GENDER GAPS IN CHILE AN OVERVIEW GENDER GAPS IN CHILE AN OVERVIEW © 2018 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contribu- tions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Rights and Permissions The material in this work is subject to copyright. Because The World Bank encourages dissemination of its knowledge, this work may be reproduced, in whole or in part, for noncommercial purposes as long as full attribution to this work is given. Any queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to World Bank Publications, The World Bank Group, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2625; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org. TABLE OF CONTENTS List of figures 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 7 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW 9 1.1. Purpose and scope 9 1.2. Methodology 10 1.3. Overview findings 11 CHAPTER 1: LEGAL FRAMEWORK AND 14 THE AGENCY OF WOMEN 1.1 Legal and institutional framework 14 for gender equality 1.2 Manifestations of the lack of agency 15 1.2.1 Political representation 15 1.2.2 Violence against women 17 1.2.3 Attitudes towards women 19 CHAPTER 2: ENDOWMENTS 23 2.1 Health 23 2.1.1 Life expectancy, mortality and 23 morbidity 2.1.2 Fertility trends 24 2.1.3 Maternal mortality 24 and access to health services 2.1.4 Contraceptive use and teenage pregnancy 26 2.2 Education 27 2.2.1 Gender gaps in enrolment 27 2.2.2 Attainment and performance 28 2.2.3 Factors that explain differences in completion 29 CHAPTER 3: ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES 30 3.1 Labor force participation 30 3.2 Unemployment 32 3.3 Quality of employment 33 3.4 Entrepreneurship and access to finance 36 3.5 Time use 37 3.6 Earnings 38 CONCLUSIONS 40 References 42 Annex 1: The legal and institutional framework 44 for gender equality in Peru LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Key take-aways and priorities identified 11 Figure 2: Gender Inequality Index value 2015 12 Figure 3: Main developments and 13 persistent gender gaps in Peru Figure 3: National representation of women (%) 16 Figure 4: Local representation of women (%) 17 Figure 5: Number and rate (per each 100,000 18 women) of femicides 2010-2016 Figure 6: World Values Survey responses 20 on gender attitudes 2014 – sixth and fifth waves (2011 and 2006) Figure 7: Fertility rate, total (births per woman) 24 Figure 8: Maternal mortality rate (per 100,000 24 women), modeled estimate Figure 9: Contraceptive use 26 prevalence estimations 2015 Figure 10: Adolescent fertility rate 27 (births per each 1,000 women ages 15-19) Figure 11: Secondary and tertiary 28 education enrolment rates, net Figure 12: Reasons not to be enrolled 29 in education (basic and higher) 2016 Figure 13: Labor force participation 31 in Chile (2015), % Figure 14: Labor force participation 31 by civil status and children Figure 15: Share of women and men who are 33 neither in work nor studying (ni-nis) Figure 16: Types of employment, share 34 of men and women in total, 2016 Figure 17: Informality 34 (share of workers in informal jobs) Figure 18: Share of women and men 35 by activity/occupation 2015 Figure 19: Number of female/male managers 36 Figure 20: Female/male with an 37 account at a financial institution Figure 21: Unpaid working time 2015 per week 38 (population 12+ years old) Figure 22: Labor income 38 (hourly wages in nominal LCU) Figure 23: Gender gaps in earnings depending on 39 educational level and type of job 2016 Figure 24: The strategic lines of the 47 National Plan on Gender Equality 2011-2020 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This note was prepared under the Gender Analysis work program (P164267) by Carmen de Paz (Consultant) and Miriam Muller (TTL, Social Scientist). Giselle del Carmen (Consultant) provid- ed valuable research assistance and inputs. The note benefitted from the inputs from Alan Fuchs (Senior Economist, Poverty). INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW 1.1 PURPOSE AND SCOPE Closing the existing gender gaps will be required to boost shared prosperity and maximize poverty reduction efforts in Chile over the coming years. Gender inequities are not only unfair from an ethical and social perspective, but also econom- ically inefficient. Greater gender equality can raise overall pro- ductivity, improve development outcomes, especially of the next generation, and lead to more representative decision making.1 According to a study by Teignier and Cuberes (2016), only the long term average per capita income loss stem- ming from excluding women from labor markets amount- ed to 20.24 percent in Chile in 2010. Access to economic op- portunities by women is particularly important in the context of a rapidly unfolding demographic transition characterized by the end of the demographic dividend and population ageing in the country. This review of gender issues aims to uncover the main of such gender gaps in the country, and to identify potential policy recommendations that could help closing them in the coming years. The note is an input to the development of a Gender Action Plan for the Andean Countries under the Gender Analysis Work Program (P164267). As such the note lays out a descriptive overview of gender gaps in endowments, economic 1 World Bank 2012 9 opportunities and agency – the explanation of sentation and violence against women, time the observed situation is outside the scope of use, and attitudes towards women; Chapter 2 this note. provides an overview the situation with regards to the main endowments of health and educa- 1.2 METHODOLOGY tion; and Chapter 3 deals with the existing gen- der gaps in economic opportunity – labor force This note applies the analytical framework participation and unemployment, the quality devised by the WDR 2012 on Gender Equal- of employment, earnings, entrepreneurship ity and Development. Chapter 1 covers the and access to finance. The main sources of data legal and institutional framework and the issue used for the analysis are outlined below. of the agency of women – e.g. political repre- Sources of data for the analysis • The World Development Indicators World Bank database has been used for the sections on health and education, and access to finance. • The SEDLAC (Socio-Economic Database for Latin America and the Caribbean) database has been used for the education and labor markets section. • The ECLAC database has been used for political representation and legislation. • HHS data has been used in the sections on education and labor markets. • Business survey data has been used for the entrepreneurship section. • Vital statistics have been used for the health section. • The Labor force survey (Encuesta Nacional de Empleo) and the Encuesta suplementaria de Ingresos (Supplementary Income Survey) have been used in the labor market section. • A dedicated survey - National Time Use Survey (ENUT) – has been used in the section on time use. • Survey of micro-entrepreneurship data have been used in the section on entrepreneur- ship. • World Values Survey data (last waves) have been used in the section on gender attitudes. • Estimations from the UN have been used in the section on contraception use. Gender Gaps 10 in Chile an overview The draft review is the result of the first stage in the assessment process. The note 1.3 OVERVIEW mainly reflects an initial descriptive exercise, FINDINGS and will be revised after the completion of Chile has made significant progress over stakeholder consultations in the countries; the the last decades in the area of gender results of such consultations will not only help equality (see Figure 3). This is particularly the identify additional literature and research on case with regards to legal and institutional de- specific issues, but also help prioritize the key velopments; the progress in this area has been gender gaps to be addressed based on the way substantial especially under the mandates of discussions on the issue are currently taking Prime Minister Michelle Bachelet, who set the is- place in the country. sue of gender equality at the top of the national policy agenda. Education and health inequali- Figure 1: Key take-aways and priorities identified KEY TAKE-AWAYS AND PRIORITIES IDENTIFIED • Maternal mortality is still higher than that for same income level countries. • Teenage fertility rates are above same income level countries. • Female labor force participation is low compared to other countries in the region with much lower income levels, particularly among low income women. The low prevalence of informal work and the prevalence of traditional values and norms may explain this trend. • Women are over-represented among the unemployed, informal workers, ni-nis and in traditionally female sectors and occupations. • Gender wage gaps persist – and increase with level of education. • The political representation of women is low for regional standards. • Up-to-date official data on the incidence of gender-based violence does not exist. • Traditional social norms regarding the social role of women are very persistent. 11 Figure 2: Gender Inequality Index value 2015 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0 Uruguay Cuba Costa Rica Chile Trinidad and Tobago Mexico Saint Lucia Argentina El Salvador Peru LAC Ecuador Colombia Brazil Bolivia (Plurinational … Panama Venezuela (Bolivarian … Honduras Nicaragua Paraguay Dominican Republic Guatemala Haiti Source: UNDP 2016 ** 1 imparity, 0 parity ties have also been significantly narrowed over Yet substantial gender gaps persist in the last decades, while the attitudes towards the country (see Figures 1 and 3). Despite women and social norms related to their roles recent efforts, the legal framework for gender vis-à-vis those of men seem to be slowly mod- equality is still less advanced than that of many ernizing – based on differences between WVS LAC countries with lower levels of income. In responses in 2006 and 2011. As a result, Chile addition, improvements appear to be required performs above average in the 2015 UNDP gen- particularly in the area of access to economic der inequality index2. The country is among opportunities, including labor force participa- those with lowest gender inequality in the re- tion, employment, earnings, type of jobs, entre- gion according to the index´s ranking, only af- preneurship and access to finance. The politi- ter Uruguay, Cuba and Costa Rica (see Figure 2). cal representation of women also continues to Chile also ranks among the forty best perform- be low, and the lack of official detailed data on ing countries in this area worldwide - 38 out of gender-based violence remains an issue in the the 188 countries included in the index. country. Maternal mortality and teenage fertil- 2 The UN Gender inequality index focuses on maternal ity are still higher than those of same income mortality ratios, adolescent birth rate, share of women level countries. in parliaments, population with at least some secondary education, and labor force participation rates. Gender Gaps 12 in Chile an overview Figure 3: Main developments and persistent gender gaps in Chile CHILE STATUS OF GENDER ISSUES IN LC6 COUNTRIES ENDOWMENTS ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES AGENCY SUCCESSES AND PROGRESS • Gender gaps in life expectancy are • The gender gap in labor force participation • Chile is an international reference with regards to small vis-a-vis LAC averages. has slightly decreased over the past decade. gender mainstreaming in institutions and policies. • Maternal mortality rates are below • Decentralized institutions for gender mainstreaming LAC average • According to the existing official data the feminicide • Nearly universal access to skilled birth rate in Chile is half of that registrered on average assitance. in LAC. Since the country typified feminicide as a criminal offence (2010) the number and rate of • Gender differences in performance feminicides appears to have decreased. in mathematics, science and reading remain but have improved. NEW AND PERSISTING CHALLENGES • Contraception use is low for regional • Below 40 percent, female labor force particiap- • Some legal differences apply for women and standards. tion is low compared to that of men, and also men (husband has the roght to administer joint compared to other countries in the region with much property; kinds of jobs women can do are limited • Maternal mortality is still higher lower income levels. etc.) than for same income level coun- tries. Maternal services often not • Labor force participation lags particularly • Political representation of women is low for re- adapted to the needs and culture of among low income women. Hypotheses to explain gional standards. ethnic minorities. the low levels of FLFP include: low prevalence of • More than 1 in 3 women in Chile have experien- informal work, prevalence of traditional values and • Teenage fertility rates above same ced violence by a partner (data 2012). norms. income level countries. • Women spend twice as much time in unpaid • Women over-represented among the unemployed, • Edcuational gaps in enrolment and works as men and they spend less time in leisure informal and part-time workers, ni-nis and in completion have reversed: Women are activities. traditionally female sectors and occupations. slightly in advantage in secondary and • Traditional social norms regarding the social tertiary enrolment and in primary and • Gender wage gaps persist - increase with level of role of women are very persistent: More than 1 lower secondary completion. education - research finds they could be explained in 4 chileans believe men make better political with discrimination. • Reasons for dropping out of education leaders, and slightly less than half of Chileans are different for boys and girls: house- • The share of firms with a female top manager or agree that at times of jobs scarcity men sholuld hold responsabilities are more impor- female participation in ownership is low compa- be given priority. tant for girls while working or looking red to regional levels. for ajob is more comonly reported by • Also, women appear to have more restricted ac- men. cess to financial products including credit. 13 CHAPTER 1: LEGAL FRAMEWORK AND THE AGENCY OF WOMEN 1.1 LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR GENDER EQUALITY Although the legal and institutional framework for gender equality is quite advanced in Chile, some legal differences appear to exist between women and men in the country. Chile is part of all the most relevant international commitments and instruments in this area; in addition, it has passed national legislation for the protection and promotion of gender equality in most central spheres of life (see Annex 1). Yet based on the Women, Business and the Law 2016 report seven gender differ- ences exist in the country´s legislation. The key gap highlighted is the provision that the husband has the right to administer the joint property in the default property regime. The kinds of jobs that women can do are also restricted - women cannot legally undertake hazardous and arduous jobs, such as those that entail heavy lifting.3 Chile has been considered an international reference with regards to gender mainstreaming in institutions and 3 World Bank 2016 Gender Gaps 14 in Chile an overview policies. The integration of gender aspects tutions involved. 6 The Ministry is in charge of in the implementation of the Management the implementation of the Plans on Equality of Improvement Program4 was an important Opportunity between Women and Men 2011- achievement in this area, leading all public ser- 2020 and 2018-2030 (see Annex 1). vices to identify relevant gender issues in their Decentralized institutions for gender activities, design and implement plans to ad- mainstreaming exist in Chile. The Service dress them. The development of this model has for Women is present in all 16 regions through been fueled by high political and social support regional offices. Moreover, local offices for for gender equality and the constitution o stra- women and gender equity have expanded and tegic alliances, among other factors.5 strengthened in recent years. The objective of The Ministry of Women and Gender the municipal offices is to mainstream gender Equality is the chief institution for the pro- in all local policies, promote women´s empow- motion and protection of gender equality in erment strengthening their organizations and the country. The Ministry was created in 2015, participation, and design local initiatives for in accordance with the electoral commitments gender equity that allow the development of of Prime Minister Bachelet. The Ministry is in the physical, economic and political autonomy charge of the design, coordination and evalu- of women. ation of all policies aimed at promoting gender equality and also aims to prevent and eliminate gender-based discrimination. The National 1.2 MANIFESTATIONS Service for Women and Gender Equality within OF THE LACK OF the Ministry, which used to be the main institu- AGENCY tion with regards to gender before its creation, is in charge of implementing policies, plans and 1.2.1 Political representation programs aimed at advancing gender equality, As highlighted above, Chile is one of the while coordinating all public services and insti- few countries in the world that until recent- ly had a female Prime Minister (Michelle 4 In 1998 Chile started implementing the Management Bachelet). Michelle Bachelet governed be- Improvement Program in the public sector. Under this tween 2006 and 2010 and was again reelected program, the performance of public sector departments is measured against five criteria and rewarded according in 2014 until March 11 2018. Her Governments to each department’s ability to meet such criteria. The criteria comprise targets in the areas of: (i) human resource marked an increase in the number of women management; (ii) client orientation; (iii) territory manage- elected and appointed at the highest levels. ment; (iv) financial management; and (v) planning and management control. 5 World Bank 2007 6 http://www.minmujeryeg.cl/sernameg/mision/ 15 Figure 3: National representation of women (%) % of women in parliament % of women ministers 100 60 40 50 20 0 0 1997 1998 2002 2005 2009 2013 2017 I II III Chile LAC Men Women Source: ECLAC **I:2005-2009, II:2009-2013, II:2013-2017 A minimum quota of 40 percent of women in about twice that registered in the country. This candidate´s lists for national elections was ad- low level of effective representation may be re- opted in 2015. Quotas generally strengthen the lated to the lack of zipper systems of alternate position of women in political parties, increase female-male candidates in lists. the number of capable, educated women with The percentage of women appoint- the necessary professional experience in the ed as ministers substantially decreased field of politics and management of states and from 2005-2009 to 2009-2013, and then have a symbolic function in terms of women’s increased again in 2013-2017, coinciding political participation.7 with the re-election of Michelle Bachelet, However, and despite these advance- to around 40 percent (see Figure 3). The ments, the share of women represented in difference in the representation of men and Parliament in Chile remains low compared women among ministers was the smallest in to the LAC average. As shown in Figure 3 (left- mandate I, while the percentage of men was hand graph) below, the percentage of female three times that of women in mandate II, when legislators has been increasing gradually in LAC women only accounted for about 20 percent of as a whole since the late 1990s. Yet in Chile, the the total ministerial positions. In 2013-2017 the increase has stalled around 15 percent women share of women ministers grew again to around members of parliament. Hence, female repre- 39 percent, but still remains much below that sentation in LAC parliaments on average was of men (around 20 percentage point’s lower share of women than men ministers). 7 Poskočilová 2015 Gender Gaps 16 in Chile an overview Figure 4: Local representation of women (%) % of women mayors % of women local councilors 30 80 60 20 40 10 20 0 0 1998 2001 2005 2009 2012 2016 1998 2001 2005 2009 2012 2016 Chile LAC Chile LAC Source: ECLAC The local representation of women and 1.2.2 Violence against women their presence in top judiciary bodies in Femicide8 is a concerning phenomenon in Chile is more or less at pair with the LAC av- all LAC countries. An escalating number of erage. The percentage of women mayors has violent female homicides committed by men kept almost constant in Chile since 1998; this in the last two decades have compelled Latin share has been above that observed in LAC on American countries to adopt specific measures average until 2016, the first year where Chile has to curtail this phenomenon, especially after the lagged behind (see Figure 4, left-hand side). In Convention of Belém do Pará, such as the in- the case of women in local councilor positions, clusion of “femicide” as a specific aggravated the share has been similar to that observed in crime in countries’ legislation. Despite the dif- the rest of the region for much of the period ficulties in measuring and comparing the inci- between 1998 and today, and only higher – at dence of these types of crimes across countries, around 33 percent – since 2016 (see Figure 4, related to the lack of capacity, under-reporting, right-hand side). The share of women in top ju- etc., the region appears to have one of the high- diciary bodies in Chile has grown up to 2012 to est rates of femicide in the world. then decrease to below LAC average levels. Femicide is a persistent phenomenon also in Chile, although the rate of cases is low for regional standards. Notwithstanding 8 Femicide is generally understood to involve the in- tentional murder of women because of their sex, and most usually by their current or former partners. 17 Figure 5: Number and rate (per each 100,000 women) of femicides 2010-2016 Number Rate 0,6 49 45 40 40 40 0,5 34 34 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Source: Ministry of Women the general lack of comparable and accurate ner or a family member. The National Service information on the incidence of femicide, the for Women offers some additional data from phenomenon is being observed in most coun- 2010 and focusing on young age women and tries in the region including Chile. According men: 25.1 percent of women in the age group to the existing official data the femicide rate in 25-29, for instance, suffered physical violence Chile, at around 0.4 in 2016, is half of that reg- by a partner in 2010, 12.2 percent experienced istered on average in LAC (0.8)9. The country psychological violence and 1 percent sexual typified femicide as a criminal offence in 2010. violence. Psychological violence appears to be Since then the number and rate of femicides more common among women with only basic appears to have decreased (see Figure 5). levels of education and from the lowest income The lack of up-to-date readily available quintiles.10 It must be however noted that ob- official data on violence against women – taining accurate and comparable data on the other than femicides – in Chile is notewor- incidence of gender based violence remains a thy. The latest – and only – data available on major challenge across countries; the figures this phenomenon from both the INE and Minis- usually collected through surveys or adminis- try websites is from 2012: In that year, 35.1 per- trative records do not provide an exact picture cent of women declared having experienced of the situation due to for instance problems of an episode of violence (in any form) by a part- under-reporting. Other sources offer some general- 9 ECLAC - however, comparability of this data remains ques- ly patchy and out-of-date information. A tionable given the potential differences in capacity and efforts to register and monitor these murders as femicides. 10 http://estudios.sernam.cl/?m=s&rel=6 Gender Gaps 18 in Chile an overview PAHO report from 2013 provides data based on 1.2.3 Attitudes towards police records; according to it, the number of cases of violence by a partner reported to the women police increased from 79.497 in 2004 to 97.524 The World Values Survey 2014 responses in 2011.This increase may be a reflection of en- on questions related to gender attitudes hanced trust of women in institutions such as indicate the persistence of traditional so- the police. However, the share of cases that cial norms with regards to the social role of ended in a condemnatory sentence was very women vis-à-vis men (see Figure 6). In 2011, low, especially when compared to other types only 57.2 percent of respondents disagreed of crimes – 8.8 percent of these kind of cases with the statement that at times of jobs scarcity ended in condemnatory sentence compared to men should be given priority, 27 percent con- 13.7 percent of cases related to other crimes in sidered that men make better political leaders 2011.11 Media reports indicate that in 2016 the than women, and 43.3 percent find abortion number of cases of intra-family violence taken never justifiable. to the police reached 93,545; 72.172 of them However, there has been some positive were reported by women. Only 10 percent of progress. In the previous (2006) round of the these cases ended in sentence. According to the survey, for instance, the share of respondents National Service for Women and Gender Equal- disagreeing with the statement that men ity12, it takes women victims on average 7 years should be given priority over women at times to go to the police, largely due to fear of the of job scarcity was even lower: 46.1 percent. consequences, the lack of immediate support, Similarly, 46.5 of respondents agreed with the economic dependency, and, in many instanc- statement that men make better political lead- es, the difficulty to identify maltreatment given ers than women, and 57.7 percent found abor- the social normalization of such situations.13 tion never justifiable. In addition, the share of participants that found divorce never justifiable has declined from around 20 to 9 percent be- tween the two survey waves. 11 PAHO 2013 12 See section on institutions. 13 http://www.eldinamo.cl/nacional/2017/07/04/las-cifras- negras-de-la-violencia-de-genero-en-chile/ 19 Figure 6: World Values Survey responses on gender attitudes 2014 – sixth and fifth waves (2011 and 2006) When jobs are scarce, men should When jobs are scarce, men should have more right to a job than women - 2006 have more right to a job than women - 2011 46,10% 57,2% 30% 23,40% 23,6% 17,6% 0,40% 1,6% Agree Neither Disagree Don’t know Agree Neither Disagree Dton’t know If a woman earns more Having a job is the best When a mother works for money than her husband, way for a woman to be pay, the children suffer -2011 it's almost certain to an independent person - 2011 cause problems - 2011 41,1% 33,7% 71,6% 30,0% 32,5% 28,3% 15,5% 18,1% 9,9% 7,7% 0,7% 3,1% 0,5% 2,5% 0,7% 4,1% Agree Neither Disagree No answer Don’t know Agree Neither Disagree No answer Don’t know Agree strongly Agree Disagree Strongly disagree No answer Don’t know On the whole, men make better On the whole, men make better political leaders than women do - 2006 political leaders than women do - 2011 32,5% 37,2% 29,9% 31,5% 16,6% 15,4% 18,7% 8,3% 5,1% 4,2% 0,4% 0,1% Agree Agree Disagree Strongly No Don’t Agree Agree Disagree Strongly No Don’t strongly disagree answer know strongly disagree answer know A university education is more A university education is more important for a boy than for a girl - 2006 important for a boy than for a girl - 2011 39,3% 39,8% 36,4% Gender Gaps 20 25,6% in Chile an overview 18,8% 13,7% 14,5% 5,6% 2,4% 3,2% 0,1% 0,5% Agree Agree Disagree Strongly No Don’t Agree Agree Disagree Strongly No Don’t strongly disagree answer know strongly disagree answer know A university education is more A university education is more important for a boy than for a girl - 2006 important for a boy than for a girl - 2011 39,3% 39,8% 36,4% 25,6% 18,8% 13,7% 14,5% 5,6% 2,4% 3,2% 0,1% 0,5% Agree Agree Disagree Strongly No Don’t Agree Agree Disagree Strongly No Don’t strongly disagree answer know strongly disagree answer know On the whole, men make better On the whole, men make better business executives than women do - 2006 business executives than women do - 2011 37,9% 39,9% 35,8% 22,8% 22,3% 14,7% 10,6% 6,1% 6,0% 3,6% 0,4% 1,4% Agree Agree Disagree Strongly No Don’t Agree Agree Disagree Strongly No Don’t strongly disagree answer know strongly disagree answer know Being a housewife is just as fulfilling as Being a housewife is just as fulfilling working for pay - 2006 as working for pay - 2011 30,5% 30,4% 29,4% 27,7% 23,3% 21,4% 12,1% 12,8% 7,4% 3,5% 1,3% 0,2% Agree Agree Disagree Strongly No Don’t Agree Agree Disagree Strongly No Don’t strongly disagree answer know strongly disagree answer know Justifiable: abortion - 2006 Justifiable: Abortion - 2011 43,3% 20,4% 19,4% 14,2% 9,9% 9,4% 8,6% 7,8% 11,5% 9,1% 7,9% 21 6,2% 3,2% 2,4% 5,6% 2,0% 2,3% 3,8% 3,6% 3,5% 3,4% 0,6% 1,3% 0,8% Never justifiable 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Always justifiable No answer Don´t know Never justifiable 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Always justifiable No answer Don´t know 22 Never justifiable Never justifiable 20,4% 20,4% Never justifiable 2 87,0% 2 2,4% 2,4% 2 5,0% 3 2,0% 3 2,0% 3 2,3% 4 4 2,3% 2,3% 4 0,6% 5 5 14,2% 5 0,8% 14,2% 6 8,6% 6 8,6% 6 0,2% 7 7 7,8% 7,8% 7 0,3% 8 8 9,9% 9,9% 8 0,1% Justifiable: divorce - 2006 9 Justifiable: abortion - 2006 9 9,4% 9,4% 9 0,5% Always justifiable Always justifiable 19,4% Justifiable: for a man to beat his wife - 2006 Always justifiable 19,4% 1,7% No answer 0,6% No answer 0,6% No answer 0,4% Don´t know 3,2% Don´t know 3,2% Don´t know 1,0% Never justifiable Never justifiable Source: WVS Never justifiable 9,4% 86,6% 43,3% 2 5,9% 2 1,9% 2 9,1% 3 1,6% 3 2,9% 3 7,9% 4 1,2% 4 3,0% 4 6,2% 5 1,2% 5 5 11,5% 6 0,3% 6 7,3% 6 3,6% 8 0,1% 7 8,6% 7 3,5% 9 0,6% 8 11,9% 8 3,4% Justifiable: divorce - 2011 9 12,9% 9 1,3% Justifiable: Abortion - 2011 Always justifiable 0,5% No answer 0,3% Always justifiable Always justifiable 5,6% 25,5% Justifiable: for a man to beat his wife - 2011 Don´t know No answer 1,3% No answer 0,8% 1,7% Don´t know 3,4% Don´t know 3,8% in Chile an overview Gender Gaps CHAPTER 2: ENDOWMENTS 2.1 HEALTH 2.1.1 Life expectancy, mortality and morbidity Life expectancy is higher for women than men in Chile, and has been increasing steadily since 1980 for both groups; mortality rates are correspondingly higher among men than women. Women live around 5 years more than men on av- erage in Chile, compared to 7 years in LAC. Both female and male life expectancies in Chile (around 82 and 77 years respectively in 2015) are higher than the LAC average (77 and 72). Both the fe- male and male mortality rates in Chile are much lower than the LAC average. Mortality rates for both men and women have been decreasing over the last two decades. The main cause of death for both women and men are circulatory illnesses followed by cancer; external causes are much more frequent among men than women (in 2015, 10.8 percent of men compared to 4 per- cent of women died due to an external cause). 14 Chile shows high rates of mental problems and obesity, especially among women. Chile is the number one country in LAC in incidence of mental health problems according to some sources.15However, this could likely be an effect of the efforts to 14 INE – Ministry of Women 15 http://www.hispantv.com/noticias/chile/255388/chile-mayor-incidencia-enfer- medades-mentales-latinoamerica 23 Figure 7: Fertility rate, total Figure 8: Maternal mortality (births per woman) rate (per 100,000 women), modeled estimate 5 160 4 140 120 3 100 2 80 60 1 40 0 20 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 0 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Chile LAC HIC Chile LAC HIC Source: WDI Source: WDI measure the incidence of these types of con- among high income countries (HIC). This evo- ditions in Chile, as in many other countries in lution explains the ongoing changes in the age the region monitoring is probably scarcer. The structure of the population, marked by ageing, prevalence of mental health problems such as and is related to the shift in life-styles and val- depression is much higher among women than ues in the Chilean society leading to the post- men (26.3 percent compared to 9.1 percent in ponement in the average age of marriage and 2016 in the case of depression). In addition, a first birth. Chile is one of the countries in LAC recent PAHO/ FAO report16 indicates that the where the demographic transition is most ad- level of obesity among Chilean women reaches vanced. 32.8 percent, above all the rest of LAC countries. 2.1.3 Maternal mortality and 2.1.2 Fertility trends access to health services The fertility rate in Chile, which is low- Maternal and infant mortality rates in Chile er than that registered on average for the are low for regional standards, although LAC region, has decreased from 2.8 births they remain above the average for same per woman in 1980 to 1.8 in 2015 (see Fig- income level countries. Maternal mortality ure 7). Fertility rates in Chile are therefore below rates in Chile amounted to 22 deaths per 1,000 replacement levels, and close to the average births in 2015 compared to 67 in LAC on aver- 16 PAHO/FAO 2017 age, and only 10 among HICs (see Figure 8). Gender Gaps 24 in Chile an overview Infant mortality rates in Chile (6.7 and 7.9 per nority women – specifically the Aymara wom- 1,000 live births for girls and boys respectively) en in Putre – there are still gaps in its provision are almost half of those observed for the region and execution, especially with regards to birth. (13.7 and 16.8 respectively). Maternal and infant Among the study participants there was a 64 mortality rates have decreased since the 1990s. percent preference for home births to hospital The reduction in maternal and infant births, although many also mentioned that the mortality is likely to be associated with the hospital offered safer and more hygienic care increase in access to maternal health ser- in case of complications. Women reported the vices. The share of births attended by skilled need for more midwifery attention in hospitals staff in Chile is for instance close to 100 per- and more respect and patience in the care they cent.17 However, a recent study suggests that receive from doctors.19 Midwifes appear to play while the infrastructure is present to provide a key role in the delivery of maternal services in ethnically competent services18 to ethnic mi- Chile. 20 21 The role of midwives for maternal care Midwives have had a major presence in the Chilean Health System since 1834, just a few years after the country’s independence from Spain. Since then, the professionalization and expertise achieved by professional midwives has resulted in considerable improvement in women’s sexual and reproductive health. Today midwives take care of virtually all deliveries in the public system, in both rural and urban women’s health care units (99.8%). Midwives not only participate in the care of the women and newborns, but also in the design of public policies, in ministries, the Congress, governmental and non-governmental institutions, pub- lic and private agencies, and the International Confederation of Midwives.21 17 WDI 18 Indigenous communities have their own practices that complicate the provision of sexual and reproductive 19 Schnyer 2014 health by requiring health care providers to be aware of two different worldviews and how they may conflict, as 20 Lilo et al. 2016 well as what is necessary to provide respectful care. 21 Lilo et al. 2016 25 Figure 9: Contraceptive use prevalence estimations 2015 100 80 60 40 20 0 Guatemala Panama Argentina Bolivia Chile Venezuela El Salvador Ecuador Mexico LAC Honduras Peru Uruguay Paraguay Colombia Costa Rica Brazil Nicaragua Any method Modern method Unmet demand for family planning Source: UN 201522 2.1.4 Contraceptive use and For instance, abortion has been totally crimi- nalized until only recently (2017), when it was teenage pregnancy 22 allowed in pregnancies of less than 12 weeks The use of contraception appears to be when there is risk to the mother, the fetus pres- low for regional standards, especially ents any malformations, or the pregnancy is the when considering Chile´s level of income result of a rape. In 2008 the Constitutional Court (see Figure 9). No up-to-date official data are prohibited the use of emergency contraception available on the use of contraceptives in Chile. even in cases of sexual violence. In 2010 a new Chile´s policies on sexual and reproductive law on “Information, Guidance and Assistance rights have traditionally been quite restrictive. on Fertility Regulation” was passed, allowing its 22 This report presents a concise, descriptive analysis of use; however, the contradiction between the le- levels and trends in key family planning indicators from gal provision and the Court´s sentence has led Model-based Estimates and Projections of Family Planning Indicators 2015 and the data set World Contraceptive Use to significant barriers to its use.23 The 2012 Sur- 2015, representing 195 countries or areas. The Population vey on Youth revealed that around 87 percent of Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat provides regular updates of the estimates and projections of family planning indicators as part of its contribution to global monitoring 23 https://www.reproductiverights.org/sites/crr.civicac- of progress on internationally-agreed targets to achieve tions.net/files/documents/Submission_Brief_Chile_CE- universal access to sexual and reproductive health. SCR_55th_Session.pdf Gender Gaps 26 in Chile an overview young people used contraception, which repre- sented an increase of 18 percent since 2009.24 Figure 10: Adolescent fertility rate (births per each 1,000 The adolescent fertility rate has de- women ages 15-19) creased significantly since the 1980s - re- 100 maining significantly below the average for LAC (see Figure 10). Compared to other coun- 80 tries in the region, where teenage pregnancy 60 rates are much higher and concerning, adoles- 40 cent fertility rates are relatively lower in Chile (47 20 births per 1,000 women ages 15-19 compared 0 to around 64 in LAC on average in 2015). At the 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Chile LAC HIC same time, the rate is still significantly above the one on average for same income level coun- Source: WDI tries (13.4 births per 1,000 women ages 15-19 in 2015). The share of births of teenage mothers in 2015 was twice that registered among teenage cent motherhood in these areas have dimin- fathers: 10.7 and 4.5 percent respectively. Most ished over the period.26 teenage births correspond to parents between 15 and 18 years old. 25 2.2 EDUCATION The effects of teenage pregnancy are multiple in Chile. A recent study found that 2.2.1 Gender gaps in adolescent motherhood has negative effects enrolment on educational outcomes (high school comple- There are no gender gaps with regards to tion, enrollment in technical institutes and uni- access to primary education in Chile, while versities, and years of education) and on labor gender gaps to the advantage of girls can outcomes of non-poor women. Childbearing be observed at the secondary and tertiary in early adolescence is associated with poorer levels. Over 99 percent of both girls and boys outcomes in education and labor markets in were enrolled in primary education in 2015. Chile; however, the adverse effects of adoles- However, net enrolment rates are higher at the secondary level among women than men (See Figure 11, left-hand graph). With regards to the 24 http://www.emol.com/noticias/nacion- al/2013/04/08/592409/estudio-revela-que-el-uso-de-anti- tertiary level a growing and large gap can also conceptivos-en-jovenes-aumento-a-875-en-2012.html 25 INE 2017c 26 Berthelon et al. 2016 27 Figure 11: Secondary and tertiary education enrolment rates, net 100 45 90 40 80 35 70 30 60 25 50 20 40 15 30 10 20 10 5 0 0 1987 1990 1992 1996 1998 2000 2003 2006 2009 2011 2013 2015 1987 1990 1992 1996 1998 2000 2003 2006 2009 2011 2013 2015 Female Male Female Male Source: SEDLAC be observed to the advantage of women (See attained tend to be higher among urban male Figure 11, right-hand graph). and female students than in rural areas29, and also among non-ethnic minority populations.30 2.2.2 Attainment and Gender differences in performance ex- performance ist, although they have decreased in math- Completion rates at the primary and lower ematics and reading. According to 2015 PISA secondary levels are slightly higher among results, gender gaps in performance in mathe- women than men. In 2015 96.1 of girls com- matics, science and reading remain; however, pleted primary education compared to only there has been a significant improvement in 94.3 percent of boys.27 At the lower secondary mathematics results among girls and in read- level 94.3 percent of female students completed ing results among boys between 2009 and 2015, their education compared to only 92.9 percent leading to smaller gender gaps in both areas.31 of males.28 The total average years of education of women 18-30 amounts to 12.74 compared to 12.47 among men. The years of education 29 SEDLAC 27 SEDLAC 30 HHS 28 WDI 31 OECD 2015 Gender Gaps 28 in Chile an overview Figure 12: Reasons not to be enrolled in education (basic and higher) 2016 100% Other 80% Working or looking for a job Economic difficulty 60% Pregnancy 40% Not interested 20% Helps at home 0% Done studying Female Male Source: HHS 2.2.3 Factors that explain economic problems and work were also import- ant, but still a large 7 and 13 percent stated that differences in completion the main reason for their dropout was helping The reasons for both boys and girls not to at home and pregnancy, respectively. Around 45 be in school are different. The main reasons percent more men than women cited working not to be enrolled in education for boys in Chile or being looking for a job as a reason for drop- in 2016 – other than having finished studies - ping out of education (See Figure 12). were work and economic problems; for girls, 29 CHAPTER 3: ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES 3.1 LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION The gender gap in labor force participation remains com- paratively high. The gap in labor force participation between men and women in Chile has slightly decreased over the last de- cade. Female labor force participation was slightly below 40 per- cent compared to male labor force participation rates of over 55 percent in 2015 (See Figure 13, left-hand graph). However, both these rates are low for regional standards, especially when con- sidering Chile´s level of income (see Figure 13, right-hand graph). Different factors appear to be associated with female labor force participation in Chile. Family structure and caring for children seems to be a key factor related to the traditional division of labor in the household. The difference in participation in the labor market between men and women is largest among those married, and it also tends to be higher when there are no children (see Figure 14). With regards to age groups, the gender gap is lower among the 15-24 year olds, although the LFP among men is also much lower in that group. Gender gaps in labor force participation are larger among women living in female headed households as compared to those living in households headed my men; the opposite can be observed for males. 32 32 HHS Gender Gaps 30 in Chile an overview Figure 13: Labor force participation in Chile (2015), % 80% 120 70% 100 80 60% 60 50% 40 40% 20 30% 0 Guatemala (2014) Honduras Mexico (2014) Dominican Rep. El Salvador Costa Rica Nicaragua (2014) Chile Argentina Ecuador Brazil (with Rural north) Panama Bolivia Paraguay Colombia Uruguay Peru 20% 10% 0% 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2003 2006 2009 2011 2013 2015 Female Male Female Male Source: HHS Figure 14: Labor force participation by civil status and children 90 With Male 80 children 70 6+ Female 60 With Male 50 children 40 3-6 Female 30 With Male 20 children 0-3 Female 10 0 Without Male Female Male Female Male children Female Not married Married 0 20 40 60 80 Source: HHS 31 Labor force participation lags particu- nomic impact, both by reducing real output larly behind among low income women. and productivity; the inclusion of women in the The labor force participation rate of 25-65 years labor market is particularly relevant in the cur- old women in 2015 was 55.1 percent among rent stage of the demographic transition, and the non-poor compared to 34.9 percent among as the ratio of dependents to working age pop- the poor.33 Previous studies also indicated that ulation increases. Policies that promote flexible labor market participation tended to be low- working arrangements, improving the availabil- er among lower-income women, and that the ity of quality childcare close to the employee´s difference by income level in female wage em- worksite, or encouraging the uptake of paterni- ployment was comparatively very high in Chile. ty leave, will be necessary to remove barriers to These differences are likely to be a reflection of women´s participation. 36 women´s different levels of human capital and It must also be noted that Chile has one labor market opportunities. 34 of the most generous maternity policies in Different hypothesis exist to explain the the region. In 2011, maternity leave was ex- low level of female labor force participa- tended from three to six months. Most women tion in Chile as compared to other coun- feared that this would lead to gender discrimi- tries. One is related to the lower prevalence of nation in hiring, but there is no evidence of such informal work in the country, which seems to negative impact to date. A 2013 study showed generally attract more women given more flex- that among women who became pregnant in ible schedules and location; another has to do 2011 around 70 percent subsequently returned with the prevalence of traditional values and to work.37 Similarly, and according to Chilean norms potentially outweighing the benefits of law, companies with 20 or more women work- education in this area; a third hypothesis is as- ers of any age and marital status must provide sociated with the large coverage of poverty al- nearby spaces separate from the workplace in leviation programs in Chile. 35 which they can feed children under the age of 2 In order to prevent the economic loss and leave them in care while on the job. entailed by persisting low levels of female labor force participation policies going 3.2 UNEMPLOYMENT beyond employment incentives will be Unemployment rates have been substan- required. The low level of female labor force tially higher among women than men participation in Chile is having a negative eco- since the 1990s. Women´s unemployment 33 World Bank 2017 34 World Bank 2007 36 World Bank 2017 35 World Bank 2007 37 IDB 2013 Gender Gaps 32 in Chile an overview Figure 15: Share of women and men who are neither in work nor studying (ni-nis) 15-18 years old 19-24 years old 30% 60% 25% 20% 40% 15% 10% 20% 5% 0% 0% 1990 1992 1996 1998 2000 2003 2006 2009 2011 2013 2015 1990 1992 1996 1998 2000 2003 2006 2009 2011 2013 2015 Female Male Female Male Source: HHS reached 7.5 percent of the total female labor in 2015 compared to only 16.2 percent among force in 2017 compared to 6.4 percent among men in the same age group (see Figure 15). men. The gap between men and women is smaller than the average gap in LAC but larger than the one observed in HICs. The gender gap 3.3 QUALITY OF in unemployment rates is larger among youth: EMPLOYMENT In 2015, 21.6 percent of young women (15-24 Women and men tend to concentrate in dif- years old) were unemployed compared to only ferent types of jobs. As shown in Figure 16, 18.2 percent of young men. Chilean women are overrepresented among Women are also disproportionately rep- household service and unpaid family workers. resented among the ni-nis. Although the While 64.8 percent of men are waged employ- share of young people who are neither in work ees in the private sector, and 5.3 percent are nor studying has declined substantially since employers, the share among women decreas- the 1990s, and despite the fact that gender dif- es to 50.6 and 2.3 percent respectively; on the ferences seem to have diminished over time, other hand, 1.9 percent of women are unpaid the gap between men and women persists, es- family workers and 8.9 percent are in house- pecially at older ages. Indeed, 26.5 percent of hold services compared to 0.7 and 0.2 percent women 19-24 years old were in this situation among men, respectively.38 38 INE 2017d 33 Figure 16: Types of employment, share of men and women in total, 2016 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Employer Self-employed Waged Waged Houshold Unpaid family employee, employee, public service worker private sector sector Men Women Source: Calculations based on data of the Nueva Encuesta Nacional de Empleo (new national employment survey) 2015 Women are also more frequently found in informal39 jobs than men, and appear Figure 17: Informality40 (share to work fewer hours.40Although the share of of workers in informal jobs) workers in informal jobs has been decreasing 60 since the 1990s, the gender gap is persistent. In 2015, 34.2 of women compared to 26.6 percent 50 of men were engaged in such type of jobs (See 40 Figure 17). Gender differences also exist with re- 30 20 39 It basically includes all jobs in unregistered and/or small- 10 scale private unincorporated enterprises that produce goods or services meant for sale or barter. Self-employed 0 street vendors, taxi drivers and home-base workers, regard- 1990 1992 1996 1998 2000 2003 2006 2009 2011 2013 2015 less of size, are all considered enterprises. However, agricul- tural and related activities, households producing goods exclusively for their own use (e.g. subsistence farming, Female Male domestic housework, care work, and employment of paid domestic workers), and volunteer services rendered to the community are excluded in the data used for the analysis. Source: SEDLAC 40 SEDLAC productive definition: An individual is considered an informal worker if (s)he belongs to any of the following categories: (i) unskilled self-employed, (ii) salaried worker in a small private firm, (iii) zero-income worker. Gender Gaps 34 in Chile an overview Figure 18: Share of women and men by activity/occupation 2015 100% Other 90% Arts 80% Health Education 70% Public administration 60% Scientific, professional and technical activities 50% Real estate Finance and insurance 40% Information and communication 30% Hotel and restaurant services Transport 20% Trade 10% Construction 0% Manufacturing Male Female Source: Calculations based on data of the Nueva Encuesta Nacional de Empleo (new national employment survey) 2015 gards to the amount of working hours. In 2015, resented in the category of employers in oc- women worked an average of 40 hours com- cupations such as trade. Gender occupational pared to 44.3 among men. segregation can have multiple negative effects Women tend to concentrate in certain including contributing to the lack of mobility in occupations and sectors. As represented in labor markets, limited female labor force par- Figure 18 below, a larger share of women are ticipation, affecting the educational decisions engaged in trade, education and health activ- of parents, or perpetuating traditional gender ities, hotel and restaurant services and house- roles.41 hold work (majority of the ¨other¨ category), Moreover, there are differences between whereas men are more present in activities the working conditions of men and women and occupations related to agriculture, min- in the same occupations. More women than ing, transport, construction and manufactur- men are self-employed in the manufacturing ing. Women also tend to be over-represented sector, and they tend to work in smaller size among unpaid family workers and under-rep- 41 World Bank 2007 35 Figure 19: Number of female/male managers 250.000 150.000 200.000 100.000 150.000 50.000 100.000 - Owner Shareholder Owner Shareholder Owner Shareholder 50.000 - 2009 2013 2015 2009 2013 2015 Men Women Men Women Source: INE – Business Survey44 companies than men. Women also are more fre- lower than that of firms headed by a man. The quently found than men working under 30 hours same trend can be observed with regards to per week –part-time jobs. In the categories of ownership. Companies with male owners and education and trade men are disproportionate- shareholders clearly outnumber those with ly represented among those who have not the female participation in ownership (see Figure minimum working conditions, whereas this is 19, right-hand graph). Around 45 percent of the the case for women in manufacturing, hotel and companies managed by women were in trade restaurant services and household work. 42 compared to 30 percent among those man- aged by men. Male managers are more present 3.4 than female ones in agricultural and construc- tion businesses. Stereotypical perceptions of ENTREPRENEURSHIP women as managers exist both among men AND ACCESS TO and women in Chile.43 44 FINANCE There are many more men entrepre- neurs than women in Chile. In 2015, only 38.1 The management and ownership of compa- percent of the total number of registered entre- nies is mostly in the hands of men. As shown preneurs was female. In addition, most female in Figure 19 (left-hand graph), the number of companies led by female managers is much 43 Javalgi, R.G. et al. 2011 44 Biannual survey exploring the characteristics of business- 42 INE 2016a es in Chile Gender Gaps 36 in Chile an overview entrepreneurs are earning smaller amounts per month than male entrepreneurs (64.2 percent Figure 20: Female/male with an of the entrepreneurial projects in the lowest account at a financial institution earnings category - up to $225.000 per month - 80 belonged to women). For both groups the main reason to start their own business was necessity 60 and the second the identification of an opportu- 40 nity. Women´s projects tend to concentrate in 20 social areas, trade, manufacturing and services; whereas men´s businesses concentrate in real 0 estate, construction, transport and primary sec- 2011 2014 Female Male tor activities. A majority of women work from home, while men prefer to work in other prem- Source: WDI ises. Women´s businesses also tend to be more informal, and to generate less employment. 45 Different factors, including access to fi- The share of both men and women with nancial products, could account for this accounts at a financial institution remains trend. A recent study in Chile highlights the in- much lower than the LAC average (See Fig- fluence of informal factors on male and female ure 20). As an indication of the more limited entrepreneur as perceptions of entrepreneur- access of women to financial products in Chile, ial capabilities and networking. Additionally, and although the percentage of women with an being a student was found to have a negative account in a financial institution has increased effect on both genders, while family role has a between 2011 and 2014, the gender gap in this negative effect on the probability for women to regard has widened and is larger than the aver- undertake.46 Access to finance may be another age gap in LAC. determinant aspect. A majority of women´s entrepreneurs that used a loan to start their businesses in 2015 turned to family or friends 3.5 TIME USE A majority of unpaid work in Chile is car- for it (50.4 percent); only 19 percent had a loan ried out by women. The number of hours of from a financial institution compared to 44.6 unpaid working time per week among women percent of men. 47 is over twice that of men (see Figure 21). This 45 INE 2016b gap exists across all age groups, although the 46 Fernández-Robin 2017 difference is largest among those between 25- 47 INE 2016b 37 Figure 21: Unpaid working time 2015 per week (population 12+ years old) 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Women Men Women Men Women Men Total working time Paid work time Unpaid work time Source: Time use survey 2015 45 years old. As a result, the total time burden is about 8 hours and 22 minutes higher for women Figure 22: Labor income than men per week. In addition, women tend to (hourly wages in nominal LCU) report fewer hours of time dedicated to leisure 3.500 activities, and to be more dissatisfied with the 3.000 quality of such time than men.48 2.500 3.6 EARNINGS 2.000 1.500 The large gender gap in earnings (hour- 1.000 ly wages) has been increasing over time. 500 In 2015 women made around 17 percent less 0 than men in hourly wages, compared to 13.6 2000 2003 2006 2009 2011 2013 2015 percentage points less in 2006 (See Figure 22). Female Male In contrast, in most OECD countries the gender gaps in wages remained unchanged or were Source: SEDLAC narrowed over the same period of time.49 Much of this gap could be related to dis- crimination. Different studies have attempted 48 INE 2017b 49 World Bank 2017 Gender Gaps 38 in Chile an overview Figure 23: Gender gaps in earnings depending on educational level and type of job 2016 By educational level By type of occupation 2500 1600 1400 2000 1200 1500 1000 800 1000 600 400 500 200 0 0 Primary Secondary Technical University Post-graduate Employer Self-employed Waged Household... Women Men Women Men Source: Encuesta Suplementaria de Ingresos 2016 to quantify the wage gender gap in Chile and to self-employed workers (41.2 percent), and in identify the factors that determine it. According the primary sector (45 percent) (see Figure 23). to them, there is a large share of the gap that By occupational group, some of the main gaps is not explained by differences in experience or are observed in officials, operators and artisans education, and therefore could be associated (61.9 percent), agricultural workers (41 percent) with unobservable aspects such as discrimina- and government officials and directive staff tory practices. In addition, traditionally female (40.6 percent); and by age group, the largest jobs are usually associated with lower salaries gap exists in the 45-54 years old group. 51 than those that are considered more typical of The generally lower quality of jobs held men.50 by women leads to substantial differences Certain characteristics, sectors or oc- in pension entitlements. The replacement cupations appear to be associated with rate in retirement pension remuneration is 51 larger gender gaps in earnings. The gender percent for women compared with 70 percent gap was for instance larger for those workers for men.52 with post-graduate education (42.4 percent in 2016), among employers (39.7 percent) and 51 INE 2017a 50 World Bank 2007, World Bank 2017 52 World Bank 2017 39 CONCLUSIONS Key messages: • Chile has made important progress in this area over time. The country has put into place a comprehensive institutional and legal framework for gender equality, and became an interna- tional reference in gender mainstreaming in institutions and policies. Educational gaps have been closed, while maternal health outcomes and access to maternal services have im- proved substantially over time. • However, the country still lags behind other regional or same income peers in important issues. First, the representation of women in political institutions remains low even compared with countries with much lower income levels. There are also important gender gaps in legislation, such as the provision that the husband has the right to administer the joint proper- ty. The possibility of using emergency contraceptive in cases of sexual violence remains also unclear. Up-to-date official data on the incidence of gender-based violence does not exist. However, the existing data indicate that this problem has important dimensions in the country. Maternal mortality and teenage pregnancy are also still higher than same inco- me level countries. • The female labor force participation rate in Chile is very low, even when compared with other Andean countries with much lower income levels. Moreover, women are disproportionately represented in low quality jobs, unemployment and in certain ¨female¨ sectors and occupations. In addition, a larger share of women than men are out of school and out of work, and wide wage gaps persist in the country. Women are also un- Gender Gaps 40 in Chile an overview der-represented among firm managers and • There is also a striking lack of official data owners, and have limited access to financial on the prevalence of different forms of vio- products such as credit, and they continue lence against women that would need to to bear the brunt of unpaid domestic work. be addressed in the future to attain a better Knowledge gaps: knowledge of what the current trends are in the country. • It would be particularly important in the Chi- lean context to understand what the drivers • It would also be interesting to analyze what of the comparatively low female labor force is preventing women from accessing deci- participation rates and the disproportionate sion making positions both in political insti- representation of women in low quality jobs tutions and companies, as well as what are are. More specifically, the association with the main obstacles for female entrepreneur- prevailing patriarchal social norms should ship in the country. be explored. 41 References Berthelon, M. et al. (2016). Does adolescent motherhood af- fect education and labor market outcomes of mothers? A study on young adult women in Chile during 1990–2013. International Journal of Public Health March 2017, Volume 62, Issue 2, pp 293–303. Fernández-Robin, C. (2017). Entrepreneurial constraints on women in Chile: an empirical approach. Dimensión Em- presarial, 15(2), 57-72. IDB (2013). II Encuesta Nacional sobre Mujer y Trabajo en Chile. IDB, Comunidad Mujer. INE (2016a). Segmentación horizontal del mercado del trabajo. Caracterización de la ocupación por sexo. INE (2016b). Género y emprendimiento. INE (2017a). Género e ingresos 2016. INE (2017b). Satisfacción con el tiempo libre. INE (2017c). Estadísticas vitales sobre maternidad y paternidad adolescente. INE (2017d). Género y empleo. Javalgi, R.G. et al. (2011). A comparative analysis of the attitudes toward women managers in China, Chile, and the USA. International Journal of Emerging Markets, Vol. 6 Issue: 3, pp.233-253. Lilo, E. et al. (2016). Midwifery in Chile - A Successful Experience to Improve Women´s Sexual and Reproductive Health: Facilitators & Challenges. Journal of Asian Midwives. 2016;3(1):63–69. Gender Gaps 42 in Chile an overview OECD (2015). PISA 2015. Programa para la Quantitative Estimate. Journal of Human Evaluación Internacional de Estudiantes. Capital, 2016, vol. 10, no. 1. PAHO (2013). World Bank (2007). Country Gender Assess- PAHO and FAO (2017). ment. The World Bank. Schnyer, Ariela (2014). Sexual and reproductive World Bank (2012). World Development Report health and rights of Aymara women in the Gender Equality and Development. The intercultural health system in Chile / Sa- World Bank. lud y derechos sexuales y reproductivos World Bank (2016). Women, Business and the de las mujeres Aymara en el sistema de Law. The World Bank. salud intercultural de Chile. Independent World Bank (2017). Chile Systematic Country Study Project (ISP) Collection. 2010. Diagnostic. The World Bank. Teigner and Cuberes (2016). Aggregate Effects of Gender Gaps in the Labor Market: A 43 Annex 1: The legal and institutional framework for gender equality in Peru Legal framework: International dimension Different international treaties - ratified and incorporated to the national legislation - operate as the framework for the integration of gender equality in government policies in Chile. The most relevant include: 1. The International Covenant for Civil and Political Rights, ratified in 1972, which established the commitment of the State to ensure that women and men enjoy equal political and civil rights. 2. The Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Dis- crimination against Women (CEDAW) and its Protocol were approved in 1980, and mandate that member states adopt the necessary measures to prevent, investigate and punish discrimination against women. 3. The Inter-American Convention to Prevent, Sanction and Eradicate Violence against Women - Convención Belém Do Pará53 - was approved in 1996, and recognizes that gender 53 The Belém do Pará Convention entered into force on March 5, 1995 and was the world’s first binding international treaty to recognize that violence against wom- en constitutes a violation of human rights. As a legally binding treaty, the Belém Gender Gaps 44 in Chile an overview based violence constitutes a serious viola- 10. Inter-American program on the promo- tion of human rights that the States need to tion of the human rights of women and prevent, punish and eradicate. gender equality and equity (OEA). 4. The statute of Rome for the Internatio- 11. The Mexico Consensus55 adopted in 2004. nal Court approved in 2009 recognizes any 12. The Quito Consensus56, adopted in 2007. sexual aggression and trafficking as crimes against humanity. 13. The Brasilia Consensus57, adopted in 2010. 5. The UN Convention against Organized Crime enacted in 2004 establishes the obli- gation of states to assist and protect the vic- tims of trafficking. . ILO Conventions – Convention 100 on 6 equality of remuneration, 111 on discrimina- tion, 122 on employment policy and 156 on workers with family responsibilities. Other international commitments are: 55 Regional Consensus adopted after the Ninth Regional Conference on Women in Latin America and the Caribbean 7. The Beijing Platform for Action adopted 54 held in Mexico City in June 2004. The governments of the in 1995 and the new related measures adop- region renewed their commitment to continue adopting measures aimed at the advancement of women´s rights, ted in 2000. incorporating a gender perspective into public policies, adopting proactive policies for job creation, recognizing 8. The Millennium Development Goals the economic value of domestic work, guaranteeing sexual and reproductive rights, curtailing violence against wom- approved in 2000 and the Sustainable De- en, or addressing HIV/AIDS, among others. velopment Goals approved in 2015. 56 The Consensus followed the Tenth Regional Confer- ence on Women in Latin America and the Caribbean 9. The Action Framework of Dakar on educa- held in Quito, Ecuador, in August 2007. The Consen- tion adopted in 2000. sus focused on two strategic issues: i) political par- ticipation and gender parity in decision-making at all levels, and ii) the contribution of women to the economy and social protection, especially in relation do Pará Convention not only condemns violence against to unpaid work. Representative governments estab- women as an assault on human dignity but also outlines lished specific measures to overcome gender dis- states’ obligations to eliminate it. crimination in political participation, employment, 54 The Beijing Platform for Action, adopted at the UN’s education, health and the economy. Fourth World Conference on Women (Beijing, China, 1995), 57 Government leaders agreed to facilitate women’s access flagged 12 key areas where urgent action was needed to new technologies, promote a democratic and non-dis- to ensure greater equality and opportunities for women criminatory media, improve health and sexual and repro- and men, girls and boys. It also laid out concrete ways for ductive rights of women, and promote international and countries to bring about change. regional cooperation for gender equity. 45 Legal framework: • Law 20.545 2011 extends the maternal bene- fits from 12 to 24 weeks, incorporating also National dimension self-employed women. Some of the main national laws58 related • Law 20.367 2009 extends maternal benefits to the promotion and protection of gender to adoption cases. equality include: • Law 20.255 2008 reforms the pension system • The Constitution (1980) includes a clause on to better protect women. equality, but not a specific provision on the prevention of discrimination: men and wo- • Law 20.047 2005 establishes a paternal leave men are equal before the law (art- 19.2). of four days, later extended to five. • Recently Law 21.030 2017 was approved • The Law on the right to a life free of violen- allowing abortion under 12 weeks when the- ce is in the process of being developed and re is risk to the mother, the fetus presents passed. any malformations, or the pregnancy is the result of a rape. Policies: • Law 20/840 2015 establishes a quota of 40 The main policies related to the promotion percent of women in all candidates’ lists for of gender equality are the Plans on Equali- national elections. ty of Opportunity between Women and Men 2011-2020 and 2018-2030. The Plan 2011- • Law 20.607 2012 sanctions any form of ha- 2020 aimed to continue advancing and con- rassment at the workplace. solidating public policies that strengthen the • Law 20.480 2010 modifies the criminal code equality of opportunity and rights of both Chil- and the law 20.066 on intra-family violence ean men and women. Its main strategic lines are introducing the crime of femicide and in- depicted in the Figure below. The New Plan on creasing the penalties for it. Equality between Men and Women 2018-2030 is • Law 20.066 2005 on intra-family violence currently being defined. Consultations were be- that replaces the previous legislation increa- ing held over the last months of 2017. ses the penalties for offenders and streng- To advance towards the objective of end- thens the protection of victims. ing gender inequality in Chile, a new Gen- • Law 20.764 2014 modifies the labor code to der Agenda was presented in 2014 – with guarantee a more equitable distribution of the beginning of the second Bachelet Gov- tasks between parents. ernment (2014-2018). The agenda proposed to strengthen institutions aimed at promoting 58 CEPAL Gender Equality Observatory Gender Gaps 46 in Chile an overview Figure 24: The strategic lines of the National Plan on Gender Equality 2011-2020 • Line 1: Strengthen public policies and institutions to ensure gender equality. • Line 2: Strengthen women´s leadership. • Line 3: Promote family co-responsibility. • Line 4: Equal access to economic opportunities. • Line 5: Strengthening of healthy and respectful relationships. • Line 6: Promoting good quality of life among women. gender equality in the country, creating a spe- violence, female entrepreneurship and access cific Ministry, and re-establishing the Ministe- to labor markets, and the implementation of a rial Council for Equality of Opportunity. It also national system of care, among others. 59 Many included mainstreaming gender in all relevant of these measures have been already or are in sector policies, as well as reforms in the areas the process of being implemented. of sexual and reproductive health, intra-family 59 http://www.minmujeryeg.cl/agenda-de-genero/pro- grama-de-gobierno/ 47