ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT STUDIES AND MONOGRAPHS SERIES NO. 11 Work in progress for public discussion Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification Partners for Development and Conservation A~~~~~~~ N, Jitendra P? Srivastava Nigelj H. Smith DouglasA. Forno ESD Proceedings Series I Cultuire and Development in Africa: Proceedings of an Interniational Coniference (Also in French) 2 Valuing the Environment: Proceedings of the First Annual International Conference on Environmentally Sustaitiable Development 3 Overcoming Global Hunger: Proceedings of a Conference on Actionis to Reduce Hunger Worldwide 4 Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Developtmienit: Proceedings of a Conference 5 The Human Face of the Urban Environment: A Report to the Developmlent Community 6 The Humatn Face of the Urbatn Envirotinment: Proceedings of the Second Anniual World Bank Conference on Environmnetntally Sustainable Development 7 The Busitness of Sustainable Cities: Public-Private Partnershipsfor Creative Technlical and Institutional Solutions 8 Enabling Sustainable Commnunity Development 9 Sustainable Financing Mechanisnisfor Coral Reef Conservation: Proceedings of a Workshiop 10 Effective Financing of Environmentally Sustainable Development: Proceedings of tlwe Third Annuial World Bank Cotnference on Environmentally Sustainable Development 11 Servicing Innovative Financing of Environ mentally Sustainable Development 12 Ethics atid Spirituial Values: Promoting Environmentally Sustainable Development 13 The Self and the Other: Sustainability and Self-Empowerment 14 Meeting the Challenges of Population, Envirotntmient, and Resources: The Costs of Ilaction ESD Studies and Monographs (formerly Occasional Paper) Series 1 The Contribution of People's Participation: Evidenceffrom 121 Rural Water Supply Projects 2 Making Development Sustainable: From Concepts to Action 3 Sociology, Anthlropology, and Developmetnt: An Annotated Bibliography of World Bank Publications 1975-1993 4 The World Bank's Strategy for Reducing Poverty and Hunger: A Report to tihe Development Comttimutity 5 Sustainability and the Wealth of Nations: First Steps in an Ongoing Journey (Also forthcoming in Arabic) 6 Social Organization and Developmnent Anthropology: The 1995 Malinowski Awvard Lecture 7 Confronting Crisis: A Summary of Household Responses to Poverty and Vuln1erability in Four Poor Urban Communitites (Also in French and Spanish) 8 Confrotiting Crisis: A Comparative Study of Household Responses to Poverty and Vulnerability in Four Poor Urban Communities 9 Guidelinesfor Integrated Coastal Zone Managemenit 10 Enabling the Safe Use of Biotechnology: Principles and Practice 11 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification: Partnersfor Developmetnt and Conservation (Continued on the inside back cover) ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT STUDIES AND MONOGRAPHS SERIES NO. 11 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification Partners for Development and Conservation Jitendra P Srivastava Nigelj H. Smith Douglas A. Forno The World Bank Washington, D. C. Copyright © 1996 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, NW. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printing September 1996 This report has been prepared by the staff of the World Bank. The judgments expressed do not necessarily reflect the views of the Board of Executive Directors or of the governments they represent. Cover illustration by Stefano Padulosi, courtesy of the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Biodiversity and agricultural intensification: partners for development and conservation / Jitendra P. Srivastava and Nigel J.H. Smith, and Douglas A. Forno, editors. p. cm. - (Environmentally sustainable development studies and monographs ; no. 11) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-8213-3759-9 1. Agriculture ecology. 2. Agriculture productivity. 3. Biological diversity. 4. Agriculture conservation. 5. Biological diversity conservation. 6. Sustainable agriculture. 7. Sustainable agriculture. I. Srivastava, Jitendra P. 1940- . I1. Smith, Nigel J.H., 1949- . III. Forno, Douglas A., 1946- IV. Series. S589.7.B56 1996 333.95-dc2O 96-36166 CIP @3 Printed on recycled paper. Contents Foreword v About the Contributors vii Acknowledgments ix Overview x 1 Agriculture as Friend and Foe of Biodiversity 1 jitendra P. Srivastava, Nigel J. H. Smith, and Douglas A. Forno Agricultural Intensification: Bane or Blessing for Biodiversity? 2 Core Issue 3 Biodiversity and Agrobiodiversity Defined 3 Agrobiodiversity: Neglected Stepchild in the Rush to Conserve Biodiversity 6 Agrobiodiversity, Cultural Habitats, and Indigenous Knowledge 6 The Critical Role of the Business Community 7 Undergirding Themes 8 2 Harmonizing Biodiversity Conservation and Agricultural Development 11 Noel Vietmeyer Narrowing Used Species 11 Biodiversity Defense 14 Changing Paradigm 16 Looking to Tomorrow 23 Strategy 30 3 Policy Considerations along the Interface between Biodiversity and Agriculture 31 William Lesser and Steven Kyle Policies and Regulatory Mechanisms for Agricultural Development 31 In Situ and Ex Situ Conservation of Genetic Resources and Ownership Issues 37 Trade Agreements 42 Effects of Patents and Plant Breeders' Rights on Biodiversity Conservation 46 iii iv Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification 4 Effects of Land-Use Systems on the Use and Conservation of Biodiversity 52 Nigel J. H. Smith Conceptual Approach 53 Land-Use Systems and Biodiversity 56 Policy Implications 71 5 Effects of Agricultural Development on Biodiversity: Lessons from Iowa 80 Gordon L. Bultena, Michael D. Duffy, Steven E. Jungst, Ramesh S. Kanwar, Bruce W Menzel, Manjit K. Misra, Piyush Singh, Janette R.Thompson, Arnold van der Valk, and Richard L. Willham Natural Habitats in Presettlement Iowa 80 Agricultural Development and Habitat Loss 82 New Directions: Striving for Balance 92 6 Livestock Production Systems and the Management of Domestic Animal Biodiversity 95 Harvey Blackburn, Cornelis de Haan, and Henning Steinfeld Pressures on Animal Genetic Resources 95 Status of Breeds 100 Societal Response 101 Matching Genotypes to the Environment 104 Research and Policy Priorities 106 7 Biodiversity and the World Bank's Agricultural Portfolio 107 Sakti Jana and Sanjiva Cooke Commitment and Funding for Biodiversity 107 Policies That Support Biodiversity 108 Country Assistance Strategies 108 National Environmental Action Plans 110 Sectoral Perspectives on Biodiversity 112 Agriculture Sector Portfolio 116 Issues and Future Direction 118 8 Toward a Strategy for Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Agricultural Development 121 Jitendra P. Srivastava, Nigel J. H. Smith, and Douglas A. Forno Biodiversity and Agriculture: Partnership for Sustainable Development 121 Agenda for Action 121 Future Imperatives 128 Foreword A griculture is both a threat to biodiver- have learned. We have found a strong consensus sity and a key to its survival. Unless emerging that agricultural development and lAxagriculture is sustainably intensified, conservation of natural resources and the envi- many remaining wild areas will succumb to the ronment must go hand in hand. plow, ax, or herds of grazing livestock. With The authors of this volume explore the many global demand for food and other agricultural links between biodiversity and agricultural products expected to at least double-and per- development and suggest that there is much haps even triple-over the next fifty years, the common ground between environmentalists productivity of existing farms and rangelands and the agricultural development community. will have to increase dramatically. How this Both conservation and development interests intensification process plays out in the decades have a stake in the survival of natural habitats. ahead will largely determine how many They harbor wild populations and near-relatives species-and their habitats-will survive into of numerous crops and livestock that contain the coming century. genes for agricultural improvement. Forests and This volume on biodiversity and agricultural other natural habitats also contain a wealth of intensification argues that biodiversity must be plants and animals that could be domesticated better managed and conserved if the twin chal- to enrich our diets. These could benefit both con- lenges of improving living standards and sumers in industrial countries and residents of enhancing the environment for all of humanity difficult environments in which standard crops are to be met. The publication of this volume and livestock have trouble surviving. reflects an evolution in the World Bank's think- Several authors argue that one of the surest ing about agriculture and the environment. ways to further the survival of traditional crops These disciplines no longer can be seen as dis- and breeds, many of which are on the verge of crete, much less antagonistic. extinction, is to find new markets for them. For some time now the World Bank's Much of the world's biodiversity is affected by Agriculture and Natural Resources Department altered or cultured landscapes, especially in has been engaged in discussions with environ- farming areas. Land-use practices thus have mental groups and Bank staff on how to better major implications for species survival. How harmonize agricultural development with the agriculture can be changed to enhance biodiver- need to safeguard natural habitats and the sity is a major focus of this volume. integrity of ecosystems. At times progress has Numerous examples are given of how agrobio- been slowed by different perspectives and vary- diversity-that portion of biodiversity used ing interpretations of terminology. Both sides directly or indirectly for agricultural production- v vi Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification is being tapped to intensify agriculture in a sus- We hope that this volume contributes to the tainable manner. The authors also highlight an articulation-and ultimately to the adoption-of emerging research and development paradigm policies that will enhance agrobiodiversity, pro- that departs from conventional approaches to mote sustainable agricultural intensification, and crop and livestock breeding. Policies that can protect global biodiversity. accelerate better use and conservation of agro- biodiversity are relevant to all partners in conser- Ismail Serageldin vation and development, from multilateral Vice President development banks to governments, foundations, Environmentally Sustainable Development and nongovernmental organizations. The World Bank About the Contributors Harvey Blackburn has a Ph.D. in animal breeding stock adviser to the World Bank and is responsi- from Texas A & M University and has been ble for policy development and livestock quality involved in developing animal breeding models. concerns. De Haan is currently leading a review From 1992 to 1996 he worked as a livestock spe- of livestock-environment interactions to help cialist at the United States Agency for Inter- prepare guidelines for enhancing the contribu- national Development (USAID), the past two tion of livestock to sustainable agriculture. years under a cooperative program with the Sakti Jana holds a Ph.D. in genetics from the World Bank. During that period he worked exten- University of California at Davis. He is currently sively on livestock-environment interactions, professor in the Department of Crop Science and including the impact of livestock on biodiversity. Plant Ecology at the University of Saskatchewan Gordon L. Bultena is professor of sociology in Canada, and he has participated in plant at Iowa State University. exploration and collection missions in the Sanjiva Cooke has a master's degree in eco- Mediterranean, southwest Asia, and the Tibetan nomics from the University of Toronto and is a Plateau. His current research focuses on both in long-term consultant to the World Bank's Agri- situ and ex situ conservation of crop genetic culture and Forestry Division. diversity. Michael D. Duffy is professor of economics Steven E. Jungst is professor of forestry at and associate director of the Leopold Center for Iowa State University. Sustainable Agriculture at Iowa State University. Ramesh S. Kanwar is professor of agricul- Douglas A. Fomo, chief of the World Bank's tural and biosystems engineering at Iowa State Agricultural and Forestry Systems Division, has University. Kanwar's research interests encom- two decades of experience in World Bank opera- pass water quality, water and chemical manage- tions in agriculture as well as in sectoral and pol- ment practices for sustainable cropping, and icy analysis. A Ph.D. plant nutritionist from the environmental management. University of Queensland, Australia, and a Steven Kyle is associate professor of economic Woodrow Wilson Fellow at Princeton University, development in the Department of Agricultural, Fomo worked at the International Rice Research Resource, and Managerial Economics at Cornell Institute in the Philippines before joining the University. His specialization is macroeconomic World Bank. policy, and as a Portugese speaker he has been par- Comelis de Haan has a Ph.D. in animal pro- ticularly involved in advising the governments of duction from the University of Wageningen, the Brazil and Mozambique. Before joining Cornell, Netherlands, and has worked on livestock he was at the World Bank. development in Africa and Latin America for William Lesser is professor of marketing in twenty years. Since 1990 he has served as live- the Department of Agricultural, Resource, and vii viii Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification Managerial Economics at Cornell University. tural specialist for the Ford Foundation's agri- Lesser's research has focused extensively on the cultural development program for arid lands in transfer of new agricultural technologies, par- the Near East and North Africa; director of the ticularly the role and impact of intellectual cereals program at the International Center for property rights on the exchange of living organ- Agricultural Research in Dry Areas (ICARDA) isms. More recently, his work has expanded into in Aleppo, Syria; and deputy director general for questions dealing with the sustainable use of international cooperation of ICARDA. genetic resources under the Biodiversity Henning Steinfeld is a Ph.D. agricultural Convention. economist from the Technical University of Bruce W. Menzel is professor and chair of Berlin. Mainly oriented toward production and the Animal Ecology Department at Iowa State resource economics, he has worked in a number University. of associated fields, including agricultural policy Manjit K. Misra is director of the Seed and farming systems analysis, and with technical Science Center and professor of agricultural and assistance projects in Africa. Since 1990 he has biosystems engineering at Iowa State University. been with the Food and Agriculture Organization Piyush Singh is a postdoctoral research asso- (FAO), currently as senior officer (livestock devel- ciate in the Department of Agricultural and opment planning) in the Animal Production and Biosystems Engineering at Iowa State University. Health Division. Nigel J. H. Smith is professor of geography Janette R. Thompson is associate scientist in at the University of Florida and has worked on the Department of Forestry at Iowa State several natural resource management issues of University. the humid tropics, especially Amazonia. Smith Arnold van der Valk is professor of botany has been a consultant to the World Bank on envi- at Iowa State University. ronmental issues in the Latin American region, Noel Vietmeyer has served as a staff officer at has collaborated extensively with the secretariat the National Academy of Sciences since 1970. He of the Consultative Group on International Agri- holds a doctorate in chemistry from University of cultural Research (CGIAR), and is now also con- California, Berkeley. Vietmeyer is best known for sulting on the Pilot Program to Conserve the his innovative work on bringing underused Brazilian Rain Forest on agroforestry issues. plants and animals to the attention of the global jitendra P. Srivastava, a Ph.D. agronomist community. He has published more than a hun- and plant breeder, is principal agriculturist in dred articles and has directed study teams that the Agricultural and Forestry Systems Division have delivered more than forty published of the World Bank. He was involved in launch- reports on topics ranging from the lost crops of ing the Green Revolution in India under the aus- the Incas to the lost crops of Africa. pices of the Rockefeller Foundation. Before Richard L. Willham is distinguished profes- joining the World Bank, Srivastava was agricul- sor of animal science at Iowa State University. Acknowledgments T his volume has drawn extensively on com- Walter Lusigi, Kathleen Mackinnon, William ments of individuals both within the World Magrath, Miranda Munro, Stefano Pagiola, Bank and from outside organizations. Louise Scura, Frances Seymour, Shiv Singh, Ann Some exchanges occurred during two workshops Thrupp, Joachim Voss, Anthony Whitten, and held at the World Bank in 1995 to explore the Montague Yudelman. issues raised in this volume. The editors and authors are particularly grate- Within the World Bank special mention is ful to Cal Qualset for his thoughtful comments on due Alexander McCalla, Andrew Steer, and Lars the individual presentations as well as for serving Vidaeus. Alexander McCalla is director of the as moderator of the second workshop. Agriculture and Natural Resources Department. The editors and authors extend their thanks to In addition to encouraging the pursuit of ways the following individuals for their helpful com- to enhance biodiversity in agricultural develop- ments on all or parts of the manuscript at various ment, he provided substantive, insightful com- stages of development: Stephen Brush, Derek ments on the concept paper that helped to Byerlee, Wanda Collins, Norman Jones, John launch this volume. Andrew Steer, director of Parrotta, Frances Seymour, and Ann Thrupp. the Environment Department, also early recog- In addition many other people kindly shared nized the importance of trying to reconcile the their thoughts on biodiversity and its relation- need for agricultural development with envi- ship to agriculture, and these insights have ronmental concerns and has supported collabo- enriched this volume. Among those who dis- ration between the two departments in this cussed these issues with the editors or authors of regard. Lars Vidaeus, chief of the Global this volume are Janet Abromovitz, Lester Environment Division, has played a major role Brown, and Kate Newman. in ushering this effort forward on behalf of the The editors and authors also thank Sharon Environment Department, and he has made Bluico for her insights and for editing this pub- many useful comments on individual chapters. lication. We wish to acknowledge the patience Among individuals who generously gave time and hard work of Vandana Pradhan in prepar- to comment on presentations at the two work- ing and finalizing the manuscript. Amy Smith shops are Roger Blobaum, Lea Borkenhagen, Bell copyread the final version, and Virginia Brian Brandenburg, Marjory-Anne Bromhead, Hitchcock also contributed to the editorial Wanda Collins, Peter Dewees, Masa Iwanaga, process. Glenn McGrath desktopped the vol- Narpat Jodha, Jacob Kampen, John Lambert, ume, and Tomoko Hirata designed the cover. ix Overview T his volume is a product of ongoing collab- The dynamic borders among biodiversity, oration between the agriculture and envi- agricultural intensification, and rural develop- ronment divisions of the World Bank on ment are explored in eight chapters. In chapter 1, ways to better integrate biodiversity concerns in "Agriculture as Friend and Foe of Biodiversity," agricultural development. To help clarify think- the volume editors present a conceptual frame- ing on this issue, Biodiversity and Agriculture: work and identify major cross-cutting themes. In Implications for Conservation and Development chapter 2, "Harmonizing Biodiversity Conser- aitendra, Smith, and Fomo 1996) was produced vation and Agricultural Development," Noel in early 1996. In the meantime several scientists Vietmeyer illuminates the very narrow base of had been commissioned to explore some dimen- plants and animals on which humans rely for the sions of this complex issue in more detail. A small bulk of their sustenance and other products. group of specialists from inside and outside the While staple cereal and root crops will continue World Bank brainstormed about the building to feed humanity for some time to come, the jetti- blocks that would provide a solid foundation for soning of many useful plants and livestock is an the Bank's eventual strategy for tackling agricul- unwise course. Many neglected crops and tradi- ture and biodiversity concerns. Preliminary ideas tional breeds have special characteristics that ren- were vetted among World Bank staff and others, der them superior to the few dominant types used mainly in nongovernmental organizations, then commercially today Often better adapted to dif- presented at a workshop in December 1995. ficult environments, traditional crops and breeds Based on exchanges at the workshop and reviews could be used to tackle two related problems: of individual papers, the authors revised their enhancing the biodiversity of transformed-and contributions for this volume. in some cases degraded-landscapes while While no claim to consensus is being made, improving local living conditions. the issues raised here were widely discussed In the third chapter, "Policy Considerations and will continue to be debated. The path to sus- along the Interface between Biodiversity and tainable agricultural development and biodi- Agriculture," William Lesser and Steven Kyle versity conservation is a long and arduous one, focus on the impact of policies, regulatory mech- and this volume is only a modest step in that anisms, trade agreements, and intellectual prop- direction. erty rights on biodiversity in the agricultural The contributors to this volume come from a context. wide assortment of disciplines and institutions. The clear need for better scientific and eco- A broad array of perspectives was deliberately nomic understanding of the costs and benefits of sought to enrich the debate (see "About the in situ and ex situ conservation is underscored. Contributors"). Without such understanding it will be difficult to x Overview xi formulate adequate policies to safeguard genetic geted for development before the project is carried resources for agricultural development. The out. The potential for agrobiodiversity as a new authors also explore how intellectual property dimension to ecotourism is also discussed. rights might impart economic value to biodiver- The case study in the fifth chapter, "Effects of sity, thereby creating incentives for conservation. Agricultural Development on Biodiversity: No evidence has emerged to support the idea Lessons from Iowa," reflects many of the themes that intellectual property rights have been a that thread through this volume. Iowa is one of major factor in the dwindling use of traditional the most transformed pieces of real estate on varieties. Much of the genetic erosion of tradi- earth. Virtually all of Iowa's prairies and wet- tional varieties was well under way before leg- lands are gone, and two-thirds of the state's for- islation supporting patents and breeders' rights est has been cleared. Agricultural development, was passed. with its concomitant blessings and woes, is at its The authors also pinpoint some issues peak in one of the world's most important bread related to how local communities could benefit baskets. from the conservation of genetic resources that Iowa is often flagged as a textbook case of they have identified and protected over time. how not to develop a region because of the wide- Competitive claims and the lack of national poli- spread destruction of natural habitats, drastic cies to clarify the rights of traditional peoples to loss of biodiversity, serious loss of topsoil, and their ancestral lands are highly political issues in water pollution by agricultural chemicals. Yet some countries. But countries need at least to the authors of the Iowa case study point to recent specify what genetic resource rights can be and promising efforts to rectify at least some of claimed by governments and what are available the environmental damage while still maintain- for landowners and other claimants. How local ing high crop yields. Practices adopted by communities can claim rights over traditional increasing numbers of environmentally aware knowledge separate from the resources them- farmers include crop rotation, conservation selves should also be defined. tillage, strip cropping, reduced applications of Chapter 4, "Effects of Land-Use Systems on agrochemicals, and buffer strips of natural veg- the Use and Conservation of Biodiversity" by etation along watercourses. Nigel J. H. Smith, explores ways to better inte- To better show the severity of environmental grate biodiversity in the process of intensifying change in Iowa, the chapter traces the state's set- agriculture. Although the differential effects of tlement history. The authors highlight the rele- major agricultural production systems are dis- vance of settlers' agricultural practices to the cussed, more emphasis is placed on remedial state's main habitats: forests, prairies, and measures such as crop diversification. Smith prairie-wetlands. They describe various prac- argues for balancing the mosaic of land uses tices that enhance biodiversity on farmland and rather than trying to pick the right land use for a help conserve the natural resource base for agri- given area. He examines land-use dynamics and culture and then analyze state- and federal-level the driving forces behind changes in land use. policies and programs that enhance biodiversity. Land-use systems investigated include intensive In chapter 6, "Livestock Production Systems cropping with short-cycle crops, shifting agricul- and the Management of Domestic Animal Bio- ture, agropastoral systems, agroforestry, planta- diversity," Harvey Blackburn, Cornelis de Haan, tion systems, and forest extraction. and Henning Steinfeld underscore the alarming The policy recommendations in chapter 4 span loss of animal genetic resources and explore the research priorities for agricultural research and implications for livestock improvement. They development organizations, socioeconomic infra- analyze various livestock production systems structure and property rights, agricultural devel- for their impact on animal genetic diversity, opment schemes, and conservation projects. which is diminishing because of shifts in con- Smith highlights current trends toward a new sumer preferences, adoption of large industrial- agricultural research paradigm and proposes that scale operations, and widespread breeding agrobiodiversity survey teams assess an area tar- techniques that concentrate on fewer and fewer xii Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification breeds. The authors discuss important synergies versity for several countries, paying particular between livestock raising and wildlife. attention to megadiversity countries (areas espe- Analysis of pressures on animal genetic cially rich in species and unique life forms). resources includes a review of important indica- Reviewing the World Bank's agriculture sec- tors that can alert livestock owners, government tor portfolio between 1988 and 1995 based on a agencies, and development organizations when checklist of positive attributes, the authors find the genetic health of livestock may be endan- that agricultural projects are increasingly biodi- gered. Such indicators include a reduced num- versity-friendly. They conclude that a long-term ber of herds and diminishing herd size, and the perspective is needed when dealing with biodi- authors suggest minimal thresholds. They versity and agricultural development and that explore patterns of genetic movement into live- social and economic considerations are just as stock populations. In industrial countries this important as biodiversity concerns. A focus on information is usually readily available, but few biodiversity alone will not work. data on this important aspect of breed conserva- In the final chapter, "Toward a Strategy for tion are available for most of the tropics and sub- Mainstrearning Biodiversity in Agricultural tropics. Development," the volume editors bring together The authors also look at how livestock own- major policy recommendations within a frame- ers (the actual breeders in many cases) breed work that both highlights the multiple dimen- associations, national governments, and inter- sions of agriculture-biodiversity interactions and national agencies respond to the need to better suggests some ways to proceed. Chapter 8 safeguard animal genetic resources and how explores fresh approaches to in situ conservation they work cooperatively toward the goal of con- of plant and animal genetic resources, under- serving breeds within economically viable farm- scores the value of work on the systematics of ing systems. The cost-effectiveness of various plants and animals to help us better understand approaches to conserving breeds is also variation within species and relationships among explored. The authors conclude that a bias species, and makes a case for assembling inter- toward importing exotic breeds at the expense of disciplinary teams to assess agrobiodiversity indigenous stock has been based on faulty before agricultural development projects are car- analysis. The assumption that imported breeds ried out. Major policy recommendations include would outperform local breeds has largely promoting quality pricing, extending credit to ignored genotype-environment interactions. traditional varieties as well as modern cultivars, In chapter 7, "Biodiversity and the World and further reducing agricultural subsidies that Bank's Agricultural Portfolio," Sakti Jana and often exacerbate environmental problems. The Sanjiva Cooke review how the World Bank han- editors also examine various dimensions of the dles biodiversity in its agricultural projects. They emerging agricultural research paradigm that analyze several types of policy documents- stress sustainability. from country assistance strategies to national environmental action plans-to identify biodi- Reference versity concerns, particularly as they relate to agricultural biodiversity. They examine the Srivastava, Jitendra P., Nigel J. H. Smith, and Douglas World Bank's sector analysis, such as agriculture A. Forno. 1996. Biodiversity and Agriculture: and forestry sector reviews, that relates to biodi- Implications for Conservation and Development. World Bank Technical Paper 321. Washington, D.C. 1. Agriculture as Friend and Foe of Biodiversity Jitendra P. Srivastava, Nigel J. H. Smith, and Douglas A. Forno T he conservation of biodiversity has now Some dramatic changes will be needed in the emerged as a priority across many levels of ways that people raise crops and livestock if society in virtually all countries. It is no much biodiversity is to survive the next fifty longer just the concern of bird watchers and a years. How agriculture is transformed and handful of field botanists. Citizens and politicians intensified in a sustainable manner will be the alike have rallied to the cause of saving biodiver- key to how many species and how much genetic sity. But few people are sensitive to the fact that the variation is still around in the next century. A destiny of biodiversity and people are connected. focus on conserving biodiversity in "protected Biodiversity is not separate from the human expe- areas" alone will not work (box 1.1). This book rience, a category to be compartmentalized and aims to make the case that agriculture and bio- hermetically sealed off from people (Abromovitz diversity are intimately connected; one cannot 1994). Biodiversity is harnessed by cultures in var- survive without the other. Continued progress ious ways to produce food and other products, in raising and sustaining agricultural yields and much of the planet's remaining biodiversity hinges on better protecting and harnessing the will be lost unless future needs can be met from planet's biological riches. areas already cultivated or grazed. Agriculture is often seen as the "enemy" of The 5.8 billion people on earth are already biodiversity rather than as part of it. This percep- stressing the natural resource base that ulti- tion arises because raising livestock and crops mately supports the global economy. The inevitably alters vast expanses of the earth's sur- world's population is expected to at least double face. Population growth and other factors propel before it stabilizes. But demand for food and farmers into forests; pastoralists are squeezed into other agricultural products is likely to triple ever-diminishing spaces and sometimes over- within the next fifty years (Avery 1996). As soci- graze the land; and high-input, modern farming eties on every continent become more urban and practices frequently pollute the water and soil income levels rise, especially in Asia and Latin with chemicals. All of these activities trigger a America, consumption patterns shift, often up widespread and potentiallydangerous loss of bio- the food chain. As more livestock products are diversity. But some land-use systems and agricul- consumed, greater demands are placed on land- tural practices enhance biodiversity within scapes to produce feed for cattle, pigs, and other managed landscapes. For example, the judicious animals. This process is unfolding especially use of livestock waste as organic manure rapidly in East Asia (Brown 1995), and is likely enhances the species diversity of macrofauna to exert further pressure on biodiversity unless a (Bohac and Pokarzhevsky 1987). Also, inappro- concerted effort is made to adopt more environ- priate agricultural practices can be modified to mentally sound agricultural practices. mitigate their adverse effects on the environment. 1 2 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification cultural practices-attest to the dangers inherent Box 1.1 Holistic approach to biodiversity in intensifying agriculture without regard to the conservation long-term consequences for the natural resource Protection of a sample of natural habitats is neither base. But agricultural intensification is not syn- sufficient nor desirable for conserving biodiversity onymous with such externalities; these are envi- for two simple reasons: most of the world's biodi- ronmental signals that intensification is being versity exists in human-managed or -modified sys- approached the wrong way tems, and land-use patterns and sociopolitical Aproched the wrog ay factors in areas adjacent to parks and reserves have major implications for the integrity of biological maximizing yield at all costs. Farmers are not diversity in "protected" areas. interested in this approach anyway They want to This relationship has clearly been demonstrated increase output per area, but only as long as it is by the fate of sixty-two bird species in an 86-hectare profitable. If it is profitable to intensify agricul- woodland in West Java. After several square kilo- ture, is that always acceptable? If long-term dam- meters of surrounding woodland were destroyed, age to the environment and biodiversity results, twenty bird species disappeared, four declined twent bir speies isapeare, fudelnd the answer is no. But how does society provide almost to extinction, and five more declined notice- the ansertis no But howcdoes ietyfprov ably (Diamond, Bishop, and Van Balen 1987). The the incentives to turn agricultural intensification remaining species appeared to be unaffected. This into more rational directions? Is agroecological example highlights the need for regional conserva- intensification-as opposed to modern, high- tion (Ricklefs 1987) and the need for integration of input agriculture-feasible? biodiversity conservation for both protected areas This volume does not purport to provide all and agricultural ecosysterns. the answers. It is only a step in that direction. But Source: Pimentel and others 1992. sustainable agricultural intensification would include such approaches as: The fates of agriculture and biodiversity are * More rational use of nutrients, space, and intertwined. Wildlife habitats provide environ- energy in all land-use systems mental services to agriculture, such as protect- * Greater recycling of nutrients ing water sources for irrigation. Relatively * Better use of biological resources to raise and undisturbed habitats also contain wild popula- maintain yields of crops and livestock tions of domesticated plants and animals, and * Greater appreciation for and use of indige- these populations contain useful genes that are nous knowledge, especially of neglected often absent in the domesticated gene pool. It crops that could help improve livelihoods will be possible to secure at least some of the and the environment remaining habitats that are home to endangered * More effective measures for soil and water plants and animals only if agriculture is intensi- conservation fied in a sustainable manner. Doing so should * The deployment of "environmental corri- reduce pressure on forests, grasslands, and other dors" in landscapes that have been trans- habitats important for wildlife. formed by agriculture and livestock raising. We are not talking about simply going back Agricultural Intensification: to "traditional" practices, whatever that means Bane or Blessing for Biodiversity? in the context of ever-evolving agricultural sys- tems. A blend of modern science and indigenous To many agricultural intensification means more knowledge will be required to face the chal- purchased inputs such as fertilizers, pesticides, lenges of increasing agricultural production in herbicides, and machinery. Understood in those the decades ahead. Purchased inputs and their terms, intensification is akin to jumping out of judicious use are essential to raise and maintain the frying pan into the fire. Eutrophication of crop yields in many areas. Application of pur- lakes and estuaries, loss of soil microorganisms, chased inputs can be effectively managed to accelerated soil erosion, contamination of minimize environmental damage. The process groundwater, and draining of wetlands-to of crop and livestock intensification needs to be mention a few of the adverse effects of some agri- explored across a range of land-use systems to Agriculture as Friend and Foe of Biodiversity 3 highlight specific strategies for raising yields enhance agricultural productivity as well as bio- while alleviating biodiversity loss. For some diversity conservation are possible. This book land-use systems, purchased inputs are hardly a pinpoints ways this has already been accom- part of the intensification process. Several chap- plished in certain areas and suggests measures ters in this volume explore the theme of intensi- that might accelerate wider adoption of sound fication in some detail, especially the discussion practices. It is hoped that such information will of promising undervalued crops (chapter 2), be useful to those engaged not only in designing land-use systems (chapter 4), and the Iowa case and carrying out agricultural development pro- study (chapter 5). jects but also in helping to establish priorities for agricultural research. Individuals involved pri- Core Issue marily in conserving biodiversity as it is most widely understood-safeguarding wildlife and How agriculture can be intensified while natural habitats-might also find the discussion enhancing biodiversity is the critical question on the complementarities between agriculture this book tackles. Our goal is to identify some of and environmental conservation useful. the critical dimensions of this issue, illuminate their many facets, and suggest policies that mit- Biodiversity and Agrobiodiversity Defined igate adverse effects of agriculture on the envi- ronment. When agriculture provokes excessive Before exploring in more detail the complex soil erosion, loss of forage cover, or pollution of issues surrounding agricultural development streams, it assaults the home of species, and thus and biodiversity, it would be useful to define often diminishes biodiversity. But unsound agri- what we mean by biodiversity and the subset of cultural practices can be transformed so that biological resources that support agricultural productivity increases while the adverse effects production: agrobiodiversity. on biodiversity decrease. Biodiversity has three main dimensions: the Our concern is not simply to highlight ways genetic variation within species and populations, that agricultural practices can be tailored so that the number of species, and habitat preservation they are more "environment-friendly." We are (Srivastava, Smith, and Forno 1996). The signifi- especially concerned with incorporating greater cance of variation within a species is less widely biodiversity within agricultural production sys- appreciated but is critical, particularly for agri- tems. New approaches to agricultural research culture. Continued productivity of existing crops and development are being tried in various and livestock hinges in large part on hamessing places around the world, and virtually all of the genetic variation found within each species. them emphasize a much better harnessing and In biodiversity the number of species is fairly management of biological resources than has straightforward: it is an index of species rich- prevailed in the past. Instead of excessive ness, or the numbers of distinct plants and ani- reliance on an arsenal of potent chemicals to mals in a given environment. Thus tropical improve soil fertility and thwart the attacks of rainforests are especially rich in species, and insects and disease-causing organisms, agricul- their fate has major implications for many crops tural research is geared increasingly to manipu- important for subsistence and cash income in lating genes and releasing predators of crop the tropics and subtropics (box 1.2). To protect pests, among other biological assets. When species and genetically distinct populations of crops and livestock are bred so that they can each species, it is necessary to safeguard their thrive under the incessant onslaught of chal- environments. Without a home, species and lenges to productivity, agricultural production populations cannot survive. systems become more resilient. The issue of habitat conservation has two Agricultural intensification does not auto- parts: safeguarding natural habitats for wild matically trigger greater harm to the environ- species and populations and wisely managing ment. On the contrary it can save and enhance habitats that have been modified for human use, biodiversity. Benign policies and practices that such as farmland. The second item is less well 4 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification Box 1.2 Biodiversity and the tropics Plants and animals that indirectly constitute agrobiodiversity include weedy populations Conservation and management of biodiversity is that exchange genes spontaneously with crops, particularly critical in lower latitudes because they thereby helping them become more hardy; crop contain infinitely more species than typically found in temperate areas. Agrobiodiversity is also excep- pollinators; biocontrol agents that suppress crop tionally high in the humid tropics. Tropical rain- pests; and soil microfauna and microflora. Some forests cover only 7 percent of the earth's surface land-use practices, such as the indiscriminate but are home to more than half of the world's biota use of pesticides, destroy some crop pollinators (Wilson 1988). A couple of specific examples illus- and therefore have a tangible negative effect on trate the extraordinary levels of biodiversity found agrobiodiversity. Overuse of pesticides can also in tropical rainforests and underscore their impor- create a boomerang effect by eliminating preda- tance for conservation and the need for careful management of their biological riches. A 13.7-km2 tors of crop pests, which then develop resistance portion of the La Selva reserve in Costa Rica con- to pesticides. Microorganisms in the soil are crit- tains almost 1,500 plant species, more than are ical in nutrient cycling and may be destroyed or found in all of the United Kingdom (Myers 1988). enhanced by certain agricultural practices (Lal The Malayan Peninsula is only about a third as 1991). Policies can be formulated to help miti- large as the United Kingdom, but it contains five- gate the adverse effects of agricultural practices and-a-half times as many plant species (Whitmore on agrobiodiversity and as off-site effects on 1985). Throughout geological history the tropics other species that are not currently incorporated have been a major source of evolutionary novelty, not simply a refuge that has accumulated diversity i agricultural producton. because of low extinction rates (ablonski 1993). Although it is conceptually useful to differ- Tropical forests contain wild populations of hun- entiate agrobiodiversity from the larger array of dreds of crops, such as mango, coffee, and rubber, species and habitats, it is worth emphasizing that as well as candidates for new crops and livestock. the boundaries between biodiversity and agro- The loss of tropical forests also forecloses on options biodiversity are not clear-cut. All of biodiversity for future agricultural development. Humankind is potentially of use to agriculture, particularly has a collective responsibility to ensure that such with the power of emerging biotechnologies. novelty is available for future generations. Agriculture is highly dynamic, and the interface between domesticated plants and animals and understood among the general public and many wild species is constantly shifting. A wild plant policymakers. Economic growth and poverty or animal of little or no current market value alleviation hinge in large measure on managing could provide significant employment and biodiversity in habitats transformed by humans, income in the future. The fact that it is not easy to such as farmland, rangeland, and forests ex- draw a firm line between biodiversity and agro- ploited for lumber and nontimber forest prod- biodiversity only underscores the importance of ucts. How farmers and livestock owners conserving as much biodiversity as feasible for manipulate natural resources is therefore critical its future value for agricultural development, to the question of conserving biodiversity. among other reasons. It is in habitats that have been modified for Agriculture has a direct stake in safeguard- crop and livestock production that one finds ing wider biodiversity. Wild species are essential agrobiodiversity. All plants and animals that con- for agricultural improvement because they are tribute directly or indirectly to raising crops and sources of new economic plants and animals and livestock can be considered. Agrobiodiversity provide important services such as pollination includes crops and their varieties, as well as live- and pest control (figure 1.1). Advances in stock and the different breeds that have been biotechnology are also pushing back the limits developed over the ages to suit different cultural to exchanging genes between unrelated organ- needs and to fit a wide array of environments. isms. Some managed habitats, such as agroforestry sys- Given the ultimate importance of biodiver- tems, can be surprisingly rich in both species and sity to agriculture, a strategy for mainstreaming varieties. biodiversity in agricultural development should Agriculture as Friend and Foe of Biodiversity 5 FIgure 1.1 Habitat biodiversity enhances natural pest control mechanisms Predator nmvements between habitats AquaVc predators, frogs / Lrval aaiod \/ Control mechanismsl i iv0^, Hopper Spiders, i I ,^ ~~pardshoids crickets, ¢ Pest movements acoss habitats Rats, leaf-feeding insects, pathogens, snails, weeds Somre: Intemaronai Race Research Instihte 1996. address the off-site effects of land-use systems. breeders, farmers, and ultimately consumers- Steps in this direction are outlined in the call for thus share a common concern for the conserva- a new agricultural research and development tion of "natural" areas with their wild plant and paradigm. Work is already under way to address animal life as well as "cultural" habitats-envi- a range of issues related to off-site effects, includ- ronments that have been significantly altered by ing reduction or elimination of agricultural pol- human activities. lutants in groundwater and in run-off and Biodiversity is both a product of evolution greater emphasis on integrated pest manage- and the essential raw material for future diver- ment strategies. sification of life on earth (Wood 1993). If species To conserve and better use biodiversity, it is and genetic variation are diminished by human essential to preserve and manage a diverse array activities, options are closed for improving of habitats, ranging from areas with little human agriculture and many other activities that are disturbance to environments that are managed essential for human survival and economic for a variety of products. A species cannot thrive growth. For all its glamour the marvels of if its environment is destroyed or seriously genetic engineering can never be a substitute impaired. Agricultural scientists-including for the myriad trajectories of evolution. 6 Biodiversity and Agricultural Int,?nsificaition Humankind cannot afford to dispense with ture. In contrast numerous projects focused on the species and their genetic variation just because conservation and management of elephants, we now have the power to synthesize genes in birds, and pandas (Wood 1993). the laboratory or to create deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) libraries. Such feats are no match Agrobiodiversity, Cultural Habitats, for the laboratories of evolution that continu- and Indigenous Knowledge ously create novel biodiversity in the broad range of cultural and natural habitats. Rather, Human cultures are interwoven in the biodiver- recombinant DNA techniques are gradually sity fabric. Most of the habitats on earth have being added to the toolboxes of plant and ani- been modified to some extent by people, usually mal breeders and underscore the value of con- deliberately but sometimes inadvertently. serving biodiversitt. Cultural habitats range from grasslands that are frequently burned to improve forage for cattle, Agrobiodiversity: Neglected Stepchild to highly managed environments such as rice in the Rush to Conserve Bicodiversity paddies. National parks encompass ordly3.2per- cent of the earth's land surface, whereas human To many biodiversity conservation is essentially activities have modified most of the remaining synonymous with protecting showcase mam- area (Pimentel and others 1992). Any strategy mals, birds, and wild and spectacular land- that purports to address biodiversity conserva- scapes. While efforts to safeguard the habitats of tion must take into consideration the wide spec- wildlife certainly warrant support this conven- trum of habitats modified by a diverse array of tional approach to conservis ; h Wdiversity is cultures. insufficient. Most of the earth's surface has now It follows then that traditional knowledge been modified in various ways by human activ- systems are critical to the sustainability of farm- ities. On a global scale less than 5 percent of the ing and natural resource management. Local land is in nominally protected parks or reserves, peoples have evolved with their environments and some 70 percent of the total land surface is and have acquired considerable knowledge in agriculture or managed forests (Pimentel and about the locations and appropriate strategies others 1992). Considerable biodiversity is often for harvesting and managing their resources found in areas managed for agricultural pro- (Thrupp 1989; Thrupp, Cabarle, and Zazveta duction or extractive product9 in both industrial 1994). The integrity of cultural systems that have and developing countries. In Germany, for adapted to the numerous habitats on earth is example, only about a third of the species found therefore an essential part of biodiversity in that country are in protected areas. And in conservation. northeastern Italy the number of arthropod How and why rural people conserve, species in the soil and litter of natural forest and enhance, and use biodiversity has rarely been a maize field were about the sarne, although taken into account when designing manage- species composition differed JPaoletti 1988). In ment interventions and devising policy for agri- the past, efforts to promote b d iversity conser- cultural development and natural resource vation have largely ignored the value of agro- management. The active participation of farm- biodiversity. ers, ranchers, and pastoralists-and especially The neglect of agrobiodiversity in the portfo- resource-poor operators-is essential in design- lios of lending and development organizations, as ing and carrying out biodiversity and agricul- well as in treaties and conventions that deal with tural development projects (Thrupp, Cabarle, environmentalconservation,is 7tvik Chapter7 and Zazveta 1994; Wilcox and Duin 1995). of this volume explores the agir!i ilt 1-. 1ancd rural Incorporating indigenous knowledge is thus an development portfolio of the World Bank. A integral part of the new paradigm for agricul- recent examination of U.S. fund ing for biodiver- tural research and development that is emerg- sity conservation revealed that of 873 projects, ing at various speeds in different parts of the only four dealt with genetic resources for agricul- world. Agriculture as Friend and Foe of Biodiversity 7 The Critical Role of the Business Community agrobiodiversity to generate income for locals and to enrich the diets of people around the All stakeholders must be involved in the wise world. management and conservation of agrobiodiver- Many of the innovative approaches to mar- sity. Often the importance of the private sector is keting the untapped wealth of biodiversity in ignored in such discussions. The roots of this Latin America are likely to come from relatively oversight probably arise from the idea that the small-scale enterprises. One example is Kapok profit motive is a major force propelling envi- International, based in Chagrin Falls, Ohio. ronmental destruction and overexploitation of Kapok has a Brazilian subsidiary in Manaus, plants and animals. Degradation of habitats has Brazil, and markets Amazonian fish. Kapok occurred across a broad spectrum of political soon expects to begin marketing some unusual systems reaching far back in time. Today few Amazonian fruits for the juice and candy indus- would take issue with the notion that the busi- tries in North America (box 1.3). ness community has an important role to play in With assistance from the International better using and helping to manage biodiversity. Finance Corporation (IFC) an innovative trust A recurring theme in this volume is that fund has been established to spur greater private market forces can be harnessed to ferret out sector investments and better use and manage- crops or old varieties that are in danger of slip- ment of the wealth of biological resources in ping into extinction and promoting them. The Latin America (box 1.4). As experience accumu- same idea applies to ancient but dwindling live- lates about what works and what to avoid with stock breeds and some unconventional live- such specialized investment funds, expansion of stock species such as iguanas. If markets can be these efforts should be considered in Latin found for forgotten crops and livestock breeds, America and in other regions. they are more likely to survive. Gene banks and The private sector has critical roles to play at embryo stores cannot be relied on to save all the various steps in the process of better using agro- varieties and breeds that are no longer com- biodiversity. In planting material multinational mercially viable. Markets are constantly chang- seed companies dominate the production and sale ing, and new opportunities are emerging for of major cereals, but opportunities also exist for tapping some of these dwindling pockets of small-scale private seed companies to exploit the Box 1.3 Opportunities in Amazonian agrobiodiversity Turning the tide on the rapid destruction of species- One product Kapok International expects to mar- rich rainforests will happen only if the economic ket in the near future is cupuacu. Pronounced coo-poo- needs of the local people are addressed. To that end a-su, this relative of cacao renders a fine chocolate-like Kapok International is seeking to develop new mar- drink with a hint of citrus. Cupuacu makes a creamy- kets for some intriguing Amazonian fruits little tasting cocoa without milk, a big plus for the millions known outside the region. Based in Chagrin Falls, of people who suffer from lactose intolerance. Fine Ohio, the company is exploring the potential of non- cupuacu chocolate bars also may soon grace super- timber forest products and promising crops that can market shelves. Drinks containing cupuacu pulp have be grown or collected on a sustainable basis. In this appeared recently in several U.S. markets. manner economic value will be added to forests, and Lack of infrastructure in most parts of the Amazon locals can improve their standards of living. is a major impediment to exploring the full potential of Market opportunities in the United States abound the region's numerous tropical fruits. Poorly main- for "cause-oriented" foods. U.S. and other consumers tained roads impede the timely delivery of fruits to pro- are increasingly interested in novel foods, especially cessing plants. Unsanitary conditions and inadequate if they come from exotic locations such as the refrigeration at the few agroindustrial plants in the Amazon. And some consumers are willing to pay a regionalsohindertheexportof frozenpulpsandpurees premium for extractive and agricultural products to demanding markets in North America and Europe. that have been obtained without damaging the envi- With supportive agricultural policies and an improved ronment or the cultures of local people, especially investment climate, such barriers can be overcome to indigenous groups. the benefit of consumers, local people, and biodiversity. 8 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification Box 1.4 Biodiversity Enterprise Fund Rationalefor the Fund for Latin America * Business case. Many opportunities exist in The private sector can help prevent the loss of bio- Latin America to invest profitably in biodi- diversity by generating income from intact systems versity projects. such as ecotourism receipts and by promoting more sustainable farming operations. More biodiversity- * Need for equity. The availability of long-term friendly agriculture includes organic farming and resources for small and medium-size projects creation of markets for underused crops or tradi- in Latin America is scarce, particularly in the tional varieties of megacrops. The Biodiversity nascent industry of biodiversity-related enter- Enterprise Fund for Latin America hopes to help prises. achieve these aims by providing $20-$30 million of * Timing. The growing threat to biological venture capital for small-scale enterprises starting resources has underscored the importance of in late 1996. involving all stakeholders-including the The market for certified organic or sustainably vivovn all sako rincludinguthe harvested products is growing not only in Europe private sector-in managing and safeguard- and North America but also in some developing ing biodiversity. country markets. In Europe alone sales of certified * Catalytic role. The fund will demonstrate the organic produce was in the vicinity of $7 billion in economic viability of private sector approach- 1994. Demand in the United States for similar pro- es to the sustainable uses of biodiversity. duce has grown 25 percent a year for the last three years. Investment Focus growing demand for unconventional crops, par- * Sustainable or alternative agriculture (organic ticularly in areas where the crops have recently farming, aquaculture, recycling of agricul- been introduced. Although the private sector is tural wastes, and underused species) still a relatively minor player as a source of new * Sustainable forestry (selective harvesting, varieties in most developing countries, this pic- mixed-species plantations) ture is gradually changing (Dalrymple and * Sustainable harvesting of nontimber forest Srivastava 1994). National and international poli- products cies are needed to facilitate this encouraging trend. * Ecotourism. Undergirding Themes Sponsors and Investors Three main ideas underpin this book. First, bio- Sponsors and investors include private sector diversity conservation is essential to efforts to investors from South America and abroad, foun- make agricultural development more sustainable dations, bilateral and multilateral organizations, (box 1.5). Biodiversity furnishes a constant source and other strategic investors. The IFC will invest of new genetic material to improve crops and $5 million or 20 percent of the initial capitaliza- livestock and of new crops and domestic animals. tion, whichever is lower. Second, agriculture must be intensified in an environment-friendly manner to reduce pressure Managetnent on remaining habitats for wild plants and ani- mals. Third, it will be easier to conserve and bet- A new fund management company led by expe- ter use biodiversity if its value is more widely rienced personnel in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, will appreciated. This does not necessarily mean plac- direct the fund. The fund management company ing monetary value on all biodiversity in a given has a board of directors and an investment com- area, an extremely difficult task. Rather, it means mittee to decide on investment proposals. In assessing the cultural as well as market value of addition an advisory board of scientists, non- plants and animals. For example, if local people governmental organizations (NGOs), and busi- no longer have any use for a variety, it will be dif- ness organizations counsels the fund on ficult to convince them to continue producing it. biodiversity issues. Agriculture as Friend and Foe of Biodiversity 9 Agricultural intensification is not necessarily Bo 1.ricuitura sit a synonymous with mechanization and the heavy use of purchased inputs. In the agenda for action As with any ecosystem the functioning and sustain- section of chapter 8 elements of a new research ability of agricultural systems depend greatly on and development agenda are highlighted that biological diversity. Through an experimental study, Tilman, Wedin, and Knops (1996) demonstrated that promise to help intensify agricultural production more diverse plant communities use and retain without assaulting biodiversity. The premise is nutrients more efficiently, thereby attaining greater that without sustainable agricultural intensifica- productivity and reducing nutrient-leaching losses tion, little biodiversity of developing countries from the ecosystem. Various soil microbes also effec- will survive the next century. tively recycle nutrients. Earthworms, insects, and Although intensification alone will not guar- fungi all play a vital role. antee the survival of wild biodiversity, it at least Biological diversity also enhances natural pest creates the possibility. For those unconvinced control mechanisms in agroecosystems. In fact every that intensification is the way to go, a question species that exists in agroecosystems has intrinsic value. Insects provide a virtually untapped source of arises: How can the world's population, which food (Defoliart 1989), dyes (C. L. Metcalf, Flint, and will double before it stabilizes, find sufficient R. C. Metcalf 1962), and pharmaceutical products food and other products from landscapes cur- (Eisner 1990). Elimination or addition of even one rently managed or abused? Most of the popula- species can have profound effects. Pimentel and oth- tion growth will take place in developing ers (1992) cite a remarkable example to illustrate this. Uni a fe yer ag.olnto folpl countries, precisely where mnost of the world's Until a few years ago pollhnation of oil-palm trees in boiestmscnenrtd farclua Malaysia was done manually-an inefficient and biodiversity is concentrated. If agricultural expensive way of performing the task. Ten years ago intensification is not pursued, then the only way the government introduced a tiny weevil from West production can increase is by clearing-and Africa's forests associated with palm pollination. destroying-much of the remaining wild her- The pollination of palm trees in Malaysia is now itage of plants and animals. entirely accomplished by the weevil, lending to annual savings of $140 million (Greathead 1983). References Contact Information Abromovitz, J. N. 1994. "Biodiversity and Gender International Finance Corporation Issues: Recognizing Common Ground." In W. 1850 I Street, N.W. Harcourt, ed., Feminist Perspectives on Sustainable Washington, D.C. 20034 ~~~~Developnment. London: Zed Books. WEashington, D.C. 20034 Avery, D. T. 1996. "Low on Farm Science, High on Michael Rubino Pledges," Des Moines Register. 9 June. Tel.: 202-473-2891 Bohac, J., and K. Pokarzhevsky. 1987. "Effect of Manure Fax.: 202-334-8705 and NPK on Soil Macrofauna in Chemozem Soil." Evan McCordick In J. Szegi, ed., Soil Biology and Conservation of Tel.: 202-473 0674 Biosphere. Vols. 1-2. Proceedings of the Ninth International Symposium. Budapest: Akademiai Fax.: 202-676-0746 Kiado. Brown, L. R. 1995. Who Will Feed China? Wake-Up Call The connection between agricultural intensi- for a Small Planet. New York: W. W. Norton. fication and biodiversity preservation is fre- Dalrymple, D. G., and J. P. Srivastava. 1994. "Transfer quently debated. Some would argue that of Plant Cultivars: Seeds, Sectors and Society." In J. quently debated. Some would argue that R. Anderson, ed., Agricultural Technology: Policy agricultural intensification only exacerbates Issues for the International Community. Wallingford, environmental problems, such as eutrophication U.K.: C.A.B. International. of lakes through excessive use of fertilizers or Defoliart, G. R. 1989. "The Human Use of Insects as pesticide contamination of soils and waters. A Food and as Animal Feed," Bulletin of the strategy for sustainable agricultural intensifica- Entomological Society of America 35:22-35. Diamond, J. M., K. D. Bishop, and S. Van Balen. 1987. tion will have to incorporate a blend of modem, "Bird Survival in an Isolated Javan Woodland: scientific approaches to increased agricultural Island or Mirror?" Conservation Biology 1: 132-42. production and some traditional methods. Eisner, T. 1990. "Prospective for Nature's Chemical 10 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification Riches," Issues in Science and Technology 6 (2): 31-34. Paper 321. Washington, D.C. Greathead, D. J. 1983. "The Multi-Million-Dollar Thrupp, L. A. 1989. "Legitimizing Local Knowledge: Weevil That Pollinates Oil-Palm," Antenna 7:105-7. from Displacement to Empowerment for Third Jablonski, D. 1993. "The Tropics as a Source of World People," Agriculture and Human Values 6 (3): Evolutionary Novelty through Geological Time," 13-24. Nature 364:142-44. Thrupp, L. A., B. 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Harmonizing Biodiversity Conservation and Agricultural Development Noel Vietmeyer F or most of human history people have their conditions. From the 20,000 edible species depended on hunting, fishing, and gather- about 3,000 were sampled. Eventually only a fews ing for their sustenance. Finding food was hundred became seriously cultivated in fieldis fraught with danger because many of the and gardens. In the last fifty years or so less thar world's 250,000 plant species are poisonous. 100 crops and 24 domesticated animals have Over tens of thousands of years of trial and error, been significant enough to be included in gioh,, however, our ancestors identified about 20,000 lists of agricultural crops. species of plants with leaves, seeds, stems, fruits, Today the food base is smaller than ever. pods, shoots, flowers, stems, tubers, or other dozen crops now feed most of humanity. These parts that were safe to eat. They also found 2,000 pillar crops include cereals such as barley, m\a i 7e. edible mushrooms. And they probably regularly millet, rice, sorghum, and wheat; several root ate most of the world's 3,500 mammals and 9,000 crops such as cassava, potato, and sweet potato, birds, not to mention some reptiles (such as igua- and a handful of legumes such as beal Is. nas), amphibians (especially frogs), and about peanuts, and soybean; and bananas, coco'rnut. 1,000 insects. In sum prehistoric people collec- and sugarcane (figure 2.1). tively employed an enormous reservoir of food In the same way the number of species tisefi biodiversity-all of it wild. in forestry has also narrowed. At least 50,00(0 During this trial-and-error period a few useful species of trees exist, yet conifers comprise 70--80 plants were probably protected or encouraged percent of the roughly 100 million hectarps 'I near campsites. Then about 10,000 years ago agri- forestry plantations. Even among cultivated culture began in earnest as people started to culti- conifers only a small range of the available vate some promising plants. Plant domestication species is grown. Most commercial planting, began independently in Africa, China, the Middle include only a few species from the genmi s Pi nv . ; East, South and Central America, and Southeast Among non-conifers one or two species .4 Asia. But during the transition to agriculture no poplars and eucalypts dominate. one understood pollination, genetics, fertilizers, Animal husbandry followed a narrowirig microbial pest organisms, or the other knowledge course as well. Most of the world's 3,500 mam- that we now consider indispensable for domesti- mals and 9,000 birds-not to mention numerons cating any species. reptiles and insects-have been trapped, snared, speared, netted, or grabbed for food at one time Narrowing Used Species or another. But over the millenia only a couple dozen were domesticated, such as the turkey, With the passing millennia farmers understand- duck, goose, water buffalo, horse, donkev, ably focused on the plants most amenable to camel, and alpaca. Today almost all meat, milk, 11 12 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification Figure 2.1 Annual production of crops that feed humanity harvest then provided slightly better food: roots Wheat 360 became plumper, fruits sweeter, seeds quicker Nce ____________320_______ cooking, or vegetable leaves more tender. For Rice _11 320 livestock farmers bred types that gained weight Com 300 faster, gave more milk or more wool, or were bet- Potato 300 ter at pulling carts or laying eggs. In some cases Barley _ i 170 this age-old selection process has produced the Sweet potato 130 good-tasting, high-yielding, attractive crop vari- Cassava 100 eties and productive livestock that we rely on for the bulk of our food. Horticulture depends on Grapea 60 the same approach, cloning elite varieties such Soybean _ 60 as Red Delicious apples, for example. Forestry is Oats 50 moving in the same direction and is now start- Sorghum _ ing to clone top-performing tree specimens. Sugarcane 50 Reliance on a select array of crop varieties Millet _ 45 and livestock breeds produces record harvests and is the basic reason the earth's 5 billion peo- Bananat 35 ple are as relatively well fed as they are. The nar- Tomato " 35 rowing process has reached dangerous Sugar beet M 30 thresholds, however. Large numbers of farmers Rye U 30 now employ the same varieties and breeds over Orange * 30 wide areas, even on different continents. The Coconut n 30 seeds that farmers sow may come from differ- ent companies, but they often contain much the same genetic material. In the United States, for Apple U 20 example, all commercially grown maize comes Yam J 20 from just six strains, two-thirds of rice from Peanut i 20 four, half the cotton from three, and half the Watermelon 5 20 wheat from nine. Wheat on the Great Plains can Cabbage U IS actually be the same variety from horizon to Onion 1 I horizon5 In animal husbandry genetic uniformity is Bean 1 10 such that a handful of breeds now dominate Pea l 0 worldwide. In North America, for instance, vir- Sunflower seed 10 tually all beef comes from two breeds (Angus Mango I 10 and Hereford), while Holsteins produce most of 0 100 200 300 the continent's milk. In industrial nations virtu- Annual production ally all broiler chickens are a cross between (millions of metric tons) White Cornish and White Plymouth Rock, and Source: Vietmeyer 1986. chickens destined for commercial egg produc- tion are also derived from the interbreeding of eggs, and other animal products come from just just two strains. The world's turkey farmers buy five animals: cattle, pigs, goats, sheep, and chick- more than half of their chicks from a single ens. corporation. Genetic narrowing in crop production, forestry, and animal husbandry is even greater Increasing Vulnerability than we realize because farmers have selected individual specimens whose qualities stood out Genetic uniformity raises the danger that crop from the rest. For crops farmers have tended to and livestock resources could succumb to dis- save only seeds of elite plants. The subsequent eases or pests. Domesticated organisms are par- Harmonizing Biodiversity Conservation and Agricultural Development 13 ticularly at risk because from nature's perspec- the wheat crop in 1904. In 1917 another rust tive they are unnatural. Because people have mutant rose up so destructively that the gov- chosen plants for traits such as tender leaves, ernment had to institute wheatless days. In large seeds, good flavor, and synchronized ger- the 1950s yet another rust caused similar mination, the transformed plants are often ill- destruction. Most Americans could find adapted to cope with nature, where hard leaves, alternative foods, but other nations are not small seeds, bad flavor, and variable germina- always so lucky In 1943, for instance, the tion are necessary protections. The danger is not wheat crop's failure in eastern India brought so much that disease will break out but that- on a disastrous famine and the death of mil- with all the specimens so genetically similar-a lions of people. small outbreak will explode into a catastrophic * Rice. In Indonesia a serious rice pest, the epidemic and devastate the primary production brown planthopper, became resistant to vir- that keeps humanity fed. tually every insecticide by the 1980s. This In addition to the specter of an uncontrol- hardy insect threatened to wipe out all of lable disease farmers must cope with shifting Asia's hard-won self-sufficiency in rice. demands for agricultural products. Contrary to * Potato. In 1846 Ireland's potato fields fell vic- public perceptions agriculture is never static; it tim to a Mexican fungus that the potato plant must constantly adjust to a changing environ- (which hails from South America) had not ment triggered by new technologies, emerging previously encountered in Europe. Today at consumer preferences, rising fuel prices, alter- least a dozen fungi capable of similar devas- ations in pricing policies, and even climate tation are known; if any of them reached epi- change. A narrowed genetic base reduces the demic proportions in potato fields, they options for adapting to change. could threaten the lives and fortunes of mil- The ability of agricultural and pastoral sys- lions of Africans Asians, Latin Americans, tems to adjust to change and meet ever-increas- and Europeans. One such fungal threat, a ing demands for food and other agricultural variant of the same species that once devas- products thus hinges on the availability of a tated Ireland, is already on the rampage, and broad range of plant and animal resources. Only current potato varieties appear to be suscep- when the integrity of this genetic safety net is tible to it. assured can agriculture remain productive and * Cassava. A mealybug that destroys cassava- resilient in the face of unexpected shocks. And the food of last resort for millions of the those unexpected shocks can be very real. world's poor-was detected in Zaire in 1973. Consider these examples from the history of Within ten years this insect had penetrated agriculture and forestry. some thirty-four countries where 200 million Africans depend on this resilient crop for Agriculture their lives. By 1982 yields had plummeted as much as 60 percent, forcing millions to aban- All the major crops have their own natural ene- don the root that for generations has been mies that can bring on catastrophic collapse. The their staple. history of agriculture is replete with examples of * Citrus. In 1985 citrus canker suddenly such collapses: appeared in Florida where the few strains of Wheat. Ancient writings of the Middle East oranges and grapefruit are all susceptible to and Mediterranean describe devastating this disease-causing agent. Nothing could be grain losses that brought famines and even done to combat the newly arrived bacterium the downfall of whole societies. Thousands other than sacrifice 12 million valuable trees of years later a disturbing succession of stem, before the whole crop became infected. leaf, and stripe rusts and major outbreaks of * Banana. Black Sigatoka, a fungal plague that viruses, smuts, and other microbes are still kills banana plants, appeared in Fiji in the concerns. In the United States, for example, a 1920s and is now moving inexorably around stem-rust epidemic destroyed almost all of the globe, bringing disaster to the world's 14 Hiodiversity and Agricultural Intensification biggest fruit crop. Even worse in human shelter, and many other items that we enjoy or terms would be the loss of the plantains and need. cooking bananas upon which millions of The problem now is that many landacres of lives depend. Most varieties of bananas and old varieties and local breeds are being lost as plantains are susceptible to black Sigatoka. farmers are attracted to the narrower base of higher-yielding and other premium varieties Foorestry bred by modern science. If an African, Chinese, or Mexican farmer abandons a variety that has [hle risk inherent in relying on a handful of traditionally fed his or her family, that genetic species or clones is also evident in forestry line may become extinct in a year-even less if species: the family eats the seed that would have been * Poplar. In France a single poplar clone grown used for replanting. throughout the country succumbed to dis- Just like last year's farm machinery, many ease in recent years. New Zealand had a sim- plant varieties and animal breeds formerly held ilar experience in the 1980s. in high regard are considered obsolete and are a Pine. New Zealand has instituted military- nearly extinct. For example, the Rhode Island style operations to keep out bark beetles and Red, once North America's premier chicken, is gypsy moths that have devastated pine plan- almost gone. Ten years ago the United States tations in other regions. Radiata pine is annually registered 10,000 Tamworth pigs; planted over vast areas in New Zealand and today there are some 1,000 Tamworths alive. A is so important that the national economy few decades ago Ayrshire, Guernsey, Jersey, and could collapse without it. Milking Shorthorn were worldwide dairy * Rubber. Most of the world's rubber comes breeds; today they are unknown in the dozens of from just eight clones, each at risk should a countries that once relied on them. pest or pathogen arrive. South America har- The situation is hardly better in the wild. hors a leaf-blight fungus that will wipe them Until this century seemingly endless natural all out if its spores ever manage to gain a preserves such as tropical forests maintained foothold in Southeast Asia. The potential for crops' ancestors and botanical relatives. Even Sex vsteition is therefore very real, with likely though wild crops may look unkempt next to caiamitous results for anyone who depends their highly bred brethren they are vitally on wheeled vehicles. important: left to battle for survival, they have retained age-old immunities. Long buffeted by Biodiversity Defense weed competition, drought and disease, insects, fungi, heat and cold, they are treasure chests of Painful collapses of agricultural and forestry genes. After all, only the strong and adaptable yields have taught agricultural researchers that have endured. to neglect diverse gene sources is to endanger When specific genes are needed in the future, humanity. Biodiversity is a sort of immune sys- we now run the risk that they may not be avail- teim husbanded by previous generations. To able. Consider a recent close call with the coffee pass it on undiminished is each generation's crop. Coffee production has been flirting with charge. failure ever since an incurable leaf rust appeared Agricultural biodiversity encompasses the in Ceylon in 1869, sapping the life out of coffee genetic foundations that support every type of trees. It turned the British into tea drinkers and land use: field farming, horticulture, pasturing, Latin Americans into the world's coffee produc- even aquaculture. And biodiversity underpins ers. But in 1970 the fungus was spotted in Brazil, muitch more than food resources. Cultivated and in 1976 it showed up in Central America. plants provide humankind with wood, paper, Fearing that coffee production would collapse as rubber, resins, dyes, medicinals, and insecti- it had in Ceylon, researchers began scouring the cides, to name a few. In fact their biodiversity forests of Ethiopia, the original source of the sustaints rtost things in our lives: food, clothing, main form of coffee. They were just in time. Harmonizing Biodiversity Conservation and Agricultural Development 15 Almost 90 percent of the forest had been * The U.S. spinach crop is protected from blight removed, and new roads were slicing up the and wilt by genes from a Chinese large-leafed remainder. Most wild coffee trees had already spinach, whose seeds an American plant been cut and burned, but a few samples were explorer picked up early in the century. collected and planted in Costa Rica. Some have These few examples show that when it comes proven resistant to the leaf rust. to biodiversity, no nation is an island; each depends on others for genes to sustain its crops. Vital Cradle Regions Today's Precarious Situation Sites where crops emerged from the wild are par- ticularly important sources of disease and pest Pests and diseases have destroyed plants ever resistance. Scientists can identify those cradle since both evolved millions of years ago, but the regions because there they find an array of ances- presence of uniform crops laid out in massive tral varieties and wild relatives. For instance, blocks can induce outbreaks on a global scale. Southwestem Asia (Afghanistan to Turkey) is the Indeed, only stringent quarantine, intense plant source of wheat, rye, peas, carrots, apples, and breeding, a few biological controls, and syn- pears. China produced soybeans, peaches, and thetic pesticides have thwarted the hungry several vegetables; Southeast Asia, rice, sugar- hordes in recent times. But the future is more cane, and bananas; Mexico and the Caribbean, uncertain than ever. For one thing concern over maize, sweet potato, beans, squash, and avocado; the hazards of chemical sprays is removing one and South America, pineapple, potato, tomato, of the four weapons. chili peppers, peanut, papaya, and chocolate. The quarantine system is also breaking down Most cradle regions are in the developing world. because jet aircraft are giving insects, bacteria, Scientists have often dipped their nets into and fungi that cannot survive long sea journeys biodiversity riches and saved food supplies in a chance to globe hop. They may inadvertently probably every nation on earth. Examples of stow away in the hold of an airplane, in soil on such genetic trawling include: a person's shoe, or in the luggage of travelers - The blight that devastated Ireland's potato convinced that one little fruit could not possibly crop in the last century was overcome with hurt the next country. In the new home, how- resistance genes found in a wild potato in ever, the pests and diseases can find a paradise Mexico, the home of the fungus that causes of gourmet dining and few natural enemies to the disease. block them. * A nondescript Mexican maize saved the Biological controls have proved no panacea. American maize crop in the early 1970s when They take time to develop and are specific to cer- another blight struck 50 percent of the crop. tain predators and parasites that attack a given * Rice grown in Southeast Asia is protected pest and nothing else. Indeed, the introduced from four main rice diseases by genes located controls can themselves become pests, as hap- providentially in a single species of wild rice pened in Australia with a toad imported to eat from India. sugarcane borers. * A barley plant from Ethiopia has provided a Because humanity must henceforth get along gene that protects California's $160 million with a reduced chemical arsenal, a leaky quar- barley crop, as well as Canada's barley crop. antine system, and limited biological controls, * Tomatoes could not be grown commercially boosting crops' own self-defenses through bio- without genes from at least nine wild rela- diversity has become the main hope for sustain- tives from Peru. ing the supply of resources on which humanity * On the eve of World War II Central America's depends. banana industry was rescued by genes from Mobilizing more genes is also the main a banana plant collected in a botanic garden means of responding to changing needs. For in Saigon that provided resistance to the dev- instance, pressure to boost farm productivity is astating Panama disease. rising because another billion people will soon 16 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification need food. Moreover, the food supply is faced ever-increasing quantities. Starfruit and kiwi are with an increasing array of environmental chal- examples. The appetite for new taste sensations lenges, including creeping deserts, dropping in affluent nations is driving the demand for water tables, water and air pollution, floods, novelty products, and modern technologies, soil erosion, acid rain. In the face of these con- such as packaging, chilled air-freight, and ditions biodiversity will be needed more than controlled-atmosphere containers help make it ever. possible. Even the pharmaceutical industry, a former Changing Paradigm bastion of synthetic resources, is returning to natural products in search of new possibilities Luckily, appreciation for biodiversity is mount- for commerce. Moreover, as agricultural land or ing. People are increasingly aware of the impor- irrigation water becomes scarce in countries like tance of returning to nature in search of better Chile and Israel, producers are turning to new, ways to do things. Following fifty years of chem- high-value food crops. ical breakthroughs (sulfa drugs, superphosphate, A vivid broadening of agricultural diversity herbicides, nylon, and plastic foams)-some of can be seen in Homestead, Florida, which is which are being reevaluated or withdrawn (DDT, becoming one of the world's most diverse and for example)-a more harmonious blend of dynamic farming areas. Many of its fruits and approaches is now being attempted. Reinstating vegetables hail from developing nations and are nature is creating a new and better balanced era being grown by immigrant farmers. These foods of sustainability. are being marketed nationwide and even world- This shift in direction will have a particularly wide, giving poor people's crops a chance to noticeable impact in developing countries in compete (box 2.2). Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Vast new win- dows of opportunity are opening because those Changing Needs countries are crammed with species largely overlooked by science and technology. Burgeoning recognition of sustainability (as For example, developing world food plants opposed to just productivity) opens whole new include 3,000 fruits, 1,000 vegetables, several fields for biodiversifying global resources. This hundred grains, and perhaps 100 roots and is creating new opportunities for previously tubers. Even today their varieties are unsorted, unconsidered plants. Here are a few examples: their requirements unquantified, their poten- * Wastewater treatment. Duckweeds and other tials undetermined. Ignorant outsiders may see aquatic plants are starting to be used instead these unlisted food plants as obsolete, uncom- of conventional methods for treating waste- petitive, and unwanted, but some of the foods- water. Grown in man-made wetlands, they such as Africa's bambara groundnut, Asia's offer an inexpensive way to help relieve one jackfruit, and Latin America's oca-are actually of the world's worst public health problems, feeding millions and have exceptional qualities sewage-born disease. There is a wealth of for global use (see chapter 4). aquatic plant biodiversity with formerly These lesser-known food crops have been undreamed of potential. generally neglected because the world's research * Land stabilization. Hedges placed on the con- centers are concentrated in the temperate zones. tour are now seen as a new tool for erosion Some food crops are also ignored because they control, replacing terracing and land shap- are considered poor people's plants (box 2.1). ing, creating demands for formerly obscure plants such as vetiver, switchgrass, and vari- Market Diversification ous tropical shrubs. * Soil restoration. A rising interest in green For many kinds of produce export opportuni- manures and cover crops is creating niches ties are brighter than ever. New fruits and veg- for many formerly unknown legumes that etables are being shipped around the world in can restore fertility to soil in place of fertilizer. Harmonizing Biodiversity Conservation and Agricultural Development 17 Box 2.1 Poor people's plants It is a universal phenomenon that certain plants are potential. Some of the world's best crops are waiting stigmatized by their humble associations. Scores of in the poor person's gardens. Merely to have sur- highly promising crop plants around the world vived as useful crops suggests that the plants are receive no research funding, no recognition from the inherently superior. They are already suited to the agricultural community; they are ostracized as poor poor person's small plots, mixed farming, and poor person's crops. soils. The plants poor people grow are usually robust, For information on a poor person's crop one has productive, self-reliant, and useful-the very type to turn more often than not to botanists, anthropolo- needed to feed the hungriest regions. gists, and geographers. Only they will have taken an The marama bean is just one example. Known interest in the plant. Often there has been no agricul- only in the Kalahari and neighboring sandy, semi- tural research on it at all-no varieties collected or desert regions of southem Africa, this legume feeds compared, no germination or spacing trials, no yield some of the poorest of the earth's people: those in determinations or even nutritional analyses. And yet Botswana, Namibia, and South Africa who still sub- the crop actually may be crucial to the quality of life- sist solely on wild fruits and plants, game, and birds. even the survival-of millions. To the !Kung bushmen it is the second most impor- Peanuts, potatoes, and other common crops once tant food. When roasted, its seeds have a rich, nutty suffered this same discrimination. In the United flavor that has been likened to that of cashews or States the peanut was considered to be slave food almonds. The seeds are exceptionally nutritious, with until little more than a century ago, and in the 1600s a protein content (37 percent) essentially the same as the English refused to eat potatoes because they con- soybean and an oil content (33 percent) simnilar to the sidered them Irish food. Just fifty years ago the now- peanut. Marama bean is a poor person's plant whose cherished soybean was itself a poor person's crop in nutritional content ranks with two of the world's best the United States, where researchers had spumed it protein and food energy sources. since Benjamin Franklin first introduced seeds from In addition to its seeds the marama bean produces the Jardin des Plantes in Paris. To advocate soybean tubers that can weigh as much as 40 kilograms and then was to risk being branded a crackpot. Early in grow to 1 meter in diameter. People of the Kalahari this century Americans still considered the soybean region dig up the young tubers when they weigh a second-rate crop, fit only for export to poor people about 1 kilogram. Baked, boiled, or roasted, they in the Far East. The crop acquired new status as a have a pleasant, sweet flavor and make a good veg- legitimate research target only in the 1920s, and its etable dish. The succulent flesh, sometimes contain- development gained so much momentum that it now ing as much as 90 percent moisture, is an important is the nation's most valuable crop in dollar terms. emergency source of water. Nowhere is the neglect of poor person's crops With such attributes this poor person's plant greater than in the tropics-the very area where food should have been developed for large-scale cultiva- is most desperately needed. The wealth and variety tion long ago. Given its due share of research, this of poor people's species is staggering, but most agri- legume might become a valuable new crop for semi- cultural scientists are unaware of their scope or arid lands everywhere. * Pest control. Disillusionment with synthetic * Healthcare. Rising interest in medicinal pesticides is opening possibilities for replace- plants used by people in developing nations ment materials derived from plants such as is highlighting a wealth of biodiversity that the neem tree (NRC 1992). agronomists have hitherto ignored. This * Water clarification. Seeds of the moringa tree includes many potentially high-value new can clarify turbid water as effectively as crops (Srivastava, Lambert, and Vietmeyer alum, the chemical that most developing 1996). countries now import. * Global cooling. Concerns over the buildup of Biodiversityfor Integrated Pest Management greenhouse gases opens new opportunities for certain tropical trees and other plants- One of agriculture's great hopes is integrated many of them previously considered of little pest management, which uses wholly different value-that absorb carbon dioxide with high biodiversity from that normally considered in efficiency. farming. These organisms indude: 18 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification area of Argentina they discovered both the Box 2.2 Tropical biodiversity comes to America pest and a predator that would attack it. A Susan Batema and her husband Robert pick diminutive wasp proved a safe control, and winged beans from vines growing along a high dispersing it over Africa's cassava fields con- wire fence fronting a highway near Homestead, trolled the outbreak that threatened the lives Florida. The couple is trying to grow every variety of 200 million people. of Philippine vegetable. Their farm is a riot of min- 200 million peoe. gled fruit trees and vegetable plants: calamondins . v (a sour, limelike fruit used to season fish and grasses and shun most broad-leafed plants, meats), snake gourds, bottle gourds, bitter melons, they can be used to rid grassy weeds among yard-long beans, horseradish trees (the leaves and many crops (strawberries, for instance). They pods are used as cooked vegetables), chayote (a thus help the crop and provide high-value pear-shaped squash with a taste halfway between poultry. cucumber and apple), and a sweet potato variety * Muscovy duck. Following a lead from local whose leaves are eaten like spinach. farming practice, Canadian researchers have The Batemas are part of impressive changes underway in the southern Florida agricultural found that these domesticated ducks from scene. Orchardists who used to plant lemons and tropical America are exceptionally effective grapefruit now raise carambolas and mamey. Some at catching flies in the farmyard. In cattle farmers are cutting down limes and avocados and stalls and on pig farms they save on insecti- planting longan, lychee, atemoya, and sugar apple. cide and sell for a profit at season's end. One farmer is pulling out citrus and putting in jack- * Wild ducks. In Arkansas farmers formerly fruit. The whole area looks like a transplanted bit of drained their rice fields for the winter, but the developing world. now they keep them flooded. The watery Scores of such African, Asian, and Latin American fruits-not to mention vegetables, herbs, expanses attract migratory ducks that eat the spices, and even a dozen or so mushrooms--are now weeds and save the farmer a lot of later entering American kitchens. Supermarket shelves expense in herbicide purchases. Before the already carry foods of Central and South America, new crop is planted, the well-fed birds have China, Cuba, Indochina, Mexico, the Philippines, flown back to Canada to breed. and the West Indies. Many are selling briskly; some will end up as American as apple pie (probably orig- Turning Pests into Resources inating in England), pizza (Italy), French fries (Peru via France), peanuts (Brazil), sweet potato (tropical America), black-eyed peas (Africa), soybean (China), Pests can be turned into assets in some cases. Pest and popcorn (Peru). is a cultural term; it depends on one's perspec- tive. Thinking of pests as potential resources opens up new and doubly useful biodiversity * Spiders. In China jumping spiders and wolf applications for creatures previously associated spiders (which stalk insects rather than build only with destruction. Examples of the orga- webs) can be so effective at controlling insects nized exploitation of pests include: that insecticides are unneeded. Farmers now * Deer. In New Zealand introduced deer build straw houses in their fields to help the wreaked havoc with the native forests until spiders survive the winter. Emerging from safe and economical methods for capturing hibernation, the hungry spiders go to work and butchering them were developed. New consuming pests on the newly planted rice Zealand venison has been selling well in seedlings. This suppresses the insect popula- Germany for several decades, and the local tion right from the start, and the eight-legged forests-now almost clear of the pests-are patrol force keeps it down throughout the recovering their age-old splendor. New critical part of the growing season. Zealanders consider this change the great- * Wasps. When the cassava mealybug broke est improvement to their country's lush out in Africa, researchers scoured Latin forests. America for its origin. In country after coun- * Rabbits. Introduced rabbits are an equally try they were unsuccessful, but in a remote serious problem in New Zealand. Now in an Harmonizing Biodiversity Conservation and Agricultural Development 19 extension of the success with deer, a local New domestications. More organized produc- entrepreneur has started exporting field-shot tion of creatures that to us seem impossibly wild rabbits to the game-meat markets of exotic but to local people are valued and even Europe. vital food resources is now under way (NRC Quelea. This sparrow-like finch sweeps 1991). The domestication of new crops and live- across much of Africa in flocks often con- stock opens up exciting territory for harmoniz- taining millions of birds. These flying grain ing biodiversity use and wildlife conservation. eaters descend on field after field, stripping These poor people's livestock include: each bare before moving on. In Zimbabwe, * Iguana. Costa Rica has an extremely success- however, wildlife researchers have found ful program to raise these large, tree-living that properly placed blocks of tall grass lizards. Green iguanas can now be produced attract whole flocks to roost overnight. On routinely in large numbers and in simple dark nights people can approach these roosts facilities. To reduce operating costs, iguanas and capture the birds by the thousands. are left to live in the wild for a year or so, Although small these grain-fed marauders which means the farmers must have trees make good eating and are even being around. Iguana production is therefore a cat- exported to Hong Kong's poultry markets. alyst for reforestation (box 2.3). * Arnadillo and nutria. The state of Louisiana * Paca. A reealchller in IPanama has learned has had at least modest success in reducing how to rear this big forest rodent, which is a the populations of these creatures by devel- oping recipes and holding cooking contests Box 2.3 Mama iguana to encourage Americans to consume them. Throughout much of Latin America large leaf-eat- * Brush-tailed possum. In Australia an entrepre- ing lizards called iguanas are a popular food. To fill neurial businessman and conservationist has demand, they are hunted by rifle, slingshot, trap, found a market in Hong Kong for the meat of and noose; they are even run down by trained dogs. this arboreal marsupial, whose exploding Because of human appetite for both the animal and populations are stripping trees bare and its forest habitat, iguana populations are dwindling. endangering thie native forests of Tasmania. In Costa Rica biologist Dagmar Werner is show- ing how to produce large numbers of these alert, curious social reptiles. Her research farm looks Using Exotic Biodiversity more like a poIJ ltry run than a cattle ranch. The facil- ity contains pens made of bamboo and corrugated Although hunting and gathering began giving roofing iron (constructed in ways that can easily be way to organized agriculture thousands of years duplicated by farmers). Inside the pens short ago, more wild biodiversity is used than people lengths of bamboo are piled up to form apartments think. In Sweden, for instance, the 150,000 elk shot into which the lizards squeeze to sleep. The hole is inu spoIn Sweadiyear repremsentane me 1500 ek qrter shaded by trees with thick branches where the ani- in sport each year represent more than a quarter mals indulge in their favorite pastime-sunning. of the national consumption of meat. In Africa the Despite their endangered status iguanas repro- total contribution of wild animals, mainly mam- duce well. Each female produces thirty or more mals, to the diet is as much as 80 percent in Ghana, eggs a year, and most of the eggs hatch. If the young 70 percent in Zaire, 60-70 percent in Liberia, and are protected from predators during their first year, 60 percent in Botswana. In the Leonardo da \1mci iguana populations can build up rapidly. Once they region of Amazonian Brazil wild animals supply reach adulthood, they have few natural enemies about a fifth of the total protein intake. In other than humans, so their populations can remain aboutsa huntersh kft some 2l millionsp -In high. Botswana hunters kill some 2.2 pillion spring- This project demonstrates how locals can generate hares (a rabbit-sized rodent) a year and so provide income while keeping the tropical forests intact. By as much meat as 20,000 cattle produce. farming an animal that lives in trees, people can ben- This type of biodiversity use is grossly over- efit without cutting the forest. Iguana raising then is looked by science. Yet there is much to be an alternative to the current destruction of the jungle learned and gained by exploring the potential of to create fields for crops or pastures for cattle. new plant and animal domesticates. Source: NRC 1991. 20 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification delicacy throughout Central and northern * Bison. In the United States the return of the South America. Because pacas in the wild are native buffalo from near extinction is some- extremely territorial and fight each other to thing of a legend. Buffalo steaks are now com- the death, domestication had been deemed mon fare in the western parts of the nation. impossible. But the aggressiveness turns out * Alpaca. This relative of the camel produces to be a learned behavior; raising the new- the finest of fleeces. Light in weight and high borns with docile mothers eliminates this in insulation, alpaca wool is woven into pugnacious trait from the population. sweaters and comforters that fetch high * Grasscutter. Across much of Africa this field prices. In Australia and the United States pio- rodent is considered a delicacy. It contributes neering farmers have begun rearing alpacas, to the nutrition of millions and can be seen in but in the Andes, where the donkey-sized myriad meat markets. In Ghana researchers animal is native, alpaca numbers have have pioneered the organized rearing of slipped below 3 million. grasscutters. Other African nations are fol- * Llama. Cousin to the alpaca, the mule-sized lowing this lead and raising this new addi- llama has risen from a few specimens in a tion to animal husbandry. California game park to a small industry. * Duikers. These rabbit-sized antelopes are Although llamas produce good wool, they prized for food throughout most of Sub- are mainly used to carry supplies for back- Saharan Africa. Demand is so great that scien- packers and others living in high-altitude tists fear for the survival of the various species. wilderness areas served only by trails. Efforts are now under way in Zimbabwe and To some ranching exotic game may seem just other nations to organize duiker husbandry. an interest of the rich, the impractical, or the The timid little ruminants offer promise for avaricious. That should not detract from the seri- household rearing as well as for ranching at ous side of this effort, however. These challeng- forest edges, where they would provide locals ing creatures contribute to biodiversification of with a powerful incentive to retain the trees. resources. Some offer potential use for the global * Eland. In Texas and Kenya this large antelope future. As an example both alpaca and llama can is reared on game park-like ranches. live at extreme altitudes, and both have soft-soled • Emu. Ranching of this ostrich-like bird is tak- feet like a dog's that, unlike the hoofs of main- ing off in the United Kingdom, United States, stream livestock, leave the hillsides unscarred. and New Zealand, much to the surprise of Australians who look on the native emu as Biodiversity Savers something of a nuisance to farmers. People in various places are saving heirloom Exotic introductions. Even industrial nations varieties of beans, apples, pears, potatoes, toma- are beginning to experiment with exotic ani- toes, and other crops. Groups dedicated to sav- mals. For example, emu steaks are selling briskly ing the old breeds of livestock have sprung up in in London supermarkets, and not just because of Britain, Germany, other parts of Europe, the a current scare over the safety of British beef. United States, and elsewhere. Most of these barn- Among the exotic creatures being raised com- yard conservationists are not scientists, but pro- mercially in industrial nations are the following. fessionals are increasingly involved in rescuing * Ostrich. These African birds are being farmed bloodlines of family-farm livestock and old vari- in Australia, New Zealand, and the United eties of garden vegetables. This is people's par- States. ticipation in biodiversity conservation. Indeed in * Yak. Canadians have reared this shaggy saving the genes of tomorrow, concerned con- Asian bovine for more than fifty years. Before servationists can do much in their backyards and World War II several government research farms that the researchers cannot do in their stations were devoted to adapting this sophisticated laboratories. extremely cold-tolerant creature to the rigors This new thrust in conservation holds out of Canadian winters. opportunities for direct involvement by millions Harmonizing Biodiversity Conservation and Agricultural Development 21 of interested people. Those who can do little to ments or needs, and filling specialized niches is save rhinos or whales can often keep alive some one of the most promising uses for rare breeds. ancient strain of beans or chickens in their gar- Indeed many old types are already showing that dens and backyards. Already one enthusiast in they have the strengths to compete. Consider the the United States plants about ninety different following examples: strains of potatoes each year; a legendary Scot a Texas Longhorn. America's most famous plants several hundred. These amateurs provide breed of cattle in the past century, the Texas an internationally recognized service, and they Longhorn, was down to ten animals in the guard a greater wealth of genes than most scien- 1950s. Herds of this distinctive breed are once tists. The Rhode Island Red and dozens of other again increasing because ranchers appreciate chickens are being kept from complete extinction its hardiness and easy calving. by backyard conservationists, as are certain * European oxen. Limousin, Charolais, and pigeons, pheasants, sheep, pigs, rabbits, goats, Chiannina breeds, which were displaced by and other livestock. Some may consider them- the tractor half a century ago, are coming selves hobbyists having fun, but scientists are back because their giant muscles make them beginning to see them as vital guardians of our ideal beef animals. genetic heritage. This homespun conservation is * Soay sheep. This antique sheep, a hold-over strengthening the foundations of agriculture. from the Bronze Age, has been put to use Seed-saver movements are now taking hold grazing spoil dumps near the China-clay in India. They started as programs to save vari- pits in Cornwall, England. The great eties from extinction, but Indians now are equat- mounds of muck were formerly classified ing biodiversity with freedom and self-reliance, unsuitable for agriculture, but this little and the movement has taken on a nationalistic sheep is proving ideal for living off their thin importance and strength. grass. Hardy and inured to disease and In the long run the people who save the genes harshness, the Soays need no shepherd, no of our crops and animals may be among the shearing (the wool sheds naturally), no most important of all conservationists (box 2.4). insecticide (their coarse hair deters biting A displaced crop or breed does not mean that it flies), and they are so light that they do not has no future. The modern homogenized breeds scar the unstable spoil slopes, thereby reduc- often cannot cope with uncommon environ- ing the risk of erosion. Box 2.4 Importance of saving "useless" biodiversity In the 1930s a farmer in Connecticut spotted a mutant from them. The exciting development was subse- maize plant whose kernels were soft and very differ- quently dropped. But at the International Maize and ent from all the rest in his field. Instead of throwing Wheat Improvement Center in Mexico an analytical it away, he took it to the state agricultural experiment chemist and a maize breeder continued the effort by station, where it lay unappreciated on a shelf for trying to produce a normal-seeded form that retained thirty years. the superior protein content and matched the produc- Then in the 1960s chemists invented an instru- tivity of the world's best maize varieties. After fifteen ment for analyzing the amino acids that make up pro- years of dedication they succeeded. tein. A Purdue University professor, analyzing all the Today this new crop called quality-protein maize maize samples he could obtain, discovered that this is among the highest-yielding maizes in South Africa, Connecticut mutant maize plant had a nutritional Brazil, and Ghana. Its protein has a nutritional qual- power far greater than any other. With about twice ity almost the equal of milk. A program in Ghana the lysine and tryptophan it provided two essential directed by Nobel laureate Norman Borlaug and for- amino acids rare in plant proteins. For Africa and mer president Jimmy Carter is showing success with Latin America, where maize is the main sustenance quality-protein maize on a considerable scale. Other for millions of poor, it seemed a magnificent break- African countries are testing it, and the crop has through. caught on in Brazil, where 100,000 hectares are now But the softness of the kernels was a deterrent grown annually. because normal maize-based foods could not be made Source: NRC 1988. 22 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification Biodiversity-Friendly Farming agroforestry in fields away from houses. All these forms of polyculture are garnering increased Seen in global perspective, today's agriculture recognition and respect. disregards the true wealth of biodiversity; but pockets of diverse production can still be found, Endangered species. Until the 1960s Papua particularly in the fields of traditional farmers in New Guinea was inundated with crocodiles, and developing nations. Examples include: hunting was a major industry. By 1969, however, * The Amazon. Home gardens can contain hunters had eliminated the saltwater crocodile dozens of trees and shrub species, and peo- from much of the country. Yet demand for shoes, ple harvest many more plant species from the handbags, luggage, wallets, watchbands, and wild. other luxury artides made from crocodile leather * Costa Rica. Certain farmers employ more was insatiable, and more were being slaugh- than fifty species of trees and shrubs in living tered. Then in the early 1970s wildlife officers fences that demarcate property lines and also came up with an answer: restore the population provide firewood, vegetables, forage, and by banning the killing of mature crocodiles and other products. farming their offspring instead (NRC 1983b). * Java and Sri Lanka. Traditional food gardens Wildlife officers in Papua New Guinea now that combine trees, shrubs, groundcovers, help build pens and teach the care of young rep- and field crops may incorporate dozens of tiles that are so remarkably vulnerable and timid species per hectare. that they can literally die of fright. The villagers * Rwanda. As many as fourteen varieties of surround their ponds with a stockade and add beans can be found in a single field. crocodile hatchlings caught in nearby swamps. Consumers like the variety in their meals, but This harmonious blend of agriculture and the main value seems to be risk aversion; the wildlife conservation has led to an organized mixture helps farmers overcome unreliable industry somewhat like chicken rearing. Being a rains and other hazards. crocodile farmer is not as fearsome as might * The Andes. More than forty types of potatoes, seem. Crocodiles that are kept fed remain so con- as well as other root crops such as oca and tent they seldom move. Being cold-blooded, ulluco, can be found in the same field. Each they waste no energy keeping warm. The com- has a separate culinary or social purpose. bination of inaction and meager energy use * Guatemalan highlands. Maize, cowpea, and means they grow fast on little feed. In fact 2 kilo- two types of field bean are commonly grown grams of fish are converted into 1 kilogram of together in a mutually supporting combina- young crocodile, a remarkable ratio. A specimen tion that helps the soil and the farmer. can reach 2 meters in length within two to three * Syria. Western specialists often disparage the years, when it is worth more than $200. untidy-looking wheat fields, but by planting Papua New Guinea's idea of relying on the three or more varieties, the farmers are better wild for stocking the farms is now a model for assured a profitable yield in that uncertain saving other species elsewhere and is credited climate. with helping save twenty-three of the twenty- * Mexico. As many as 376 species of cultivated four crocodilian species, most of which faced plants have been recorded in the home gar- extinction just twenty years ago. Skins produced dens of the Yucatan Peninsula. this way receive special dispensation and can be * Turkey. Turkish wheat farmers still com- legally sold around the world. monly employ age-old landraces, shunning Many countries are setting up similar pro- the high-yield varieties because they need grams. Venezuela, for example, issues special the long straw to feed their cows, goats, and licenses to landowners and puts tamper-proof horses. barcodes on every skin. Some 150,000 crocodile Mixed plantings such as these are just one skins are now legally exported. As a result form of biodiversity-friendly farming. Others Venezuelan farmers have found wealth in their include crop rotation, low-input farming, and swamplands; the old pests now bring as much Harmonizing Biodiversity Conservation and Agricultural Development 23 income per hectare as cattle. This creates an forest ungulates. The mouse deer weighs only 1 incentive both to keep the crocodiles breeding kilogram and stands merely 30 centimeters high. and to keep the swamps productive. In other Long hunted and enjoyed as a local delicacy, this words it blends biodiversity use with habitat rabbit-sized deer is being turned into livestock protection. for the forest understory. A wild bovine called gaur is the biggest of all cattle-one bull has Endangered habitats. As in the case of croco- weighed in at one-and-a-half metric tons, or diles any species that can prove its worth to peo- more than most compact cars. The gaur has been ple can stake a stronger claim to survival space hunted to near extinction, mainly for its meat and in an increasingly crowded world. Papua New its handsome trophy head. It too survives in the Guinea also has programs for the sustainable understory habitat and could become both a live- production of such wild animals as butterflies, stock animal and tourist attraction, added incen- deer, maleo (a strange bird with delicious eggs), tive to maintain forest cover. and cassowaries, birds that can weigh 50 kilo- grams. These ranching systems are based on sus- Looking to Tomorrow tainably exploiting wild creatures, mainly by using traditional methods and incorporating the Programs are now needed to maintain and to local people's long-term interests. build on projects that put agricultural develop- Indeed wildlife ranching is beginning to show ment and biodiversity conservation in harmony. that it can provide dozens of new farm resources while helping to save endangered species and, at least in some cases, their habitats. Butterflies Box 2.5 Biodiversity of butterflies were the first native livestock to be tried. In the On a precipitous ridge in northern Papua New 1970s a number of Papua New Guinea's beauti- Guinea, Blu Rairi anxiously prowls his farm, check- ful birdwing butterflies were becoming scarce ing his valuable livestock, noting new arrivals, because of over-collecting. Through careful deciding which to send to market, and, like consci- observation it was found that the birdwing larvae entious ranchers everywhere, complaining about ate Dc asivna tefeed shortages. Rairi is a cheerful, prosperous ate Dutchman's pipe vines and the adult butter- rancher, but he does not own a big spread; it looks flies liked hibiscus flowers. When those were like a vegetable patch nestled next to the tropical planted together, the iridescent green and blue forest behind his village. His livestock is uncon- birdwings fluttered out of the forests and took up ventional, too. It has six legs. But don't be misled- residence (NRC 1983a). Finding a sort of butter- gram-for-gram it is probably more valuable than fly heaven with everything they needed for their any four-footed livestock in the world. It is certainly lifecycle, the butterflies laid thousands of eggs- more beautiful. Rairi is a butterfly farmer. more than enough to provide the farmer a har- In the 1970s the Port Moresby government estab- vest as well as toreopulatethesurroundirig lished a Department of Insect Farming and Trading vest as well as to repopulate the surrounding to regulate production and export of butterflies, region (box 2.5). moths, and beetles. The international demand for For two decades villagers have been estab- insects is greater than most people realize. Each lishing the two plants, collecting the chrysalis year entomologists, collectors, and manufacturers crop, hatching the adults, injecting the undam- of decorative items buy up to 20 million butterflies. aged ones with a little alcohol, and packing the Foreigners pay well for Papua New Guinea but- fragile products for shipment. After mailing off terflies-30 cents for common species, $5 for bird- the harvest, the farmer receives a check from the wings, $50 for mauve swallowtails. Because the insects weigh just a few grams each, that is better government. The process is catching on else- money than ranchers get from cattle. Moreover, cat- where and is being hailed as a way to help pro- tlemen can't export their product via the post office. tect rainforests in more than a dozen nations. Butterfly farming has proved especially good in Malaysia, too, is showing that protected areas remote areas such as Blu Rairi's village near Maprik can likely conserve biodiversity while becoming because it needs no veterinarians, pesticides, artificial economically sustainable. Malaysians are breed- insemination, vaccines, fences, or morning milking. ing some of the world's smallest and largest rain- Source: NRC 1983a. 24 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification Solving Global Problems * Peach palm. This tropical palm, known as pejibaye in Spanish-speaking countries and Hunger, malnutrition, deforestation, desertifica- pupunha in Brazil, produces chestnut-like tion, soil loss, and soil degradation are consid- fruits containing carbohydrate, protein, oil, ered global problems, but they have to do minerals, and vitamins in proportions nearly mainly with plants and animals and soils in the perfect for the human diet. Domesticated in hot regions of Africa, Asia, and Latin America. the rainforests of western Amazonia, peach Species that can be tools for solving these global palm has been called probably the most problems are to be found in the untapped wild nutritionally balanced of all foods, but it and agricultural biodiversity of those regions. remains unknown in the chronically mal- Among the now little-used species are the 2,000 nourished parts of the tropical world. Peach native food plants of Africa that could be palm also provides a superb-tasting heart-of- employed in feeding that hungry continent (box palm (palmito) and is already being planted 2.6). There are also 3,000 fruits and more than on a large scale for this purpose in parts of 1,000 vegetables in the tropical zone, where mal- Brazil and Central America. nutrition is rife. Moreover, 20,000 trees can be * Moringa. This is an extremely fast-growing found in the tropics, where deforestation is so woody species that produces pods that look calamitous. And thousands of legumes that can like giant green beans and taste like aspara- combat soil degradation also exist. gus. It also produces masses of very small Many species that are superbly suited for leaflets that are boiled and eaten like spinach. combating hunger, malnutrition, and deforesta- Being so small, the leaflets dry quickly in the tion are not being exploited. Additional exam- sun and can then be stored in a jar for the ples of tools for solving global problems include: times when fresh vegetables are scarce. In Box 2.6 Lost crops of Africa Despite its seemingly never-ending hunger and mal- pearl millet tolerate heat; at least one sorghum with- nutrition the area stretching from the Sahara to South stands waterlogging; and many survive drought. Africa contains more than 2,000 native food plants. Moreover, most can grow better than other cereals on This vast region is the source of watermelon, melon, relatively infertile soils. For thousands of years they sesame, coffee, cola, okra, sorghum, pearl millet, fin- have yielded grain even where land preparation was ger millet, and black-eyed pea. But hundreds of more minimal and management poor. They combine well edible grains, fruits, vegetables, and oilseeds have yet with other crops in mixed stands. Some types mature to benefit from science. For those forgotten food plants rapidly. They tend to be nutritious. there is no knowledge of what soils and conditions are Of all the cereals finger millet is one of the most preferred, what varieties yield the most nutritious nutritious. Indeed some varieties appear to have high foods, or how to control pests. levels of methionine, an amino acid lacking in the diets Africa has more native cereals than any other conti- of hundreds of millions of the poor who live on starchy nent. It has its own species of rice, as well as finger mil- foods such as cassava and plantain. Outsiders have let, fonio, pearl millet, sorghum, teff, guinea millet, and long marveled at how people in Uganda and southern several dozenwild grasseswhose grains are eaten. This Sudan could develop such strapping physiques and is a food heritage that has fed people for generations. It work as hard as they do on just one meal a day Finger is also a local legacy of genetic wealth on which a sound millet seems to be the main reason. food future might be built. But strangely it has largely Over large areas of Africa people once obtained been bypassed in modern times. their basic subsistence from wild grasses. In certain These lost plants have much to offer and not just to places the practice still continues, especially in Africa. Indeed they represent an exceptional cluster of drought years. One survey records more than sixty cereal biodiversity with particular promise for solving grass species known to be sources of food grains. Yet some of the greatest food-production problems that despite their widespread use and notable value for will arise in the next century. For example, Africa's saving lives during times of distress, these wild cere- native grains tend to tolerate extremes. They can thrive als have been largely overlooked by both food and where introduced grains produce inconsistently. Some plant scientists. (teff, for instance) are adapted to cold; others such as Source: NRC 1995. Harmonizing Biodiversity Conservation and Agricultural Development 25 addition to providing these natural vitamin in the so-called laterite, the infertile, alu- supplements, the moringa tree yields seeds minum-rich, very acidic soil that plagues that clarify turbid water. As mentioned much of the lowland tropics. Vetiver is thus a before, compounds in its seeds make traces tool for bringing abandoned lands back into of silt and clay settle out as effectively as productive use. alum used in water departments. This species could be a powerful new weapon World Heritage Gene Sites against two scourges, malnutrition and water-borne disease. Certain areas are especially important for the * Velvet bean. This weed-smothering, nitrogen- wild relatives and ancestral forms of major crops fixing herbaceous legume protects the land and should accordingly be conserved with as and helps crops yield well with few inputs. It much diligence as sites protected for their scenic seems likely to prove broadly applicable or cultural value. Most of the world's 8,500 throughout the tropics and may well provide national parks and other protected areas were a way to retain and even restore fertility on set up solely for wildlife conservation; rarely if vast areas of degraded farmland. In addition ever were they established to conserve plants of several dozen legume genera-including importance for agriculture. Now the roles of Mucuna, Pueraria, Lotus, Lotononis, and protected areas should be broadened to include Vicia-offer likely successful groundcovers, reserves to protect the genetic diversity of the including some for restoring seemingly primitive ancestors and wild relatives of at least impossibly degraded tropical soils. the major crops grown for food. These sites will * Pataua. Another native palm of Amazonia, also double as wildlife refuges because conserv- patauA (pronounced patawa), bears large ing crop biodiversity would also conserve habi- bunches of fruit containing an oil similar to tats for wildlife. olive oil in appearance, composition, and culinary quality. Although sold as an edible Rapid Agrobiodiversity Assessment Teams oil in Colombia, it is virtually unknown to the rest of the world. Given agronomic attention, Future foreign assistance projects should indude it could become a major tropical crop. A cen- consideration of their effects on crop and live- tury ago the Africa oil palm was obscure; stock biodiversity on which succeeding genera- now it is one of the world's major resources, tions will depend. This might include deploying although its oil is far inferior to pataua as rapid biodiversity assessment teams to identify food. high-priority biodiversity that needs collection or * Vetiver. Hedges of this grass are now being protection before the assistance project destroys used to stop soil erosion in 106 countries, but it. These teams would highlight biodiversity vetiver has other vital uses for which it is still implications of project interventions. Their goal not being employed (NRC 1993). For one would be to flag invaluable genetic materials and thing the hedges block rushing runoff from outline rescue plans before they are lost to the tropical storms, thereby reducing flooding bulldozers. and helping water penetrate the slopes. Under Agrobiodiversity assessments might be done suitable conditions vetiver hedges are func- by skilled, independent organizations dedicated tional a few weeks after planting, so they offer to the task and separate from the development the promise of instant working watersheds agency. Team members would include a that improve year-round water availability as botanist, a crop generalist, and a biologist. well as mitigating floods and mudslides. Depending on the size of the area and the poten- Vetiver is also a potential tool for claiming pol- tial severity of biodiversity loss, teams would luted sites because it can survive in soils con- canvass a site over a period of hours, days, or taminated with heavy metals or alkali as well weeks, assessing the presence of vulnerable as some salt. Tolerant of soluble aluminum crops, unique varieties, and wild relatives of and severe acidity (almost to pH3), it thrives important crops and livestock. 26 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification Diversified Marketing * Ngali nuts from the Solomon Islands, which are being processed for their oil in collabora- As noted earlier, rising numbers of produce tion with an international chain of cosmetic items are being marketed, and some are even shops being shipped around the world. New opportu- * Special cocoa from Grenada and Jamaica, nities for developing countries with their wealth which is in demand for blending with other of fruits and other foods are therefore opening cocoas up. Indeed in some affluent countries research l Pimento and ugli fruit from Jamaica priorities and marketing trends are now shifting * Tasteless paprika, for which Ethiopia has to focus on African, Asian, and Latin American established a useful market as a food coloring. resources. The U.S. food industry, for instance, has Poor People's Crops and Animals sprouted a new breed of marketers and even a new branch of fresh food known as specialty In all of this activity there is great potential for produce, including hundreds of different fruit helping the needy. Possibilities include preserv- and vegetable products, from dried jackfruit to ing genetic diversity used in traditional farming, African horned melons. developing traditional crops, and encouraging These days people are realizing that small- the use of traditional resources as well as tradi- scale produce marketing has a major role to play tional practices and knowledge. Many now in some nations' development. Specialist niche neglected plants can lead to greater self-suffi- markets that have recently been created or ciency for the poorest of the poor-the very ones expanded include: usually missed by "green revolutions" (box 2.7). * Processed akee fruit from Jamaica Finding more uses for neglected plants increases e Cloves from Zanzibar, which are used in India their chances of being saved from extinction. to pin together betel leaves in chewing pan And the task of harnessing the neglected plants, Box 2.7 Biodiversity that fed the Incas The ancestors of the Incas tapped a wide array of of white or pink seeds occur in large sorghum- plants to enrich their diets. They domesticated some like clusters. The seeds contain 12 to 19 percent eighty species of roots, tubers, grains, vegetables, protein and are one of the richest sources of pro- fruits, and nuts. The Spanish, who conquered the tein among grain crops. Moreover, their protein, Incas in the 1500s, brought the potato out of the like that of amaranth, possesses an exceptionally Andes, but they left achira, ajipa, oca, arracacha, attractive amino acid balance for human nutri- ulluco, and half a dozen other root crops the Incas tion because of its high levels of lysine and had used in feeding their empire. The Incas knew methionine. Quinoa has made its way into some these roots were valuable, but the outsiders' igno- health food stores and vegetarian restaurants but rance triumphed. could become popular outside of highland South * Oca (Oxalis tuberosa). This exceptionally hardy America with the right support and marketing plant is second only to the potato in importance effort. as a root crop in the Andes. Its many varieties, * Lucuma (Pouteria lucuma). Fruits of this tree are which have never been collected systematically, sweet but dry and full of starch. They are suitable include those with a high sugar content and oth- as a basic staple. A single tree, it is said, can feed ers with a somewhat sour yet pleasing taste. Oca a family year-round. Dried, the fruits store for has become a commercial crop in New Zealand years. (under the misnomer yam) and would likely These are just three examples of more than twenty sweep through other parts of the world if given roots, legumes, grains, and fruits that are lost crops of modern agronomic attention. the Incas. They can increase agricultural diversity * Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa). The Incas relied throughout temperate zones because they are on quinoa's nutritious grain, an Andean equiva- adapted to the highland tropics and therefore to cool lent of wheat although the plant is not a grass. An temperatures and even frost. annual, broad-leaved herb, quinoa's abundance Source: NRC 1989. Harmonizing Biodiversity Conservation and Agricultural Development 27 animals, and other natural resources will occupy chocolate, pineapple, kola, vanilla, and banana, all family members, including women and chil- the tropical fruits behind such corporate giants as dren, who are heavily involved in farming activ- Lever Brothers, Hershey, Nestle, Dole, Chiquita, ities in developing countries. Coca-Cola, Pepsi, Del Monte, and Proctor and Promising biodiversity and knowledge Gamble. about little-known foods and other biological resources can often be found among ethnic Saving Seeds and Rare Breeds minorities, nomads, and other societies with poorly developed links to markets. Many such There are genetic adventures to be found in the plant resources are crops found mostly in home industrial world too. An American botany stu- gardens that provide micronutrients for com- dent has been combing Hopi and Papago bating malnutrition, including the blindness Indian reservations for seeds of old-time crops caused by vitamin A deficiency. that survived in the Southwestern deserts Traditionalist farmers tend to manage a before irrigation was available. He has been so great deal of biodiversity, one of the reasons successful in locating and propagating these modern agriculture has passed them by. Many plants that many Indian farmers have gone people continue to cultivate crops even if they back to the half-forgotten foods of their child- obtain modest yields because such crops may be hoods. And those drought-tolerant ancient particularly well adapted to the area or because crops are beginning to excite more and more they are important for cultural reasons. Their interest as water for irrigation becomes more persistence now needs to be promoted rather costly (box 2.8). A similar process is under way than patronized. The timing is right; because of with endangered breeds in North America and scarce resources, there is good potential in parts of Europe (box 2.9). enhancing lesser known crops. A quadrupling of yield is not uncommon when a researcher Diversifying Tropical Forestry begins studying an underexploited crop. Such a leap in yield is difficult to achieve in wheat, To meet predicted requirements for industrial maize, or rice, where a yield increase of just a timber, the world's tree-crop acreage will need few percentage points might be a worthy life- to double. A major proportion of the additional time achievement. area will likely be located in the tropics because of year-round growing conditions. Tropical Lending Specificallyfor Biodiversity Use nations therefore need to include forestry in their biodiversity activities. Immense biowealth A special fund that recognizes the needs of bio- is waiting to be tapped in the forests of tropical diverse farming, especially one to provide loan lands. guarantees, would be particularly helpful. Today Some 20,000 species of trees alone are found much biodiversity goes unused even though rel- in tropical forests. They include scores of atively small grants could accomplish a great legumes that have the potential to be great deal. A local fruit such as araea-boi or camu camu resources, quick-growing and soil-improving at in the Amazon may have more vitamin C than an the same time. These are not only useful in their orange and produce a delicious drink, but ven- own right, they are also natural shock troops for ture capital for creating commerce out of some- reclaiming degraded lands. thing like this is virtually nonexistent. Conifers and eucalypts, which dominate tree The commercial value of dozens of tropical plantings worldwide, also tend to be inimical to fruits and other crops is hardly in doubt. collateral biodiversity. Other plants grow poorly Relatively small funding is all that is needed to in their shade and wildlife shuns the forests, jumpstart businesses geared to the neglected which are often likened to green deserts. In con- crops. And some of these tropical fruits could trast many tropical trees foster biodiversity. become big commercial successes, although per- Certain nitrogen-fixing species, such as mangium, haps not as big as coffee, oil palm, coconut, leucaena, and alders, foster the growth of native 28 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification Box 2.8 Seed saver In the harsh and meager land of the American farming practices some sixty years ago; now only 120 Southwest, Apache, Havasupai, Hopi, Mojave, hectares at most are still farmed in this way. Navajo, Papago, Pima, Seri, and Yuma Indians devel- Chiltepine, desert chia, canaigre, Papago onions, oped an agricultural civilization that has been called Papago peas, eighteen types of beans, and many oth- one of the most remarkable of all. They had dozens ers-crops that formed the basis of southwestern of useful plants that were adapted to the harsh sun, Indian diets for more than a thousand years-now difficult soils, and sporadic rains. On the wide, shin- survive only in a few villages, maybe in just one or ing flat of the desert they grew crops with less direct two tiny plots. rainfall than is used anywhere else. Nabhan, however, has located nineteen domesti- But these cultures and crops are now on the verge cated plants that Papago farmers cultivated and of extinction. Hundreds of strains and species of thirty-three wild plants they encouraged or pro- desert plants that once were widely used Indian crops tected. In addition he knows that Papagos ate at least are passing into oblivion. The age-old techniques that 275 different species of wild plants, forty of which kept them producing in one of the most difficult of all were substantial food sources. His greatest find has human habitats are being forgotten. Gary Nabhan been the tepary bean. and a growing number of colleagues are struggling to Once the most commonly cultivated bean in the preserve this unique agricultural culture. Southwest, the tepary fed Indians for more than 5,000 Fifty years ago when irrigated agriculture began years. The plant escapes drought by maturing trickling into the southwest, the old plants were dis- rapidly and by sending roots as deep as 2 meters to carded. Today only remnants exist. Only a few elders find soil moisture. One Indian field that received only of the Hopi, Papago, and Pima still keep them from 80 millimeters of rainfall produced tepary plants that extinction. Nabhan estimates that the Papago tribe were strong and healthy, and nearly all were bearing alone had some 5,600 hectares under traditional seed by two months. Box 2.9 Breed saver Joe Henson's farm is a museum of life. Some of the dangers of losing livestock genes. Now a growing Britain's rarest farm animals-about forty breeds in number of landowners are beginning to acquire and all-roam his softly folded emerald hills near Guiting protect antique animals. Many old and rare breeds Power in the Cotswolds. Manx Loghtans, a sheep have a hardiness and stamina not found in the stan- breed with four horns, are among Henson's heirloom dard animals used for commercial food production. livestock. Fewer than fifty Manx Loghtans remained Many of the traditional breeds were maintained in England when he started. Soay sheep also graze on because of their toughness under trying conditions. this vignette farm, a breed unchanged since the Ice The Exmoor Horn sheep, for example, can lie for days Ages. Brought to Britain by the Vikings, St. Kilda sheep beneath many feet of snow without suffering long- with huge conical horns also grace the working farm. term effects. Henson's caftle include placid brown West Today, at the annual sale at Stoneleigh in Highlands with such shaggy fur that you almost Warwickshire, rare heifers often sell for twice the price expect them to bark. And behind his stone fences are of big-name heifers. Animal scientists, too, are slowly also small, black pigs with long snouts and white recognizing that potentially valuable genes may be streaks down their hairy backs like the wild hogs of found in the reject animals. In 1981, for instance, the prehistoric days. British Meat and Livestock Centre ran some produc- Not all endangered animals are wild. The Henson tion tests on different breeds of beef cattle. For fun farm exemplifies a side of conservation that few people Henson offered a White Park bullcalf. The scientists are aware of. Around the world hundreds of breeds of laughed at his temerity; their animals had been bred livestock, seemingly outdated by more productive or for fast growth; White Parks have never been selected specialized cousins, are just being left to die out. for anything. But when the beef production test Henson and a small number of other British farm- results were tallied, the White Park bull had beaten all ers and animal lovers were the first to grapple with others in daily weight gain and carcass leanness. Harmonizing Biodiversity Conservation and Agricultural Development 29 understory vegetation. A four-and-a-half-year- Watersheds as Reserves old mangium forest in Sabah can be 15 meters tall with a lush ground cover of spontaneous native Watersheds that many cities rely on are also plants. In such cases mangium is literally restart- promising sites for on-site biodiversity preser- ing the rainforest in the shade beneath its canopy vation. The presence of trees and other plants and the fertility supplied by its nitrogen-fixing will help rather than hinder the site's rainwater- roots (NRC 1983c). Mangium is thus one of many harvesting function. In turn these locations are plant resources available for restoring priceless less likely to be invaded by land-hungry hordes biodiversity to degraded lands in the tropics (box because they are in a sense the lifeblood of 2.10). nearby cities, towns, and villages. Millions of In addition there are species with promise to downstream urban dwellers depend on them solve the twin problems of fuelwood shortages for water. North Sulawesi in Indonesia and and land degradation related to deforestation. Sabah in Malaysia have already set up natural Both are important to pursue because indiscrim- reserves on watersheds. inate firewood collecting and forest destruction are leading to great losses of biodiversity. Policies And the tropical zone contains trees that grow withsuchvigorintheyear-roundtropicalwarmth Policies should not force people to decide that they can absorb 15 kilograms of carbon diox- against biodiversity. Many policies now tie the ide annually. It is not difficult then to envisage hands of farmers, and great opportunities are future carbon dioxide absorption reserves laid out being missed. For instance, a broad range of across some hillsides in developing countries, the price supports, most focused on a few standard only place carbon sequestration would be high. crops, favor monocropping and work against They might be established on today's degraded biodiversity. wastelands using legume trees adapted to the Other policies determine whether a person infertility. They would be financed by the main exploits land with any consideration for the carbon dioxide emitters in more affluent nations. future. These include land tenure, breeding But in addition to being carbon sinks, such green- strategies for crop varieties, and extension and house forests could serve as biodiversity reserves. seed-supply systems. Box 2.10 Mangium: The tree that nurtures biodiversity In the 1960s foresters in Sabah, Malaysia, found that and restore good ones? The answer is that the grasses the little-known Australian rainforest tree called and weedy scrub species need open sunlight and die mangium matched the growth rates of fast-growing in the shade, but many rainforest species thrive in the pine and eucalyptus species. Mangium has conse- shade. And a mangium forest is more than just a good quently risen to become one of the top four refor- sunshade: it keeps out desiccating winds and lowers estation species in Asia. The Indonesian government the ground temperature, both of which increase the is relying on it to reforest 4.4 million hectares because humidity in the air and the moisture in the soil and its foresters have found that, given a little help, thereby foster rainforest recovery. Adding to this is mangium out-competes the vigorous and tenacious the fact that mangium is a legume, and the nitrogen imperata grass, a curse of degraded tropical land- its roots build up in the soil also benefit neighboring scapes. plants. But mangium appears able to do even more than All in all this tree is a sort of vegetative nursemaid just grow well. Foresters have noted on Borneo that that nurtures plants that have trouble surviving on native vegetation springs up in the protection of a cut-over, degraded sites. As such it could be a major mangium forest. Plants belonging to the original weapon for healing damaged tropical forests. rainforest complex sprout under the trees. Even Mangium will likely prove useful in reversing the dipterocarps, the crown jewels of Far Eastern forests, loss of forest biodiversity and could provide a tool to are reappearing spontaneously. This may at first restart rainforests in some areas. seem illogical: How can a tree suppress bad plants Source: NRC 1983c. 30 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification .1983b. Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics. Strategy Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, NRC. A strategy for harmonizing biodiversity conser- .1983c. Mangium and Other Fast-Growing Acacias. vation with agricultural development is a vital Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, necessity if habitat protection is to transcend the NRC. needy and the greedy. Only when plants and ani- .1988. Quality-Protein Maize. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, NRC. mals are of local value will they and their habi- .1989. Lost Crops of the Incas: Little-Known Plants tats have a chance to survive. The fact that the of the Andes with Promise for Worldwide Cultivation. protected lands of the tropics enclose the ever- Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, evolving genes for the global future can breathe NRC. new immediacy and new energy into the fund- .1991. Microlivestock Little-Known Small Animals ing, funmctions, and raison d'etre of protecting the iwith a Promising Economic Future. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, NRC. environment. For the foreseeable future no other _ .1992. Neem: A Tree for Solving Global Problems. option is open if our complex and rapidly grow- Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, ing population is to be fed, clothed, and housed NRC. reasonably, inexpensively, pleasantly, and safely. .1993. Vetiver: A Thin Green Line against Erosion. In sum biodiversity holds the key to the future of Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, bildfodiversdcioy adtthlogersu- NRC. world food production and to the long-term suc- _ .1995. Lost Crops of Africa. Vol. 1. Washington, cess of wildlife conservation. D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, NRC. Srivastava, J., N. Vietmeyer, and J. Lambert. 1996. References Medicinal Plants: An Expanding Role in Development. World Bank Technical Paper 320. Washington, D.C. NRC (National Research Council). 1983a. Butterfly Vietmeyer, N. D. 1986. "Lesser-Known Plants of Farming in Papua New Guinea. Washington, D.C.: Potential Use in Agricultural Forestry," Science 232 National Academy of Sciences, NRC. (une) 1, 379-84. 3. Policy Considerations along the Interface between Biodiversity and Agriculture William Lesser and Steven Kyle T his chapter identifies the effect of intema- ture influences genetic diversity within the sys- tional agreements and national economic tem itself. Finally, policies have widely varying policies on conservation and use of genetic effects, depending on how they are understood resources in agriculture. Although institutions and implemented at the farm level. and policies can be evaluated from multiple per- Such policies and the resource bases of all spectives, the approach taken here is predomi- countries are quite diverse. The unifying theme nately economic. From that perspective it is of recent policy reform has been to open up assumed that individuals and organizations oper- economies to international markets; this trend, ate in an economically rational manner within together with a consideration of the structure of their cultural context. That is, the conservation developing economies, frames recommenda- loss or even destruction of biodiversity is pre- tions for agricultural policy reforms. sumed to be an economically rational response to The imperative to intensify agriculture and the incentives applied at the local level. Thus an inevitability of environmental change underlie understanding of incentive structures at the local these recommendations. Indeed agricultural level is essential if biodiversity is to be conserved development may be considered desirable despite and managed more wisely. For the most part it is its altering the mosaic of habitats and its environ- assumed that biodiversity is best maintained mental consequences; the alternative is often to locally. The emphasis is on understanding how consign millions of people to a life of poverty and national and multinational policies apply at the deprivation. Much can be done, however, to local level. That is not where all the decisions deflect some negative environmental effects. regarding biodiversity are made, but the fate of The pressure for increased intensity of land much biodiversity is ultimately decided there. use becomes still stronger when economic growth is biased toward agricultural produc- Policies and Regulatory Mechanisms tion. Rising prices for agricultural exports will, for Agricultural Development according to well-known theorems of interna- tional trade, boost prices of agricultural inputs Agriculture is among the most heavily regulated (Runge, Houck, and Halbach 1988). This implies economic activities on earth. Some regulations are that land prices will rise, which in turn will draw specific to agriculture (such as price policies), more marginal land into production and require some are economic (exchange rates), and some are more intensive use of already cultivated land to legal (land tenure) or international (trade) policies. generate an adequate return. Many policies determine the extent and form The relationship among increased exports, of a country's agriculture and hence its impact land prices, and intensityof land usehasbeenwell on biodiversity. In addition the form of agricul- documented in various studies. If the inevitability 31 32 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification and desirability of accelerated agricultural devel- exports while decreasing the consumption of opment together with its unavoidable changes in imports. the environment are recognized, the case for envi- Lowering of trade barriers and realignment ronmental protection must rest on the sustainabil- of the exchange rate are also likely to affect agri- ity of the new land- and water-use patterns and cultural imports, including the potential to the genetic diversity inherent in them. import seed instead of sowing local varieties. In Intensification of land use by definition areas where imported varieties wholly or largely means greater output per unit of area farmed. displace traditional varieties, agrobiodiversity This may be accomplished by improved man- declines. Such displacements have been noted agement or, more commonly, by increasing the following the introduction of high-yielding level of inputs. Inputs in turn can be distin- modem varieties in the 1960s and 1970s. guished as more labor or "purchased inputs," The loss of traditional varieties can also arise such as improved seed, inorganic fertilizers, and in areas where war or other disasters disrupt the chemical pesticides. In some areas where mod- normal cycle of planting, harvest, and seed reten- em, short-season varieties have been deployed, tion. In Angola, for example, large areas are cur- multicropping is an option, thereby increasing rently being resettled following a lengthy war. demand for labor and purchased inputs (David With virtually no local seed production remain- and Otsuka 1994). However, purchased inputs ing, resettled farmers are provided with agricul- are often independent of, or substitutes for, tural input packages, including imported seed. labor; the use of herbicides or tractors rather Local varieties are rapidly disappearing because than manual weeding is a case in point. In the of this, a fact that will hamper future efforts to subsequent discussion the term intensification adapt imported seeds more closely to domestic refers to increases in purchased inputs. agroclimatic conditions. Such events underscore Farming systems and related operations can the importance of ex situ seed collections, among be envisaged across a continuum of intensifica- other forms of preserving genetic material. tion. Even under the least intensive mode, such as slash-and-burn farming in which a land par- Agricultural Policies cel may be cropped only once or twice a gener- ation, flora and fauna are altered when The links between specific sector or crop-ori- compared to uncultivated forest. Nevertheless, ented policies are complex, with multiple routes greater biodiversity would normally be encoun- of causality. Nonetheless, a discussion of com- tered in slash-and-burn farming than in an mon crop-specific policies will illustrate some of intensively monocrop system (see chapter 4). the roles policy reform can assume. Macroeconomic Policies Border taxes. Border taxes on agricultural imports raise the prices of those commodities In developing countries currency devaluation domestically and, other things being equal, and removal of trade barriers are the two most increase incentives to produce these commodi- common components of policy reform pack- ties internally. The impact on biodiversity ages. This underscores the underlying trend: depends on whether the land brought into pro- promoting a country's comparative advantage duction is new agricultural land, a shift from by reorienting the economy toward world mar- another crop, or intensification of areas already kets rather than protecting domestic markets. It in production. An export tax works in reverse: to is this reorientation, often coinciding with agri- the extent that a commodity is taxed on export, cultural intensification, which affects biodiver- the profitability of production is reduced, sity, albeit indirectly. thereby discouraging planting of that crop. A principal tool of the various policies designed to promote an outward-oriented strat- Fixed prices. Like border taxes fixed prices egy is devaluation of the real exchange rate. A affect markets through raising or depressing devaluation provides incentives to expand prices from the levels that would otherwise pre- Policy Considerations along the Interface between Biodiversity and Agriculture 33 vail. Fixed prices are an implicit tax on farmers, bananas or sugarcane, are more likely to be which discourages them from increasing pro- farmed intensively as monocropped units. duction or investing in their operations. They Crop diversity is thus reduced. Furthermore, are not exposed to the risk of price decreases long-term monocropping tends to increase pest during the growing season, but neither can they and disease pressure, which often leads to reap the benefit of price increases. larger applications of pesticides. Input taxes and subsidies. Taxes on imports of Land tenure. Smallholders typically deploy agricultural inputs reduce the profitability of more diversified cropping patterns, especially if crops employing them, shifting incentives away they are living close to subsistence levels. Such from these crops. In the more common situation diversification makes sense as a risk-reduction of subsidies for such imports (either through strategy, given the extreme poverty of some overvalued exchange rates or explicit subsidies) smallholders. When large holdings occupy the the effect is to promote use of purchased inputs. best land, small farmers can be pushed onto The ecological effects of such shifts in the use more marginal or fragile lands, with consequent of agricultural inputs vary considerably. When degradation. Inability to access inputs needed tractors or other machinery is subsidized, agri- for maintenance of fertility can exacerbate such cultural production generally expands because a situation. tractors typically allow an increase in cultivated Caution is warranted when generalizing area but not necessarily in yield. If chemical or about large and small farmers and risk aversion. biological inputs are used, such as fertilizers or Paddy farmers in Southeast Asia, for example, pesticides, productivity per unit area usually typically do not plant rice according to the size increases (Hayami and Ruttan 1985). Subsidizing of their land holdings. Similarly, even small chemical inputs causes a more direct problem farmers in the Punjab grow wheat virtually to when pesticides, herbicides, or other inputs pol- the exclusion of any other crop (for the environ- lute or destroy habitats. DDT is but one of many mental implications of this course see chapter 4). chemicals that, once introduced into an ecosys- In favorable areas and when farmers have access tem, enter the food chain and persist for long to inputs, yield levels do not vary greatly by periods of time, often with unanticipated effects. farm size. Another generalization depicts small farm- Supply restrictions. Policies to restrict supply, ers as using sustainable practices, while com- such as import quotas, have effects similar to those mercial-scale producers employ unsustainable, of an import tax. Less supply from abroad means high-input systems. Although there are many higher prices domestically and a greater incentive well-known examples of unsustainable large- to local production. Withdrawing land from culti- scale methods-irrigation leading to saliniza- vation also restricts supply. Fallow areas are gen- tion being but one-such problems are not erally more conducive to biodiversity than crop limited to big operations. Many small, risk- land. The economic effects, however, are less tan- avoiding farmers have contributed to land gible because consumers benefit little from such degradation because of overgrazing, poor ero- actions, while producers and input suppliers lose sion control on slopes, or inadequate organic to the extent that output is reduced. For this rea- matter returned to the soil. Nor are these prob- son most countries avoid this type of policy, lems always recent; one theory on the demise of though some high-income countries have period- the Mayan civilization before the arrival of the ically adopted such measures, such as the pay- Spanish traces the cause to unsustainable farm- ment-in-kind program in the United States. ing practices. The existence of a dualistic tenancy system Land-Use Policies can also affect the extent to which government policy influences farming practices. To the Large holdings, especially those devoted to degree that smallholders are operating as diver- production of plantation crops, such as sified self-sustaining units, their lack of market 34 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification links reduces the channels through which they introduce them to new environments. That can be affected by policy. But to the extent that assumption proved limnited within a decade and large producers are able to exert political influ- led to the creation of the international agricultural ence, they can prevent policies adverse to their research centers, starting in the 1960s. These cen- interests or evade their application. ters are managed autonomously but belong to the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Resettlement. Countries resort to resettlement Research (CGIAR), which was cofounded by for different reasons. One common justification is FAO, the United Nations Development Pro- to reduce population pressure, as on Java. gramme (UNDP), and the World Bank. Another motive is to gain access to natural With an ongoing emphasis on plant breeding resources and generate income, as in the Brazilian and related agronomic practices, the sixteen Amazon. In still other instances resettlement is research centers have followed a Western-style less a policy and more an effort by impoverished approach of systematic scientific research. Most peoples to survive. Often settlement follows in of the scientific staff received their training in the wake of logging operations, thereby exacer- Western universities. The national research pro- bating the loss of biodiversity associated with grams through which research developments undisturbed forest. were to be delivered adopted the same model; Much resettlement occurs on marginal agri- the extension system from U.S. land grant uni- cultural land for the simple reason that better versities was applied directly in a number of quality lands tend to be in production. The mar- countries. ginal nature of the land, poor access to necessary inputs, and the perception that land is abundant Criticisms. Reliance on the scientific experi- and hence has a low attributed value all tend to mental paradigm has often ignored local and lead to a rapid degradation of the resource base. indigenous agricultural knowledge (Busch and Inadequate training for the proper use of unfa- others 1991). If this knowledge were tapped, per- miliar soil or in adapting farming patterns to haps more balanced agricultural systems would novel climatic conditions often compounds the develop. In particular the bias toward better-off situation. operators at the expense of the smallest farmers, The term resettlement is also used to refer to might be avoided, and fewer environmentally land consolidation. This applies particularly to damaging fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides areas where inheritance traditions lead to farm- would be required. Crop varieties would be less ers owning multiple but scattered pieces of land. uniform, incorporating more genetic diversity, Consolidation can improve efficiency by reduc- thereby providing greater assurance against ing travel time and by making mechanical plow- widespread loss because of genetic vulnerability. ing possible as opposed to tilling by hand. And cropping systems would be more mixed, Consolidation affects already cultivated land. further contributing to pest control and genetic Thus environmental effects are quite different diversity. The Green Revolution is specifically from the opening or permanent cultivation of identified with the standardization of varieties new lands. For this discussion resettlement does over wide areas. not include consolidation programs. Ruttan (1989) challenges such criticisms, not- ing that they are often "based on the crudest sort Research Paradigm of casual empiricism." Moreover, he notes that biological technologies, which have been the Systematic international attention to the problems focus of research at most international agricul- of raising agricultural productivity in developing tural research centers, are "essentially scale-neu- countries began with the creation of the United tral"; they can be and are adopted by farmers of Nations Food and Agriculture Organization all scales when the technologies suit their needs. (FAO) in the aftermath of World War II. At that Others have substantiated that position empiri- time prevailing wisdom held that appropriate cally, particularly for irrigated rice (David and technologies existed; a mechanism was needed to Otsuka 1994). Policy Considerations along the Interface between Biodiversity and Agriculture 35 Other critics of the Green Revolution centers, which was $336.9 million, up slightly approach, such as Geisler and DuPuis (1989), since the beginning of the decade (CGLAR 1995). attribute much to agricultural policies that Of that amount $70.5 million (about 21 percent) encouraged new varieties. Such policies include was spent on breeding and enhancement and the use of extension programs and the subsi- $25.6 million (7.6 percent) on conserving biodi- dization of fertilizer and pesticides that are espe- versity, which is up significantly in recent years. cially well suited for use by improved varieties More than half of total breeding expenditures (Desai 1988). In recent years economic realign- at research centers is directed to the four major sta- ment has curtailed subsidies. Nevertheless, ples: rice, wheat, maize, and white potatoes (table many farmers want to plant improved varieties, 3.1). Focusing on the main "staffs of life" helped often at the expense of genetically diverse tradi- the largest number of people and allowed rapid tional varieties. progress because a backlog of basic research could The institutional response has been an be applied rapidly (Ruttan 1989). Even some increased emphasis on farming-systems research, minor crops such as cassava receive significant with particular attention to the needs of small, breeding support approaching that of the potato. resource-poor farmers. One factor contributing to But other regionally important crops such as this new research thrust was the realization that banana receive only 1.4 percent of the total. Most increased production through intensification did of the world's crops fall outside research center not by itself necessarily enhance an equitable mandates, at least as far as breeding is concerned. income distribution. The special requirements of small farmers obviously needed to be better Table 3.1 Expenditures at selected nentom agricultural research centers by crop, 1994 and 199 understood, including the objectives (such as (thousands of U.S. dollars) risk-aversion) of indigenous production systems. Center Year Crop Budget Warren (1989) identifies several factors that con- tribute to the marginalization of traditional prac- Intemational Center 1994 Beans 3,793 for Tropical Agriculture Cassava 3,149 tices including: Tropical forages 2.752 * Negative Euro-American attitudes about non- Rice 1,748 Western approaches Intemational Center for Maize 1996 Maize 6,340 * Pressure by large, better organized farmer and Wheat Improvement Wheat 5,733 Triticale 368 groups Barley 359 * Training in Western countries, where large- Intemational Center 1994 Potato, 4,760 scale farming practices dominate for the Potato Sweet potato 2,040 - A research staff from urban areas who are International Center 1996 Barey 1,675 unfamiliar with rural life. for Agricultural Research Wheat 1,213 As these constraints have eased for a number in the Dry Areas Forage legumes 771 of reasons over the past two decades, farming- LCentckpea 670 systems research has led to a greater diversity of Dry peas 97 research approaches, including more emphasis Intemational Crops Research 1996 Peanuts 3,353 on minor crops and intercropping. Institute for the Semi-Ad Sorghum 2,763 The farming-systems approach involves more Tropics Millet 2,144 sociological and extension work than biologically Pigeon pea 970 oriented research (Waugh, Hildebrand, and Intemational Institute 1996 Cassava 1,065 Andrew 1989). There is concern about the relative of Tropical Agrculture Banana 842 productivity of these efforts compared with vari- Cowpea 339 etal improvement, especially because most Intemational Rice Research 1994 Rice 8,700 national research programs develop slowly Institute (Ruttan 1989). West Akrican Rice 1994 Rice 2,100 Development Assocation Research on minor and nonfood crops. Staple a. Estmated d999AionT So4cer CIAT 1994; CWAMMYT 1994; CIP 1994; ICARDA 1996; ISAT 1996; IITA crops dominate the 1994 budget for thie research 1996; IRRI 1994; WARDA 1994. 36 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification Involvement of Local Communities Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in Policy Development assist with contacts and information exchange at the local level, and their number is growing. The need to understand the relationships between CARE is one of the more established NGOs, with local peoples and their biological resources has widespread local operations in developing coun- long been recognized (NRC 1972). Gupta (1992) tries. The Environmental Protection Society in says he knows of no United Nations Environment Thailand is one example of a community-based Programme (UNEP) project being discussed in NGO (McNeely 1988; Wellard 1993). the local language of the people most likely to be To establish reciprocity with indigenous affected. Far from being unique to UNEP, many groups, Shaman Pharmaceuticals asks commu- projects limit or fail to involve residents, yet it is nities in research sites about their particular widely recognized that the actions of local peoples needs. An Ecuadoran Quechua community was are critical for biodiversity conservation. Pre- concerned about access to periodic and emer- serves that exdude local people, sometimes to the gency health care. Shaman lengthened the local extent of ejecting long-established groups, are per- runway to handle emergency evacuations (King ceived as alien and are thus frequently degraded. 1994). Such steps are instrumental in establish- In contrast reserves designed to provide benefits ing appropriate incentives, but are neither quick for local communities are often protected by them nor inexpensive to implement. (McNeely 1988). Hanna (1995) notes that environmental man- Policy Issues and Knowledge Gaps agement ranges from a single entity enforcing absolute standards to more flexible, participatory Differing policies and national and agroecologi- approaches. Local participation improves the cal conditions make it difficult to generalize effectiveness of managing protected areas and about the effects of economic policies on biodi- enforcing environmental regulations because it versity. Nevertheless, some useful insights can reduces: be gained by evaluating the objectives of policies * Information costs by providing supplemen- rather than their form. Agricultural intensifica- tal nontechnical knowledge tion appears to be an essential response to * Coordination costs by encouraging good rep- increased population and demands for resentation improved living standards. The issue then is the * Monitoring costs by making enforcement sustainability of improved agricultural systems, more legitimate not their existence. * Enforcement costs because local inputs lead Policies to reduce trade barriers and devalue to more appropriate regulations. currencies in an effort to recapture comparative Projects related to biodiversity, in particular advantage can affect efforts to intensify crop pro- to agrobiodiversity, are numerous and diverse, duction and conserve biodiversity, but intemal making generalization difficult. Nonetheless, in and external economic factors are also involved. traditional practice local communities have fre- Imports of agricultural inputs are likely to quently developed considerable knowledge of increase, including imports of improved seed factors affecting farming. For example, they have that may supplant local varieties. Wars and nat- designated sacred groves and protected forests ural disasters also trigger the loss of local crops on mountain aquifers (Gupta 1992). Local partic- and varieties, underscoring the need for ex situ as ipation thus can lead to management efficiencies. well as in situ preservation. The difficulty of communicating with many Agricultural pricing policies often reflect diverse and often remote groups and the need to changing exchange conditions. Policies such as identify meaningful incentives are also limiting subsidies that lower input prices generally factors. Mascorenhas (1993) describes a partici- increase production and intensity, but policies patory rural appraisal method that can be used such as fixed prices that lower crop prices to understand the relationships of rural people to dampen production. Input subsidies increase their environment. the use of the subsidized products, which can Policy Considerations along the Interface between Biodiversity and Agriculture 37 have negative effects on the environment and nent for local management and incorpora- biodiversity. Large holdings are in general rela- tion of local knowledge. tively intensive monocultures, while small, risk- averse farms are generally more diverse. In Situ and Ex Situ Conservation Past national agricultural policies, combined of Genetic Resources and Ownership Issues with the research practices of international agri- cultural research centers, have often empha- Cost, sovereign rights, ownership, and knowl- sized intensive farming practices that rely on edge gaps are some of the issues surrounding in purchased inputs. While production increases situ and ex situ conservation of genetic resources. have often been impressive, agrobiodiversity has diminished for two interrelated reasons. In-Situ Conservation and Incremental Costs First, the improved varieties substituted for local, genetically diverse traditional varieties. In-situ conservation is essential for vegetatively Second, small-farmer production practices have propagated crops and cultivated plants with been largely ignored by mainstream agricultural recalcitrant seeds. Crops with conventional seed research and development organizations. This such as traditional varieties of cereals in farmers' situation is slowly changing, however, with the fields that can be easily dried and frozen may also advent of farming systems research in the 1970s be maintained in situ because this allows for ongo- and an emerging concern for tapping indige- ing evolution. Wild relatives can also be held. The nous knowledge and promoting more sustain- definition of in situ used in the Biodiversity able agricultural production among agricultural Convention (Article 2) applies specifically to research and development centers. preservation in natural habitats: "In situ conser- It remains to be seen if the international agri- vation means conditions where genetic resources cultural research centers and national programs exist within ecosystems and natural habitats, and have the resources and skills to focus on the local in the case of domesticated or cultivated species, issues implicit in farming-systems studies. If in the surroundings where they developed their they can, a more genetically diversified agricul- distinctive properties." ture will likely ensue. One way to reach this goal Brush (1994) identifies three arguments for is greater reliance on local management, includ- conserving traditional varieties in situ: ing locally relevant incentives, which could * Ex situ collections are incomplete, and acces- improve management efficiency. Establishing sions are prone to genetic drift and loss of operable systems in local communities will viability. require considerable effort, however. * Ex situ collections isolate plants from ongo- Policy options should follow these guidelines: ing evolutionary processes. * Restructuring of agricultural (and macroeco- * In situ conservation is an inexpensive com- nomic) policy should include awareness of plement to ex situ collections. implications for purchased inputs and the Wild material is poorly represented in most ex potential effects on crop diversity. situ collections, and many accessions are not * Land-tenure restructuring programs should tested systematically to see if they need to be encourage the smallest farm size consistent regenerated. The value of wild material as a with meeting target production goals. source of commercially valuable genetic material * Research investment for locally important has been well documented (Fowler and Mooney crops should increase to create more attrac- 1990). Even for important food crops wild popu- tive alternatives to major staples. Net addi- lations and near-relatives are conspicuously tions rather than reallocations within existing absent or inadequately represented in seed gene budgets should fund such research. banks; only 5 percent of the wild material of pearl * Resettlement schemes should provide ade- millet and sorghum, for example, is housed in ex quate training and access to inputs required situ collections (Wilkes 1988). Only recently have for sustainable use of the new lands. gene banks begun assimilating wild materials * Project guidelines should specify a compo- (Blixt 1994). If only by default, in situ conservation 38 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification is the prevailing means of preserving wild popu- banks at international agricultural research cen- lations and near-relatives of crops. ters are part of core funding, and the legal status Article 20(2) of the Convention on Biological of and access to these materials have recently Diversity calls on the industrial country parties to undergone some changes. "provide new and additional financial resources Regional gene banks range from the Nordic to enable developing country parties to meet the Gene Bank (Sweden) to the Southern Africa agreed fMl incremnental costs" of carrying out the Research Council in Zambia, which was estab- convention (emphasis added). Incremental costs lished in part with a grant from Norway. are not defined within the convention but have Because maintenance funding has been a prob- been given an operational definition by the lem for some of the regional and national gene Global Environment Facility (GEF) of the World banks, many of the materials are likely to have Bank, the financial mechanism currently recog- deteriorated. National gene banks are not well nized under Article 21. The GEF (1995) defines described in the literature. They range from incremental cost as "a measure of the future eco- major programs, such as India's new facility in nomic burden on the country that would result New Delhi and the Fort Collins facility of the from its choosing the GEF-supported activity in U.S. Department of Agriculture to small preference to one that would have been sufficient national collections. The authors have found in the national interest." Incremental costs would that small collections are sometimes in very poor then be the costs for providing "global environ- condition; many are in hot climates that lack mental benefits" that exceed baseline costs for refrigeration equipment. National systems satisfying national needs. depend largely on internal funding sources that Presumably, in situ conservation that pro- are often inadequate and erratic. An interna- vided global benefits by structuring incentives tional effort is now under way to support and for preserving potentially valuable germplasm, replicate the Vavilov Center collections in St. for example, would qualify for GEF funding. Petersburg, which have fallen victim to the fluc- The phrase "global environmental benefits" is tuating political and economic situation in GEF, not Biodiversity Convention, terminology Russia. so that projects need not be limited to environ- mental benefits. Policies of GEF, or any possible Sovereign Rights to Genetic Resources successor organization, in this area have not yet under the Biodiversity Convention been established. Genetic resources as a common heritage came to Ex Situ Conservation of Genetic Materials the forefront of policy debate through the 1983 FAO International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Gene banks exist at the international, regional, Resources, which reiterated that genetic resources and national levels as well as in the working col- were a common heritage: "Recognizing that plant lections held by universities and private firms. genetic resources are a heritage of [humankind] Of these, the largest are the collections of inter- to be preserved, and to be freely available for use, national agricultural research centers. Wilkes for the benefit of present and future generations." (1988) estimates those collections contain 85 per- The FAO also advanced the idea of establishing cent of the accessions worldwide. Clearly, the farmers' rights as a mechanism for compensating other gene banks duplicate some of their hold- local farmers for the millennia of preserving and ings, a valuable precautionary measure. The selecting traditional varieties subsequently used estimated proportion of cultivated gene pool in plant breeding (Resolution 8/83). remaining uncollected is in the 30-50 percent This reflected an increasing frustration among range for a number of crops, including millet, farmers whose products were considered price- groundnuts, and beans. The majority of col- less but accorded no monetary value. Meanwhile, lected materials are at only the "passport level" breeders and the companies they worked for were (date and location of collection) and therefore free to sell those products, in some cases selling are of limited value to breeding programs. Gene materials back to the original innovators, albeit in Policy Considerations along the Interface between Biodiversity and Agriculture 39 modified form. Patents and plant breeders' rights As a general rule convention stipulations do not provided legal mechanisms to protect the apply retroactively. Thus the large quantities of "improved" genetic products but ignored the materials that were collected before December materials on which those advances were based. 29,1993, are outside the scope of the convention. With farmers' rights failing to provide any com- However, the Nairobi Final Act, a kind of pensation, countries began to claim ownership, addendum to the Biodiversity Convention, calls culminating in Articles 3 and 15 of the Convention on the parties to resolve issues relevant to the on Biological Diversity. Resolution 3/91 of the rights to those materials. Because the previous FAO International Undertaking also recognized plant genetic resources regime lacked any for- national sovereign rights but only within the rec- mal legal basis, those of the Biodiversity iprocal requirements. Convention are expected to take precedence Article 15(1) of the Biodiversity Convention (Witmeyer 1994). reads as follows (emphasis added): "Recognizing the sovereign rights of States over their natural Access legislation. The imposition of national resources, the authority to determine access to sovereign rights on genetic resources is generally genetic resources rests with the national govern- recognized to require some form of access legis- ments and is subject to national legislation." lation. Without specific legislation there is no The authority of the Biodiversity Convention prohibition, for example, on taking seeds from a was not required for claiming these rights. squash purchased in a local market out of the Indeed the convention recognizes only existing country for use in breeding or other commercial rights, but it marked a turning point in the treat- activities. Some have argued that the wording of ment of genetic resources. How property rights Article 15 of the Biodiversity Convention implies are to be apportioned domestically-between a general prohibition that applies until enabling the government and individuals including legislation is adopted nationally. Yet under estab- landowners-is a matter outside the scope of the lished legal interpretations a sovereign right is convention. distinct from a property right over individual resources (FAO 1995). A national law is required Requirements under Article 15. The convention for individual property rights. regulates actions on biodiversity and genetic Access legislation has taken two basic forms. resources among countries. A country's sover- The Philippines has a national proclamation eignty of use therefore ends at its borders: under (Executive Order 247, 1995) stating the condi- Article 3 countries should "ensure that activities tions for access and the authorities responsible within their jurisdiction or control do not cause for granting access. That permission applies damage to the environment of other states." Two only for research purposes; a separate agree- additional stipulations for use apply. First, both ment is required for commercialization. Besides the materials and any associated research results the Philippines only Queensland (Australia), must be accessible. Second, access and exchange Brazil, and Costa Rica have passed specific leg- must be done on "mutually agreeable terms" islation on this matter, although the Andean Pact and subject to "informed consent" [Articles 15 has for some months been in the process of draft- (4) and (5)]. The full text is complex when con- ing terminology, and in 1991 Argentina consid- sidered within the convention as a whole, and ered a draft law (Correa 1994). interpretations differ on how policy recommen- Research permits provide the other major dations should be applied. means of controlling access. These contractual Article 15(3) limits the scope of the conven- agreements between two parties have been used tion to "parties that have acquired the genetic for some time in exchanging materials for resources in accordance with this convention." research purposes; they are known as material This clause is generally interpreted to mean that transfer agreements. A typical agreement stipu- the convention applies only to materials that are lates that approved use is for research purposes exchanged since the convention went into effect only, commercialization requires separate (Glowka, Burhenne-Guilmin, and Synge 1994). approval, and materials could not be shared with 40 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification third parties without permission. Material trans- In 1994 management of the CGIAR gene fer agreements have been proposed for broader banks was placed under the auspices of FAO use. The U.S. Park Service has agreements for ("Consultative Group Signs Landmark Agree- firms wishing to collect samples in Yellowstone ment" 1994). This new legal status stipulated and other national parks (Milstein 1994). that: Multilateral agreements, especially for agricul- * Designated germplasm would be held in tural resources, have also been proposed. A pro- trust for the benefit of the international com- tocol under the Biodiversity Convention has also munity (designated germplasm can be equated been suggested, possibly based on the 1993 FAO generally with collected materials that have Code of Conduct for Plant Germplasm Collection no specific ownership or use agreements). and Transfer, a voluntary system. * Intellectual property rights would not be sought over designated germplasm or related Ownership and Access to Materials Collected information. before the Biodiversity Convention * Germplasm and related information would be available without restriction to users. With materials collected before the Biodiversity * The FAO Commission on Plant Genetic Convention excluded from its requirements, Resources would have authority to establish other mechanisms must be identified to regulate policy for the international network of ex situ access, use, and compensation for that material. collections. The Nairobi Final Act (Resolution 3) requires that * Recipients should be bound by the same countries make developing compensation and restrictions as the international agricultural use policies for ex situ materials a priority, espe- research centers for access and intellectual cialy for agricultural and forestry uses. Two property protection. major ongoing efforts are involved: the recent For its part FAO is committed to operating and evolving policy for major international gene the international network of gene banks within banks within the CGIAR system and the division the tenets of the International Undertaking on of responsibilities between the Biodiversity Plant Genetic Resources. This involves assisting in Convention and the FAO Commission on Plant policy establishment facilitating access and pro- Genetic Resources. viding emergency support for genetic materials. The focus on CGIAR policies does not imply that the international agricultural research cen- FAO Commission on Plant Genetic Resources. The ters are the only institutions maintaining impor- commission is primarily responsible for formulat- tant collections. Regional and some national ing and carrying out policy. The notion of farmers' systems also maintain significant collections. rights (Resolution 5/89), "rights arising from past, However, the CGIAR collections are the major present, and future contributions of farmers in players in the international exchange of crop conserving, improving, and making available genetic resources. plant genetic resources," is a major focus of the commission's policy work. Subsequent resolu- CG1AR Policies. The bulk of acquisitions in tions have declared that farmers' rights are not the CGIAR collections appears to have been incompatible with the Biodiversity Convention made under a frequently loose legal agreement nor withplantbreeders'rights. Some groups, such with countries for in trust protection. In trust as the Rural Advancement Foundation Inter- does not suggest ownership with its implicit national are critical of even indirect commercial privileges of control over use but rather a global use of materials held in trust (Mooney 1993). reciprocal system of contributions and access that prevailed, later achieving some formal sta- Handling Materials Collected tus under the FAO International Undertaking. under the Biodiversity Convention Those underlying agreements shaped the con- text of subsequent arrangements for access and Treatment of materials collected under the aus- use (Witmeyer 1994). pices of the Biodiversity Convention is uncertain Policy Considerations along the Interface between Biodiversity and Agriculture 41 and contentious for several reasons. The conven- not occur for decades, if ever, the direct market tion has not been applied in these areas beyond connection is nonexistent. In effect, farmers a few tentative interpretations. Until actual prac- would be subsidized for maintaining particular tices begin to evolve, much of what can be said is farming practices rather than for responding to speculative. Lack of clarity in defining the prin- an incentive. cipal agent is also a problem. Legally, the parties For traditional farmers using landraces, one of the Biodiversity Convention have authority, form of incentive could be payment for continu- but FAO has proposed that it become the agent ance of those farming practices. That would per- for crop (and more recently animal) genetic haps be better described as a payment or resources held both in situ and ex situ. That posi- subsidy for a service rather than an incentive tion has met with some skepticism by national involving market risk. In the self-monitoring governments (Biodiversity Coalition 1995), but role of intellectual property right incentives all formal action has yet to be taken. returns come from the market. For subsidies FAO prefers a multilateral system based on external monitoring would be required to deter- farmers' rights. Underlying the farmers' rights mine if agreed practices were indeed being fol- approach is creation of a multinational fund for lowed. Worede and Mekbib (1993) describe a compensating farmers. The fund would likely composite local community and plant breeders be mandatory because experiences with a vol- program that has been effective in maintaining untary fund under the nonbinding International the use of landraces in Ethiopia. Undertaking indicate that approach is not effec- tive. Financial requirements for the fund have Policy Issues and Knowledge Gaps been estimated $300 million annually (Keystone Center 1991). The bulk of those monies would be Science, politics, and economics are involved in directed to maintaining the current ex situ sys- conservation of genetic resources. This discus- tem. In situ conservation will require additional sion is limited to politics and economics. The resources (FAO 1995; Brush 1994). The final basis major economic issue is the funding of both in for the calculations has yet to be established. situ and ex situ conservation. The CGIAR collec- As applied to in situ materials (funding of ex tions are supported by annual pledges from situ collections is a separate topic), the fund has donors, and while there are no indications those been described as more of a moral obligation sources are not secure, continuity of funding is than an incentive system such as intellectual nonetheless an issue. Funding for regional and property rights (Lesser 1994). FAO (1995), how- national gene banks is far more variable. ever, proposes that farmers' rights also refer to Long-term support for in situ conservation is future contributions and that funds used for even less clear for several reasons. While the future in situ conservation would satisfy the general benefits of in situ conservation are need for incentives. Those types of incentives widely appreciated, they are not quantified by would, however, differ from intellectual prop- crop . For crops that can also be held in ex situ col- erty rights because they would lack the direct lections, allocation of funds to in situ programs connection between an individual's actions and is uncertain. Additional resources will be the expectations of market rewards. They would required to determine the relative benefits of in parallel more closely the practice in some coun- situ and ex situ conservation. Furthermore, when tries of applying a royalty to recording tapes to in situ conservation is necessary or beneficial, compensate musicians and others for expected relatively few examples exist of how to manage lost sales when consumers make private record- compensation programs for traditional farmers ings. The recording tape system must operate by to continue farming practices that would other- assuming some relationship between, say, the wise become obsolete. level of compact disc sales and private taping. The political issues are even more complex. At Yet there remains a direct connection between one level is the division of responsibility between commercial success and compensation. For FAO and the Parties of the Biodiversity genetic resources for which commercial use may Convention. At the national level countries are 42 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification now determining how to protect and claim value GATT operates on a few basic principles, the for genetic resources through access legislation. most significant of which are: Although a bilateral approach such as contracting * National treatment. Foreign products must be seems appropriate for high-value material, a mul- treated the same as nationally produced ones tilateral system would be more effective at main- (Article I). taining free exchange. But a mutually acceptable * General most-favored-nation treatment. Oppor- compensation system that would provide the tunities granted to one trading partner must needed incentives is lacking. Country skepticism be granted to all (Artide I). means that alternatives to the farmers' rights- * Noninvolvement with domestic affairs. Agree- based proposal from FAO should also be consid- ments relate to activities between countries, ered. FAO is developing a multilateral approach. not within them (Article I). Before an international compensation system can * Preferencesfor developing countries. Developing be established, the needs and uses of funds countries receive certain exemptions such as should be identified more precisely. conservation of foreign exchange and are Policy issues include: accorded delays in implementation and tariff * Establishing a secure funding source for ex concessions not allowed to industrial coun- situ germplasm collections, especially at the tries (Article XVIII). international centers * Tariffs. Over time, policies function by trans- * Allowing more specific discussion of the use muting all trade barriers to tariffs that decrease of intellectual property rights for the CGIAR according to an established schedule. collections, including control and negotiat- * Trading partners. The establishment of ing exchanges with the private sector regional trading groups such as the European - Clarifying the division of responsibility for Union (EU) and the North American Free agricultural genetic resources between the Trade Agreement (NAFTA) are permitted parties of the Biodiversity Convention and under GATT as long as GATT requirements FAO are honored (Article XXIV). * Establishing a program for estimating the Before the Uruguay Round agricultural trade value of in situ genetic resource conservation issues had been granted special treatment under as a basis for allocating limited funds GATT. Although export subsidizes were prohib- * Developing model access legislation for ited for other commodities, they were permissi- national consideration, possibly including a ble for agricultural products as long as a country multilateral system for agricultural resources did not gain more than an equitable share of the and a bilateral system for other uses world market [Article XVI(3)]. Environment and * Evaluating alternatives to a farmers' rights trade issues were significantly expanded in the system for agricultural genetic resources current round. This section addresses the rela- because the private sector and some govern- tionships between these two areas and biodiver- ments view such rights skeptically. sity use and conservation. Trade Agreements Agricultural Issues Major international trade agreements are a GATT. Restricting agricultural subsidies to an recent phenomenon dating to the end of World equitable share of the world market proved War II when the first (Geneva) Round of the unworkable, so there has been no effective con- General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) trol over agricultural trade. Within the Uruguay was adopted. GATr grew out of the conviction, Round the United States was the major propo- particularly that of the United States, that trade nent of liberalization, joined by a mix of indus- would be economically advantageous, if only to trial and developing countries. The European avoid repetitions of the escalation of tariffs Union has been a major opponent of liberalizing widely believed to have precipitated worldwide trade in agricultural commodities. Developing depression in the 1930s. countries saw domestic subsidies as limiting Policy Considerations along the Interface between Biodiversity and Agriculture 43 their direct access to protected agricultural mar- agreement can be credited with providing a firm kets and their indirect access to third-country basis for future reductions and holding U.S. and markets where surplus commodities from EU domestic subsidies at a constant level. Food- domestic price supports were sold below cost. importing countries should also escape major True reform would reduce or eliminate those price increases attributable to GATT, at least domestic subsidies, thereby drawing GATT into over the short term. In the case of wheat, for national affairs. example, prices are unlikely to rise by more than Agreed-to reforms involved an immediate 3.8 percent by 2002 thanks to trade agreements conversionfrom nontariff barriers to tariffs, which (Goldin and van der Mensbrugghe 1995). were to be reduced an average of 36 percent over six years (ten for developing countries). NAFTA. NAFTA's specifications are far more Developing countries were allowed additional explicit than those of GATT. NAFTA calls for preferential treatment, including tariff reductions eliminating barriers to the movement of agricul- as low as two-thirds that of developed countries tural goods within ten years. Various agricultural and exemptions for export subsidies incorporated producers, particularly Mexico and Canada, are in development programs. Despite these impres- making changes to enhance efficiency. Without sive-sounding agreements, projected import significant improvements in efficiency produc- prices in Organisation for Economic Co-operation tion of potatoes in Mexico, for example, will and Development (OECD) countries will change decline substantially. Some informal projections little, with the exception of Japan and the high- suggest that maize production in Mexico will fall income Asian countries, and import prices in because of competition from the U.S. corn belt. nearly all developing countries will be largely Some of that slack would likely be taken up by unaffected (Hathaway and Ingco 1995). vegetable production, for which Mexico has a cli- The explanation for this seeming anomaly of matic and labor-cost advantage. significant tariff reductions yet stable import Concerns have been expressed that small prices is the base period selected by which farmers will be forced out of maize production, reductions would be measured. The chosen leading to the loss of traditional varieties and wild base, 1986-88, represents a period of below- relatives associated with their production meth- average world prices. Because the tariff equiva- ods. Teosinte, a close-relative of maize, grows on lent is computed as the difference between the verges of small fields, cross-pollinating with domestic and world prices, the effect was to cultivated varieties (Wilkes 1993). The loss of begin with very high tariff levels from which to maize production would mean the loss of teosinte calculate reductions. In some cases actual tariffs germplasm. The limited contact many traditional have been lower than required by GATT. farmers have with market crops suggests that this Other factors affected this outcome. is unlikely to occur, however. Provisions were included for offsetting tariff The small-scale forest product industry reductions; large-percentage reductions on one may be changed dramatically, leading to bio- commodity could compensate for no reductions diversity loss. Mexico has significant forest on another ("dirty tariffication"). However, as land that is managed cooperatively with long- has often been the case, large reductions were term landowners. Management is not market- made for commodities with low levels of pro- oriented as in the United States and Canada, tection, limiting absolute liberalization. For meaning that wood products in Mexico are domestic subsidies the United States and the EU priced differently. This has led to concerns that negotiated absolute expenditure caps but no import competition will lead to more rapid requirement for reductions on particular com- exploitation and hence loss of biodiversity in modities. Hence no major relocations of agricul- old-growth forest. Landowners may respond tural production should be expected at least by accepting lower returns on their land through the year 2002. investment, but the likelihood is for rapid Overall, world welfare gains are estimated at change in the Mexican forest sector (Soberon, roughly $48 billion annually. The agricultural personal communication). 44 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification Environmental Issues under GATT and NAFTA Sanitary and phytosanitary measures. In addition to quarantine, sanitary and phytosanitary mea- Environmental issues have long been incorpo- sures control health and safety standards, such as rated under GATT but have been limited to two livestock slaughter requirements and fumigation aspects of Article XX, which states that: of plant materials. Under the Uruguay Round reg- ulations the following conditions apply: ... nothing in this Agreement shall be * Regulations are to be in harmony with inter- construed to prevent the adoption or national standards. enforcement by any contracting party of * When no international standards exists, reg- measures: ulations may be based temporarily on avail- (b) necessary to protect human, animal, able scientific information. or plant life or health; ... * Higher standards can be employed only if (g) relating to the conservation of there is scientific justification. exhaustible natural resources if such * Risk assessments must fit the circumstances measures are made effective in conjunc- and may include economic risks such as the tion with restrictions on domestic pro- spread of a new pest or disease. duction or consumption. Provided that these requirements allow for a reasonable level of protection against the inter- More and more of society is paying increased national movement of pests and diseases, the attention to environmental matters. As other trade connection with biodiversity is limited. loopholes are closed, environmental concerns could be used increasingly as a nontariff barrier. Packaging. Packaging issues have been asso- And countries with stricter controls over dis- ciated with GATT because Germany and other charges have expressed concerns of becoming countries have adopted package recycling uncompetitive with countries with laxer require- requirements (Esty 1994). Manufacturers are ments. This is a major justification for NAFTA's required to make provisions for reuse of their detailed environmental requirements, particu- packaging materials, even if no economical recy- larly on the treatment of effluents. Many trade cling technology exists. This is seen as a special economists discount this concern, noting that pol- burden for firms shipping products into those lution abatement adds an average of only 3 per- countries. While this can be a matter of signifi- cent to the cost of production, although the cant economic importance, its connection with amount can be considerably greater for some severe environmental degradation is limited. industries, especially when costs are added for the Landfills, the prevailing disposal system for production of inputs, such as electricity (Runge packaging materials, do not generally trigger 1994). On the other hand concerns have been reg- serious pollution, at least beyond the immediate istered that countries with less strenuous antipol- area of the fill. lution regulations will attract dirty industries. Liberalized trade is intended to enhance eco- Process or product. The fundamental environ- nomic growth, which unless regulated is often mental issue in production methods is this: Can associated with environmental degradation. It is identical finished products be differentiated by therefore appropriate to include environmental production method? In particular if a product is safeguards in GATT. Two such safeguards are produced in two countries (or even two plants specifically addressed in the Uruguay Round: within a single country), one more polluting * Agreement on sanitary and phytosanitary than the other, are they like or dissimilar prod- measures (such as quarantine) ucts under GATT? Several environmental * Agreement on technical barriers to trade (for groups such as the World Wildlife Fund argue example, lifecycle packaging). that they would be different products, thus per- In addition, Article I prohibits discrimination mitting exclusions under the conservation of against "like products," which has become en- natural resources provisions of Article XX(g) meshed in the "production process" debate. (WWF 1993). Policy Considerations along the Interface between Biodiversity and Agriculture 45 A partial interpretation was provided in the Cooperation. As a result Mexico is investing Mexican Yellowfin Tuna Case (Report of the considerable sums in public water and air treat- Panel, GATT doc. No. DS21 /R). The United ment projects in spite of a severe economic cri- States banned canned tuna imports from Mexico sis. Because of this different approach to because the fishing practices violated the Federal harmonization, many of the environmental Marine Mammal Protection Act. In particular issues raised under GATT do not apply to Mexican purse-seining techniques were blamed NAFTA. for the incidental drowning of an unacceptably large number of dolphins. Mexican canned tuna Policy Options and Knowledge Gaps was not acceptable in the United States because of the production method, not because of safety Global agriculture will be little affected by concerns about the tuna itself. GATT, at least until after 2002, when tariff levels The panel decided against the United States, are revisited. For the initial period the high base- ruling the import ban a violation of GATT. That line levels from which reductions are computed ruling stirred environmental groups to decry the and other technical matters will minimize the GATT. They lamented the loss of a means to effect on agrobiodiversity. For the foreseeable check environmental degradation elsewhere in future many national tariffs will be at low levels the world, especially in developing countries. In so that further reductions will not have major reality the decision was a technical one related implications. However, U.S. and EU freezes on to the specific means by which the United States domestic subsidy levels will reduce the intensity established the incidental tuna take and not a of production in some areas, thereby benefiting sweeping rebuke of the product-by-process con- the environment. cept. The allowable dolphin take was based on Only recently have environmental issues that of the U.S. tuna fleet rather than some been highlighted in trade agreements. NAFTA is absolute standard. For the panel that meant that attempting to harmonize environmental stan- the United States could indirectly determine dards among the United States, Canada, and allowable Mexican imports. Moreover, the Mexico. However, many developing countries United States was found not to have exhausted are opposed to the upward harmonization of less trade-restrictive approaches (Runge 1994). environmental regulations. Perhaps more pertinent was the first major The environmental safeguards in GATT are environmental ruling of the appeals body of the more limited. The principal issue is to determine World Trade Organization (WTO), GATT's suc- when environmental restrictions are legitimate cessor. In that ruling a provision of the U.S. Clean and when they act as undue impediments to Air Act was judged as discriminating against for- trade. A product-versus-process controversy eign gasoline refiners. Although the technical has emerged in environmentally related trade issues were quite distinct from the tuna case, they restrictions. At issue is whether an identical shared a standard based on the performance of product can be discriminated against in trade if U.S. firms rather than an absolute scale related to it is produced in a manner importing countries environmental considerations. This case thus deem damaging to the environment. Definitive also fails to set a clear standard for environmen- rulings must await additional decisions by tal considerations under the WTO. GATT's successor, the WTO. The initial relevant rulings have been narrow. Stronger NAFTA action. NAFTA has moved The main policy options include: much further than GATT to standardize internal * Recognizing the uncertainty of WTO rulings pollution regulations among member countries and establishing additional environmental in response to protests from the environmental regulations as appropriate for World Bank community before the U.S. ratification agree- projects ment; green issues were handled through an * Establishing biodiversity as one of the environmental side agreement administered by "exhaustible natural resources" that can be a trilateral Commission on Environmental invoked under GATT Article XX(g) 46 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification * Further limiting farm subsidies whenever ily copied technologies. This has proven particu- possible because they are often associated larly useful in the case of plant varieties with loss of biodiversity (Biodiversity Secretariat 1995), as figures in thre * Pressing the WTO to adopt a broad interpre- of the five sections of Article 16 of the Biodiversity tation of resource-related trade limitations. Convention show. Critics disparage intellectual property rights for a number of reasons, indud- Effects of Patents and Plant Breeders' Rights ing a bias toward the more technologically on Biodiversity Conservation advanced countries and a turning of life forms into commodities ("UPOV Sells Out" 1990; Singh Patents have been granted since the fifteenth Nijar and Ling 1994). And these rights work century, evolving into their modern form after through market mechanisms, meaning that they the Industrial Revolution. Explicit protection for have no application for noncommercial products, living organisms is more recent. Major steps in such as varieties for resource-poor farmers. patenting biological material include establish- Today approximately forty-four countries ment of the International Convention for the explicitly exclude patents for plants and ani- Protection of New Varieties of Plants in 1960, mals, but twenty-eight others (four of which are also referred to as plant breeders' rights, and ini- developing countries) are members of the tial patenting in the United States of microor- International Convention for the Protection of ganisms (1980), plants (1985), and animals New Varieties of Plants. Intellectual property (1987). Several countries followed the U.S. rights are territorial; they apply only incountries example. Historically, agricultural applications in which protection has been sought and for intellectual property protection have lagged granted. Several countries are currently adopt- behind industrial products for both technical ing plant breeders'-rights legislation, many by and policy reasons. joining the International Convention as man- dated by the trade-related intellectual property Objectives of Intellectual Property Rights rights amendments to the GATr Uruguay Round agreement (Biodiversity Secretariat Of the five traditional forms of intellectual prop- 1995). Technically, plant breeders' rights or plant erty rights-patents, plant breeders' rights, patents or both would satisfy the commitments, copyrights, trademarks, and trade secrets- but most countries are opting for breeders' patents, plant breeders' rights, and trade secrets rights alone. All GATT signatories must also are most applicable to crop genetic resources adopt some trade-secret protection; currently (Lesser 1994; Correa 1994). Their principal objec- there is no international compilation of the tive is to provide investment incentives in cre- extent of availability. ative enterprises by preventing direct copying or, in the case of trade secrets, improper acquisition Conservation Link of protected information. Without a legal prohi- bition an investor has little opportunity to A conceptual connection can be made between recover his or her investment because of direct intellectual property rights and conservation. A competition with copiers. Stated another way, common application is the charging of royalties intellectual property rights protect intangible for use, meaning that genetic resources have per- goods such as knowledge within the definition of ceived value, providing an incentive to conserve technology as applied knowledge. Intellectual them. This would help reverse one of the leading property rights seem to increase investment in causes of resource loss-the higher value real- research and development, especially for easily ized through exploitation, such as logging as cur- copied inventions like plants and pharmaceuti- rently practiced in most parts of the tropics, than cal products, although the evidence is not as firm through sustainable use (McNeely 1988). as required by some skeptics (Lesser 1991). Two factors must be considered, however; A secondary role of intellectual property first, experience is limited. Second, questions rights is to facilitate access to and transfer of eas- have been raised about the applicability of intel- Policy Considerations along the Interface between Biodiversity and Agriculture 47 lectual property rights to the protection of an understanding of how local communities per- genetic resources (Correa 1994; Lesser 1995). The ceive and manage their natural environments reasons are technical but can be explained suc- (Warren, Slikkerveer, and Brokensha 1995). cinctly: intellectual property rights are designed to encourage production of commercial prod- Genetic Uniformity Issue ucts. U.S. patent law, for example, requires that at least one use for an invention must be identi- Modern, intensive agriculture is highly efficient fied in the application. The invention must also and uniform. Some of this genetic uniformity be described so that a person skilled in the sub- has been associated with intellectual property ject matter can recreate it (the disclosure require- rights, with plant breeders' rights in particular ment). Genetic resources, which are collected on because they require uniformity and stability. the expectation that they may be found to have Mechanization and the market also demand uni- future value, satisfy neither requirement. Plant formity. breeders' rights are intended for agricultural Much of the global narrowing of crops has applications only and would not apply to occurred in the absence of intellectual property genetic resources in general. Even crop rights. This is not to deny that genetic uniformity resources such as traditional varieties would not is a problem or that such rights may contribute satisfy the stability and uniformity requirements to the declining use of traditional varieties, but of plant breeders' rights (Lesser 1995). intellectual property rights are not likely a major Such concerns have focused attention on factor. alternatives such as expressions of folklore and appellations of origin. Neither applies generally Exchange of Genetic Materials to genetic resources either, leading to calls for a new, specific form of intellectual property rights There are two major policy questions about for genetic resources (Biodiversity Secretariat intellectual property rights and restrictions on 1995; Correa 1994; Posey 1994). Until such a time the flow of genetic resources: Is the result spe- contracts or multilateral agreements will likely cific to intellectual property rights, and what is suffice. (Subsequent discussion treats contracts actually happening in the field? as a form of intellectual property rights even On the first question the value of genetic though they are technically distinct.) resources that can be captured through biotech- Limited information exists about agreements nology has apparently affected the open for genetic prospecting, especially for pharma- exchange of materials. Indeed it is becoming ceuticals and natural pesticides. The best publi- common for exchanges among all parties, cized has been the Merck-INBio agreement in including among university researchers, to be Costa Rica (Reid and others 1993). INBio is said accompanied by a material transfer agreement. to have made subsequent arrangements valued Economic considerations have affected the form in the millions of dollars. In general agricultural of transfer but not necessarily their extent. applications are not as valuable as human phar- A systematic 1980s U.S. survey of crop mate- maceuticals but could be expected to provide rial exchanges determined that plant breeders' some royalties. Strains of Bacillus thuringiensis rights have had no major effect (Butler and and extracts from the neem tree are examples of Marion 1985; Plucknett and others 1987). agricultural uses but not necessarily of pay- Business and universities recognized their ments. The issue for conservation therefore mutual dependence and maintained near-con- becomes how those monies are used, especially stant levels of exchange. The same situation at the local level. Shaman Pharmaceuticals and seems to apply today but has not been docu- Andes Pharmaceuticals are making a business of mented. Access might be a problem with breed- using indigenous medicinal knowledge and ers or researchers not associated with major returning a share of the value to the local com- institutions because it is the potential for reci- munities (Finesilver 1995). This approach takes procity in exchange that largely maintains the considerable attention in its own right, induding informal access system. 48 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification The exchange of materials has undoubtedly mation about traditional herbal medicine and been affected in cases in which difficulties have agricultural practices. been encountered in obtaining permits for bio- logical prospecting. The absence of legislation, Policy Issues and Knowledge Gaps combined with uncertainty within governments about the value of materials and hesitation over In general intellectual property rights are not negotiations, has sharply curtailed access to suited for the protection of genetic resources. genetic resources in many countries, probably Countries therefore need to adopt access legisla- more a consequence of the Biodiversity Conven- tion. The available but dated information on the tion and reported commercial arrangements effect of such rights on the exchange of genetic such as the Merck-INBio deal than of intellec- materials has identified no major limitations. tual property rights as such. Lesser and Those surveys need to be updated. Although the Krattiger (1994) have proposed a "facilitator exchange of genetic materials does not appear to mechanism" for assisting countries in voluntar- have slowed with the adoption of intellectual ily overcoming these limitations, but whatever property rights, the mechanisms have changed approach is used, some systematic effort seems and rely heavily on material transfer agreements. to be required before access is restored in many However, individuals or entities not associated countries. with a major institution may be losing access to genetic resources of crops and livestock. This Rights and Options of Local Communities possibility should be explored further and, if nec- essary, alternative mechanisms identified. Access to intellectual property rights is techni- Attaching ownership to intangible goods to cally independent of the status of individuals; make them salable with less threat of losing con- rights are available to all natural and legal per- trol could be used to enhance the value of biodi- sons (a technical term for businesses). As a prac- versity and provide an incentive for conservation. tical matter intellectual property rights are both In practice such ownership is not broadly applic- complex and expensive to secure, placing them able to genetic resources, so the incentive effect beyond the means of most communities not will be small. Generating value, however, is but operating through an established partner. A new the first step, one for which material transfer system for genetic resources should be simple agreements could be used. Also needed is an and low cost. A rotating patent fund has been understanding of how to use the funds to create suggested for India (Gupta 1992). the greatest conservation incentive. At a mini- Another problem is the lack of clarity on the mum revenues must be directed to both the property rights of local and indigenous peoples. national and local levels. Directing allocations at Until land-tenure issues are resolved, there the local level requires further study seems little point in securing intellectual prop- Mechanisms are needed for local communi- erty rights. Numerous countries have separated ties to claim part of the value of genetic resources mineral rights from title to the land. The same they have identified and protected. In part this could be done for genetic resources. Access leg- will necessitate clearer national policies for the islation could clarify these issues. rights of traditional communities to their ances- It is conceptually possible to separate owner- tral lands, a highly political issue in some coun- ship of genetic resources from indigenous knowl- tries. But at a minimum countries need to specify edge of their use. Ownership of the knowledge as what genetic resource rights are claimed by the community property is not contested, so even government and what are available for now communities can arrange for the commer- landowners and other claimants. Systems also cialization of their knowledge (Laird 1995; Pinel need to be identified that will allow local com- and Evans 1995). It is often impossible to protect munities to claim rights over traditional knowl- knowledge except through secrecy, which edge, separate from the resources themselves. accounts for reports of ethnobotanists occasion- Such rights would enhance the exchange of ally encountering difficulties in obtaining infor- information that is now restricted. Policy Considerations along the Interface between Biodiversity and Agriculture 49 Policy changes are required to provide incen- Report. Washington, D.C.: CGIAR. CIAT (International Center for Tropical Agriculture). tives for conservation and to maintain open 1994. "Annual Program and Budget Report." CIAT, exchange systems. The issues are to: Cali, Colombia. * Identify and implement a new system along CIMMYT (International Center for Maize and Wheat the lines of international property rights Improvement). 1996. "Annual Program and Budget apliabeto traditional varieties and breeds, Report." CIMMYT, Mexico City, Mexico. applicable totaatoalvrlhsan rea, CIP (International Center for the Potato). 1994. "Annual wild populations, and near-relatives of crops Program and Budget Report." CIP, Limna, Peru. and livestock. "Consultative Group Signs Landmark Agreement to * Clarify access and ownership issues for Place CGIAR Gene Banks under FAO Trusteeship," genetic resources on the land use by local 1994. Diversity 10 (4): 4-5. communities. Correa, C.M. 1994. "Sovereign and Property Rights * Clarify ownership of findings and applicable over Plant Genetic Resources." FAO Background Study Paper 2. Rome. exchange conditions for research supported David, C. C., and K. Otsuka, eds. 1994. Modern Rice by bi- and multilateral funds. Technology and Income Distribution in Asia. Boulder: * Establish mechanisms to assist small research Lynne Rienner Publishers. entities lacking reciprocal capacity for access Desai, G. M. 1988. 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Smith A griculture is arguably the principal ditional systems while adopting some modem, ,A,,.cause of habitat destruction and biodi- scientific approaches is stressed here. versity loss around the world. The The alternative to intensification, agricul- expansion of farming and livestock raising into tural extensification, exacerbates habitat decline forest and other environments often destroys and species loss. Agricultural extensification habitats for wildlife and native plants (Altieri entails expansion of cultivated areas, which 1991). Because of the often overwhelming inevitably leads to habitat loss for wildlife. The impact of agriculture on the world's ecosystems, world's population is expected to double before it is often perceived as the enemy of biodiversity. it stabilizes sometime in the middle of the next But some land-use systems devoted to raising century, and much of increased food production crops or livestock maintain surprisingly high will have to come from areas that have already levels of biodiversity. In the Yucatan, for exam- been brought into cultivation-otherwise a great ple, home gardens contain 387 plant species deal of the remaining biodiversity heritage of the (Herrera 1994), and other forms of agroforestry world will be irretrievably lost. How to boost the can mimic some of the complexity of rainforests. productivity of agriculture without causing irre- This chapter identifies some of the principal versible damage to the natural resource base is a effects of agriculture and livestock raising on major challenge confronting society. biodiversity, explores ways in which biodiver- Another major theme of this chapter is that sity is enhanced within agricultural production the protection and better management of biodi- systems, and suggests some policy options, versity are essential to the process of agricultural especially incentives, that might arrest or slow intensification across a broad range of managed the loss of habitats rich in species or endemics. environments. How agricultural intensification An underlying premise is that agriculture is playing out in various land-management sys- and livestock raising must be intensified and tems will be analyzed. In some instances inten- degraded areas must be restored to help safe- sification has triggered biodiversity losses and guard remaining habitats that have been little other collateral damage to the environment. disturbed by humans. Agricultural intensifica- Particular attention is paid to ways to render the tion is not a straightforward procedure, and it intensification process both productive and can lead to its own set of environmental prob- environmentally friendly. lems. To some it means deploying an arsenal of A concern for the encroachment of agricul- purchased agrochemicals and machinery that ture on habitats with little or no human interfer- can pollute the environment, degrade the soil, ence must consider the shifting mosaic of and lead to rural unemployment. Agricultural land-use systems. Market forces, fiscal policies, intensification that draws on the strengths of tra- land tenure, and other factors often propel the 52 Effects of Land-Use Systems on the Use and Conservation of Biodiversity 53 expansion of one relatively homogeneous land- and resiliency is explored to underscore the impor- use system, such as monocropping with modern tance of biodiversity for sustainable agriculture. varieties or cattle ranching, at the expense of polycultural systems that contain a great deal of Cultural Landscapes infraspecific variation, as well as a rich mixture of species. But some agricultural production sys- The majority of the earth's land surface is now tems, such as agroforestry and plantations, can covered by habitats that have been modified in help rehabilitate degraded areas so that they are varying degrees by human activities. The inten- economically productive again while helping to sity of human interventions in landscapes regain at least some of the biodiversity that has ranges along a spectrum from little if any human been lost. Most of the earth's surface has been use, such as in wilderness reserves, to highly modified by human activities, so an under- managed environments, such as paddy rice standing of land-use systems and their associ- farms (figure 4.1). Most of the earth is therefore ated practices are vital to efforts to conserve and dominated by cultural landscapes (Parsons manage biodiversity. 1986). How biological resources are used or Before discussing major agricultural produc- abused in such habitats will determine the fate tion systems, this chapter lays out a conceptual of much of the world's biodiversity. framework to guide analysis of the interrelation- What should be considered "natural" and ships between biodiversity and agricultural pro- what is "man-made" therefore is somewhat duction systems. The conceptual compass blurred. Conservationists often talk about sav- adopted here focuses on several policy-related ing biodiversity in natural habitats. The notion questions, including: How do agricultural pro- that some areas are natural while all others have duction systems and agricultural sector policies, been upset or even defiled by humans has institutions, and programs including technology underpinned much of the thinking about setting choices affect biodiversity? How does the con- aside nature reserves (Hecht 1992a). Two prob- servation of biodiversity help improve the sus- lems arise from such an approach. The first is tainability of agriculture? How can agricultural philosophical: people are considered unnatural, development policies enhance biodiversity? even offenders on the landscape. On a more practical note so-called natural habitats may Conceptual Approach have been altered by human actions such as slash-and-burn farming, grazing by livestock, or Four perspectives underpin the conceptual frame- gathering of plant products. Many of the forests work used here to explore issues related to agri- of tropical America, for example, are actually cultural production systems and biodiversity. regrowth from previous cycles of farming by First, the notion of cultural landscapes is introduced indigenous people, many of whom disappeared to alert policymakers concerned with conserva- after the arrival of Europeans (Cook 1921; tion and agricultural development to the fact that Coomes 1995; Siskind 1973). When individuals virtually all ecosystems on earth have been mod- or organizations stress the need to save nature or ified to some extent by human activities. Second, natural biodiversity, it is not always clear what the importance of understanding land-use dynam- they are talking about. Programs to safeguard ics is highlighted to make policymakers more pristine environments are chimerical. aware of how shifts in the mix of agricultural pro- Only in rare instances can landscapes be duction systems in a given area can enhance or identified that are truly virgin. It is therefore destroy biodiversity. Third, a case is made for more helpful to envisage landscapes along a appreciating the driving forces behind land-use spectrum of disturbance rather than to attempt changes-such as shifts in market opportunities to separate natural areas from those dominated or fiscal incentives-so that appropriate policies by humans. Significant concentrations of biodi- canbe identified tohelp mitigate some of the more versity are encountered at many points along environmentally damaging land-use changes. this spectrum. Conservation strategies need to Fourth, the relationship between intensification be developed for safeguarding biodiversity 54 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification Figure 4.1 The relationship between the degree of human intervention (management intensity) and blodiversity loss Management Biodiversity intensity Mature forest Managed forest (timber or Agroforestry Paddy ri'ce nontimber forest products) (cacao and mahogany) Source: Authors riering. Prepared by Mark McLean. along the entire spectrum, ranging from habitats periodic disturbance by humans for survival with little human disturbance to agricultural (Wood 1993). Examples of such weedy plants that production systems. have already contributed to improving crops or Selective replacement of species in the envi- that promise to do so include Oryza nivara in ronment has been carried out deliberately or India, which provides the only known source of unconsciously by humans for a long time (Sauer resistance to grassy stunt virus; various near rel- 1988). Intelligent and responsible intervention in atives of wheat in southwest Asia; and a near rel- evolution is warranted and can be considered ative of maize, Zea diploperennis, in Mexico. part of the natural order (Leavitt 1992). Human interventions in the landscape can create a Land-Use Dynamics mosaic of habitats that increases biodiversityr much of it of direct use to people (Toledo, Ortiz, A land-use perspective on the relationships and Medellri 1994). Biodiversity that is linked to between biodiversity and agriculture has two agricultural production thus warrants conserva- main dimensions: tion and wise management. 1. The changing mosaic of land-use systems, In fact a great deal of biodiversity that is cur- such as cattle ranching encroaching on crop rently or of potential importance to agriculture farming or forest extraction requires habitat disturbance to survive. Thus pro- 2. The interal dynamics of land-use systems, tecting some wild plants from periodic fire or such as a shift to more damaging or environ- grazing can actualy lead to their local disappear- mentally benign agricultural practices. ance or even extinction. I am not referring to the No attempt is made here to suggest that one suppression of natural fires such as those trig- land-use system is better for biodiversity than gered by ightening; a vast literature has accu- another. True, one can identify some agricultural mulated on the disastrous consequences of such production systems that generally contain more policies for some temperate forests and dryland biodiversity than others. But it does not necessar- chaparral commrunities in California. Many ily folow that the more biodiverse systems plants that are of interest to crop breeders occur should be promoted to the exclusion of other agri- in weedy communities, habitats that depend on cutural production systems. Benefit-cost analy- Effects of Land-Use Systems on the Use and Conservation of Biodiversity 55 sis of competing demands for the land is needed, uses on a given landscape need to be under- even though data and meaningful valuation of stood. If agricultural activities are impinging on biodiversity are often difficult (Montgomery and parks or reserves, factors that motivate the sur- Pollack 1996). Extraction of nontimber forest rounding people to enter nominally protected products generally causes the least disruption of habitats must be identified (Flint 1991). How can habitats, but in most cases extractive activities are biodiversity in surrounding habitats be safe- a supplement to income generation rather than guarded while attending to the aspirations of the main source of livelihood. Little quantitative the surrounding populations? Policy recom- work has been done on comparing the economic mendations in this area can come only from a and environmental costs of different land-use better understanding of the driving forces systems in the tropics. behind human activities. A mixture of land uses usually provides the Driving forces can be grouped into direct dri- optimal use of natural resources in a given area. ving forces (such as colonists pouring into a pio- A variety of managed and natural habitats pro- neer settlement zone and cutting into forest) and vides a range of resources for local people to tap, underlying or indirect forces (such as population as well as havens for insects that serve as bio- growth, land tenure, and fiscal incentives). logical control agents on crops (Waage 1991). It Underlying forces include a range of measures is the balance between the land-use systems, amenable to policy intervention, from fiscal poli- including reserves, that is critical. The issue of cies that may promote unnecessary deforestation, the appropriate mix of land-use systems applies as happened in the Brazilian Amazon in the 1970s both at farm and at watershed and regional with the expansion of cattle ranching, to farm scales. credit that favors modem varieties at the expense Agricultural development policies should of traditional ones. Other driving forces that may therefore avoid promoting one agricultural pro- or may not be linked to the fiscal or regulatory duction system at the expense of others, some of environment include changing markets, such as which may also be appropriate for the target the increasing consumer demand for organically area or region. For example, further increases of grown produce. For the most part the indirect or rice yields in intensive paddy systems will be to underlying aspects of driving forces deserve the little avail if the rural and urban poor do not most attention from policymakers. have wood or charcoal to cook their meals. Migration can trigger rapid loss of biodiver- Agroforestry systems are more biodiverse than sity, as when settlers arrive in forest environ- monocropping with cereals, but if agroindus- ments and adopt farming practices alien to the tries are not in place to process fruits, nuts, and fine-tuned land-use systems practiced by local essential oils or sufficiently large markets cannot populations. Migration can result from several be found for the perennial crops, agroforestry causes ranging from skewed land distribution in will not be commercially sustainable. source areas to civil strife, rapid population Practices can be identified within each land- growth, or degradation of the natural resource use system that enhance biodiversity. Again, base in the source areas, thereby creating eco- increasing biodiversity at all costs is not a realis- logical refugees. Each one of these driving forces tic goal. Potential losses in yield or income to behind migration has its own set of remedial farmers need to be considered. Tradeoffs are measures, some of which are more difficult to clearly involved in deciding which agricultural carry out than others. Population growth in practices within each land-use system merit Central America, for example, has been pin- support. pointed as one of the major driving forces behind habitat destruction and biodiversity loss Driving Forces behind Land-Use Changes (Gamez 1989). Issues related to slowing or con- taining population growth are complex and To promote the conservation and better use of beyond the scope of this chapter. Suffice it to say, biodiversity, driving forces that shape the mix of however, that land use and biodiversity are agricultural production systems and other land linked to other economic sectors. 56 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification Resiliency and Intensification sity is not always the optimal use of soil, light, and water resources for agriculture. Relatively For intensification to be successful in thwarting species-poor ecosystems can be stable over long further assaults on little-disturbed habitats, it periods (Pimm 1984,1991), a principle borne out must be sustainable. It is clearly important to with the experience of some farmers engaged in ensure that yield gains need to be durable, oth- intensive cereal monocropping and ranchers erwise productivity will collapse, forcing farm- with well-managed pastures. In more simplified ers to seek other options including abandoning systems the risks can be higher, and research and their land and seeking new frontiers. The careful management are critical to maintaining resiliency of land-use systems is the key to their productivity. sustainability. Biodiversity in agricultural systems occurs at Biodiversity is essential to resiliency because two levels: spatial and temporal (Pimm and it provides greater options for alternative Gittleman 1992). Spatial diversity is the most approaches to agricultural production as well as common image of biodiversity. Agricultural sys- diversification of the existing mix of crops and tems are often thought to be more sustainable if varieties. Resilient agricultural systems are more they contain a relatively large number of species, sustainable, and sustainable agricultural sys- preferably with significant genetic variation tems tend to reduce pressure on surrounding within each of the crops. Traditional agroforestry habitats. systems typically fit that bill. But agricultural sys- Although many definitions of sustainable tems can also achieve biodiversity through time agriculture have been offered, it is easier to iden- with a changeover of crops or varieties; some tify systems that are unsustainable: when agri- intensively managed agricultural systems have cultural systems collapse because of degradation thus achieved stability over centuries or even mil- of the natural resource base or other factors, agri- lennia (Smale and others 1995). But monocrop- cultural extensification usually ensues with fur- ping generally relies on a constant supply of new ther encroachment on remaining forest and other crops or varieties to replace obsolete crops or cul- habitats. tivars that have succumbed to shifts in markets or Agricultural production systems need to be other challenges such as pest outbreaks. resilient so that they can adjust more readily to Related to the importance of novel crops and changes in the biophysical or socioeconomic varieties is the need to maintain open systems to environment. Many of the changes that occur in help their resiliency (Holling 1994; Wilbanks systems are nonlinear and unpredictable 1994). Sustainability cannot be achieved by rely- (Holling 1987); thus ecosystems, including those ing solely on indigenous crops and varieties. The managed by people, must be sufficiently resilient history of agricultural improvement is replete so that they do not disintegrate and enter a down- with examples of how the introduction of new ward ecological spiral when confronted with sur- technologies, including exotic crops and vari- prises (Arrow and others 1995; Holling 1976; eties, has raised productivity and the income of Holling and Bocking 1990). The resiliency of an rural and urban populations. The solution to a agricultural production system rests to a large production bottleneck in one region may be degree on how natural resources are managed, found among farmers and researchers on the particularly biodiversity (Claridge 1991). other side of the globe. Three points are pertinent to a discussion on the relevance of resiliency of agricultural sys- Land-Use Systems and Biodiversity tems to biodiversity. First, sustainable systems can be low or high input. Sustainable agriculture Any discussion of the impact of farming on the has been equated with low-input farming environment, and more specifically biodiversity, (Castro 1991), but low-input systems are not needs a template of land-use systems. A number always sustainable, as will be discussed in the of different classifications of agricultural systems case of slash-and-burn farming in the face of have been proposed, each the product of varying population pressure. Second, high species diver- interests, regional experiences, and expertise of Effects of Land-Use Systems on the Use and Conservation of Biodiversity 57 their authors. The classification adopted here is wildlife. Downstream effects would indude drawn from several sources and is tailored more altered water quality below dams and water pol- to tropical and subtropical regions, where most luted with agrochemicals. Dams change water of the world's biodiversity is found. The land-use quality by trapping sediment, changing water categories provide a starting point for analyzing temperature, and in some cases altering chemi- specific policy issues. It is not the intention to cal properties because of increased rates of plant establish hard and fast categories because pro- decomposition in reservoirs. duction systems often overlap. Rain-fed agriculture can also have unin- Although this classification may not capture tended off-site impact on biodiversity. In the all agricultural production systems, it neverthe- case of the Masai Mara Park in Kenya, wheat less encompasses most of the important food farms at its borders are allegedly interfering and cash-crop farming systems. Furthermore, with long-established migration routes of many variations and subsystems are found wildlife. And the Masai, traditionally pastoral- within each category. The broad categories to be ists in Kenya, are increasingly turning to crop considered include: production for food and income generation, a * Intensive cropping with short-cycle crops trend that will likely further squeeze wildlife * Shifting agriculture habitats, especially for the large, migratory - Agropastoral systems ungulates (Baskin 1994a). * Agroforestry • Plantation systems Intensive Cropping with Short-Cycle Crops * Forest extraction. To the extent possible the following topics are Intensive farming with annual crops is the most explored for each land-use system: important source of food for humanity and * Negative effects on biodiversity accounts for much of the earth's surface in agri- * Examples in which biodiversity has been cultural production. It encompasses a broad enhanced both by reducing pressure on sur- variety of production systems, from highly rounding habitats and incorporating greater mechanized operations to those that rely pri- biodiversity within the land-use system marily on human labor and animal traction. The * The role of indigenous or traditional knowl- purpose in lumping them together here is to edge make a critical point: agricultural intensification * The role of scientific research is not simply the process of adopting modem * Policies that promote the destruction or approaches to farming. enhancement of biodiversity, including prop- Intensive cropping systems span traditional erty rights. farming operations such as paddy rice and An important dimension to consider in the raised-bed agriculture that rely primarily on interactions between land use and biodiversity manual labor and mulching to modem systems is the on-farm and off-site effects. Modern, inten- that depend heavily on mechanization and pur- sive agricultural production systems tend to chased inputs such as in Iowa (see chapter 5). have more impact off-site because of the poten- Intensive agriculture is essential to raise food tial for contamination of water supplies with production further and relieve pressure on other agrochemicals. Furthermore, irrigation some- habitats, but it can lead to resource degradation. times entails large engineering projects such as A substantial portion of humanity depends on dams that can flood habitats important for cereals and short-cycle root crops as basic sta- wildlife as well as agrobiodiversity. Sometimes ples-particularly rice, wheat, maize, potato, agricultural intensification calls for controlling and sweet potato-so how production systems floods, and such measures can disrupt fisheries. based on these staffs of life can be made even In the case of irrigation and flood control, off- more productive is critical to the world's food site impact can be envisaged as both upstream equation. and downstream. Water diversion for agricul- Although the expansion of modem farming ture can adversely affect fisheries and other has brought many benefits, the long-term effects 58 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification of high-input agriculture have hardly been farmers and consumers are seeking alternative accounted for. High-input modern farming with ways to achieve high yields. its reliance on monoculture, mechanization, and The true costs of some modem, intensive deployment of potent agrochemicals diminishes cropping systems-the loss of topsoil and soil biodiversity and destroys many beneficial organic matter or the displacement of traditional insects and soil microorganisms. Also heavy varieties-have not been assessed. As the twen- reliance on chemicals can lead to significant tieth century draws to a close, we are on the water pollution, destroying fisheries and paddy threshold of new types of intensive agricultural systems (Roger, Heong, and Teng 1991). production systems in which management lev- In some regions high-input, modem agricul- els ratchet up and the need to conserve and use ture is taking an unacceptable toll on the environ- biodiversity more wisely is ever more urgent. To ment and biodiversity. The erosion of the natural face the challenge of boosting yields in more resource base is eventually reflected in declining intensively managed agricultural systems, it yields. The case of the Punjab, where the Green will be necessary to stretch the yield potential of Revolution in wheat started in the 1960s, is a case an ever-wider variety of crops by dipping much in point. Wheat yields are beginning to decline in deeper into their respective gene pools. Punjab because of soil degradation. Few farmers Both indigenous knowledge and scientific practice crop rotation with legumes anymore, pre- research will be needed in this worldwide effort ferring instead to plant wheat every year. to further boost crop and livestock yields. In tra- Such intensive monocropping has reduced ditional, high-input systems farmers generally organic matter in the soil, thereby impairing its deploy several varieties to reduce risks and capacity to retain moisture and to provide a employ less-destructive pest control measures habitat for soil microorganisms. Furthermore, such as crop rotation (Goldman 1995). In the the decline in organic matter in arable soils of the Andes of southern Peru, for example, farmers Punjab reduces their capacity to store nutrients maintain an average of twenty-one potato culti- and renders the soils less friable for root pene- vars per field (Zimmerer 1991). This is in stark tration. In response to the decline in wheat contrast to a modern potato farm where only one yields in the Punjab, some farmers are diversi- cultivar may be grown, such as Russet Burbank fying their operations with silviculture for pulp for the french-fry trade. Spatial biodiversity production. A similar pattern prevails with rice characterizes traditional, high-input systems. farmers in parts of Bangladesh who are experi- An inverse relationship often exists between encing stagnant or declining productivity in the genetic variation of crops and the economic spite of increased applications of fertilizer and resources of farmers. Rural people with limited other inputs (Ali 1987). The fall in productivity financial resources typically maintain a greater of rice in Bangladesh is attributed to changes in diversity of crops and varieties than more mar- soil organic matter and nutrient imbalances, ket-oriented operators, as in the case of bean among other factors (Pagiola 1995). growers in the state of Aguascaliente in Mexico A relatively rapid turnover of varieties charac- (Hernandez 1993). One cannot argue that farm- terizes modem, high-input agriculture based on ers should be prevented from adopting modern grain and pulse crops. Some heterogeneity is thus varieties for the sake of conserving agrobiodi- achieved over time. This genetic relay race works versity. The important policy questions here are: as long as there are plenty of proto-varieties wait- Does adoption of modern varieties inevitably ing in the wings and soil and water resources are lead to genetic erosion on the landscape? How not degraded. If the flow of new varieties slows or can more intensive, high-yielding agriculture ceases, farmers become even more vulnerable to retain greater levels of biodiversity? pest and disease attacks, among other environ- The tradeoff issue emerges here. Some farm- mental challenges (NRC 1993a). Historically, ers in more well-off areas may be able to improve modem cereals have depended on agrochemical yields and achieve relatively stable operations by protection. As the cost of pesticide mounts and purchasing hybrids and agrochemicals. Even concerns about environmental damage grow, under less than optimal conditions, modem vari- Effects of Land-Use Systems on the Use and Conservation of Biodiversity 59 eties sometimes displace traditional varieties Agricultural intensification therefore does because of their superior performance. In the case not always lead to a complete homogenization of hybrid maize in parts of eastern and southern of croplands. Farmers should have options Africa, for example, many small farmers have available to them to choose which path to inten- found that hybrid maize produces higher yields sification they want to adopt, and the research than traditional varieties even without fertilizer, and development community has an obligation and this greater yield capacity holds even in to come up with technologies for high-input unusually dry years (Heisey and Smale 1995). agriculture that reduce negative effects on the Little wonder then that hybrids in Kenya environment and biodiversity. Farmers exposed accounted for approximately two-thirds of the to the opportunity of adopting modem varieties area planted to maize in 1988, up from a third in sometimes retain at least some of the traditional the early 1970s (Byerlee and Heisey 1993). varieties for reasons ranging from superior taste The robust performance of hybrid maize in of the traditional varieties to uses for livestock Africa illustrates a point worth emphasizing and construction, importance in rituals, and bet- again: biodiversity is not an end in itself. ter adaptation to certain soils. Risk aversion is Agricultural development should not promote undoubtedly another reason why market-ori- greater biodiversity at all cost. In some cases the ented farmers are motivated to maintain a erosion of traditional varieties in the face of supe- diversity of varieties and crops in their opera- rior modem varieties is arguably warranted, espe- tions. cially in regions facing rapid population growth An understanding of the historical ante- and a deteriorating food production per capita. cedents to attempts at devising sustainable agri- The replacement of traditional varieties by mod- culture can teach us much about how to make em, high-yielding cultivars is potentially serious, agriculture more compatible with biodiversity however, when the obsolete varieties have not conservation. Agricultural production was inten- been saved elsewhere, either in gene banks or in sified long ago in several parts of the world in farmers' fields in other areas, and there is not even response to the need to increase food production. an awareness among policymakers and develop- Agricultural intensification in remote times has ment planners that a trade off is involved. In the helped relieve pressure on other habitats and has past, genetic erosion has proceeded in many also minimized environmental damage and bio- regions at an alarming pace with few or inade- diversity loss because higher yields were quate measures to assess its implications or to res- achieved without the use of toxic or otherwise cue the doomed varieties. polluting agrochemicals. Three examples will be Another strategy adopted by some farmers briefly reviewed here: raised-bed agriculture in offers a compromise between modern and tra- tropical America, extensive irrigation systems in ditional varieties, thereby helping to maintain highland South America, and paddy rice systems some of the agrobiodiversity that may otherwise in Southeast Asia. be lost. Farmers occasionally opt for more mod- Both raised fields and terracing with irriga- est production levels by maintaining a mix of tion were devised by farmers in many parts of modern and traditional varieties, as in the case the tropics thousands of years ago. In some cases of maize growers in parts of Central America, these systems are still in use, but in others they potato growers in the Andes, and some rice have been largely abandoned. Sophisticated irri- growers in Southeast Asia (Bellon and Brush gation systems using canals have been opera- 1994; Brush, Taylor, and Bellon 1992). And in tional in parts of the Andes since 350 A.D. Italy a few farmers still maintain two species of (Zimmerer 1995). Encouragingly, attempts are wheat that have long since been abandoned by being made to rehabilitate terraces and raised most cereal growers because the protective cov- fields in some areas to improve the resiliency ering of the seeds of primitive wheats is persis- and productivity of agriculture. Several features tent and is fed to livestock and because the of such systems could be emulated more widely strong stems of the archaic wheats are useful for in agricultural development programs for both thatching (Qualset and others, in press). the highland and lowland tropics. 60 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification In highland areas scientists are taking a Chinampas are raised platforms ranging from closer look at the potential of such systerns for 2.5 to 10 meters in width and up to 100 meters improving agricultural production while miti- long that were built up with lake sediments and gating damage to the environment. Around organic matter. They protrude like fingers from Lake Titicaca in the Andes, for example, farmers the lake shore and are peninsulas of agrobiodi- are reviving raised beds because they confer sev- versity in an increasingly urbanized world. The eral advantages such as greater soil fertility, bet- Aztecs built 9,000 hectares of these specialized ter water control, and reduced frost damage. raised fields, which are thought to have fed at Furthermore, nutrients are largely trapped in least 171,000 people a year (Sluyter 1994). channels between the raised beds, thus reducing The remaining chinampas are currently used downstream pollution (Carney and others mainly for growing vegetables and flowers and 1993). The raised beds around Lake Titicaca are threatened by urban sprawl and dropping were originally constructed between 1000 B.C. water levels in the lake. Only a few hundred and 400 A.D.; The beds are about 1 meter high, hectares remain, but they could foster increased 4-10 meters wide, and 10-100 meters long (Bray biodiversity in agricultural settings if they were 1990). Pollen analysis shows that they were used promoted. On one chinampa, for example, a 0.2- primarily for potato and quinoa production. hectare-plot contained twenty domesticated Water in the channels provides a heat sink by and thirty wild plants. At least forty different raising temperatures about two degrees Celsius, kinds of vegetables are grown on the remaining thereby helping to protect crops from frost dam- chinampas (Torres-Lima, Canabal-Cristiani, and age. About 122,000 hectares of raised beds have Burela-Rueda 1994). been located in the vicinity of Lake Titicaca, Other raised-bed agricultural systems in which once supported a population of about 1 Central America can be found in the vicinity of million people (Denevan 1995). Tlaxcala, Mexico (Wilken 1969), and around Environmental archaeology can thus high- Lake Atitlan in Guatemala. Such often ignored light adaptive farming strategies of the past with agricultural production systems warrant further the promise for raising agricultural productivity examination to assess whether they can be reha- in the future (Erickson 1992a). Unfortunately bilitated and expanded. Some of the most threat- most agronomists and development institutions ened habitats in Central America are mountain working in the Andes and other developing areas forests. More intensive cultivation around lake tend to view traditional systems of landscape margins could deflect crop production from management as primitive and thus not worthy of highly erodable slopes that may be currently their attention. Nevertheless some progress is cloaked in natural vegetation. being made to resuscitate intensive agriculture In the last few decades extensive areas of using raised fields in the vicinity of Lake Titicaca. abandoned raised fields have been found in low- Between 1981 and 1986 several indigenous com- land parts of Latin America, many of which were munities in northern Lake Titicaca were collabo- masked by forest until recently. As forest clearing rating with government and nongovernmental proceeds, many of the areas once dedicated to agencies to diffuse information on raised-bed raised-field agriculture are destined for cattle technologies, and by 1989 some 200 hectares of ranching rather than intensive crop production such fields had been brought back into produc- (Erickson 1995). The potential of such areas for tion (Erickson 1992b). high-yield cropping to supply the burgeoning In highland Mexico the chinampa agriculture urban centers of Latin America warrants around the shores of Lake Texcoco offers promise scrutiny. Ancient raised fields in lowland Central for intensive food production to help feed grow- and South America have been found in such ing Mexico City and surrounding communities. widely scattered locations as the Guayas valley Developed extensively by the Aztecs approxi- in Ecuador (Denevan and Mathewson 1983; mately 500 years ago, some chinampas have Parsons 1969); the San Jorge River floodplain in been in continuous production for centuries Colombia (Parsons and Bowen 1966); the Gulf (Stakman, Bradfield, and Mangelsdorf 1967). coast of Mexico (Siemens 1983, 1995); poorly Effects of Land-Use Systems on the Use and Conservation of Biodiversity 61 drained savanna of South America (Denevan reservoirs of biocontrol agents for future deploy- 1970; Denevan and Bergman 1975; Denevan and ment. Integrated pest management strategies Schwerin 1978); and the Yucatan (Nations and enhance rather than destroy biodiversity. But if Komer 1983; Turner 1974). The Maya alone built biodiversity continues to be destroyed, future some 22,900 hectares of raised fields in lowland options for deploying integrated pest manage- Central America (Sluyter 1994), most of which ment will be curtailed. are no longer in intensive crop production. Preservation of biodiversity and habitat con- Several paddy rice systems in Southeast Asia servation can contribute to sustaining intensive attain impressive yields while maintaining rela- crop production in other ways. Management of tively high levels of agrobiodiversity. The watersheds is critical to maintaining adequate Ifugao, who long ago built an impressive system supplies of irrigation water and setting aside of aqueducts and terraces in the northern substantial areas of forest is usually necessary to Philippines, classify at least seventy-eight vari- prevent premature siltation of reservoirs, flash eties of rice. In less steep terrain near Chang Mai flooding, and prolonged periods of reduced in Thailand, farmers cultivate more than forty water flow. In some countries such as El rice varieties in paddies (Brush 1986). Salvador it has proved necessary to reforest cut- After the release of high-yielding rices many over areas with exotic, fast-growing conifers traditional varieties were abandoned, and semi- that have limited value for conserving biodiver- dwarf types often dominate the landscape in sity. It would be preferable to avoid wholesale paddy rice areas. In the early 1980s, IR36 alone destruction of forests in the first place. Forests was grown on more than 10 million hectares in act as sponges for moisture, thereby conserving tropical Asia (IRRI 1983). Genetically homoge- water and releasing it more gradually than in neous rice paddies can be more vulnerable to denuded landscapes. Reservoirs are usually pests and disease outbreaks, even with increased built for a variety of purposes, including gener- applications of pesticides. ation of hydroelectric power, irrigation, and The pesticide treadmill prompted the water supplies for urban and industrial use. In Indonesian government to adopt integrated pest Tegucigalpa, the largest city in Honduras, insuf- management to try and cope with rising pest ficient water supplies prompted government problems in rice fields. In 1986 Indonesia offi- authorities to safeguard nearby La Tigra cially adopted integrated pest management as a National Park, which was being invaded by log- national policy aimed particularly at rice produc- gers and farmers (Smith and others 1992). tion. By 1991 pesticide use had dropped nation- For the highly managed landscapes of modern ally by 70 percent and by 90 percent in some cereal farms research on genetically diverse pop- locations, yet national rice yields increased by 10 ulations of crops and animals warrants support. It percent during 1986-91 (Barfield and Swisher is not a question of reverting to traditional systems 1994). Increased rice productivity is attributed and abandoning the "failed" Green Revolution. mainly to encouragement of biocontrol agents There is no turning back. Rather, research should and to the deployment of pest- and disease-resis- focus on ways to incorporate some of the best- tant varieties. Profits achieved by rice farmers in adapted features of traditional high- and low- Indonesia increased even more, and doomsday input systems with modern, science-based predictions that a rapid weaning from depen- technologies so that agricultural systems remain dence on commercial insecticides would lead to a highly productive while maintaining more biodi- collapse of rice production did not materialize. versity (McNeely 1993). Parts or all of integrated pest management pack- ages have also been adopted by some commercial Shifting Agriculture vegetable growers in Central America (Thrupp, Bergeron, and Waters 1995). Shifting agriculture, sometimes referred to as The significance of integrated pest manage- slash-and-burn agriculture, is often indicted as ment to biodiversity is clear: relatively undis- one of the principal causes of deforestation and turbed habitats should be safeguarded as biodiversity loss (Lanly 1982; Lima 1958). 62 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification Shifting agricultural systems are confined erogeneity, and species diversity (Wilcox and mostly to tropical forest regions, usually mega- Duin 1995). centers for biodiversity. In shifting agriculture A further distinction needs to be made farmers clear a patch of forest or brush, burn the between shifting cultivation to supply the needs debris, and cultivate the resulting plot for a few of the farmers and burning forest to plant a few years before abandoning it. Fires set by shifting crops mainly to demonstrate ownership of a cultivators sometimes burn out of control and piece of land. Taxation policies provoke forest encroach on surrounding forest. This is mainly a clearing, particularly in Latin America. In parts problem in transitional or monsoon forests, of Central America, for example, land left in for- where conditions are drier and more favorable est is taxed at a higher rate than farmland. to the spread of fire. Landowners thus have an incentive to clear land Small farmers are the main practitioners of when it might otherwise be left in forest. shifting agriculture and are held responsible for Such practices are ancient in Latin America much of the deforestation in the tropics (Ehui and other parts of the world. In 1699, for exam- 1993; Myers 1986). It is not uncommon to see ple, the king of Portugal decreed that all uncul- policy recommendations that call for arresting tivated lands in Brazil were to be expropriated or stamping out shifting agriculture because of (Burns 1993). And in the Ottoman Empire the its perceived low yield and danger to the envi- destruction of tree cover was virtually complete ronment (Kellman 1974; Valverde 1971). Shifting by the early nineteenth century, spurred in part agriculture is practiced on close to a third of the by a tax on every tree (Douglas and Hart 1985). world's arable land and supports some 300 mil- Goat herds delivered the death blow to the lion people, so trends and developments in this remaining woods. major land-use system will have major implica- Shifting agriculture is particularly well suited tions both for biodiversity and the well-being of for fragile environments such as tropical forests a sizable portion of the world's population with poor soils or in hilly country that without (NRC 1993b). terracing would suffer severe soil erosion under In spite of the many misconceptions about continuous cropping Jodha and Partap 1993; shifting agriculture, a number of production Weischet and Caviedes 1993). Also shifting agri- systems are involved, and some of them are culture is sometimes an ephemeral phase before environmentally sound. A major distinction some other land use takes over. In Latin America needs to be made between shifting agriculture as slash-and-bum agriculture is often a transition to practiced in pioneer zones where primary forest cattle raising (Hecht 1992b; Hecht and Cockburn is being destroyed, often by people from other 1989; Hiraoka 1980; Hiraoka and Yamamoto regions with different technologies and land 1980; Smith 1982; Stewart 1994). In other cases management practices, and longer-settled areas abandoned fields may remain productive with where a wide assortment of agroforestry config- planted trees and bushes, thereby following a urations are deployed, many of which mimic the trajectory toward agroforestry. forest ecosystem albeit on a simpler scale Rather than start from the premise that shift- (Denevan 1980). In older settlements shifting ing agriculture needs to be fixed, a wiser course agriculture can actually increase the biodiversity would be to better appreciate its role in provid- of an area because a patchwork quilt of different ing the needs of local people while assessing its habitats is created, thereby allowing a mixture of environmental impact. The many intricacies and plant and animal species that are adapted to nuances of such systems need to be understood plant communities at various stages of succes- because they can offer hints about their adaptive sion. Fields in shifting agricultural systems are features, and in a given area such systems often ephemeral and small; they soon revert to should be evaluated for their ability to cope with forest or some semblance of forest, thereby pro- changing environmental conditions. tecting the soil and water supplies. Moderate One of the first prejudices that needs to be levels of disturbance in most habitats generally put to rest is that against the use of fire. Fire is enhances ecological complexity, landscape het- typically viewed as a destructive agent, but it is Effects of Land-Use Systems on the Use and Conservation of Biodiversity 63 an essential management tool for resource-poor nization and fertilizers (Verdade 1974). While farmers who use it to control weeds and release such measures may be appropriate in some nutrients bound in the vegetation (Peters and cases, other less-intrusive, environment-friendly Neuenschwander 1988). Another widespread options for modifying swidden systems are image of slash-and-burn agriculture is that it is available. Intensification can follow many differ- constantly assaulting primary forest. In many ent trajectories, depending on soil conditions, areas farmers are clearing second growth-veg- access to credit and other inputs, and market con- etation at various stages along a recuperation ditions. In the Brazilian Amazon some swidden path back to forest-rather than mature forest. systems are evolving into more or less perma- In the case of Rond6nia in the Brazilian Amazon, nent agroforestry plots. for example, 42 percent of land brought into One option to consider before transforming agricultural production between 1988 and 1989 shifting agriculture into some other form of land was cleared from second growth (Skole and oth- use such as pasture is to tap indigenous knowl- ers 1994). In the Philippines the Hanun6 prefer edge systems to see if traditional practices can be second growth, especially bamboo, for their adapted for market-oriented growers. Many swidden plots because it bums well (Conklin indigenous swidden fields are remarkably rich 1954). In some areas little primary forest is left, in crops. The Hanun6 of Mindoro Island in the so people are forced to make do with clearing Philippines, for example, interplant as many as second growth, such as on the Kanela reserva- forty crops in a single field (Conklin 1954). The tion in Brazil (Flowers and others 1982). Bine of New Guinea and the Andoke and Witoto Another widespread myth is that swidden in the Colombian Amazon average close to a agriculture is capable of supporting only sparse dozen crops in their swidden fields (Eden 1980, populations. During the heyday of the Classic 1988). The varietal array of each crop represents Maya the population density of the Yucata.n was another level of agrobiodiversity in many roughly equivalent to that of Europe today, and indigenous swidden plots. Among Tukanoan much of it was supported by shifting agricul- groups in the northwest Amazon, for example, ture. Swidden agriculture based on maize in the between seventeen and forty-eight varieties of limestone-rich Peten region of Guatemala is their basic staple, manioc, are typically found in capable of supporting up to seventy-seven peo- swidden plots (Dufour 1990). ple per square kilometer (Cowgill 1962). When such biologically diverse indigenous Shifting agricultural systems tend to break agricultural systems become linked to markets, down and cause a net reduction in biodiversity species richness tends to decline (Ruddle 1974). when fallow periods become too short. This usu- Nevertheless, a closer scrutiny of indigenous ally occurs when the carrying capacity of the swidden systems with a focus on the crops and environment is exceeded because of population varieties deployed, planting patterns, and pest growth or the influx of migrants. Although shift- control strategies would provide a rich informa- ing agriculture can support relatively dense tion base for devising more productive and sus- populations, this generally occurs in areas with tainable swidden systems for marginal areas. better soils or in places where cultures have fine- Some swidden systems trigger excessive loss tuned adaptive relationships with the forest. A of biodiversity, but others are environmentally rapid population increase may tip swidden sys- sound. Shifting agriculture thus warrants analy- tems on a downward trajectory. In Panama, for sis from a balanced perspective. An analysis of example, yields in shifting cultivation areas driving forces is critical when assessing the mer- have been dropping since 1950 because fallow its or drawbacks of shifting agriculture for a periods have become too short to allow soils to practical area. In many parts of Latin America, recuperate (Croat 1972). for example, insecure land tenure is a major rea- When the resiliency of shifting agricultural son people clear forests (Revkin 1990; Westoby systems snaps or is about to collapse, intensifica- 1989). In 1987 unusually large areas of forest in tion is called for (Watters 1971). To some that the Brazilian Amazon were cut and torched immediately conjures up an image of mecha- because of the impending new constitution in 64 Biodiversity and Agnicultural Intensification Brazil, which stated that "unproductive" lands beef. The continued expansion of cattle opera- could be expropriated (Hecht 1992b; Nepstad, tions in the Amazon basin is being driven pri- Uhl, and Serrao 1991). Slash-and-burn agricul- marily by domestic markets for beef. ture in such cases is practiced more to claim But the news on the cattle front is not all property, than to produce food or goods for the gloomy for biodiversity. In Latin America cattle market. are incorporated on many small farms, some of which are developing diverse agroforestry sys- Agropastoral Systems tems. Agricultural development policies that ignore the role of livestock in sustaining small Cattle ranching in the humid tropics is often pin- farms may render farmers more vulnerable to pointed as the main cause of habitat destruction inclement weather or other environmental sur- and biodiversity loss, particularly in Latin prises. Cattle contribute to the sustainability of America. In the second half of the twentieth cen- small farms by providing emergency cash, tury cattle raising has encroached on tropical diverse income sources, transportation for agri- forests especially rapidly (Eden, McGregor, and cultural products, and manure for some crops Vieira 1990; Parsons 1989). In the Brazilian (Rudel and Horowitz 1993; Sere and Jarvis 1992). Amazon fiscal incentives in the 1960s and much Furthermore, cattle operators of all scales in of the 1970s fueled the "grass rush" to the the Brazilian Amazon are recuperating degraded Amazon (Hecht 1992b; Mahar 1989; Stemnberg pastures rather than clearing more forest (Smith 1973). Fiscal incentives were responsible for con- and others 1995). One way that farmers and verting at least 20 million hectares of rain forest ranchers upgrade pastures is to sow more pro- to pasture, triggering the loss of valuable gene ductive and disease-resistant grasses. The sus- pools of such economically important trees as tainability of cattle operations, as in crop rubber, cacao, and Brazil nut (Dwyer 1990). production, thus hinges on a continued flow of The conversion of forest for cattle production new plant materials to remain productive. With can have major off-site effects on biodiversity. In proper management, induding the judicious use the Amazon floodplain, where large tracts of for- of fire, pastures can remain reasonably produc- est are being cleared to raise cattle and water tive in rainforest environments. buffalo, the loss of such seasonally available Several factors have influenced the decision habitat for fish is undercutting the productivity of farmers and ranchers to improve their pas- of many fisheries important for subsistence and tures rather than cut down forest. An increase in commerce (Goulding, Smith, and Mahar 1995). land prices in many areas of Amazonia has As the river level rises each year, many Amazon made it worthwhile to invest more on farms and fish species penetrate the forest along the banks ranches (Serrao 1989). A reduction in new road of the river and lake margins, where they feed construction has been partly responsible for the and breed. The relentless cuffing and permanent upward trend in land prices in the region. Cost- removal of such habitat is thus destroying an effective pasture recuperation technologies are important environment that underpins the sin- now available, developed in many cases by gle most important natural resource of the partnerships between the private and public Amazon River: its fish. sectors. The hamburger connection was also raised as While it would be unwise to promote the a driving force in the grassing-over of rain- clearing of more forests for cattle ranching, forests: consumers in North America were plenty of scope exists for boosting beef and milk accused of contributing to deforestation when production from existing pastures, both large they purchased fast-food hamburgers. Even at and small. Approximately half the pastures in their heyday, though, beef exports from tropical the Brazilian Amazon have been degraded by forest regions of Latin America were minimal. In weed invasion (Nepstad, Uhl, and Serrao 1991). many cases countries such as Costa Rica are hard Beef and dairy production could be increased pressed to meet internal demand for meat and substantially without cutting down a single tree. dairy products. Amazonia is a net importer of Furthermore, extensive savannas occur in parts Effects of Land-Use Systems on the Use and Conservation of Biodiversity 65 of the Amazon that could be more effectively they may restrict livestock to more confined managed to increase productivity of free-range areas, thereby increasing pressure on forage cattle. One way to prevent further assaults on resources. In eastern Africa herd mobility as the forest therefore is to offer credit and more practiced by pastoralists such as the Masai technical support for farmers and ranchers inter- increases grazing capacity of the land by some ested in upgrading their pastures. 50 percent (NRC 1990). Pastoralists and farmers The biodiversity of pastures in Amazonia tap forage biodiversity of several areas season- and many other parts of the tropics could be ally, especially in Africa and the drier parts of increased by intercropping with other plants. In Asia. When such ancient land-use systems are parts of Asia and the Pacific, for example, inter- altered by development policies, destruction of cropping of pastures with trees, especially biodiversity and impoverishment of pastoralists coconut, is well developed (Grossman 1984; many ensue. Plucknett 1979). More than fifty shrub and tree Fuelwood gatherers degrade the land for species are employed as living fences around both pastoralists and farmers in some of the pastures and fields in Costa Rica (Sauer 1979). drier parts of Africa (NRC 1990). Increasing Some ranchers in the Brazilian Amazon are demand for fuelwood in urban areas has experimenting with various legumes in pastures spurred wider wood-gathering efforts to sell to help suppress weeds and improve soil fertil- wood directly or convert it to charcoal. The ity. But the common practice of burning pasture pruning and sometimes outright destruction of to control weeds and release nutrients is a cur- small trees and shrubs by fuelwood gatherers rent impediment to more widespread adoption reduces forage for livestock and accelerates soil of this practice. Many ranchers are reluctant to erosion. The fuelwood crisis, which is not being diversify their operations to include tree crops in met by adequate plantings of quick-growing pastures because of fire and other management trees, illustrates again the link between agricul- considerations. Smallholders who raise both ture, biodiversity, and other economic sectors. livestock and crops are likely to be the main van- The animal side of agropastoral systems also guard of this innovation, and their practices has implications for biodiversity. As modern warrant further study. crop farming has generally reduced the biodi- A wide variety of agricultural productions versity of farmland, so to has the livestock systems that rely heavily on livestock are found industry (see chapter 6). Many traditional in drier parts of the tropics and subtropics, espe- breeds have disappeared as farmers focus on cially in Africa and tropical Asia. As in shifting highly productive cattle, pigs, sheep, and chick- cultivation, such systems are often particularly ens (Alderson 1994; Crosby 1986, 181; Plucknett appropriate for areas with poor infrastructure or and Horne 1992; Smith 1990). Of the 3,831 breeds otherwise difficult environments (World Bank of cattle, water buffalo, goat, pig, sheep, horse, 1991). In the central Andes, the Himalayas, and and donkey believed to have existed in this cen- the drier parts of India herding is an essential tury, 16 percent have become extinct, and a fur- supplement to crop farming, which is especially ther 15 percent are rare (Hall and Ruane 1993). risky because of cold or drought (Guillet 1983; More than eighty distinct breeds of cattle are Jodha 1992). found in Africa, and some of them are currently Agricultural development policies some- being replaced by exotic breeds (Rege 1994). times promote overgrazing and the loss of bio- Loss of such biodiversity is more than just an diversity because the complex cultural and academic concern. Several breeds of cattle and ecological dimensions of pastoral activities are goats in West Africa have been helpful in poorly understood (NRC 1990). The needs of research on resistance to trypanosomiasis, a stockmen for seasonal grazing lands are some- widespread livestock disease in Africa. The Kuri times ignored. When agricultural development breed of cattle around Lake Chad has the converts areas formerly used for extensive graz- unusual ability to feed underwater but is in dan- ing, stockmen are denied access to forage for ger of genetic swamping from imported zebu their herds. Unable to practice transhumance, cattle (Myers 1991). 66 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification Traditional breeds are vital for cross-breeding More research is warranted on the domestica- work to increase hardiness and other traits tion of wild animals for meat, high-value leather, (Maule 1990; Salazar 1973). In many cases tradi- and other goods. Such efforts are now under way tional breeds are more robust in difficult environ- with only a handful of species, including croco- ments than the more widespread super breeds. diles in New Guinea, iguanas in Central America, The deployment of traditional breeds such as and ostriches in the United States. Little research heat-tolerant Bali cattle may make more sense and development have gone into the potential of than promoting other tropical breeds such as the wild animals that are hunted for food such as the zebu. Too often agricultural development pro- pig-like babirusa for domestication (Fitzhugh jects promote exotic or introduced breeds rather and Wilhelm 1991). As with crops, research and than assessing the potential of local breeds. development focus on staple animals. Virtually Although it may not always be feasible to use all research on livestock has focused on cattle, local breeds, the fate of unique livestock should sheep, pigs, and chickens; some other animals be considered in any development project. could be domesticated that are better adapted to Safekeeping traditional breeds poses several challenging environments. challenges. Unlike seed gene banks, it is not easy One example will serve to illustrate this point. to store livestock germplasm in off-site collec- Along the Amazon floodplain much of the tions. Frozen sperm is used mostly for spreading remaining forest is being felled, primarily to the genes of elite bulls rather than more local- make way for cattle and water buffalo produc- ized breeds. Frozen embryos are an expensive tion. The loss of forests is undercutting fisheries way to try and save endangered livestock because many of the fish species important for breeds. The best way is to maintain herds and commerce and subsistence depend directly or flocks is in their natural settings-the farm and indirectly on floodplain forests for their suste- ranch. The experience of various rare breed soci- nance. A prolific native rodent, the capybara pro- eties and organizations is worth reviewing for duces succulent meat that is highly regarded. The this reason. capybara feeds on herbs and floating grasses and In the United Kingdom the Rare Breeds does not require land clearing to create food Survival Trust has made impressive strides in resources for it. Some farmers are already domes- reversing the loss of some traditional breeds of ticating the animal for meat production but are livestock, particularly sheep, pigs, and cattle. doing so in a clandestine manner because federal The trust lobbies for fiscal incentives for farmers law prohibits raising wild animals in captivity to safeguard rare breeds, holds annual shows to and sale of their products. If wildlife regulations display rare breeds and generate interest in were amended to allow the marketing of game them, and helps conduct surveys on the status of animals and their products if they are raised in breeds. Similar efforts are under way in some captivity, capybara farms might proliferate and other parts of the industrial world. In the United reduce the area devoted to cattle ranching. States the American Livestock Breeds Conser- vancy works to protect close to 100 threatened Agroforestry breeds. The conservancy was founded in 1977, and such efforts should be encouraged in the Agroforestry is often touted as one of the more tropics and subtropics as well, where the great- sustainable land-use systems for the tropics, est concentration of traditional breeds is often especially in degraded areas. Agroforestry is a rel- found. Developing regions have widely differ- atively new word for an ancient practice that ing infrastructure and institutional endow- involves the intercropping of shrub or tree ments, but much of the initiative for conserving species with other crops including annuals. threatened breeds has come from the private Many different agroforestry systems have sector. The Rare Breeds Survival Trust is a non- evolved over the millennia, ranging from home governmental organization (NGO), and NGOs gardens to multilayered tree crops in fields (Nair and livestock associations clearly have an 1991). Spatial designs vary considerably from an important role to play here. occasional tree in a field to carefully planned Effects of Land-Use Systems on the Use and Consenration of Biodiversity 67 mixtures of perennial trees and shrubs with in other parts of the tropics, including the annual crops in between. Yucatan Peninsula (G6mez-Pompa, Salvador, Agroforestry offers numerous environmen- and Sosa 1987) and the humid zone of West tal benefits when compared to intensive short- Africa (Harris 1976). cycle cropping. Mixed tree crop farms protect Although agroforestry is more environrment- the soil better and use water and soil nutrients friendly than most annual cropping systems, more efficiently (Fernandes and Matos 1995). market forces constrain both the number of The greater floristic diversity of agroforestry species deployed and the extent of mixed crop- systems opens up more niches for wildlife, par- ping systems. In the Brazilian Amazon, for ticularly birds, and the microclimate created by example, most agroforestry systems in fields planted trees and shrubs protects soil microor- contain from two to four species (Smith and oth- ganisms (Holloway 1991). Some agroforestry ers 1995). A similar pattern of a limited number plots are extremely rich in species, thereby pro- of intercropped species prevails in northern viding multiple tiers and a suitable environment India, where tarai poplars are interplanted with for wildlife. In the vicinity of just one village in either wheat or sugarcane and later with either the uplands of the Peruvian Amazon, some sixty turmeric or ginger. Throughout the eight-year species are deployed in agroforestry systems rotation with poplars, farmers also choose from (Hiraoka 1986). a wide variety of vegetables for planting during Agroforestry is one of the trajectories of slash- the winter. and-burn agriculture. Instead of completely Some farms contain agroforestry plots with abandoning a field after annual cropping, many dozens of intercropped annuals and perennials, indigenous groups and other small-scale farmers but excessive diversity of crops can actually be return periodically to harvest fruits, nuts, and counterproductive. In the tropics average annual other useful products from fields that are being productivity in ecosystems becomes saturated in slowly engulfed by the forest (Sponsel 1986). By the range of ten to forty species (Baskin 1994b). planting perennials in swidden plots, farmers In some parts of the tropics agroforestry is still can extend the useful life of managed fallows for essentially confined to home gardens. Finding decades (Denevan and Treacy 1987; Harris 1971; economically viable crop combinations that con- Padoch and others 1985). tain between two and ten species would thus be In some cases swidden systems evolve into a high priority for agricultural research and more or less permanent agroforestry systems. development in the tropics. People in various parts of the tropics have trans- The further development of agroforestry formed significant patches of the landscape into hinges on incorporating local people in the cultural forests. On the floodplain of the Amazon design of new agroforestry configurations. estuary and sections of the Ucayali in Peru, farm- Farmers throughout the tropics are experiment- ers have enriched the forest over the years with ing with a wide range of crop combinations, and economically important tree species that now their experiences need to be incorporated in provide the main livelihood (Anderson 1988, agricultural research and development pro- 1990; Anderson and loris 1992; Hiraoka 1985a, grams (Uquillas, Ramirez, and Sere 1992). 1985b, 1989; Padoch 1988; Padoch and de Jong Farmers are also domesticating a wide range of 1991; Padoch and others 1985). Extractive activi- wild forest plants in their home gardens, some ties in these cultural forests are based mainly on of which are later adopted for field agriculture. a medley of fruits, nuts, heart of palm, and cacao. Local knowledge is critical in identifying which Relatively permanent agroforestry systems plants are useful in surrounding forest and other appear to be best developed near sizable urban habitats. One of the best ways to conserve bio- markets, but such specialized agroforestry sys- diversity is to find uses for it. If its value is not tems could possibly be modified for more wide- appreciated, it can slip into oblivion. spread adoption along the floodplains of tropical The full potential of agroforestry is also linked rivers. Cultural forests full of useful plants have to the conservation of forests, both in humid areas also been created over extended periods of time and the more open, scrubby woodlands of the 68 Biodiversity and Agncultural Intensification drier tropics. In the Amazon, for example, people has accelerated tropical deforestation and the loss are domesticating a wide assortment of perennial of biodiversity. Plantation expansion, particu- plants in home gardens for a variety of purposes, larly of rubber and oil palm, is the leading cause ranging from fish bait to medicines and construc- of tropical deforestation in peninsular Malaysia tion materials. Seeds and seedlings are gathered (Vincent and Hadi 1993). As of 1988, perennial in the forest and planted in home gardens. Or tree crops occupied 4.16 million hectares there, wild species sometimes arise spontaneously m mostly at the expense of forest. The impressive home gardens and are protected. Home gardens increase in area planted to rubber and oil palm in are a largely untapped reservoir of plant genetic Malaysia is driven by their inherent economic resources. feasibility not misguided by fiscal incentives. Given the heterogeneity of agroforestry in While benefiting Malaysia's economy, such most areas, it would be unwise to promote a sin- expansion of commercial plantations has inflicted gle technology package for farmers to adopt. appreciable if still unmeasured losses of biodi- Rather, a flexible basket of species and agronomy versity. Only a small number of forest-dwelling practices would better suit the wide range of animals survive in tree plantations in Malaysia, as farming conditions where agroforestry is appro- is probably the case in most other tropical regions. priate (Current, Lutz, and Scherr 1995). Another No monocultural system supports a breeding important lesson from studies of agroforestry population of forest-dwelling birds in the Malay adoption is that candidate trees and shrubs must Peninsula (Vmcent and Hadi 1993). Only a few help meet the needs of farmers, not just improve birds adapted to disturbed sites can make a home the environment. Although much needs to be in monocrop tree plantations. learned about constraints to agroforestry adop- The large size of plantations tends to magnify tion in many areas, it is clear that unless the trees their environmental impact; some plantations for generate income or otherwise provide goods or cellulose production, for example, exceed 100,000 services to local people, they will not adopt or hectares. Furthermore, commercial plantation maintain mixed perennial cropping systems. systems are often heavy users of inorganic fertil- izers, herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides. As Plantation Systems in intensive short-cycle cropping, deployment of these agrochemicals can trigger collateral dam- Establishing monocultures based on perennial age, such as water pollution and destruction of crops is a high priority for many agricultural beneficial insects and animals. research and development programs. Some One strategy to reduce damage to the envi- commercial plantations focus on fruit produc- ronment while improving production is to incor- tion such as mango and citrus and others are set porate greater biodiversity in plantations. up for industrial purposes such as latex for rub- Greater genetic variation of perennial species ber. Other plantation systems are devoted to the deployed in plantation systems should help confectionery and beverage trade, such as cacao reduce dependence on chemicals to control pests. and tea, and still others are geared toward veg- Steps have already been taken in this direction: etable oil, timber, or pulp production. * The deployment of several clones for each of Commercial plantations are a major land use the three species of eucalyptus in the Jari in the tropics and subtropics. Plantation forestry pulp operation in the Brazilian Amazon. geared to timber and pulp production alone cov- Eucalyptus plantations cover some 50,000 ers some 11 million hectares. Plantation systems hectares at Jari, but they are not genetically of all kinds are expanding by about 3 million uniform. The idea behind planting more than hectares a year (FAO 1995). Given their wide- one high-yielding clone is to reduce the risk spread impact on biodiversity, finding ways to of severe disease or pest outbreaks. mitigate the negative environmental effects of * At Jari stream banks and steep slopes are left plantations deserves high priority. in their original vegetation, thereby creating In some cases promoting commercial tree wildlife corridors and habitats for native crops-particularly rubber, oil palm, and cacao- species of plants and animals. Effects of Land-Use Systems on the Use and Conservation of Biodiversity 69 * Half a dozen coconut varieties have been quickly pulled and replaced with other material at planted on a 12,000 hectare plantation oper- the next planting cycle. Perennial crop growers ated by S6c6co in the Brazilian state of Para. have a much greater initial investment and cannot * In Malaysia several high-yielding clones switch so easily to different clones or varieties. The have been released to diversify plantations, difficulty is finding appropriate mixes of perenni- and researchers are working on developing als or varieties that can make a profit for growers. high-yielding clones that resist South Also, hard data are rarely available to show that American leaf blight in case the fungal dis- diversification of plantation systems is a cost- ease reaches Southeast Asia. Such clones will effective measure. Diversification is usually be held in reserve in case they are needed. undertaken as insurance against disease and pest * Several companies in the Brazilian Amazon epidemics. use kudzu vine, a fast-growing leguminous Another important strategy to mitigate ground cover, to suppress weeds in oil palm destruction of biodiversity is to target already plantations rather than applying herbicides. cleared areas for establishing plantations. Kudzu also enriches the soil with nitrogen. Substantial parts of the tropics and subtropics are * A plant pathologist working for an oil palm covered with vegetation at various stages of suc- plantation in the Brazilian state of Para has cession. In some cases the forest is unlikely to anecdotal evidence that caterpillar damage is return because of soil degradation or because less severe on oil palm when strips of forest seed sources have been eliminated by wanton are left standing nearby, possibly because of deforestation. In India and Puerto Rico, for exam- biocontrol agents that survive in the original ple, tree plantations can rehabilitate degraded vegetation. areas by helping to accelerate succession since * Near Ariquemes, Rond6nia, in the Brazilian they provide a favorable microclimate for the Amazon, a cattle rancher who is diversifying spontaneous establishment of native species his operation with citrus groves has noted that (Lugo, Parrotta, and Brown 1993). In this manner pest and disease problems on his orange trees they enhance biodiversity, and when the planted are less severe near a large stand of bamboo. trees are ready for harvest, they generate income The bamboo is not native but may shelter some for land managers. biocontrol agents. The alleged biocontrol value Finally, plantations make good buffers of native and even planted woods warrants around protected areas because they provide further elucidation because it appears that eco- shade and windbreaks. Plantations are superior logical complexity is likely to benefit both the to fields in annual crops in this regard. With environment and agricultural production. good fire control measures typical of tree plan- * In Brazil companies establishing extensive tations, they can also help prevent fires from plantations are required by law to plant a penetrating remaining tracts of forest. When proportion of their land with indigenous shifting cultivators become more concentrated species, thereby expanding natural biodiver- in an area, particularly in transitional zones, sity (Brown and Lugo 1994; Lugo, Parrotta, remaining forest is often confined to narrow and Brown 1993; Parrotta 1993). strips and small islands, both of which are more * In Colombia regional development agencies vulnerable to fires escaping from slash-and- and the national federation of coffee growers burn fields. For example, a fire in Chiapas, are promoting the interplanting of coffee Mexico, destroyed 600,000 hectares of forest in with other perennials, including a native 1982 (G6mez-Pompa and others 1993). Chiapas bamboo (Parsons 1991). Although such steps is one of the richest centers of biodiversity in may appear modest, they increase biodiver- Central America. sity of normally monocropped areas and diversify products for growers. Managed Forests The stakes are much higher in perennial sys- tems than with annuals. With cereal or pulse The remaining forests represent an extensive crops, varieties that no longer perform well can be pool of largely unexploited biodiversity, but 70 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification most woodlands in the tropics and subtropics less feasible today. Loggers and farmers need to are under severe pressure from farmers, ranch- be involved in the design and implementation of ers, or loggers. In some areas all three are forest management. Community-based man- involved in deforestation. Pressures on forests agement is increasingly promoted as the best are increasing as farmers press up against their way to proceed with rural development, partic- margins and timber extraction accelerates. In ularly for nontimber forest products, but it is no temperate lands the forest area has increased in panacea. Many forests are being mismanaged by this century because some crops have been individual landowners and companies rather taken out of production, thereby allowing the than communities. Like individual entrepre- land to revert to forest, and because of silvicul- neurs, communities may be overzealous in ture programs that have promoted the wide- extracting forest products if the market is strong, spread planting of trees, particularly conifers. In thereby depleting natural resources and biodi- the tropics forests are still shrinking. How such versity. Local participation in the decisionmak- forests are used and managed therefore has ing process is not enough; investments in major implications for biodiversity. research and technology development are still A historical perspective may prove helpful. needed to help manage forests sustainably. Before World War II vast areas of mature forest In some areas of the humid tropics, particu- could be found in tropical areas. In many coun- larly the Brazilian Amazon, extractive reserves tries forest agencies and research institutes had have been set up so that local people can derive established permanent sample plots in virgin a viable income from the forest without cutting forest. Subsequent research has demonstrated it down. For the most part forest management that extensive tracts of primary forest have expe- for nontimber forest products should be envis- rienced varying degrees of human disturbance. aged as a supplement to the diet and income of These permanent forest plots along with other rural populations, rather than the mainstay. floristic surveys were used to gather data on the Excessive reliance on forest extraction alone to composition and structure of plant associations. gain a livelihood may actually backfire. To help Such studies underscore how little is known extractive reserves become more sustainable, about the vast genetic variation of plants and people that live in them will need to diversify animals in tropical forests and their economic their operations by growing cash crops and potential. Whole ecological communities, raising livestock, which will involve some species, and subspecies are being destroyed clearing. before humanity can even document many of Tropical forests are highly heterogeneous, so them, let alone appreciate their value. a model for sustainable timber cutting or fruit Several forest management strategies have extraction in one area may not be appropriate for been devised to exploit timber and non-wood another. Issues that warrant special attention for products without seriously impairing the that reason are the role of traditional knowledge ecosystems involved, but such plans usually of economic plants in the forest; the minimum work only when harvesting rates are modest. As critical size for healthy ecosystem functioning; human populations have increased around the and devising rotations between cutting or har- margins of forests and the tempo of logging rates vesting so that they are sufficiently long to allow has quickened, products from many tropical the resource to recuperate. forests are no longer being harvested on a sus- If forests can be managed sustainably for tainable basis. Furthermore, roads cut through lumber or nontimber forest products or both, the forest to gain access to minerals and other appreciable biodiversity will be safeguarded. resources have allowed waves of settlers to fol- Forests will eventually be able to pay for them- low in their wake, It .-wdirq- to -4iole-scale selves. The rich reservoirs of plants in tropical destruction' -- the ore ii KaJimantan, forests, about which little is known, are needed Indonesia (Brookfield, Potter, and Byron 1995). for future botanical prospecting. Tropical forests The police-based system of forest protection contain wild populations of more than 200 and management that functioned in the past is crops, and these gene pools have hardly been Effects of Land-Use Systemns on the Use and Conservation of Biodiversity 71 tapped to upgrade such crops as rubber, mango, yields and the potential to raise incomes while avocado, and coffee. being more environment-friendly. The agricultural value of conserving forests Policymakers and stakeholders must under- underscores the inadequacies of the current sys- stand that conserving and managing biodiver- tem of protecting natural areas. A significant, sity for agricultural development are linked. unresolved issue in conservation practice is Conservation and natural resource management deciding what exactly is supposed to be pre- are not separate issues. Conservation is one of the served. The scientific underpinnings for select- strategies for the wise use of natural resources. ing areas for preservation are weak in many Genetically diverse (heterozygous) popula- cases. Many of the nominally protected areas tions of crops and animals on managed land- have tenuous political support locally, region- scapes warrant more research. Hybrids and ally, and nationally. Setting aside forest for modem varieties may have a comparative advan- nature reserves and managed harvesting of tage in certain privileged farming areas where products often means reducing the area avail- irrigation, fertile soils, and good socioeconomic able for more profitable land uses, at least in the infrastructures are in place, but they have a much short term. Forest management for timber and more limited role in more marginal environments non-wood products thus needs to be placed on where population growth is rapid. as firm an economic foundation as possible. More farmers and livestock owners must be Much will depend on the value of products involved in establishing research priorities and in subject to some form of management and pro- testing new technologies (Dusseldorp and Box tection. Where such products fetch high prices- 1993). A greater appreciation for local knowledge sandalwood in India, camphor in Indonesia, is justified to develop appropriate technologies greenheart in Guyana, or ebony in West Africa- and natural resource management strategies for the danger for overexploitation looms. In many safeguarding and enhancing biodiversity. cases adequate management plans cannot be A fuller assessment of undervalued plants devised because of gaps in scientific research. and animals of potential economic value should Further investigation into the breeding systems be a high priority, including locally important and genetic variation of numerous species of crops, some traditional breeds, and wild plants actual or potential importance for forest man- and animals that could be domesticated. This agement is therefore urgently needed. research would help diversify agricultural pro- duction systems and increase options for farm- Policy Implications ers. Biodiversity and resiliency of land-use systems would increase. Policies specific to each land-use system are Greater support is also justified for studies of examined in the previous section. Overriding paleoagricultural systems and environmental policy issues are broached here, some of which archaeology for clues about how highly pro- are also dealt with in chapter 8. ductive and biodiverse agricultural systems were honed long ago, particularly in challeng- New Agricultural Research ing environments. Such studies can point the and Development Model way to promising natural resource manage- ment strategies. A new research paradigm is needed that sys- Accelerated work on the systematics of tematically incorporates agrobiodiversity con- plants and animals is urgently needed so that cerns. While work is under way at various scientists, gene bank curators, and managers of institutions to further this goal, the pace is conservation units will have a better idea of the uneven and biodiversity has not yet been effec- numbers and variation of species they are deal- tively mainstreamed into agricultural research ing with (Miller, Rossman, and Kirkbridge and development. The world is looking for new 1989). When evolutionary relationships are bet- models for high-productivity agriculture, mod- ter sorted out, the work of crop and livestock els that retain the benefits of ever-improving breeders is facilitated. 72 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification Socioeconomic Infrastructure and Property Rights 1995). Official land titles may not be necessary as long as the rights of people who have tra- Assuming that landowners are more likely to ditionally occupied the area are respected. If it invest in upgrading and intensifying their oper- is not feasible to provide official land titles, ations if land values increase, it would be other mechanisms for security to the land and unwise to promote the building of new roads in access to credit deserve investigation. pioneer areas. One of the greatest obstacles to a * Where natural resources are managed by more rational management of tropical forest for communities rather than individual home- timber and other products is the availability of steads, such common property resources forest that can be more cheaply mined because warrant protection under the law. Indigenous of extensive road networks (Schneider 1994). groups can develop market-oriented, envi- Existing transportation routes should be ronmentally sound strategies for managing improved rather than building new roads. This agrobiodiversity and for protecting habitats will increase land values, and farmers and live- only if their land ownership is not violated. stock owners will have an easier time getting Communities need to be assured they have their produce to markets. It could be argued that the right to control access to resources on their paving existing roads is likely to accelerate defor- land so that chances will improve that estation and the loss of biodiversity. This may be resources will be managed wisely and biodi- true in some cases but may not hold in all. versity protected. Landowners along improved roads may be more * Where land is farmed by individual small- likely to manage areas currently in production holders who do not have official documenta- more intensively because of better market links. tion, legalization of their holdings should be Other components of an improved socioeco- accelerated or at least traditionally recog- nomic infrastructure would indude rural electri- nized land ownership patterns should not be fication for agroindustry and credit that promotes undermined by development projects. agrobiodiversity and is delivered in a timely man- ner. Credit is often available only for technologies Agricultural Development Projects that tend to undermine biodiversity. A revamping of credit priorities in many regions is in order. Biodiversity performance indicators need to be Land tenure is also relevant to policies to pro- applied to land-use systems pertinent to a rural mote protection and enhancement of biodiver- development or agricultural project. The set of sity in agricultural settings. Land tenure seems biodiversity indicators would alert policymak- to be a perennial issue in rural development in ers and development project task managers many regions, particularly in Latin America. about potentially negative repercussions of agri- Lack of well-defined property rights has been cultural practices. Although work on the set of identified as a major constraint to more respon- indicators is still at an early stage (table 4.1), it is sible management of natural resources (Garrity, designed to provide an analytical tool to guide Kummer, and Guiang 1993; World Bank 1991). thinking on how to assess whether certain agri- Several points about property rights are cultural and forest extraction practices are more worth emphasizing as they relate to land tenure or less likely to impair biodiversity. and biodiversity. Land tenure is relevant to bio- To mitigate biodiversity loss and to enhance diversity conservation and the enhancement of the use of biological riches, a rapid agrobiodi- agrobiodiversity because it can be a driving versity survey is needed before any rural devel- force for environmental destruction and because opment project is undertaken. Such relatively it can also provide an incentive to invest in more inexpensive surveys would document the cur- rational management of natural resources: rent mix of land-use systems, appreciate the dri- People will generally not be motivated to ving forces that shape them, identify major invest in tree crop farming such as agro- players in conserving and managing biodiver- forestry unless they feel secure in their rights sity at the local level, and assess the richness and to work on the land (Current, Lutz, and Scherr uniqueness of crops and livestock. Effects of Land-Use Systems on the Use and Conservation of Biodiversity 73 A multidisciplinary agrobiodiversity survey high water, should be promoted rather than beef team would visit the proposed development site production. In this manner synergies may be to: obtained between biodiversity conservation and * Assess the current extent and richness of agricultural development. agriculturally related biodiversity (for exam- ple, traditional varieties or landraces in use; Biodiversity Conservation Projects wild or weedy populations and near rela- tives; types of livestock and breeds) The importance of safeguarding relatively * Explore the impact of the proposed develop- undisturbed habitats as reservoirs of wild pop- ment project on existing biodiversity, both ulations of crop plants and their near relatives as agricultural and wild well as economically important wildlife needs to • Examine whether proposed agricultural be incorporated in more biodiversity protection development activities have paid sufficient plans. In Guatemala, for example, a small park attention to local needs, natural resource near Purulha, Baja Verapaz, was set up to pre- management strategies, and ways to enhance serve the endangered quetzal, Guatemala's biodiversity within proposed agricultural national bird, but the park also contains several systems. near relatives of avocado that could eventually Agricultural development projects need to prove useful in breeding efforts (Smith and oth- be screened for their off-site impact. For exam- ers 1992). Most nature reserves are established to ple, all projects involving irrigation should have protect endangered ecosystems and showcase a component for watershed management that animals or for ecotourism. Only a handful of includes safeguarding mature vegetation com- gene parks have been set aside specifically to con- munities, especially forest. In floodplain areas serve genetic resources of crop plants. tree farming, particularly with native fruit and Conserving genetic resources of plants impor- nut species that are also consumed by fish at tant for agriculture and industry could provide Table 4.1 Preliminary performance Indicators on biodiversity conservation and management in various agricultural production and forest extraction systems Indicator Cause(s) Proposed mitigating action(s) Natural habitat loss Encroachment by agricultural production * Intensify systems to increase produdivity and income- systems generating options Habitat fragmentation Encroachment of agriculture in an * Minimize fragmentabon, gene flow interrupbon, and uncoordinated manner species loss because remnants are too small to support them by providing widlife corridors along bridges of natural habitat Species loss even when natural Air or water pollution; excessive * Decrease agrochemical use by shifting to integrated habitat is still intact sedimentaion of water courses; excessive pest management hunting, fishing, collecting, or logging * Incorporate crop rotation or more perennials * Promote environment-friendly (green) production systems * Devise plans for harvesting wild plant and animal resources Decdine of biodiversity of crop Adoption of new farming practices, such * Eliminate fiscal or regulatory measures that promote species on farms as monocropping with a cereal crop, homogeneity possibly propelled by fiscal incentives * Explore traditional, polycultural systems that can be rehabilitated while raising yields and income Decline in biodiversity within species Release of modem varieties and application * Support research on traditional varieties that can achieve of agrochemicals to protect them, possibly higher yields and on modem varieties less dependent on propelled by fiscal incentives; adoption of agrochemicals intellectual property rights * Promote heterogeneous crop varieties over genetically pure ones * Provide incentives for both modem and traditional varieties and ecolabeling of products certifying that they come from traditional varieties Source: Author. 74 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification apow lrationale for further efforts to pre- Anderson, A. 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G6mez, Fernando GonzAlez, F. Forestry Development Paper 17. FAO. Rome. Castri, eds., Global Land Use Change: A Perspective Weischet, W., and C. N. Caviedes. 1993. The Persisting from the Columbian Encounter. See Siemens 1995. Ecological Constraints of Tropical Agriculture. Harlow: Smith, N. J. H., J. T. Williamns, D. L. Plucknett, and J. P. Longman Scientific and Technical. Talbot. 1992. Tropical Forests and Their Crops. Ithaca, Westoby, Jack. 1989. Introduction to World Forestry. Effects of Land-Use Systems on the Use and Conservation of Biodiversity 79 Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Biotic Diversity and Germplasm Preservation, Global Wilbanks, T. J. 1994. "'Sustainable Development' in Imperatives. See Gamez 1989. Geographic Perspective," Annals of the Association of Wood, D. 1993. Agrobiodiversity in Global Conservation American Geographers 84: 541-56. Policy. Biopolicy International Series No. 11. Wilcox, B. A., and K. N. Duin. 1995. "Indigenous African Centre for Technology Studies (ACTS). Cultural and Biological Diversity: Overlapping Values Nairobi. of Latin American Ecoregions," Cultural Survival World Bank. 1991. Environmental Assessment Sourcebook, Quarterly (Wmter): 51-3. Volume II: Sectoral Guidelines. Washington, D.C. Wilken, G. C. 1969. "Drained-field Agriculture: An Zimmerer, K. S. 1991. "Managing Diversity in Potato Intensive Farming System in Tlaxcala, Mexico," and Maize Fields of the Peruvian Andes," Journal of Geographical Review 59: 215-41. Ethnobiology 11 (1): 23-49. Wilkes, G. 1989. "Germplasm Preservation: Objectives - .1995. "The Origins of Andean Irrigation," Nature and Needs." In L. Knutson and A. K. Stoner, eds., 378: 481-83. 5. Effects of Agricultural Development on Biodiversity: Lessons from Iowa Gordon L. Bultena, Michael D. Duffy, Steven E. Jungst, Ramesh S. Kanwar, Bruce W. Menzel, Manjit K. Misra, Piyush Singh, Janette R. Thompson, Arnold van der Valk, and Richard L. Willham N i 'umerous ecological studies have shown ment are also examined. Some of the positive that human population growth is forc- effects on biodiversity that can be achieved with ing many plant and animal species into various management systems in current agricul- extinction. Communities of all living organisms, tural production systems are also highlighted in such as those found in prairies, marshes, wood- this chapter. lands, and lakes, interact in many ways with their surrounding environments. A recent report Natural Habitats in Presettlement Iowa of the 1995 UN Conference on Biodiversity in Indonesia found that human population growth Iowa was once covered by vast prairie grass- and economic development are depleting the lands and open savannas. Thick woodlands bor- planet's biological resources. Although environ- dered many of the state's rivers and streams. A mental awareness is growing, damage to global large variety of wildlife lived in its prairies, biodiversity continues. More than 30,000 plant woodlands, and wetlands. The total land area of and animal species face possible extinction Iowa-about 36 million acres-and prairies, worldwide and some forty to a hundred species including prairie wetlands, covered more than become extinct every day. 30 million acres of the landscape in presettle- Trends in biodiversity, population, and devel- ment times (Hayden 1945; Shimek 1911). opment in Iowa are quite similar to those observed The landscape was characterized by smooth on a global scale. In 1780 about 1,200 American and gently rolling plains with soils derived from Indians lived in Iowa (Torrell 1971). Iowa's popu- glacial deposits. Most of the area was covered lation rose from 10,500 in 1836 to 97,000 in 1846. with deep deposits of finely divided glacial and Today Iowa's population is close to 2.8 million wind-blown material. Modem soils were chiefly (Legislative Fiscal Bureau 1995). Similarly dra- formed under prairie conditions over till, loess, matic increases in human population in some 150 paleosols, and bedrock, primarily limestone. years have driven the destruction of many of the Prairie soils characterized by deep topsoil were most productive natural ecosystems of the world. rich in humus, nitrogen, and minerals conducive This chapter presents the status of natural for plant growth. These soils also tended to be habitats and biodiversity in Iowa before and poorly drained and included wetlands in areas after European settlement. Both the positive and of low relief. It is generally believed that prairies negative effects of past and current agricultural persisted because of fire, despite the long-term practices on biodiversity and related socioeco- climatic change to cooler and more humid con- nomic and policy issues are discussed. Policy ditions. Prairie plants were deeply rooted and implications of Iowa's experience with agricul- thus capable of withstanding periodic drought tural development and biodiversity manage- and fire, whereas trees were vulnerable to both. 80 Effects of Agricultural Development on Biodiversity: Lessons from lowa 81 The exact composition of the prairies of Iowa wetlands were home to frogs, salaman- Iowa's past is not known because many plant ders, muskrats, ducks, and turtles. As many as and animal species may have disappeared 250 species of animals, including black bear, before their presence was ever recorded. wolves, bison, wapiti, and mountain lion, once Nonetheless, the state's remaining prairie areas made homes in Iowa's native vegetation (INAI can give us a glimpse of what Iowa looked like 1984). Similarly, many bird, amphibian and rep- about 150 years ago. The prairie was a complex tile, fish, and invertebrate species were abun- of native grasses (such as big bluestem, dant before people settled in Iowa. Indiangrass, bluejoint reedgrass, and coarse prairie cordgrass), legumes, and flowering Effects of Presettlement Cultures plants. Iowa's prairies provided habitat for such and the Pioneer Era on Biodiversity wild flowers as purple prairie clover, compass plant, and black-eyed Susan. Shimek (1931) doc- By 2000 B.C. various native cultures flourished umented 265 plant species as the bulk of Iowa's in the part of the world later to be known as prairie flora, although the total number of plant Iowa. Archeological evidence suggests that sev- species that originally grew in the state's prairies eral societies flourished in the state, primarily was probably closer to 400. Plant community associated with major rivers. These cultures structure and species distribution depended on were largely based on hunting and fishing, but topography and soil characteristics (Crist and they were also the first farmers in Iowa. Crops of Glenn-Lewin 1978). Many animals lived on the maize, beans, squash, and sunflower were prairies, including dozens of mammals, birds, raised a millennium ago. reptiles, and insects. Meadow voles, bobolinks, In historical times at least seventeen native and box turtles were among the animals that tribes occupied Iowa. Torrell (1971) reported an made their homes in Iowa's prairies. estimate of 1,200 American Indians living in In eastern Iowa trees flourished on the Iowa in 1780. As in the case of their ancestors uplands as well as along streams. These wood- indigenous cultures of the eighteenth century lands were home to a wide variety of trees, were based on hunting, gathering, and limited shrubs, and wild flowers. Iowa's upland forests agriculture. Native American farmers began were dominated by large oaks, hickories, and cultivating small tracts of land on the river flood walnut trees, whereas cottonwood, maple, and plains. They used fire to clear their land as well green ash characterized lowland forests. as to enhance their ability to hunt buffalo, deer, Western Iowa had fewer trees. Even the timber and elk. Fire destroyed the woody plant growth along the streams was thin and meager along and made hoeing and digging easier. It also the western boundary of the state (Peterson enabled new shoots of grass to easily emerge and Englehorn 1946). Thus in its natural condi- from the soil after the winter. Native Americans tion Iowa was in a transition zone between the first altered Iowa's natural environment with arid, grassy plains to the west and the subhu- fire, which affected not only plant growth but mid, deciduous forests to the east. On an also the composition of plant communities. annual basis the state was wettest and warmest They also began to change the area's biodiver- in the southeast and driest and coldest in the sity by adding plants that they cultivated for northwest. food. The most significant plant introductions Abundant wetlands, riparian forests border- that altered Iowa's biodiversity were maize ing Iowa's rivers and streams, and prairie pot- (both flint and dent), beans, squash, sunflower, holes supported diverse plant and animal life. and tobacco. Prairie wetlands that dotted the landscape of In the late 1600s French explorers and fur much of north-central Iowa were among the traders were the first Europeans to penetrate most productive ecosystems in the world. Some Iowa. Skins of beaver, mink, and other fur bear- unusual plants, such as the fly-eating sundew ers were taken by the French or obtained by trade plant and duckweed, the world's smallest flow- with natives to supply European fashion mar- ering plant, could be found only in wetlands. kets. Although several European states claimed 82 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification title to Iowa and its neighboring areas through the Agricultural Development and Habitat Loss 1700s, the environmental repercussions of these clains were minimal until the nineteenth century. Habitat destruction has been by far the greatest In 1800 Napoleon reclaimed lands west of the contributor to Iowa's loss of biodiversity. Mississippi from Spain and sold them to the Although agricultural development is consid- United States in 1803 as the Louisiana Purchase. ered the main cause, other human activities, such For most of the next thirty years Iowa and other as railroad construction, also contributed to the western territories were regarded as Indian land decline of natural habitat. Many plants and ani- by the federal government and remained largely mals disappeared along with the loss of habitat free of settlement. Beginning in the 1820s, how- because they were an integral part of the natural ever, various treaties with the natives began ced- ecosystems. One hundred plant species are con- ing the western lands to the government. sidered endangered in Iowa, while 52 are threat- Encouraged by the availability of inexpensive ened, 61 are presumed extirpated, and 25 are of land ($1.25 an acre), settlers began flooding undetermined status (INAI 1984). Among ani- across the Mississippi River in the early 1830s mals 37 species are endangered, 35 are threat- from eastern states into what was then part of the ened, 29 are locally extinct, and 12 are of Michigan Territory. Iowa subsequently became undetermined status. The Indiana bat, bald eagle, part of the Wisconsin Territory (1836 to 1838), the peregrine falcon, Iowa Pleistocene snail, Higgins' Iowa Territory (1838 to 1846), and finally Iowa eye pearly mussel, and fat pocketbook pearly became the twenty-ninth state in 1846. Although mussel are Iowa species listed by the U.S. Fish the first settlers were from the eastern United and Wildlife Service as federally endangered States, pioneers soon arrived from Europe, espe- (INAI 1984). Habitat destruction from farming cially from Denmark, Germany, Holland, was especially pronounced in forests, prairie Norway, and Sweden. Each group brought its land, and wetlands. Loss of habitat and biodiver- own approach to agriculture and tended to settle sity in each ecosystem is discussed separately in in different parts of the state. the following sections. The pace of settlement in Iowa was remark- able. U.S. Census statistics for 1836 recorded a Effects on Forests and Their Biodiversity total non-native population of 10,531; ten years later, more than 90,000, mostly engaged in farm- Agriculture's main assault on the natural habi- ing. In 1860 the Census reported nearly 675,000 tats of Iowa began with se'tlers during the early citizens (Dinsmore 1994). Initially, settlement 1830s. Iowa's forests were the first to go. Trees was primarily confined to the borders of the provided wood for building homes, fences, and Mississippi River. The first pioneers, accus- other structures. Wood was also in demand to tomed to farming in forestlands of the eastern provide heat for homes and later to fuel United States, tended to establish their claims in steamships. From 1830 to 1850 about 7.6 percent the woodlands of eastern Iowa. Prairie areas of Iowa's land was converted to farm land (table were habitually avoided for settlement because 5.1). Iowa's forests were quickly cleared to grow of the lack of useful timber, the threat of fire in crops. The pioneers believed that soil under summer and deep snow in winter, and difficulty prairie was not fit for cultivation. Also, there in breaking the thick sod. However, the prairies were no means for plowing the thick prairie sod. and the larger interior rivers did permit rela- During the 1832-75 period Iowa's forested tively rapid travel, and settlers quickly spread area decreased from more than 6.6 million acres throughout the state. By the time of the Civil War to less than 2.6 million acres, and by 1974 in 1861 nearly all of Iowa's present ninety-nine forested area had shrunk to about 1.6 million counties had at least a few settlers. The last acres (IAN 1992; Ostrom 1976). The most recent county to be settled, in northwestern Iowa, had inventory, conducted by the U.S. Forest Service its first permanent residents in 1871 (Dinsmore in 1990, shows an increase of 500,000 acres in 1994). Thus the pioneer era in Iowa spanned total forest acreage compared to 1974 inventory approximately four decades. (Brand and Walkowiak 1991). Effects of Agricultural Development on Biodiversity: Lessonsfrom Iowa 83 Table 5.1 Major trends in Iowa's agricultural history Farmlard as percentage Average farm Period of total land area size (acres) Major agricultural developments 1850s 7.6 185 Use of steel moldboard plow to break prairie sod. 1 880s 69.1 134 Expansion in farmland. I 900s 96.5 151 Tile drainage; small-farrn equipment (for example, seed dril binder and shellers). 1930s 94.0 158 Livestock production begins: rapid mechanization of farms. especially tractors; ammonia synthesized and applied as nitrogen fertilizer; soil conservation practices begin. 1940s 95.3 162 Advances in genetc research to produce hybnd maize. 1 950s 95.3 175 Use of synthetic organic pesticides and increased use of nitrogen fertilizers; ecosystem disaster era. 1970s 95.5 265 Ecosystem disaster era until 1985. 1990s 93.0 322 Ecosystem awakening continues from 1985. Source: USDA 1995: Iowa Farm Bureau Federation 1995; Murray 1946. Much of the recent increase in forest cover is in methods used in 1832 and 1990, figures show because of a decline in the cattle industry the magnitude-approximately two-thirds of between 1974 and 1990. Land with tree cover is forest cover is now gone. The remaining forests not included as forest land by the U.S. Forest have also been altered by human activities. Service if it is being grazed because cattle cause Although the number of tree species throughout soil compaction, a reduction in the number of the state has not declined, fragmentation of for- understory species, and the loss of natural veg- est coverage has lead to a reduction in the natural etation. Although land with tree cover has been "transferability" of genetic variation among reclassified as forest, in most cases biodiversity trees. More and more frequently, forests exist as has been severely reduced. small islands within a sea of cultivated land. This Today nearly all of Iowa's forest lands are island effect reduces the transfer of genetic traits privately owned (figure 5.1). Because the pre- among trees and causes loss of diversity because ponderance of forest land belongs to private the remaining small populations are in isolated landowners, it is reasonable to expect that most patches. of the effects on forest land over the past 150 The island effect also reduces the preferred years have been a result of agricultural activities. habitat of wildlife species that seek interior-type Throughout the early history of Iowa and con- habitat. Large predators (such as wolves, tinuing to the 1970s, forests were logged to clear cougars, and black bears that were once native to land for pasture or cultivation. Iowa) need vast, continuous tracts of forest cover Although the dimension of forest loss is diffi- for hunting. They could not survive in frag- cult to determine precisely because of differences mented and disturbed forest ecosystems. However, the small islands or patches of natural Figure 5.1 Ownership of timberland in Iowa, 1990 ecosystems are suitable for a variety of plants (trees, shrubs, wildflowers) and wildlife species that prefer edge-type habitat. A large variety of birds and small animals, such as squirrels, rac- coons, rabbits, and occasionally white-tailed deer, rely on small patches of woodland Gohnson, corporations - Beck, and Brandle 1994). 6% Biodiversity is also reduced when cattle graze ow: 8%in wooded areas. Cattle grazing greatly reduces the biodiversity of understory plants in the for- est as well as inhibiting natural regeneration of the forest. If grazing continues for a long enough Source: Brand and Walkowiak 1991. period, the combination of loss of natural 84 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification regeneration and soil compaction ultimately A recent experimental study has demon- leads to a complete loss of forest cover. Even if strated that plant diversity in grassland ecosys- cattle are only grazed for a few years, biodiver- tems improves productivity and promotes more sity of the forest is affected for many years. The efficient nutrient use and better nutrient reten- most significant is a reduction in understory tion (Tilman, Wedin, and Knops 1996). Thus diversity and a shift from species that are "desir- prairie communities should be used as a model able" for such things as timber production, to design more productive agricultural systems wildlife habitat, and recreation to species that are that maintain or improve ecosystem characteris- generally "undesirable." Species in this category tics; for example, use of perennial polyculture or include Honey Locust (Gleditsia triacanthos), prairie fallow periods to protect or enhance soil Prickly Ash (Zanthoxylum Americanum), and properties (Drake 1978). Prairie communities Multiflora Rose (Rosa multiflora). are already being used in roadside management programs to control weeds effectively, without Effects on Prairies and Their Biodiversity the economic and ecological costs associated with mowing or spraying herbicides. Prairie The tough sod of prairies was the main obstacle to corridors stretching across agricultural land- their agricultural development. Plows of the early scapes may also contribute to gene flow for both 1800s were useless against the thick network of plant and animal species. plant roots, but introduction of the steel mold- The rich genetic resource represented by the board plow in the 1850s finally made it possible to remaining hundreds of prairie plants has been plow the grasslands. The advent of this improved largely untapped. The prairie community repre- technology also signaled the prairie's end. Iowa's sents thousands of years of natural selection, prairie was essentially gone by the end of the nine- hence a renewable source that is well adapted to teenth century. Thirty million acres of prairie were local climatic and edaphic conditions and very quickly converted to farm land at a pace of about productive in terms of total annual biomass. 2 million acres a year (see table 5.1). Recent inven- These features of the prairie community merit tories indicate that only about 30,000 acres of additional attention and add to the value of prairie remain. Of this area about 5,000 acres are prairie ecosystems as a part of the Iowa land- in state-owned preserves. Hayden Prairie, a 240- scape. acre tract located in Howard County, is among the largest of the state-owned preserves. Other small Effects on Wetlands and Their Biodiversity unprotected prairie remnants persist along rail- road rights-of-way, in areas cut off from cultivated During the early 1900s subsurface drains were ground by roads or railroads, in old cemeteries installed in prairie marshes and wetlands, which and prairie hayfields, on steep slopes, or as fringes were especially abundant in north-central Iowa. around other natural areas (Thompson 1992). A large proportion of the wetlands had been These remnants are too small to affect the biodi- drained in this manner by 1915 (Peterson and versity in surrounding agricultural fields. Englehorn 1946). Although lakes, streams, and Drastic reduction of total prairie area and reservoirs are all classified as wetlands, marshes breakup of the original contiguous prairie have and overflow wetlands are the most diverse and resulted in lower plant species diversity on the most productive wildlife ecosystems. About remaining prairies, less genetic diversity of 7.6 million acres of prairie-marsh habitat once remaining plant species, and fewer animal species covered north-central and northwestern Iowa. that inhabit the prairie (especially forms that had In about 100 years Iowa's natural marshes were coevolved with specific relationships to plants, reduced to about 26,000 acres (IAN 1992). such as butterflies, that are critical pollinators). The drainage of wetlands and their subse- Iowa's prairie ecosystems not only provided a quent degradation because of sediment and suitable habitat for plant and animal diversity but nutrients in agricultural runoff (the major source also helped to build and maintain the productiv- of water for many of the remaining wetlands) has ity of the soils as well as control noxious weeds. resulted in a number of direct and indirect Effects of Agricultural Development on Biodiversity: Lessonsfrom Iowa 85 changes in Iowa's fauna and flora. The direct unique opportunity to reestablish wetland effect has been local extinction of numerous plant species and to increase biodiversity in a way that species, such as whitetop and wild rice, as well is congruent with agricultural interests. as several animal species, including the trum- peter swan, the marbled godwit, the long-billed Effects of Mechanization and Farming Practices curlew, and the common loon. Many other plants on Biodiversity and animals adapted to wetlands have suffered significant reduction in range because of habitat Changes in farm practices, particularly the use degradation or destruction. About eighty-five of large machinery and the introduction of trac- wetland plant species are now rare and restricted tor power during the past fifty years, have to only a few sites (Galatowitsch and van der destroyed most of the natural areas that existed Valk 1994). Many animals have suffered the same in Iowa before World War II. As large farm fate (Dinsmore 1994). equipment became available, Iowa farmers were Indirect effects of agriculture include a signif- able to cultivate larger areas with row crops. The icant degradation of the remaining wetlands and landscape slowly changed from a series of small a subsequent loss of species from them. One of fields surrounded by brushy fence rows and the most profound changes has been the spread grassland pastures to vast areas of nearly unin- of cattail, which now dominates these wetlands. terrupted cropland. Farm size initially averaged Higher nutrient levels in the remaining wetlands about 185 acres but dropped to about 134 acres probably account for the cattail's proliferation. during 1870s, as farmers realized that they did Agricultural activities have also resulted in the not have the technology and resources to culti- introduction of alien plants that have become a vate all the land. Today the average farm size in nuisance in wetlands. Reed canary grass, planted Iowa is about 322 acres (see table 5.1) and is to stabilize drainage canal banks, now dominates likely to increase. the wet meadow zones in many Iowa wetlands, Rapid farm mechanization resulted in a dras- displacing a host of native species. This wetland tic reduction of hours of labor required for agri- habitat degradation has also had adverse effects cultural and livestock production. From 1915 to on many animal populations. 1919, for example, about thirty-four hours of The benefits of wetlands in agricultural land- labor were required per acre for maize produc- scapes have recently been widely recognized. tion. Between 1982 and 1986 this figure was Not only do they provide a habitat for diverse reduced to about three hours (table 5.2). plant and animal communities, but they also The rapid mechanization of farms and the function as natural filters, removing nutrients resulting reduced labor inputs triggered a major and sediments from agricultural runoff and pre- population shift from rural to urban areas. The venting floods. Many wetlands in Iowa have proportion of Iowa's population living in rural consequently been restored. For example, the areas declined from about 70 percent to 40 per- Clean Water Alliance in the Iowa Great Lakes cent between 1910 and 1990. region has restored wetlands around the lakes to Farm produce from Iowa was in great reduce nutrient inputs. This is providing a demand during World War II, and farmers were Table 5.2 Hours of labor for agricultural and livestock production Maize Soybean Maize Soybeon Hogs Cattle Year (per acre) (per acre) (per I00 bushels) (per I00 bushels) (per 100 lb.) (per 100 lb.) 1915-19 34.2 19.9 132 143 3.6 4.5 1925-29 30.3 15.9 115 126 3.3 4.3 1935-39 28.1 I I.B 108 64 3.2 4.2 1945-49 19.2 8.0 53 41 3.0 4.0 1955-59 9.9 5.2 20 23 2.4 3.2 1965-69 5.8 4.8 7 19 1.4 2.1 1975-79 3.6 3.7 4 12 0.5 1.3 1982-86 3.1 3.2 3 10 0.3 0.9 Source. USDA 1983, 1994, and 1995. 86 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification Table 5.3 Percentage of farmland acres by crop in Iowa ture. A breed is a group of animals that has Maize resulted from selection for a desirable type and Year Maize yieldse Soybean Hay Oats Other subsequent intense inbreeding among the best 1910 28 41.5 0 14 15 43 to fix the type. 1920 28 46.0 0 11 18 43 Use-specification of stock was concurrent 1930 29 34.0 0 1 0 1 9 42 1940 25 52.5 2 1 1 5 9 45 with breed formation. Thus one finds dairy and 1950 27 48.5 6 11 19 37 beef breeds in cattle, light and draft breeds in 1960 36 63.5 8 10 2 34 horses, mutton and wool breeds in sheep, egg 1970 30 86.0 1 7 7 5 41 1980 40 110.0 25 7 3 25 and broiler breeds in poultry, and lard and bacon 1990 37 126.0 24 6 2 31 breeds in swine. Swine breeds used in Iowa were 1994 39 152.0 27 5 2 27 developed primarily in the United States, but a. In bushels per acre. European breeds were imported for the other Source: USDA 19B3. 1 994, and 1995% livestock species. Commercial herds and flocks urged to cultivate as much land as possible. The developed by using males of a breed repeatedly, main crops grown included maize, soybean, called grading up. So intense was the use of these oats, alfalfa, sweet clover, and red clover. breeds by grading up that the well-adapted Similarly, the opening of world markets in the indigenous stock was lost. Iowa agriculture 1970s propelled Iowa to the status of "the bread developed with five dairy, three beef, five horse, basket of the world," which further increased six swine, five sheep, and six poultry breeds. the value of farmland. The conversion of wet- With the advent of hybridization of maize in lands and woodlands to farmland became eco- the 1930s stock breeders also tried to obtain nomically feasible. crossbreeding (heterosis) in commercial produc- Iowa agriculture has been rapidly trans- tion. Inbred lines of maize are crossed, but formed from an enterprise characterized by except for poultry, inbreeding before crossing diversity into one based on specialization and was too costly. Researchers then demonstrated monoculture production. For example, livestock that the crossing of breeds produced economic- were once common on Iowa farms, but a major- ally important heterosis. Commercial swine, ity of farms today have no cattle, horses, or pigs. sheep, and beef cattle are crossbred. Holsteins Considerable crop diversity and complex crop dominate milk production at the expense of rotations once prevailed, but today most farmers other dairy breeds. Poultry is vertically inte- plant only two or three crops and practice simple grated, using inbred-line crosses for either egg two-crop rotations involving maize and soybeans or broiler production. Swine production is (table 5.3). About 90 percent of the cropland is beginning to emulate poultry, including special- devoted to just two crops-maize and soybean. ized breeding companies. Beef producers have A constant flow of innovative agricultural many breeds to select from, especially since the practices and technologies, coupled with pow- late 1960s when importation was possible from erful economic forces (such as international continental Europe. The genetic diversity of banking, credit, and marketing), federal farm poultry, dairy, sheep, and swine in Iowa has thus policies, and dominant societal values, have dri- declined dramatically Horses have maintained ven the dramatic changes in farming patterns. their breed diversity, but genetic variation Modem farming patterns are neither particu- within breeds has suffered because of smaller larly attuned to preservation of natural land- populations. scapes nor to the promotion of biodiversity. Two schools of thought have emerged on the need to maintain a diverse genetic base within Effects of Livestock Industry on Biodiversity livestock species. According to the first school of thought, diversity in the genetic base is essential Settlers brought stock of diverse genetic origin if resource bases are expected to shift quickly to Iowa. By the late 1800s, however, breeds of But the second school of thought holds that the stock were being imported because they were genetic base is sufficient to move the species perceived as being ideal for commercial agricul- toward new adaptations fast enough. It is expen- Effects of Agricultural Development on Biodiversity: Lessonsfrom Iowa 87 sive to maintain a broad genetic base in the ani- cent wetlands also played a part in altering river mal species, but with new technologies it may be habitat by speeding the removal of water from the economically feasible to achieve this goal. land and quickening the current of rivers. The floods of 1993 in the midwestern United States Effects of Water Use and Drainage Developments probably best underscore the elusiveness of tech- on Biodiversity nical solutions once considered adequate for managing the state's water resources. Iowa's natural drainage network includes two Drainage of wetlands for reclamation and con- major river systems. Streams in the northern and version to crop land was especially pronounced in eastern two-thirds of the state flow to the the early 1900s. In 1902 the Experiment Station at Mississippi River, whereas the Missouri River the State College in Ames declared that more than drains in western and south-central Iowa. Most 4 million acres of land required drainage to of the streams are warm water, but spring-fed, improve agricultural production. Moreover, wet- cold water streams flow in the northeast. Early land drainage had exacerbated the problem of accounts describe the north-central and eastern flooding. streams as being of permanent and clear water, The State Drainage, Waterways, and Con- while those of the west tended to be more inter- servation Commission was created in 1909 to fur- mittent and carried greater sediment loads. ther improve drainage of agricultural land, Although irrigation needs were minimal, among other goals. The legislation provided for waterways posed problems for early settlers. the establishment of drainage districts under the Meandering streams would periodically flood supervision of county governments. Such dis- farms and towns. Heavy rains caused curved sec- tricts were formed by petition of neighboring tions of the rivers to scour out new channels. farmers. County engineers assisted in drainage These natural changes made farming unpre- planning, and the state provided partial subsi- dictable and were a danger to farms and towns. dies for construction work. The system permit- Necessity of flood control and efforts to create ted construction of buried communal drains so navigational routes led to channelization and that even fields far removed from receiving deepening of the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers. streams could be drained by tilling. Construction of navigation locks and dams The construction of mill dams also created wrought major changes to the Mississippi by adverse effects on wildlife. Virtually every pros- creating a series of stair-step "pools." The perous pioneer farming community had a Mississippi was also dredged to facilitate navi- water-driven mill to grind local grain products gation. The meandering Missouri was channel- or to cut lumber. In most cases this involved con- ized by building training structures, such as struction of a lowhead dam across the local river dikes and revetments; this channelization to divert water to the mill wheel. More than a resulted in its narrowing and deepening. The thousand mill dams had been built by 1880. nature of these mighty rivers was thus forever They had the unintentional side effect of block- changed. The diverse habitats of these rivers ing the migratory movements of fish and thus was exchanged for straight channels to allow the interfered with fish reproduction and other crit- unimpeded passage of barge traffic. ical life activities. In 1874 a state commission was Dams along the rivers did create habitat for established to encourage construction of "fish- lake wildlife but also acted as barriers to migrat- ways" over these dams. ing fish and formed reservoirs that collect silt. Dredging and stabilizing the banks of rivers also Effects of Agricultural Management Systems changed the environment for aquatic life. Channelization resulted in shorter courses and Historically, agricultural management systems much less river habitat. At least 1,000 miles-nd have had negative effects on the environment and perhaps as much as 3,000 miles-of Iowa's biodiversity. Growing environmental awareness streams and small rivers have been eliminated by has, however, led to improved management straightening (Bulkley 1975). Destruction of adja- systems. 88 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification Negative effects on the environment and biodi- Effects of conservation efforts and improved man- versity. Agriculture has also seriously affected agement systems. Growing environmental aware- the biodiversity of the remaining natural ecosys- ness among farmers and implementation of tems in the state. For a long time environmental government conservation programs have concerns were essentially limited to soil erosion resulted in some reduction in the environmental from plowed fields, which reduced soil fertility; degradation associated with agricultural prac- silt,.tion of lakes and streams; and loss of habitat tices and the restoration of some natural habitats for aquatic life. to a healthier state so that they are once again The intensive use of agricultural chemicals attractive to wildlife. created another serious environmental threat for Serious conservation efforts began in the biodiversity as well as for human health. The 1930s, with the introduction of such soil conser- application of modem pesticides, introduced in vation practices such as contouring, terracing, the mid-1940s, soon became common practice. and tree planting in sloughs and gullies The industrial synthesis of ammonia in 1920s (Schwieder 1993). Legislation was introduced to resulted in a cheap supply of nitrogen fertilizer; study soil erosion in 1933, create the Soil farmers responded by applying increasingly lib- Conservation Service in 1935, and create soil eral amounts of the synthetic fertilizer, and crop conservation districts. yields increased dramatically (Schaller and By the 1980s farmers had become increasingly Bailey 1983). In 1945 less than 0.2 lb. of nitrogen aware of the need for conservation and adopted fertilizer was applied per acre to Iowa's crop- several ameliorative practices, such as conserva- lands, but application rates rose to 144 lb. per tion tillage, crop rotation, strip cropping, and acre by 1985. In 1995,11.5 million acres of maize reduced application of agrochemicals. More com- received nitrogen fertilizer. Further, 20.7 million prehensive government conservation programs acres of maize and soybeans received herbicide were also implemented during the 1980s, includ- treatment. ing the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), The quality of surface and groundwater suf- Conservation Compliance, Sodbuster, and fered because of the off-site impact of field- Swampbuster. In 1990 the Food, Agriculture, applied agricultural chemicals. Beginning in the Conservation, and Trade Act added the Wetlands 1950s, research slowly defined the nature of Reserve Program (WRP), with a target of improv- water quality problems caused by agricultural ing conservation on 1 million acres. chemicals. Runoff from agricultural land was On a national scale soil erosion was reduced shown to be a major cause of surface water con- on about 22 percent of the 37 million hectares tamination from pesticides and other agricul- under CRP. Six percent of CRP land is under tural chemicals (Nicholson 1969). Similarly, trees, while another 6 percent has been set aside many studies conducted in Iowa have shown specifically for wildlife (Osborn 1993). Some that subsurface drainwater leaving agricultural 5,200 miles of buffer strips have been created watersheds carries agricultural chemicals into along waterways as a result of CRP. WRP pro- surface and groundwater sources (Baker and vides another option for enhancing biodiversity Laflen 1983; Kanwar, Colvin, and Karlen 1995). within agricultural landscapes. According to the Serious environmental concerns arise U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, because of vari- because of the adverse impact of agricultural ous conservation practices of CRP and efforts chemicals and pesticides on the biodiversity of under WRP, more than 900,000 acres of wetland aquatic ecosystems. Toxic levels of some chemi- systems have been affected (Lant, Kraft, and cals disrupt the flora and fauna of aquatic Gillman 1995). Wetland protection in agricul- ecosystems. Excessive amounts of others in sur- tural areas has improved significantly in the last face water bodies acclerate eutrophication. decade, although more work needs to be done Water quality problems not only trigger biodi- (Robinson 1993). versity loss in aquatic ecosystems but also pose serious health problems for people, livestock, Improved management systems. In the past fif- and wild animals (Schaller and Bailey 1983). teen to twenty years improved management Effects of Agricultural Development on Biodiversity: Lessonsfromn Iowa 89 systems have also been developed in Iowa to Table 5.4 Curmnt agricultural management systqm check soil erosion and reduce the loss of chemi- and their potential impact on blodiversity cals to water. In the process they are restoring lmpoct on biodivesity habitat for wild plants and animals. For exam- Agricultural monagement system Field scale Watershed scale ple, no-till and minimum-till farming leaves Tillage and residue management between 30 and 90 percent of crop residue on the Convenbonal tillage D D Chisel plow C C surface, which reduces runoff volume, erosion, Ridge-bllage B B and chemical losses. Other advantages include No-bilage B B reduced time and energy for field preparation. Mulching B B Soil conservabon practices Conservation tillage systems are also more con- Contouring with conservation bilage A A ducive to biological activity in the topsoil, Strip cropping A A Terracing B B increasing the populations of microbes, earth- Wind breaks A A worms, and other living organisms in the soil Vegetative waterways A A (Kennedy and Papendick 1995). Crop management Crop rotations B A Strip cropping, in which different crops are Transgenic (weed-resistant) varietes A A planted in alternate strips across the slope, also Tolerant varebes A A reduces soil erosion and pesticides in runoff. Nutrent and chemical management Spit or multiple appicabon B A Some crops in strips may require fewer or no Banding B A chemical inputs. Similarly, the use of terraces, Incorporabng B A detention ponds, constructed wetlands, buffer Pest management B B strips, vegetative filter strips, and grassed Biological control B B waterways in agricultural fields are enhancing Resistant cultivars C B waterways ., .., , .Early harvest and delayed planting C C the environment for wildlife and plant biodiver- Insecticides D D sity. Crop rotations B A Management systems initially designed for Water management Irrigation (sprinkler, drip, flood) C/D CAD enhancing soil, water, and crop quality have Subsurface drainage D D thus enhanced biodiversity within agroecosys- Water table management C C tems (table 5.4). For example, strip cropping and Sediment control basins C B Grade stabilization B B wind breaks are reported to provide a suitable Riparian zone management A A habitat for wildlife adapted to "edge" environ- Wetland management and restoraton A A ments, including the northern oriole, American Salinity management A A Forestry management robin, the woodpecker, and introduced pheas- Timber production D D ant. These species thrive along the interface Recreabon B/C BIC Wildlfe manaementA A between habitats Johnson, Beck, and Brandle Wldlifemanagement 1994). A. High postive impact (direct habitat gain) B. Moderate posnive Impact (enhancing the quality of existing natural habitat) Forest land in Iowa is frequently managed for C. Little or no positive impact D. Negative impact (direct loss or degrading quality of existing natura habita) one or more of the following goods and services: Source: Authors compilation. timber, wildlife habitat, or recreation. Of the three, management for wildlife habitat would be agroforestry and woody biomass production. most positive for biodiversity. As a management Two of the most significant projects to date objective landowners would maintain a high involve establishment of constructed multi- level of plant diversity to attract a variety of species riparian buffer strips along waterways wildlife. Recreation, if managed properly, could (Schultz and others 1995) and development of have little or no impact on biodiversity, but tim- rapid-growing tree plantations for the produc- ber production would be expected to reduce bio- tion of woody biomass. The purpose of the diversity. In the case of timber production buffer strips is to shore up stream banks, landowners usually favor a select group of high- decrease siltation from field runoff, and reduce value trees over other vegetation. the amount of chemicals reaching streams. Efforts currently under way to create greater Wildlife is taking advantage of the increased biodiversity through forestry activities center on plant biodiversity associated with riparian 90 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification buffer strips. The number of bird species in The number of hybrids in preliminary trials in buffer strips increases eightfold, compared to 1981 in the private sector program was 54,010 and nearby areas without such vegetation. in the public sector program, 6,615, for a total of The purpose of woody biomass research has 60,625. In early stages of development these been to select species that will generate signifi- experimental hybrids are not offered for sale. cant amounts of woody biomass, either for fuel They are a genetic reserve, and any of them can or to produce paper and its byproducts. Taken be put into circulation should a special need arise, by themselves, the plantations are typically such as resistance to a disease or a pest. In addi- monocultures. However, when introduced into tion 2,799 tested inbred lines, 22,525 inbred lines agricultural landscapes, they probably provide at the top-cross stage, and 769,535 partially inbred additional biodiversity. Studies to evaluate the lines were reported to be on hand. The lush maize impact of biomass crops on biodiversity in exist- fields of Iowa may appear to be genetically uni- ing landscapes is in process (Ferrell and others form, but they are not a true indication of the total 1995). Ultimately, the success of these efforts will genetic diversity of the crop in Iowa. A similar be dependent on the willingness of private agri- pattern prevails for soybean (see table 5.5). cultural enterprises to return land from cultiva- Modem agricultural practices have consis- tion to less intensive use. tently increased food production and more than met the food needs of Iowans (figures 5.2 and 5.3). Genetic diversity. Although modem agricul- The food security of people cannot be ignored in tural practices have reduced the biodiversity of the biodiversity debate; however, food supply, prairies, forests, and wetlands, they have agriculture, and biodiversity are inextricably enhanced the genetic diversity used for improve- linked. ment of two main crops: maize and soybean. Iowa is headquarters to the Germplasm Greater genetic diversity within maize is evident Enhancement Maize (GEM) project. Exotic from the Iowa soybean and maize yield trials materials are bred with local materials to select data. The maize yield trials were started in 1920, lines that carry the exotic trait. Landraces from and that year 128 entries were received (Iowa twelve countries (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Corn and Small Grain Grower's Association Chile, Colombia, Guatemala, Mexico, Paraguay, 1921). In 1995, by contrast, 715 entries were sub- Peru, Uruguay, United States, and Venezuela) mitted, indicating a larger genetic base available are being adapted to Iowa and the central "corn" to the Iowa farmer for planting. belt, which could provide valuable genetic From the genetic diversity standpoint the diversity in the future. Some 12,000 accessions number of cultivars planted on the farm is only a (each is potentially different) were evaluated fraction of the protovarieties held in reserve in earlier in an attempt to rescue endangered and public and private breeding programs. In the case irreplaceable maize germplasm that otherwise of maize, for example, 454 cultivars were avail- could have been lost. able for planting in the United States in 1981, The north-central regional plant-introduc- compared to the impressive array of experimen- tion station in Ames, Iowa, is one of four plant- tal hybrids in advanced trials: 6,042 in the private introduction stations in the country devoted sector and 1,600 in public programs (table 5.5). exclusively to the preservation of genetic resources. Founded in 1948, the Ames station Table 5.5 Cultivars in U.S. maize and soybean genetic currently contains 39,800 accessions, represent- base, 1981 ing 320 genera, including more than 14,000 Development stage Maize Soybean accessions of maize germplasm. Its mission is to Cuftivars planted 454 25 conserve the genetic diversity of crops and wild Advanced trials 7,642 6,382 relatives under ex situ conditions and to make it Preliminary trials 60,625 46,271 available for public use. The germplasm is care- Inbred lines (tested) 2,799 Inbred lines (top-cross) 22,525 - fully maintained, and accessions are propagated Inbred lines in nurseries (partial) 769,535 518,350 when the supply or the viability of a lot falls Source: Duvick 1984. below a predetermined level. A portion of the Effects of Agricultural Development on Biodiversity: Lessonsfrom Iowa 91 Figure 5.2 Maize yield (in bushel per acre) and cultivar Figure 5.3 Maize yield (in bushel per acre) and cultivar types in the United States, 1865-1993 types in lowa, 1930-93 Yield (bu ac-') Yield (bu ac-') 140 140 Single 120 Single - 120 crosses 100/ 80 . 80 Double b .208 crosses 60 Double 60 40 Open pollinated 40 , 20 * . *b= 1.09 20 =0.83 0 b = -0.08 R = 0.95 0 RI 0.83 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 Source. Halbuer 1996. Source: Hallauer 1996. seed from any accession is available to plant population but nevertheless is strongly endorsed breeders worldwide. by farmers who are seeking to make their agri- cultural practices and local communities more Sociocultural and Policy Effects on Biodiversity sustainable (Bird, Bultena, and Gardner 1995). The diffusion of a competing paradigm por- The dominant social paradigm of American cul- tends possible changes in agricultural and envi- ture and policy limitations also have serious ronmental trends in the state. If alternative effects on biodiversity. beliefs and values are endorsed more broadly and translated into action, both the structure of Sociocultural paradigms. The orientations of Iowa agriculture and characteristics of extant Iowa farmers toward the natural environment farming practices are likely to change. One con- are consistent with a larger set of beliefs and val- sequence would be a transformed landscape, ues (the dominant social paradigm) that has one that is more biologically diverse and sus- long characterized American culture. Included tainable. are perceptions that natural resources are limit- less; humans are dominant over nature; nature Policy limitations. Agricultural conservation can, and should, be exploited to serve human programs span more than sixty years. These needs; modern science and technology will efforts have stressed education, technical assis- solve all environmental ills; and economic tance, financial subsidies (or cost-sharing), and growth is synonymous with progress. voluntary actions-the same basis for the cre- Sociological studies in Iowa and elsewhere ation of federal conservation agencies during the confirm this paradigm. It guides, perhaps uncon- 1930s. But these voluntary educational and tech- sciously, daily decisions about farming practices nical assistance programs may not have been and permissible environmental tradeoffs. When particularly cost-effective (Ervin 1993). Attempts conflicts arise between economic goals and pro- have been made to alter agricultural policy sig- tection of environmental amenities and biodi- nificantly (U.S. Congress decreed that control of versity, economic goals commonly prevail. industrial water pollution should include non- Evidence of disenchantment with the para- point source control; agriculture was perceived digm, however, is accumulating. An alternative as the major contributor), but they were curtailed is now being advocated by some, a paradigm largely because of insufficient public funding. that stresses ecological values and gives greater The major shift in agricultural policy came with weight to enhancing biodiversity in agricultural the 1985 farm bill, which contains the most ambi- decisionmaking. The emerging paradigm draws tious agricultural conservation and environmen- only narrow support within the general farm tal agenda thus far. Mandatory compliance in 92 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification exchange for commodity program payments been drained. Channelization of rivers has elim- replaced the previous voluntary approaches. inated bordering wetlands and altered the nat- The main conservation and environmental ural flow of water throughout the state. Together challenges currently facing agricultural policy with habitat loss, a significant number of plant include significant budget pressures at all levels and animal species have disappeared. For exam- of government to cut expenditure for conserva- ple, of 250 higher plant species that once grew in tion programs; rapidly changing world markets the native tallgrass prairie, only fifty to sixty in conjunction with less federal price and income species remain. More than thirty species of ver- support; and increasing local and state environ- tebrates have disappeared from Iowa since the mental regulations in response to growing pub- time of settlement (INAI 1984). lic demands for environmental protection. While agricultural development has destroy- Large government subsidies are unlikely to ed habitat, farming has also triggered several continue because of federal and state budget indirect effects on biodiversity. Waterways, rail- problems. Farmers and ranchers will thus have ways, and highways have fragmented and dis- to adjust to prices and costs aligned more with turbed natural habitats that are no longer world market forces and less with commodity suitable for many native animal species. The support programs. In general that means lower genetic base of Iowa's livestock population has returns for crop production and fewer incentives also shrunk considerably because of breeding to implement conservation programs. Increasing and selection for a few preferred breeds. public pressure regarding conservation may also The intensive use of chemicals in crop pro- stimulate a rise in local and state environmental duction has also caused adverse effects on biodi- regulation, which might further increase pro- versity in remaining natural habitats. Drainage duction costs (Ervin 1993). water leaving heavily treated agricultural fields According to a recent survey in cornbelt coun- may contaminate streams, lakes, and wetlands. ties, economic considerations constitute the pri- Toxic levels of agricultural chemicals may also be mary reason farmers hesitate to enroll their detrimental to aquatic plants and wildlife species eligible farm wetlands in CRP or WRP: the lands as well as to human health. are too productive as croplands to convert to wet- Although crop and livestock productivity are lands; restoring wetlands on these lands would still in the forefront of Iowa's economy, sustain- interfere with farm activities on other croplands; ability issues regarding agricultural production and restoring wetlands would reduce the flexi- and recognition of the need to conserve biodiver- bility to change land uses as economic conditions sity are beginning to emerge. Only recently have warrant (Lant, Kraft, and Gillman 1995). About a Iowans collectively come to appreciate the mag- third of the farmers were also concerned with nitude and importance of environmental losses time and cost factors in establishing and main- that have been incurred by agricultural progress. taining wetlands. Similarly, about half the farm- The past two decades have been marked by ers surveyed would use preserved wetlands for increasing environmental and conservation pro- crop production without Swampbuster restric- grams introduced by federal and state agencies tions. This survey showed a clear need for addi- and more public awareness about environmental tional economic incentives and technical support issues as related to agricultural development. to enhance conservation efforts. Several socioeconomic issues are associated with the state's agricultural development and New Directions: Striving for Balance changes in biodiversity. Farming, the wellspring of Iowa's economy, has also resulted in the loss of Iowa's natural landscape has been modified much of its biodiversity. The dominant social par- more extensively than any other state in the adigm (unlimited natural resources, dominance United States. A prairie ecosystem of nearly 30 of humans over nature, progress measured by million acres is essentially gone. Nearly two- economic growth, and technology as a panacea) thirds of the state's forests has been cleared. More has affected farming decisions and permissible than 95 percent of Iowa's natural wetlands have environmental tradeoffs. When conflicts arise, Effects of Agricultural Development on Biodiversity: Lessonsfrom Iowa 93 Dinsmore, J. J. 1994. Country So Full of Game: The Story economic considerations usually prevail over of Wildlife in Iowa. Iowa City: University of Iowa saving natural habitats and wildlife. Press. Nonetheless, a new paradigm is emerging as Drake, L. D. 1978. "Prairie Models for Agricultural concern about adverse environmental conse- Systems." In D. C. Glen-Lewin and R. Q. Landers, quences of some conventional farming practices eds., Fifth Midwest Prairie Conference Proceedings. mounts. Interest is growing in alternative farm- Ames: Iowa State University Press. Duvick, D. 1984. "Genetic Diversity in Major Farm ing practices that conserve resources and protect Crops on the Farm and in Reserve," Economic Botany biodiversity. Many Iowa farmers are working to 38 (2):161-78. reduce their nutrient and chemical applications. Ervin, D. E. 1993. "Conservation Policy Futures: An There is also increasing public support and Overview," Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 48 funding for corrective actions that protect the (4): 300-03. natural environment. A harmonious balance of Ferrell, J. E., L. L. Wright, G. A. Tuskan, S. B. Mclaughlin, and A. R. Ehrenshaft. 1995. "Biofuels the need for human food, respect for nature, and Feedstock Development Program: 1995 Activities conservation of natural resources can and must and Future Directions," Biologue 13 (2): 33-39. be agriculture's mission in coming years. Galatowitsch, S. M., and A. G. van der Valk. 1994. Indeed, a social-economic-political system is Restoring Prairie Wetlands: An Ecological Approach. needed in which economic development and Ames: Iowa State University Press. Hallauer, A. 1996. "Maize Yields and Cultivar Types in biological diversity gain from each other. Based the United States (1865-1993) and in Iowa (1930-93)." on collective knowledge and experiences, it Department of Agronomy, Iowa State University. should address future needs for a vital economy, Hayden, A. 1945. "The Selection of Prairie Areas in meeting society's food requirements, good qual- Iowa Which Should be Preserved," Proceedings of the ity surface and groundwater, and healthy Iowa Acadenmy of Sciences 52:127-48. IAN (Iowa Association of Naturalists). 1992. Habitat Loss in Iowa. Guthrie Center, Iowa: Conservation Education Center, IAN. References INAI (Iowa Natural Areas Inventory). 1984. An Inventory of Significant Natural Areas in Iowa: Two- Baker, J. L., and J. M. Laflen. 1983. "Water Quality Year Progress Report of the Iowa Natural Areas Consequences of Conservation Tillage," Journal of Inventory. Des Moines: Iowa Conservation Soil Water Conservation 38 (3): 186-93. Commission, INAI. Bird, E. A., G. L. Bultena, and J. C. Gardner, eds., 1995. Iowa Corn and Small Grain Growers' Association. Planting the Future: Developing an Agriculture that 1921. Report of the 1920 Corn Yield Contest. Ames: Sustains Land and Commutnity. Ames: Iowa State Iowa Com and Small Grain Growers' Association. University Press. Iowa Farm Bureau Federation (Communications Brand, G. J., and J. T. Walkowiak. 1991. Forest Statistics Division). 1995. Facts on Iowa's Agriculture. Des for Iowa, 1990. U.S. Department of Agriculture Moines: Iowa Farm Bureau Federation. (USDA), Forest Service Resource Bulletin NC-136, Iowa State University. 1995. The 1995 Corn Yield Test North Central Forest Experiment Station. St. Paul, Report, PM 660-95. Ames: Iowa State University. Minn.: USDA. Johnson, R. J., M. M. Beck, and J. R. Brandle. 1994. Bulkley, R. V. 1975. "A Study of the Effects of Stream "Windbreaks for People," Journal of Soil and Water Channelization and Bank Stabilization on Warm Conservation 49 (6): 546-47. Water Sport Fish in Iowa. Subproject No. 1. Kanwar, R. S., T. S. Colvin, and D. Karlen. 1995. Inventory of Major Stream Alterations in Iowa." "Tillage and Crop Rotation Effects on Drainage Completion Rep. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Water Quality." In Proceedings of the Conference on Contract No. 14-16-0008-745. Clean Water-Clean Environment, 21st Century. Vol. Crist, A., and D. C. Glenn-Lewin. 1978. "The Structure 3:163-66. St. Joseph, Michigan: American Society of of Community and Environmental Gradients in a Agricultural Engineers. Northern Iowa Prairie. " In D. C. Glenn-Lewin and Kennedy, A. C., and R. I. Papendick. 1995. "Microbial R. Q. Landers, eds., Fifth Midwest Prairie Conference Characteristics of Soil Quality," Journal of Soil and Proceedings. Ames: Iowa State University Press. Water Consenration 50 (3): 243-48. Davidson, J. B. 1946. "The Role of Machinery in Iowa Lant, C. L., S. E. Kraft, and K. R. Gillman. 1995. "The Farming." In Members of the Staff of Iowa State 1990 Farm Bill and Water Quality in Corn Belt College and the Iowa Agricultural Experiment Watersheds: Conserving Remaining Wetlands and Station, eds., A Century of Farming in Iowa 1846-1946. Restoring Farmed Wetlands," Journal of Soil and Ames: Iowa State College Press. Water Conservation 50 (2): 201-O5. 94 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification Legislative Fiscal Bureau. 1995. 1994 Iowa Fact Book. Schultz, R. C., J. P. Colletti, T. M. Isenhart, W. W. Des Moines, Iowa: Government Press. Simpkins, C. W. Mize, and M. L. Thompson. 1995. Murray, W. G. 1946. "Struggle for Land Ownership." In "Design and Placement of a Multi-Species Riparian Members of the Staff of Iowa State College and the Buffer Strip System," Agroforestry Systems 29: 201-26. Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station, eds., A Schwieder, D. 1993. 75 Years of Service: Cooperative Century of Farming in Iowa 1846-1946. Ames: Iowa Extension in Iowa. Ames: Iowa State University Press. State College Press. Shimek, B. 1911. "The Prairies," Bulletin of the Nicholson, H. P. 1969. "Occurrence and Significance of Laboratory of Natural History 6: 169-240. Pesticide Residues in Water," Journal of the .1931. "Relation between Migrant and Native Washington Academy of Science 59: 77-85. Flora of the Prairie Region," University of Iowa, Osborn, T. 1993. "The Conservation Reserve Program: Studies in Natural History 14 (2): 10-16. Status, Future, and Policy Options," Journal of Soil Thompson, J. R. 1992. Prairies, Forests, and Wetlands: The and Water Conservation 48 (4): 272-79. Restoration of Natural Landscape Communities in Iowa. Ostrom, A. J. 1976. Forest Statisticsfor Iowa, 1974. USDA Iowa City: University of Iowa Press. Forest Service Resource Bulletin NC-33, North Tilman D., D. Wedin, and J. Knops. 1996. "Productivity Central Forest Experiment Station. St. Paul, Minn.: and Sustainability Influenced by Biodiversity in USDA. Grassland Ecosystems," Nature 379: 718-20. Peterson, J. B., and A. J. Englehorn. 1946. "The Soil Torrell, J. U. 1971. American Indian Almanac. New York That Grows Crops." In Members of the Staff of Iowa and Cleveland: World Publishing Company. State College and the Iowa Agricultural Experiment USDA (U.S. Department of Agriculture). 1983. Iowa Station, eds., A Century of Farming in Iowa Agricultural Statistics. Washington, D.C.: National 1846-1946. Ames: Iowa State College Press. Agricultural Statistics Service, USDA. Robinson, A. Y. 1993. "Wetlands Protection: What 1990. Seedsfor Our Future: The U.S. National Plant Success?" Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 48 Germplasm System. Washington, D.C.: USDA. (4): 268-70. 1994. Iowa Agricultural Statistics. Washington, Schaller, F., and G. W. Bailey, eds. 1983. Agricultural D.C.: National Agricultural Statistics Service, USDA. Management and Water Quality. Ames: Iowa State 1995. Iowa Agricultural Statistics. Washington, University Press. D.C.: National Agricultural Statistics Service, USDA. 6. Livestock Production Systems and the Management of Domestic Animal Biodiversity Harvey Blackburn, Cornelis de Haan, and Henning Steinfeld A pproximately four thousand breeds of pressures. As values placed on natural resources domesticated animals have been devel- by society change, they may alter the pressure on oped around the world-a number the state variable. Alterations would then be man- about equal to the number of mammalian ifested through various human activities. species (Hammond and Leitch 1996). The biodi- This model can be adapted to the livestock versity inherent in breeds is an important sector (figure 6.1). The information, material resource to help meet food security needs of flow, and feedback processes of the adapted growing human populations and to promote model are the same as those articulated by the economic development. If livestock are to be Organisation for Economic Co-operation and productive, they must be able to adapt to an Development (OECD 1994). The system can be in ever-changing ecological landscape; the mainte- a steady state, or the natural resource base can be nance of breed diversity is critical to this genetic enhanced or degraded. The status of the system elasticity. Over the past decade it has become depends on how society responds to its needs to increasingly apparent that livestock breeds in promote economic growth, feed an increasing the developing world are better able to with- population, and conserve its natural resource stand environmental challenges such as disease, base. The model is a viable framework for devel- internal and external parasites, and erratic or oping and monitoring livestock programs from poor-quality feed and water supplies than both economic growth and environmental con- breeds introduced from temperate countries. servation perspectives. This chapter presents findings from a multi- donor study designed to explore interactions Pressures on Animal Genetic Resources between livestock and the environment. The goals of the study are to assess those interactions; Animal genetic resources are under the same to suggest technologies, policies, and research types of pressures from human population as that will help mitigate negative environmental other natural resources. Shifts in farming sys- consequences of livestock production; and to tems, market value, and habitat, for example, can encourage practices that improve environmental affect animal genetic resources by decreasing the and economic conditions for livestock owners. number or herd size of breeds (table 6.1). When The study presents its findings in the context of breeds disappear, or when herd size of a distinct the pressure-state-response model (OECD 1994). breed diminishes, genetic diversity is lost. In this model humans exert pressure on the nat- Agricultural intensification is under way in ural resource base (the state) when they exploit both industrial and developing countries, and resources such as forage for livestock. Societal breed choice, as well as selection within breeds, decisions and actions are the response to such is part of this widespread intensification. 95 96 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification Figure 6.1 Global or local pressure-state-response framework for livestock systems P rsure State Response Pressures +/- Human activites Status of livestock Environmental concerns Population growth Genetc resources Inf Institutional Crop production Number of breeds notechnogy policy Processing industry Number within breeds Livestock production Resources used Decisions-actions-incentives Soute: Authors' rendering. Genetic change is an essential part of intensifi- Industrialization also affects breeding struc- cation. Intensification has also been achieved by ture. Market demands, for example, have developing improved feed, more efficient feed- changed the value of Holstein and Jersey dairy distribution systems, better management, and cattle; Holstein are more popular now because quality health care, all of which are necessary to they produce larger quantities of milk. Another support highly productive genotypes. This type example is the total replacement of poultry of feedback or interaction has been the driving stocks when highly intensive production sys- force of the intensive, highly productive live- tems are established. In the United States and stock systems, especially in the OECD. Genetic Europe increased production means fewer ani- resources are thus often lost as agriculture is mals are needed, and the gene pool shrinks. intensified. For example, switching from draft to Genetic variation also declines, and inbreeding mechanical power causes a massive decrease in can become a problem (box 6.1). genetic variation as those types of animals used The successes achieved through selecting ani- for plowing or pulling wagons and carts vanish mals for high production in the industrial world from the landscape. has discouraged producers and scientists in Tabble 6.1 DrMng forces that thraten the diversity of livestock breeds Reason Description Development policy Lack of incentives to develop and use breeds, giving preference to those few developed for use in high-input, high-output relatively benign environments. Commercial interests in donor communities promote the use of a few temperate climate breeds and create overexpectation for modem breeds in developing countries. Specializaton Undue emphasis placed on a specific product or trait, leading to the rapid disserrinabon of one breed of animal to exclusion and loss of others. Crossbreeding Indiscriminate crossbreeding that can quickdy lead to the loss of original breeds. Storage Failure of cryopreservation equipment and inadequate supply of liquid nitrogen to store samples of semen, ova, or embryos, or inadequate maintenance of animal populations for breeds not currently in use. Technoogy Introduction of new machinery to replace animal draft and transport, resulting in permanent change of farming system. Biotechnology Artificial inseminabon and embryo transfer leading to rapid replacement of indigenous breeds. Violence Wars and other forms of sociopolitical instability. Disaster Natural disasters such as floods, drought, or famine. Source: Hammord and Leitch 1996. Livestock Production Systemns and the Management of Domestic Animal Biodiversity 97 Africa, for example, demand for heavier cattle has Box 6.1 Livestock population size- led to substantial crossbreeding of larger Bos indi- cus exotic cattle on the smaller, indigenous popu- When livestock population size shrinks, genetic lation of humpless Bos taurus. Such crossbreeding diversity is affected in two ways. First, certain genes can eventually replace the domestic gene pool, or gene combinations are lost from the population. thereby reducing genetic diversity. Second, when there are few representatives of a breed, the probability that parents of a new indi- vidual are related to each other increases. The mat- also undercut animal genetic resources. In ing of two such individuals not only increases the Somalia, for example, drought and political inbreeding of offspring, which can depress animal instability have reduced cattle population by 70 performance, but it also decreases genetic variabil- percent and small ruminant population by 60 ity (Cunningham 1995). percent. The decrease in animal numbers under- The impact of small population size on genetic mines the food security and economic well- diversity within a population is also affected by the being of the livestock owners as well as the following: * Generation turnover. Long generation intervals, vitality of the national economy. Further, crashes as in horses, can delay the negative effects of in livestock populations can create evolutionary small population size and inbreeding. bottlenecks that render populations more vul- * Current and prospective changes in population nerable to environmental changes. size. If effective population numbers have been declining and are likely to continue downward, Production Systems then calculations based on current size will underestimate the risk. Livestock uses, genetic variance, and the degree * Changes in herd structure. In some small popu- lations the total number of herds may be quite of genetic diversity vary across production sys- small. The smaller the number, the greater the tems. As these different production systems risk to the breed arising from the termination of evolve, pressures will be exerted on the existing any one herd. breeds. The following is a brief assessment of * Extent of crossbreeding. While crossbreeding how the genetic resources within different pro- can remedy the effects of inbreeding, it can also duction systems are affected. result in a reduction of genetic diversity. Grassland systems. Pastoral systems account developing countries from attempting similar for approximately two-thirds of the world's agri- efforts with their indigenous genetic resources. cultural area and are used mostly for cattle and The prevailing wisdom permeating many devel- sheep production. Because stocking rates are low, opment activities has been that it is quicker and they account for some 12 percent of the approxi- easier to import breeds developed for use in high- mately 900 million cattle in developing countries input farming systems than to work with indige- and 15 percent of the 1.1 billion sheep and goats nous stock. Although imported breeds are proven (Sere 1994). In Latin America pastoral systems winners in their areas of origin, their productivity have important implications for biodiversity. The decreases dramatically when they are introduced Andes, for example, harbor four representatives to harsher environments typical of developing of the camelid family (box 6.2). Cattle predomi- countries. The development strategy has been to nate in Latin America's humid and subhumid try and alter the environment to accommodate tropical grasslands. Genetic resources of cattle in these imported breeds rather than work on Latin America can be traced to the original criollo preadapted breeds. Excessive reliance on import- types, which are Bos taurus cattle with 500 years ing exotic genetic stocks has in many instances of adaptation to tropical conditions, Bos indicus resulted in crossbreeding with indigenous breeds. breeds derived from Indian imports during the Such crossbreeding serves initially to increase past century, and European and North American genetic variation. If crossbreeding continues breeds, also imported in recent times. indiscriminately, however, the genetic resources Arid and semiarid grasslands in Sub-Saharan of the indigenous stock can be swamped. In West Africa are grazed extensively by cattle and small 98 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification crossbreeding of local breeds with intro- Box 6.2 Genetic resources duced strains is proceeding on a massive of the Andean Camelidae scale The Camelidae evolved in the New World, and four * Conservation of noncattle bovid species in species survive in Latin America: the llama (a beast tropical Asia-such as banteng, gaur, mithun, of burden), alpaca (raised primarily for wool pro- and yak-and the region's unique buffalo duction), the wild vicuina, and the guanaco resources (Philipsson and Wilson 1995). The first two species * Expanded use of small ruminants, rabbits, formed the mainstay of livestock in Andean agri- cultural systems in the pre-Colombian period, but the guinea pig, and other species in mixed they have been largely replaced by cattle and sheep. farming systems. Vicufia have long been periodically rounded up to In some countries, particularly India, gov- shear their fine wool, while the guanaco has been ernment and nongovernmental agencies have hunted for its meat. Today approximately 6 million well-developed programs to conserve local alpaca and llama are raised mainly in Peru and genetic resources. Unfortunately, such an exten- Bolivia, while smaller numbers of the nondomesti- sive infrastructure is not operational in most cated species survive in certain areas. Most alpaca and llama belong to small farmers d c t in the more difficult Andean areas above 3,000 need for more research, documentation, and meters. Data on fertility, mortality, and growth indi- educational activities related to indigenous cate low productivity. Nevertheless, these popula- breeds and local livestock species. tions have held their place in competition with The genetic future of livestock populations in other species because of their adaptations to harsh mixed farming systems is linked closely to crop climatic conditions and high altitudes. integration. As human pressures increase in these systems, livestock's role for draft, feed- ruminants and are an important source of genetic base use (most of which is crop waste), and the diversity. West Asia and North Africa are impor- relatively high value of dung for fuel and tant reservoirs of sheep germplasm. The intensi- manure will become even more critical in main- fication and development of African systems has taining genetic diversity. begun more recently, so livestock populations in that region are under more rapid genetic pressure Landless systems. Pigmeat production in than those elsewhere. Because of the diversity of industrial countries has shifted almost entirely to systems and the shortage of objective information industrial-scale units, often far removed from on the livestock resource, little is known about the their feed sources. Production in Asia is moving status of African ruminant livestock populations. in the same direction. In 1994 about 30 percent of production came from such systems (Sere 1994). Mixed farming systems. In developing coun- Similar trends are under way in poultry. An tries more than 60 percent of cattle, 55 percent of inevitable consequence of this trend is a move sheep and goats, and about 70 percent of pigmeat away from local genetic sources to intemation- production comes from mixed farming systems. ally competitive stock and husbandry systems. The greatest challenge is likely to be in Asia, The growth of these systems therefore under- which accounts for 42 percent of developing scores the need for conservation of livestock pop- country cattle, 46 percent of sheep and goats, ulations that persist in traditional systems. almost 90 percent of pigmeat production, and practically all of the world's water buffaloes (Sere Wildlife interactions. Much discussion has 1994). Major pressures and challenges include: focused on livestock-wildlife interactions. As * Rapid genetic erosion of pig breeds in China, with any evolutionary process involving human where more than 100 distinct breeds are modifications of the environment, wildlife habi- found, many with unique and potentially tats are often affected by development. As more valuable characteristics land is brought into agricultural production, * Widespread transformation of dairy cattle wildlife habitat is typically lost. This point has populations in countries such as India, where been articulated by Reid, Wilson, and Kruska Livestock Production Systems and the Management of Domestic Animal Biodiversity 99 (1996), who showed how bird, large mammal, these complementarities. Livestock productivity and tree species decreased when human popula- can be enhanced by making provisions for tions exert intense pressure on the environment, wildlife. In comments to the authors Western especially in urban settings. Bird species said that about 80 percent of the big game ani- increased on small-holdings that employ animal mals in Kenya are currently outside national traction, however. The crucial point is that land- parks (Western 1996). Rapid population growth use systems vary enormously in their impact on will allow only a modest increase in the area or biodiversity, and generalizations often obscure number of national parks. Improved habitat con- the issue. Further, because the natural resource ditions for wildlife outside the park system are base is so diverse and changing constantly, it is therefore the only viable option. Over the past impossible to maximize the habitat for all decade wildlife populations outside protected wildlife at the same time. If the objective of nat- areas have been growing, while the number of ural resource management is to maximize biodi- big game animals in the protected parks has versity by providing a diverse array of habitats decreased. Wildlife can be managed for income within a landscape, prescribed sheep grazing is alongside livestock, thereby enhancing biodiver- a promising tool for creating or maintaining such sity and income levels of pastoralists and ranch- diversity because of the sheep's ability to con- ers. Fortunately livestock-wildlife combinations sume a broad array of plant types (Mosley 1994). do not require significant reductions in livestock In the western United States it is becoming stocking rates. Western commented that in increasingly evident that livestock can help southern Kenya cattle stocking rates only have to enhance the environment for wildlife because of be trimmed by 20 percent to allow most wildlife differences in dietary selection. In that region species to prosper. about 600,000 hectares have been invaded by In Texas many ranchers consider the blend of leafy spurge, a noxious weed that crowds out livestock and wildlife to be a very important plant species important in the diet of antelope, component of the overall ranch enterprise deer, and elk. Grazing leafy spurge with small because it contributes significantly to ranch ruminants, especially goats, helps suppress this income. Similar experiences pertain in Africa. weed, however, thereby boosting plant and ani- The combination of livestock raising and mal biodiversity. This method is becoming wildlife management among the Masai, for increasingly popular as the most environmen- example, generally resulted in higher incomes tally benign method for controlling leafy spurge than if either were carried out alone. The key (Walker and others 1994). ingredient in this success is the sharing of game In the past wildlife and livestock were park revenues with the Masai, which in turn regarded as competitors for the same feed induced them to protect wildlife resources. resources and were also considered incompati- In mixed farming systems livestock can assist ble because of the possibility of disease trans- in preserving biodiversity. Livestock provide a mission. Evidence is accumulating, however, reason for maintaining a mosaic of land-use pat- that livestock and wildlife are often synergistic. terns and contribute manure, which not only The diets of livestock and most wildlife species provides soil nutrients but also enhances soil rarely overlap significantly, and a better under- organic matter. The beneficial effects of standing of which wild species are reservoirs of hedgerows and shelterbelts are widely known pathogens, combined with better disease control for controlling wind erosion, and their impor- techniques, have reduced the danger of disease tance in promoting biodiversity is becoming transmission in either direction. increasingly clear. Livestock integration into the Synergisms rather than antagonisms between cropping system can further promote develop- livestock and wildlife have finally come to the ment of hedgerows and shelterbelts. surface in many debates on the improvement of Numerous studies have shown a positive cor- pastoral and other livestock production systems relation between plant biomass production and (Western 1989). In developing countries work in species diversity. Biomass generation contributes Kenya especially has demonstrated some of to soil organic matter. In temperate areas soil 100 Biodiversity and Agrticultural Intensification organic matter ranges between 1 and 4 percent in Two-thirds of the world's livestock are located well-managed cropland, between 4 and 8 percent in the developing world, but reliable information in productive pastures, and between 6 and 15 per- on breeds in the tropics and subtropics is far from cent in forests (Pimentel and others 1992). complete. The data from both industrial and Livestock contribute to biomass production developing countries show that erosion of biodi- through controlled grazing and manure applica- versity at the breed level is not simply a concern tion. In grassland plots in Japan, for example, the for the distant future but a current issue. species diversity of the macrofauna more than doubled when manure was added to the land Critical Indicators of Genetic Diversity (Pimentel and others 1992). Increased biomass production not only fosters a vibrant biodiversity, Critical indicators identified for determining the but it also helps to conserve water, slow runoff, status of genetic diversity in animal populations and decrease soil erosion. include population size, breeding structure, and interpopulation gene flow. Risk assessment for a Status of Breeds breed should take into account: a Increasing or decreasing population size Concern about the erosion of livestock genetic * Decreasing number of herds diversity has prompted the United Nations * Extent of crossbreeding. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) to Thresholds recommended for these factors establish a global program on animal genetic include: resources (Hammond and Leitch 1996). This * Population size (number of females) falls program's first initiative was to produce a World more than 10 percent a year. Watch List of breeds at risk. Of breeds with ade- * Effective population size drops below fifty. quate data for assessment 19 percent are classi- * Number of breeding herds decreases below fied as endangered (table 6.2). In developed ten. countries 21 percent are at risk (table 6.3). * Proportion of matings to animals from out- Market forces are diminishing much of the side the population exceeds 10 percent diversity in the OECD countries. In Europe (Simon and Buchenauer 1993). Holstein cattle account for 60 percent of dairy cat- Breeding structure, the second crucial indi- tle and in North America, 90 percent. The inbreed- cator, refers to the composition of the breed's ing of Holsteins in the United States is expected to population and includes the following factors: increase by 0.725 percent a year from 1990 to 2015. * Replacement rates for males and females This corresponds to an effective population size of * Ratio of breeding males to females sixty-six animals (Hanson 1995). * Age structure of the population * Extent of natural versus artificial insemination Table 6.2 Threatened breeds of domestic animals * P o by species, workdwide, 1996 * Pattern of acquisiton of breedmg material, such as from hatcheries or breeding compa- PAth population Projected nis Species On file data At risk at risk mes. Ass 77 24 9 9 For well-documented populations annual sta- Avians 863 733 372 195 tistical reports normally include most of these Bufalo 72 55 2 2 factors. Carmeldd and Probably the most important factor affecting Cattle 787 582 135 80 the genetic constitution of populations has been Goat 351 267 44 37 the movement of genetic material among popula- Horse 384 277 120 96 Pig 353 265 69 52 tions (Cunningham 1995). This most often takes Sheep 920 656 119 85 the form of crossbreeding through introducing Yak 6 6 0 0 males from outside. For each population it is TOl 3,882 2,924 873 559 important to monitor the inward gene flow. As for Note: At risk is based on breeds with population data having less than I 000 breeding femaies or lessthan 20 males and forwhichthere is no conservation pragram in place. other aspects of genetic change, the requirements Source: Hammond and Leitch 1996. for monitoring are different for well-documented Livestock Production Systems and the Management of Domestic Animal Biodiversity 101 Table 6.3 Breeds of domestic animals at risk, by region genetic potential of livestock for a specific char- With population Projected acteristic such as milk production during the Region On file data At nsk at risk 1960s and 1970s. During the mid- to late 1980s Africa 396 239 27 27 awareness increased that indigenous breeds are Asia and Pacific 996 710 105 97 highly adapted to rigorous environments. With Europe 1,688 1,501 638 358 this realization came a series of initiatives to con- Labn America 220 143 29 27 Near East 378 214 15 9 serve animal genetic resources. NorthAmerica 204 117 59 41 World 3.882 2,924 873 559 Actors Note: At nsk is based on breeds with population data having less than I ,000 breeding females or less than 20 males and for which there is no conservation program in place. Effective use and conservation of animal genetic Source: Hammond and Leitch 1996. resources requires a concerted effort by a num- breeds and for undocumented, localized, indige- ber of actors (table 6.4). These include individual nous stock. For indigenous stock regular (five breeders, breed associations, national govern- yearly) analyses should be done on the pattern of ments, and international agencies. genetic movement into the population. This Livestock owners and breeders bear ultimate analysis should indude an estimation of: responsibility for managing the genetic future of • Extent of crossbreeding (generally the pro- livestock populations. Their actions are deter- portion of females mated to males from out- mined in large part by economic returns. side the population). Conservation programs must therefore sensitize * Source of external genetic material. livestock owners to their important role as * Nature of the crossbreeding. In some cases guardians of livestock genetic resources and this may be terminal crossing to produce help find ways to increase revenue from threat- slaughter animals, with no permanent genetic ened breeds. effect on the population. In other cases it may Breed associations are responsible for main- be a pattern of continuous crossing in which taining pedigree information, developing breed the population's genetic resources are gradu- standards, and collecting and analyzing data on ally replaced. It can also take the form of par- animal performance. In many cases public funds tial or complete replacement of existing have assisted the development and functioning breeding structures by a planned provision of of these breed societies. hybrids. National governmental authorities are also e Extent to which breeding animals are pro- involved in managing and safeguarding animal duced at home or provided by outside breed- genetic resources through various programs and ing companies or organizations. regulations. Governments provide many services, * Use of DNA techniques to track the nature including supervision of breed societies, supervi- and extent of gene infusion. sion of imports, and services such as animal In documented breeds annual statistics cov- ering the same range of factors are generally Table 6.4 Relative importance of actions by various produced. Because gene movement between participants in animal genetic resource conservation populations is well documented in these cases, Paoticipants the use of DNA techniques may be less infor- Breeder Breed National Intemational mative and therefore less necessary. Actions or farmer associations govemments agencies In situ Strongly Strongly Moderately Slightly Societal Response conservabon relevant relevant relevant relevant Ex situ Slightly Moderately Strongly Slightly conservation relevant relevant relevant relevant Society's response to the use of animal genetic DNA Not Slightly Strongly Slightly resources has ebbed and flowed over the past characterization Applicable relevant relevant relevant three decades. In developing countries breed Data base colledion Slightly Moderately Moderately Strongly substitution through crossbreeding was the and management relevant relevant relevant relevant most common mechanism used to increase the Source de Haan, Sternfeld, and Blackburn 1996. 102 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification recording and artificial insemination. Many zoos situ or ex situ methods (box 6.4). Financial are government-operated and therefore could resources are currently insufficient to assess and play an important role in conservation of near rel- preserve all breeds adequately DNA tech- atives and wild populations of livestock species. niques, however, can be used to assess the International agencies provide the critical genetic differences between breeds and thereby glue for a successful gene conservation pro- determine which breeds are truly unique and gram. These institutions provide a forum for the scarce. Although such an approach entails a development of international accords and con- high initial cost, it is relatively cost-effective over ventions. Such institutions also play a crucial the long term. Further, applying DNA tech- role in planning for both the compilation and niques focuses the greatest effort on those breeds management of international genetic resource that are in critical need of preservation. databases. International agencies will be Costs associated with development of data increasingly instrumental in the transfer of bases, DNA analysis, and international proto- genetic resources, such as in cryopreservation cols and accords fall into the category of public form, dissemination of DNA techniques in goods. But the maintenance costs of data bases breeding and conservation work, and standard- could be shared with livestock owners, breed ization of procedures. associations, national authorities, and interna- tional agencies. The costs are modest when con- Costs and Benefits sidered per head. For example, long-term costs for semen and embryos depend on scale but can The preferred path to conserving a breed is for it be in the order of $1 per unit per year. to function in an economically viable farming sys- Genotyping the DNA of a breed within a coun- tem. In some situations modest subsidies to sup- try for a cross-breed comparison can be per- port the conservation of crucial genetic resources formed for approximately $1,000-$3,000 ($5-$10 may be warranted, as in the case of Kerry, a dual- a head), and once this work is done, it does not purpose cattle breed from Ireland (box 6.3). In have to be repeated. other cases it may be possible to alter other com- To recover these costs, fairly modest incre- ponents of the farming system so that perfor- mental benefits are required. For example, at a mance of the conserved breed is enhanced, discount ratio of 7.5 percent, an incremental ben- thereby helping it to be economically competitive. efit of 80 times the annual cost could repay a Regardless of the benefit, costs will clearly twenty-five-year investment in the conservation play a role in determining the amount of animal of a breed. Thus a return of $800,000 would be genetic resources that can be preserved via in required to recover the costs of a breed conser- vation program covering 10,000 animals over Box 6.3 Conservation of Kerry cattle twenty-five years. Assuming that such benefits The Kerry is a remnant of a once numerous popu- would affect 10 million animals, the incremental lation of small black cattle native to southwestern yields per animal required to repay the invest- Ireland. A breed society was formed in 1887, but the ment would be less than 10 cents. number of registered females declined to about 200 in the 1970s, with an effective population size of Monitoring Genetic Diversity about 50. Since then a conservation scheme has pro- vided a small subsidy per calf registered, ensured It is possible to measure changes in genetic long-term storage of semen, and provided breeders with relationship information between animals that diversity directly with commonly used moni- enables them to minimize inbreeding. The number toring techniques. Several indicators can be of breeders has doubled, and numbers of animals monitored: have increased by more than na!f. Recent DNA analysis has shown that the b,ee.1 is significantly Genetic parameters. The amount of genetic vari- different from all other European breeds with ation for a trait in a population is normally mea- which it has been compared. sured as its heritability. This is the ratio of the Source: Cunningham 1995. additive genetic variance to the total phenotypic Livestock Production Systems and the Management of Domestic Animal Biodiversity 103 Box 6.4 Tools for genetic conservation stances calculating effective population size will of livestock permit a good estimate of the rate of inbreeding. However, this should be supplemented by peri- Several tools are available for the conservation of odic analyses of pedigree data to measure livestock genetic resources. Among them are: dictlyte au tioneo iben in te * In situ conservation. The maintenance of live- stock with viable population sizes can be population. This will take account of mating pat- accomplished by enhancing the economic value terns, genetic grouping within the population, of the animals in the farming system. and nonrandom variability in family size. * Ex situ conservation. Maintain animals by freez- ing semen and embryos. This technology is not Measuring genetic diversity at the DNA level. adequately developed for all species, however. DNA techniques developed within the past five Although labor and animal facility costs are years now make feasible the routine monitoring saved, the approach requires the continual use of genetic variability within a population at the of frozen nitrogen and a secure facility. * DNA technology. This can provide important molecular level (Cunningham 1995). Such tech- information concerning the evolutionary his- niques include: tory of a breed or species. * Polymerase chain reaction, which permits the * Breeds and landraces. Thorough documentation extraction and rapid multiplication of selected currently in existence will provide a basis for segments of DNA from very small samples of evaluating breed differences. tissue, including blood, hair, and milk. * International accords. Such accords provide a * Discovery of microsatellites, highly variable framework for global animal genetic resources. repeat segments of nonfunctional DNA, has uncovered an enormous reservoir of genetic variance. A narrowing of the genetic variance is variability useful in tracking genetic change the major concern, although experimental and within and between populations. field data have shown that this is surprisingly well * Sequence analysis makes possible the rapid maintained even in populations under intense evaluation of genetic differences between selection. In well-documented populations these individuals in the structure of functional statistics are routinely calculated, while in many genes at a reasonable cost. local breeds, suitable data are seldom available. The rapid and ongoing development of DNA techniques has opened up a wide variety of Measuremnent of genetic trend. Genetic response options for monitoring genetic change. The to selection in a population is a function of the genetic consequence of inbreeding is an increase selection goals pursued, the heritability of these in homozygosity within individuals. With the use goals, the genetic variance for the traits concerned, of DNA techniques this phenomenon can now be and the selection intensity applied. In many mod- measured directly. The degree and nature of vari- em populations these factors are all quantified as ability within a population can tell a great deal part of the process of calculating breeding values about its evolutionary history and about its rela- for individuals. The routine tracking of genetic tionship to other populations. Such information is trends in the population is feasible and should be invaluable for planning conservation programs. part of annual population reporting. Monitoring interpopulation differences. Genetic Degree of inbreeding. As populations become differences among populations should be care- smaller, average inbreeding increases. This can fully documented. This is seldom the case, and be accentuated by deliberate patterns of mating comparisons often include many environmental related individuals, or by isolation of the popu- factors in addition to genetic ones. Inter- lation into subpopulations. Because increased population genetic comparisons can be made in inbreeding is associated with a decline in a range two ways. One is carefully controlled experi- of fitness factors, it can be an important determi- mentation in which breeds, and sometimes their nant of a population's prospects for survival. It is crosses, are compared for a range of production therefore a critical indicator. In most circum- traits. Another is the use of DNA techniques to 104 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification document the extent of their common or diver- indigenous breed types perform. Because the gent genetic heritage. entire process of animal production has not been evaluated, these actions have also contributed to Matching Genotypes to the Environment the displacement and loss of biodiversity. Further, the exotic breeds have not been able to Past attempts at improving livestock productiv- maintain high levels of productivity in many ity in developing countries have focused largely cases. The result is not only a loss in biodiversity on importation of exotic breeds because cross- but also a loss in economic returns. breeding was thought to be a faster means of Compounding the problems of partial analy- achieving increased production than within- sis has been a disregard for genetic traits for fit- breed selection. Imported breeds were chosen ness associated with the adaptation complex. based on a partial analysis that indicated that Animals in a specific environment have devel- they could produce higher quantities of milk, oped resistance or adaptation to a full range of meat, or wool. But the analysis lacked a full environmental challenges such as ticks, internal appreciation for genetic-environmental interac- parasites, and temperature extremes (Hammond tions and lifetime productivity. and Leitch 1996). For the most part these charac- The imported breeds were then crossed with teristics have not been fully accounted for in existing genetic stocks, thereby extinguishing planning and executing breeding and selection indigenous breeds. Significant genetic variability schemes in industrial or developing countries. was thus lost before its potential benefits could be The manner in which genotypes respond to assessed. Indigenous breeds often contain traits different types of environments can be envi- that could be exploited more fully for improving sioned in a three-dimensional schematic (figure local incomes or that could be transferred to other 6.2). By viewing breeds in the context of compos- breeds (box 6.5). This practice of selecting for indi- ite productivity, it becomes much more apparent vidual production characteristics (growth rates or how indigenous breeds or those breeds that have meat or milk production) instead of lifetime pro- been selected for a different set of characteristics ductivity and biological efficiency has carried can achieve higher levels of productivity. over to selective breeding of indigenous popula- An alternative approach to breeding animals tions. The result is a partial analysis of how for perceived economic returns and conserving Box 6.5 Improving competitiveness Figure 6.2 Relative performance of selected of indigenous livestock breeds and Indigenous livestock genotypes across environments An important tactic for conserving indigenous 80 Highly genetic resources is to make those breeds more ben- selected eficial. A program that focuses on the traits that breeds increase the economic value of the breed is such a 60 mechanism. The N'Dama cattle of southern Senegal have traditionally been an important component of farming systems in the forested Casamance. Trypanosomiasis is prevalent in that region, and 40 other breeds cannot survive there. Although the nous N'Dama are able to withstand the trypanosome chal- lenge, their productivity is low: two-year calving intervals, low-growth rates, and milk production 20 averaging about 700 kilograms per cow. A research program has been initiated to improve the perfor- mance of the N'Dama. The protocol used feed prod- ucts that were readily available, such as groundnut 0 hay and cotton-seed meal. By improving the High stress Moderate stress Low stress N'Dama's nutrition, performance was doubled. Environmental conditions Source: Philipsson and Wilson 1995. Source: Adapted from de Haan. Steinfled. and Blackbum 1996. Livestock Production Systems and the Management of Domestic Animal Biodiversity 105 genetic resources is matching genotypes to envi- reverse gene flows (from developing country to ronments. Instead of importing a genotype and industrial country) and potential breed replace- attempting to modify the environment through ment. Although Boer goats fetch extremely high increased input levels, indigenous breeds prices, no information is available on how they should be used. Imported breeds may be justi- will perform in the extensive rangelands of fied when appropriate evaluation trials have Texas or the monoculture pastures in Oklahoma. been conducted to verify their performance A simulation model was used, however, to com- advantage over indigenous stock. The basis for pare the performance of the Boer goat with the comparing performance would be lifetime pro- indigenous Spanish meat goat under varying ductivity (number of offspring per female), eco- levels of nutrition (Blackburn 1995). Results nomic returns for the herd or flock (versus from this study demonstrated that: individual performance), and biological effi- * Although the Boer goat produced more sale ciency (output and input). Such a strategy weight per doe and had higher growth rates, implies that general recommendations are not no difference was noted between the two possible because accounting has to be made for breeds for biological efficiency. the specific environment in which the breeds are * When nutritional stress was imposed on both expected to perform. breeds, the Spanish goats had higher sale Studies to characterize this reranking of weights per doe and biological efficiencies, genetic types in differing environments are not indicating that this breed has a greater abil- easy to design or conduct, but simulation mod- ity to withstand typical environmental chal- els have been developed to screen breed types in lenges (figure 6.3). different environments. This approach has been Conclusions drawn from this example indi- used to assess the introduction of the Boer goat cate that although the Boer goat may confer an in the United States. advantage in growth rate, it does not achieve this The Texas and Oklahoma goat industries are increase more efficiently than the Spanish goats, interested in importing and using the Boer goat, which are better adapted to the local conditions. which originated in South Africa. High-growth For the Boer to be used successfully in Texas or rates and meaty characteristics of the Boer make Oklahoma, more inputs, particularly high-qual- it an attractive candidate for substituting for the ity feed, would be required than are usual for the indigenous Spanish meat goat. The Spanish Spanish goats. Such additional production costs meat goat has been traditionally produced in will lessen the Boer's potential profitability. this region with minimal inputs and very little The shift in how breeds are evaluated, such genetic selection. In essence this is a case of as combining analysis of lifetime productivity Figure 6.3 Comparison of Boer and Spanish goat performance under conditions prevailing in Oklahoma Weight sold per doe (in kilograms) Biological efficiency (outputtinput) 50 7 6 40 Spanish 30 Boer 20 1 31 113 20 ~~~~~~~~~~~Spanish * ~~Boer 2 10 0 0 High Medium Low High Medium Low Nutrition level Nutrition level Source: Blackbum 1995 106 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification Journal of Animal Science 73: 302-09. and usig simulaton models to screen the mag- Cunningham, E. P. 1995. "Livestock and the nitude of genetic environmental interactions, Environment: Finding a Balance. Global Impact provides a mechanism to assess and conserve Domain, Animal Genetic Resources." Background genetic resources. It also provides a basis to con- paper for the Multidonor Livestock-Environment duct and promote more sound animal breeding Study. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), progamsthancurenty prvai inthe eveop- Rome. programs than currently prevail in the develop- de Haan, C., H. Steinfeld, and H. Blackburn. 1996. ing world. Livestock and the Environment: Finding the Balance. Washington, D.C. and Rome: World Bank and Research and Policy Priorities FAO. Hammond, K., and H. W. Leitch. Forthcoming. "The Using the preceding as a basis for determining FAO Global Program for Management of Farm Uonsingation and better animal breeding prac- Animal Genetic Resources," Journal of Animal Science. conservation and better animal breeding prac- Hanson, L. B. 1995. "Breeding Schemes." In Proceedings tices, the following research and policy initia- of the National Dairy Genetics Workshop. Orlando: tives are warranted: American Dairy Science Association. Mosley, J. C. 1994. "Prescribed Sheep Grazing to Policies Enhance Wildlife Habitat on North American Rangelands," Sheep Research journal 10: 79-91. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and * Support implementation of the Biodiversity Development). 1994. Environmental Indicators. Paris. Convention, which includes development of Pimentel, D., U. Stachow, D. A. Takacs, H. W. Brubaker, national and regional infrastructures A. R. Dumas, J. J. Meaney, J. O'Neil, D. E. Onsi, and * Assessrolesofindigenousandnonindigenous D. B. Corzilius. 1992. "Conserving Biological breeds in meeting future domestic and export Diversity in Agricultural/Forestry Systems," needs for food and other animal products BioScience 42: 354-62. Philipsson, J., and R. T. Wilson. 1995. "Interactions * Facilitate regional cooperation among coun- between Livestock Production Systems and the tries to achieve economies of scale Environment: Global Perspectives and Prospects." e Support the international exchange and use Background paper for the Multidonor Livestock- of animal genetic resources. Environment Study. FAO, Rome. Reid, R. S., C. J. Wilson, and R. L. Kruska. 1996. "The Research Initiatives Influence of Human Use on Rangeland Biodiversity in Ghibe Valley, Ethiopia, as Affected by Natural Resource Use Changes and Livestock Disease - Shift the research focus from individual traits Control." Proceedings of the Fifth International to lifetime and herd productivity using deter- Rangeland Congress. Salt Lake City, Utah, and ministic simulation models and live-animal Denver, Colo.: Society for Range Management. experimentation where feasible Sere, C. 1994. "Characterization and Quantification of Livestock Production Systems." Background paper * Determine the critical number of breeds to for the Multidonor Livestock-Environment Study, conserve via DNA analysis of genetic variation FAO, Rome. * Determine appropriate selection goals based Simon, D., and D. Buchenauer. 1993. Genetic Diversity of upon the environmental capacity for animal European Livestock Breeds. Wageningen, Netherlands: production Wageningen Press. * Learn more about genetic bases of adapta- Walker, J. W., S. L. Kronberg, S. L. Al-Rowaily, and N. E. West. 1994. "Comparison of Sheep and Goat tion, such as tick resistance and use of body Preferences for Leafy Spurge," Journal of Range reserves. Management 47: 429-34. Western, D. 1989. "Conservation without Parks: References Wildlife in the Rural Landscape." In D. Western and M. Pearl, eds., Conservation for the Twenty-First Blackburn, H. D. 1995. "Comparison of Performance of Century. New York: Oxford University Press. Boer and Spanish Goats in Two U.S. Locations," . 1996. Personal communication. 7. Biodiversity and the World Bank's Agricultural Portfolio Sakti Jana and Sanjiva Cooke A n intersectoral effort is currently under being the source of low-cost financing to coun- ,A,way at the World Bank to mainstream tries unable to afford market rates. GEF grants biodiversity conservation in environ- have been administered on behalf of the inter- mentally sustainable development activities. national development community since 1991. Agriculture is a key component in these efforts to From 1988 to mid-1995, $731 million was com- integrate biodiversity conservation in rural devel- mitted to eighty-four projects or project compo- opment, while enhancing agricultural productiv- nents in fifty-one countries with explicit ity. This chapter assesses some of the World Bank's objectives of conserving biodiversity, including key analytical and development assistance instru- $512 million in World Bank loans or IDA credits ments-country assistance strategies and agricul- and $219 million in grants from the World tural and forestry sector reviews-and national Bank-administered GEF or the Brazilian Rain environmental action plans as they apply to these Forest Trust Fund (World Bank 1995a). These concerns. Documents reviewed were those avail- investments leveraged an additional $522 mil- able for a sample of thirty-two countries, which lion in parallel financing from other donors and included all developing megadiversity countries, borrowing governments for a combined total countries with centers of agrobiodiversity not commitment of $1.25 billion to biodiversity con- included in the first category and a random selec- servation. lion of other countries to make up at least five Explicitly biodiversity-related project com- countries from each of the World Bank regions. ponents in IBRD and IDA projects include: The agricultural development portfolio of pro- * Establishment of new protected areas jects initialed since fiscal 1988 and 1995 is exam- * Management of existing protected areas ined in its entirety, focusing on its potential impact * Direct and indirect efforts to conserve biodi- on biodiversity, especially agrobiodiversity. versity outside protected areas * Ex situ conservation Commitment and Funding for Biodiversity * Studies, research, and monitoring * Strategies, planning, policies, and institu- The World Bank's development assistance rele- tions related to biodiversity. vant to biodiversity is channeled through three Strengthening the management of existing pro- main forms: the International Bank for tected areas and strategy (policy and plan devel- Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), opment) account for more than 60 percent of the International Development Association (IDA) World Bank's biodiversity financing. A pro- credits, and Global Environment Facility (GEF) posed World Bank assistance strategy for imple- grants. The first two instruments are generated menting the Biodiversity Convention intends from the World Bank's resources, with IDA for the World Bank to use its policy dialogue, 107 108 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification country economic and sector work, and country Policies That Support Biodiversity assistance strategies to help mainstream biodi- versity. The World Bank's basic support for biodiversity How does the World Bank work? In support conservation includes protection of natural of its lending operations, the World Bank jointly habitats. Wherever possible the World Bank tries undertakes country economic and sector work to avoid damaging biodiversity by locating pro- with client governments (figure 7.1). This ana- jects on lands already converted, not on lands lytical work contributes to policy dialogue with cleared in anticipation of project funding. governments, covering strategic issues of The World Bank's sectoral and operational national economic and sectoral development. A documents related to environment and forestry country assistance strategy, prepared with the sectors illustrate this policy: client government, sets out the agreed strategy * Operational Policies on Forestry. This docu- for development assistance and indicates the ment requires a client country to undertake level and composition of assistance to be pro- sustainable management and conservation- vided. The World Bank's operational and sec- oriented forestry (World Bank 1993). toral policies guide the process throughout * Operational Policies on Natural Habitats. In this policy dialogue, economic and sector work, and recently published manual, the World Bank the program or project lending cycle. gives unequivocal support for the protection, maintenance, and rehabilitation of natural Figure 7.1 Regional distribution of IBRD/IDA habitats and their functions. Natural habitat agriculture sector portfolio, 1988-95 protection is also emphasized in World Bank By number of projects procedures. Task managers are required to Latin America identify natural habitat issues that are likely to and the Caribbean South Asia arise in a project under preparation. Projects are classified as A (requiring full assessment) Europe and iddle East and or B (partial assessment), depending on the Europe and Middle East and degree of potential ecological effects. The 7% 10% compensatory costs of conservation of any natural habitats are included in the project's East Asia financing (World Bank 1995c). and the Pacifi * Operational Directive on Environmental Assess- 16% ment. This document outlines the World Sub-Saharan Bank's policies and procedures for environ- AfMca mental assessment. It lists the issues to be 37% addressed to ensure environmental sound- ness and sustainability in a project under Bytin total loan orcreditamountpreparation for World Bank financing. It LatinAmerica includes several important aspects of biodi- 22% _ versity, such as conservation of endangered species, critical habitats, protected areas, wet- Middle East and lands and wildlands, and preservation of E1North Africa tropical forests and coastal and marine Europe and 19% Central Asia resources (World Bank 1991b). 8% Sub-Saharan Country Assistance Strategies \ r ~~~~~~~Africa East Asia 15% A World Bank-developed country assistance and the Pacific strategy provides the overall context for World 28% Bank operations in that country. It is not a com- Source: World Bank data. prehensive treatment of development problems Biodiversity and the World Bank's Agricultural Portfolio 109 within a country; rather, it is a concise document management of a pilot program to conserve the focusing on the four or five most critical issues. Brazilian rain forest through GEF, World Bank The country assistance strategy describes the lending will encompass land management and country's recent economic and social perfor- a biomass pilot project. mance, development objectives, and lays out an Environmental degradation threatens bio- agenda for action and support. diversity in several other "megadiversity" In a sample of country assistance strategies countries, such as Madagascar and Mexico. for sixteen countries, many included some envi- Deforestation for agriculture is accelerating in ronmental concern, none mentioned agrobiodi- species-rich Madagascar, and its country assis- versity specifically, and only a few included tance strategy expressed alarm. Protection of management of the land or natural resources Madagascar's fragile environment represents a (table 7.1). major challenge to its government, the World Brazil, Ethiopia, Madagascar, and Mexico Bank, and other international agencies, donor were among the countries in which such issues countries, and NGOs. gained attention in the country assistance strat- In Mexico the disruption of ecosystems and egy. In the case of Brazil accelerated deforesta- resulting loss of biodiversity is a major problem. tion attracted serious concern. Brazilian rain The country assistance strategy for Mexico forests contain the largest repository of biodi- assigns high priority to sustainable natural versity in the world, and past development poli- resources management and biodiversity conser- cies have contributed to deforestation and the vation. The World Bank's strategy strives to loss of this rich heritage, much of it unique. increase public-private partnership for environ- Noting that policy and institutional changes to mental management and conservation, enhance enhance environmental protection have been private incentives for appropriate environment introduced in recent years, the World Bank's protection, raise public awareness and participa- assistance objective is to help ensure that prior- tion in policy formulation and enforcement, itybiomes are protected. Assistance is envisaged strengthen the institutional framework, and for strengthening federal and state environmen- enhance the capacity of state and municipal agen- tal protection agencies; reforming laws, regula- cies (box 7.2). Proposed sector work includes a tions, and policies affecting taxes and user fees, country environment memorandum that will land ownership, forestry development, and also cover biodiversity and soil conservation. indigenous reserves; and strengthening moni- Two environmental projects and a forestry project toring and enforcement capabilities (box 7.1). In are also part of the World Bank's lending program addition to economic and sector work and grant for Mexico. Table 7.1 Incidence of biodiversity, environmental, and natural resource issues in selected World Bank country assistance strategies Natural resource Land County management Environment monagement Deforestaton Biodiversity Agrobiodiversity Argentina Bangladesh Brazil Chile Cambodia Colombia Ethiopia India Lebanon Madagascar Mexico Papua New Guinea Peru Ru.ssia Sri Lanka Zaire Source: Authors' sampling. 110 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification Box 7.1 Biodiversity in a country assistance strategy: Brazil The World Bank's May 1995 country assistance strat- a Define a process for assigning terra develuta to egy for Brazil endorses recent policy and institutional alternate private uses within five years, including changes that have been introduced to enhance envi- a settlement policy that takes into account the ful ronmental protection. Among the changes: environmental impact of forest conversion. * Fiscal incentives for investing in the Amazon * Design policy and regulation such that conser- region are now subject to environmental condi- vation, agricultural development, and deliveryof tionality. special services can be contracted out to the pri- * Road building and colonization projects have vate sector, local comrnunities, and nongovem- been abandoned or scaled back. mental organizations (NGOs). * Environmental impact studies are mandated for * Decentralize to the states much of the responsi- all public works and private investments. bility for the implementation and enforcement of * Agricultural tax exemptions have been curtailed. environmental protection. * Price and credit subsidies for ranching in the * Provide incentives for collection of environrmen- Amazon have been reduced or eliminated. tal user fees by allowing environmental agencies The sectoral reform agenda for natural resource to retain a portion of the fees they collect. management includes the following items: Streamnline and clarify procedures for identification * Set tax rates for native forests equivalent to or and demarcation of indigenous reserves. Strengthen less than tax rates on agricultural land. and coordinate protection of these reserves to reduce * Establish separate rules and regulations for encroachment and illegal exploitation of indigenous native and plantation forests. reserves. The World Bank has supported Ethiopia, problems, seeks to identify causes, and outlines another country rich in agrobiodiversity, in the a national plan to address problems. A NEAP preparation of a biodiversity strategy But sev- encompasses both policy and technical aspects eral countries with rich genetic heritages have and is expected to be developed and imple- not received similar treatment. The country mented by the government with broad partici- assistance strategy for India, for example, a pation. As such, the document is envisaged as an country with a wealth of genetic resources for a integral part of overall planning to alleviate wide range of crops, does not mention agrobio- environmental problems. diversity conservation nor its importance for The World Bank considers the preparation agricultural development. and implementation of a NEAP as a step toward Although other environmental issues related integrating global environmental objectives into to biodiversity conservation, such as watershed national strategies and action plans for sustain- management, soil salinity, and other forms of able development. Though not strictly a Bank land degradation, were included generally in instrument, the Bank encourages and assists bor- the sampled country assistance strategies, few of rowing countries in the preparation and imple- them mention biodiversity. Particularly striking mentation of NEAPs, if requested. The NEAP is is the absence of biodiversity concerns in the expected to strengthen the Bank's dialogue with country assistance strategies for Colombia, the borrowing country and improve the quality India, Peru, and Zaire-all megadiversity coun- of Bank operations in the borrowing country by tries. For most country assistance strategies few making them more environmentally sustainable. references are made to such cross-cutting issues A brief look at NEAPs for Bangladesh, China, as forestry, agrobiodiversity, or the vital links India, Jordan, Madagascar, Sri Lanka, and between agricultural development and biodi- Tunisia shows how differently environmental versity conservation. issues may be treated. In the case of Sri Lanka, for example, the NEAP outlines the country's envi- National Environmental Action Plans ronmental action plan for 1992-96 on several fronts: land resources, water resources, mineral A national environmental action plan (NEAP) resources, coastal resources, forestry, biodiver- describes a country's major environmental sity and wildlife, urban pollution, industrial pol- Biodiversity and the World Bank's Agricultural Portfolio 111 lution, energy, environmental education, culture, China is not only a megadiversity country, it is and institutional capacity. also a major center of diversity for many agri- Sri Lanka has more endemic species per unit cultural species and their wild relatives, yet the area than any other country in Asia. It is one of NEAP makes no direct reference to agrobiodi- eleven areas in the tropics identified by the versity. Only a passing reference is made to the Committee on Research Priorities in Tropical protection of farmlands, where some of the "crit- Biology for special attention because of its high ical species" may exist. More than a thousand levels of biodiversity and endemism and high designated "eco-farms" in China practice eco- rates of forest conversion to other uses logically sustainable agriculture. A lack of funds (Government of Sri Lanka 1991). To alleviate is jeopardizing this innovative program. ecological problems associated with shifting cul- Environmental strategy in the NEAP for India tivation (about half of agricultural production recognizes the tradeoffs between poverty reduc- area), several immediate and long-term mea- tion and protection of the environment and sures have been proposed: emphasizes complementary actions. Consider- * Confine shifting cultivation to certain areas able attention has been paid to the management of and immediately encourage adoption of natural resources (such as the conservation and practices that help conserve biodiversity sustainable use of biodiversity) including forests, * Forest rehabilitation with community partic- soil, and water conservation and industrial pollu- ipation over the long term tion control because they are most likely to have e Identification of degraded forest lands with an effect on the poor. Of the seven NEAPs high agricultural potential and their conver- reviewed, only the one for India recognizes the sion to agricultural use over the long term. usefulness of complementary ex situ and in situ The NEAPs for China and India are the most conservation of food crops and other commer- comprehensive. The China NEAP highlights cially important species. biodiversity losses resulting from the degrada- In the NEAP for Bangladesh wildlife preser- tion and shrinking of natural habitats and the vation and the protection and sustainable man- illegal cutting of forests. If the present trend con- agement of the Sundarban mangrove forests tinues, China will soon lose almost all of its nat- receive high priority. Agricultural pollution of ural woodlands outside of nature reserves. land and water, because of high-input intensive Box 7.2 Biodiversity in a country assistance strategy: Mexico The World Bank's May 1994 country assistance strat- The World Bank is actively supporting the develop- egy for Mexico argues that aquifer depletion, soil ero- ment and implementation of Mexico's environmen- sion, devastation of ecosystems, and exceptional tal strategy through analytical work, institutional biodiversity are pressing environmental issues. On development, and lending. both environmental and economic grounds there is no The World Bank plans to continue efforts to time to loose. Failure to act will result in further degra- strengthen environmental institutions, extending dation, thereby undercutting economic and social ongoing initiatives at the central level to state and development. The World Bank's strategy for sustain- municipal agencies. While supporting geographi- able development and biodiversity conservation cally focused environmental lending, sector-specific includes strengthening natural resource management, efforts will include ensuring the sustainable use of slowing soil erosion, and improving protection and national forests and other natural resources and har- management of forests, parks, and biological reserves. nessing private sector initiative through incentives The Mexican government is committed to improv- for appropriate environmental protection. The World ing its efforts to ensure sustainable use of resources Bank intends to work with Mexico to identify priori- and reduction of pollution. Its strategy encompasses ties in the areas of soil conservation, water resources two mutually reinforcing sets of initiatives: a multi- management (including aquifer protection), and bio- sectoral approach in subregions with high-priority diversity conservation. Public participation in envi- environmental problems and a national approach in ronmental policy formulation and enforcement will particular sectors, including sustainable natural be supported, as well as preparation and implemen- resource management and biodiversity conservation. tation of an environmental action plan. 112 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification agriculture, is also a serious national concern, agricultural growth, to recommend remedial but the effects of intensive agriculture and pop- actions, and to propose a strategy for future ulation on biodiversity are not considered. World Bank assistance to the sector. Typically, it Nestled in the fertile crescent of southwest contains reviews and recommendations that vary Asia, Jordan is an important area for the genetic greatly by country depending on economic, polit- diversity of several cereal crops and food ical, and infrastructural conditions as well as legumes, including their wild relatives. The institutional capabilities. The most common NEAP for Jordan makes no mention of their sta- points covered are production systems, agricul- tus, nor whether a conservation strategy has tural support services, marketing, transport, been devised for this agrobiodiversity of global credit, irrigation, land degradation (such as soil significance. Rather, threats to the Wadi Rum salinity because of irrigation), land reform, agri- desert ecosystem and archaeological sites from cultural subsidies, administration, and in a few tourism and other human activities are the cases involvement by NGOs and the private sec- NEAP's main concern. tor. The NEAP for Tunisia provides a synthesis of The main thrust of the World Bank's agricul- environmental and related social problems in the tural sector reviews is to increase production and country, covering a wide range of factors, such as reduce rural poverty, yet the sustainability of industrial and marine pollution, land and water agricultural production is rarely addressed and resource degradation, rapid urbanization, and biodiversity issues are rarely mentioned. In most expansion of residential areas to agricultural countries government ministries are the largest land. The environmental effects of redirecting and most important institutions concerned with economic activities are also covered, but no agricultural development. Among competing assessment is provided of the impact of the above sectors, the forestry sectors in developing coun- factors on the country's biological resources. tries have weak institutional capacity, thus exac- In general NEAPs are preoccupied with the erbating universal problems associated with physical environment rather than biological inadequate research and extension. resources. Less attention is paid to the conserva- In a survey of agricultural sector reviews for tion of biodiversity. Agrobiodiversity is virtu- twenty-four countries, agriculture dominates ally ignored. NEAPs often overlook the critical the national economies and provides a signifi- role of agrobiodiversity for sustainable agricul- cant proportion of export earnings. Most of the tural development. Only the NEAP for India export commodities are introduced cash crops. incorporates a systematic concern for the con- The reviews' recommendations often include servation of agrobiodiversity. Agriculture is fre- diversification of agriculture to avoid relying quently depicted as a factor in environmental heavily on cash crops of exotic origin, but mea- degradation, but this treatment is rarely bal- sures to broaden the genetic diversity of crop anced with a discussion of how agriculture can species and the potential of many interesting enhance biodiversity and the environment. indigenous crops are typically overlooked. In many countries increases in agricultural Sectoral Perspectives on Biodiversity production have been achieved at the expense of the natural resource base. In such countries The World Bank also publishes agricultural sec- greater emphasis is warranted on the manage- tor reviews and forestry sector reviews that pro- ment of biophysical resources to sustain agricul- vide sectoral perspectives on biodiversity in tural growth. This approach would include the various countries. integration of biodiversity conservation in agri- cultural development, an issue that might be Agricultural Sector Reviews tackled profitably in future agricultural sector reviews. The principal objective of a World Bank agricul- Some highlights from the sector reviews of tural sector review is to highlight the role of agri- selected countries indicate the broad range but culture in an economy and the constraints to uneven concern regarding biodiversity issues. Biodiversity and the World Bank's Agricultural Portfolio 113 Agrobiodiversity gets little attention. In coun- The review makes several recommendations tries of Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth to protect and better use the country's environ- of Independent States many difficult policy, tech- mental and biological assets: nical, and institutional problems have emerged * Allow the market to set prices for fertilizers, during the transition from a command economy herbicides, and pesticides to encourage their to a market-oriented one. Their agricultural sec- more efficient use and reduce runoff and con- tor reviews thus reflect a preoccupation with sequent pollution of aquatic environments these issues. Progress in land reform (farm * Regulate the storage and use of agrochemicals restructuring) and privatization of production, * Establish a soil conservation directorate to trade, and distribution systems have been help reduce erosion important in countries such as Armenia, Estonia, * Provide tax credits to farmers who manage Kazakhstan, Latvia, and the Russian Republic. their land well In Armenia, for example, cropping patterns * Facilitate access to land for entrepreneurial have changed substantially since 1991, with farmers with a vested interest in long-term food crop production sharply increased at the stewardship expense of forage, perennial, and industrial * Reduce grazing pressure on pastures for- crops. The sector review for Armenia describes merly open to communal use by providing several environmental problems affecting agri- exclusive, long-term leases. cultural productivity, including soil erosion, soil For Estonia the combined agricultural and salinity, water pollution from agrochemicals, forestry sector review observes that past meth- and deforestation. The need to protect wheat ods of forest management and use have been genetic resources is highlighted (box 7.3). beneficial for maintaining high levels of biodi- Limiting factors for boosting agricultural pro- versity both in production and protected forests. duction include unsatisfactory access to open- About one-quarter of forest area is classified as pollinated seeds and lack of superior genetic protected, but only 1 percent is totally excluded material for crop and livestock improvement. from harvesting, a fact that may endanger the chances of maintaining current levels of biodi- versity. This combined review for Estonia is one Box 7.3 Protecting agrobiodiversity of the few sectoral documents that address the in Armenia biodiversity issue, albeit briefly. It does not, The World Bank's February 1996 agricultural sector however, suggest any steps other than the use of review for Armenia notes that the country has a protected areas that might foster the preserva- diversified and unique assemblage of plant genetic tion of forest biodiversity, nor does it mention material, including ancient varieties of several crop diversity or broadening genetic diversity crops and their wild relatives. However, Armenia within crops. does not have a gene bank, and foreign financial and technical assistance is needed to preserve this For Latvia the agricultural sector review rec- germplasm under both ex situ and in situ condi- ommends a crop production strategy that tions. includes minimum tillage, crop rotation, and Armenia has a long history of setting aside spe- effective soil conservation measures. Changes in cific habitats for conservation-a small part of crop production patterns to increase feed and Khosrov has been designated as a preserve since forage production and improvement of feeding A.D. 333-but much remains to be done. The and livestock management practices to enhance review recommends that immediate steps be taken feeding efficiency and increase livestock pro- to prevent the destruction of progenitors of wheat in the biological preserve and park complex near duction are also discussed. The recommenda- the city of Yerevan. tion for crop rotation would increase the The recommended steps have implications for agrobiodiversity of areas currently wheat growers and consumers not only in Armenia monocropped. Forests are important natural but around the world. If adequately protected, resources in Latvia and are derived largely from areas in Armenia could serve as examples of how afforestation of agricultural land. The agricul- tural sector review points out the potential for 114 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification increased forest production with proper man- In Madagascar geographic isolation and var- agement. However, the biodiversity of forest ied terrain, climate, and soils have fostered the trees-and the importance of genetic resources evolution of many unique plants and animals. for forestry-are not discussed. Diverse altitudinal zones, ranging from temper- For Kazakhstan the agriculture and forestry ate to tropical, have also promoted a diverse sector review comments on the negative envi- agriculture. The agricultural sector review rec- ronmental effects of outdated cultivation prac- ognizes that natural resource degradation tices but does not elaborate. The country's crop reduces biodiversity and constrains agricultural research is conducted by public institutions, pri- growth (box 7.4). marily based on imported germplasm. From Zaire, with the largest tropical rainforest in Africa a few observations from the agricultural Africa (about 10 percent of the global tropical sector reviews for Egypt, Ethiopia, Madagascar, forest area), has substantial biodiversity to con- and Zaire show similarly varied concerns. serve. Loss of genetic resources would constrain In the case of Egypt, except for a brief reference efforts to boost the country's productivity of to the use of locally established strains of dual- such cash crops as oil palm, rubber, and cotton. purpose birds such as poultry, the agricultural sec- The sector review notes that the country has tor review does not consider agrobiodiversity and great potential for forestry and fishery develop- its potential in agricultural development in this ment and recommends development of a highly populated country. For Ethiopia the sector forestry management and protection plan to review ignores the country's wealth of crop promote the rational use of forest resources. genetic resources, especially with respect to The sector reviews for Sri Lanka and Papua Arabica coffee, teff, and ensete (a relative of the New Guinea skim over biodiversity and agrobio- banana). The agricultural sector review empha- diversity. The agricultural sector review for Sri sizes the importance of research in agroforestry Lanka pinpoints tree crops, especially tea, rubber, and cropping systems involving legumes and for- and coconut, for particular attention in agricul- age legumes in crop rotation. tural development, but replanting rates are Box 7.4 Biodiversity concerns and constraints to agricultural growth in Madagascar The World Bank's February 1994 agricultural strat- tropical forests in the eastern region have disap- egy note for Madagascar recognizes that the country peared. Most of this loss is a result of clearing new has impressive agricultural potential and significant lands for cultivation. A marked reduction of govern- constraints to achieving that potential. Among the ment services in the field has contributed to the constraints are inadequate land tenure legislation destructive process: nominally protected forests are and limited use of technology. Both these constraints not supervised adequately, rangelands are not man- are seen as a negative impact on the natural resource aged properly, land-tenure rights are not clarified in base and hence the island's unique biodiversity. a timely fashion. Because of the lack of land tenure security, con- Heightened governmental awareness of these flicts over the use of natural resources (land, forest, issues and a massive donor response have resulted in water, fish) arise out of the ambiguous definition of an environmental program that includes the estab- resource user's rights. The current system clearly lishment and protection of fifty parks and reserves; needs revamping. introduction of sustainable production systems in The expansion of farmland with continued environmentally sensitive areas; accelerated titling of reliance on traditional techniques alone has acceler- agricultural land; and improved management of ated natural resource degradation: gazetted forests. The program, however, is facing a * Hillside cultivation has provoked massive bottleneck caused by the need to build implementa- deforestation and serious soil erosion. tion capacity on the ground. The program is initially * Bush fires set by farmers and by those involved concentrating on the protection of biodiversity, more in land-use disputes between pastoralists and attention over the long term will need to be given to cultivators are exceeding the regenerative capac- soil erosion, deforestation caused by shifting cultiva- ity of the plant cover. tion, and bush fires. Accordingly, the World Bank's In the past thirty years 80 percent of the west coast strategy for agriculture in Madagascar highlights the deciduous natural forests and 50 percent of humid proper management of natural resources. Biodiversity and thze World Bank's Agricultural Portfolio 115 currently inadequate. Crop diversification is diversity in the country and identifies deforesta- encouraged, for which two avenues exist: tion as one of the most significant threats to its promising new lines of high-value crops and tra- genetic heritage. Crop agriculture and the live- ditional supplementary crops. Biodiversity, how- stock industry are described as the driving forces ever, is not mentioned. behind deforestation. The review recommends As in several other biodiversity-rich devel- changes in property rights, implementation of oping countries, the problems of agriculture in various measures to slow the conversion of Papua New Guinea are soil erosion, soil salinity, logged forests to agriculture, and strengthening waterlogging, and unchanged cropping pat- the national research system for agriculture and terns. Land tenure is a particularly.difficult forestry. Signifitantly, local communities are problem in Papua New Guinea because most of heavily involved in reforestation and agro- the land is community owned. With rapid pop- forestry projects in Ecuador. Involvement of local ulation growth and the increased adoption of stakeholders is essential for the long-term con- cash crops, the sustainability of the traditional servation and management of biodiversity. land-tenure system is being challenged. Without elaboration the sector review asserts that the Forestry Sector Reviews introduction of new crops, rather than improv- ing local crops, is the most promising avenue for The World Bank's forestry policy emphasizes col- agricultural development. It expresses concern laboration among conventional forest services, for increasing pressure on land, particularly in agricultural extension agencies, and NGOs areas of high-population density, as well as for (World Bank 1991). Biodiversity conservation is the sustainability of traditional production clearly a concern in forestry sector reviews. systems. Agrobiodiversity in this ecologically Deforestation and loss of habitat because of agri- diverse country gets no notice. cultural expansion, soil degradation, and declin- Shifting to Latin America-specifically, to ing fertility appear to be the most serious Argentina, Brazil, and Ecuador-uneven atten- environmental problern. Mexico exemplifies the tion to biodiversity is again the case. The sector importance of public awareness and participation review for Argentina claims that the country has in the management and conservation of biodiver- some of the most counter-productive agricul- sity. In general, however, biological resources are tural sector policies among the world's major undervalued in most countries. Observations agricultural exporters. Application of biotech- from the forestry sector reviews of Argentina, nologies is seen as a key for improving crops and India, and Mexico are indicative of this. livestock, but broadening their genetic base is The forestry sector review for Argentina cites largely overlooked. with dismay institutional capacity of the For Brazil the agricultural sector review ignores forestry sector. Although laws have been pro- biodiversity and agrobiodiversity, but these topics mulgated to safeguard the environment and to are covered in a separate sector report (World Bank establish nationa; parks, enforcement is lax, as it 1994). This report recognizes the abundance of bio- is in many othei developing countries. diversity, ecosystems, and diversity of agriculture. For India the forestry sector review contends Indicative problems cited are agrochemical haz- that biodiversity conservation could be improved ards, soil erosion, and land degradation. Issues in through a spectrum of interventions to meet dif- forest biodiversity conservation include manage- ferent needs. A three-pronged strategy is pro- ment of conservation units and differential taxing posed: of land in native forest and cleared areas. The issue 1. Extending and improving the protected area of indigenous rights is also broached. Also it cred- network its agricultural research in Brazil with the devel- 2. Increasing benefits to local populations in and opment of high-yielding varieties and assembling around protected areas through joint manage- a large collection of genetic resources. ment and other ecodevelopment activities Noticeably, the agricultural sector review for 3. Including biodiversity objectives in manage- Ecuador acknowledges the remarkably rich bio- ment of multiple-use forest lands. 116 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification Population pressure and poverty are major However, biodiversity conservation was not usu- problems facing forest conservation in Mexico, ally well integrated with other project activities. home to numerous endemic plant and animal Except for two projects, one in Ghana (the 1989 species. The greatest threat comes from land-use Forestry Project) and one in Brazil (the 1992 Mato conversion of natural habitat, especially forests, to Grosso Natural Resource Management Project), agriculture and ranching. Most of the officially conscious efforts toward sustainable manage- protected areas are too small to be ecologically ment of both natural and agricultural habitats viable. While the habitat types with the highest were absent or indiscernible. Little interest was endemism and diversity (for example, oak and evident in "alternative agriculture" concerned cloud forests, dry scrubland, and tropical moist with ecological restoration and environmental forests) are underprotected, low-diversity ecosys- conservation. tems (conifer forests) are overrepresented in the About thirty-six (73 percent) of the agriculture country's system of protected areas. On the other sector projects required a partial environmental hand preservation of biodiversity is considered to assessment (category B), and 37 percent called for be an ecological, economic, and cultural issue in no assessment. Only 4 percent of agricultural pro- Mexico; such grassroots concern bodes well for jects merited a full environmental assessment (18 future conservation efforts. percent was pending assignment, and 7 percent was categorized as environmental from the out- Agriculture Sector Portfolio set). While some environmental assessment and analysis sections of project documents are limited Between July 1988 and June 1995 the World Bank to listing envisaged environmental benefits, initiated 402 agricultural development projects many consider the environmental impact of pro- in ninety-seven countries. These projects sup- ject activities and suggest remedial or mitigating ported a wide range of activities, from genetic actions for incorporation into project design. engineering of livestock to improved marketing Very few environmental assessments discuss of crops (table 7.2). biodiversity issues directly, and even fewer Forty projects explicitly involved conservation approach it from the "mainstreaming" point of and management of biodiversity. Ten projects view. When biodiversity is mentioned, it is usu- were concerned with agrobiodiversity (box 7.5). ally in the context of possible effects of agricultural Table 7.2 Overview of the World Bank's agriculture sector portfolio IBRDADA agriculture sector loans and credits, 1988-95 (millions of U.S. dollars) Subsector 1988 1989 /990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 Sectorloan 2,118.5 1,701.7 1,380.5 2,151.6 1,744.1 1,117.5 1,818.4 994.4 (22) (21) (20) (19) (26) (22) (21) (18) Agroindustry 376.3 635.2 228.0 3.0 0.0 493.1 0.0 92.0 (3) (5) (3) (1) (0) (2) (0) (2) Fishenes 0.0 0.0 44.6 22.0 95.0 0.0 0.0 9.0 (0) (0) (1) (2) (2) (0) (0) (1) Forestry 167.5 89.8 536.0 19.9 291.1 91.5 565.4 113.0 (6) (3) (8) (I) (7) (2) (8) (2) Irrigation and drainage 956.2 580.4 713.8 980.4 1,019.7 920.0 1,025.9 781.9 (14) (5) (8) (10) (8) (I1) (8) (9) Livestock 378.6 53.6 0.0 40.8 0.0 22.5 0.0 0.0 (2) (2) (0) (2) (0) (1) (0) (0) Perennial crops 90.5 25.1 365.8 16.5 114.6 92.0 70.0 0.0 (4) (1) (5) (1) (2) (1) (1) (0) Research and extension 37.5 247.5 270.4 196.1 296.6 53.1 87.9 347.6 (2) (10) (10) (7) (6) (3) (5) (7) Other 383.3 168.3 117.0 277.0 342.9 477.0 339.7 311.4 (4) (5) (1) (4) (4) (3) (5) (3) Total amount 4,508.4 3,501.6 3,656.1 3,707.3 3,904.0 3,266.7 3,907.3 2,649.3 Total number (57) (52) (56) (47) (55) (45) (48) (42) Note: Figures in parentheses are number of loans. Source: World Bank data. Biodiversity and the World Bank's Agricultural Portfolio 117 Table 7.3 Some agricultural development targets Box 7.5 Agrobiodiversity issues addressed of World Bank projects and their potential impact in the World Bank's agriculture portfolio on biodiversity The China National Afforestation Project (1990) is Target rImpact Target Imrpact establishing approximately one million hectares of Agricultural diversification +/- Agricultural expansion forest with 75 percent native species. Genetic uni- Agncultural intensificaton - Agroindustry t- formity is being avoided by planting blocks of sin- Agroforestry + Agropastoral system +/- gle species that do not exceed 100 hectares; further, Animal breeding ±/- Annual to +/- the blocks are divided by strips of natural or perennial crops shift planted broad-leafed trees. A mosaic of different Archaeological sites + Biodynamic farming + species including natural vegetation thus charac- protection terizes this afforestation project, unlike many oth- Biotechnology +/- Broadening crop gene pool + ers that tend to involve planting of a single species Community pasture + Crop diversification + over vast areas. The Zaire Agriculture Research development (polyculture) Project (1992) includes germplasm conservation Crop rotation + Ecological agriculture + among twelve priority research programs identi- Ecosystem preservation + Ecotourism + fied in a master plan for research in the country. The Endangered species + Ex situ preservation + Congo Wildlands Protection Project (1993) sup- protection of genetc resources Germplasm preservation + Green and organic - ports capacity building at the national herbarium. manure use The Gabon Forestry and Environment Project Habitat restoration + Habitat protection i (1993) finances refrigeration facilities for seed stor- High-yielding varieties +/- High-input farming age at the country's national arboretum. (purchased agrochemicals) Source: World Bank data. Integrated pest + Improved strains +/- management of livestock Irrigation - In situ conservation + of diversity activity on protected areas or the formation of Low-input sustainable ± Irrigation dams +I- agnculture such areas to mitigate project activities. However, Managed forests + Multiple vanety + in a few cases biodiversity is a major project con- or strain development Mixed farming -t Mixed cropping ± cern. For example, the environmental assessment Natural reserves (parks, + Muliline development + section of the 1988 Brazil Agriculture Credit botanical gardens, Natural resources + Project (World Bank 1988) notes that removal of arboretums) management subsidized credit provides greater parity between Natural habitats + New crop introduction +/ protection and restoration private and social costs of investment in ecologi- Nitrogen fixation + New livestock introduction +/ cally fragile areas, thereby contributing to more Pest-resistant varieties ±1- Organic farming + sound husbandry of the country's naturl ,Plantation systems +/- Plant breeding +/- sound husbandry of the couritry's natural Rare-species recovery + Protected-area + resources. management To determine the potential impact of the Seed health and quality + Rural transportation World Bank's agriculture sector portfolio on bio- Soil conservation + Tradtonal agro- + /- diversity, 361 projects with sufficient informa- Wild crop relatives + Vanetal diversification + tion were broadly grouped by: (1) obvious codservation relation with biodiversity, (2) potential relation Note Iimpacts are catergoaized as potentially + positive. - negatve, or either +/ with biodiversity, and (3) no apparent relation Dos trve or negative with biodiversity. Each project's objectives and Source Prepared by the authors method of procedure suggested its potential effect on biodiversity, including agrobiodiver- species protection, ecological restoration, crop sity. Using a number of key agricultural and rotation, and genetic resources preservation are development activities, which have known or known to have positive effects. On the other anticipated effects on biodiversity, it was further hand promotion of pesticide use, plantation of possible to characterize projects by potentially introduced cash crops, and canal construction negative, positive, or mixed effects (table 7.3). through nature reserves have potentially nega- For example, some activities such as agro- tive effects on biodiversity. Still other activities forestry, integrated pest management, natural have potential to convey mixed or ambivalent resources management, rare and endangered effects. 118 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification The typology and categorization of projects in emphasized physical aspects, such as soil and table 7.3 simplifies the interrelationships between water, while much less attention has been paid to agricultural activities and their effects on biodi- the biotic environment and consequently to bio- versity, but it points out the complexity of the diversity conservation. Agriculture's contribution issue because of the many variables involved. For to environmental problems, such as habitat instance, field-scale and off-site effects of some destruction and soil degradation, are relatively practices differ considerably (box 7.6). well documented, but discussions on the con- Biodiversity-friendly projects are apparently straints to agriculture have generally not included on the increase (figure 7.2). This encouraging biodiversity issues. In country assistance strate- trend has occurred despite the fact that biodiver- gies, for example, a coLMtry's biological richness sity conservation was not the motivation of these is rarely taken into account, particularly as it agricultural projects. A window of opportunity applies to improving agriculture. Crop diversifi- clearly exists, therefore to mainstream biodiver- cation is recommended in some cases, but mea- sity conservation in most, if not all, of the World sures to broaden genetic diversity of crop species Bank's agricultural development projects. are almost always overlooked. Agrobiodiversity is thus seldom a matter of Issues and Future Direction concern. In many examples a country's environ- mental problems, ranging from industrial and Biodiversity is a concern in a relatively small marine pollution to land and water resource portion of the World Bank's policy and strategy degradation, will be scrutinized but the coun- documents. The central role of biodiversity in sus- try's biological resources ignored. Effective tainable development warrants stronger empha- planning and complementary strategies for agri- sis. A recent policy paper pinpoints several areas cultural development and conservation of the for adjustment and improvement to procedures genetic diversity of crops and livestock, their and analytical approach (box 7.7). Environmental wild relatives, and evolutionary progenitors are concern in agricultural and forestry projects has needed. The conservation and potential use of Box 7.6 Possible biodiversity tradeoffs within agroecosystems Several agricultural practices assist in protecting soil under conventional tillage, so some pesticides may and water quality while maintaining or increasing have to be used more frequently, at least during the productivity. These practices have the potential to transitional phase (Hinkle 1983). significantly decrease farmers' encroachment on Evidence is growing that increased activity by fragile areas and natural habitats. They indirectly earthwormsandsoilinsectsinnno-tillagesystemsncre- enhance biodiversity by mitigating many of the ates an intricate network of macropores (usually adverseenvironmental effects of modern agriculture, destroyed in conventional tillage systems) that facil- especially pollution of aquatic environments with itate the movement of water, dissolved solutes, and agrochemicals and excessive soil erosion. suspended sediment to shallow groundwater or No-tillage reduces soil erosion and pesticide losses deeper soil layers where biological degradation is with surface runoff (Baker and Johnson 1979). Crop much lower (Baker 1987; Kanwar, Baker, and L.aflen residues left on the ground help build up organic mat- 1985; Wagenet 1987). ter, thereby restoring the natural fertility of the soil. Contamination of shallow groundwater systems Increased organic matter and soil moisture in no-tillage with persistent agricultural chemicals could eventu- fields foster greater biological activity in the soil, such ally lead to degraded quality of surface aquatic sys- as activity by earthworms (Woomer and Swift 1994). tems (as surface and groundwater systems are On the other hand pest and weed control may be hydrologically linked) and associated flora and a problem in no-till fields. In conventional tillage sys- fauna. No-tillage practice therefore may positively tems plowing helps control weeds, and farmers who affect biodiversity on a field scale, but its short-run adopt no-tillage systems may have to increase their off-site impacts could be negative or positive.. use of herbicides. Also, by leaving more crop residue depending on the hydrology of the area and on farm- in the fields, diseases and pests can build up faster ers' ability to master all the aspects of no-tillage. Source: Singh 1996. Biodiversity and the World Bank's Agricultural Portfolio 119 Figure 7.2 Trends in the potential impact of World Bank Box 7.7 Mainstreaming biodiversity agriculture sector projects on biodiversity, 1988-95 in development 90 - Positive In a recent policy-oriented paper the following 80 actions are cited as a way to strengthen the role of biodiversity in the WoTid Bank's work: 70 * Integrate biodiversity conservation and sus- 60 tainable use with its overall policy dialogue and country assistance strategies 50 * Adjust traditional economic and sector work 40 * * * * * * to include biodiversity issues and priorities. * Ensure that biodiversity objectives are appro- 30 priately reflected in the design of individual 20 *i* * * * * tnvestment projects across sectors of the economy * Enhance environmental assessment practices. I0 * Support the development of human resources o988 - - * - - _and institutions that are required to facilitate 1988 1989 1990 99 99) 1993 1994 1995 the mainstreaming of biodiversity Source Authors coripl~at,or, a Adopt internal operational policies and devel- opment practices that support the mainstream- ing of biodiversity in the World Bank's agrobiodiversity for long-term economic bene- development programs fits for the country and world should be investi- * Learn from others' experiences, strengthen gated and incorporated into World Bank existing collaborations, and establish new part- analytical documents. One option is to place nerships, drawing on others' skills and greater emphasis on natural resource manage- resources, the development of good practices, ment problems in agriculture. This should and the increasing public awareness of biodiver- include biodiversity (including agrobiodiver- sity's value. Source: World Bank 1995a. sity) management and the integration of biodi- __ versity with agricultural development. The major portion of she World Bank's will maximize agricultural and natural bio- investment in biodiversity conservation has diversity and also allow its sustainable use aimed at the establishmnent and management of * Formulate economic and noneconomic incen- protected areas. Numerous issues relevant to tives for biodiversity conservation. biodiversity in agriculture are not broached. * Encourage legal and regulatory reforms Fortunately, however, as analysis of the agricul- * Strengthen institutional capacity and organi- ture sector portfolio reveals the trend toward zations. biodiversity-friendly practices in agricultural In the short term the World Bank could iden- development projects is increasing, despite the tify and further encourage the adoption of biodi- fact that biodiversity conservation was not a pri- versity-friendly agricultural policies, practices, mary concern of these agricultural projects. and approaches. A sound-practices manual or A comprehensive agricultutral development guide for task managers at the World Bank and policy should maximize the economic benefits other organizations involved in agricultural to society while preservin g it, biological wealth. development would be a step in that direction. A To achieve this dual goal, ti to World Bank can sound-practices guide would indude a checklist assist national governien s in -everal key of practices that significantly diminish negative areas: downstream effects of farming and livestock oper- * Develop environmentally sustainable national ations and suggest measures that can be taken to agricultural developmnental strategies reduce encroachment into natural habitats and * Provide both economic and ecological ratio- fragile areas.Achecklistwould notconstrainagri- nales for biodiversity conservation cultural growth; rather, it would point to oppor- * Promote an ecosystem-approach to develop- tunities for incorporating greater biodiversity in ment and pursue consenvation methods that agricultural landscapes while reducing collateral 120 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification damage to the environment. However, biocliver- Watersheds," Transactions of the American Society of damage to the envlronment. However, blodlver- Agricultural Engineers 22: 554-59. sityconservationneedstoberecognizedasalong- Hinkle, M. K. 1983. "Problems with Conservation term investment. The ecological, genetic, and Tillage," Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 38: social interactions that create and maintain biodi- 201-06. versityaretheresultofevolutionaryprocessesnot Kanwar, R. S., J. L. Baker, and J. M. Laflen. 1985. confined to a fiscal year or five-year project "Nitrate Movement through the Soil Profile in Relation to Tillage System and Fertilizer Application envelopes. Investment strategies need to be Method," Transactions of the American Society of adjusted accordingly. Agricultural Engineers 28:1,802-07. Poverty alleviation cannot be achieved in the Singh, P. 1996. Personal communication. Iowa State absence of the sustainable use of natural University. resources, but an environmental strategy must Sri Lanka, Government of. 1991. "National Environmental Action Plan 1992-1996." Ministry of Environment and Parliamentary Affairs. Colombo, ate poverty reduction and protection of the envi- Sri Lanka. ronment. Also environmental concerns cannot Wagenet, R. J. 1987. "Processes Influencing Pesticide be divorced from social considerations because Loss with Water under Conservation Tillage." In T. the causes of encroachment and resource over- J. Logan, J. Davidson, J. L. Baker, M. R. Overcash exploitation are usually social and economic. eds., Effects of Conservation Tillage on Groundwater exlotao Quality: Nitrates and Pesticides. Chelsea, Mich.: Lewis Governments should be encouraged to include Publishers. greater public participation to share with society Woomer, P. L., and M. J. Swift, eds. 1994. The Biological the responsibility of protecting its biological Management of Tropical Soil Fertility. Chichester, U.K.: resources. John Wiley. Many intergovernment organizations and World Bank. 1988. "Staff Appraisal Report, Many intergovernment . oranizations Agricultural Credit Project: Brazil." Report no. 7199, national and international NGOs are actively Wahnto,DC - Washington, D.C. engaged in worldwide biodiversity conserva- .1991a. The Forest Sector: A World Bank Policy tion, particularly in biodiversity-rich developing Paper. Washington, D.C. countries. While developing a comprehensive .1991b. "Operational Directive 4.01, Environ- strategy for biodiversity conservation, the role mental Assessment." Operational Manual. Washington, and contributions of these local and international D.C. .1993. "Operational Policy 4.36, Forestry." participants in agricultural development and Operational Manual. Washington, D.C. biodiversity conservation should be reviewed, .1994. "Brazil: The Management of Agriculture, and lessons from experience should be used. Rural Development and Natural Resources." World Bank Sector Report. Washington, D.C. References .1995a. "Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Develop- ment: A World Bank Assistance Strategy for Baker, J. L. 1987. "Hydrologic Effects of Conservation Implementing the Convention on Biological Tillage and Their Importance Relative to Water Diversity." Environment Department. Washington, Quality." In T. J. Logan, J. Davidson, J. L. Baker, M. D. 5. R. Overcash eds., Effects of Conservation Tillage on .1995b. Mainstreamd ng the Environment. The World Groundwater Quliy NirtsadPsiie. Chlsa Bank Group and the Environment since the Rio Earth Groundwater Quality: Nitrates and Pesticides. Chelsea, Smi.Wsngo,DC Mich.: Lewis Publishers.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Summit. Washington, D.C. Mich.: Lewis Publishers. ___.95."prtoa oiy40,Ntoa Baker, J. L., and H. P. Johnson. 1979. "The Effects of .1995c. "Operational Policy 4.04, National Tillage Systems on Pesticide in Runoff from Small Habitats." Operational Manual. Washington, D.C. 8. Toward a Strategy for Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Agricultural Development Jitendra P. Srivastava, Nigel J. H. Smith, and Douglas A. Forno A strategy is needed to help policymakers greater comprehension on the part of both sides. reconcile the task of preserving biodi- On the one hand those interested in preserving versity while at the same time increasing wildlife, and the habitats they depend on, would agricultural productivity. Preceding chapters benefit from an appreciation of people's roles in have explored some of the important relation- shaping a wide array of cultural habitats on the ships between agriculture and biodiversity and earth, many of which contain considerable bio- have argued that biodiversity conservation and diversity both in space and over time. And those agricultural development can be complementary concerned with agricultural development might activities. Each chapter has offered suggestions improve their success rate by a better apprecia- to ameliorate damage to biodiversity resulting tion of the value of conserving biodiversity and from agricultural practices and policies. Here we the importance of devising land-use practices explore some tentative steps toward an overall that enhance rather than destroy biological strategy for better mainstreaming biodiversity in riches and the ecosystems that support them. agricultural development. Agenda for Action Biodiversity and Agriculture: Partnership for Sustainable Development Various policies and practices can be devised to promote biodiversity conservation in managed The expansion of the agricultural frontier, popu- landscapes and to enhance the greater use of lation growth, and an emphasis on maximizing bioiversity in agriculture (table 8.1). Some of the agricultural output using potent agrochemicals major points for policy consideration are sum- are exerting pressure on habitats for wild plants marized here. and animals. In many cases the conversion of wildlife habitats to farmland and adoption of Toward a Balanced Conservation Strategy "modern" farming practices that rely heavily on purchased fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides Too often conservation is posed as an either-or trigger a loss of biodiversity and the extinction proposition. Some argue that resources should of species. How to conserve biodiversity while be concentrated in maintaining animal and plant addressing the need to increase agricultural pro- genetic resources in places where they occur nat- duction in developing countries-where most of urally (in situ), while others suggest that genetic the earth's biodiversity is located-is a major variation is more useful and often safer if it is challenge facing humanity. maintained in seed or field gene banks (ex situ). An effective strategy to conserve biodiversity Both strategies are needed to sustain the pro- and further agricultural development requires ductivity of agricultural systems. 121 122 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification Table 8.1 Policies and practices that promote biodiversity conservation Responsible Objective ftoposed action organizations COMMITMENT TO ENHANCING BIODIVERsnry IN AGRICULTURE Increase govemment commitment Conduct substantive dialogue with client countries on the MDBs, bilateral aid agencies, to mainstreaming biodiversity in need to conserve and manage biodiversity resources. and NGOs. agriculture and rural development. Increase farmer commitment to incorporate Support efforts to establish property rights so that fam ers National govemments. greater diversity in farming systems. are more willing to invest in long-term strategies to incorporate more biodiversity such as intercropping with perennials; identify other incentives that encourage farmers to promote agrobiodiversity in their cropping systems. Generate greater understanding of how to Prepare training manuals and packets for human resource MDBs. bilateral aid agencies, imoplement policies and sound practices to development. LARCs, NGOs,and agricultural enhance biodiversity in agricutural development. extension agencies. Diversify farming operations with viable Support more research in lesser known or more localized NARs. altemative crops. crops. Collect sufficient data on potential impact of Develop methodologies and perfomiance indicators for MDBs, bilateral aid agencies, agricultural development projects on assessing agrobiodiversity in areas targeted for agricultural NARs, NGOs, and farmers. biodiversity and agrobiodiversity. development. NEw AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH AND EXTENSION PARADIGM Increase particpation of farmers in design Conduct substantive dialogue with developing country Farmers, MDBs, LARCs, and and implementation of agricultural develop- institutions on the need to incorporate, not just consult, local NGOs. ment projects to enhance agrobiodiversity. farmers in agricultural research and devebpment projects. Increase deployment of genetically diverse Provide greater support for developing polygenic resistance, IARCs and NARs. (heterozygous) populations of crop varieties multilines, high-yielding, open-pollinated varieties instead and animal breeds on managed landscapes. of hybrids. Improve productivity of farming and livestock Increase research on undervalued crops and rvestock tha Farmers, lARCs, and NARs. raising in marginal environments. are better adapted to difficut environments than the 'mega' crops and livestock. Create greater awareness of appropriate Develop and disseminate 'sound practices" tailored to task MDBs, bilateral aid agencies, practices for enhancing biodiversity in managers in developing country institutions and intemational NGOs, NARs, and agricultural agricultural development. development agencies. extension agencies. Create rich landscape mosaics with a variety Develop an understanding of factors that motivate farmers to Research: universities and of habitats for wildlife as well as crop and retain or destroy buffer strips and woodlots or to plant a wider NARs. Implementation: livestock production. variety of crops; suggest polides to promote landscape mosaics. agricultural extension agencies. Develop understanding of how to implement Prepare training manuals and packets for human resource MDBs, bilateral aid agencies. policies and sound practices to enhance development LARCs, NGOs, and agricultural biodiversity in agricultural development extension agencies. APPROACHES TO CONSERVATION OF AGROBIODNVERSITY Achieve appropriate balance between Develop methodology for estimating the value of in situ lARCs (especially IPGRI). in situ and ex situ approaches by crop. conservation of genetic resources as a basis for allocating universities, and FAO. limied funds. Create incentives for in situ conservation Identify and implement a new system of intellectual property FAO. of crop and livestock genetic resources. rights applicable to traditional varieties and breeds to benefit loak people. Create incentives to maintain materials in Explore the possibility of recognizing intellectual property rights FAO. ex situ collections through recognition of for some genetic materials in collections with royalties to be their tangible economic value. paid to gene banks and groups that provided the germplasm. Note: FAO (Food and Agriculure Organization); LARCs Ointematonal agriculural research centers); IPGN (Internaol PRant Genetic Resources Institute); MDB (nvultte development banks): NARs (national agrcultural research programsk NGOs (nongovemmental organizations). Toward a Strategyfor Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Agricultural Developmenit 123 While measures to improve the usefulness of * Help find markets for lesser known crocsf ex situ collections of plant and animal genetic and local varieties under the motto "use it or resources are warranted, considerable attention lose it." If a highly localized crop that is on is now being focused on ways to promote in situ the decline suddenly ignites interest in a dis- conservation of plant and animal genetic tant market, growers will be motivated to resources. A wide assortment of approaches to look around for highly productive varieties. in situ conservation is being tried, and a review This search for planting material might save of their effectiveness would generate helpful varieties that might otherwise be abandoned information for policy formulation. If the crop becomes highlv successful and The following approaches to in situ conser- commercialized, the number of varieties tbat vation of crops and livestock appear to warrant are eventually grown is likely to decline !u' particular support: if the crop is valuable, some efforts may t)e * Emphasize a new dimension to existing taken to save at least some of the variation wilderness parks and biological reserves, that used to exist in the crop. safeguarding plants and animals for the * Help find ways for livestock owners to gen- future improvement of agriculture. Some erate more revenues from threatened breeds. existing parks and reserves contain wild If such breeds can "pay" for themselves, thE : populations or near relatives of crops and are less likely to be replaced by the mote livestock; highlighting such attributes would widespread breeds, or their identity is lost in strengthen the case for their better protection continuous crossbreeding. Ecotourism is onrt and management. A major problem is that way to generate income from rare breed-. many areas under consideration for protec- Another way would be to eliminate fisi a! tion have not been adequately inventoried incentives for livestock owners to im-iport from the botanical standpoint. exotic breeds or to use artificiai mseminatioei * Create world heritage sites for genes for agri- based on a few "super" sires l[rcenli,"r4 cultural development. Most parks and might be provided to promote more wide- reserves have been set up to protect spectac- spread adoption of indigenous stock that i, ular animals or rare and endangered plants in many cases better adapted to harsh envi- and habitats. While such efforts deserve con- ronments than exotic breeds. tinued support, the agrobiodiversity aspect of environmental conservation has been largely Greater Involvement of the Private . ector overlooked. Many areas are "hot spots" for agrobiodiversity and warrant better conser- Too often biodiversity conservation is seen as a vation and management in their own right. public sector responsibility. Experieince has * Protect sacred sites and agrobiodiversity. Some shown that reliance on parks and reserves alone sites that are revered and protected for reli- to conserve biodiversity does not work because gious purposes contain groves of wild popu- local populations often do not receive any ber.-* lations of crops or their near relatives. Their fits from such protected areas. Indeed they mav contribution to agrobiodiversity has been even suffer damages frorn wildlife damaging largely ignored. The World Bank has a policy crops or livestock or be denied access to of helping to protect cultural patrimony. Some resources they once depended on for part of sacred places could be envisaged as a form of their subsistence or income. cultural patrimony with an added twist: agro- To counteract reliance on tormal protected biodiversity conservation. areas, community empowerment and manage- * Integrate agrobiodiversity in ecotourism ment of natural resources have become a rallving where appropriate. A virtually untapped cry among donors and organizations that pro- market exists for showing tourists who visit mote conservation and rural development. T-he nature reserves and major archaeological decentralization of control over natural resources sites "traditional" villages and farmlands in can bring many benefits, but community man- the surrounding area. agement alone may not work in all cases. 124 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification Both protected areas and community or local * Cropping patterns that minimize the buildup initiatives to manage and conserve biodiversity of diseases warrant continued support, but they are not * Breeds of livestock that tolerate poor feed or enough. A third, parallel approach is called for, resist diseases and pests that afflict imported particularly in the case of agrobiodiversity: breeds greater involvement of the private sector. Market * Intimate knowledge of botanical resources in forces can and should be harnessed to conserve forests and other habitats that could provide and better use biodiversity. Some specific steps leads for plant domestication or other uses. that can be taken to facilitate this process include: Respect for the importance of local or "tradi- • Promoting policies that encourage market diver- tional" knowledge for agricultural development sification. Create enterprise funds or generate should include renewed efforts to demarcate and other mechanisms to increase investments in protect the territories of indigenous groups. This developing new crops and "forgotten" crops does not imply that indigenous people should be so that their potential can be tapped for cut off from the outside world and discouraged national and international markets. from changing their cultural systems. They * Engaging private landowners in the conservation should be allowed to do so at their own pace, and management of biodiversity. More studies however, and with their lands intact. In this man- need to be undertaken to understand factors ner information on biodiversity resources can be that influence landowners in their decisions shared between indigenous groups and the to maintain or destroy forests or other reser- national society. Too often "development" voirs of biodiversity. Provide tax incentives arrives at the door of indigenous lands and or other measures to encourage landowners destroys the rich and unique knowledge systems to keep relatively undisturbed areas out of that have coevolved with the environment. production for crops or livestock. Greater Supportfor Systematics Tapping Indigenous Knowledge The task of in situ conservation and agrobiodiver- This is a theme that cross-cuts so many aspects of sity surveys before agricultural development will the dynamic interplay between biodiversity and be made much easier if competent specialists are sustaining agricultural production. In the past available to identify and sort materials. Currently, local or farmer knowledge about production sys- not nearly enough taxonomists are available to tems has been largely overlooked, especially in analyze plant and animal materials collected, par- developing countries. Increasingly, though, ticularly in the tropics. This shortage stems in part farmers are seen as partners in efforts to conserve from the pull of "glamour" fields such as micro- and manage biodiversity, whether for nature biology and biotechnology. Development organi- reserves or to improve crop and livestock yields. zations and donors could help fill this need by: As a matter of policy all agricultural research * Providing support to expand room for botan- programs and development projects should ical and zoological collections in museums, include components that seek to incorporate universities, and other research-oriented farmers in the design and implementation of institutions in developing countries research and development efforts. The benefits * Providing scholarships for students from of such collaboration far outweigh the costs of developing countires to undertake taxo- taking the time and trouble to improve the chan- nomic training in both developing and nels of communication between the research industrial countries. establishment and the intended beneficiaries: farmers and livestock managers. Some specific Rapid Agrobiodiversity Assessment Teams contributions of indigenous knowledge to sus- tainable agriculture include: Surveys of agrobiodiversity are needed before a * Crop varieties adapted to harsh growing development project is implemented. Currently, conditions many development organizations, including the Towvard a Strategy for Matnst reamninig Biodiversity in Agricultural Development 125 World Bank, have procedures for screening pro- ring between weedy populations and crops; lects for their environmental effects before such such exchange of genes often improves the har- projects are approved. For the most part screen- diness of crops. The implications of the agricul- ing focuses on off-site impacts of agricultural tural development project in terms of the development and includes an assessment of expected shift in land-use patterns would need whether the project is likely to lead to the loss of to be analyzed, with special attention paid to the forest or other "natural" habitats. likelihood that the project might exert greater An assessment of biodiversity before a project pressure on remaining relatively intact habitats. is approved and implemented would encompass Possible off-site effectsof the proposed agri- two main topics: biodiversity in relatively undis- culttural development project on biodiversity, turbed habitats and agrobiodiversity. For both sit- such as diversion of water courses for irrigation uations biodiversity indicators woLild need to be or use of agrochemicals, can adversely affect established and their significance for decision- fisheries and other wildlife. making assessed. Rapid assessment methodolo- gies have been tried and tested more fully with Agrobiodiversity the first category. Much work remains to be done in designing methodologies for adequately A survey is warranted to document: assessing agrobiodiversity. * The diversity of crops cultivated by localfarmers. An understanding of the historical processes Would they reduce their number of culti- that have shaped the current mix of land-use sys- vated species if the project is implemented? tems in the area targeted for agricultural devel- * Varietal diversity of each crop. Are the varieties opment is warranted. A survey of biodiversity unique to the area? If so, have they been col- and agrobiodiversity would include identifica- lected for cx situ collections? Would they be tion of the driving forces that are propelling: displaced by technologies associated with 1. The shifting boundaries of different land-use implementing the agricultural development systems, particularly if they are encroaching project? Strategies need to be identified that on relatively undisturbed habitats would promote the use of traditional vari- 2. The adoption or abandonment of technolo- eties without compromising the income-gen- gies and practices within land-use systems erating capacity of farmers. that are enhancing or destroying biodiversity. * The nunmber of livestock species raised. Would local farmers simplify their livestock produc- Biodiversity in Relatively Undistulrbed Habitats tion systems if the project is implemented? If so, is the tradeoff worthwhile in the long run? A map using geographic information system * The number of breeds per livestock species. Are techniques would be needed, delineating habi- the breeds unique to the area? Would any of tats with minimal disturbanice where much of them disappear because of the agricultural native biodiversity is concentrated. Such map- development project? ping would also be useful in categorizing land- * Assessment of land-use practice on soil biodiver- scape units on a sliding scale of biodiversity sity as ani indicator of soil "health." In general richness or uniqueness, thereby providing a tool the greater the quantity of organic matter in to help establish priorities for conservation. the soil, the greater the biodiversity of soil For the different "natural" habitats an inven- microorganisms. Would the proposed project tory of the plant and animal species would be accelerate the loss of soil organic matter and called for, and any species with restricted distri- associated biodiversity? butions noted (this is already part of the envi- ronmental assessment process) and any wild Perfornmance Inidicattors populations of domesticated plants and animals that could be of special interest to breeders In chapter 4 some performance indicators with would be identified. Efforts should be made to respect to agriculture's impact on biodiversity establish if spontaneous introgression is occur- are identified. Performance indicators can serve 126 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification as warning bells when agricultural practices making more money than farmers who con- threaten to impair the integrity of both "natural" centrate on common, mainstream varieties. and cultural habitats. Chapter 4 also highlights Incentives can easily be created to encourage possible mitigating actions to address danger growers to target produce for a variety of niche signs that are identified in the performance indi- markets. Such incentives do not imply a bur- cators matrix. Dangers signs include: den on taxpayers. Sometimes lesser known * Natural habitat loss varieties have superior taste or other qualities * Habitat fragmentation but are not promoted by marketng organiza- * Species loss even when natural habitat is still tions. Quality pricing is especially important intact for fruits, vegetables, coffee, and cacao because * Decline in biodiversity of crop species on a discriminating pricing structure would send farms signals to farmers that some of the lesser * Decline in biodiversity within species. known varieties also have market value, and it The following is a sample of remedial mea- is worth their trouble to take care with pro- sures that can be adopted to address biodiversity cessing and handtling of produce. loss associated with agricultural development: * O1ening credit to nonrecomnmended varieties and * Minimize habitat fragmentation by provid- livestock. For the most part farmers can only ing wildlife corridors along bridges of nat- obtain credit for government-approved vari- ural habitat. eties, or "super" breeds. If a variety is not on e Shift to integrated pest management strate- the recommended checklist, farmers usually gies, such as crop rotation and reliance on cannot obtain credit. Likewise, a farmer inter- biocontrol agents to check crop and livestock ested in acquiring a few cows for dairy pro- pests. duction may only be able to obtain a Holstein - Eliminate fiscal or regulatory measures that cow when some local breeds may be better promote homogeneity in crop and livestock adapted to the environment. Such wide- production. spread discrimination accelerates the process * Support research on traditional varieties that of abandoning traditional varieties and can achieve high yield. breeds and contributes to genetic erosion. * Support research on modern varieties that * Continuing to encourage reduction offarmting sub)- are genetically resistant to pests and diseases. sidies. This process is well under way in many More work will be needed to operationalize an countries, in part because of international indicator matrix, particularly with regard to trade agreements, and should be encouraged methodologies for measuring indicators. because agricultural subsidies often trigger biodiversity loss. Such losses occur because Adjusting Policy Environmlent farmers may use more purchased inputs, such as environmentally damaging pesticides and A wide range of policy areas are involved, such fertilizers or irrigation water, than they would as credit, trade, intellectual property rights, and if they had to pay market prices. A highly sub- land tenure. Specific policy levers that would sidized crop may also tempt farmers to clear help conserve and better use agrobiodiversity land that would otherwise be left in a relatively include: Lmdisturbed state. * Promoting quality pricing. If farmers receive premium prices for unusual but attractive Toward a New Agricultural Research varieties of crops, they will be encouraged to and Development Model grow them. A price grading system that rewards farmers not only for producing This new agricultural research paradigm is "clean" produce but also for offering a already evolving along many fronts and at dif- diverse array of fruit and leaf types will help ferent rates in various parts of the world. The generate heterogeneity on agricultural land- shift can be summerized as follows: the old scapes. In some markets specialty growers are research model emphasized maximizing output Tow77ard a Strategyfor Mainistreauiting Biodiziersity in Agricultural Developmenit 127 at almost any cost. Research tended to be com- Some agrobiodiversity is underused, and modity-focused, rather than on production sys- such neglect is environmentally and socially tems as a whole. The interrelatedness of the costly. Sustained support for research on the parts of farming systems was neither appreci- major food and industrial crops as well as live- ated nor understood, with sometimes adverse stock is essential. Any significant cutbacks on effects on the landscape and peoples' liveli- such mainstream crops and livestock could hoods. The new vision for agricultural research bring disastrous consequences. But relatively adopts a more holistic approach that is more sen- minor investments in some neglected crops sitive to environmental concerns, while still and livestock breeds could generate signifi- addressing the need to boost yields and incomes cant dividends. of rural producers and caretakers of the land. * Support for researcht on newt7 crops antd livestock. The new or evolving agricultural research Scope exists for new crops and livestock to fill paradigm includes but is not restricted to: specialty market and environmental niches. *Integrated pest managemient. Integrated pest In some cases natural vegetation communi- management strategies include the release of ties could be managed for the production of biocontrol agents; deployment of genetically new domesticated animals. A better commit- resistant cultivars and breeds; more judicious ment to research on crop and livestock candi- use of pesticides and herbicides; altering crop- dates would thus underscore the value of ping patterns to help thwart buildup of pests conserving biodiversity and natural habitats. and diseases; greater emphasis on crop rota- * Greater senisitivity to the value of a tosaic of larnd tion where economically feasible to retard soil uses. Even land uses that are desirable from degradation and reduce pest pressure. the biodiversity viewpoint can be promoted * A participatory approachi utiUi farmers. Two too far. Biodiversity in managed landscapes types of on-farm research are typically is often best served by promoting a mixture found: demonstration plots on farmers' land of land uses that provides varied habitats for and experimental work that involves farmers wildlife adapted to altered areas. and other stakeholders in the design of mod- * Greater diversity of hlalbitats withfin land-use sys- els from the ground up. Demonstration plots tents. Biodiversity within a land-use system, on farmers' land is much more common and such as intensive cereal cropping, can be is often more akin to experiment station work achiieved by allowing for a variety of habitats, in which pieces of farmers' property are used such as riparian buffer strips, shelterbelts, for the trials with little or no input from the windbreaks, strip cropping, and wetlands. farmers. Much more of the second type of on- Diversity of habitats on the landscape creates farm research is needed, which involves more niches for wildlife, some of which are farmers, pastoralists, and other "clients" of beneficial in controlling crop pests. More agricultural research and development from diverse habitats, including managed ones, the inception of the study design. In this also promote the more efficient use of nutri- manner research would be more demand- ents and creates microclimates that can help driven. buffer crops from inclement weather. * Better use of indigenous knowledge. How and * Greater reliance on recycling organic matter. Such why local people use natural resources can measures as incorporating livestock or green provide important information for more manure-no-till or minimum-till farming- appropriate agricultural research and devel- help sustain the diversity of soil microorgan- opment efforts. isms that are so important in nutrient * Greater supportfor researchi, development, and dis- recycling. semination of lesser knou'n crops and animials. * Slifting research focus fron individual traits to Neglected traditional varieties and breeds, lifetinie and hlerd productivity chlaracteristics. many of which are particularly well suited to Deterministic simulation models and live difficult environments, would also be animal experimentation can be used in some included in such a broadened research effort. cases to achieve this goal. 128 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensificationi *Deternmining the critical nunmber of breeds for impinges on several sectors and associated activ- conservation purposes. DNA analysis of ities, including energy development and eco- genetic variation can be used to highlight the tourism. Institutional mechanisms are needed to genetic spacing between breeds and to iden- ensure that activities in a diverse array of sectors tify those breeds that are significantly differ- do not adversely affect efforts to conserve and bet- ent or unique from others. ter use biodiversity for agriculture. Conversely, * Learning more about genetic components of adap- efforts in other sectors, such as parks and reserves, tation in livestock. A better understanding of could be enhanced by systematically incorporat- such traits as tick resistance and use of body ing agrobiodiversity dimensions, such as wild reserves would aid breeding efforts and populations of crops and near relatives of would likely underscore the importance of livestock. safeguarding so-called "minor" breeds. Future Imperatives Institutional Development Two main points can be distilled from the The notion of a new research paradigm has impli- plethora of policy recommendations, covering a cations for institutional development and explor- diverse array of activities in biodiversity con- ing new ways of doing business. Innovative servation and agricultural development: estab- institutional arrangements would include more lishing performance evaluation criteria and effective partnerships between: crafting incentives to safeguard and manage • Agricultural research centers and NGOs agrobiodiversity more effectively. If the policy * Agricultural research centers and growers' establishment can get these two items right, vir- associations tually all of the recommendations are likely to • Agricultural research centers and private follow suit. companies involved in the manufacture and selling of agricultural technologies Performtance Evaluation Criteria * Universities and agricultural extension agen- cies Chapter 4 provides a tentative outline on ways * Development lending institutions and all of to proceed with such performance criteria. But the above entities. much work remains to be done to broaden this To some degree all of these connections are first step in designing a checklist that can be being explored and tested. Results are mixed. operationally useful for task managers at Initial suspicion between some national agricul- development agencies and lending institu- tural research centers and NGOs has gradually tions. subsided, while in other cases misgivings about interinstitutional collaboration have been borne Incentives to Safeguard by experience. Links between agricultural and Manage Agrobiodiversity extension agencies and generators of technology are with few exceptions weak. To facilitate Factors that encourage farmers to innovate with future collaborative ventures in the manage- a diverse array of crops and varieties for market- ment of agrobiodiversity, organizations' roles ing purposes need to be better understood. and responsibilities will have to be established Policies that create a favorable business environ- more clearly at the outset. ment for entrepreneurs to explore opportunities to process fruit, nuts, and other agricultural Intersectoral Links to Agrobiodiversity products for new markets need to be identified (and successes analyzed). Such information The conservation and management of biodiver- would help both the urban and rural poor in sity of relevance to agricultural development many developing countries. 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Box 202 Fax (1) 312 4000 Tel (8)6909090 7480 AE Haaksbergen Fax: (8) 21 47 77 Related ESD Publications - - e . i, Monitoring Envinrnmental Progress: A Report on Work in Progress Nurturing Development: Aid and Cooperation in Today's Changing World Toward Sustainable Management of Water Resources Water Supply, Sanitation, and Environmental Sustainability: The Financing Challenge The World Bank Participation Sourcebook _=liECE~~~~~~~, a .. . . . .*.. - il i I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ il lii Li. S* SS 6 5 5i- ! .* :5[....]. f i ii ii iii | lEiblS i~~~~~~~~~S . . S . 55 li . . *. . i,.i 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~35 i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~702 ,, ' . 2