bank Jodi-Ann Quarrie Alexandr Chumachenko Lawyer Aequitas Law Firm Igballe Rogova KIRIBATI Kosovo Women’s Yulia Chumachenko Network JAPAN Aequitas Law Firm Tabotabo Auatabu Ministry of Women, Veprore Shehu Kana Itabashi Dmitriy Chumakov Youth, Sports and Medica Kosova Baker McKenzie Sayat Zholshy & Social Affairs Partners Law Firm Furtuna Sheremeti Jean-Denis Marx Pauline Beiatau Baker McKenzie Dana Ibrayeva Office of the Attorney Blendi Zhitija Dentons General Boga & Associates Yuka Nakayama Linklaters LLP Aigoul Kenjebayeva Kaitiro Tebano Tiroam Dentons Ministry of Commerce, KUWAIT Hiromasa Ogawa Industry and Saad J. Albarazi Kojima Law Offices Yevgeniya Nossova Cooperation (MCIC) Kuwait University Kosuke Oie Dechert LLP Batilea Tekanito Athra Alrefaai Hiroo Park Law Office Aisha Orazymbekova Batilea Tekanito Law Athra Alrefaie Legal Lene Someno Dentons Firm Group Baker McKenzie Aliya Sabitova Mohamed Eid Mitsunari Taketani GRATA International KOREA, REP. Freshfields Bruckhaus Tagawa Law Office Artem Timoshenko Bongsoo Jung Deringer Megumi Wada Unicase Law Firm Kang Nam Labor Law Catherine Jordan Firm DLA Piper The Law Office of Yerzhan Toktarov Takashi Takano Sayat Zholshy & Jae Hee Kim Suzannah Newboult Nozomi Watanabe Partners Law Firm Kookmin University DLA Piper Kojima Law Offices Larisa Yemelyanova Jonghyun Kim Aequitas Law Firm Shin & Kim 60 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 Amr Omran Sornpheth Douangdy Mihret Woldesemait Rethabile Sakoane Freshfields Bruckhaus VDB Loi Co. White & Case LLP Tharollo Labor Law Deringer and Industrial Relations Daodeuane Duangdara Consultancy Adam Rigg VDB Loi Co. LEBANON DLA Piper Itumeleng Shale Bouasavanh Elias Abdelnour National University of Sami Tannous Khanthaphat Moghabghab & Lesotho Freshfields Bruckhaus Lao Social Research Associates Law Firm Deringer Tuchakorn Kitcharoen Marie-José Al Azzi LIBERIA Patricia Wardrop ZICO Law Kafa Violence & DLA Piper Exploitation Alvin Amadu Winford Soulignasack African Network for Liemphrachanh Leila Alem Hammoud the Prevention and KYRGYZ Arion Legal Alem & Associates Law Protection Against Child REPUBLIC Firm Abuse and Neglect Jean Loi (ANPPCAN) Aicholpon Alieva VDB Loi Co. Chafic Georges El Chab Kalikova & Associates Majdalani Manakabay Donzo Law Firm Kristy Newby Lawyer National Elections DFDL Commission Elena Bit-Avragim Melkar El Khoury Veritas Law Agency Vongphachanh Central Research House Lucia D.S. Gbala Onepaseuth Heritage Partners and Samara Dumanaeva Sciaroni & Associates George Ghali Associates Inc. Lorenz International ALEF–Act for Human Law Firm Khamphaeng Rights Selma S. Gibson Phochanthilath Lawyer Adinai Dzhekshenova Sciaroni & Associates Joelle Khater Kalikova & Associates Etude Badri et Salim El Al King Law Firm Phaviny Phommathansy Meouchi Primus Law Group Mahaxai Law Company Chynara Esengeldieva Limited Ghassan Moghabghab Lois Nimely Lorenz International Moghabghab & Law Firm Anonglack Phongsavanh Associates Law Firm Lury Nkouessom VDB Loi Co. The Carter Center Saara Kabaeva Tarek Moghabghab Lorenz International Princess Bido Principe Moghabghab & Law Firm ZICO Law Associates Law Firm LIBYA Kongphanh Santivong Maysa Schender Nisreen A. Amer Lenara Mambetalieva LS Horizon Limited Lebanese Council to The Ministry of Elvira Maratova Resist Violence Against Economy GRATA International Phouthamath Women Sayyabounsou Majdi Abdou Aalamgul Osmonalieva Ghenwa Schinder Tumi Law Firm Lawyer Sayphin Singsouvong Lebanese Council to LS Horizon Limited Ikram Adnani Resist Violence Against Aisanat Safarbekkyzy Ibn Zohr University Wanchai Yiamsamatha Women GRATA International LS Horizon Limited Aimen Almaloul Laura Schinder Jibek Tenizbaeva Lawyer Lebanese Council to Lorenz International Resist Violence Against LATVIA Hatim Almushalfah Law Firm Women Ministry of Justice Lidiya Vasilieva Valerijs Ickevics V. Ickevics, Sworn Fatma Araibi Veritas Law Agency LESOTHO Attorneys-at-Law Tumi Law Firm Jelena Kvjatkovska Libakiso Matlho Mostafa Emsek LAO PDR ZAB Rode & Partneri Mpho Matoka Molupe Libyan Constitution Standre Bezuindenhout Land Administration Committee DFDL Ivo Maskalāns Authority Mohanned Gashash Cobalt Legal Marion Carles-Salmon Itumeleng Mots’oene Tumi Law Firm DFDL Ruta Sina Mofilikoane White & Case LLP Xaynari Chanthala Judiciary of Lesotho LS Horizon Limited Gregory Spak Lipotso Musi White & Case LLP Bounyasith Daopasith UNICEF DFDL Toms Šulmanis Poulo ‘Nono Cobalt Legal Aristotle David Lawyer ZICO Law Sandra Užule-Fons ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 61 LITHUANIA Hajaharimanana Morgane Guyonnet MAURITANIA Ravelojaona Lawyer Emilis Bolys Ministere de la Mounina Abdellah Population, de la Shuaib Shah Binor & Associés Manvydas Borusas Protection Sociale et Shah, Hussain & Co. Eversheds Saladžius Aichatou Ahmed de la Promotion de la Association Ramunė Jakštienė Femme MALI Mauritanienne des Mykolas Romeris Femmes Juristes University Daouda Ba (AMAFEJ) MALAWI Vaughan Avocats Ingrida Maciūtė Haroune Mohammed Masauko Chamkakala Primus Derling Hadji Diakite ELYedaly Malawi Legal Aid Giedrė Narbutė Bureau Fily Diallo Diego Gaspar de Lawyer Valenzuela Cueto Juliana Pavilovska Ephraim Chimwaza Law Firm Sorainen Centre for Social Nana Mouneïssa Faye Hades Consulting Concern and Toure Algirdas Pekšys Oum Kalthoum Development UNFPA Hamdinou Law Firm Sorainen Emma Kaliya Djibril Guindo Rouguiata Ly Vilana Pilinkaitė Malawi Human Rights Cabinet d’Avocats Sotirovič Ministère des Affaires Resource Centre Associés Jurifis Consult Sociales, de l’Enfance Lithuanian Social Carol Tendai Makoko Mamoudou Samassekou et de la Famille (MASEF) Research Center KD Freeman & Faculté de Droit Privé Tekber Oudeika Karolina Valaitytė Associates de l’Université de Tribunal du Travail, Eversheds Saladžius Sciences Juridiques et Hannifa Makwinja Mauritanie Politiques de Bamako Centre for Social Lalla Aïcha Sy LUXEMBOURG Concern and Moro Sidibe Commission des Development Samusocial Mali Louis Berns femmes parlementaires Arendt & Medernach SA Alinikisa Mphongolo Alhassane Soukouna Zeinabou Taleb Moussa Plan International Vaughan Avocats Audrey Bertolotti Association Linklaters LLP Wongani Mvula Mauritanienne pour la Santé de la Mère et de Anna Christina Goergen Malawi Law MALTA Commission l’Enfant Linklaters LLP Romina Bartolo Iuris Malta Advocates Laura Mbo MAURITIUS MALAYSIA Linklaters LLP Matthew Brincat Donovan Cheah Deena Shahila Bhoyroo Ganado Advocates Melinda Perera Donovan & Ho Peeroo Chambers Linklaters LLP Christine Calleja Natasha Dandavati Sheren Govinden Mamo TCV Advocates Women’s Aid Bibi Law Chambers MADAGASCAR Organisation (WAO) Ariana Falzon Morgane Guyonnet Alexandra Rajerison GVZH Advocates Jamie Goh Lawyer Maralex Legal Annabel Hili Shearn Delamore & Co. Bhomitrajeet Olivia Rajerison GVZH Advocates Ramlochund Shintaro Kitayama Cabinet Rajerison Francesca Hili Dentons White & Case LLP Hoby Rakotoniary GVZH Advocates Rajroop Roshan Brian Strawn JWF Legal Roberta Lepre Rajroop Chambers White & Case LLP Veroniaina Weave Consulting Govinden Sheren Muhendaran Suppiah Ramananjohany Bibi Law Chambers Muhendaran Sri Catholic Relief Services MARSHALL Dominic Gan Teck Long Karyn Teck Yong Mandimbin’Ny ISLANDS De Speville–Desvaux Dominic Gan & Co. Aina Mbolanoro Jerry Kramer Chambers Randriambelo Pacific International, Ministere de la Securité MALDIVES Inc. Publique MEXICO Dhaanish M. Ameen Lanto Fifaliana Shah, Hussain & Co. Laura Aragón Ratodimahavonjy Mukira Rishmee Amir Ministry of Gender, Juan Carlos De la Vega Family and Social Santamarina y Steta SC Services 62 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 Irma Garcia MOLDOVA Jelena Cejovic Ancha Abdala Universidad Nacional Advkokatska kancelarija Maputo International Autónoma de México University of European Čejović School (UNAM) Economic and Political Studies Constantin Vesna Čejovic Anselmo Bila María Ileana García Stere Advkokatska kancelarija ABA–Anselmo Bila & Gossio Čejović Associados Advogados Andriana Cebotari Sistema Nacional de Investigadores (SNI) CA Air Moldova SRL Stefan Đurović Eduardo Calú BDK Advokati Sal & Caldeira Lila Alejandra Gasca Svetlana Criucova Advogados Lda Enríquez Aleksandra Gligorovic Eduard Digore Hogan Lovells Lawyer Gimina Mahumana Law Office Digore Sal & Caldeira José Luis Gutiérrez Milena Rončević Pejović Advogados Lda Victoria Donu Román Karanović & Nikolić Moody’s Analytics Edneuza Massingue Asistencia Legal Martina Vucelic por los Derechos Aurelia Irodoi TTA Sociedade de SOS Podgorica Advogados Humanos–ASILEGAL Olga Manole Telephone for Women Blanca Esther Jimenez Promo-LEX Association and Children Victims of Eunice Sepúlveda Franco Violence Matete Comisión de los Stefan Orbu CM&A Mozambique Derechos Humanos del Promo-LEX Association MOROCCO Diana Ramalho Estado de Coahuila de Vladimir Palamarciuc Sal & Caldeira Zaragoza Mohammed Bentalha Turcan Cazac Advogados Lda Faculté de Droit de Maria del Rosario Marrakech Alexandru Postica César Vamos Ver Lombera-Gonzalez Promo-LEX Association Sal & Caldeira Baker & McKenzie Siham Chitaoui Advogados Lda Elena Ratoi Association Droit et Ricardo Mendoza Justice UN Women Moldova Comisión Nacional de MYANMAR los Derechos Humanos Olesea Udova Ilham Diab Cabinet Ilham Diab White & Case LLP Wanda Muñoz Raquel Arely Ortiz MONGOLIA Abdeljabar El Jean Loi Marrakechy VDB Loi Co. Garrido Melville Erdenedalai LLP Faculté Polydisciplinaire Santamarina y Steta SC à Larache U San Lwin Delgermaa Anbat JLPW Legal Services Lourdes Rincón Maltos Mongolian Legal Mourad Faouzi Lawyer Experts LLP Nwe Oo Association Droit et Justice Tilleke & Gibbins María José Ríos Hurtado Lkhamsuren Baasan Secretaria Técnica, Mongolian Legal Ali Lachgar Essahili Ross Taylor Comisión de los Experts LLP Tilleke & Gibbins Ali Lachgar Essahili Law Derechos Humanos del Firm Estado de Coahuila de Uranzaya Batdorj Nyo Nyo Thinn Zaragoza Otgontenger University Adil Morsad Yangon Watch Solongo Batsuren Morsad Law Firm Zin Zar Zar Win Mónica Schiaffino Littler Mexico BaTu Lex Consulting Ahmed Morsad School of Law, Gender LLP & Politics Myanmar Morsad Law Firm Jorge Francisco Valdés King Odonhuu Muuzee Sofia Rais Hogan Lovells Zarchim LLP Association Droit et NAMIBIA Undargaa Sandagsuren Justice Cronjé & Co. Giselle Yáñez Villaseñor Lawyer Tserendorj Suren Elhabib Stati Zineddine Maria Adelasia Divona Zarchim LLP Université Abdelmalek UNDP Namibia Essaadi MICRONESIA, Bolormaa Volodya Petrine Hango FED. STS. GRATA International Stephanie Willman Dr. Weder, Kauta & MRA Mobilising for Hoveka Inc. Pohnpei Women’s Rights Associates Council MONTENEGRO Gabriel Francios David C. Angyal Kopplinger Bisera Andrijašević MOZAMBIQUE Ramp & Mida Law Firm Kopplinger Boltman BDK Advokati Legal Practitioners Amina Abdala Alona Tate Jelena Bogetić TTA Sociedade de Pohnpei State Supreme BDK Advokati Advogados Court ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 63 Alice Penoshisho NEW ZEALAND Haoua Moussa Anthonia Okolie Makemba African Union Lawyer Office of the Matt Barlett Commission Government Attorney Simpson Grierson Chisom Okolie Bachir Talfi Udo Udoma & Hilleni Tangi Shikongo Kylie Jens Abdou Moumouni Belo-Osagie Ministry of Justice Simpson Grierson University Kehinde Murray Shikongo Candace McCready Padonu-Awonona Office of the Judiciary White & Case LLP NIGERIA K.M. Padonu & Phillipa Muir Associates Adeola Ajayi NEPAL Simpson Grierson Udo Udoma & Folakemi Praise Belo-Osagie Margsolu Legal Bishnu Bashyal Nicola Peart University of Otago Practitioners & Women Lawyers of Akinwunmi Ajiboye Consultants Nepal Punuka & Solicitors Jennifer Verbokkem Sabita Bhandari Simpson Grierson Brenda Anugwom NORTH Nepal Law Firm Charles Asugha MACEDONIA Rishi Bhattarai NICARAGUA C.C. Asugha and Martina Angelkovic Milestone Law Firm Bertha Arguello Associate Debarliev, Dameski Jessica Chen Arias Joseph Eimunjeze & Kelesoska White & Case LLP Udo Udoma & Attorneys-at-Law Minerva Adriana Bellorín Rodríguez Belo-Osagie Daniela Antonovska Sijan Guragain Aczalaw Mary Ekemezie Prabinda Raj Joshi Fani Dimoska Miriam del Socorro Udo Udoma & Karanović & Nikolić Mountain Law Alience Belo-Osagie Espinoza Prakat Khati Aczalaw Olivera Docevska Folake Elias Adebowale Governance Lab Pvt. Lawyer Valeska Massiell Udo Udoma & Ltd. Belo-Osagie Jasminka Frishchikj Fonseca Torrez Jyoti Lamsal Poudel García & Bodán Association for Elizabeth Idigbe Jyoti Poudel & Emancipation, Solidarity María Marvis Jiron Punuka & Solicitors and Equality of Women Associates Lawyer Sylvia Iwejuo Charlotte Lan Marija Gelevska Claraliz Oviedo Maglione Liberty Consults & Association for White & Case LLP Associates Alvarado y Asociados Emancipation, Solidarity Prakriti Malla Okorie Kalu and Equality of Women Suprabhat Law Firm Alonso Porras Diaz Punuka & Solicitors Ana Kashirska Aczalaw Khem Sedhai Tolulope Lana-Olugbon Karanović & Nikolić Lawyer Sofía de Carmen Rivas Okorie & Okorie Emilija Kelesoska Arias Amrit Sharma Efunsola Moore Sholjakovska Prime María Mercedes Román Debarliev, Dameski Udo Udoma & CEJ Consulting & Kelesoska Belo-Osagie Attorneys-at-Law NETHERLANDS Carlos Eduardo Téllez Eleanor Nwadinobi Páramo Sanja Lambershek Wendy Guns Every Woman Treaty García & Bodán Karanović & Nikolić Open Universiteit Duru Obinali Diogenes Emiliano Stojan Mishev Astrid Helstone Velasquez Vela Fe Obinali Association for Stibbe Aczalaw Lawyer Emancipation, Solidarity Marko Jovović and Equality of Women Chinomso Odega Stibbe NIGER Udo Udoma & Martin Monevski Anneke Koning Conseil Danois pour les Belo-Osagie Monevski Law Firm Leiden University Law Réfugiés Ozofu Ogiemudia Valerjan Monevski School Udo Udoma & Monevski Law Firm Zaïda Abdoul Aziz Alexander Kostin Amadou Belo-Osagie Vojdan Monevski University of Guelph Groupe IAT Marcus Ojaruega Monevski Law Firm Lies Punselie Hassana Gouro Udo Udoma & Belo-Osagie Zorica Nikolova Leiden University Law Millenium Challenge Helsinki Committee for School Account–Niger Emem Okoko Human Rights of the Aniek Schadd Ibrahim Haby Udo Udoma & Republic of Macedonia Morrison & Foerster LLP CONGAFEN Belo-Osagie 64 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 Veton Qoku PAKISTAN Mireya Peart Rodolfo G. Vouga Karanović & Nikolić Red de Mujeres Vouga & Olmedo Hafiz Abu Bakar Afrolatinoamericanas, Abogados Tatjana Stoimenovska Abdullah Law Chambers Afrocaribeñas y de la Helsinki Committee for Diáspora Human Rights of the Awais Choudhry PERU Republic of Macedonia Abdullah Law Chambers José Balta Muhammad Siddique PAPUA NEW Rodrigo, Elías & Ghani GUINEA NORWAY Medrano Abogados Ghani Law Associates Ann Clarke Sven Bjørk Fátima Benavides Arntzen de Besche Zafar Gillani Igua Guba Rodrigo, Elías & Gillani & Gillani Allens Linklaters Medrano Abogados Maria Cabrera Stråtveit Dalan Advokatfirma DA Jalal Hussain Jack Kariko Luis Alberto Chang SZH Law Investment Promotion Rodrigo, Elías & Josefin Natalie Authority Medrano Abogados Engström Syed Akbar Hussain University of Oslo SZH Law Wavie Kendino Clea Guerra Romero Dentons Centro de la Mujer Nora Fredstie Sana Iftikhar Peruana Flora Tristan Latham & Watkins Pfizer Pakistan Limited Desmond Kipa Twivey Lawyers Marcial Gutiérrez Catherine Hui Maria Karim Rodrigo, Elías & Latham & Watkins SZH Law Sarah Kuman Medrano Abogados Allens Linklaters Ingunn Ikdahl Neelam Rahim Francisco Ibazeta Department of Public Shirkat Gah, Women’s Sherrie Lee Williams and International Resource Centre Ashurst LLP Fiorella Patricia Morey Law, Faculty of Law, Rotalde Muhammad Raza Khan Gideon Pogla Estudio Morey & Morey University of Oslo Abdullah Law Chambers Allens Linklaters Rotalde Abogados SAC Ingeborg Lind Syed Sameer Shah Anthony William Liliana Tsuboyama Advokatfirmaet Wiersholm AS SZH Law Roden-Paru Shiohama Bank of South Pacific Tsuboyama, Cuzquén & Jenny Marie Solgaard Sarah Tarar Limited Nicolini Bing Hodneland University College Lahore Mek Tumul Christel Søreide Allens Linklaters PHILIPPINES Abdullah Usman Advokatfirmaet Wiersholm AS Abdullah Law Chambers Amy Avellano Sohail Akbar Warraich PARAGUAY Kevin Catapusan OMAN National Commission María José Achón Quisumbing Torres, on Status of Women, Paredes Member Firm of Baker Mohammad Saeed Pakistan Vouga & Olmedo & McKenzie ALsheyab Abogados ALsheyab & Associates Mehak Zaraq Kenneth Chua Pakistan College of Law María José Ayala Quisumbing Torres, Amel Kamel Abdallah Centro de Estudios Member Firm of Baker Sultan Qaboos Ambientales y Sociales & McKenzie University College of PALAU (CEAMSO) Law Marcial G. De La Fuente Micronesian Legal Matias Chaves Angara Abello George Kassimos Services Corporation Ferrere Abogados Concepcion Regala & Curtis, Mallet-Prevost, Kenneth Barden Cruz Law Offices Colt & Mosle LLP Patricia Doldán Lawyer Leslie Dy Ministerio de la Mujer Tariq Abdulaziz SyCip Salazar Mohamed Sadiq Marysol Estigarribia Hernandez & Gatmaitan PANAMA Hassan Batok Legal Ferrere Abogados Office Milagros Caballero Marie Hazel Lavitoria Morgan & Morgan Alejandra Guanes SALIGAN Mariyam Shidhani Velázquez Arab Law (Advocates & Sophia Castillero Ferrere Abogados Joy Anne Leong-Pambid Legal Consultants) Suarez, Castillero, Angara Abello Holmes y Richa Romina Paiva Godoy Concepcion Regala & Alessandra Zingales Cruz Law Offices Ximena de Obaldía Maria del Rocio Penayo Curtis, Mallet-Prevost, Galindo, Arias & López Zarza Gilyen Ezra Marie Li Colt & Mosle LLP Moreno Ruffinelli & Angara Abello Claudia Patricia Juárez Asociados Concepcion Regala & Galindo, Arias & López Cruz Law Offices ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 65 Mary John Mananzan Tânia Pinheiro ROMANIA Désiré Kamanzi Institute of Women’s Caiado Guerreiro– ENSafrica Rwanda Studies Foundation Sociedade de Alexandra Columban Advogados, SP, RL Equality and Human Penlope Kwarikunda Carmelita Nuqui Rights Action Centre Lawyer Development Action for José Manuel Pinto Alves (ACTEDO) Women Network Linklaters LLP Nadine Mumporeze Ioana-Maria Dumitru Juan Carlo Tejano Popovici Nițu Stoica & Cyridion SALIGAN PUERTO RICO Asociații Nsengumuremyi Amilex Chambers White & Case LLP Petunia Enciu POLAND Billy Carrasquillo Gilescu Valeanu Nathanzon & Partenerii SAMOA Dominika Dörre-Kolasa Policía de Puerto Rico Raczkowski Paruch sp.k. Ileana Glodeanu Lina Chang Rafael Díaz-Gonzáles Samoa Victim Support Wolf Theiss Monika Kamińska Group (SVSG) Carolene Fontanet Adelina Iftime-Blagean Olesya Malyugina Smith Tomasi Peni Wolf Theiss International Labour Grzegorz Piliszek Mariana Muñiz-Lara Mircea Milos Organization Lawyer Janice del Rosario Covasna County Police Adrian Szutkiewicz Rodriguez-Zayas Inspectorate SAN MARINO Raczkowski Paruch sp.k. Lawyer Mirela Nathanzon Gianna Burgagni Agata Szypulska Gilescu Valeanu Studio Legale e Notarile QATAR Nathanzon & Partenerii Anna Wysocka-Bar Marco Guerra Jagiellonian University The Law Clinic at Qatar Vlad Neacsu University College of Popovici Nițu Stoica & Marialaura Marinozzi Law Asociații Studio Legale Marinozzi PORTUGAL Mekki Abbas Diana Şteţiu Emanuela Montanari Daniel Cotrim Ahmed Mohamednoor Wolf Theiss Portuguese Association Al Mushiri Law Office for Victim Support SÃO TOMÉ AND (APAV) Ahmed Al-Mushiri RUSSIAN PRÍNCIPE Ahmed Mohamednoor FEDERATION Maria da Glória Leitão Al Mushiri Law Office Rui Andrade Cuatrecasas, Gonçalves Maryana Batalova VdA–Vieira de Almeida Pereira Lama Bakroun Dechert LLP & Associados Sultan Al-Abdulla & Catarina de Oliveira Partners Pavel Dunaev Tânia Cascais Carvalho Dechert LLP STP Counsel Universidade Catolica Buthaina Elgahani Portuguesa, Faculdade Sultan Al-Abdulla & Evgenia Korotkova Tiago Cochofel de de Direito, Porto Partners Dechert LLP Azevedo VdA–Vieira de Almeida Maria do Rosário Alves Sarra Eljaili Elena Kukushkina & Associados Catholic University of Sultan Al-Abdulla & Baker & McKenzie Lisbon Partners Marina Costa Cabral Nina Mogutova VdA–Vieira de Almeida Cláudia dos Santos Silva Mohamed Fouad Baker & McKenzie & Associados Cuatrecasas, Gonçalves Sultan Al-Abdulla & Partners Yulianna Vertinskaya Filipa Duarte Goncalves Pereira Maria Vinokurova Miranda Correia Elisabete Ferreira Brenda Hill Amendoeira & DLA Piper DLA Piper Universidade Catolica Associados, Sociedade Portuguesa, Faculdade de Advogados RL Moonira Mamoon de Direito, Porto Sultan Al-Abdulla & RWANDA Homildo Fortes Rita Lobo Xavier Partners Pamela Abbott Ministério do Trabalho, Universidade Católica University of Aberdeen Solidariedade, Família e Mohamed Y. Mattar Portuguesa, Porto Formação Profissional Qatar University College Valentin Akayezu Ricardo Lopes of Law Muhumuza Lucas Lima Caiado Guerreiro– Institute of Legal Omar Qouteshat Sofia Martins Sociedade de Practice and Advogados, SP, RL Sultan Al-Abdulla & Development Miranda Correia Partners Amendoeira & Rita Paulo Pie Habimana Associados, Sociedade Caiado Guerreiro– Amilex Chambers de Advogados RL Sociedade de Advogados, SP, RL Israel Irazirikana Luicelio Monteiro Amilex Chambers LM & Associados 66 WOMEN, BUSINESS AND THE LAW 2020 Joel Teixeira Mame Coumba Ngom Victor Moinina Helena Butolen Vilhete Teixeira COFINA Sénégal Forum for the Odvetniki Šelih & Advogado Development of Young Partnerji Aby Sane People Ministère de la Femme Suzana Kraljić SAUDI ARABIA de l’Enfance et de Nicky Spencer-Coker University of Maribor, l’Entreprenariat Féminin Faculty of Law Ikram Adnani Yeabu Tholley Ibn Zohr University Statistics Sierra Leone Sara Makovec SERBIA Law Office Jadek & Sarah Al Haqbani Pensa DLA Piper Mirjana Antic SINGAPORE Lawyer Luka Mišič Alia Al Sudairy Nithya Devi University of Ljubljana, DLA Piper Aleksandar Djordjevic Tracy Gani Faculty of Law Attorney-at-Law Sattam Alharbi Rajah & Tann Asia LLP Marko Novak Aleksandra Ivankovic Amena Ali Michael Low European Faculty of Victim Support Europe The Law Firm of Wael Crossbows LLP Law in Nova Gorica A. Alissa in association Marija Jovanovic Ijechi Nwaozuzu Iris Pensa with Dentons & Co. Law office of Marija N. Law Office Jadek & Jovanovic Francis Xavier Mohamed Eid Pensa Freshfields Bruckhaus Olga Jovic-Prlainovic Rajah & Tann Asia LLP Primož Rataj Deringer Kosovska Mitrovica University of Ljubljana, Aneela Haider Jelena Kuveljic Dmitric SLOVAK Faculty of Law DLA Piper Law Offices JKD REPUBLIC Nina Šelih Azzam Khouj Stanislav Durica Odvetniki Šelih & Ana Popović Law Office of Azzam Squire Patton Boggs Partnerji Živković Samardžić Law Faisal Khouj Office Dominika Gornaľová Darja Senčur Peček Fadi Obaidat Jovana Tomić Bartošík Šváby SRO University of Maribor, Law Office of Azzam Caković/Tomić–CT Faculty of Law Daniela Ježová Faisal Khouj Legal Lawyer Boštjan Špec Amr Omran Milica Vesic Odvetniška družba Špec Ivana Kellová Štiavnická Freshfields Bruckhaus Joksovic, Stojanovic o.p. d.o.o. Central Office of Deringer and Partners Labour, Social Affairs Grega Strban Sami Tannous and Family of Slovak University of Ljubljana, Republic Faculty of Law Freshfields Bruckhaus SEYCHELLES Deringer Zuzana Ocenasova Marie-Josée Bonne Ghazal Yamani Ministry of Social Coordination and SOLOMON Law Office of Azzam Affairs, Community Methodological ISLANDS Faisal Khouj Development and Sport Centre for Prevention of Violence against Enlin Jiang Natasha Burian Women White & Case SENEGAL Judiciary of Seychelles Olga Rabade Viera Petrasova Boubacar Diakité Jyotika Kaushik Attorney-at-Law United Nations Géni & Kébé SCP Development d’Avocats Alexander Kukuev Igor Šváby Programme Bartošík Šváby SRO Mactar Diassi Malcolm Moller Jennifer Radford Etude Maître Mactar Appleby Richard Svocak Legal and Safeguards Dassi Squire Patton Boggs Consultant Ibrahima Dieng SIERRA LEONE Miroslava Tomanová Pamela Wilde ALPHADEV Soniade J.Y. Barlatt Bartošík Šváby SRO Ministry for Justice and L.A.W.Y.E.R.S. 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