22194 Latin America and Caribbean Region Sustainable Development Working Paper No. 10 Strengthening Indigenous Organizations: The World Bank's Indigenous Capacity-Building Program in Latin America December 2000 I -3 'I Jorge E. Uquillas Teresa Aparicio Gabara The World Bank Latin America and Caribbean Regional Office Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development SMU LCR Sustainable Development Working Paper No. 10 Strengthening Indigenous Organizations: The World Bank's Indigenous Capacity- Building Program in Latin America December 2000 Jorge E. Uquillas Teresa Aparicio Gabara Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development Latin America and the Caribbean Region The World Bank Jorge E. Uquillas is a Senior Sociologist in the Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development Unit of the World Bank's Latin America and Caribbean Regional Office. Teresa Aparicio Gabara is a Social Anthropologist in the Environment and Natural Resources Management Division of the Inter-American Development Bank. The findings interpretations and conclusions in this document are attributable to the authors, and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, its affiliated organizations, members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. This working paper series is produced by the Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development Sector Management Unit (John Redwood, Director) of the Latin America and Caribbean Regional Office. Additional copies may be obtained either from the authors, or from LCSES Projects Assistant Peter Brandriss (pbrandrissXworldbank.org, or tel. 202-473-9379). Coverphotos (clockwise. from upperleft) Participants in training workshop, Nicaragua Indigenous girl, Nicaragua Consultations with indigenous and afroecuadoran leaders, Ecuador Working group at training session, Guatemala Contents Background ............................................................1 Capacity Building to Strengthen Indigenous Organizations ............... ...................2 Capacity-Building Projects Implemented through December 1999 ........................2 Indigenous Universities in Chile 2 "Learning by Doing" in Three Regions of Bolivia 3 "Peasant-to-Peasant Training" among Forestry Communities in Mexico 4 The Ecuadoran Participatory Training Experience 5 Indigenous Peoples Training in Nicaragua 6 Strengthening the Fondo Indigena 6 Strengthening Indigenous and Afro-Honduran Organizations 7 The Indigenous Capacity-Building Program in Argentina 7 Other Projects under Implementation ............................................................8 Evaluating the Cases of Colombia and Guatemala ..................................................9 The Wider Perspective ............................................................9 Methodological Framework ........................................................... 10 Colombia: Indigenous Peoples Training and Institutional Strengthening ............ 10 Impact of the Program 11 Institutional Aspects 12 Pedagogic Aspects 13 Intercultural Communication 14 Participation 14 Strengthening of Indigenous Peoples in Guatemala .............................................. 15 Program Objectives 16 Project Impact 16 Institutional Aspects 16 Pedagogic Aspects 17 Communication Aspects 18 Participation 18 Conclusions ........................................................... 19 A Comparative Perspective ........................................................... 19 Results of the Program at a Broader Level ........................................................... 19 Issues to Address in the Future ........................................................... 21 References ........................................................... 23 iii Strengthening Indigenous Organizations The World Bank's Indigenous Capacity- Building Program in Latin America Jorge E. Uquillas and Teresa Aparicio Gabara BACKGROUND Indigenous peoples of Latin America have of them to play an increasingly important role in shown a great capacity for change and adapta- social and political affairs and to advocate tion. During the past several decades they in- changes in the legal and institutional structures creasingly have recognized that to meet the of their countries. Their efforts have been com- challenges of modem society they cannot rely plemented by those of social advocates both solely on traditional forms of organization, from govemmental and nongovemmental or- knowledge, and skills, but must also embrace ganizations who have led or participated in new forms of organization and key elements of campaigns for indigenous peoples' rights. These modem science and technology, efforts have started producing results. Though participation of indigenous organizations in offi- Largely in response to pressures from the larger cial decisionmaking is limited, it is increasing, society, indigenous peoples have formed their and a few countries have formally recognized own grassroots organizations, as well as ethnic certain rights of indigenous peoples and the im- federations and confederations. These new or- portance of cultural diversity. ganizations have often come into conflict with some existing class-based peasant organizations Globalization poses many new challenges for in- that originally were formed as branches of trade digenous peoples. These challenges heighten the unions. In most Latin American countries in- importance of consolidating indigenous organi- digenous organizations have now been created zations and improving socioeconomic conditions at the regional and national level, and some co- through greater involvement in determining how ordinating groups are being formed at the inter- resources are distributed. To do this, indigenous national level. peoples must broaden their knowledge and skills base, especially in the design, administration, and The improving social organization and mobili- evaluation of development projects for their so- zation of indigenous peoples has allowed some cial groups and communities. CAPACITY BUILDING TO STRENGTHEN INDIGENOUS ORGANIZATIONS For the past several years the World Bank has mented with a combination of their own re- been promoting a participatory approach to sources and outside help. Follow-up activities project preparation and implementation. In the include a joint search for possible lending op- process it has learned that effective participation erations that may allow the Bank and borrower requires special skills that are not evenly distrib- governments to invest directly in indigenous uted among different stakeholders. Marginalized development. groups such as indigenous peoples are particu- larly likely to lack such skills. In addition, to Each country's capacity-building program has improve implementation of its indigenous peo- largely been designed by the indigenous peoples ples policy, the Bank and its borrowers are and organizations themselves, based on their own increasingly promoting indigenous peoples' in- needs. Although the specific agenda varies from volvement in project preparation, implementa- country to country, they all address technical as- tion, and evaluation (World Bank 1996; Davis pects such as participatory diagnostics, planning, and Soeftestad 1995). and project administration. Another common feature is a participatory methodology based on The World Bank's Indigenous Capacity-Building some variant of the "leaming by doing" approach. Program in Latin America started as a collabora- Moreover, except for Mexico and Colombia, the tive effort by the Environment Unit of the Bank's training programs have been held at the national Latin America and Caribbean Regional Office, level (Uquillas and others 1998). and the mulitlateral Fund for the Development of Indigenous Peoples of Latin America (Fondo The program has been well received by most gov- Indigena). The training program received grants emments and indigenous peoples. The main re- of between $100,000 and $200,000 from the sults of the 10 completed projects (listed in Box 1) Bank's Institutional Development Fund (IDF), as are analyzed below. The analysis is based on final well as support from a trust fund of the Swedish project reports and on evaluation workshops con- International Development Agency (SIDA), ducted in Quito (for the Andean region) and San which served to provide technical assistance and Jose (for Mexico and Central America), There facilitate participation of indigenous organizations also are brief descriptions of other projects still in the training process. under implementation. The cases of Colombia and Guatemala were subject to an external The main objective of the training program is to evaluation and are discussed in greater detail. strengthen indigenous peoples organizations and increase their options for ethnodevelopment (so- Capacity-Building Projects Implemented cioeconomic change that is determined by them through December 1999 and is compatible with their specific cultural values) (Partridge and others 1996). "Indigenous Universities" in Chile The program's strategy is to work with indige- The first series of indigenous training workshops nous organizations and willing national govern- was held in Chile. In-country coordination was ments to help groups of indigenous people build handled by the National Corporation of their own capacity for identifying needs, select- Indigenous Development (Corporaci6n ANacional ing development priorities, and formulating de Desarrollo Indigena, CONADI) of Chile's strategies and proposals that could be imple- Ministrv of Planning and Cooperation. 2 Strengthening Indigenous Organizations 3 Box 1. List of Capacity-Building Programs Completed (as of December 1999) 1. Chile: "Indigenous Universities" 2. Bolivia: "Learning by Doing" in Three Regions of Bolivia 3. Bolivia: Strengthening the Fondo Indigena 4. Mexico: "Peasant-to-Peasant Training" Among Forestry Communities 5. Ecuador: The Participatory Training Experience 6. Nicaragua: Indigenous Peoples Training 7. Honduras: Strengthening Indigenous and Afto-Honduran Organizations 8. Argentina: Indigenous Capacity Building 9. Mexico: Training Program for the Development of Indigenous Forestry Communities (second phase) 10. Mexico: Strengthening of Indigenous Women Under Implementation (as of December 1999) 1 1. Mexico: Training Project for the Lacandona Forest of Chiapas 12. Panama: Institutional Strengthening and Sustainable Development of Indigenous Peoples 13. Belize: Institutional Strengthening of the Bellie Indigenous Training Institute 14. Costa Rica: Institutional Strengthening of Indigenous Peoples The workshops began in January 1994 with the fining a new policy on indigenous peoples. It "First Indigenous Summer University," held in recommended, among other things, that further Temuco with an organization representing the training be provided. Mapuche indigenous peoples. The second "In- digenous University" training course was carried Some time later a follow-up proposal was pre- out in September 1994 among Aymara and Ata- sented to the Bank but was not approved by the camefio indigenous organizations in the northern operational unit dealing with Chile. Key staff in ciht of Arica. the unit argued against the project on the grounds that Chile's relatively high economic These workshops sought to strengthen indigenous performance and increasing access to private organizations and help them to better articulate sources of capital was leading to a reduction and their needs and self-development priorities using eventual termination of Bank activities there. a participatory approach. The main themes were ethnodevelopment, project design and evaluation, "Learning by Doing" in Three Regions of Bolivia organizational development, negotiation skills, in- digenous laws, and women in development. The overall objective of the Bolivia participatory training project was to help build capacity among The courses involved representatives of 38 local indigenous organizations and strengthen their organizations, including 24 groups with a social self-management through a dynamic participatory or cultural orientation, 6 grassroots community process. This was expected to improve the train- groups, and 5 producer or trade organizations. ees' ability to design and implement projects, and About 120 people were trained. At the end of increase participation of indigenous peoples in each training event the trainers, trainees, repre- political-administrative activities in the context of sentatives of the World Bank, and government the decentralization process proposed by the gov- coordinators of the program took part in an emient. The training project in Bolivia was im- evaluation activity. The evaluation concluded plemented in three regions: indigenous organiza- that the courses had filled a vacuum, particularly tions of the Altiplano assembled in Uncia, North at a time when Chile was in the process of de- of Potosi; representatives of the Valleys met in 4 LCR Sustainable Development Working Paper No. 10 Camiri; and, representatives of the Lowlands met tiro, Michoacan, and finished in September 1995 in San Ignacio de Moxos. in Capulalpan, Sierra Juarez, Oaxaca. I From the beginning, workshop organizers estab- The workshops took advantage of the methodo- lished three conditions for the project: (a) that it logical experiences gained by several indigenous be participatory; (b) that it contrast the three dif- forestry communities, and used examples of suc- ferent types of Bolivian indigenous organiza- cessful organizations such as the Nuevo San Juan tions-asambleas de pueblos, centrales de pue- Parangaricutiro, Uni6n de Comunidades Indige- blos, and federaciones; and (c) that it be nas Zapoteco-Chinanteca (UZACHI), and the implemented by an interdisciplinary team. There- Indigenous Community of Ixtldn.2 fore, the project adopted a "learning by doing" approach that included not only theory in the The project's general objective was to improve workshops, but also practice between workshops. the ability of indigenous organizations to formu- late development strategies, identify problems, This project trained about 100 representatives of elaborate proposals, and formulate and manage indigenous organizations. They include repre- specific projects that would increase their self- sentatives of the Asamblea del Pueblo Guarani, reliance. Specific objectives were to (a) conduct the Central de Pueblos Indigenas of Beni an exercise in strategic planning for community (CEPIB), the Central Indigena del Oriente Boli- forestry development, and (b) train indigenous viano (CIDOB), and both the Federacion de organizations' technical teams. Ayllus and the Federaci6n Sindical Unica de Trabajadores Campesinos of North Potosi. The The training process involved three phases: participants learned new skills for participatory (a) preparation and consultation with community analysis and planning. They also enhanced their leaders and governmental and nongovernmental ability for intercultural relations and socializa- organizations, (b) conducting the workshops, and tion of the concepts used in the training process. (c) monitoring and evaluation. The first work- shops, in the north at San Juan Nuevo Paran- The capacity-building effort contributed to the garicutiro, Michoacan, trained 47 people from 15 official decentralization process that was being ethnic groups. The second workshops, in Capu- promoted in Bolivia at the time. That process led lalpan de Mendez, Sierra Juarez, Oaxaca, trained to the creation of indigenous municipal districts 46 people from 21 different indigenous organiza- and adoption of participatory planning techniques tions and several ethnic groups. for community development. In addition, the Bank's show of interest led to new operations The participatory training demonstrated two im- benefiting indigenous peoples in Bolivia, includ- portant things: first, that members of indigenous ing the Participatory Rural Investment Project, the communities already have many of the skills Capacity-Building Program on Hydrocarbon Op- erations, and the Indigenous Peoples Develop- 1. In Mexico there are an estimated 10 million in- ment Project. digenous people and they own 80 percent of all forested land. "Peasant-to-Peasant Training" among Forestry 2. Examples of organizations working on sustain- Communities in Mexico ability issues in Mexico include: Comunidad Indi- gena de Nuevo San Juan (CINSJ), Comunidad In- In Mexico, some of the more developed indige- digena de Ixtlan de Juarez (CIIJ), Uni6n Zapoteca nous forestry communitieshvetrainedtheirless Chinanteca (UZACHI), Uni6n de Comunidades y nous forestry communities have trained their less Ejidos Forestales de Oaxaca (UCEFO), and Uni6n experienced counterparts in a process that started Nacional de Organizaciones en Foresteria Comu- in March 1995 in Nuevo San Juan Parangaricu- nal (UNOFOC). Strengthening Indigenous Organizations 5 needed to design and execute forestry and natural * Federaci6n de Indigenas Evangelicos del resources management projects; and second, that Ecuador (FEINE) the relationship between indigenous communities * Coordinadora de Organizaciones Indigenas and governmental and nongovernmental organi- de la Cuenca Amaz6nica (COICA). zations must transcend paternalistic attitudes. The project was facilitated on the part of the The training program also helped the government government by the Consejo Nacional de Planifi- learn about the managerial capacity of indigenous caci6n del Desarrollo Indigena y Negro organizations. According to a public official who (CONPLADEIN), which administered the funds. attended one of the evaluation sessions, this was contracted the trainers, and was in charge of the one of the first times that financial resources were general logistics. channeled directly to indigenous organizations in Mexico. He was convinced that the indigenous The training project started with a consultation forestry communities had managed the funds in workshop in each of the country's three regions an exceptional manner, thus demonstrating their (Coast, Highlands, and Amazon). The consulta- managerial and technical capacities. tions revisited the initial training agenda and made necessary adjustments, including specific The partnership between the Bank, the federal capacity-building activities based on the social government, and indigenous forestry communi- needs and development objectives of the indige- ties was instrumental in the approval of two im- nous organizations and their communities. About portant Bank loans that benefit indigenous peo- 75 people (25 per region) representing the com- ples: the Forestry Communities Project and the munities associated with the main indigenous or- Indigenous People and Biodiversity Project. ganizations participated in the workshops. The workshops used a participatory methodology that The Ecuadoran Participatory combined theoretical training with fieldwork. Training Experience At the end of each workshop an evaluation semi- The participatory training project in Ecuador nar was organized with the participation of in- sought to strengthen the capacity of indigenous structors, training coordinators, participants, and organizations to design and implement alterna- representatives of municipalities and indigenous tive projects and programs in natural resources organizations. These final evaluation seminars management and development. also provided a forum for dialogue among gov- emnment and indigenous organizations. The project enjoyed active participation on the part of Ecuador's principal indigenous organi- The dialogue fostered between the Bank, zations, including: CONPLADEIN, and indigenous organizations helped pave the way for preparation of an In- * Confederaci6n de Nacionalidades Indigenas digenous and Afro-Ecuadoran Peoples Devel- del Ecuador (CONAIE) and its regional opment Project. Some of the trainees eventually members-the Coordinadora de Organiza- contributed, as community counterparts. to ciones de la Costa Ecuatoriana (COICE), the preparation of that project. Additional training Confederaci6n de Nacionalidades Indigenas was provided during project design, particularly de la Amazonia Ecuatoriana (CONFENIAE), in the area of community diagnostics and plan- and the Ecuador Runacunac Riccharirnui ning using participatory techniques. (ECUARLTNARI) * Federacion Nacional de Organizaciones The Indigenous and Afro-Ecuadoran Peoples De- Campesinas e Indigenas (FENOCIN) velopment Project has built on the experiences of 6 LCR Sustainable Development Working Paper No. 10 the training project. Thus, it has a component on * YA T4MA (pan-ethnic) Institutional Strengthening of Indigenous and * Movimiento Indigena Negro y Popular Afro-Ecuadoran Organizations that includes sub- (pan-ethnic) components on formal and informal human re- * Coordinadora Indigena Nicaraguense source formation, local community development (pan-ethnic) planning, and technical assistance and direct fi- * SUKA WALA (Mayangna) nancial support to indigenous implementing * AMICA (Miskito women) agencies (usually second-tier organizations or * Asociaci6n de Sindicos Indigenas de Yaspi federations). Tasba (mostly Miskito) * Council of Elders (mostly Miskito). In addition, the Land and Water Component has special training activities to create indigenous A total of 97 indigenous people were trained: 30 paralegals-people knowledgeable about the na- participants were from the North Atlantic re- tional justice system who can help communities gion; 32 from the South Atlantic, and 35 from process their claims for legal recognition and title the Pacific. to their lands. A key result of the project was that it filled a gap Indigenous Peoples Training in Nicaragua in the participants' knowledge. Most had a very good understanding of the current socioeconomic, The Vice Ministry for Indigenous Affairs of political, and cultural situation of theircommuni- Nicaragua's Ministry of Social Action (MAliniste- ties, but they lacked training in the administrative rio de Accion Social, or MAS) coordinated the and technical aspects of project management. fi- implementation of a technical assistance project nance and business, and negotiation. for indigenous communities in the Atlantic and Pacific Regions. The principal objective of the In addition, the project contributed significantly project was to strengthen indigenous organiza- to discussion of how indigenous peoples could tions through a process of technical training on participate in World Bank-financed projects and high priority issues. how the Bank could be more responsive to in- digenous demands such as recognition of land The main thematic areas covered were strategies rights. Both the Rural Municipalities Project and of indigenous development, community devel- the Atlantic Biodiversity Corridor Project have opment based on self-management, organiza- addressed these issues by incorporating compo- tional strengthening, and participation in the nents on indigenous peoples' development, par- administration of public services at the regional ticularly additional capacity building on land and local levels. Several themes touched issues tenure and natural resource management. related to land regularization and enhanced natu- ral resources management. Every workshop in- Strengthening the Fondo Indigena corporated fieldwork into the curriculum to complement the formal training,. At the end of The program has also supported a research and each series of workshops, an evaluation and training activity of the Fondo Indigena, giving it monitoring seminar was carried out. greater visibility among indigenous organizations and governments. Its objectives were to document Practically all ethnic groups in Nicaragua successful cases of indigenous development and (Miskito, Mayangna. Rama, Garifuna, Creole, prepare training material based on those cases. Nandiri, Sebaco, Monimbo and Subtiaba) were represented in the project. Participants belonged Twelve cases were analyzed in Chile, Bolivia, to the following indigenous organizations: Ecuador, and Mexico, with active participation Strengthening Indigenous Organizations 7 from the indigenous organizations of each coun- and courses; 36 percent of the participants were try. The case studies cover areas such as indige- women. In addition, as a consequence of the llous self-government, education, production, and program, 20 specific proposals for social and marketing. productive projects were generated, seven of which were accepted for financing by different The project was facilitated by in-country indige- donors. nous peoples specialists. These specialists pro- vided technical advise and training to 12 indige- The main achievements of the program include nous researchers who in turn carried out the case (a) developing working relationships with nine studies in their communities. involving hundreds different indigenous and Afro-Honduran peo- of actors in the process. ples, (b) helping CONPAH follow up on its commitments with member organizations, gov- Final reports were presented at a workshop in ernment agencies, NGOs, and donors, and (c) Otavalo, Ecuador in May 1998. They have been contributing to the design of an emergency re- published in a volume (Carrasco and others construction plan for indigenous and Afro- 1999) that will be used to produce training mate- Honduran communities after Hurricane Mitch. rials for indigenous communities. The reconstruction plan will provide the foun- dation for an overall development plan for in- Strengthening Indigenous and Afro-Honduran digenous and Afro-Honduran Peoples. Organizations The Indigenous Capacity-Building The Confederacion de Pueblos Aut6ctonos de Program in Argentina Honduras (CONPAH) and the Secretaria de Agricultura y Ganaderia (SEG) of Honduras This project, completed by mid-1999, was very conducted a training program between August well received by indigenous peoples. In fact, the 1998 and June 1999. A consultative advisory training initiative played an extremely important committee composed of delegates from different role in reducing past mutual grievances between government agencies and indigenous organiza- the government and indigenous organizations. tions oversaw the activities of the program. The Social Development Secretariat (Secretaria de Desarrollo Social), which had rather limited The fundamental objective of the program was experience with ethnic groups prior to the par- to strengthen the technical and managerial ca- ticipatory training program, managed the project pacity of indigenous and Afro-Honduran com- in cooperation with the National Institute of munities and organizations to promote a cultur- Indian Affairs (Instituto Nacional de Asuntos In- ally sensitive and participatory development digenas). The initiative helped close the historic process in Honduras. gap and mutual distrust between indigenous peo- ples and central and provincial governments. The training covered a broad range of issues, including forestry conservation, natural resource Indigenous organizations representing 14 ethnic management, organizational strengthening, in- groups worked with the two governmental or- digenous peoples rights, gender issues, bilingual ganizations to plan indigenous peoples develop- education, participatory rural appraisal method- ment initiatives. Twenty-two local and regional ologies, development of training materials, and training workshops were conducted in four re- monitoring and evaluation. gions of the country (Region Sur, NOA Andino, NOA Chaqueno, and Region NEA). About 1,200 A total of 730 indigenous representatives were indigenous leaders and 20 different organizations trained in 18 seminars, workshops, meetings, participated in the workshops, which were fol- 8 LCR Sustainable Development Working Paper No. 10 lowed by a national meeting and an overall ago in Salta, (b) the Diaguita-Calchaqui and evaluation of the experience. Quilmes of Amaicha del Valle in Tucuman, and (c) the Pehuenche of Hacienda Pulmari in The internal evaluation reached the following Neuquen. Besides a component on sociocultural main conclusions: (a) the project met its objec- strengthening of indigenous communities, there tives in terms of institutional strengthening for are important components on sustainable use and indigenous organizations and capacity building conservation of natural resources. for individual participants; (b) the project had a multiplier effect as reflected in several initiatives Other Projects under Implementation taken by the participants during and after its im- plementation; (c) the training workshops pro- The World Bank has also approved IDF funding vided opportunities not only for training but also for the following countries, where projects are at for participation, exchange, and networking different stages of implementation: among different levels (community, ethnic group, provincial, regional, and national); and * Mexico-Training Program for the Devel- (d) the trainers-80 percent of whom were in- opment of the Indigenous Forestry Commu- digenous-and the coordinators performed very nities (second phase), and Training Project well and carried out the project in an optimal for the Lacandona Forest of Chiapas way (SDS, CENOC, Banco Mundial 1999). . Panama-Institutional Strengthening and Sustainable Development of Indigenous As a direct consequence of this program, an In- Peoples digenous Community Development Project * Belize-Institutional Strengthening of the (Learning and Innovation Loan) and a Biodiver- Belize Indigenous Training Institute sity Protection Project (Global Environment Fa- * Costa Rica-Institutional Strengthening of cility Grant) are in preparation, with INAI as the Indigenous Peoples (with the Mesa Indigena ,,ovemment counterpart. The project will initially and the Inter-American Institute for Coop- work in three areas: (a) the Kolla of Finca Santi- eration in Agriculture, IICA). EVALUATING THE CASES OF COLOMBIA AND GUATEMALA In 1998 an external evaluation of the Indigenous there is no provision in FODIGUA's structure for Peoples Participatory Training Program was un- indigenous participation in the organization's dertaken in Guatemala (in June) and in Colombia daily decisionmaking process. (in August). The two case studies presented be- low are based on the information gathered in the In contrast, during its nearly 40-year history field, as well as existing background material on DGAI has functioned without any formal indige- the program. First the program is discussed within nous representation in its institutional structure. the wider national context, then the evaluation However, both institutions are bounded by the methodology is described briefly, and finally the political interests of the governing parties. Colombia and Guatemala cases are assessed in detail, including a comparative perspective. At the time the training program was imple- mented both countries were experiencing an The Wider Perspective important opening towards indigenous issues, accompanied by the political will to support There are great contrasts between Colombia and training and education programs among indige- Guatemala in terrns of the size of their indigenous nous groups. populations, the way the state is dealing with in- digenous issues, the level of social organization Another issue within the broader perspective of found among indigenous peoples. and the politi- program implementation is the level of indige- cal context. In Guatemala, indigenous peoples are nous organization and the increasing level of edu- the majority of the population (66 percent), cation, particularly since the 1960s. In Guatemala whereas in Colombia, indigenous peoples repre- 30 years of harsh repression had destroyed the sent only 2 percent of the population. higher level indigenous organizations and institu- tions. with the exception of some community- The state agencies implementing the project based cooperatives and Catholic action organiza- were established under different political condi- tions. Only recently have indigenous peoples tions and historical periods. In Guatemala, the begun organizing themselves again at the local, Fondo de Desarrollo Indigena Guatemnalteco regional, and national level. Intemationally, how- (FODIGUA), was established in 1994 as a result ever, the plight of Guatemalan indigenous peo- of peace talks following the cease fire between ples has been widely known through reports the government and guerrilla groups. In contrast, published by the United Nations Human Rights in Colombia the Direccion General de Asuntos Commission during the last two decades. Indigenas (DGAI), within the Ministry of the Interior, was established at the end of the 1940s Indigenous peoples in Colombia, on the other during a period in which similar agencies were hand, have not only to preserved their institu- created by many governments in Latin America tions but developed and strengthened them at all to help indigenous peoples assimilate into the levels despite ongoing confrontations with guer- broader national society. rilla groups, the military, and drugs lords. In addition, they have developed strong alliances FODIGUA was created as a government agency with the growing number of worldwide indige- with a council composed of both government and nous organizations (such as the World Council indigenous peoples' representatives. All major of Indigenous Peoples and the Indigenous Rain- decisions are taken at the council level. However, forest Alliance), indigenous support groups in 9 10 LCR Sustainable Development Working Paper No. 10 Europe and the United States, and international The participatory component was based on par- environmental institutions (such as the World ticipatory monitoring and evaluation (PM&E) Wildlife Fund, International Union for the Con- methods and tools, including (a) consultations servation of Nature, and Friends of the Earth). with key stakeholders in the program, (b) par- ticipant and nonparticipant observation tech- By the time the project was implemented Colom- niques in the field, and (c) discussions with key bian indigenous peoples had strong, local grass- sources and gender-selected groups. The study roots organizations, several well-established also included a review of existing information indigenous umbrella groups such as the Consejo on the program. Regional Indigena del Cauca (CRIC, established in the late 1960s), and two national indigenous The comparative component uses five sets of organizations-the Organizaci6n Nacional Indi- criteria: (a) impact criteria, dealing with program gena de Colombia (ONIC), and Autoridades benefits and limitations, (b) institutional criteria, Indigenas de Colombia (AIC). covering program impacts both on the imple- menting institution and the participating organi- Colombia's indigenous peoples also were well zations, (c) pedagogic criteria, to examine the represented at the intemational level. For exam- models used to train participants and their value ple, CRIC is a member of the Coordinadora de as educational tools, (d) communication criteria, Organizaciones Indigenas de la Cuenca Amazo- looking at intercultural and interethnic commu- nica (COICA), an umbrella organization for in- nication and the extent to which indigenous digenous peoples in Amazonian countries. methodologies and techniques were taken into COICA, in turn, has observer status in the Ama- account, and (e) participation criteria, assessing zon Cooperation Treaty, to which all Amazonian trainees' degree of participation and decision- ,overnments are signatories. Furthermore, taking. The responses were tallied but not ana- COICA is a formal member of the Economic lyzed statistically because the sample was small and Social Council (ECOSOC) at the United and the subjects were not selected at random. Nations, which gives the group the right to par- ticipate in the UN Human Rights Commission Colombia: Indigenous Peoples Training and and Subcommissions where international in- Institutional Strengthening digenous rights are discussed. In Colombia the program was implemented by Thus, the indigenous peoples training program the DGAI between 1995 and 1997. It targeted 10 in Colombia was implemented under strong and indigenous peoples located in four different re- well-founded indigenous structures, whereas in gions. The program was implemented according Guatemala indigenous peoples were still in the to the needs and wishes of each beneficiary process of organizing themselves at all levels. group. The program formed six coordinating Those differences, together with the political teams: one at the national level and five at the goodwill towards indigenous affairs in both regional level (one each in the regions of the countries, would shape program implementation Guajira, Santa. Marta, Sierra Atanquez, Cauca, in different ways. and Narinio). The six teams comprised 32 profes- sionals, 20 of whom were indigenous people. Methodological Framework The main objectives of the program were: to The methodological framework designed to strengthen indigenous peoples and their organi- evaluate the program in the two countries zations so that they could participate more ef- includes both participatory and comparative fectively in the development process at the local, components. regional, and national levels, both in state insti- Strengthening Indigenous Organizations 11 tutions, the private sector, and within civil soci- ology, and interaction between the community ety at large. The training themes chosen by the and training activities, etc. indigenous groups included: Impact of the Program (a) Indigenous legislation and indigenous legal rights, including territorial rights The program achieved all objectives agreed be- (b) Transfer of state funds to indigenous com- tween DGAI and the 1O indigenous ethnic groups munities (including strengthening of traditional indigenous (c) Fundamental concepts of indigenous tradi- institutions, training activities with a multiplier tional philosophy effect, and strong indigenous participation). (d) Self-development, project design, and follow- up of microcredit and community-based The program also yielded indirect benefits. Most development programs importantly, the program helped stimulate new (e) Inter- and intra-ethnic relationships. dialogue between indigenous peoples and the state. For instance, the training activities on in- The program trained 1,200 indigenous people digenous constitutional rights fostered a robust from 10 ethnic groups. The seminars usually had and open exchange of ideas. about 45 participants. However some of the eth- nic groups, such as the Paez and some Wayu Second, studies on traditional indigenous legal communities, saw a need for widespread training systems were undertaken as a part of the program. in certain themes-such as indigenous legal sys- The results were presented by the indigenous tems-and therefore assembled hundreds of peo- peoples themselves at a national seminar on in- ple from their communities for those sessions. digenous legal rights, and have since been pub- lished bv the DGAI (DGAIIMJD/CRIC 1997). All major indigenous organizations were con- tacted prior to program implementation, and the An innovative feature of the studies on traditional great majority choose to participate. The program legal systems is that they started from an ethnic included (a) 100 local training seminars preceded viewpoint including cultural, religious, and cos- by consultation meetings with indigenous organi- mological elements. Another unique aspect of zations and communities, (b) 15 regional coordi- indigenous legal systems in Colombia is that they nation meetings, and (c) 3 national meetings for have been incorporated into the national legal program planning, monitoring, and evaluation. system, which means indigenous peoples may now administer justice, including punitive justice, The consultation process with indigenous organi- within their communities. Thus, in Colombia to- zations was conducted at the national, regional, day there is a degree of legal pluralism. and local level. At the community level, consul- tations were made with (a) political and/or relig- The main limitations on implementation were in ious leaders, (b) traditional indigenous organiza- administration, interinstitutional cooperation, and tions such as the cabildos (a sociogeographic certain technical aspects. unit), (c) modem indigenous organizations, (d) direct participants, and (e) indirect participants The main administrative constraint was that pro- (other community members). gram funds were channeled through the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), The consultation process led to a set of agree- which required DGAI to adopt new administra- ments between the DGAI and each participating tive procedures that took nearly a year to put in group on issues such as selection of training place. The participating communities and or- themes, indigenous and nonindigenous method- ganizations were somewhat anxious to begin 12 LCR Sustainable Development Working Paper No. 10 program activities and they perceived the delay the rebuilding of a harbor that would affect their as proof of DGAI's operational inefficiency. way of life. The program also could have had broader inter- Institutional strengthening also came from revi- institutional coverage. One of the two national talization and reactivation of indigenous cultural indigenous organizations, ONIC, did not partici- values. For example, the Kenkuamo people of pate in the program, although many of its mem- the Santa Marta region selected three such ber organizations did (for example, the CRIC). themes along those lines: (a) recovery of tradi- ONIC had intended to participate, but midway tions, (b) geography of the sacred, and (c) re- through the preparation process decided to with- covery of traditional music. draw and to instead present a similar proposal to the European Union in the expectation that they Research on indigenous legal systems by the would receive a larger grant and have greater indigenous organizations themselves proved to control of the program. Unfortunately, the pro- be a powerful mechanism for strengthening tra- posal did not go through. ditional institutions. Each of the participating groups dealt with that research in a different In addition a state institution, the Planning De- way. For instance, the Awa people of the Narino partment's Territorial Development Unit (Unidad region made a schoolbook on the traditional de Desarrollo Territorial), expressed interest in Awa system of sanctions and behavior, colored the program but ultimately had very limited par- by the children. The Paez people, from the ticipation. Greater involvement by both ONIC Cauca region, collected material for a publica- and the Territorial Development Unit would tion on the legal system of the cabildos as cur- have enriched the program. rently practiced. The Arhuaco people, from the Sierra de Santa Marta, reactivated their judicial Finally, at the technical level the program did system as a mechanism to help solve interethnic not incorporate a monitoring and evaluation conflicts. system. This is an important area that calls for close attention in similar future projects. Other activities that contributed to institutional strengthening include (a) new interethnic con- Institutional Aspects tacts facilitating the exchange of experiences and creation of new alliances, (b) training on The program strengthened participating indige- project design and administration that brought nous organizations and communities in different about implementation of more than 60 commu- ways. One of the most important is that it im- nity-based projects nationwide, and (c) training proved their knowledge of the intemational on intercultural mechanisms and understanding framework of indigenous rights. as the basis for cooperation between indigenous peoples and state institutions at the municipal A case in point are the training seminars on In- and departmental levels-a very innovative ap- ternational Labour Organization (ILO) Conven- proach to reaching agreements between indige- tion 169 dealing with indigenous rights, and es- nous and nonindigenous groups. pecially the right to prior consultation on development schemes affecting indigenous The program also strengthened the DGAI, pro- communities (DGAI/MJD/CRC, 1997). That viding the institution with new multidisciplinary knowledge substantially helped indigenous teams made up of anthropologists, lawyers, groups in Santa Marta in discussions with re- economists, and linguists specializing in indige- gional authorities and the private sector about nous affairs. Strengthening Indigenous Organizations 13 The programn has a potentially substantial multi- authorities' application of justice. Paez leaders plier effect. First, the training methodology asked that the training be directed not only to- could easily fit different indigenous cultures. ward the towns' governors and community lead- Second, having the participating indigenous or- ers, but to the Paez communities in general. ganizations choose a curriculum based on their own needs and interests facilitates replication of The Wayuu of the Guajira, especially in the high training activities at the local level. For example, and middle regions, have a different sociopolitical the Awa people choose themes around cultural structure than other indigenous peoples in Co- revitalization because many of their people are lombia. While in the Sierra and the Cauca regions undergoing a rapid process of acculturation that indigenous peoples have a relatively centralized is threatening their language and cultural traits. decisionmaking framework, the Wayuu are so- cially, politically, and geographically dispersed. Pedagogic Aspects The Wayuu social units are their small settle- After forming a national coordination team ments, associated with totemic clans, that are DGAI decided to follow a consensus-building distant from one another. Alliances between methodology specific to each indigenous group several settlements can forrm new frames of ref- in the program. This way each indigenous com- erence that transcend the autonomy of each one. munity analyzed their own needs. chose working topics, and decided how to develop them. As a Conflict is inherent in the Wayuu social structure. result, the groups' traditional and religious lead- Some conflicts last generations, with sophisti- ers (mamos among the A rhuacos, alaulas among cated alliance mechanisms articulated within that the Wayuu, taitas among the Guambianos, etc.) political system. An important regulating factor is had a continuing role in all the activities that the role of indigenous leaders-the alaulas. The were developed. Below are some illustrations of training model selected by the Wayuu gave the the different training models used. alaulas responsibility for coordinating activities between settlements. The alaulas would come out Indigenous groups in the Sierra de Santa Marta in the morning and visit participants' homes, orn- region agreed that the principal objective of the enting and coordinating the training activities. program was to generate discussion that would benefit both the trainees and their authorities and The program led to two regional meetings be- religious leaders. The role of leaders and com- tween the alaulas in three zones. They had spe- munity authorities was to design a methodologi- cifically asked for training in interethnic issues, cal framework that would make the training ac- the origins of Wayuu peoples, project elabora- tivities possible. Because the word of the tion, structure of financing agencies, and legal traditional leaders is held sacred, there were no forms of establishing intercultural agreements authority problems. On the contrary, the partici- with state and private companies. pants spoke fondly and with pride not only of their new knowledge, but also the way in which Although the program did not have a formal it was acquired in the presence of their leaders. evaluation and monitoring system, every group that participated produced evaluations and con- Instead of training workshops, the Paez leaders ducted monitoring according to their own asked for assemblies and meetings to talk about guidelines. and reflect on the application of the internal rights of each community and, in this way, be- For example, the Kaggaba peoples of the Sierra come aware of the importance of indigenous de Santa Marta selected, among other methods, 14 LCR Sustainable Development Working Paper No. 10 the indigenous ritual of collective confession as Wayuu leaders and authorities formulated 14 a system of evaluation and monitoring. The con- criteria to select participants who could receive fession ritual instills a state of orderliness among the training and later become trainers them- the participants. Each person enters a spiritual selves. These criteria were: state called yuluka whereby all the expectations of the group come afloat. The collective yuluka (a) knowing how to listen (aapajuluin) allows entry to another spiritual state called (b) adapting to any circumstance (ee maa alain) zhigoneshi, where collective agreements are (c) always being available for public service reached that will guide future activities. (ecin aa in) (d) being hardworking (tutuin) Similarly, in the Cauca region the evaluation (e) being dynamic (yalayalaa) and monitoring system was used at the level of (f) speaking the wayuunaiki language (atujuin community assemblies. Partial evaluations wayuunaiki) were made at the end of each training activity (g) ability to interpret the message (anaata and a final evaluation was done at the end of sukua ipaputchi) the program. (h) ability to resolve conflicts (hanaata akua ipa) Intercultural Communication (i) expertise in the Wayuu culture (erajuin sujua ipa wayuu) As stated previously, the use of indigenous meth- (j) having good manners (kamanein) odologies and techniques was the basic charac- (k) having maturity and responsibility (alailaun teristic of the training program since its begin- aa in) ning. In addition, DGAI formed regional training (1) being peaceful (anamiain) teams according to the wishes and needs of each (m) knowing how to deliver a message (tutuin of the indigenous peoples. The teams were com- anuiki) prised of representatives of each ethnic group (n) ability of reflection (ayawata sukua ipa kasa). involved in the training. As a result, there were neither cultural nor linguistic communication A measure of the effectiveness of the program is problems. the very low dropout rate. Among the Kaggaba peoples of the Sierra de Santa Marta, five stu- When nonindigenous professionals were dents deserted and were replaced by five of their needed-primarily anthropologists and lawyers- authorities; in the case of the Wiwa, three stu- they were closely linked to the training activities dents deserted and similarly were replaced by of the group. For example, the nonindigenous authorities (one of the students deserted to con- professionals were required to participate in the tinue his training as a religious leader, or Kaggaba's collective confession ritual. mamo). Participation Another indicator of the program's effectiveness is the participants' role in making decisions The selection of participants and trainers was an about the training model. Box 2 contains a brief internal process carried out by each of the look at how the Wiwa incorporated participation croups and organizations in the program. The into the model in accordance with their cultural importance given to the selection process by the norms. Participation of the mamos created a communities can be appreciated bv the example methodology in which knowledge was acquired of the Wayuu. within a cultural and religious context. Strengthening Indigenous Organizations 15 Box 2. The Role of the Mamos Among the Wiwa, training activities began with the presentation of a menu of topics by mem- bers of the regional team. The nmamos then explained in detail each one of the training topics, delving into their own history to arrive to the current situation1 . The objective of the manmos was none other than to enhance the comprehension of the students about the training topics, using various levels of teaching and knowledge transmission (verbal, spiritual, community, etc.). Afterwards, the mamos went to a place called " la Loma" to continue working at a more spiritual level while the trainers continued their work with the students. Each daily training activity ended with closing arguments, where the mamos participated. In these arguments, each groups exposed their conclusions of the day and, in similar form, at the beginning of the morning training, they examined and explained the conclusions that were pre- sented. The discussion continued in the communities always with the participation of the ma- nmos. When it was necessary to improve the group dynamics or when the participants were not able to reach a consensus about any subject, emissaries were sent to the mamos to receive ad- vise so that the group could continue their discussions. The muain lessons learned in the Colombian protection project. In effect, the board of directors capacity-building experience are: of the Sierra Nevada Sustainable Development Project is comprised of representatives of the (a) Indigenous peoples' participation in capacity- DGAI and the four organizations (Organizacion building efforts is enhanced by strong social Gonawindua Tayrona, Confederaci6n Indigenas organization and recognition of the need to Tayrona, Organizacion Yagumauin Bankuana,-wa learn new skills. Tayrona, and Organizaci6n Indigena Kankuama). (b) Official government support is important not only to give the capacity-building program Strengthening of Indigenous Peoples greater legitimacy among the participants but in Guatemala also to increase the multiplier effect of the program. The training program in Guatemala has been (c) A basic condition for success is responsive- implemented by Fondo de Desarrollo Indigena ness to local demands and adaptation of Guatemalteco (FODIGUA) in four different methodologies to local cultures. ethnic regions: (d) The institutional set-up must be carefully considered from the outset to avoid unneces- * Occidente (Quetzaltenango, Solola, San Mar- sary delays and excessive bureaucracy in cos, and Huehuetenango) processing program funds. * Nor-Occidente (Quiche) * Centro (Chimaltenango, Sacatepeques, and Finally, although the capacity-building program Escuintla) was not supposed to lead to an investment opera- * Norte (Las Verapaces and Peten). tion, it is noteworthy that the government agency and four of the indigenous organizations that In total, 210 indigenous persons, from 21 Mayan participated in the program are now beneficiar- linguistic groups, representing 154 indigenous ies of a combined development and biodiversity organizations participated in the program. 16 LCR Sustainable Development Working Paper Vo. 10 Program Objectives According to the internal evaluation, the main results of the training program have been (a) The objective of the program was to enhance the enhanced management capacity for indigenous managerial and administrative capacity of indige- organizations, (b) an improved relationship nous organizations to design their own develop- among FODIGUA, the government, and in- ment strategies and carry out concrete projects. digenous organizations, (c) 29 productive proj- The training curriculum included a participatory ect profiles that have been presented to assessment of the current economic, political, and FODIGUA for financing, and (d) the design of social situation of the participants' communities community development projects, which some as well as strategic planning, conflict resolution, indigenous organizations have used to request negotiation skills, and budgeting. financial resources from different government agencies. The training program was conducted between July 1996 and May 1997 by a core team of five Project Impact indigenous professionals (selected by FODIGUA) in close cooperation with indigenous organiza- The external evaluation confirms that the training tions. The program consisted of an initial seminar program has been effective, even though it was in Guatemala City to define the objectives and conducted under severe limitations. Some specific curriculum of the training, and two principal results are that (a) the training has helped to in- components: (a) participatory training workshops corporate new themes into the outline of their and (b) a permanent monitoring program. organizational training, and (b) the training has multiple effects because it has been able to train The program used a participatory "learning-by- members of some indigenous communities in all doing" approach. The training curriculum directly aspects of the project cycle, including identifica- incorporated the practical needs raised by the tion of community needs, project preparation, participants in discussions at the beginning of the implementation, and evaluation. workshops. Furthermore, the combination of more theoretical training with practical fieldwork The main limitations in program implementation enriched the learning experience of the partici- were at the administrative, institutional, and po- pants. Many participants stressed the importance litical levels. At the political level, while of directly applying their new technical skills in FODIGUA was able to open an important space the field and expressed their need for future for indigenous peoples, it was also subject to training activities linked directly to the design and constraints due to administrative and govern- implementation of projects. ment change, internal factionalism, and corrup- tion. At the administrative level the main limita- During the workshops, the trainees participated in tion was inefficient processing of funds, which a midterm review and a final evaluation work- delayed program implementation. Finally, the shop. The final evaluation workshop was carried major limitation at the institutional level was out in Quetzaltenango with the participation of FODIGUA's inability to continue capacity- government officials, indigenous representatives, building efforts at the community and organiza- and Bank representatives. The seminar not only tion levels. considered the participants' assessment of the workshops but also the results of the field moni- Institutional Aspects toring activities. At the end of the project, the participants expressed a high degree of satisfac- The program had a positive impact on both the tion of the program, in particular with the themes indigenous organizations and the implementing covered and the methodological approach. agency. Strengthening Indigenous Organizations 17 Participating indigenous organizations were Pedagogic Aspects strengthened through renewed dialogue with state and private institutions within the framework of The training program was coordinated by a program activities. For several indigenous or- working team organized by FODIGUA. This ganizations it was their first chance to select team selected the techniques and training meth- training themes based on their own needs. ods to be used, taking into consideration the cultural differences of the participants. How- For FODIGUA the program represented a pio- ever, the grassroots indigenous organizations neering effort through which it could crystallize that sent their representatives to the program the ideology and dual character on which the courses did not participate in this planning exer- institution was established, although not without cise and thus did not have the opportunity to problems. The first and main problem elaborate a curriculum more akin to the Mayan FODIGUA confronted was lack of indigenous cultural identity, characterizing 95 percent of the technical staff in running daily affairs, and rela- program participants. tive lack of familiarity with indigenous working methods and tools in the planning phase. Nev- The methodology used in the training workshop ertheless, once the program started trainers and had two principal tendencies. The first and most trainees sought to incorporate indigenous con- general was a participatory pedagogy that in- tent and procedures into the work in progress. volved the participation of the teachers in the working groups, field trips, etc., to promote a Both the participants and facilitators agreed that high level of intercultural communication. The the training workshops, apart from their peda- second tendency was the classic pedagogy gogic value, were a positive encounter that fos- where the teacher goes through the curriculum tered discussion and interchange between people by way of expositions, giving less opportunity from diverse organizations. for participation and not including cultural inter- action as a priority. The participants preferred The institutional dimension in this case has two the participatory pedagogy. main aspects: the acquisition of new knowledge, and its possible application. There is no doubt The general feeling among the indigenous or- that this new knowledge benefits not only the ganizations was that the trainers knew little participants but also their communities and or- about indigenous affairs such as Mayan work ganizations. methodology, community structures, and com- munity development according to Mayan per- However, application of the knowledge will re- ceptions. This lack of knowledge meant that quire the necessary infrastructure and means of Mayan cultural and technical elements were not communication (for example, telephone and fax) fully incorporated into the training workshop. to meet new institutional demands. For example, Based on this, the Mayan organizations sug- to put into practice newly acquired techniques gested that a second phase of the program about market fluctuation for agricultural products, should include training of the trainers in the the organizations would need to be able to check aforementioned topics. They also suggested on regional and national market prices, arrival of hiring more indigenous trainers to foster inclu- checks to the bank, credit information, etc. sion of traditional indigenous content and meth- ods from the start. Fortunately, some new World Bank operations that began implementation in 2000-the Natural The facilitators, implementing and financing Resources Management Project and the Com- agencies, and participants had different expecta- petitiveness Project-will help fill these gaps. tions for the workshops' outcomes. Various par- 18 LCR Sustainable Development Working Paper No. IO ticipants and their organizations, as well as their Participation communities, mistakenly believed they were sup- posed to present development projects to The indigenous organizations were selected based FODIGUA at the end of the workshops. Also, on their needs and on a profile developed by the some participants, particularly women, said that program's technical team. Similarly, facilitators they had expected a longer lasting program, in- and trainers initially were selected by the pro- cluding more follow-up activities, to see thepro- gram. However, during the workshops partici- gram impact at the local and institutional levels. pants provided names of other facilitators that could become integrated into the technical team. Communication Aspects The participants engaged in the decisionmaking Although the training topics were relevant to in- process with respect to changes once the work- digenous peoples, the training model did not in- shops were underway. However, the program clude traditional indigenous methodology. In never developed a set of indicators to determine some workshops very satisfactory results were outcomes of the workshops from the partici- achieved when, at the participants' request, pants' perspectives. In other words, the program themes were analyzed from a Mayan perspective. was not structured to include the participants in the decisionmaking process. Though there was intercultural communication and sensitivity throughout the workshops, the fa- All program activities were highly engaging and cilitators lacked basic knowledge of indigenous allowed open communication among participants models of communication and collective behav- and facilitators. This open communication per- ior. As a result, there was only minimal contribu- mitted changes to improve the program, allowed tion to the development of Mayan sociocultural for collective evaluations at the end of the work- instruments. shops, and provided a setting for open dialogue. CONCLUSIONS A Comparative Perspective The main limitation of the program was at the administrative level. In Guatemala the process- The impact of the program was highly positive ing requirements of the Bank and the govern- in both Guatemala and Colombia. The main ob- ment's executing agencies delayed program jectives of the program were fulfilled, namely, funds by as much as one year. This affected the strengthening of communities and indige- indigenous organizations' calendar activities, nous organizations through a high level of in- delayed the program, and created a negative digenous participation in the development of impression of the implementing agencies. training activities. Different training methods were used in the two The training workshops provided the proper envi- countries. In Colombia the methodology was ronment for intercultural communication among adapted to the specific cultural background of the facilitators and participants themselves. each of the participating groups. In Guatemala Nonetheless, the Guatemala program did not de- such adaptation was not possible on a consistent velop a specific approach to incorporating Mayan basis, in part because of the way the program was techniques and methodology; such an approach set up. In Colombia the methodology for training would have significantly enriched the workshops. activities was given beforehand by the partici- pating groups themselves. In Guatemala the There were some unexpected additional benefits framework of the program was designed by the from the program. First, and most importantly, coordinating teams, with participants involved in the program helped facilitate dialogue between decisionmaking only during implementation. the state and indigenous organizations. In Co- lombia studies on traditional indigenous legal Intercultural and interethnic communication was systems were carried out by the indigenous high in both countries, indigenous participation groups and organizations. Once those traditional was much higher than expected, and both the legal systems have been accepted and included participants and trainers were enthusiastic and in the constitution, it is expected that indigenous committed. These factors made the program communities will administer justice, including very successful. punitive measures, according to their own rules. Results of the Program Second, the program developed interethnic at a Broader Level contacts between indigenous peoples from dif- ferent regions, in some cases allowing them to The indigenous peoples capacity-building initia- exchange experiences with other groups for the tive is fulfilling its main objectives of providing very first time. specific skills for indigenous peoples and insti- tutional strengthening both for indigenous or- Third, there was a significant multiplier effect ganizations and collaborating government agen- because after the training program indigenous cies. Indigenous peoples' organizations have organizations in both countries were able to participated fully in program design, selection of share their knowledge and train other communi- trainers, and implementation. ties. This effect has been especially strong in Colombia due to the high degree of indigenous One of the short-term results has been enhance- organization. ment of indigenous peoples' ability to forrnulate 19 20 LCR Sustainable Development Working Paper No. 10 development strategies and prepare better pro- forms of authority and self-government. The pro- posals to national, bilateral, and multilateral gram indirectly led to discussions among indige- agencies. The program enables indigenous com- nous peoples about how to reintroduce or con- munities to design and implement projects based solidate existing indigenous organizational on indigenous cultural values, institutional struc- structures. Here the concept of consensus build- tures, production systems, and technologies. ing (concertaci6n) within indigenous communi- ties and among indigenous organizations played a In the longer term this leads to greater access to key role in revitalizing communities. investment resources. In some cases these re- sources come from existing national programs, A prime example of the initiative's short-and such as the Colombian governments transfers to long-term benefits is the study on indigenous indigenous territorial jurisdictions. In other cases legal systems in Colombia. The study was done resources are coming from international coopera- by indigenous organizations with technical sup- tion agencies, such as the World Bank and Global port from the regional coordinating teams. The Environmental Facility, which have projects in results, presented at regional and national semi- Ecuador, Bolivia, Mexico, and Argentina. nars, greatly strengthened the technical capacity of the organizations and helped recover impor- One strength of the initiative is its emphasis on tant indigenous values. A long-term benefit of the multiethnical character of the societies in the study is the incorporation of indigenous legal which the training takes place. By taking the cul- systems into the Colombian constitution, thus tural diversity of many countries into account, the allowing indigenous communities to administer initiative supports indigenous peoples' expression justice according to their own rules. of their own identity. In Guatemala, the impor- tance of ethnic identity in the program was em- In several other cases the program taught par- phasized by the dual character-state/indigenous ticipants about their rights both as citizens of peoples-embedded in the structure of FODIGUA, their countries and as peoples with special the implementing agency. rights, such as the right to ancestral lands. In some countries, like Nicaragua and Ecuador, the In Colombia, training activities were imple- program supported efforts to integrate indige- mented within a framework designed by, among nous rights into national legal frameworks. In others, community elders and religious leaders. Colombia the training project supported gov- For example, community-based religious leaders emient efforts to improve indigenous peoples from the Santa Marta region played an important legislation and link it to ILO Convention 169, role in acquiring the new knowledge. In addi- which has been ratified by the government. tion, the workshops were often conducted in the Moreover, the program developed the concept ethnic groups' own languages, thereby high- of prior consultation (included in Convention lighting the importance of their cultures. 169) into a well-defined process. The workshops also created forums in which eld- One of the initiative's most valuable outcomes is ers and young people came together to discuss the its fostering dialogue among indigenous com- current situation and community issues. This munities, the government, and civil society. In fostered sharing of traditional indigenous knowl- Colombia the program facilitated first-time en- edge and recuperation of indigenous culture. counters not only between different ethnic groups, but also between different communities The participatory training program directly of the same ethnic group, such as the Awa peo- strengthened indigenous communities through pie from the Narifio region and the Kankuamo formal training and revitalization of traditional people of the Santa Marta region. Strengthening Indigenous Organizations 21 Box 3. Evaluation of the Capacity-Building Programs in Mexico and Central America Both government and indigenous representatives agreed on the need to continue capacity- building efforts and to have a program with the following characteristics: * Permanent and continuous * Defined but flexible institutional framework . Fully participatory (responding to indigenous demands and managed by them) * Indigenous focus * Links between different academic levels and country experiences The themes should respond to community needs, including project management, indigenous rights and legislation, marketing and processing of agricultural goods, financial sustainability, participatory methodologies, and improving production. the mamos to receive advise so that the group could continue their discussions. The initiative often created conditions for a con- des, Mexico, and Central America, as well as structive interchange of ideas between indige- staff of Fondo Indigena and the World Bank, nous peoples and governments, thus reducing discussed the program and assessed its accom- the existing gap between them. In many cases plishments. the training projects created opportunities for consecutive indigenous peoples development At the end of both meetings all participants, initiatives. It also improved indigenous peoples particularly those representing indigenous or- participation in the design and implementation ganizations, gave a clear message that they of development projects. wished the program to continue, in some cases under different modalities (that is, within World In October 1994 the World Bank and Fondo In- Bank projects). digena organized meetings in Cochabamba at which government representatives, NGOs, and Issues to Address in the Future indigenous organizations from several Latin American countries commented favorably on the While evaluation of the program is mostly posi- capacity-building effort. Similarly, in May 1995, tive, there still are aspects that must be improved during the meeting of the First Assembly of the and issues that must be addressed to assure its Fondo Indigena in Santa Cruz, Bolivia, the continuation. combined efforts of indigenous peoples, national governments, Fondo Indigena, and the World The first issue is the whether the capacity- Bank were mentioned in reference to what was building effort should remain a short-term ini- already being considered a successful experi- tiative or become a regular program supporting ence. training initiatives that could eventually be con- solidated with non-Bank resources. Guatemala In September 1998 the program was evaluated at has already extended the program to other areas meetings in Ecuador and Costa Rica. Represen- with external (European Union) funding; the tatives of indigenous organizations and govern- program is now being coordinated through a ment indigenous affairs agencies from the An- national NGO. 22 LCR Sustainable Development Working Paper No. 10 Duration clearly can affect the program's value. while other delays were due to the conflicting In the short-term the training directly enhanced relationship between the state and indigenous the managerial and administrative skills of in- peoples. Poor communication or misunderstand- digenous peoples so that they could better design ing between a government agency and an indige- and implement their own projects-an important nous organization can set a proposed program requirement for successful ethnodevelopment. back by several months. The World Bank also However, experience shows that the program's must take measures to reduce processing time for effect is greater when theoretical training is com- grants and improve performance of the training bined with practical application in the field. programs. Therefore a major challenge is to closely link training activities to follow-up projects in which Regardless of the source of funding, capacity workshop participants become key players in de- building is vital for indigenous development. The sign and implementation. initiative analyzed in this study has depended on grant funds provided by the World Bank, with In addition, it was clearly demonstrated that for additional financing from governments and in- indigenous communities and organizations to digenous organizations. While this limited effort make the most of the training they must be given is worth continuing, capacity building truly needs sufficient time to become acquainted with the to be a component of all projects focusing on vul- program. nerable populations, including indigenous peo- ples. The World Bank is already implementing The second issue concerns the time it takes to this concept in some projects. A case in point is implement grants. About 12 training programs Argentina's Indigenous Community Development have been completed in the first five vears of the Project, which builds on lessons from the training initiative, and additional proposals have been ap- program and incorporates further capacity build- proved. Some delays by requesting governments ing through its Social and Cultural Strengthening could have been avoided with closer follow-up, Component. REFERENCES Carrasco, Tania, Diego Iturralde, and Jorge Uquillas, coordinators. 1999. Doce Experiencias de Desa- rrollo Indigena en America Latina. Quito: Fondo Indigena. Davis, Shelton H., and Soeftestad, Lars T. 1995. "Participation and Indigenous Peoples." Environment Department Paper No. 21. Washington, DC: World Bank. Direcci6n General de Asuntos Indigenas (DGAI, Ministerio del Interior)/Ministerio de Justicia y Dere- cho (MJD)/Consejo Regional Indigena del Cauca (CRIC). 1997. "Del Olvido Surgimos Para Traer Nuevas Esperanzas" -La Jurisdicci6n Especial Indigena. Bogota: DGAI/MJD/CRJC. Partridge, William, Jorge Uquillas. and Kathryn Johns. 1996. "Including the Excluded: Ethnodevelop- ment in Latin America." Pp. 229-252 in Burki, Shahid, Sri-ram Aiyer, and Rudolf Homes. Eds. Poverty and Inequality. Washington, DC: The World Bank. Secretaria de Desarrollo Social (SDS, Argentina), Centro Nacional de Organizaciones de la Comuni- dad (CENOC), and World Bank. 1999. "Programa de Capacitaci6n para las Poblaciones Indigenas de Argentina." Buenos Aires. World Bank. 1996. "The World Bank Participation Sourcebook." Environmental Department Paper No. 19. Washington, DC: World Bank. 23 LCR Sustainable Development Working Papers For back issues contact: Peter Brandriss, Program Assistant Mail Stop I 6-601 The World Bank 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, DC 20433 U.S.A. Tel. (202) 473-9379 Fax. (202) 676-9373 E-mail: pbrandriss(worldbank.org No. Title Date Author I Environmental Guidelines for Social Funds December 1998 Douglas J. Graham (available in Spanish) Kenneth M. Green Karla McEvoy 2 A Conceptual Framework for Violence Reduction August 1999 Caroline Moser (available in Spanish) Elizabeth Shrader 3 Youth Violence in Latin America and the Caribbean: August 1999 Caroline Moser Costs, Causes, and Interventions Bernice van Bronkhorst 4 Youth Gangs and Violence in Latin America August 1999 Dennis Rodgers and the Caribbean: A Literature Survey 5 Violence and Social Capital: Proceedings of the LCSES August 1999 Caroline Moser Seminar Series, 1997-98 Sarah Lister 6 Defining Ethnodevelopment in Operational Terms: January 2000 Martien van Nieuwkoop Lessons from the Ecuador Indigenous and Jorge E. Uquillas Afro-Ecuadoran Peoples Development Project 7 Perceptions of Urban Violence: February 2000 Caroline Moser Participatory Appraisal Techniques Cathy Mcllwaine (available in Spanish) 8 Incorporaci6n de aspectos de genero y desarrollo December 1998 Caroline Moser en las operaciones del Banco Mundial: Avances (publication date of Annika Tomqvist y recomendaciones original in English) Bernice van Bronkhorst 9 La raza y la pobreza: Consulta interagencias sobre November 2000 Proceedings of June 19, 2000 afrolatinoamnericanos (edici6n preliminar) roundtable in Washington 24