Improving Higher Education Policies in Russia: Increasing Internationalization in Higher Education Analytical Note Roundtable on Export of Higher Education Moscow, 30th April 2019 World Bank 1 IMPROVING HIGHER EDUCATION POLICIES IN RUSSIA Increasing internationalization of higher education Benchmark Study 1. Introduction - Methodology________________________________________________3 1.1 Criteria for Effective and Efficient Internationalisation Policy ________________________ 3 2. Incentives conducive to student mobility _____________________________________3 2.1 Incentives to are conducive to student mobility on the individuals ___________________ 4 2.2 Government incentives to improve learning environment and international programmes _ 5 2.3 University-specific incentives to attract international students ______________________ 9 3. Harnessing the potential of global networks in higher education _________________11 3.1 Networks at the national level _______________________________________________ 11 3.2 Networks at the regional level _______________________________________________ 12 3.3 Networks at the institutional level ____________________________________________ 12 4. Determinants for successful internationalisation strategy _______________________13 4.1 The organisation of mobility, condition to spur internationalisation _________________ 13 4.2 Quality of mobility, a global request __________________________________________ 14 4.3 Measuring Mobility to ensure effectiveness of internationalisation and safeguard its quality 15 5. Internationalisation strategy at a glance ____________________________________16 5.1 Argentina _______________________________________________________________ 16 5.2 Australia ________________________________________________________________ 17 5.3 China ___________________________________________________________________ 18 5.4 Poland __________________________________________________________________ 20 5.5 South Africa _____________________________________________________________ 21 5.6 Other countries___________________________________________________________ 22 6. Paving the way for enhanced mobility to Russia _______________________________25 6.1 Summary of Russian challenges and potentialities as per internationalisation__________ 25 6.2 Selection of drivers (out of the benchmark above) that might best fit to Russian context on HE and mobility. _______________________________________________________________ 27 2 1. Introduction - Methodology 1.1 Criteria for Effective and Efficient Internationalisation Policy This note was prepared within the ASA project, the objective of which was is to provide knowledge and advisory support to the Ministry of Higher Education and Science and to Russian regional universities on critical topics for higher education development. To implement this objective several knowledge-sharing activities were conducted for the Ministry and regional universities to support the implementation of a new National Project “Educationâ€?, using the most relevant and up to date international experience in higher education development. Export of Higher Education is one of the areas, where Russian counterparts requested to share the most relevant global international expertise to support topics related to the National Project’s priorities. This expertise is of big interest and use of the Ministry of Higher Education and Science and leading Russian universities: participants of 5/100 project, National research universities, regional flagship universities and participants of university innovative infrastructure project. This benchmark study focuses on examples of efficient and effective internationalisation policy in an attempt to propose a condensed list of best practices in internationalisation of higher education (HE) that have resulted in attracting international students to national higher education institutions (HEIs). Although all internationalisation actions are intertwined, this benchmark presents the actions and policy choices that encourage and incentivise student mobility, with priority given to incoming mobility. This study does not focus on mistakes or barriers to promoting student mobility. In selecting best practices to include in this benchmark, certain clusters of criteria came to the forefront that identified effective and efficient policies. Examples were selected based on the following list: • Evidence of an increase in number of international students in national HEIs • Evidence of a policy change to incentivise incoming mobility • Presence of incentives conducive to promoting student mobility at both the institutional and national levels • Clear and transparent policy at both the institutional and national levels • Connection of national HE with international HE networks • Involvement of other stakeholders (corporations, local communities, alumni) • Thoughtful organisation of mobility • Appropriate funding for internationalisation efforts • Development of quality assurance (QA) system for mobility • Presence of evaluation framework to examine effects of policy changes The following benchmark addresses each criterion and provides examples of best practices that have contributed to augmenting incoming international student mobility in different situations. Several country case studies are also presented, demonstrating how these potential actions work in synergy to create a cohesive strategy for internationalisation and attraction of the best and brightest students to national HEIs. 2. Incentives conducive to student mobility Incentives that attract individuals to a certain HE system or HEI are the most effective strategy for increasing incoming mobility. These incentives can be made at both the national and institutional 3 levels. The following sections examine potential strategies that have proven to increase the incentive to study abroad in one country over another. 2.1 Incentives to are conducive to student mobility on the individuals The most effective strategy of attracting international students to HEIs is providing irresistible incentives to study in a certain country. At the individual level, international students look for the most efficient option that maximizes quality, price and qualifications received. Grants, scholarships, and fee waiving for international applicants have all proven to increase foreign enrolment in national HEIs. China has developed attractive government scholarship packages for international students and has increased financial aid offered to students from developing countries, for example. Additionally, South Africa has ensured students from South African Development Community (SADC) countries pay the same tuition fees as South African students, while students from other countries often pay higher fees, in order to encourage regional student mobility. Students respond positively to financial incentives that encourage studying abroad. Credit transfer and recognition of qualifications has proved to be another important incentive that greatly encourages student mobility. Credit recognition is known to constitute a serious hurdle for short-term student mobility, as classes taken during a semester abroad, for example, will not be recognized at the home university. In the same vein, the absence of international recognition of qualifications and degrees prevents degree-seeking mobility, as graduates will be unable to return to work at home or in a third country. When paired with barriers to working in the host country, this degree recognition becomes one of the most important incentives to student mobility. Therefore, developing a Credit Transfer System (CTS) and a system of degree and qualification recognition facilitates the process of international exchange and boosts mobility as both systems remove barriers and provide major incentives to studying abroad. An example of efforts to boost mobility through recognition incentives is the SHARE project in the ASEAN region, which aims to strengthen regional cooperation and enhance the quality, competitiveness and internationalisation of ASEAN HE systems, institutions and students. One key objective of this cooperation is to create a working CTS that incentivizes mobility, as well as a system of recognition of qualifications and a regional framework for quality assurance.1 The SHARE project will be presented in more detail later on, as it shows the complicated and interconnected nature of regional mobility in HE. SHARE -ASEAN – Supporting Higher Education Area Officially launched in May 2015, SHARE is a €10 million European Union (EU) grant funded programme. From 2016 onwards, SHARE will be providing some 500 scholarships for ASEAN university students to put the improved systems to the test, mainly by supporting student exchange and credit recognition within the ASEAN region. ASEAN is working with a consortium led by British Council and comprised of the DAAD, Nuffic, Campus France, ENQA and EUA between 2015 and 2018 to implement SHARE. The cornerstone to guaranteeing a sustainable and efficient CTS system in ASEAN is to ensure mutual trust between the Higher Education Institutions in the ASEAN region and between ASEAN and the EU. Experience from Europe shows that the instrumental value of the credit for mobility purposes is high when credits are associated to the learning outcomes. The challenge is therefore to harmonise the system in order to have comparable and transferrable credits in ASEAN that are based on commonly recognised learning outcomes. CTS handbook for institutions and the SHARE Platform to manage mobility and the application Credit converter are available online. 1 SHARE. “About SHAREâ€? https://www.share-asean.eu/about-share 4 China has also understood the importance of credit and degree recognition, and has included directives to this order in its National Plan for medium and long-term education reform and development 2010-2020 with the objective of increasing student and teacher mobility to Chinese HEIs. Both governments and institutions can provide incentives through policy adjustments that promote incoming mobility. The following section presents several effective incentives at the national policy level. 2.2 Government incentives to improve learning environment and international programmes Government has a double involvement in the internationalisation of HE that increases its attractiveness: supporting its expansion, the focus of this section, and safeguarding its quality, which will be examined in detail in a following section.2 Governmental policies, even when not directly related to education, can remove important barriers to international student mobility and incentivise incoming mobility. Most importantly, facilitation of entry and post-graduation employment depend strongly on governmental policy. Government can act in the following areas to reduce barriers and increase incentives: • Migration and visa policy • Employment/research opportunities for international students during mobility • Career opportunities for foreign nationals • International partnerships A straightforward and simple visa process for incoming international students is a policy seen across the board in countries that have increased incoming mobility in HE. Harmonisation of immigration 2Henard, Diamond and Roseveare. “Approaches to Internationalisation and Their Implications for Strategic Management and Institutional Practice,â€? OECD Higher Education Programme (IMHE), 2012. http://www.oecd.org/education/imhe/Approaches%20to%20internationalisation%20-%20final%20-%20web.pdf 5 policy with institutional focus on attracting international students conveys a consistent and coherent message of internationalisation to potential students. In addition, policies that allow foreign nationals to work in the host country, both during and after their mobility period, have proven especially effective. Canada’s Early Researcher Awards programme (ERA) 3 , for example, provides grants to researchers affiliated with Canadians universities, irrespective of national origin. Such programmes encourage the most qualified international students to study abroad or earn degrees in countries that provide the best opportunities. International partnerships that facilitate mobility have also proven effective. Within the European Union, for example, free movement of people allows students to study in other European countries with relative ease. In addition, the Erasmus+ mobility project is a government initiative that encourages and facilitates movement of students through international partnerships. Governmental policies on education are also a lever for increasing mobility. Government initiatives in the following areas concerning education have shown results: • Financing incoming mobility • Developing a clear and transparent internationalisation policy, with appropriate funding • Harmonising the admission process with other countries • Alignment with global initiatives Enshrining clarity of the internationalisation process and policy in government directives provides stability and encourages trust in the system that increases incoming mobility. In the South African policy framework, for instance, the Department of Higher Education and Training underlines the importance of clearly articulating national strategy and providing guidance on fulfilling national policy requirements.4 Harmonisation of admissions processes with international norms and alignment of policy with global initiatives can also prove effective in attracting international students. Bologna Process tools, for instance, such as quality assurance and recognition of credits are major incentives for incoming students. UNESCO and the OECD additionally provide guidance on standards in HE that, if included into policy changes, lend a degree of legitimacy to HE systems that increases attractiveness for international students. UNESCO-OECD guidelines for cross-border education In 2005, in response to the growing mobility of students around the world, UNESCO and OECD joined forces to publish guidelines encouraging governments and other stakeholders - including higher education institutions, student bodies, and organisations responsible for quality assurance, accreditation, and academic and professional recognition -- to take action based on three main principles: 3ERA. www.mri.gov.on.ca/english/programs/era/program.asp 4Department of Higher Education and Training of South Africa. “Draft Policy Framework For The Internationalisation Of Higher Education In South Africa.â€? April 2017. http://www.dhet.gov.za/Policy%20and%20Development%20Support/Draft%20Policy%20framework%20for%20the%20int ernalisation%20of%20Higher%20Education%20in%20Suth%20Africa.pdf 6 Mutual trust and respect among countries and recognition of the importance of international collaboration in higher education. Recognition of the importance of national authority and the diversity of higher education systems. Recognition of the importance of higher education as a means for expressing a country's linguistic and cultural diversity and also for nurturing its economic development and social cohesion. Specific recommendations include: An invitation to governments to establish comprehensive systems of quality assurance and accreditation for cross-border higher education, recognising that this involves both sending and receiving countries. An invitation to higher education institutions and providers to ensure that the programmes that they deliver across borders and in their home country are of comparable quality and that they also take into account the cultural and linguistic sensitivities of the receiving country. An invitation to student bodies to get involved as active partners at international, national and institutional levels in the development, monitoring and maintenance of the quality provision of cross- border higher education. A review on the implementation of the guidelines was published in 2014. Finally, government can also have an effect on institutional strategy through binding requirements and regulations imposed on HEIs to adjust institutional policy and create more incentive incoming students. Possible examples of this centralised intervention in the HE system could be: • Articulation of clear and measurable objectives and desired outcomes • Strong support to the creation of international student support systems • Promotion of competition in higher education through market reliance • Regulation/policy concerning joint degrees One of the most important measures that contributes to successful internationalisation and increases the attractiveness of universities is the availability of support for international students. This is primarily accomplished through the creation and the staffing of robust international offices, that provide advice to students in all areas, including administrative questions such as visa and work policy, institutional questions concerning courses and professors and even integration into campus life and society in general. National policy and national investment in the development of these international offices demonstrates commitment to internationalisation and attraction of international students at a high level, and provides universities with the resources to begin addressing the lack of such support systems. Polish national policy has placed emphasis on developing services for international students and increasing competencies of administrative employees. 5 Poland is an example in increasing the number of international students in universities. This country case is presented in further detail later in this report. A number of interventions in institutional strategy are possible, but governments will need to find a balance, as too much intervention stifles HEIs and will result in decreased international mobility. 5 Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education. “Program UmiÄ™dzynarodowienia Szkolnictwa Wyższego.â€? 2015. 7 In Europe, guides have been produced on the design of learning outcomes and allocation of credit points, with specific focus on joint degree programmes. See the ECTS Users’ guide (2015). The ECTS Users’ Guide The ECTS Users’ Guide offers guidelines for implementing ECTS and links to useful supporting documents. Following the request from Bologna Ministers in Bucharest (Bucharest Communiqu eÌ?, 2012), the ECTS Users’ Guide of 2009 has been revised, in order to strengthen the ‘meaningful implementation of learning outcomes’ in the EHEA. The Guide is offered to students and other learners, academic and administrative staff in higher education institutions as well as to employers, education providers and all other interested stakeholders. The main focus is on the design and implementation of ECTS as a learner-centred system for credit accumulation and credit transfer, based on the principle of transparency of the learning, teaching and assessment processes. Its objective is to facilitate the planning, delivery and evaluation of study programmes and student mobility by qualifications and periods of learning. It typically fits the mobility issues. In addition to national policy, it is important to briefly note that regional/provincial governments within countries can and do contribute to internationalisation efforts and to boosting student mobility to their own universities. These actions complement national strategy, and benefit both students that benefit from potential incentives and regions that gain in economic and social development as a result of universities that contribute to research and regional innovation. Regional contributions to attracting international students consist mainly of promotion of the region as a centre of excellence for higher education and promotion of the local HEI specifically to attract students from a wider geographical area.6 Examples of such mutual investment between regions and their HEIs include the Bio Bio region in Chile, the City of Berlin in Germany, the City-Regions of Amsterdam and Rotterdam in the Netherlands, Southern Arizona in the USA, the State of Veracruz and the Paso del Norte region in Mexico, the Galilee in Israel, the State of Parana in Brazil, the State of Victoria in Australia, the regions of Andalusia and Catalonia in Spain, the State of Penang in Malaysia and the region of Lombardy in Italy. These regions participated in an OECD study on Higher Education in regional and city development, which examined the close relationship between HEIs and their regional governments.7 Despite the important role regions can play in promotion of local HEIs, national and institutional policies remain the most effective for increasing attractiveness of a nation’s HE system. Conflicting national and institutional policy, however, hampers internationalisation efforts. Therefore, synergy between policy levels on questions of internationalisation is of the utmost importance and will result 6 OECD/Bío Bío’s Regional Steering Committee (2009), “The Bío Bío Region, Chile: Self-Evaluation Reportâ€?, OECD Reviews of Higher Education in Regional and City Development, IMHE. http://www.oecd.org/education/skills-beyond- school/43694606.pdf 7 OECD. “Higher Education Program IMHE – EDUIMHEâ€? 2004-2011. https://www.oecd.org/education/imhe/highereducationinregionalandcitydevelopmentreviewreportsandvisits.htm 8 in a multiplier effect.8 The following section considers how HEIs can create incentives to attract international students, thereby multiplying the effects of government incentives. 2.3 University-specific incentives to attract international students Incentives given by HEIs to attract foreign students are deeply intertwined with government policy and government initiatives, but there are several actions taken by HEIs that are correlated with an increase in attractiveness of HEIs on the international stage. While offering courses taught in English does attract more international students, merely translating national courses into English is not enough to truly incentivise incoming student mobility. Courses that are made more relevant in the international context have shown in several contexts to contribute more towards mobility that merely changing the language of existing courses. Internationalisation of the curriculum in HEIs is an important part of opening universities to the world and inviting international students to attend. Australia successfully internationalised its curriculum through adding “international content into courses, comparative and cross-cultural approaches, language and area studies, interdisciplinary programmes covering more than one country, joint degree courses involving a professional course linked to an international studies/language course, courses taught, in part, overseas or involving a study abroad component, placement in an overseas organisation or an international study tour, and courses using visiting academics from overseas.â€? 9 Internationalisation of the curriculum, course offerings, professor profiles and study abroad options makes national HEIs more attractive to international students, who can then position their degree in a more international setting thanks to its wider relevance. Creating dual or joint degree offers with universities in other countries is another important way HEIs can create incentives for students from abroad. Joint degrees with well-known international universities increase the worldwide credibility of national HEIs and increases numbers of students in both short and long-term mobility programmes. How to ensure the quality of the joint programmes? The European Approach for Quality Assurance of Joint Programmes, adopted by European Ministers responsible for higher education, has been developed to ease external quality assurance of these programmes: it defines standards that are based on the agreed tools of the EHEA, without applying additional national criteria. This is expected to facilitate integrated approaches to quality assurance of joint programmes, which genuinely reflect and mirror their joint character. Specific quality standards are proposed, as well as specific quality assurance processes. 8 Henard, Diamond and Roseveare. “Approaches to Internationalisation and Their Implications for Strategic Management and Institutional Practice,â€? OECD Higher Education Programme (IMHE), 2012. http://www.oecd.org/education/imhe/Approaches%20to%20internationalisation%20-%20final%20-%20web.pdf 9 de Wit, Hans. Strategies for the Internationalisation of Higher Education. A Comparative Study of Australia, Canada, Europe and the United States of America. 1995. 9 Developing or expanding international offices and support structures for international students is most likely the major incentive available to HEIs for attracting students. For example, Australian HEIs developed and expanded their international offices after the overseas student policy was introduced in 1985. They began to offer a “wide range of services to overseas students including course information and admission requirements; processing of applications for enrolment; advice to students on medical insurance, immigration requirements and health, welfare and counselling services; scholarship opportunities; and institutional and cultural orientation programmes .â€? They also occasionally offer training of bridging courses for students that require extra preparation before entering into university. International offices are also often involved in English training courses for international students.10 South Africa and Poland also include enhancing support structures in their national policy frameworks as an essential measure to increasing student mobility. In some cases, international offices also provide a clear code of conduct containing information regarding student rights and responsibilities, with special attention accorded to international students. Germany has a particularly advanced code of conduct, containing information “for students regarding available courses, defines the rights of international students and guidance for universities on providing information to international students, assuming that international students, new to Germany, need further protection. It provides information from admission, throughout their studies and up to graduation on what should be available and what should be done.â€? 11 The Netherlands, Australia and New Zealand also developed similar codes of conduct alongside Germany. These services are very important for the continued attraction of international students, as they define the quality of the living abroad experience and project a sense of welcome and safety to incoming international students. They also demonstrate the commitment of an HEI to its international student community. Additional institutional strategies can create further incentives for certain groups of students. Establishment of regional studies centres and lower tuition fees for students from a region of interest, for example, can serve to attract students from particular regions. Asian Studies centres have grown exponentially in Australian universities as the number of international students from this region increases.12 As seen previously, South Africa also encourages regional mobility from SADC countries. Alignment of the admissions process to the regional or international calendar is also an important strategy, as the best and brightest students often must choose between several offers of admission, and a country risks losing students if admission offers are given much later than those of other universities. Giving admissions offers before competitor HEIs may even give an advantage to national HEIs. Finally, attracting international research initiatives and corporate partnerships and facilitating the mobility of student and faculty talent are all examples of successful incentives given by HEIs to attract international students.13 10 ibid. 11 Henard, Diamond and Roseveare. “Approaches to Internationalisation and Their Implications for Strategic Management and Institutional Practice,â€? OECD Higher Education Programme (IMHE), 2012. http://www.oecd.org/education/imhe/Approaches%20to%20internationalisation%20-%20final%20-%20web.pdf 12 de Wit, Hans. Strategies for the Internationalisation of Higher Education. A Comparative Study of Australia, Canada, Europe and the United States of America. 1995. 13 Henard, Diamond and Roseveare. “Approaches to Internationalisation and Their Implications for Strategic Management and Institutional Practice,â€? OECD Higher Education Programme (IMHE), 2012. http://www.oecd.org/education/imhe/Approaches%20to%20internationalisation%20-%20final%20-%20web.pdf 10 3. Harnessing the potential of global networks in higher education 3.1 Networks at the national level In addition to providing incentives to students, joining international HE networks can increase an institution’s attractiveness. Networks provide “exposure and interaction opportunitiesâ€? for HEIs with new institutions and countries, which allows sharing of best practices and increases the knowledge base of national HEIs. Networks also “facilitate student exchange and research collaboration, and they enable institutions to tap into experts around the world; review and appoint colleagues as reviewers; benchmark; and recommend practices.â€? 14 Finally, networks often produce lists of indicators to measure effectiveness and efficiency of internationalisation, which can be useful tools for governments or HEIs. In Europe at the national level, the NARIC (Network of National Academic Recognition Information Centres) was established in 1984, and the ENIC Network (European Network of National Information Centres) was established in 1994. These two networks work in tandem to facilitate joint policy development for recognition of qualifications among European countries. In participating countries, information centres are a reliable source of information on “the recognition of foreign diplomas, degrees and other qualifications, education systems in both foreign countries and their own country, opportunities for studying abroad, including information on loans and scholarships, as well as advice on practical questions related to mobility and equivalence.â€?15 Joining the network and opening an information centre facilitates student mobility in a country through increasing international exposure of national HEIs and promoting information sharing concerning opportunities and incentives for students. Similarly, the Academic Cooperation Association (ACA) is a federation of national organisations from Europe and beyond that encourage the internationalisation of their higher education systems.16 The network offers members a “multilateral platform for cooperation, the development of long-lasting partnerships, and innovation in higher education.â€?17 This network also developed a set of indicators to help HEIs determine their degree of internationalisation, and publishes studies and evaluations that share best practices and support its members.18 Between 2014 and 2017, the ACA completed a project titled “Enhancing the Attractiveness of European higher education in the world,â€? the goal of which was to strengthen the profile of European higher education on the world stage and attract students and academics to European HEIs. Through the ACA network, the partners (British Council, DAAD, EP-Nuffic, Campus France and the Archimedes Foundation) came together with the support of other members (Austria Exchange Service, Enterprise Ireland, Tempus Public Foundation Hungary, Norwegian Centre for International Cooperation in Education, Slovakia Academic Information Agency, Slovenia CMEPIUS, Swedish Institute) to engage in marketing and training activities. In addition to providing a platform for cooperation, the role of the ACA network was to “set up and to run a network of European Higher Education Experts,â€? who organised “Study in Europeâ€? information sessions to inform students and researchers about opportunities for studying in Europe. 19 Membership in this network played an important role in raising attractiveness of participating HE systems. 14 ibid. 15 ESIB – the National Unions of Students in Europe. “Promoting Mobilityâ€?. January 2007. http://www.ehea.info/media.ehea.info/file/ESU/85/9/ESIB_study_mobiity_582859.pdf 16 ACA Home. http://www.aca-secretariat.be/ 17 ACA Home. http://www.aca-secretariat.be/ 18 ACA. “Indicators Mapping and Profiling Internationalisation.â€? http://www.impi-project.eu/pdf/list_of_indicators.pdf 19 ACA. “Enhancing the Attractiveness of European higher education in the world.â€? http://www.aca - secretariat.be/index.php?id=871 11 3.2 Networks at the regional level At the regional level, higher education bodies like the Association of African Universities (AAU), the Inter University Council of East Africa (IUCEA) as well as sector-specific bodies like RUFORUM, all have a mandate to promote student/faculty mobilisation both within and outside the region. Membership of HEIs in these regional networks, then, can increase international student mobility, especially at the regional level. Regional cooperation forums also play an important promotion role in attracting international students, as evidenced by the China-Africa Forum in which China promotes its government scholarship program to African countries. In addition, the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organisation (SEAMEO), a regional intergovernmental organisation, also promotes cooperation in education, science and culture in Southeast Asia. This organisation also hosts a Centre specializing in regional higher education development – SEAMEO RIHED. Its objective is to “foster efficiency, effectiveness, and harmonisation of higher education in Southeast Asia through system research, empowerment, development of mechanisms to facilitate sharing and collaborations in higher education.â€? SEAMEO RIHED has played a crucial role in capacity building of member country HE systems. 20 Increased efficiency, effectiveness and harmonisation in regional HE systems increase regional mobility. 3.3 Networks at the institutional level At the institutional level, networks of HEIs provide global forums for HEI leaders to share policies and practices and prepare joint action. The innovation, mutual learning, and cooperation between HEIs that is possible with the help of institutional networks are key to increasing attractiveness of national HEIs. In addition, partnerships and cooperation with other institutions in exchange programmes are direct benefits of membership in institutional networks. The International Association of Universities (IAU), an official partner of UNESCO, is an institutional network that includes 600+ members from 120+ countries. The network engages primarily in the following actions: 21 • Expertise development & trends analysis • Publications & specialized portals • Advisory services • Training & peer-to-peer learning • Knowledge sharing events • Global advocacy & representation Through engagement in the network, member HEIs benefit from these services, increasing their internationalisation capabilities and therefore increasing attractiveness to international students. IAU also offers internationalisation services, which amounts to advising members on monitoring and evaluation of their internationalisation process. 22 Membership in IAU also increases institutional visibility, as IAU highlights member institutions in its World Higher Education Database (WHED) and promotes member initiatives on the website and in specialised portals.23 Finally, publications produced by international networks can provide targets for internationalisation and best practices for institutions in attracting international students. The IAU publishes the Global Survey on Internationalisation, which provides data on global trends and developments.24 20 SEAMEO RIHED. “About Us.â€? http://rihed.seameo.org/about-us/history/ 21 IAU. “Vision & Missionâ€? https://www.iau-aiu.net/Vision-Mission 22 IAU Brochure. https://www.iau-aiu.net/IMG/pdf/iau_brochure.pdf 23 ibid. 24 IAU. “Global Survey on Internationalization.â€? https://www .iau-aiu.net/Global-survey-on-Internationalization 12 4. Determinants for successful internationalisation strategy Successful internationalisation strategies that attract students to national HEIs tend to have certain determinants. Several main determinants are laid out in the sections below. 4.1 The organisation of mobility, condition to spur internationalisation One of the main determinants of a successful internationalisation strategy across the board appears to be a clear organisation of international exchange. Possible elements of this organisation, evident in successful strategies, are the following: • Integration of international students academically and socially (e.g. mixed classes international/domestic) • Assistance for international students (housing, administrative questions, etc.) • Faculty training • Dissemination system for best practices • Marketing activities • Involvement of additional stakeholders While this list is not exhaustive, it provides several examples of important elements in organisation of mobility, which involves both incentives for students and marketing efforts. As mentioned above, incentives for incoming students are the most effective way of increasing incoming mobility. Well-managed assistance with housing and administrative procedures, for example, is an important part of well-organised mobility that incentivises and increases attractiveness for international students. The international office of the HEI should provide this service in a clear and efficient manner. Additionally, HEIs that successfully integrate international students into campus life and life in the host country more broadly are more attractive. In Australia, students that felt integrated were much happier with their study experience. Integration can be achieved through organisation of mixed classes including both international and domestic students, mixed housing arrangements, and an internationalised course offering that places each subject in a more global perspective. Faculty training on accepting and integrating international students is also important when organizing mobility. Another important part of successfully organising mobility to increase attractiveness is investing in an effective marketing strategy, both of the HE system as a whole and of individual institutions. An example of a successful marketing campaign is the aforementioned ACA project for “Enhancing the Attractiveness of European higher education in the world.â€? The marketing strategy was to: 25 • Organise a series of branded ´Study in Europe´ fairs (in Canada, Ecuador, Egypt, Nigeria, Peru, Russia, South Africa, South Korea, Tunisia and USA • Deliver marketing webinars for European higher education professionals and organise virtual events • Revamp the `Study in Europe` portal and deliver a social media strategy • Produce a package of promotional material • Establish and train a network of European Higher Education Experts (EHEEs) - information multipliers and advisers on Study in Europe - in 5 partner countries (Brazil, China, India, Russia and South Africa) 25ACA. “Enhancing the Attractiveness of European higher education in the world.â€? http://www.aca - secretariat.be/index.php?id=871 13 This comprehensive strategy increased visibility of the European HE system as a whole, and provided information on specific opportunities for studying at individual HEIs, drastically increasing incoming student mobility. Finally, involvement of other important stakeholders in HE is an often forgotten part of organising and increasing international mobility. Involving corporations in development of mobility, for example, is paramount, as they can promote HEIs abroad and provide internships and jobs for international students that wish to stay in the host country. This involvement can be included in organisation of international student mobility, both at the national and institutional levels. 4.2 Quality of mobility, a global request As mentioned above, another facet in government involvement in internationalisation is its responsibility to ensure the quality of HE, as well as international recognition of this quality. HEIs must represent the nation, and the quality of a country’s educational institutions supports its international credibility.26 Successful internationalisation efforts include an assurance of quality. Quality Assurance (QA) in HE plays several roles. Most importantly, it reassures incoming students and their sending institutions that the host institution subscribes to certain international standards. Without this assurance, international mobility is severely handicapped. QA also has an ethical dimension that assures a certain level of integrity and further inspires the confidence of incoming international students. The European Standards and Guidelines (ESG), which European HEIs must comply with, provide an example of guidelines for HEIs and QA bodies that can increase attractiveness of the HE system and of individual HEIs. They include the following principles:27 • Having a publicly available policy for quality assurance • Having defined processes for design and approval of programmes • Applying pre-defined and published regulations covering all phases of the student “life cycleâ€? • Ensuring fair and transparent processes for the recruitment and development of staff • Publishing information about their activities, including programmes, which is clear, accurate, objective, up-to date and readily accessible • Monitoring and periodically reviewing their programmes to ensure that they achieve the objectives set for them Having a national QA body that can provide external quality assurance to HEIs is as important to increasing attractiveness as a robust internal quality assurance system within HEIs. Both external and internal QA should follow internationally accepted guidelines in order to be recognized as legitimate. Membership in international accreditation networks can further increase attractiveness of HEIs by augmenting their legitimacy on the international stage. Adhering to internationalisation standards defined by these networks increases attractiveness of HEIs by ensuring a certain quality of educational services. Accreditation bodies such as the European Consortium for Accreditation (ECA) have contributed to the quantification of quality in internationalisation. In partnership with the Accreditation Organisation of the Netherlands and Flanders (NVAO), the ECA developed the Certificate for Quality in Internationalisation (CeQuInt), which determines quality of internationalisation at the programme or 26 Henard, Diamond and Roseveare. “Approaches to Internationalisation and Their Implications for Strategic Management and Institutional Practice,â€? OECD Higher Education Programme (IMHE), 2012. http://www.oecd.org/education/imhe/Approaches%20to%20internationalisation%20-%20final%20-%20web.pdf 27 Loukkola, Tia. “ESG 2015 – What has changed and what does it mean for QA practitioners?â€? European University Association. http://www.equip-project.eu/wp-content/uploads/EQUIP_160509-10_Vienna_pres_LOUKKOLA.pdf 14 institutional level.28 Receiving this certificate (or a similar international accreditation) acts as a stamp of approval that assures international students will receive a certain level of education and educational services, automatically increasing the attractiveness of an HEI. Finally, the development of regional QA frameworks allows the definition, application and certification of standards across countries that may have varying national criteria. QA of joint programmes between countries with different standards makes credit transfer and degree recognition difficult and cumbersome, and developing a regional framework with significant partners increases attractiveness for students by decreasing this burden. The European Approach for Quality Assurance of Joint Programmes, approved in 2015 by EHEA Ministers, developed European accreditation for joint programmes and therefore facilitates international student exchange.29 Additionally, recent developments aimed at adapting ESG to the specificities of internationalisation are featured below. Key considerations for cross-border QA In 2017, ENQA, ESU, EUA, EURASHE and EQAR set up an ad-hoc working group to develop considerations that would guide stakeholders engaging in cross-border QA. The document aims to provide information and support considering cross-border QA activities for higher education institutions planning to engage in cross-border QA and quality assurance agencies when initiating new procedures across borders. The document may also be a useful reference for governments to review and adapt their legal frameworks to allow for the use of cross-border QA with a suitable EQAR-registered agency for fulfilling requirements of national mandatory QA. https://www.eqar.eu/kb/cross-border-qa/key-considerations 4.3 Measuring Mobility to ensure effectiveness of internationalisation and safeguard its quality Finally, monitoring and evaluation of any internationalisation strategy is a key determinant of successful efforts. Determining effectiveness of the strategy is done primarily through the definition and measurement of concrete indicators. The International Association of Universities, for example, produces the Global Survey on Internationalization, which includes a list of indicators to measure internationalisation. These include: internationalisation is mentioned in institutional plan, there is a budgetary allowance for internationalisation and there is a monitoring/evaluation process to oversee progress, among others. The Academic Cooperation Association has also produced a list of evaluation criteria, knows as the Indicators Mapping and Profiling Internationalisation (IMPI). These include: percentage change in number of international students over time, maintenance of international alumni database, and satisfaction of international students, among others. As with quality assurance, using internationally recognised indicators for monitoring and evaluation and having a transparent evaluation process ensure legitimacy of the system and increase international student mobility. 28 ECA. “Internationalisation Platform – Certification.â€? http://ecahe.eu/home/internationalisation-platform/certification/ 29 EQAR. “European Approach for QA of Joint Programmes.â€? https://www.eqar.eu/kb/joint-programmes/ 15 IMPI project – Indicators for Mapping and Profiling Internationalisation. In the years 2010-2011, European universities and policy makers realized that despite the development of student mobility across Europe and the world, there was no European-wide approach to measure internationalisation. Transparency and accountability in internationalisation were not in place. To this end, a toolbox of indicators and related objectives and activities has been developed for European higher education institutions which would allow HEI’s to individually define a level of internationality corresponding with their institutional goals. It provides options for comparison on the one hand but also offers opportunities for HEIs to choose their individual profile of internationalization. The project core partners were six institutions, SIU, NUFFIC, ACA, Campus France, Perspektywy and CHE Consult. The set of indicators has been co-developed by HEIs in order to ensure both relevance and acceptance in the community. The milestones of the project was a toolbox for HEIs to profile their internationalization. The list of indicators are downloadable here. To create an account and access the toolbox: here. 5. Internationalisation strategy at a glance This section presents several country case studies, which highlight successful government and institutional policy changes that led to significant increases in incoming student mobility. Upon examining country strategy as a whole, the importance of a coherent internationalisation strategy at all levels becomes even more evident. 5.1 Argentina The number of foreign students studying in Argentina doubled between 2006 and 2013, largely due to prioritisation of internationalisation and global engagement by the government, resulting in the creation of international networks and cooperation agreements with foreign universities.30 At the national level, the government of Argentina provides significant incentives to attract foreign students. First, the “quality of higher education is generally high, and the country’s public institutions offer free undergraduate education.â€? Additionally, “health care throughout the country is also free, and foreign students who stay for at least two years and wish to continue their studies can obtain a resident visa that allows for employment. International students and others from abroad generally find easy acceptance in Argentine culture; and in response to increasing international enrolments in recent years, many universities are focusing more attention on enhanced teaching methods and other strategies to create a positive learning experience for students from diverse backgrounds.â€?31 30 Felitti, Karina, and Andrea Rizzotti. “Argentina: Student and Scholar Mobility.â€? International Briefs for Higher Education Leaders – ACE/CIGE. No. 4. 2014. https://www.acenet.edu/news-room/Documents/International-Briefs-2014-April- SouthernCone.pdf 31 ibid. 16 Furthermore, the Argentine government encourages movement of scholars in order to increase attractiveness of the HE system, especially “repatriation of scientists who left the country during the 2001–2002 social and economic crisisâ€? with the aim of reintegrating them “into the country’s science and technology infrastructureâ€? in key fields such as “agroindustry, energy, health, social development, sustainable development, and others identified in the National Plan of Science, Technology, and Innovation as strategic priorities for the country.â€? This was done through the creation of the Network for Argentine Researchers and Scientists Abroad (RAICES), and had repatriated 1000 scholars within the first 6 years of its existence.32 Internationalisation of the HE system and attraction of international students is also done at the institutional level, as “many Argentine colleges and universities are introducing initiatives to promote faculty exchange and engagement in international research networks. An increasing number of institutions, for example, are creating “international cooperation departmentsâ€? to facilitate connections. The new FAEI (Argentine Forum for International Education) aims to bring together Argentine institutions to promote international education within Argentina and abroad.â€?33 5.2 Australia International Education (of which higher education is the largest part) is Australia’s “largest service export and its third largest export industry, earning $28.6 billion in 2016-17.â€? Australia has more than 300,000 international students in its HEIs, and international students make up 26% of the total student body, which is the largest proportion of international to domestic students in the world.34 A major element of internationalisation policy has been making links between Australian universities and universities of regional neighbours and historical partners (such as the UK). In addition, the establishment of branch campuses of Australian universities in neighbouring countries has increased communication between Australian institutions and foreign governments, international companies and local communities.35 Government policy encouraging immigration and engagement in the Asia-Pacific region has worked in tandem with universities to ensure the wide internationalisation of HE. Government policy has welcomed international students and allowed them to stay after their studies to live and work in Australia. These relatively open borders have been instrumental in attracting high quality students and academics that in turn support and contribute to high quality higher education in the country. Thanks to this governmental outlook, the majority of Australians remain convinced that immigration and multiculturalism are good for the country, despite a worldwide decrease in popular opinion on these issues.36 Specific government policy changes during the 1980s and 1990s developed Australia as a major exporter of higher education services. These included “decisions to actively recruit foreign students on a commercial basis, to actively encourage higher education institutions to raise more of their own 32 Felitti, Karina, and Andrea Rizzotti. “Argentina: Student and Scholar Mobility.â€? International Briefs for Higher Education Leaders – ACE/CIGE. No. 4. 2014. https://www.acenet.edu/news-room/Documents/International-Briefs-2014-April- SouthernCone.pdf 33 ibid. 34 Gardner, Margaret. “ Internationalising Australian Higher Education.â€? Australian Institute of International Affairs. 11 Oct 2017. https://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/australianoutlook/internationalising-australian-higher-education/ 35 ibid. 36 Gardner, Margaret. “ Internationalising Australian Higher Education.â€? Australian Institute of International Affairs. 11 Oct 2017. https://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/australianoutlook/internationalising-australian-higher-education/ 17 revenue, and to restructure the economy encouraging a broadening of the formerly narrow export base to include specialized services.â€?37 With respect to trade, Australia made commitments to decrease trade barriers in trade in educational services, which are included its GATS schedule in the WTO. 38 The policy shift from development programmes in higher education to trade and export of HE as a service was important in promoting internationalisation of the Australia higher education system. Measures undertaken by HEIs have also contributed to successful and continued attraction of international students. Supporting learning in English is important, and “several universities have experimented with a variety of methodologies in developing English language skills, including the Reflective Practice Method and the use of computers.â€?39 This and the attempt to internationalise the curriculum and include internationalisation policies in HEI strategy have been instrumental. Nevertheless, while Australia has had great success in expansion of export education, “achievements in the internationalization of courses and capturing the benefits of internationalization for domestic students have been more limited.â€?40 5.3 China China has also pivoted its focus over the past 10 years in order to attract more international students and increase its standing as a destination for international students. In Africa, for example, China has invested in the construction of five Confucius Institutes in order to encourage Chinese language learning. Increasing the number and quality of Confucius Institutes is mentioned in the National Plan for medium and long-term education reform and development 2010-2020 under the heading of upgrading exchanges and cooperation.41 Although the principle goal of these Institutes is enhancing and popularizing Chinese language learning, this investment has resulted in an increase in African students attending Chinese universities. 42 Increasing Chinese language proficiency has also been accomplished through the launch of a Chinese proficiency test “in an effort to better serve international learners and boost international enrolments at Chinese higher education institutions.â€?43 This international investment is paired with internal reforms, reflected in the National Plan for the Reform and Development of Education in China 2010-2020, which is focused on the modernisation and internationalisation of Chinese universities in order to elevate them in the global ranking, and in the 2015-2017 Action Plan for Outgoing and Incoming Mobility. 44 China aims to receive 500,000 students by 2020, and has bypassed Australia, France and Germany to become the third most popular destination country for international students after the US and the UK.45 Increasing the number of international students in Chinese HEIs as well as the number of students who stay after graduation is now an important policy directive at the national level, the regional level and the institutional level. 37 Harman, Grant. “Internationalization of Australian Higher Education: A Critical Review of Literature and Research.â€? Internationalizing Higher Education. pp. 119-140. 2005. https://federation.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0013/221251/6-Internationalization-Harman.pdf 38 ibid. 39 ibid. 40 ibid. 41 “Outline of China's National plan for medium and long-term education reform and development 2010-2020.â€? July 2010 Beijing. http://planipolis.iiep.unesco.org/sites/planipolis/files/ressources/china_national_long_term_educational_reform_develop ment_2010-2020_eng.pdf 42 Campus France. “International Mobility of African Students.â€? October 2016. https://ressources.campusfrance.org/publi_institu/etude_prospect/mobilite_continent/en/note_16_hs_en.pdf 43 Gao, Hang and Hans de Wit. “China and International Student Mobility.â€? International Higher Education. No. 90, pp. 3-5. Summer 2017 DOI: http://dx.doi/org/10.6017/ihe.2017.90.9865 44 Campus France. “International Mobility of Students of Asia and Oceanisa.â€? June 2018. https://ressources.campusfrance.org/publi_institu/etude_prospect/mobilite_continent/fr/note_hs19_fr.pdf 45 Gao, Hang and Hans de Wit. “China and International Student Mobility.â€? International Higher Education. No. 90, pp. 3-5. Summer 2017 DOI: http://dx.doi/org/10.6017/ihe.2017.90.9865 18 The Chinese National Plan for medium and long-term education reform and development 2010-2020 underlines the importance of increasing student mobility. In its planned reform of the HE sector, “higher educational institutions [are] urged to open their best faculties to the world.â€? This includes, first and foremost, reforming “education by opening it to the outside world, carrying out education exchanges and collaboration at multiple levels and in a broad scope, and raising education’s internationalization level.â€? The National Plan includes directives on increasing mutual recognition of credits and degrees, promoting the creation of joint/dual degrees and encouraging research collaboration between Chinese and foreign HEIs in order to stimulate student mobility.46 The best Chinese HEIs are also encouraged to open branches overseas, which will increase the number of international students in Chinese HEIs and further promote the export of Chinese higher education. The Chinese government also outlines its intention to play a part in the attraction and facilitation of international students studying in China. It commits to admitting more international students into the country, increasing government scholarships for these students, offering financial assistance to students from developing countries, ensuring that more disciplines be taught in foreign languages and increasing education quality. 47 Scholarship support to students from developing countries is especially important in creating incentives to study in China, and China has “created large and attractive scholarship projects at different levels including the central government, local governments, Confucius Institutes, multilateral development initiatives, and universities.â€?48 Intergovernmental cooperation projects have also stimulated higher education cooperation through bilateral agreements.49 The Chinese Belt and Road Initiative, for example, has an academic arm that supports educational development through joint research and student and teacher exchange. This network of HEIs includes institutions from all over the world, and is meant to promote cross-cultural understanding, openness and cooperation in HE. 50 China has also increased its cooperation with UNESCO and other international organisations and taken a more active part in bilateral, multilateral, regional and global cooperation with a special focus on participation in the creation of educational policies, rules regulations and standards of these international organisations and cooperations.51 Scholars note the success of these new policies in rapidly increasing the number of international students in China in recent years, but also underline key areas for improvement. These include developing more courses in English to cater to students completing short-term mobilities (more than half of international students in China); allowing HEIs more freedom to determine tuition fee levels in order to stimulate investment in quality and services that attract foreign students; developing services such as “websites with information in foreign languages, library services, club activities, and psychological counsellingâ€? that cater to international students; encouraging interaction between Chinese and international students through shared housing; and expanding visa, immigration and employment policies across the country.52 46 “Outline of China's National plan for medium and long-term education reform and development 2010-2020.â€? July 2010 Beijing. http://planipolis.iiep.unesco.org/sites/planipolis/files/ressources/china_national_long_term_educational_reform_develop ment_2010-2020_eng.pdf 47 ibid. 48 Gao, Hang and Hans de Wit. “China and International Student Mobility.â€? International Higher Education. No. 90, pp. 3-5. Summer 2017 DOI: http://dx.doi/org/10.6017/ihe.2017.90.9865 49 ibid. 50 Ma, Lie "University alliance seeks enhanced education co-op along Silk Road". China Daily. 11 April 2016. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2016-04/11/content_24446327.htm 51 “Outline of China's National plan for medium and long-term education reform and development 2010-2020.â€? July 2010 Beijing. http://planipolis.iiep.unesco.org/sites/planipolis/files/ressources/china_national_long_term_educational_reform_develop ment_2010-2020_eng.pdf 52 Gao, Hang and Hans de Wit. “China and International Student Mobility.â€? International Higher Education. No. 90, pp. 3-5. Summer 2017 DOI: http://dx.doi/org/10.6017/ihe.2017.90.9865 19 5.4 Poland In 2015, the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education adopted the Higher Education Internationalisation Programme aimed at increasing the competitiveness and attractiveness of Polish universities on the global stage. At the institutional level, this programme aims first at acquiring international accreditations for higher education institutions or individual education programs through increasing the number of degree programs in foreign languages as well as the number of joint educational projects, building doctoral programs on an international scale and developing career paths for post-doctoral candidates, increasing the number of foreign scientists involved in teaching and scientific work in Poland, and increasing the offer of e-learning programmes such as MOOCs.53 Second, the programme instructs HEIs to adjust services to the needs for foreign students and extend the skills of its university staff through developing services for international students and increasing competencies of administrative employees in key areas such as language abilities.54 The programme also aims to create a system that encourages HEIs to support the involvement of university employees in international scientific programmes and networks , thereby increasing the visibility of Polish universities internationally, as well as the movement of Polish students and academic staff abroad in order to develop language competencies and recognition of Polish achievements in education.55 At the Ministerial level, the programme proposes to create a more active scholarship policy that takes into account geographical and thematic priorities of the country (Eastern Partnership; strategic markets like China, India, Vietnam, Indonesia, Brazil; Middle East; Africa) as well as the interests of Polish companies, develop scholarship offers co-financed with private partners, create a scholarship fund for joint study programs between Polish universities and international partners and develop a searchable database of all scholarship offers. These measures are important for developing Poland’s reputation abroad and for attracting international students to Polish HEIs.56 In addition, the Ministry plans organizational and legal changes in order to promote internationalisation and student mobility. One strategy is developing international contacts at the ministerial and institutional levels. The Ministry of Science and Higher Education has signed bilateral agreements with the UAE, Oman, Malaysia and China to attract more of their students to Polish universities. 57 Further changes include expanding the system for monitoring graduates of Polish universities and creating a system to monitor international students in Poland, monitoring regulations governing foreigners studying in Poland (decreasing legal barriers (visa) to studying in Poland), distributing a guide of good practices to HEIs and creating a knowledge base of foreign educational markets and good practices in HE.58 Finally, the Polish Ministry has taken certain measures to support internationalisation in HEIs through creating a support system for universities in organising their internationalisation and transferring global best practices in this domain. Most importantly, however, has been the promotion abroad of the Polish internationalisation campaign: Ready, Study, Go! Poland. The Ministry supports universities in organising Polish stands at international fairs and educational conferences, running a multilingual website that will become the official source of information on studying in Poland (www.go-poland.pl) and publishing publications. 59 The Ministry has also recently initiated the “Uczelnie PrzyszÅ‚oÅ›ciâ€? 53 Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education. “Program UmiÄ™dzynarodowienia Szkolnictwa Wyższego.â€? 2015. 54 ibid. 55 ibid. 56 Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education. “Program UmiÄ™dzynarodowienia Szkolnictwa Wyższego.â€? 2015. 57 Kontowski, Daniel and Altbach, Philip. “Internationalization for Poland.â€? The World View. 13 September 2015. https://www.insidehighered.com/blogs/world-view/internationalization-poland 58 Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education. “Program UmiÄ™dzynarodowienia Szkolnictwa Wyższego.â€? 2015. 59 ibid. 20 (Universities of the future) programme, giving €75 million to HEIs for internationalisation efforts including accreditation, lectures by foreign professors and degree programmes in English.60 Similarly to the Confucius Institutes, the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education has also been involved in the dissemination of the Polish language. The Ministry finances Polish language teachers at 103 universities outside Poland, which necessarily attracts international students to Polish universities for short and long-term studies. The Ministry has also adjusted language programmes to include relevant language modules (modern business and law), introduced language proficiency exams adapted to international standards, developed a promotion campaign for traditional and online Polish language courses, expanded Polish language courses in strategically important countries and linked Polish language courses with summer and annual scholarship offers.61 In addition to Ministry and HEI efforts, the Perspektywy Education Foundation, a non-profit, works to promote Polish higher education internationally through a promotion program called “Study in Poland,â€? and publishes a newsletter that includes progress on internationalisation.62 This programme aims to promote Polish educational offerings at home and abroad, organise and support quality evaluation of schools and universities, provide information on scholarships (establishment, funding, availability) and cooperate with other foundations, associations and international networks in the field of education. 63 Promotion of national higher education systems by independent non-profit organisations may lend an extra layer of legitimacy and coherence to Ministerial and institutional internationalisation strategies. Perspektywy is also a member of the Institute of International Education (IIE) network, which focuses on advancing scholarship, building economies and promoting access to opportunity through collaboration between students, scholars and institutions across the world and international exchange.64 Membership in international networks (of HEIs and non-profit organisations alike) opens doors to further international student exchange through partnerships and scholarships, and acts as a promotional strategy in itself. As a result of internationalisation efforts, between the 2014/2015, 2015/2016 and 2016/17 school years, the number of international students studying in Poland rose by about 11% each year, from 46,101 students to 57,119 to 65,096. The “Study in Polandâ€? promotion campaign began in 2005, and the longer term numbers are equally impressive: the number of international students in Poland has risen from only 10,000 in 2005 to 65,000 in 2017. 65 Between 2012 and 2015, the percentage of international students to domestic students has risen from 1.3% to 5.4%.66 5.5 South Africa South Africa is in the process of adopting a new framework for the internationalisation of higher education. In this policy framework, the Department of Higher Education and Training reiterates its goal of attracting talented and highly qualified people to South African HEIs.67 60 Kontowski, Daniel and Altbach, Philip. “Internationalization for Poland.â€? The World View. 13 September 2015. https://www.insidehighered.com/blogs/world-view/internationalization-poland 61 Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education. “Program UmiÄ™dzynarodowienia Szkolnictwa Wyższego.â€? 2015. 62 Perspektywy. “Who We Are.â€? http://perspektywy.org/fundacja/about-foundation/who-we-are 63 Perspektywy. “The Aims.â€? http://perspektywy.org/fundacja/about-foundation/the-aims 64 Institute of International Education. “Historyâ€? https://www.iie.org/Why -IIE/History 65 Education Foundation Perspektywy. http://www.studyinpoland.pl/en/index.php/news/71-over-65-000-foreign-students- in-poland 66 Ministry of Science and Higher Education. “Internatioanlization of Higher Education in Polandâ€? 29 February 2015. http://www.ustawa20.nauka.gov.pl/en/polish-science-news/internationalization-of-higher-education-in-poland.html 67 Department of Higher Education and Training of South Africa. “Draft Policy Framework For The Internationalisation Of Higher Education In South Africa.â€? April 2017. http://www.dhet.gov.za/Policy%20and%20Development%20Support/Draft%20Policy%20framework%20for%20the%20int ernalisation%20of%20Higher%20Education%20in%20Suth%20Africa.pdf 21 Government involvement in the internationalisation process is restricted to principles and guidelines, and does not involve direct steering of HEIs. The government does take measures, however, to support and facilitate internationalisation by HEIs. These measures include a streamlined visa application and approval process, clear articulation of national strategy and policies and the commitment to enter into strategic alliances with other countries.68 HEI strategy is the main driver of internationalisation and attraction of foreign students in South Africa. This is done through setting up support services for international students (visa support, on- campus administrative support), internationalising curricula and joining consortia aimed at enhancement of internationalisation.69 A significant incentive for international students is the equal subsidies for domestic and international students enrolled in HEIs in degree seeking programmes. An additional incentive that encourages regional mobility in particular is the equal tuition requirement for students from South African Development Community (SADC) countries. HEIs can charge higher fees for students coming from non-SADC countries. This has increased regional mobility to South African HEIs.70 5.6 Other countries Germany’s Ministry of Education and Research has recently updated the Strategy of the Federal Government for the Internationalisation of Education, Science and Research. One of the main goals of the strategy is to strengthen Germany’s attractiveness as a research and innovation centre. While Germany is already an attractive destination for students and researchers, these numbers are increasing. The number of foreign researchers at German universities increased by 84% between 2006 and 2014. In 2015, the number of international students in the German HE system was 320,000, and this number is projected to increase to 350,000 (a 10% increase) by 2020.71 The current Internationalisation Strategy updates the Strategy defined in 2008, taking into account new trends and challenges. The first strategic objective is Strengthening Excellence Through Worldwide Cooperation. Concretely, this includes “taking measures to further consolidate Germany’s position as an attractive destination for students and researchers…. [and] continuing to remove barriers to the international mobility of scientists,â€?72 with a special focus on the European region. Germany’s government is also funding “international networking activities, particularly those involving small and medium-sized enterprisesâ€? in an attempt to solidify Germany’s position as a location for high tech activities in higher education and research.73 These measures aim at further increasing attractiveness of German universities to internationally mobile students and researchers, and the new strategy demonstrates that the most successful countries (Germany is the 5th most popular destination for students globally) constantly adapt their internationalisation strategies to global trends and challenges. Furthermore, the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) is an association of German HEIs and student organisations, which “supports the internationalisation of German universities, promotes German studies and the German language abroad, assists developing countries in establishing effective universities and advises decision makers on matters of cultural, education and 68 ibid. 69 ibid. 70 ibid. 71 Open access government. “Internationalisation of education, science and research in Germany.â€? 23 August 2017. https://www.openaccessgovernment.org/internationalisation-research-germany/36423/ 72 Open access government. “Internationalisation of education, science and research in Germany.â€? 23 August 2017. https://www.openaccessgovernment.org/internationalisation-research-germany/36423/ 73 ibid 22 development policy.â€?74 The DAAD is primarily funded by the German government, but also receives funding from the EU, private enterprises, organisations and foreign governments. In addition to funding study abroad programmes and scholarships, the DAAD “supports the international activities of German institutions of higher education through marketing services, publications, the staging of events and training courses.â€?75 This organisation, as well as similar bodies such as Campus France in France, NUFFIC in the Netherlands and the British Council in England all contribute to internationalisation at the national and institutional levels in their respective countries. A few common points between these organisations: • Promotion of national HE system and national universities abroad • Administrative information including advice on visas, housing, medical insurance, and other questions • Information on programme offerings • Non-academic information to promote a positive study abroad experience Campus France, NUFFIC, British Council and DAAD serve essentially as international offices at the national level, providing the most useful information for international students in an easily accessible manner. Developing such an office is key for attracting foreign students, as this is likely the first contact they will have with the HE system as a whole and first impressions matter. Denmark has also focused on increasing the number of international students in Danish universities over the past decade, and used several innovative policies. At the national level, the introduction of a “Diploma Supplement, ECTS and [a] professional bachelor degree at University College levelâ€? has increased the international profile of Danish HEIs.76 The Danish government additionally advocated “making strong educational offers which match the needs of the society, [maintaining] the high ambitions for research and innovation… [and internationalising]… Danish research activities and international cooperation.â€? The Danish government also earmarked funds to support HEI participation in “international university partnerships and networksâ€? in order to ensure that Danish HEIs “get access to cooperation with foreign universities which are in the lead internationally.â€? Finally, Denmark established a Danish university centre in Beijing to further incite student exchange. At the institutional level, Danish universities have extensive exchange programme cooperation agreements with universities around the world, which increases incoming mobility.77 Finally, the Finnish Internationalisation strategy 2017-2025, “Better Together for a Better World,â€? can also serve as a comprehensive example of best practices in attracting foreign students. First, the Ministry of Education and Culture plans to increase international attraction through “focusing on the latest science and leading edge research.â€? A flagship programme will strengthen and highlight leading areas in science and research, and increase international interest in Finnish programmes through profiling of Finnish universities at the national and international levels.78 Next, Finland focuses on providing high quality education, distinguishable from that offered elsewhere, in order to attract international students. To achieve this, government funding is used to support “the development of learning environments, a more student-oriented focus and new 74 DAAD. “The Internationalisation Agency.â€? https://www.daad.de/der-daad/ueber-den-daad/portrait/en/29143-the- internationalisation-agency/ 75 ibid. 76 EURYDICE. “Denmark – Mobility and Internationalisation.â€? 9 October 2017. https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/national- policies/eurydice/content/mobility-and-internationalisation-18_en 77 EURYDICE. “Denmark – Mobility and Internationalisation.â€? 9 October 2017. https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/national- policies/eurydice/content/mobility-and-internationalisation-18_en 78 Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture. “Better Together for a Better World.â€? 2016. https://julkaisut.valtioneuvosto.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/79438/Better%20Together%20for%20Better%20World%20- %20Leaflet%202018.pdf?sequence=17&isAllowed=y 23 forms of cooperation between companies, working life and higher education institutions.â€? A Finnish study (Global Education Brand Finland) has also identified strengths in the HE system and examined opportunities and strategies for effective marketing through building a strong Finnish education brand. Furthermore, in order to increase international demand for Finnish degrees, the Ministry pledges to “enhance the visibility of Finnish higher education and education services through the use of joint marketing [and] create a new business-based operating model to attract private investment for education export projects and for product development in the sector.â€?79 In tandem with these measures, Finland also plans to facilitate the arrival of international students in Finland, as well as help them stay after the degree programme. The Ministry pledges to “make sure that permits and practices concerning the immigration (incl. return migration) and residence of people with skills that are in demand are less onerous to deal with,â€? and also increase regional cooperation in administrative issues. In addition, Finland is investing in the attractiveness of cities with popular HEIs, which will support internationalisation and also business activity. Additionally, the government plans to work with all necessary stakeholders to increase incentives for foreign students to stay in Finland through increased attractive employment possibilities, “smoother residence permit processes and visa practices and… tax concessions.â€?80 Finland also plans to create its own international network to increase visibility and cooperation. The Team Finland Knowledge Network, consisting of “support stations for higher education and research that will supplement and strengthen the Team Finland network in order to expand research visibility and business cooperation in selected countries,â€? will strengthen cross-country cooperation in HE. Concretely, this will be done through joint programmes and collaboration in research and education.81 Finally, the Ministry of Education plans to create an alumni network to facilitate creation of contacts between alumni and with the Finnish administration. This network will facilitate return migration to Finland, and will contribute to the promotion of Finnish internationalisation.82 79 ibid. 80 ibid. 81 Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture. “Better Together for a Better World.â€? 2016. https://julkaisut.valtioneuvosto.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/79438/Better%20Together%20for%20Better%20World%20- %20Leaflet%202018.pdf?sequence=17&isAllowed=y 82 ibid. 24 6. Paving the way for enhanced mobility to Russia The following section notes current challenges to mobility in the Russian context and proposes potential policy levers to increase the strength and attractiveness of the Russian HE system and Russian HEIs. At this stage, suggestions are food for thought and will require further analysis. The table below is organised as follows: - Challenges faced in Russia as per mobility and internationalisation (global, national, and university-specific challenges); - Policy lever: actions likely to boost student mobility and alleviate obstacles; - Feasibility: likelihood of policy levers to be implemented in the context of Russian higher education; - Impact on international mobility: intensity of impacts on international mobility if the policy lever is activated (high, medium and low). The final section shall construct a short list of best practices, with a specific focus on transferability to the Russian context. 6.1 Summary of Russian challenges and potentialities as per internationalisation Challenges83 Policy Lever Feasibility Impact on International Mobility Difficulty of mastering − Increase Russian Long term: Increase funding, LOW – secondary effect of increasing Russian language84 Overall language increase interest in Russian Russian language learning (cp. Confucius learning centres language, increase targeted Institutes) abroad Russian language modules (business, law, etc.) Image portrayed in − Attractive Short term: increased HIGH – amelioration of the image of the media marketing policy participation in international Russian universities through worldwide conferences and quality networks, promotion and increased knowledge multilingual online promotion should have a significant effect campaign, partnerships with universities, etc. Underdeveloped − Increase social Short term: disseminate MEDIUM – providing full and detailed social infrastructure85 services information about existing information on social services to National available to resources incoming students increases international Long term: increase social services attractiveness – increasing social students available to international students services themselves will have a larger effect Underinvestment in − Prioritize Medium term: use new National HIGH – support for international campus infrastructure investments to Project funds for campus students during their time in Russian increase development with a focus on universities is of the utmost importance infrastructure creating services for international in increasing attractiveness. National for international students investment in this infrastructure shows students commitment at the highest level 83 Rozhenkova, Veronika and Val Rust. “Internationalization of Higher Education in Russia: Aiming for Global Recognition.â€? Globalisation and Education Reforms, Globalisation, Comparative Education and Policy Research, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-024-1204-8_6 84 ibid. 85 ibid. 25 Disproportionate − Increase funding Short term: provide policy MEDIUM – while there is lower focus on already best and policy guidance (courses in English, joint international demand for regional performing advice to programmes, recognition of universities, international mobility may universities regional credits, international office, etc.), still be increased through joint universities marketing programmes with other universities and − Foster enabling Long term: increase funding for an efficient marketing campaign environment for implementation of policy changes HEIs Difficulties for − Involve Medium term: involving MEDIUM – many students that study international students corporate companies and economic actors in abroad wish to remain and work in the to work in Russia after stakeholders in efforts to increase attractiveness, host country. By giving incentives for graduation internationalisat providing government incentives hiring international students that ion process to companies that employ completed a Russian degree, the − Develop alumni international students post- government makes it clear that it network graduation welcomes productive students, increasing attractiveness Administrative − Match calendar Medium term: adjust government MEDIUM – high performing students slowness for to international timeline to match acceptance must notify their HEI of choice before a government admissions timeline of other countries certain date, and therefore must have grant/scholarship schedule Long term: provide acceptance full information on acceptance and approval and scholarship information scholarships for Russian universities before other universities before this date, or they select other HEIs Underdeveloped − Increase role of Medium term: expand staff, HIGH – the role of the international infrastructure international develop programmes for inclusion office is important in attracting University offices of international students students, but more importantly in Long term: create international ensuring the mobility is successful and offices in universities where they the alumni them promote the do not exist experience in the sending country Programs and − Increase Short term: encourage staff to HIGH – increasing the number of publications primarily availability of publish in English and increase programmes available in English will in Russian86 programmes partnerships for publication attract more international students. taught in English Medium term: attract Training staff in the internationalisation − Staff training international staff to provide of their curriculum also increases courses in English, internationalise attractiveness since the programmes course offering by increasing will become more relevant on the international contextualisation international stage. Increasing publications in English will also increase the standing of Russian universities in international rankings, as quality is partially determined by number of citations of publications Poor monitoring of − Develop alumni Short term: create platform for MEDIUM – knowing that alumni of a alumni employment87 networks alumni to post information university are gainfully employed in regarding their post-university their field of study is an important employment incentive for international students. If Long term: encourage alumni to alumni also interact with current interact with current students and students and propose job opportunities, share internship and employment the effect on attractiveness is two-fold opportunities 86 Rozhenkova, Veronika and Val Rust. “Internationalization of Higher Education in Russia: Aiming for Global Recognition.â€? Globalisation and Education Reforms, Globalisation, Comparative Education and Policy Research, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-024-1204-8_6 87 ibid. 26 Disproportionate − Widen Short term: increase participation MEDIUM – widening participation of attraction of students marketing in international networks and HEIs in international networks and from CIS countries strategy conferences, develop multi-lingual promoting studying in Russia at − Increase websites for all universities conferences aimed at students from availability of Long term: increase availability of target regions will increase knowledge programmes programmes in English, develop about Russian programmes and attract taught in English partnerships and joint degree more international students. In the − Partner with programmes with universities longer term, in order to expand the universities in from new regions countries of origin of Russian students, target regions HEIs should offer programmes in English and increase partnerships with new universities that could participate in exchange programmes 6.2 Selection of drivers (out of the benchmark above) that might best fit to Russian context on HE and mobility. For Governments and Regional Authorities: • Overall measures: o Attractive and streamlined migration and visa policy o Employment/research opportunities for international students during mobility o Career opportunities for foreign nationals â–ª Clear government policy to encourage students to remain – work visas â–ª Incentives to corporate partners to hire international students with Russian degrees o Scholarship programmes for students from regions of interest o Credit transfer and recognition of qualifications o Join international HE networks o Participate in international QA networks â–ª Receive accreditation, internationalisation certificate, etc. to increase international legitimacy • Increasing regional attractiveness: o Increase employment opportunities for international students/graduates at the regional level (see above recommendations) o Invest in university resources in regions that have low resource levels o Increase average education level of local population o Decrease cost of living for international student and housing subsidies in highly urbanized regions • Measures regulating HEIs: o Develop a clear and transparent internationalisation policy â–ª Articulate clear and measurable objectives and desired outcomes â–ª Provide appropriate funding to support required changes â–ª Provide guidance for HEIs in achieving national policy directives o Alignment with global initiatives (Bologna Process, etc.) â–ª Harmonise the admission process with other countries o Regulation/policy encouraging joint and dual degrees o Require robust external and internal QA systems o Require measurement and evaluation of effectiveness of mobility actions 27 For Universities: • Increase programme and course offering in English (or language of target sending country) o Internationalisation of the curriculum • Increase partnerships with foreign universities o Increase dual and joint degree offers o Develop student and faculty exchange programmes • Expand international offices and their services o Include course information and admission requirements; processing of applications for enrolment; advice to students on medical insurance, immigration requirements and health, welfare and counselling services; scholarship opportunities; and institutional and cultural orientation programmes; etc. o Assistance for international students (housing, administrative questions, etc.) • Ensure integration of international students academically and socially o Mixed classes international/domestic o Events • Train faculty o English language o Internationalisation process o Inclusion of international students • Join international institutional networks o Participate in international research initiatives o Prepare joint action o Share best practices • Develop sophisticated international marketing activities o Organise branded ´Study in Russia´ fairs o Deliver marketing webinars and organise virtual events o Deliver a social media strategy o Manage a multilingual, easy to navigate website o Produce a package of promotional material o Train advisors to respond to and guide students looking for additional information • Involvement of additional stakeholders o Corporate partnerships o Alumni network • Develop a robust internal QA system, and encourage external QA involvement • Measure, evaluate, and disseminate information on effectiveness of mobility actions In conclusion, as this report does not address the “how toâ€? dimension of the internationalisation question, it is important to note that the above policy levers should be framed in a more general road map or national action plan to ensure that they have the desired effect. Increasing the attractiveness of Russian universities and the Russian higher education system in general requires the orchestration of and consistency between a multiple range of levers, both strategic and operational, at the national and institutional levels. Discrepancy and inconsistency between internationalisation policies may actually have a negative effect on HE system attractiveness. A comprehensive policy approach can be constructed with the aid of this benchmark report, which has presented strategies that have proven to be effective in increasing the number of international students in other country contexts. 28