2019/97 Supported by K NKONW A A WELDEGDEG E OL N ONTOET E S ESREI R E ISE S F OFRO R P R&A C T HTEH E NEENREGRYG Y ETX ITCREA C T I V E S G L O B A L P R A C T I C E THE BOTTOM LINE Investing in Mini Grids Now, Integrating with the Main Grid Mini grids can economically supply electricity to people in areas that Later: A Menu of Good Policy and Regulatory Options the main grid is unlikely to reach soon. Mini grids can be quickly deployed and are increasingly Why is this issue important? Figure 1. Improvement in electrification rate by region, 2000–14 price-competitive against Investing in mini grids with an eye to their 100 +5% +6% +6% traditional sources of energy. They eventual integration into the main grid can 90 Electrification rate (% of population) can attract private financing and +23% operate without subsidies when quickly advance electrification while avoiding 80 2000 allowed to charge cost-recovery the risk of stranding assets 70 2014 tariffs. Moreover, the arrival of 60 A fully integrated power system is the optimal solution for electrify- the main grid does not mean that 50 ing most countries. Such power systems minimize the cost of supply the investment in mini grids will +11% by allowing for economically efficient planning, investment, and oper- 40 be wasted: their generation and ation of assets with significant economies of scale. Several develop- 30 distribution assets can generally ing countries have made efforts to build and expand an integrated 20 be reused in an integrated power system that includes mini grids and other distributed genera- system. The key is to define—in 10 tion, often with good results. For example, Ghana has constructed an advance—technical standards and 0 interconnected grid that provides power to 85 percent of its urban Latin america sub-saharan Middle east south asia east asia commercial options for integration and the africa and and population and 41 percent of the rural population. Caribbean north africa Pacific once the main grid arrives. But most electrification efforts have focused on expanding the Source: World Bank (2017). main grid to rural areas. South Asian countries have done fairly well with this strategy: electrification rose from 57 percent in 2000 to 80 percent in 2014, an increase of 23 percent (figure 1). Other regions understood but hard to overcome—and those barriers are likely to have increased electrification by 5–11 percent over the same period. remain in place in the near future. Expanding the main grid in rural Sub-Saharan Africa remains the least electrified region (World Bank areas demands significant investment; the long distances and scat- 2017: 5). tered, remote customer bases increase the time and capital required Slow expansion has left millions of people without reliable power, to get the job done. Expanding the grid in rural areas costs $1,100 per This Live Wire was prepared by the Global Facility on Mini Grids, a program or any power at all. More than 566 million people in Sub-Saharan connection in Vietnam, for example, and $2,300 in Tanzania, whereas of the World Bank’s Energy Sector Africa, and 250 million in India, remain without electricity (IEA and a single connection in urban areas costs $570 and $600–1,100 in the Management Assistance Program others 2018). same countries (Castellano and others 2015: 24). (ESMAP). Expanding the main grid can be difficult owing to institutional, Power utilities have difficulty raising the capital required for new economic, and financial barriers, where they are found, that are well assets (or allowing private investors to do so) owing to their poor Investing in Mini Grids Now, Integrating with the Main Grid Later 2 I n v e s ti n g i n M i n i G r i d s N o w , I n t e g r a ti n g w it h t h e M a i n G r i d L a t e r financial and operating performance. Indeed, electricity sales on the Figure 2. Comparison of households’ monthly energy bill for main grid often cannot even cover operating costs, let alone finance Tier 2 consumption by sources, 2017 rapid grid expansion. Meanwhile, government budgets can rarely accommodate the full costs of realizing grid extension investments 12 Monthly bill per household (US$) because they are fiscally constrained. 10 Developing countries that In this context, mini grids can be a low-cost and timely solution 8 Traditional Mini grid promote investment in mini to supply electricity to people in areas that the main grid is unlikely Main grid 6 to reach in the medium term (five to ten years). In such regions, mini grids in the right way today 4 grids have an edge over main-grid expansion in several ways. may be able to bypass Mini grids can be deployed more rapidly than the main 2 the costly retrofitting that grid. Their planning and implementation are more conducive to 0 Bangladesh Cambodia Kenya Nigeria Tanzania Uttar several countries with a spontaneous entrepreneurial development, while grid expansion Pradesh (India) involves several institutions (ministries, utilities, rural electrification centralized system already agencies) in a longer and more complex series of steps. face or will soon be facing. Mini grids are now more than ever price-competitive against traditional sources of off-grid energy (diesel self-gen- eration, kerosene, and dry cell batteries) thanks to the significant improvements in the cost and performance of renewable and cheaper, more cost-efficient main grid. But the arrival of the main storage technologies, coupled with innovative business models. grid does not necessarily mean that the investment in mini grids The latest generation of low-cost, rapidly deployable “solar hybrid” would be wasted. Indeed, mini grids’ generation and distribution mini grids source their energy from solar photovoltaic (PV) systems assets can be reused in an integrated system, either separately or coupled with battery storage and diesel backup. They make use of together. Solar hybrid and small hydro mini grid systems can improve smart in-home meters and offer convenient payment options, such the stability and quality of the main grid by providing backup and as mobile money. frequency stability; and they can do so without significantly lowering Mini grids can access private financing and operate efficiency, since their levelized costs are close to those of larger without subsidies when the regulatory framework allows solar PV and hydro plants that would be built as independent power them to charge full cost-recovery tariffs. Even at cost-recovery producers. Reusing mini grids’ generation and distribution assets levels, users can save money in comparison with traditional sources can enable developing countries to shape their power system into a of energy. For example, mini grids could save Nigeria’s off-grid and centralized grid that integrates fractal systems,2 in line with socioeco- underserved consumers up to $2.4 billion annually on diesel self- nomic trends toward the creation of smaller-scale energy markets. generation (REA 2017: 7). Figure 2 compares households’ cost of Developing countries that promote investment in mini grids in the energy from mini grids, the main grid, and traditional sources of right way today may even be able to bypass the costly retrofitting energy in six Sub-Saharan and Asian countries, for equivalent “Tier 2” that several countries with a centralized system already face or will consumption.1 Main-grid supply would be cheapest—but the main soon be facing. grid might not arrive anytime soon. Policymakers may view investing in mini grids as a waste of resources in the longer term if they are meant to be replaced by a 1 “Tier 2” access to electricity allows for consumption of 6 to 21 kWh/month (Bhatia and 2 Fractal grids refer to nested system operations—at the appliance level, in the home, at the Angelou 2015). We use the lowest end of the range (6 kWh/month) to calculate the monthly bill household level, at the distribution level, at the national or regional level, and between national for the main grid and for mini grids. or regional levels. 3 I n v e s ti n g i n M i n i G r i d s N o w , I n t e g r a ti n g w it h t h e M a i n G r i d L a t e r What can be done to attract investments in mini grids Guaranteeing mini grids the right to connect, subject to compli- ance with standards, can further reassure investors. Without a legal in areas unlikely to be reached by the main grid? requirement, the operator of the main grid may be tempted to exert Defining clear technical standards and commercial discretionary power and reject the connection of a mini grid. options for integration can address key concerns of Table 1 presents three options for standards in case expansion Requiring compliance with mini grid developers and entice them to invest takes place within the lifetime of the mini grid; these are illustrated main-grid standards may with country examples. What happens when the main grid arrives is a major concern for mini be useful where the main grid developers. Investors face two risks: The first is that their assets grid is likely to expand will be stranded. This can occur when the main grid builds over the Table 1. Three options: Technical standards for grid expansion mini grid, pulling customers to the cheaper or better service the within mini grids’ lifetime soon; so-called light main grid offers. The second risk is expropriation of assets, which Standards Description Examples standards may be enough occurs if the utility or the government takes over the mini grid assets Main-grid Mini grids must comply • Nigeria. “Relevant where the main grid is not without adequate compensation. Governments that are serious standards with main-grid technical Technical Codes and likely to expand soon. about increasing electricity access will want to mitigate these risks to standards. Standards” for mini grids with permits (above 100 foster mini grid investments and hasten electrification. kW), conferring the right to Two sets of actions can reassure potential mini grid investors. interconnect The first set would define clear technical standards for mini grids, • Cambodia post-2001. Grid codes and standards for enabling them to connect to the main grid. The second would all mini grids establish clear rules on commercial options available to mini grids • Kenya. Grid code when the main grid arrives. The two sets are intertwined, so they for connection and need to be dealt with together. distribution applies to all mini grids Setting clear technical standards is key to allowing future Mandatory Mini grids must comply • Uttar Pradesh. For connection of mini grids to the main grid at minimal cost. Setting grid-compatible with specific standards connection, mini grids main-grid standards and granting a right to connect, subject to standards (lower than main-grid must comply with compliance with standards, may be useful where the main grid is standards) that achieve 2013 CEA regulations safety and allow (Technical Standards likely to expand soon; light standards may be enough where the connection when the for Connectivity of the main grid is likely to expand later. main grid arrives. Distributed Generation Technical standards for connection with the main grid should Resources). cover the following aspects: Optional Mini grids that comply • Tanzania. For connection • Equipment (distribution network poles, conductors, and insu- grid-compatible with grid-compatible or asset buyout, standards standards (lower than distribution assets must lators) that ensures the network can handle the quantities of grid standards) may comply with grid- electricity that flow when energized by the main grid choose an economically compatible standards set • Generation synchronization, to ensure the safe and reliable attractive option when by the Tanzanian bureau the main grid arrives. of standards. operation of the grid when connected to the mini grid generator Safety is also regulated. • Interoperability, which refers to the capability of two or more networks, systems, devices, or components to interact, commu- nicate, and exchange information securely and effectively. 4 I n v e s ti n g i n M i n i G r i d s N o w , I n t e g r a ti n g w it h t h e M a i n G r i d L a t e r Setting grid-compatible or main-grid standards can be useful Table 2. Three options: Technical standards for grid expansion when the grid is expected to be expanded within the lifetime of a beyond mini grids’ lifetime mini grid’s assets. At that point, a mini grid operator may well not Standards Description Examples have received the required return. Having the option to connect to No technical Mini grids are free to set • Cambodia. No technical the main grid may allow a mini grid operator to earn the expected standards their own standards. standards before 2001 A lighter approach to revenue, preserving the value of the investment. Safety standards Only safety standards • Nigeria. Recommended standards may foster the Grid-compatible or main-grid standards enable mini grids to only are regulated. safety standards for integrate without jeopardizing the safety, stability, and reliability of the registered mini grids development of mini grids (in practice, all mini grids power system. Mandatory standards guarantee the stability of the in communities where as of 2017) power system and ensure higher equipment quality and safety. But • Uttar Pradesh. Safety subsidies are limited, and stability of the power system can be preserved even with optional standards only for mini standards, while offering flexibility to mini grid operators. Operators grids below 50 kW where the ability to pay can choose either to follow the standards to guarantee later connec- Technical All mini grids are bound • Nigeria. Health and safety for the desired service standards to comply with specific standards for all mini grids tion or not do so and risk being denied the right to connect if they level rules out the use of specific to mini technical standards. • Sri Lanka. Government- are unable to upgrade their infrastructure when the main grid arrives. grids Compatibility with subsidized mini grids must technology compatible with Grid-compatible or main-grid standards entail relatively high the main grid is not comply with technical costs both for developers and governments for several reasons: required. standards that are less the main grid. stringent than the main- • Equipment that meets these standards is typically more expen- grid standards sive. For example, in Bangladesh one developer reported that compliance with pole standards accounted for 25 percent of the total mini grid’s capital expenditure, compared with 5 percent for an unregulated project in Nigeria. Grid-compatible or main-grid Setting lighter standards can save resources for both developers standards may also prevent innovation that could decrease and governments: costs. • This option gives developers more flexibility to design mini grids • Governments may need to provide subsidies to cover the added with their target market and local conditions in mind—and it costs and attract investments in communities where incomes are encourages innovation. For example, developers might design too low to charge a cost-recovery tariff. their mini grids to operate on direct current, which is cheaper • Designing and enforcing grid-compatible standards requires than operating on alternating current. significant human resources from governments. For example, in • Governments may save on subsidies. No subsidy is generally Cambodia the regulator advises developers on how to build mini required when there are no technical standards; safety standards grid systems so that they can integrate with the main grid later require minimal subsidies. A lighter approach may foster the (Tenenbaum 2018: 30). development of mini grids in communities where subsidies are limited, and where the ability to pay for the desired service level A lighter approach to setting standards may be appropriate for rules out the use of technology compatible with the main grid. areas where grid expansion is expected to occur after developers and investors have recouped their investments. A lighter approach Even lighter standards require some administrative capacity includes options that range from safety standards only (and no and resources. In the case of safety standards only, regulators still technical standards), or technical standards specific to mini grids. need to be able to define and enforce those standards. Designing Table 2 presents these options and illustrates them with examples. and enforcing mini grid-specific standards is a “time-consuming 5 I n v e s ti n g i n M i n i G r i d s N o w , I n t e g r a ti n g w it h t h e M a i n G r i d L a t e r process that requires extensive research” as well as a sufficient grid sector. Before Cambodia enforced technical standards, a quarter level of subsidies (USAID 2017: 174). Regulators may also have to of mini grids had service interruptions every day due to equipment carry out costly and time-consuming connection studies if a mini breakdowns (EDC 2001). grid operator wishes to connect to the main grid (USAID 2017: 165). Clear commercial arrangements for generation and distribution Without administrative capacity, entrepreneurs who use substandard assets make up the second set of actions that can be taken to Far-sighted arrangements equipment may fail to provide reliable power, damaging their encourage investments in mini grids by providing investors greater for generation and reputation as service providers or the reputation of the entire mini clarity about the continuation of revenues after the main grid arrives. distribution assets provide investors greater clarity Table 3. Options that allow mini grid investors to continue to earn revenues after the main grid arrives about the continuation Option Description Examples of revenues after the Small power • Mini grid operator retains its distribution assets and • The Cambodian government let mini grid operators keep their distribution main grid arrives. distributor (SPD) purchases electricity wholesale from the utility, selling business, seeing that mini grids would be more efficient at achieving the to its customers. objectives of rapid electrification and better service than the national utility, These arrangements • Generation assets are transferred to the utility, sold to which was focusing on transmission and generation expansion. Cambodia’s include integration and a third party, moved to another location, abandoned, regulation provides for an automatic conversion of mini grids to SPDs when or decommissioned. the main grid arrives; the operator must decommission its generation assets exit options, such as and buy from the grid. To compensate for the loss of value of the generator, the tariff that an operator may charge is kept above cost-recovery levels for conversion to a small more than one year. The tariff then adjusts from the level of a diesel mini grid power distributor (SPD), to the lower level of the SPD buying from the national utility. a small power producer Small power • Distribution network is transferred to the utility or • Uttar Pradesh. Isolated mini grids can convert to SPPs and sell power at a producer (SPP) abandoned. feed-in tariff determined at the state level. (SPP), or both (SPD+SPP); • Mini grid operator retains its generation assets, • Tanzania. One option available to mini grids is to convert to an SPP, provided becomes an independent SPP , and sells power to the they comply with connection standards. or an asset buyout. utility. • Bangladesh. Mini grids must convert to SPPs, and the tariff at which they can • Batteries may also be used to provide services. sell power is determined upon negotiation with the power purchaser on a cost-plus basis. Small power • Mini grid operator retains both its distribution network • Nigeria. Mini grids have the option to convert to SPD and SPP, whereupon producer and and generation assets. they are deemed “interconnected.” small power • It meets its customers’ needs by buying from the grid, • Tanzania. Mini grids have the option to convert to SPP and SPD. distributor running its generator, or both. (SPP+SPD) • It can sell its excess power to the main grid. • The utility purchases and operates the mini grid assets. • Variants include partial asset buyout (of distribution assets only).. Asset buyout • The utility purchases and operates the mini grid • Uttar Pradesh. Mini grids have the option to sell their distribution assets to assets. the utility at the “cost determined on mutual consent between the utility and • Variants include partial asset buyout (of distribution developer by the estimation of cost/profit loss of the project installed by the assets only). developer” (UPNREDA 2016). • Nigeria. Mini grids have the right to sell part or all of their assets to the distribution company at the depreciated value of the assets plus 12 months of revenue. 6 I n v e s ti n g i n M i n i G r i d s N o w , I n t e g r a ti n g w it h t h e M a i n G r i d L a t e r Commercial arrangements include integration and exit options grid-compatible but whose generator is not competitive with power such as conversion to a small power distributor (SPD), a small power from the grid. However, where a mini grid’s distribution network is producer (SPP), or both (SPD+SPP); or an asset buyout. Table 3 pres- not in good condition or grid-compatible, but the generator is com- ents these four options and illustrates them with country examples. petitive with power from the main grid, converting to an SPP may Figure 3 illustrates how to navigate the options for integration or exit be appropriate. Finally, where the mini grid’s distribution network is How mini grids integrate in specific contexts. in good condition and grid-compatible, the generator is competitive, with the main grid These options allow mini grids to efficiently integrate with the and the main grid does not provide reliable service, the SPP+SPD main grid in a manner consistent with their assets’ compatibility option may be appropriate. will depend on the and competitiveness. Converting to an SPD may be appropriate Commercial arrangements affect how investors earn revenues. compatibility and for a mini grid whose distribution network is in good condition and For SPDs, a good option is to factor a return on investment into the competitiveness of their assets. Figure 3. Decision tree for integration and exit options Mini grids operate under contract with the Integration with the main grid from the start main grid is essential Asset buyout option that can be exercised by main grid Option to convert to small power distributor (SPD) plus small power distributor (SPP) Mini grids are built at Dominant generation technology is not Option to convert to SPD grid-compatible standards competitive with generation from the main grid Distribution network buyout option that can be exercised by mini grid Integration with Option to convert to SPP and main grid is desirable distribution network buyout Dominant generation technology is When the competitive with generation from the main grid Option to convert to SPP and SPD main grid arrives Policy objective to protect the distribution companies from competition Asset abandonment (possibly with compensation for loss of value) Mini grids are not built at Coexistence with the main grid grid-compatible standards (possibly with compensation for loss of value) No policy objective to protect the distribution companies from competition 7 I n v e s ti n g i n M i n i G r i d s N o w , I n t e g r a ti n g w it h t h e M a i n G r i d L a t e r distribution margin (that is, the difference between the retail tariff decisions by the government or the regulator should not block a mini and the wholesale tariff) charged by the SPD. However, once a mini grid operator from choosing an integration or exit option or interfere grid is connected to the main grid, its customers may well expect in the enforcement of the defined compensation rules. to pay the same tariff as the main grid customers. Subsidies may then be needed to respond to this expectation while preserving References Feed-in tariffs may not the value of investment in the mini grid. For example, after years of Bhatia, Mikul, and Niki Angelou. 2015. “Beyond Connections—Energy protect small power differentiated, cost-reflective tariffs for SPDs, Cambodia introduced Access Redefined.” ESMAP Technical Report 008/15. World Bank, a subsidy that equalizes mini grid tariffs with those on the main grid producers if there are no Washington, DC. http://hdl.handle.net/10986/24368. while preserving a return on investment for the SPD. Castellano, Antonio, Adam Kendall, Mikhail Nikomarov, and Tarryn clear rules about how For SPPs, a feed-in tariff (FiT) would guarantee a fixed price Swemmer. 2015. “Brighter Africa: The Growth Potential of the producers should deliver over a long period for every kWh generated and fed into the grid Sub-Saharan Electricity Sector.” McKinsey & Company. https:// power and be paid. A (Tenenbaum 2014: 174). FiTs can be set based on either: www.mckinsey.com/~/media/McKinsey/dotcom/client_service/ • Avoided-cost tariff. This method requires estimating the value power purchase agreement EPNG/PDFs/Brighter_Africa-The_growth_potential_of_the_ of the energy to the purchasing utility based on avoided financial, with a creditworthy utility sub-Saharan_electricity_sector.ashx. economic, or social costs. It allows competitive SPPs to recover EDC (Enterprise Development Cambodia). 2001. Survey of 45 solves this problem. their costs. Cambodian Rural Electricity Enterprises. Phnom Penh. • Technology-cost tariff. At this level, a well-run SPP would earn EWURA. 2018. “Electricity Act Rules.” Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. http:// a reasonable profit using a technology specified in the tariff. This www.ewura.go.tz/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/The-Electricity- method requires an estimate of the cost-recovery tariff, based on Development-of-Small-Power-Projects-Rules-2018.pdf. assumptions about the capital structure, capacity factor, capital IEA (International Energy Agency), IRENA (International Renewable costs, and cost of debt. It allows SPPs to recover their costs. Energy Agency), UN (United Nations), WBG (World Bank Group), For SPDs+SPPs, as seen above, mini grids can be protected by a and WHO (World Health Organization). 2018. Tracking SDG7: return on investment in the distribution margin, and a FiT for the sale The Energy Progress Report 2018. Washington, DC: World Bank. of power to the utility. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/29812. FiTs may not be enough to protect the SPP if there are no clear REA (Rural Electrification Agency). 2017. “The Off-Grid Opportunity in rules about how the SPP should deliver power and be paid. Signing Nigeria.” 4th Mini-Grid Action Learning Event, Abuja, “Upscaling a power purchase agreement (PPA) with the utility can achieve this. mini-grids for low cost and timely access to electricity services,” The utility also needs to be creditworthy. 4–8 December. The development of standard PPAs that the utility is legally Tenenbaum, Bernard, Chris Greacen, James Knuckles, and Tilak bound to honor can further protect mini grid investors. Standard Siyambalapitiya. 2014. From the Bottom Up: How Small Power PPAs balance the bargaining power between the mini grid and the Producers and Mini-Grids Can Deliver Electrification and utility. The utility is often the only available buyer. In its position of Renewable Energy in Africa. Washington, DC: World Bank. https:// monopoly buyer, it may, in the absence of standards, try to dictate openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/16571. the terms and conditions of the PPA, which may not allow develop- Tenenbaum, Bernard, Chris Greacen, and Dipti Vaghela. 2018. Mini- ers to recover their investment in the mini grid’s assets. In Tanzania, Grids and the Arrival of the Main Grid: Lessons from Cambodia, recent rules require the main grid to enter a standard PPA if an Sri Lanka, and Indonesia. Energy Sector Management Assistance isolated mini grid is eligible to convert into an SPP (EWURA 2018). Program (ESMAP) Technical Report 013/18. Washington, DC: Appropriate enforcement of defined rules and commercial World Bank. http://hdl.handle.net/10986/29018. arrangements is essential to investment stability. Ideally, discretionary 8 I n v e s ti n g i n M i n i G r i d s N o w , I n t e g r a ti n g w it h t h e M a i n G r i d L a t e r UPNREDA (Uttar Pradesh New and Renewable Energy Development This Live Wire was prepared by the Global Facility on Mini Grids (GFMG) with inputs and significant contributions from the team of Castalia Strategic Advisors, and MAKE FURTHER Agency). 2016. Uttar Pradesh Mini-grid Policy 2016. http:// specifically David Ehrhardt, Gianmarco Servetti, Lisa Tessier, Charly Missirian, and CONNECTIONS upneda.org.in/sites/default/files/all/section/Mini%20 Laurie Hervot. Their support is gratefully acknowledged. The GFMG is a program Grid&20Policy &202016.pdf. of the World Bank’s Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP). The Live Wire 2015/38. “Integrating USAID. 2017. Practical Guide to the Regulatory Treatment of Mini- Facility helps mainstream mini grids into World Bank lending projects and national Variable Renewable Energy into electrification programs and supports the development and dissemination of Power System Operations,” by grids. Washington, DC: USAID. https://pubs.naruc.org/pub/ knowledge and learning on mini grids. To share and exchange the latest develop- Thomas Nikolakakis and Debabrata e1a6363a-a51d-0046-c341-dade9ebaa6e3. ments, the GFMG hosts annual Action Learning Events. Chattopadhyay. World Bank. 2017. State of Electricity Access Report 2017 (Vol. 2). Live Wire 2015/44. “Mapping Washington, DC: World Bank. http://documents.worldbank.org/ Smart-Grid Modernization in Power curated/en/364571494517675149/full-report. Distribution Systems,” by Samuel Oguah and Debabrata Chattopadhyay. Live Wire 2015/51. “Scaling Up Access to Electricity: Emerging Best Practices for Mini-Grid Regulation,” by Chris Greacen, Stephanie Nsom, and Dana Rysankova. Live Wire 2017/76. “Increasing the Potential of Concessions to Expand Rural Electrification in Sub-Saharan Africa,” by Richard Hosier, Morgan Bazilian, and Tatia Lemondzhava. Live Wire 2017/86. “Data as an Enabler in the Off-Grid Sector: Focus on Tanzania,” by Christopher Arderne, Yann Tanvez, and Pepukaye Bardouille. Live Wire 2019/98. “Ensuring That Regulations Evolve as Mini Grids Mature,” by the Global Facility on Mini Grids. Find these and the entire Live Wire archive at https://openknowledge. worldbank.org/handle/10986/17135.