ACS6915 目 录 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 目录 Contents 1 鸣谢 缩略语表 1/ 概述 2/ 当前儿童早期教育的政策与现状 6/ 儿童早期教育经费投入和使用 8/ 云南农村儿童的现状：农村住户调查结果 16/ 昆明幼儿园的质量和环境评估 18/ 幼儿教师招聘、职业发展、薪酬及短缺 22/ 政策和计划影响 34/ 引言 46/ 第一部分　有关儿童早期教育的政策和儿童早期教育现状 48/ 法律和制度框架 58/ 管理与服务提供 60/ 云南省儿童早期教育的主要趋势 62/ 云南省的 GER 与国内其他地区相比偏低， 且内部差异 很大 66/ 私立机构所占入学人数的比例一直在增长 70/ 一年制学前班在云南农村地区十分普遍 76/ 云南省是全国农村地区在学前教育机构入学人数中 所占比例最高的省份之一 82/ 农村地区学生—教师比的不断下降和受过培训的教师 供应的不平均 88/ 总结与讨论 2 目 录 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 1/ Acknowledgements 1/ Abbreviations and Acronyms 1/ Overview 3/ Existing Policies on and Status of Early Childhood Education 7/ Financing Early Childhood Education 9/ Status of Children in Rural Yunnan: Results from a Rural Household Survey 17/ Preschool Quality and Environment in Kunming 19/ Preschool Teacher Recruitment, Career Development, Salaries, and Shortages 23/ Policy and Program Implications 34/ Introduction 46/ Part I Existing Policies on and Status of Early Childhood Education 49/ Legal and Institutional Framework 59/ Administration and Service Delivery 61/ Main Trends in Early Childhood Education in Yunnan 63/ Yunnan’s GER is Low by National Comparison, with Major Internal Disparities 67/ Share of Private Enrollment Has Been Increasing 71/ One-year Pre-primary Classes are Prevalent in Rural Areas of Yunnan 77/ Yunnan’s Rural Share of Preschool Enrollment is One of the Highest in the Country 83/ Declining Pupil-teacher Ratios and Inequality in Supply of Trained Teachers in Rural Areas 89/ Summary and Discussion 3 92/ 第二部分　儿童早期教育的资金投入 94/ 教育资金的构成 100/ 对学前教育进行资金投入 118/ 总结与讨论 124/ 第三部分　云南农村儿童的现状：农村住户调查结果 128/ 农村家庭照顾条件、育儿方式，以及儿童发展现状 144/ 幼儿园入园特点 154/ 儿童发展结果的相关因素 164/ 幼儿园入园率的相关因素 166/ 总结与讨论 180/ 第四部分　昆明幼儿园的质量 184/ 用 ECERS—R 标准评估幼儿园质量 188/ 要点和结论 196/ 昆明的幼儿园之间存在明显差异 200/ 总结与讨论 206/ 第五部分　云南省幼儿教师现状调查 208/ 对教师 / 园长调查的描述 212/ 主要的调查结果 218/ 教师的职业阶梯 230/ 云南幼儿教师的需求与供应 244/ 国际比较 260/ 总结与讨论 4 目 录 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 92/ Part II Financing Early Childhood Education 95/ Structure of Educational Finance 101/ Financing Preschool Education 119/ Summary and Discussions 124/ Part III Status of Children in Rural Yunnan: Results from a Rural Household Survey 129/ Rural Home Care Conditions, Childrearing Practices, and Childhood Developmental Status 145/ Characteristics of Kindergarten Enrollment 155/ Correlates of Development Outcomes 165/ Correlates of Kindergarten Enrollment 167/ Summary and Discussion 180/ Part IV Preschool Quality in Kunming 185/ Assessment of Preschool Quality with ECERS-R 189/ Key Findings and Results 197/ There are Signif icant Internal Disparities within Kunming’s Kindergartens 201/ Summary and Discussion 206/ Part V Study of Preschool Teachers in Yunnan 209/ Description of the Teachers/Director Survey 213/ Key Findings and Results 219/ Preschool Teacher Career Ladder Mechanism 231/ Demand and Supply for Preschool Teachers in Yunnan 245/ International Comparison 261/ Summary and Discussion 264/ Part VI Policy and Program Implications 267/ Increasing Public Financing of Preschool Education and 5 264/ 第六部分　政策和计划影响 266/ 加大公共财政对学前教育的投入，多渠道投入、扩大服务 提供模式 276/ 扩大服务提供模式 276/ 改善现有幼儿园的质量和环境 278/ 加强家庭和家长教育 278/ 提高对二手烟危害的认识 280/ 发展学前教育的师资力量 282/ 为所有孩子包括 0—3 岁儿童提供一体化的 ECD 286/ 附录 288/ A. 2004—2010 年中国不同地区学前三年幼儿园毛入学率 （估计值） 290/ B. 2013 年云南儿童发展家庭调查多元回归（模型 1—8）和 逻辑（模型 9）分析结果 314/ 参考书目 专栏 38/ 专栏 1.0　儿童早期教育发展的好处 168/ 专栏 3.1　早期阅读对儿童认知能力发展的影响 172/ 专栏 3.2　看电视对儿童发展结果的影响 270/ 专栏 6.1 上海教育券制度提高农民工子女入学率、 改善教育质量 274/ 专栏 6.2 菲律宾有条件现金转移支付项目 6 目 录 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Diversifying Financing/Delivery Models 275/ Expanding Service Delivery Models 277/ Improving Quality and Atmosphere of Existing Preschools 279/ Strengthening Family and Parental Education 279/ Increasing Awareness of Secondhand Smoke’s Harmful Effects 281/ Developing a Preschool Teaching Force 283/ Moving toward Integrated ECD Provision for all Including 0- to 3-year-olds 286/ Appendix 289/ A. Kindergarten Gross Enrollment Rate (est.) of Three Years before Primary School, 2004-2010, by Region 291/ B. Regression Results of Multivariate (Model 1—8) and Logistic (Model 9) Analysis of the Household Survey on Childhood Development in Yunnan, 2013 314/ References Boxes 39/ Box 1.0 The Benef its of ECD 169/ Box 3.1 The Effect of Early Reading on Children’s Cognitive Development 173/ Box 3.2 The Effect of TV Watching on Childhood Development Outcomes 271/ Box 6.1 Shanghai’s Voucher System to Improve Education Access and Quality for Migrant Children 275/ Box 6.2 Philippines Conditional Cash Transfers Figures 43/ Figure 1.0 Research Design 63/ Figure 1.1 2010 Gross Enrollment Rate (GER) in selected 7 图示 44/ 图 1.0 研究设计 62/ 图 1.1　2010 年部分国家学前教育毛入学率 （GER） 64/ 图 1.2　2004—2010 年中国部分地区学前教育机构毛入学 率（估计） 68/ 图 1.3　2005—2012 年中国私立学前教育机构所占入学人 数的比例 70/ 图 1.4　2003—2009 年云南省私立学前教育机构所占入学 人数的比例 72/ 图 1.5　2003—2010 年中国学前班级数量 72/ 图 1.6　2003—2010 年中国的一年制学前班数量 74/ 图 1.7　2010 年中国部分城市、县城和农村地区一年制学前 班入学人数占学前教育机构总入学人数的百分比 76/ 图 1.8　2010 年中国部分地区城市、县城和农村地区一年制 学前班在学前教育机构入学总人数中所占的比例 78/ 图 1.9　2003—2010 年中国幼儿园的数量 78/ 图1.10　2003—2010年中国幼儿园和一年制学前班学生人数 80/ 图1.11　2003—2010年云南省幼儿园和一年制学前班学生人数 80/ 图 1.12　2003—2010 年西部各省幼儿园和一年制学前班学 生人数 84/ 图 1.13　2003—2010 年中国各地区学生—教师比 86/ 图 1.14　2010 年中国部分省市幼儿园学生—教师比 88/ 图 1.15　2010 年中国部分地区农村、县城和城市所占的 入学人数和受过培训的教师的比例 94/ 图 2.1　2011 年国家教育资金（包括所有教育阶段）的构成 8 目 录 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 East Asia and Pacif ic Countries 65/ Figure 1.2 Gross Enrollment Rate (est.) of Preschools, by Region, 2004—2010 69/ Figure 1.3 Share of Enrollment in Private Preschools in China, 2005—2012 71/ Figure 1.4 Share of Enrollment in Private Preschools in Yunnan, 2003—2009 73/ Figure 1.5 All Preschool Classes in China, 2003—2010 73/ Figure 1.6 One-year Pre-primary Classes in China, 2003—2010 75/ Figure 1.7 Enrollment in One-year Pre-primary Classes as a Percentage of Total Preschool Enrollment in Cities, Counties and Rural Areas, by Province, 2010 77/ Figure 1.8 Enrollment in One-year Pre-primary Classes as a Percentage of Total Preschool Enrollment in Cities, Counties and Rural Areas, by Regions, 2010 79/ Figure 1.9 Number of Kindergartens in China, 2003—2010 79/ Figure 1.10 Number of Students in Kindergartens and One-year Pre-primary Schools in China, 2003—2010 81/ Figure 1.11 Number of Students in Kindergartens and One-year Pre-primary Schools in Yunnan, 2003—2010 81/ Figure 1.12 Number of Students in Kindergartens and One-year Pre-primary Schools in Western Provinces, 2003—2010 85/ Figure 1.13 Pupil-Teacher Ratio, by Region, 2003—2010 87/ Figure 1.14 Pupil-Teacher Ratios in Kindergartens, by Province, 2010 89/ Figure 1.15 Share of Enrollment and Trained Teachers in Rural, County and Urban Areas by Region, 9 98/ 图2.2　1980—2010年中国学生人数在各个教育阶段的分布 状况 104/ 图 2.3　2011 年中国及云南省的学前教育资金构成 106/ 图 2.4　2011 年中国各地区各类学前教育阶段生均教育经 费支出状况 106/ 图 2.5　2011 年中国各地区各类生均财政预算教育经费支出 状况 108/ 图 2.6　2011 年中国学前教育阶段生均预算支出和生均教 育经费支出状况 110/ 图 2.7　2010 年中国部分省幼儿园生均个人部分支出状况 112/ 图 2.8　2010 年中国部分省幼儿园生均公用部分支出状况 112/ 图 2.9　2011 年中国各地区农村学前教育机构占用资金和 入学人数的比例 114/ 图 2.10　2011 年中国各地区各类农村学前教育机构生均预 算支出状况 114/ 图 2.11　2011 年中国各地区各类农村学前教育机构生均教 育经费支出状况 116/ 图 2.12　2010 年中国部分省幼儿园学杂费及占教育经费 总投入的比例 120/ 图 2.13　2010 年中国城镇与农村居民人均收入支付不同类 型幼儿园学杂费的所占比例情况（%） 130/ 图 3.1　2013 年云南省样本县儿童主要照顾人情况 130/ 图 3.2　2013 年云南省农村新生儿体重 132/ 图 3.3　2013 年云南省不同类型的县婴儿母乳喂养情况 132/ 图 3.4　2013 年云南省母亲、父亲和其他照顾人教育水平 情况 10 目 录 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 2010 95/ Figure 2.1 Composition of National Educational Funds (all educational subsectors), 2011 99/ Figure 2.2 Distribution of Students by Level of Education, 1980—2010 105/ Figure 2.3 Composition of Preschool Education Funding, China and Yunnan, 2011 107/ Figure 2.4 Total Spending per Student on Preschool Education, by Type and Region, 2011 107/ Figure 2.5 Budgetary Spending per Student on Preschool Education, by Type and Region, 2011 109/ Figure 2.6 Budgetary and Total Spending per Student on Preschool Education in China, by Province, 2011 111/ Figure 2.7 Per-Student Kindergarten Personnel Expenditures in China, in RMB, 2010 113/ Figure 2.8 Per-Student Kindergarten Operational Expenditures in China, in RMB, 2010 113/ Figure 2.9 Share of Rural Preschool Finance and Enrollment, by Region, 2011 115/ Figure 2.10 Budgetary Spending per Student on Rural Preschool Education, by type, 2011 115/ Figure 2.11 Total Spending per Student on Rural Preschool Education, by type, 2011 117/ Figure 2.12 Percentage of Tuition and Fees out of Total Investment in Preschool Education in China, 2010 121/ Figure 2.13 Proportion of Kindergarten Tuition and Fees of Average Per-Capita Income by Kindergarten Grade, Urban versus Rural residents, in RMB, 2010 131/ Figure 3.1 Children’s Primary Caregiver in Sample Counties 11 134/ 图 3.5　2013 年云南省家庭收入状况 136/ 图 3.6　2013 年云南省少数民族县与非少数民族县家庭与 玩耍和看电视的时间 儿童一起读书、 138/ 图 3.7　2013 年云南省贫困县与非贫困县家庭与儿童一起 玩耍和看电视的时间 读书、 140/ 图 3.8　2013 年云南省儿童各类食物摄取频率 140/ 图 3.9　2013 年云南省各类县家庭藏书数量 144/ 图 3.10　2013 年云南省家庭主要语言 146/ 图 3.11　2013 年云南省各类县儿童就读幼儿园或一年制学 前班情况 146/ 图 3.12　2013 年云南省各类县儿童幼儿园或一年制学前班 就读率 148/ 图 3.13　2013 年云南省儿童选择幼儿园或学前班的主要 原因 148/ 图 3.14　云南省样本县家庭儿童不上幼儿园或学前班的 主要原因 150/ 图 3.15　受访家庭对最近一所幼儿园的距离和相关费用的 估算 154/ 图 3.16　2013 年云南省各类县受访家庭认为幼儿园比小学 更近的比例 158/ 图 3.17　2013 年云南省各类县儿童社会能力和认知能力发 展情况 表格 48/ 表 1.1　有关学前教育的部分法律和规定 58/ 表 1.2　云南省扩大学前教育的部分工作 12 目 录 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 in Yunnan, 2013 131/ Figure 3.2 Birth Weight of Children in Rural Yunnan, 2013 133/ Figure 3.3 Infant Breastfeeding in Yunnan, by County Type, 2013 133/ Figure 3.4 Educational Levels of Mothers, Fathers, and Caregivers in Yunnan, 2013 135/ Figure 3.5 Annual Household Income in Yunnan, 2013 137/ Figure 3.6 Reported Time Spent Reading and Playing with Children and Watching TV in Yunnan, 2013 139/ Figure 3.7 Reported Time Spent Reading and Playing with Children and Watching TV in Yunnan, 2013 141/ Figure 3.8 Frequency of Various Types of Food Intake in Yunnan, 2013 141/ Figure 3.9 Number of Books at Home across County Types in Yunnan, 2013 145/ Figure 3.10 Primary Communication Language(s) at Home in Yunnan, 2013 147/ Figure 3.11 Enrollment of Kindergarten/One-year Pre-primary Classes, by County Type in Yunnan, 2013 147/ Figure 3.12 Enrollment Rate in Kindergartens or One-year Pre-primary Classes, by County Types, 2013 149/ Figure 3.13 The Most Important Reason(s) for Selecting Kindergartens/Preschools in Yunnan, 2013 149/ Figure 3.14 The Most Important Reason(s) for not Attending Kindergartens/Preschools in Sample Counties in Yunnan 151/ Figure 3.15 Respondents’ Estimates of Nearest Kindergartens and Associated Costs 155/ Figure 3.16 Percent as a Share of Households that Recognize a Closer Kindergarten than a Nearest Primary 13 64/ 表 1.3　2011 年云南省的估计毛入学率（按地州） 68/ 表 1.4　2012 年中国及云南省私立和公立学前教育机构各 自所占比例（入学人数和教师人数） 84/ 表 1.5　2003—2010 年中国部分地区教师和入学人数的年 增长率（%） 96/ 表 2.1　2011 年入学人数和教育资金在各个教育阶段的 分布（%） 100/ 表 2.2　2011年中国各地区教育资金投入和学前教育状况（%） 116/ 表 2.3　昆明市幼儿园收费项目和标准 142/ 表 3.1　2013 年云南省各地区家庭吸烟习惯 152/ 表 3.2　与最近一所幼儿园的估计距离、每月估计费用、 与最近一所小学的估计距离的描述性统计 152/ 表 3.3　受访家庭估计的平均每月费用 156/ 表 3.4　主要原因变量的指数得分 184/ 表 4.1　样本规模和分布 188/ 表 4.2　昆明学前教育机构调查 ECERS-R 平均得分和评级 190/ 表 4.3　昆明幼儿园和孟加拉 Plan Bangladesh 幼儿园 ECERS-R 平均得分比较 192/ 表 4.4　昆明幼儿园与东非 Madrasa 项目幼儿园 ECERS-R 平均得分比较 194/ 表 4.5　昆明幼儿园和巴西幼儿园 ECERS-R 平均得分比较 194/ 表4.6　昆明幼儿园与北京幼儿园的 ECERS-R 平均得分比较 196/ 表 4.7　昆明已评级幼儿园与未评级幼儿园的 ECERS-R 平均得分比较 198/ 表 4.8　昆明各地区幼儿园 ECERS-R 平均得分比较 200/ 表 4.9　昆明公立和私立幼儿园 ECERS-R 平均得分比较 14 目 录 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 School in Yunnan, by County Type, 2013 159/ Figure 3.17 Social and Cognitive Development Scores across Regions in Yunnan, 2013 Tables 49/ Table 1.1 Selected Laws and Regulation on Preschool Education 59/ Table 1.2 Selected Expansion of Preschool Education in Yunnan 65/ Table 1.3 Estimated Gross Enrollment Rate in Yunnan, by County, 2011 69/ Table 1.4 Share of Private and Public Preschools, Enrollment and Teachers, 2012 85/ Table 1.5 Annual Growth Rates of Teachers and Enrollment, 2003—2010 (%) 97/ Table 2.1 Distribution of Enrollment and Educational Funding, by Level of Education, 2011 (%) 101 Table 2.2 Education Funding and Preschool Education in China, by Region, 2011 (%) 117/ Table 2.3 Items and Standards for Kindergarten Fees in Kunming 143/ Table 3.1 Smoking Habits in Yunnan, by Region, 2013 (%) 153/ Table 3.2 Descriptive Statistics of Estimated Distances to Nearest Kindergartens, Estimated Monthly Fees, and Estimated Distances to Nearest Primary Schools 153/ Table 3.3 Average Monthly Fees as Perceived by Respondents 157/ Table 3.4 Selected Index Scores across Main Explanatory Variables 185/ Table 4.1 Sample Size and Distribution 189/ Table 4.2 Mean ECERS-R Scores and Ratings of Kunming Preschools Survey 15 210/ 表 5.1　样本规模和分布 210/ 表 5.2　教师样本的年龄和工作年限的平均数和标准差 214/ 表 5.3　不同类别幼儿园教师职前学历构成情况 216/ 表 5.4　不同类别幼儿园教师当前学历构成情况 220/ 表 5.5　不同类别幼儿园全园保教人员师生比平均数与 标准差 224/ 表 5.6　不同类型幼儿园教师的工资收入均数和标准差 226/ 表 5.7　在编和不在编教师的工资收入均数和标准差 228/ 表 5.8　2003—2010 年云南省幼儿教师平均工资 230/ 表 5.9　2011 年云南省各行业平均工资（人民币 10，000 元） 232/ 表5.10　2011—2020年云南省毛入园率的分解指标（%） 232/ 表 5.11　2013—2020 年云南幼儿教师的估计需求和 缺口（人） 234/ 表 5.12　2013—2020 年云南的估计学生—教师比、幼儿教 师需求和缺口 236/ 表 5.13　2013—2020 年云南省各地市幼儿教师 需求量预测数据（人） 238/ 表 5.14　2012—2020 年云南省各地市幼儿教师 缺额量预测数据（人） 240/ 表 5.15　2012—2020 年云南省幼儿教师学历层次 需求量预测数据（人） 244/ 表 5.16　2011—2012 年云南师范院校和省级职业学校学前 教育专业报考、录取和毕业人数 248/ 表 5.17　各国幼儿园教师的工资水平比较 250/ 表 5.18　奥地利各行业工资水平对比 252/ 表 5.19　波兰各行业工资水平对比 16 目 录 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 191/ Table 4.3 Comparison of Mean ECERS-R Scores between Kunming and Plan Bangladesh Preschools 193/ Table 4.4 Comparative Mean ECERS-R Scores between Kunming and Madrasa Project Preschools in East Africa 195/ Table 4.5 Comparative Mean ECERS-R Scores between Kunming and Brazilian Preschools 195/ Table 4.6 Mean ECERS-R Scores between Kunming and Beijing Preschools 197/ Table 4.7 Mean ECERS-R Scores between Rated and Unrated Kindergartens in Kunming 199/ Table 4.8 Mean ECERS-R Scores in Kunming, by Area 201/ Table 4.9 Mean ECERS-R Scores in Kunming, by Ownership Status 211/ Table 5.1 Sample Size and Distribution 211/ Table 5.2 Mean and Standard Deviation of Age and Years of Preschool Work Experience of Kindergarten Teachers in the Sample 215/ Table 5.3 Entry Educational Level of Preschool Teachers 217/ Table 5.4 Current Educational Level of Preschool Teachers 221/ Table 5.5 Pupil-Teacher Ratio across Kindergarten Types 225/ Table 5.6 Salaries of Kindergarten Teachers across Kindergarten Types 227/ Table 5.7 Salary Level for Teachers within and outside and Staff Quota System 229/ Table 5.8 Average Preschool Teacher Salary in Yunnan, 2003—2010 231/ Table 5.9 Average Salary (RMB 10,000), by Occupation in Yunnan, 2011 233/ Table 5.10 Estimated Gross Enrollment Rate, 2011—2020(%) 233/ Table 5.11 Estimated Demand for and Shortages of Preschool 17 254/ 表 5.20　各国幼儿园教师的月工资和每周工作时间对比 258/ 表 5.21　各国幼儿园教师的在职培训 266/ 表 6.1　中国延长免费公共教育案例 18 目 录 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Teachers in Yunnan, 2013—2020 235/ Table 5.12 Estimated Pupil-Teacher Ratios, Demand for and Shortages of Preschool Teachers in Yunnan, 2013—2020 237/ Table 5.13 Estimated Demand for Preschool Teachers in Yunnan, 2013—2020 239/ Table 5.14 Estimated Shortage of Preschool Teachers in Yunnan, 2013—2020 241/ Table 5.15 Estimated Number of Teachers Required, by Level of Educational Background 245/ Table 5.16 Number of Enrollments, Admissions and Graduations at Teachers’ Colleges and Provincial Vocational Schools Majoring in Preschool Education in Yunnan, 2011—2012 249/ Table 5.17 Kindergarten Teacher Salary Comparison across Countries 251/ Table 5.18 Salary Comparison across Industries in Austria 253/ Table 5.19 Salary Comparison across Industries in Poland 255/ Table 5.20 An International Comparison of Monthly Salary and Weekly Work Hours for Kindergarten Teachers 259/ Table 5.21 In-Service Training for Kindergarten Teachers 267/ Table 6.1 Examples of Extended Free Public Education in China 19 20 鸣 谢 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 鸣谢 Acknowledgements 1 本项研究的设计和实施由梁晓燕博士（项目负责人，世界银行　 东亚和太平洋地区人类发展局高级教育专家）在于小庆（世界银行　 东亚和太平洋地区人类发展局局长）与 Luis Benveniste （世界银行　 东亚和太平洋地区人类发展局教育副局长）的带领下负责完成。主 报告由梁晓燕，傅予（世行研究助理顾问）和张亦男（世行研究助理顾 问）共同执笔，以下几名学者为本研究开展的背景研究提供了宝贵的 资料和信息： · 中国华东师范大学的周欣博士和河南大学的赵振国博士开展 了幼儿教师的调查研究。周博士本人是儿童早期教育领域的 著名学者。她作为本次云南儿童早期教育研究的顾问，为研究 作出了杰出贡献。 · 云南师范大学的谢云丽老师领导了 ECERS—R 调查。谢老师 带着极大的热情与劲头，全力以赴地投入到 ECERS—R 在昆明 24 个幼儿园的调查实施工作中，并根据调查结果撰写了一份 背景报告。 · 云南师范大学的闫志英、张乐、谢云丽、花艺等老师在李劲松所 长带领下成功完成了住户调查的问卷修改与实施，以及一手数 据的输入，整理和分析。 · 云南师范大学的花艺老师提供了充分的幼儿发展政策和机构 的背景研究。她还是本次研究的主要联络人。 · 云南财经大学的李兴续博士和白涛珍老师提供了采样框架方 面的技术援助，培训了采样调查的工作人员，并且对建立数据 模型提供了宝贵的建议。 我们非常感谢云南师范大学教育科学与管理学院院长李劲松先 2 鸣 谢 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 The study was led by Xiaoyan Liang (Senior Education Specialist, Task Team Leader) under the guidance of Xiaoqing Yu (East Asia and Pacif ic region (EAP) Human Development Director) and Luis Benveniste (EAP Sector Manager). The report was co-authored by Xiaoyan Liang, Yu Fu (Consultant) and Yinan Zhang (Consultant), with signif icant contributions from a few researchers who partnered with us to carry out the background studies, including the following individuals: · Dr. Xin Zhou of East China Normal University and Dr. Zhenguo Zhao of Henan University who conducted the preschool teacher study. In particular, Dr. Zhou herself is a renowned scholar in early childhood education. Dr. Zhou also served as an advisor to the overall Yunnan Early Child Development (ECD) study and her contributions add tremendous rigor and substance. · Ms. Yunli Xie of Yunnan Normal University who led the Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale-Revised for Pre-Schools (ECERS-R) survey. With great enthusiasm and energy, Ms. Xie immersed herself into the implementation of ECERS-R in the 24 preschools in Kunming and also prepared a background report on the results. · Ms. Zhiying Yan of Yunnan Normal University who led a team including Ms. Yue Zhang, Ms. YunliXie, and Ms. Yi Hua.They successfully completed the adaptation of the household survey instrument as well as the implementation of the survey, entry and cleaning of data, and initial analysis of the data. · Ms. Yi Hua of Yunnan Normal University who provided a review of ECD policies and institutions and who became the main contact person for the studies. · Mr. Xingxu Li and Mr. Taozhen Bai of Yunnan University of Finance provided technical assistance on the sampling framework and trained the survey f ield workers. They also advised on the statistical modeling during the data analysis. We owe special thanks to Mr. Jingsong Li, Dean of the Education Management Institute in the Yunnan Normal University who bravely accepted the challenging task of contracting with the World Bank to conduct the various background studies. Mr. Li’s dedication to education and to 3 生。他接受这个极具挑战性的任务，配合世界银行实施各种背景研 究。李先生对教育的奉献精神，以及对年轻教师和学生的支持，是大 家学习的楷模。 我们还要感谢韩国开发研究院公共政策与管理学院提供的资金 支持，以及太平洋区幼儿教育研究协会（香港）慷慨地同意我们试点 中国版的 ECERS—R。 最后，本研究得以顺利完成，也是与云南省教育厅领导们的支持 与合作分不开的。我们要特别感谢基础教育处的曾莉琼处长，外贷科 的陈永进主任、宋捷副主任和付铁铮老师，以及教科院的李亚琴女士、 杨志军副院长。我们特别感谢我们出色的同事和朋友宋捷主任，我们 的工作离不开他的支持与专业精神。 4 鸣 谢 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 supporting his young faculty and students will be a model for all. We are grateful for the f inancial contribution made by the Korea Development Institute School of Public Policy and Management. The Pacif ic Early Childhood Education Research Association (Hong Kong) graciously agreed for us to pilot the Chinese version of the ECERS-R instrument. The study would not have been possible without the support and collaboration from the off icials in the Yunnan Provincial Department of Education, including Ms.Liqiong Zen from the Basic Education Department, Mr. Jie Song and Mr. Tiezhen Fu from the Foreign Loan Department, Ms. Yaqin Li, and Mr. Zhijun Yang from the Education Research Institute.The authors extend a special thanks to Mr. Jie Song for always being supportive and professional and a great colleague and friend. 5 6 缩略语表 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 缩略语表 Abbreviations and Acronyms 1 CDRF 中国发展研究基金会 EAP 东亚和太平洋地区 ECD 早期儿童发展 ECDE 早期儿童发展与教育 ECERS—R 幼儿教育机构环境评价量表—修订版 GER 毛入学率 GDP 国内生产总值 GPA 平均分数 MOE 教育部 MRC Madrasa 项目幼儿园 OECD 经济合作与发展组织 PPS 概率抽样法 RMB 元（人民币） SIDS 婴儿猝死综合征 TVET 职业技术教育与培训 2 缩略语表 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 CDRF Child Development Research Foundation EAP East Asia and Pacif ic region ECD Early Child Development ECDE Early Childhood Development and Education ECERS-R Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale-Revised for Pre-Schools GER Gross enrollment ratio GDP Gross domestic product GPA Grade point average MOE Ministry of Education MRC Madrasa Resource Centers OECD Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development PPS Probability proportional to size RMB Renminbi SIDS Sudden infant death syndrome TVET Technical and vocational education and training 3 4 概 述 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 概述 Overview 1 云南是位于中国西南边陲的一个中等大小的省份。云南省和世 界银行之间有着长达 30 年的合作历史。2012 年，云南省教育厅正式提 请世行支持一项针对儿童早期教育政策和方案的调查，以便通过充分 的调研，了解该省在推广儿童早期教育，特别是向农村和山区推广儿 童早期教育时所面临的挑战。 设计了一份相当详尽的有关儿童 世行中国教育小组着手筹集资金， 早期教育的研究计划并付诸实施，其目的在于考察云南农村扩大儿童早 期教育（ECD）覆盖面所面临的主要挑战，并提出相应的政策干预手段。 （1）调查云南现有的早期教育 这份研究计划包括五个相互关联的研究： （3）对云南农村地区具有代 （2）学前教育经费投入调查； 政策和制度； （4）采用国际公认的幼儿教育 表性的 3—6 岁儿童样本进行住户调查； 机构环境评价量表［修订版（ECERS—R）］标准对昆明学前教育质量和 （5）对幼儿教师的学历、 氛围进行调查； 职业发展、薪酬及供需情况进行 的综合研究。本报告介绍了这些背景研究的结果，并为云南省扩大学前 提高学前教育质量提供政策建议。 教育范围、 当前儿童早期教育的政策与现状 现在，中国已基本普及了九年义务教育。过去几年中，国家对 儿童早期教育的政策制定越来越重视。尽管中国还没有专门的儿 童早期教育法，但已经建立了一套相当详尽的儿童早期教育指导方 针和法规。其中最突出的是《国家中长期教育改革和发展规划纲 2 概 述 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Yunnan is a medium-sized and relatively poor Chinese province on the southwestern border of China. There is a long history of collaboration between Yunnan Province and the World Bank over the last three decades. In 2012, the Yunnan Department of Education formally requested Bank support in conducting a review of early childhood education policies and programs in order to gain an in-depth and evidence-based understanding of the challenges the province faces in expanding early childhood education — in particular to rural and mountainous regions. The Bank’s China Education Team embarked on raising funds, designing and implementing a rather elaborate research agenda around early childhood education. The goal was to investigate key challenges, and to propose policy interventions for expanding the Early Child Development (ECD) coverage in rural Yunnan. The research included five interrelated studies: (i) a survey of existing ECD policies and institutions in Yunnan; (ii) the f inancing of preschool education; (iii) a household survey of a representative sample of 3-to 6-year-oldsin rural Yunnan; (iv) a survey of preschool quality in Kunming using the internationally recognized Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale — Revised for Pre-Schools(ECERS-R) scale; and (iv) a comprehensive study of preschool teachers covering qualif ications, career development, salaries, as well as demand and supply. This report presents the findings from the background studies, and draws potential policy implications for improving the access to and quality of preschool education in Yunnan province. Existing Policies on and Status of Early Childhood Education China has now almost achieved universal 9-year basic education. Over the last decade, the country has devoted increasing attention to policy development in early childhood education. Even though China does not yet have a specif ic early childhood education law, it has established a rather elaborate set of guidelines and regulations pertaining to early childhood education. The most prominent one is the Medium-and Long-Term Education Development Plan Outline, which sets the targets for achieving preschool enrollment for 95 percent of 5-year-olds, 80 percent of all 4-year- 3 要（2010—2020 年）》，纲要设定的目标包括：到 2020 年学前教育的 入学率，5 岁儿童要达到 95%，4 岁儿童达到 80%，3 岁儿童达到 70%。 2012 年，教育部颁布了《3—6 岁儿童学习与发展指南》，对儿童的发 展阶段进行了描述，并从健康、语言、社会、科学和艺术方面提出适当 的教育干预措施和评估指标等。中国现在正在开始制定专门的儿童 早期教育法。 基于官方统计数据，中国和云南省儿童早期教育有几个重要趋 势。过去几年里，儿童早期教育规模已显著扩大。针对 3 至 6 岁儿童 的学前计划主要有两种：一种是常规的 3 年制计划，即幼儿园；另外 一种是为期一年的计划，通常附属于小学，即学前班。儿童早期教育 的毛入学率（GER）已从 2004 年的 49% 上升到 2010 年的 63% 左右 [1]。 云南儿童早期教育入学率实现了类似的增长。然而，云南学前教育整 体覆盖率仍落后于全国平均水平和其他西部省份。云南 2010 年毛入 学率为 55%，低于 63% 的全国平均水平及西部省份的平均水平。全省 内部仍然存在巨大差距，省会城市昆明的毛入学率达到 95%，而昭通 县仅达 33%。 无论在中国还是在云南省，私立幼儿园招生份额一直在上升。云 南约 42% 的幼儿园是私立的，吸收约 26% 的学龄前儿童入学。这两个 统计数字与全国的统计数字基本相符，全国 41% 的幼儿园是私立的， [1] 需要指出的是， 由于缺乏关于 3—6 岁儿童人数的统计数据， 这里的估值与已经公布的全 国 GER 有所不同，后者在 2010 年为 56.6%，2011 年为 62.3%，2012 年为 64.5%。不过，本 报告坚持采用了这些估计的数字以保持不同年份和不同省份之间比较的连贯性， 因此， 可以认为 GER 的趋势更准确地反映了实际情况， 尽管绝对数字可能被略微高估。对于 这种差异的另一个解释是， 2010 年后官方统计数字特意采用了三年制幼儿园的毛入学 率（相比于一年制学前班） ，而其中并未计入一年制学前班的入学人数。然而， 本报告估 计 GER 将常规的三年制幼儿园和一年制学前班的入学人数都包括在内以进行有意义的 比较。 4 概 述 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 olds, and 70 percent of all 3-year-olds by the year 2020. Most recently in 2012, the Ministry of Education issued Learning and Development Guidelines for 3-to 6-Year-Old Children which describe children’s development stages with measurable indicators and suggest appropriate education interventions in health, language, society, science, and art. Efforts are now underway to develop a specific early childhood education law in China. Based on a review of off icial statistics, there are a number of important trends in early childhood education in China, as well as in the Yunnan province. Early childhood education has expanded signif icantly within the last few years. There are two main types of preschool programs for 3-to 6-year-olds including: a regular three-year program which is called kindergarten, and a one-year program attached usually to primary schools (学前班). The gross enrollment ratio (GER) of early childhood educationrose from 49 percentin 2004 to approximately 63 percentnation wide in 2010. [1] Yunnan registered a similar level of growth in early childhood education access. However, the province lags behind the national average and other western provinces with regard to overall preschool education coverage. For example, the GER in Yunnan was 55 percent in 2010, which was lower than the national average of 63 percent, as well as lower than the average for the western provinces. The province also evidences substantial disparities, as GER reached 95 percent in the capital Kunming City, but was only 33 percent in Zhaotong County. The share of private preschool enrollment has been rising in both China and Yunnan. Approximately 42 percent of preschools in Yunnan are private, and absorb about 26 percent of preschool enrollment. This resonates with the national picture, as 41 percent of preschools are private, absorbing [1] It is noted that due to lack of statistics on the number of children between age 3—6, the estimates were different from publicized national GER, which states 56.6% in 2010, 62.3% in 2011 and 64.5% in 2012. The report however keeps the estimated numbers to maintain consistent comparisons for different years and provinces. Therefore it is believed that the trend of GER reflects a more accurate picture, though the absolute numbers might be slightly overestimated. Another explanation for the difference is that Three-year Gross Enrollment Rate to Kindergartens (verses one-year pre-school classes) was specif ically used by off icial statistics after 2010, which does not count the one-year preschool enrollment. The estimated GER however, has included enrollment from both regular three-year kindergarten and the one-year program for meaningful comparisons. 5 吸收约 34% 的学龄前儿童。 云南与中国其他地区不同，相对于常规的三年制幼儿园，为期一 年的学前班较为常见。近 1/3 的学前儿童入学率集中在一年制学前 班，而全国这一数字平均仅为 15%，西部省份平均为 26%。在云南农 村，这一比例更高，有 56% 的学龄前儿童进入一年制学前班。由于为 期一年的学前班经常附属于小学，由小学教师任教，基本上是小学课 程的延伸，所以一般认为不适合 3—6 岁儿童的发展。这一统计数字凸 显了云南农村儿童早期教育发展的落后现状。 学前教育教师供给的快速增长促进了全国各地学生和教师比率 的下降 [1]。特别是云南，最近几年来该比率已从 30 左右下降到 20。然 而，市区的师生比仍然处于优势，合格教师的比例也高于农村。虽然 农村占学龄前儿童总入学率的 50%，受过培训的教师只有 22% 服务于 农村地区。 儿童早期教育经费投入和使用 中国的教育经费中政府拨款所占比重最大，但并没有向儿童早期 教育倾斜。所有可用的教育资金中约 80% 来自政府拨款。2012 年，随 着政府对教育的拨款总额上升到国民生产总值的 4%，教育预算就总体 或生均都有了大幅度提升。然而，儿童早期教育得到的政府支持相对 较少。学前教育学生占学生总量的 13%，但只获得 2% 的国家教育预算 分配。因此，学前教育对私人投资的依赖更大，私人投资占学前教育 [1] 学生教师比包括全职教师、 医疗和行政人员以及其他辅助人员， 保育员、 不包括兼职教师。 6 概 述 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 about 34 percent of total preschool enrollment. Enrollment in one-year pre-primary classes, as opposed to regular three- year kindergarten programs, is more common in Yunnan than in other parts of the country. Almost one out of three preschool enrollments in Yunnan takes place in one-year pre-primary classes, as compared to the national average of 15 percent and the average of 26 percent in the western part of the country. The proportion is even higher in rural Yunnan, where 56 percent of preschool enrollment is in one-year programs. Since one-year pre-primary classes are often attached to primary schools and taught by primary school teachers, they are essentially an extension of the primary curriculum, that is, they are not considered as developmentally appropriate for the 3-to 6-year-olds. This statistic underscores the lower development status of early childhood education in rural Yunnan. The rapid growth of preschool teacher supply has contributed to the drop in pupil-teacher ratios across the nation.[1] In Yunnan in particular, the ratio has decreased from approximately 30 to 20 in recent years. However, urban areas still enjoy a more favorable pupil-teacher ratio, as well as a higher proportion of qualif ied teachers compared to rural areas. Rural areas account for 50 percent of total preschool enrollment, but only 22 percent of all trained teachers serve in rural areas. Financing Early Childhood Education Governmental appropriation is the biggest contributor to educational funds in China. However, funding is skewed against early childhood education. Approximately 80 percent of all available funds in education are from government appropriations. As total government allocations in education rose to 4 percent of national GDP in 2012, the educational budget at both the aggregate and per-student level experienced a boost. However, early childhood education still receives relatively little government support. Preschool enrollment accounts for 13 percent of total educational enrollment in China, but receives only 2 percent of the national educational budget allocation. In this context, preschool education demonstrates a [1] The pupil-teacher ratio includes full-time teachers, caregivers, healthcare and administrative personnel, and other supporting staffs — not including part-time teachers 7 经费总额的 59%。 尤其是云南，虽然一直致力于加大对学前教育的财政支持力度， 但全省仍面临学生人均经费低、城乡差距大等问题。2005 年至 2011 年，全省学前教育部门总教育经费的年增长率为 32%。尽管经费不断 增长，生均教育经费支出和生均预算教育经费支出均低于全国平均水 平及其他西部省份。例如，2011 年云南生均教育经费支出（人民币 2，750 元）只有西部全部 12 个省区平均额（人民币 5 ，319 元）的一 半。一方面，在云南，生均个人部分支出在生均预算支出中的比重高 于生均公用部分支出——近 3/4 的生均预算支出主要用于教师的工资 和福利。另一方面，生均个人部分支出和生均公用部分支出仍低于全 国平均水平和其他西部省份，这意味着全省教师工资和日常运作成本 较低。农村和非农村地区之间的资金差距仍然是一个问题：农村的学 龄前儿童入学率和设施数量占全省的 50%，却仅得到学前教育总经费 的 28% 及预算内资金的 13%。 在云南，学前教育学杂费对家庭仍然是一个巨大的负担，特别是 对那些农村地区的家庭来说。学杂费收入占云南学前教育总投资的 43.6%，高于西部地区平均水平。据《中国统计年鉴 2011》的数字， 2010 年云南城镇居民人均年收入是 16，065 元，农村居民是 3，952 元。 因此，一级幼儿园小班的年杂费用占到城镇居民人均年收入的 8.7% 及 农村居民人均年收入的 35.2%。 云南农村儿童的现状：农村住户调查结果 云南农村住户调查结果揭示了居住在云南农村的 3 至 6 岁儿童现 8 概 述 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 heavier dependence on private investment, which contributes up to 59 percent of total preschool educational funds. Yunnan, in particular, has committed increasing f inancial support to preschool education, but the province still faces low per-student expenditures and a wide gap between urban and rural areas. Total educational funding for the preschool sector in Yunnan increased at 32 percent per year from 2005 to 2011. Despite increasing funding, total spending per-student and budgetary spending per-student is lower than the national average and other western provinces. For instance, total spending per-child in 2011 (renminbi (RMB) 2,750) is only half of the average for all 12 western provinces (RMB 5,319). On the one hand, personnel expenditures accounted for a higher proportion of per-student budgetary spending than operational expenditures in Yunnan-nearly three quarters of per-student budgetary spending was used primarily for teacher salary and benefits. On the other hand, both per-student personnel expenditures and per-student operational expenditures are still lower than the national average and other western provinces, indicating lower teacher salaries and daily operational costs in the province. The gap in funding between rural and non-rural areas remains an issue: rural preschools accounted for 50 percent of both enrollment and number of facilities in the province, but received only 28 percent of all preschool funding, and 13 percent of governmental budgetary funds. Preschool education tuition and fees remain a signif icant burden for families in Yunnan, especially for those in rural areas. Tuition and fees revenue account for 43.6 percent of total investment in preschool education in Yunnan, which is higher than the western region average. According to the China Statistics Yearbook 2011, the average per-capita annual income in Yunnan in 2010 was 16,065 RMB for urban residents, and 3,952 RMB for rural residents. Therefore, the annual fees for a f irst-grade kindergarten would account for 8.7 percent of urban residents’ per-capita annual income — but 35.2 percent of rural residents’ per-capita annual income, making quality preschool almost unaffordable for rural poor families. Status of Children in Rural Yunnan: Results from a Rural Household Survey Results from the Rural Household Survey 2013 in Yunnan reveal 9 状的几个主要方面：家庭照顾条件；儿童认识能力和社会能力发展； 学龄前儿童入园状况；育儿者照顾孩子的习惯做法。此外，多元回归 分析结果证实了和儿童发展结果和入园状况密切相关的几个因素。 在云南农村，由祖父母或其他亲戚而不是父母照顾的儿童比例为 25%，其中大部分是留守儿童 [1]。接受调查的父母平均受教育水平为初 中，祖父母平均只接受过小学教育。总体而言，研究结果证实，云南农 村儿童在家庭中接受的早期激发不足，贫困、边境或少数民族县的孩 子的家庭育儿环境最差。云南省贫困县 72% 的家庭称，他们从来没有 和自己的孩子玩耍过；47% 的家庭称，他们从来没有给孩子读过书； 80% 的家庭称，他们家里没有任何书籍。这一发现值得特别注意，因为 有广泛的证据表明，玩耍和阅读书籍都与儿童健康积极的发展相关。 母乳喂养这种积极的养育孩子的做法在云南很常见：92% 的家庭用母 乳喂养孩子。 遗憾的是，吸二手烟的现象在云南很普遍。约 90% 的家庭有在幼 儿面前吸烟的情况。大量研究已经证实，二手烟对婴儿和儿童的健康 有很大损害。怀孕期间吸二手烟是造成婴儿出生体重较轻的一个直接 原因。出生后吸二手烟的婴儿更有可能面临婴儿猝死综合征（SIDS） 的风险。父母吸烟会使婴儿更有可能患上上呼吸道和下呼吸道疾病， 如哮喘、支气管炎、中耳感染（中耳炎）和肺炎。此外，3 米以内的二手 烟会使婴儿在出生后 18 个月内的住院率增高。对于吸二手烟的年龄 较大的儿童，他们的肺部发育不及那些没有吸二手烟的儿童。他们也 更容易患上哮喘和耳部感染。 [1] 留守儿童指那些因为父母总是外出到其他城镇工作而主要由祖父母照看的儿童。 10 概 述 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 several key aspects of the status of 3-to 6-year-old children living in rural Yunnan including: their home care conditions, development status in both cognitive and social dimensions, preschool enrollment status, and caregiver childrearing practices. In addition, multivariate regression analysis results conf irm several factors key to childhood development outcomes and enrollment status at preschools. In rural Yunnan, the proportion of children cared for by their grandparents (instead of parents) is 25 percent. Most of these are “left- behind children”.[1] The parents surveyed have an average educational level of junior middle school, and their grandparents on average had only received a primary school education. Overall, the results conf irm that children in rural Yunnan receive inadequate early stimulation in their households, and children from poor, border, or ethnic minority counties tend to fare even worse. Seventy-two percent of households in poor counties of Yunnan reported that they never played with their children; 47 percent reported that they never read to their children; 80 percent reported that they do not have any books at home.This f inding merits particular attention, as there is much well-cited evidence in childhood development that playing with and reading books to children is associated with positive development outcomes. One positive childrearing practice — breastfeeding — is common in Yunnan: 92 percent of mothers breastfed their children. The negative practice of secondhand smoke is unfortunately prevalent in Yunnan. Approximately ninety percent of households have members smoke in the presence of their young children. A large number of research studies have conf irmed that secondhand smoke has many harmful effects on infant and child health. Indeed, secondhand smoke during pregnancy is a direct cause of low infant birth weight. Infants who are exposed to secondhand smoke after birth face a bigger risk for sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Parental smoking leads to higher rates of both upper and lower respiratory tract illnesses such as asthma, bronchitis, middle ear infection (otitis media), and pneumonia in infants. Furthermore, secondhand smoke within 3 meters of the infant is associated with higher [1] Left-behind children refer tochildren whose parent(s) left the location of household registration to seek employment elsewhere. 11 云南农村儿童经常看电视。95% 的儿童每天都看电视，其中 25% 每天看两个小时以上。调查数据显示，每天看电视超过 2 小时与认知 发展呈正相关 [1]。另外，看电视节目的效果有赖于电视节目的内容和类 型。有充分的证据表明，适龄的、早教类电视节目能够对儿童的认知 发展和入学准备产生积极影响。然而，童年时接触电视上的暴力内容 与儿童今后具攻击性的行为是紧密相连的。因此，对儿童看电视进行 严密监控十分重要。 多因素回归分析也揭示了一些与儿童身体、认知和社会能力发展 相关的因素。根据体重衡量的儿童身体发育指标与是否是贫困或少 数民族县的女童呈负相关，但与母亲的受教育程度（高等教育）、家庭 收入及定期健康检查则呈正相关。同样，家庭收入、经常喝牛奶、是否 住在贫困县或出生在多子女大家庭都与儿童的身高有密切联系。 在儿童的认知和社会能力发展方面，家庭收入、母亲的受教育程 度和儿童认知发展有显著联系。在影响儿童的认知和社会能力发展 的诸多因素中，独生子、汉族也与儿童较高的认知技能相关。家庭收 入和普通话使用与儿童的社会发展呈正相关；来自贫困或边境县往往 与儿童的社会发展呈负相关。 值得注意的是，幼儿园入园率、健康体检频率、积极的育儿方法与 孩子的发展结果之间存在明确的正相关。尤其是，经常给孩子阅读与 孩子的社会和认知发展也呈正相关。每天看电视 1—2 小时或超过 2 小 时与认知技能呈正相关，但与社会技能发展呈负相关（统计上结果不 [1] 一种可能的解释是，看电视可以让孩子更多地接触普通话的用法，进而帮助他们更流 利地讲普通话。另一种可能性是多元回归分析没有包括所有可能影响儿童认知发展 的因素。 12 概 述 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 infant hospital admission rates for all illnesses in the f irst 18 months of life. For older children, those who breathe secondhand smoke experience less lung growth than those who do not. They are also more vulnerable to asthma attacks and ear infections. Rural children in Yunnan appear to watch TV frequently. Ninety-f ive percent of children watch TV every day, and 25 percent of them watch more than 2 hours per day. Survey data show that watching TV for more than 2 hours a day is positively associated with cognitive development.[1]Further, research conf irms that the effect of TV viewing is contingent upon the content and type of the TV programs watched. There is well-documented evidence that age-appropriate, curriculum-based educational television programs can have a positive effect on childhood cognitive development and school readiness. However, exposure to violence on TV during childhood is closely linked to more aggressive behavior. Close parental/adult monitoring of childhood TV viewing is therefore important. The multivariate analysis also reveals factors related to childhood physical and cognitive development. Childhood physical development as measured by weight is negatively correlated with being a female child in either poor or minority counties, but positively associated with maternal education (tertiary education), family income, and regular health checkups. Similarly, family income, drinking milk frequently, urban versus rural residence, and size of family are all positively associated with a child’s height. In terms of cognitive and social development, family income and maternal education have a strong association with childhood cognitive development. Being a single child and being Han ethnicity (the biggest ethnic group in China) are also correlated with higher cognitive skills. Family income and Mandarin usage are positively correlated with social development. Coming from a poor or a border county tends to be negatively correlated with childhood social development. It is noteworthy that there is a clear positive correlation between preschool enrollment, frequency of health checkups, and positive [1] One possible explanation is that TV viewing exposes children to more Mandarin language usage and helps children speak Mandarin with greater fluency. Another possible explanation is that the original regression analysis did not include all the possible variables that might affect children’s cognitive development. 13 显著）。 “留守”儿童状 有几个因素影响到孩子的入园比例：家庭收入、 态、母亲受教育程度、与最近的幼儿园的距离、在家里说的语言 [1]。家庭 收入在人民币 10，000 元至 20，000 元之间的儿童入园的可能性比家庭 收入低于 10，000 元儿童高两倍。此外，受过高中或大学教育的母亲送 孩子上幼儿园的可能性比无教育背景的母亲高 2.5 至 4.5 倍。 鉴于这些研究结果，推广农村儿童优质学前教育值得特别关注。 幼儿园作为一种正规的学前教育方式可以提供适当和有效的环境，帮 助改善儿童认知与社会情感发展并为入学做好准备。尽管某些影响 学前教育入学决定的因素很难改变，比如孩子的性别、所在地点和家 庭收入，但其他因素，如母亲的教育、与最近的幼儿园的距离以及学前 教育的费用负担能力等因素可以通过政策干预得到改变。 与此同时，家庭在儿童发展中发挥的作用应该得到充分重视。大 量文献已经表明，缺乏学习机会和低质量的监护者与孩子的互动会对 孩子产生负面影响。调查结果显示，云南农村地区早期激发、玩耍以 及给儿童阅读的水平严重不足，因此，需要采取各种干预措施为儿童 建立积极的家庭环境以扭转这一趋势。通过健康或教育服务提供者 的适当指导和支持或家长的集体培训，家长可以为孩子提供优质的激 发和互动，在孩子的认知和社会发展中发挥至关重要的作用。 [1] 云南的文化和民族多样性意味着标准普通话在大多数家庭中并不通用。根据住户调 查，只有 2% 的家庭将标准普通话作为家庭沟通的主要语言， 有 74% 的家庭使用的是类 似于标准的但带有浓重地方口音的普通话， 而还有 24% 的家庭使用的是不同的少数民 族语言，这些语言通常在结构或发音上与普通话完全不同。这种现状与学前教育机构 入学率方面的差异是相关的， 因为几乎所有的教育材料采用的都是标准普通话。 14 概 述 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 childrearing practices and childhood development outcomes. Enrollment is both statistically correlated with children’s social and cognitive skills, and positively associated with children’s recent weight and height. In particular, there is a positive relationship between reading frequently to a child and the child’s social and cognitive development. Watching TV for 1 to 2 hours, or more than 2 hours a day, appears to be positively associated with cognitive skills — but negatively associated with social skills (not statistically signif icant). Several factors seem to contribute to childhood preschool enrollment:the family income, whether or not being “left-behind” children, maternal education, distance to the nearest kindergarten, and the language spoken at home[1]. For example, the odds of children attending preschool with a family income between RMB 10,000 to RMB 20,000 are two times the odds for children with a family income lower than RMB 10,000. In addition, mothers with a high school education are 1.5 times more likely to send their children to preschool than mothers who have no educational attainment at all. In light of these f indings, the promotion of quality preschool education for rural children merits particular attention. Quality center-based programs (preschools) could be a suitable and effective environment to help improve childhood cognitive and social-emotional development and school readiness. Even though it might be diff icult to influence some of the factors affecting the decision of preschool enrollment — such as the child’s gender, location, and family income — other factors such as maternal education, distance to nearest kindergartens, and affordability of preschool education can be more amenable to policy interventions. At the same time, families play an equal if not more important role in childhood development. A body of literature has shown that the lack of [1] Yunnan’s cultural and ethnical diversity means that standard Chinese mandarin is not popularly used in most households. According to the household survey, only 2 percent speak standard mandarin as a primary means of communication at home, 74 percent speak a mandarin dialect that resembles the standard but with strong regional characteristics in pronunciation, while 24 percent use different ethnical minority languages that are often completely different in structure or pronunciation. These facts correlate with the difference in preschool enrollment, as almost all educational materials are prepared in standard mandarin. 15 昆明幼儿园的质量和环境评估 为了更好地了解学前教育的质量，世行研究考察了昆明的 24 所幼 儿园，并采用 ECERS—R 测量表来评估这些幼儿园的质量和环境。这 是云南首次采用国际评价量表衡量幼儿园的质量（或质量代表）和环 境的研究，这为该课题提供了一个有比较性的切入点。 在绝对评价量表上，昆明的幼儿园在 ECERS—R 评估的所有七个 方面得分都很低，在“机构活动项目结构、活动、个人护理生活常规、语 言—推理、空间和家具设施以及互动”上得到的评价是“不足”，在“家 长和教职员”上得到的评价是“最低”。与孟加拉、肯尼亚、巴西和加 拿大的部分幼儿园相比，昆明的幼儿园在所有被评估的方面得分均较 低。在全市范围内，被评级的幼儿园平均得分高于未评级的幼儿园， 而城市幼儿园优于农村幼儿园。 该研究小组认为，尽管一方面昆明的幼儿园 ECERS—R 评估得分 低反映了云南学前教育质量水准，但在一定程度上，中国一些特有的 文化习惯也可能导致了这样的评估结果。 首先，中国人认为参加集体活动和服从是良好行为，而往往对发 展孩子的独立性缺乏重视。因此，在中国被考察的幼儿园里，孩子经 常服从教师为他们做的活动安排，正如得分较低的项目如午睡 / 休息、 鼓励孩子沟通、纪律、员工与儿童互动及儿童之间的互动等所显示的 那样。 其次，大多数幼儿园均缺乏教育材料，这可能反映的是对儿童个 人发展需求意识的普遍缺乏。教育资源的匮乏也可能是一个原因。一 些项目得分低也说明了这一点，这些得分低的项目包括积木、砂 / 水、 16 概 述 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 learning opportunities and low-quality caregiver-child interaction negatively affect childhood development. As the survey results suggest, an adequate level of early stimulation, playing, and reading to children in rural Yunnan is particularly important to reverse this trend.Various interventions that promote a positive home environment for young children can be devised. With proper guidance and support from health providers or group parent training, parents can play a crucial role in their children’s cognitive and social development by providing quality stimulation and interactions. Preschool Quality and Environment in Kunming In order to obtain a better understanding of preschool quality, a study of 24 kindergartens in the capital Kunming was conducted. The ECERS-R scale was used to assess the quality and atmosphere of those kindergartens. This is the f irst study in measuring quality (or quality proxy) of preschools using an international rating scale in Yunnan province, and it provides a comparative perspective on the topic. On the absolute scale, Kunming’s kindergartens scored low on all seven aspects of the ECERS-R assessment, receiving “inadequate” on “program structure, activities, personal care, language — reasoning, space and furnishing, and interaction”, and a “minimum” on “parents and staff ”. Compared to selected preschool programs in Bangladesh, Kenya, Brazil, and Canada, Kunming also has a lower performance in all dimensions measured. Within the city, kindergartens that received a government-issued rating on average had a higher score than those that did not, while kindergartens in the urban area of the city performed better than those in the rural area. The low ECERS-R rating of Kunming’s kindergartens is mainly a reflection of the poor quality of preschools in Yunnan. To a lesser extent, some cultural habits might also have contributed to the f indings. First, participating in collective activities and obedience are valued as good behaviors in China, although attention to developing children’s independence is often lacking. Therefore, children in observed kindergartens in China often subscribe to the activities that teachers have planned for them, as indicated in low scores in items such as: Nap/ Rest; Encouraging Children to Communicate; Discipline; Staff-Children 17 戏剧、电视 / 电脑的使用、书籍和图片、用于放松和安抚的家具以及私 密空间。 第三，健康和安全惯例以及建筑标准需要大幅改进，餐点 / 小吃、 如厕 / 换尿布、卫生惯例、游戏室和室内空间等项目得分较低就反映了 这一点。此外，幼儿教师也得不到足够的支持，如满足员工的专业需 求、员工互动以及专业成长机会等指标得分都很低。 基于这些研究结果，以下政策建议可能较为适当：有必要采取更 全面的措施来评估学前教育质量，这些措施要超越硬件和其他投入等 传统重点，把重点放在课程、活动和师生互动上。ECERS—R 就是这样 的一个范例，也已被越来越多地使用。教育部新颁布的《3—6 岁儿童 学习与发展指南》可以作为这类评价的重要指南。此外，正如类似评 价量表所评估的那样，设计良好的教师培训计划（即使是短期的）可 以在师生互动的质量方面产生积极结果。 幼儿教师招聘、职业发展、薪酬及短缺 我们将教师 / 园长调查与对现行政策、统计数据以及其他相关研 究的述评相结合，对与幼儿教师相关的主要方面进行了研究，其中包 括招聘、职业阶梯、教师培训与支持、工资与福利。还根据几种可能情 况及最新人口数据统计对未来幼儿教师的需求进行了预测。 在学历、招聘和职业阶梯方面，幼儿教师进入教师队伍时学历相 对较低（职业学校或高中），但大部分通过在职教育能够提高自己的学 历（达到大专水平）。虽然程度不同，但幼儿园面临的共同问题是教师 短缺以及很难聘到合格教师。为解决这个问题，幼儿园经常聘请临时 18 概 述 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Interaction; and Children Interaction, and so on. Second, insuff icient educational material was found in most kindergartens, which suggests that there might be a lack of awareness of or attention to children’s personal needs in development. Inadequate resources could also be one possible cause. This was evidenced in low scores for items including Blocks; Sand/Water (for playing purposes); Dramatic Play; Use of TV/Computer; Books and Pictures; Furnishing for Relaxing and Comfort; and Space for Privacy. Third, health and safety practices and construction standards need substantial improvement, as reflected by low scores for items such as Meals/ Snacks; Toileting/Diapering; Health Practices; Room for Play; and Indoor Space. Furthermore, kindergarten teachers also receive insuff icient support, as evidenced by low scores in indicators such as: Provision of Professional Needs of Staff; Staff Interaction; and Opportunities for Professional Growth. In the context of these f indings, the following policy suggestions might be appropriate: there is a need for more comprehensive measures to assess preschool quality that go beyond the traditional focus on hardware and other inputs and that place greater emphasis on curriculum, activities, and teacher- child interactions. ECERS-R is one such example and has been increasingly used. The newly released Learning and Development Guidelines for 3-to 6-Year- Old Children by the Ministry of Education could serve as important guides for such an evaluation. Further, a well-designed teacher training program (even a short-term one) can produce positive outcomes on the quality of teacher-child interaction as measured by a similar scale. Preschool Teacher Recruitment, Career Development, Salaries, and Shortages Using a combination of teacher and director surveys and reviews of existing policies, statistics and other related studies, we examine key aspects related to preschool teachers, including recruitment, career ladder, teacher training and support, pay and compensation. Future demand for preschool teachers is also projected based on a few plausible scenarios and the latest population estimates. 19 或合同教师。目前的职业阶梯机制和教师职称挂钩。根据教师的教 育背景和工作经验等因素，授予其不同等级的职称。教师职称也是决 定工资多少的一个重要原因。 在教师支持方面，昆明受调查的幼儿园学生—教师比达到了更 良好的 15，而全省这一比率为 20。不过，这一比例仍高于相关指导原 则的建议。在一些农村和私立幼儿园，该比率高达 33。在幼儿园内 外教师均有很多专业发展培训的选择，组成教学和科研小组就是一 个范例。 幼儿教师对他们的工资和补偿普遍不满。云南幼儿教师的工资 平均只有小学教师的 60% 左右，而国内和国际上其他许多地方，特别 是在发达国家，如澳大利亚、比利时、爱尔兰、葡萄牙、瑞典和美国，幼 儿园和小学教师工资趋于同等水平。在云南省内，公立幼儿园的薪酬 明显高于私立幼儿园。此外，编制体制内的教师工资高于体制外聘用 的教师（例如长期的代课教师和私立幼儿园教师）工资。 根据 2015 年达到 15： 1 的最佳学生—教师比的目标与目前的人口 推算，2015 年云南幼儿教师的缺口将达 60，000 名。昭通县的缺口最 大，到 2020 年将超过 11，000 名。据调查，对高级职业或高等教育教师 的需求明显增长，从 2013 年到 2020 年每年平均需要新增 6，642 名教 师，远远高于该领域每年招生或毕业生数量。 调查结果显示，不同类型的幼儿园存在明显的差距。城市地区公 立幼儿园的教师在入职学历、专业发展机会、工资及其他福利等项目 上得分最高。而农村私立幼儿园教师入职学历最低、最缺乏专业发展 机会及其他事业发展机会，工资和补偿也最低。资金不足、缺乏职业 发展、激励不足等几个原因使得引进和保持合格的师资力量成为一项 20 概 述 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 In the area of qualif ications, recruitment and career ladder, preschool teachers have relatively low educational qualif ications upon entry into the teaching force (senior vocational or high school), but most are able to improve their educational qualif ications through in-service education (to junior college level). Preschools share the problem of teacher shortages and diff iculty in hiring qualif ied teachers, albeit at different levels. In response, preschools often hire temporary or contracted teachers. The current career ladder mechanism is closely tied to the professional title system. Teachers are granted different levels of professional titles based on factors such as their academic background and teaching experience. Professional titles can be a key determinant of salary increase. With respect to teacher support, Kunming preschools surveyed reached a more favorable student-teacher ratio of 15 as compared to 20 for the entire province. However, this ratio is still higher than recommended by related guidelines. In some rural and private preschools, the ratio reached is as high as 33 students per teacher. There are a variety of professional development options for teachers, both within and outside the kindergarten. The formation of teaching and research groups is one such example. Preschool teachers are generally dissatisf ied with their salary and compensation. In Yunnan, average preschool teacher salary is only about 60 percent of that of a primary school teacher — whereas in many other parts of the country and internationally, there is a trend in particular in developed countries such as Australia, Belgium, Ireland, Portugal, Sweden, and the United States, for preschool and primary school teachers to be paid at similar levels. Within Yunnan, salaries at public preschools are signif icantly higher than those at private preschools. Moreover, public kindergartens in China have to subscribe to the government-issued staff quota system. The system regulates the number of employees each kindergarten can hire to enjoy salary payment from the government and full benef its. Teachers hired within the quota system receive higher salaries than their counterparts hired outside the system (such as long-term temporary teachers and those in private preschools). Assuming the most progressive pupil-teacher ratio target of 15:1 is achieved by 2015 with the current population projection, Yunnan will face a shortage of almost 60,000 new preschool teachers in 2020. Zhaotong County 21 艰巨的任务，特别是在农村地区和私立幼儿园。 政策和计划影响 这里所展示的研究及其结果是有关云南儿童早期教育研究中最 新、最全面的一个系列。一方面，我们看到云南推广学前教育成果显 著，另一方面，我们也揭示了云南学前教育面临一些严峻的挑战。鉴 于上述研究结果，我们认为有七项重要政策和规划干预措施有助于加 强中国和云南的儿童早期教育。 尤其是针对弱势群体的投入 加大公共财政对学前教育的投入， 为达到这一政策目标，可采取以下可能的措施：把学前教育纳入 免费的公共教育系统（国内有些地区已经开始）；为贫困、边境和少数 民族县的学前教育提供定向资金；采用创新型的、注重需求的、公私合 作的融资和服务多元化机制创新方式。 具体包括利用过剩的小学教室、与私人实体合作（如“公办民 营”）、建立农村早教卫星中心（围绕县或乡级中心学前班）、购买私立 幼儿园的场地（代金券）。其中，公私合作的办法尤其值得探索，可以 借此获得多样化的资金来源和早教模式，并为新的学前教育提供商创 造市场空间。我们可以从上海外来务工子女使用代金券就读私立小 学的做法中学到许多东西。 扩大服务提供模式 全日制幼儿园模式虽然正规但价格相对昂贵，不是唯一可行的模 22 概 述 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 will face the highest teacher shortage (11,887) in 2020. According to research, the demand for senior vocational or tertiary education teachers translates into a demand of 6,642 teachers every year from 2013 to 2020 — much higher than the current number of enrollment or graduates in the field. There are marked disparities between different types of preschools based on survey results. Teachers in public preschools in urban areas fare the best in terms ofentry qualif ication, access to professional development, and salaries and other benef its. Teachers in rural private kindergartens appear to have the lowest entry qualif ications, the least access to professional development opportunities and other career opportunities, and the lowest pay and compensation. There are several reasons that make it a challenging task to introduce and maintain a qualif ied teaching force, particularly in rural areas and in private preschools, including insuff icient funds, lack of career development, and weak incentives. Policy and Program Implications The research and f indings presented here represent the most recent and comprehensive set of studies ever done on early childhood education in Yunnan. While achievements in preschool expansion are apparent in Yunnan, we were able to reveal some serious challenges facing the preschool education.In light of the aforementioned f indings, seven main policy and programming interventions are relevant to enhancing early childhood education in China and Yunnan. Increasing public f inancing on preschool education, in particular for the disadvantaged The incorporation of preschool education into the free public education system, targeted funding for preschool provision in poor, border and minority counties, and a diverse and innovative set of demand-side, private-public partnership f inancing and delivery mechanisms are potentially effective measures to achieve this policy goal. Innovative ways include using the surplus primary classrooms, partnering with private entities such as “Publicly owned and privately managed” (公办民营), satellite centers (around the central preschool at the 23 式。采用其他灵活的早教服务模式，如家庭照顾、亲子教育、通信和媒 体互动等。这些形式在其他国家已经被用来提高早期发展服务的覆 盖率，增加了父母的育儿知识和改善了他们的养育做法，并最终提高 了儿童各发面发展。国际经验表明，即使每周接触学习活动的时间只 有 15 个小时，大多数儿童在认知上仍有所收益。缩短幼儿园和早教点 运营照顾时间，也可以降低成本，接纳更多儿童。另外，可以利用对家 长的教育让家长把课程信息带到家里执行，还可以通过有组织的同伴 互动进行补充。 在云南省内，进行试点的农村学前中心已经取得了良好的经 验。例如，中国发展研究基金会（CDRF）采用的一种服务模式主要 是依靠志愿教师，并提供教学材料，实行灵活的运营照顾时间安排， 同时改造原有或建立新的早教点。救助儿童会也通过发放早教材 料、培训家长志愿者当老师和社区协助，在云南的一些山村提供早 教服务。 改善现有幼儿园的质量和环境 需要开发更多的工具评估幼儿园的质量，传统上的评估往往停留 在硬件和其他投入上，而现在需要更多地关注课程、活动、师生互动和 其他过程指标。ECERS—R 只是使用越来越广泛的工具之一。可以把 对较“弱”方面进行定期评估当作一种管理策略和工具，用以改善课 堂环境和互动状况。教师和幼儿园园长可以利用这种评估的反馈来 改善课堂的教学实践。持续评估的结果也可以用来检验教师培训计 划的进展。在重庆的试点研究表明，短期教师培训课程，对教师的课 堂行为有一定的影响。 24 概 述 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 county level), and the purchasing of spaces in private preschools (vouchers). Public-private partnerships in particular are worth exploring to diversify sources of funding and models of delivery and create markets with new providers for Early Childhood Development and Education (ECDE). Shanghai’s use of vouchers for migrant children attending private primary schools could offer valuable lesson. Expanding service delivery models The formal, but expensive, center-based full time model of care is not the only viable model. Other models employing flexible service delivery could be adopted in addition to formal center-based care. Home-based care, parenting education, communication and media campaigns have been used in other countries to improve access to ECDE services, improve parental knowledge and practices, and ultimately improve childhood development outcomes. International experience shows that most children will have cognitive gains even if they are exposed to learning activities for only 15 hours a week. Shortening the time of center-based care can also reduce costs and accommodate more children. Alternatively, parenting education can be used to deliver curriculum-based information for implementation at home, and could be complemented by organized peer interactions. Within Yunnan, there are already good experiences from rural preschool centers which are being piloted. For example, the Child Development Research Foundation (CDRF) uses a service delivery model that relies primarily on volunteer teachers and provision of teaching and learning materials, flexible hours of operation, as well as renovation or establishment of the physical site. Save the Children also has community-based ECD provision in a number of villages through provision of teaching learning materials, use of parent volunteer teachers, and general community support. Improving quality and atmosphere of existing preschools More sophisticated instruments need to be developed for assessing the quality of preschools, going beyond the traditional focus on hardware and other inputs but with more attention to curriculum, activities, teacher- child interactions, and other process indicators. ECERS-R is only one example of such instruments, and is being adopted more and more widely. 25 加强家庭和家长教育 我们的研究揭示出，不同幼儿家庭环境存在严重差距，特别在 农村和贫困的、边境的地区。需要注意的是，家庭在儿童发展中发 挥的作用极其重要。广泛的研究证据证实，如果缺乏学习机会，而 且监护者与儿童互动质量差，极易造成儿童不良发展。除了基本的 卫生和营养需求，儿童发展成果的提高还有赖于养育、刺激和早期 教育的改善。遗憾的是，我们的调查结果表明，早期激发、玩耍、学 习在儿童的整体发展中发挥着至关重要的作用，而人们对此普遍缺 乏认识。这种趋势迫切需要得到遏制，具体做法是通过各种干预措 施，形成积极的幼儿家庭环境。家长可以通过与孩子交谈、与孩子 一起阅读玩耍，为孩子提供更优质的刺激和互动。家访、正规的教 育服务指导和支持以及家长的培训能够改善家庭环境并提高家长 的教育能力。 提高对二手烟危害的认识 鉴于约 90% 的被调查家庭有在儿童面前吸烟的行为，提高公众对 二手烟危害的认识很重要。在社区层面，广泛的宣传活动是一种有效 的措施，包括在公共场所张贴警示海报，给居民分发宣传小册子，并在 社区会议中做宣传。媒体也是一个功能强大的沟通渠道。在家庭层 面上，孕妇和有儿童的家庭特别值得关注。例如，在负责产前保健的 卫生机构以及儿科医院应该提供包括二手烟危害健康的信息。针对 由父母之外的家族成员照顾的儿童，也应该有相关措施，确保孩子在 一个无烟的环境中成长。 26 概 述 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Regular assessment of the relatively “weak” dimensions can be used as a management strategy and tool to improve the classroom environment and interactions. Feedback from such evaluations can be used by teachers and preschool directors to improve teaching and learning practices in the classrooms. Results from continuous assessment can also be used to inform the development of preschool teacher training programs. A pilot study in Chongqing city demonstrates that well-designed, short-term teacher training programs can have an impact on observed classroom behavior. Strengthening Family and Parental Education Our study reveals a serious gap in young children’s home environments, especially in rural, poor, and border counties. It is important to remember that families play at least an equally important, if not more important role, in childhood development. Vast research evidence conf irms that the lack of learning opportunities and poor quality caregiver-child interaction pose major risks for poor development. In addition to basic health and nutrition needs, substantial gains in childhood development require improvements in parenting, stimulation and early education. Unfortunately, our survey results indicate a general lack of awareness of the critical importance of early stimulation, playing, and learning in overall childhood development. This trend needs to be reversed as a matter of urgency via various interventions that promote a positive home environment for young children. Parents can provide more quality stimulation and interaction with their children by talking, reading, and playing with them. Parents’ ability for caregiving can be enhanced through home visits, guidance and support from health providers, and group parental training. Increasing awareness of secondhand smoke’s harmful effects Given that approximately 90 percent of households in the survey have members smoke in the presence of children, it is crucial to increase public awareness of the negative health impact of secondhand smoke. At the community level, an extensive information campaign, involving displaying graphic warnings in public space, distributing information brochures to households, and giving presentations in public gatherings,could be an effective strategy. Media could also be a powerful communication channel. 27 发展学前教育的师资力量 提供足够的合格幼儿教师是云南面临的最大挑战。幼儿教师作 为一个群体，在教师队伍中已经边缘化。幼儿教师的教学能力及对 儿童教育重要性的意识有待提高。农村和贫困县合格幼儿教师尤为 短缺。 需要重新审视幼儿教师标准，应突出强调教师在教导幼儿方面 的专业能力和教学能力。在招聘时，特别是为农村和私立幼儿园招聘 时，应要求应聘者提供教师证。 未来十年里幼儿教师的在职培训应该受到高度重视，应该为现有 及新增教师的发展和培训投入更多资金，以满足日益增长的需求。根 据《学习与发展指南》，培训应该更加注重学前教学法。 与此同时，有必要设计出更具创新性的政策措施，以吸引更多有 能力的高中毕业生进入高职和高等学校学习职前课程。还需要努力 招聘更多的男性幼儿教师，更积极地进行招生管理和职业生涯辅导。 针对学前教育专业，还应该减免学费、提供更多的奖学金机会和有针 对性的工作安排。高等院校也可以考虑建立学前教育准备中心，鼓励 有小学教师经验和其他对学前教育有兴趣的大学毕业生到幼儿园再 就业。 需要关注幼儿教师的职业阶梯和相应的薪酬，逐步对其进行完 善，最终使幼儿园和小学教师的就业机会和工资水平接轨。还需要特 别重视改善幼儿教师的工作条件、提高农村幼儿教师的工资。还应制 定特别奖励，以留住农村幼儿教师，其中包括更多的培训项目、更高的 薪酬、更好的居住和更完善的支持系统。鼓励城乡之间的幼儿教师交 28 概 述 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 At the household level, families with pregnant women or children merit special attention. For example, health facilities that offer prenatal and or pediatric care could give out health education packages with information on secondhand smoke. For households in which family members other than the parents are the primary caregivers, it is important to design targeted measures so that they ensure the children are in a smoke-free environment. Developing a preschool teaching force The adequate provision of qualif ied preschool teachers presents the biggest challenge for Yunnan. Preschool teachers as a group have become marginalized from the rest of the teaching force. There is a need to improve preschool teachers’ pedagogical competency, as well as awareness of and sensitivity to childhood development needs. The shortage of qualif ied preschool teachers is particularly acute in rural and poor counties. The standards for preschool teachers in particular need to be reviewed to emphasize more teacher professional and pedagogical competencies with regard to teaching young children. There is a need to enforce the requirement of teaching certif icates at hiring in particular for rural and private preschools. In-service training and support of preschool teachers should be highly prioritized in the next decade, and more funds should be directed to the development and training of both new and current teachers in order to meet the growing demand. The focus of training should be devoted more to the preschool pedagogy along the lines of the Learning and Development Guidelines. At the same time, there is a need to devise more innovative policy measures to attract more capable high school graduates into pre-service programs in both senior vocational and tertiary preschool education programs. In particular, efforts should be made to recruit more male preschool teachers, promote a more active admissions management, and develop career counseling. Tuition waivers, more access to scholarships, and targeted job placement should be made available. Colleges can also consider establishing preschool education preparation centers and encourage job replacement for former primary school teachers and other unemployed graduates who are interested in preschool education. 29 换；将交换服务纳入幼儿教师日常评价中。 对于私立幼儿园，应建立正式的招聘、培训和承包机制及对其教 师的评价机制，把他们纳入公共教育的管理之下。设定农村以及私立 幼儿园教师最低薪资标准是可值得考虑的。 为所有孩子包括 0—3 岁儿童提供一体化的 ECD 在刚开始设计的时候，我们希望能将儿童早期发展视为一项一体 化的服务。但是，无论是在云南还是在中国，我们发现儿童早期发展 作为一个概念还没有出现。幼儿服务依旧按教育、卫生和儿童保护等 部门界限来进行。所以要就“一体化服务”收集数据或进行任何有意 义的政策对话还不适宜。在与幼儿有关的各个部门中，教育是最大的 所以我们将关注点缩小到儿童早期教育上。 部门， 另一方面，全球发展趋势越来越倾向于幼儿服务提供更为一体 化，将产前、健康、早期激发 / 教育、营养和儿童保护服务汇聚到一起， 集中在一个儿童发展机构之下。教育家、心理学家、发育专家和经济 学家都认为人类发展是一个生命周期发展的过程，早在孩子出生之前 就开始了。从长远来看，云南可以着手形成 ECD 概念和制定相关政策 与制度，从提供产前服务、0—3 岁儿童服务，再到 3—6 岁儿童服务，甚 至包括与小学教育的衔接。 尽管这可能是个长期目标，但有些领域应该需要政府给予更多的 政策关注了，如 0—3 岁儿童的照顾和发展。这一领域一直以来在很大 程度上被忽视了。到目前为止，这一领域没有任何公共服务介入。父 母用他们自己的方式，或者在家庭内部或者通过市场来照顾他们 0—3 岁的儿童。市场服务往往不规范，对幼儿的发展有潜在威胁。 30 概 述 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 There is a need to review the preschool teacher career ladder and associated salaries, with gradual improvement so that eventually there will not be any difference in career opportunities and salaries between preschool and primary school teachers. Particular emphasis should be paid to improve the working conditions and pay for rural preschool teachers. Special incentives should be developed to retain rural preschool teachers, including more training programs, higher compensation, better accommodations, and improved support network. In addition, exchanges of teachers between rural, county and urban areas should be encouraged, and exchange services should be incorporated into routine teacher evaluations. For private preschools, it is important to establish formal recruiting, training, contracting and evaluating mechanisms for private and rural preschool teachers, and incorporate them under the management of public educational authorities. There may be merit to setting minimum teacher salaries for rural as well as private preschools. Moving towards integrated ECD provision for all, including early childhood development (0-to 3-Year-Olds) At the very beginning of the research design, we had hoped the study would be able to cover early childhood development as an integrated service. However, it soon became clear that early childhood development as a concept has yet to emerge in Yunnan or in China as a whole. The provision of services for young children continues to be organized along sectoral boundaries of education, health, and child protection. The research team found that it was impossible to collect data or to have any meaningful conversation on “integrated services.” Among the various sectors relevant to young children, education is the largest department, so the team narrowed its focus to only early childhood education. Increasingly, global trends move toward more integrated provision of services for young children — bringing together prenatal, health, early stimulation/education,nutrition and child protection services — often under an umbrella child development agency. Educators, psychologists, developmental specialists, and economists are converging on the view that human development is a lifecycle development process that starts before the child is born. In the long term, Yunnan could start developing the ECD 31 与此同时，中国劳动力参与率，包括女性劳动力参与率都非常高。 现在大多数幼儿都由受教育程度不高的祖父母或其他家属照顾。因 此，迫切需要制定针对 0—3 岁儿童的政策干预，尤其是对已经面临风 险的儿童。对于 0—3 岁儿童，重点应放在改善对孕妇的产前照顾和通 过提供营养套餐，对家长和照顾者进行教育以及对幼儿的早期社会和 认知刺激。国际经验表明，以家庭为基础或以社区为基础的方法有助 于互动，而由营养、健康和刺激方面的专家对母亲和照顾者进行培训 极其重要。 32 概 述 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 concept and related policies and institutions, covering prenatal services to services for 0-to 3-year-olds, 3-to 6-year-olds, and even aligning such services with primary school education. While this may still be a long-term goal, there are some areas that already deserve more policy attention by the government, for example, the care and development of the 0-to 3-year-olds. This is an area that has been largely neglected. There is currently no public service provision. Parents use their own means either within the family or in the private market to care for their 0-to 3-year-olds. The private market is often unregulated and poses a potential development threat to young children. At the same time, labor force participation including female labor force participation is very high in China. Most of the young children are now left in the care of grandparents or other family members who may have relatively less education. There is a great urgency to develop appropriate policy interventions for the 0-to 3-year-olds,especially those who are at risk. For the 0 to 3 group, emphasis should be on improving prenatal care for pregnant mothers, improving the nutritional and health status of young children through the provision of nutritional packages, parental and caregiver education, and early social and cognitive stimulation to young children. International experience shows the home-based and/or community- based approaches that facilitate interaction and training of mothers and caregivers by persons knowledgeable about nutrition, health and stimulation can be highly cost effective. 33 引言 Introduction 34 引 言 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 35 云南是位于中国西南边陲的一个中等大小且相对贫困的省份。 该省以拥有丰富的自然资源而著称，包括矿产、森林和动植物。云南 省的人口有 4，600 万，其中 3，000 万生活在农村，1，600 万生活在城市。 云南近 84% 的区域是农田和山地，云南还以民族多样性为特色：其人 口的 1/3，即 1，500 万人分属于 26 个少数民族。 2010 年云南的人均 GDP 为人民币 15，752 元——仅比全国平均水 平 29，992 元的一半略高。2010 年云南农村人口的人均年净收入只有 人民币 3，952 元（约合 623 美元）。约 22% 的云南人口，即 1，000 万人， 仍生活在 2，300 元的全国贫困线以下，这使得云南成为排在甘肃和贵 州之后的中国第三大贫困省份。2011 年底，云南有 73 个国家级贫困 县，是所有省份中贫困县数量最多的。 云南省和世界银行有很长的合作历史。在 20 世纪 90 年代和 21 世纪头十年中云南从世行几乎所有的减贫项目中获益。2012 年世界 银行在云南资助了一个职业技术教育与培训 项目，投资总额达 5，000 万美元，该项目为提高 9 个中高级技术和职业教育与培训机构的质量 提供支持。 世界银行深刻意识到儿童早期教育发展对个人以及社会的重要 性（见专栏 1.0）。2002 年，财政部和云南省教育厅正式要求世行支持 并进行一项对儿童早期教育政策和项目的审查，以便对该省在扩大儿 童早期教育方面，特别是农村和山区的儿童早期教育方面所面临的挑 战有一个深入且有据可循的了解。 36 引 言 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Yunnan is a medium-sized and relatively poor province on the southwestern border of China. The province is known for its abundant natural resources, including minerals, forests, animals, and plants. Yunnan has a population of 46 million, 30 million of whom reside in rural areas and 16 million in urban areas. Nearly 84 percent of Yunnan’s land mass is rural and mountainous. Yunnan further distinguishes itself with its ethnic diversity: one-third of its population, or 15 million people, belongs to 26 different non-Han ethnic groups. Its gross domestic product (GDP) per capita in 2010 was RMB 15,752 — only slightly more than half the national average of RMB 29,992. The annual net income per capita of Yunnan’s rural population was only RMB 3,952 (US$623) in 2010. About 22 percent of its population, or 10 million people, still live under the national poverty line of RMB 2,300, making Yunnan the third poorest province in China after Gansu and Guizhou. At the end of 2011, Yunnan had 73 national-level poverty counties, the highest number among all provinces. There is a long history of collaboration between Yunnan province and the World Bank. Yunnan has been a benef iciary province in almost all of the World Bank poverty alleviation projects in the 1990s and early 2000s. In 2012, the World Bank f inanced a Technical and Vocational Education and Training Project amounting to US$50 million in support of the improvement of quality in nine secondary and tertiary technical and vocational education and training (TVET) institutions. In 2002, the Ministry of Finance and the Department of Education in Yunnan formally requested Bank support in conducting a review of early childhood education policies and programs in order to gain an in-depth and evidence-based understanding of the challenges the province faces in expanding early childhood education, especially to its rural and mountainous regions. The World Bank recognizes that ECD has important benef its for individuals and the society (see Box 1.0).The focus of early childhood education is completely in line with the World Bank Strategy 2020 which calls for “investing early, investing smartly, and investing in all”.The proposal was also in line with the World Bank’s overall mission and strategy of poverty alleviation. 37 专栏 1.0　儿童早期教育发展的好处 儿童早期教育发展对儿童的成长发育、认知能力和社会情 感能力发展都有着重要的影响。同时，儿童早期教育发展项目 也对个人的受教育程度和生产力有积极的影响。从社会层面来 说，它能提高公共福祉、降低犯罪率、缩小社会不平等。因此，儿 童早期教育是一个高社会效益的教育投资。 充分证据表明，产前护理和儿童 0—6 岁之间的经历对其大 脑和生长发育有着至关重要的影响，对他们后续阶段认知和社会 情感的形成也有决定性作用。神经学研究表明，突触（神经系统 中神经元之间的连接或路径）在幼儿时期发展迅速，从而为儿童 认知和情感功能奠定了基础。因此，一个孩子在 0—5 岁期间大 脑接受的刺激是其大脑形成和发育的关键。比如，Hart 和 Risley （1995）发现儿童从很小的年龄就开始积累词汇。来自不同社会 背景的家长和孩子之间的语言互动是不同的，3 岁儿童在词汇量 而这种差异一直会持续到孩子 9 岁。 上的差异已经非常明显， 通过早期教育，孩子们有机会参与学习活动，与他人合作的 过程中，培养今后进入正式学习和交流的重要技能。有证据表 明，儿童接受的早期干预与他们今后的学习成绩有密切的联系。 根据 2009 年的国际学生评估项目（PISA）结果，接受过超过一年 学前教育的上海 15 岁学生比没有接受过学前教育的同龄学生 测试成绩高出 60 多分。在美国，高质量、学习互动性高的 High/ Scope Perry Preschool 早教项目对参与者的影响也十分显著。参 与项目的孩子比没有参与的孩子高中毕业率、月薪和在 27 岁时 的住房拥有率都高 2005） （Schweinhart 等， 。 38 引 言 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Accordingly, the Bank’s China Education Team embarked on raising funds, and designing and implementing a rather elaborate research agenda around early childhood education. The aim was to investigate key challenges, and to propose policy interventions for expanding ECD coverage in rural Yunnan. Box 1.0 The Benef its of ECD ECD has important implications for children’s physical, cognitive, as well as socio-emotional development. Attendance in ECD programs can also have a positive impact on individuals’ educational attainment and productivity later in life. Furthermore, ECD brings signif icant social benef its, contributing to lower crime rate and social inequality. Given its extensive individual and social benef its, ECD proves to be a highly cost- eff icient educational investment. Ample evidence supports that prenatal care and experiences in the f irst 6 years have a signif icant impact on the physical and brain development of children, therefore affecting the cognitive and socio- emotional development in subsequent stages of their lives.Neurological studies have showed that synapses (connections or paths between neurons in the nervous system) go through rapid development during early childhood, laying the foundation for cognitive and emotional functioning for the rest of the child’s life. Therefore, stimulation in the f irst 5 years of a child’s life is crucial to the brain formation and development process. For example, Hart and Risley (1995) show that children accumulate words at a very early stage in life. The differences in vocabulary are already evident for 36-month-old children from different social groups (hence different amount of language interaction between parents and children) and persist when those children turn 9 years old. Through ECD, children have the opportunity to participate in learning activities, work with others, and develop skills that are crucial to formal learning and social interactions in later years. Evidence shows that children’s exposure to early interventions correlates highly with their educational performance in later years. According to results from the 2009 Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), 15-year-old students in Shanghai who had attended pre-primary school for more than 39 儿童早期教育发展也会产生长期的经济利益。据 Carneiro 和 Heckman（2003）的研究，投资儿童早期教育的回报率比今后 任何一人生阶段的投资回报率都高。对高品质幼儿发展项目的 研究显示，早教的内部收益率为 7% 至 18% 不等。早教不仅有助 于提高收入，而且其 80% 的收益都是社会收益，包括高风险行为 的减少和犯罪率的降低。比如，在土耳其，参与一个母婴教育项 目的孩子相比没有参与的孩子犯罪率低 2009） （Kagitcibasi 等， 。 儿童早期教育还有助于减少社会不平等。设计得当的幼儿 发展方案可以减少贫困儿童所处的发展劣势，有助于他们幼年时 期在认知和社会发展方面的能力培养，从而提供一个更公平的竞 争环境。几个评估美国为弱势儿童提供早期教育项目的研究都 项目对儿童成长产生了积极影响， 发现， 从而促进机会平等性。 资料来源： Alderman, A. 2011. No Small Matter: The Impact of Poverty, Shocks, and Human Capital Investments in Early Childhood Development. Washington, DC: World Bank. Carneiro, P . M., and J. J. Heckman. 2003. Human Capital Policy. Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA) Discussion Paper No. 821. Hart, B., and T. R. Risley. 1995. Meaningful Differences in the Everyday Experiences of Young American Children. Baltimore, Md.: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Company, Inc. Naudeau, Sophie; Kataoka, Naoko; Valerio, Alexandria; Neuman, Michelle J.; Elder, Leslie Kennedy. 2011. Investing in young children: an early childhood development guide for policy dialogue and project preparation. Directions in development; human development; Africa regional educational publications. Washington, DC: World Bank. 40 引 言 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 a year scored over 60 points higher than those who had not. In the United States, the high-quality, active-learning preschool program High/Scope Perry Preschool also had a signif icant impact on the participants. Those who enrolled in the program had higher rates of high school completion, higher monthly earnings, and higher rate of homeownership at age 27 than their counterparts who did not. (Schweinhart et al. 2005) ECD also yields long-term economic benef its. According to Carneiro and Heckman (2003), investing in early childhood development and education (ECDE) has higher rate of return than interventions targeted at later stages of life. Results from evaluations of high-quality ECD programs suggest that the real internal rate of returns ranges from 7% to 18%. Not only does ECDE contribute to higher earnings, 80% of the benef its of ECD programs were for the general public, including less high-risk behavior and fewer crimes committed. For example, in Turkey, children whose families participated in a mother-child education program had lower rates of delinquency than their peers whose families did not participate (Kagitcibasi et al. 2009). ECD can also contribute to reducing inequity. If well designed, ECD programs can decrease the disadvantage of poor children and allow them to catch up at an early age with respect to cognitive and social development, thus providing a more level playing field. Several long-term evaluations of ECD programs for disadvantaged children in the United States have found benefits for adult educational outcomes, thus leading to greater equality of opportunity. Source: Alderman, A. 2011. No Small Matter: The Impact of Poverty, Shocks, and Human Capital Investments in Early Childhood Development. Washington, DC: World Bank. Carneiro, P. M., and J. J. Heckman. 2003. Human Capital Policy. Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA) Discussion Paper No. 821. Hart, B., and T. R. Risley. 1995. Meaningful Differences in the Everyday Experiences of Young American Children. Baltimore, Md.: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Company, Inc. Naudeau, Sophie; Kataoka, Naoko; Valerio, Alexandria; Neuman, Michelle J.; Elder, Leslie Kennedy. 2011. Investing in young children: an early 41 Schweinhart, L. J., Montie, J., Xiang, Z., Barnett, W. S., Belfield, C. R., &Nores, M. (2005). Lifetime effects: The HighScope Perry Preschool study through age 40. (Monographs of the HighScope Educational Research Foundation, 14). Ypsilanti, MI: HighScope Press. Wu, Kin Bing. 2011. Early childhood development and education in China: breaking the cycle of poverty and improving future competitiveness. Washington, DC: World Bank. Young, M.E. 2002. Investing in Our Children’s Future.From Early Child Development to Human Development. Washington, DC: World Bank. 儿童早期教育的重点与世界银行 2020 年战略完全相符，该战略主 张“及早投资、智慧投资和全面投资”。这个建议也与世界银行减轻 贫困的总体使命和战略相一致。因此，世行的中国教育团队进行了筹 资，并围绕儿童早期教育精心设计和实施了一套研究计划，旨在摸清 主要的挑战，并就扩大云南农村的 ECD 覆盖提出政策干预措施。 （1）对云南现有的 ECD 政策和机构 研究产生了五个相关的课题： （3） 对云南农村地区 3—6 岁儿童 （2） 学前教育机构的融资； 的调查； （4） 运用国际认可的 ECERS—R 对昆明学前 代表性样本的家庭调查； （5）对云南学前教育教师的调查。下图 1.0 对总 教育机构质量的调查； 体研究设计进行了概括。 因此，本报告也由五个各具特点的独立部分构成：第一部分对主 要的相关政策、规定以及与儿童早期教育有关的机构进行了罗列。与 此同时，第一部分总结了过去十年 ECDE 方面的主要成就，在这个过 程中，它也突出了某些政策和服务提供方面的缺陷，特别是因为这些 缺陷涉及农村和弱势群体的学前教育覆盖。 第二部分对教育资金投入系统进行了评价，同时这部分还详细列 举了教育资金的分散以及对义务教育的重视，导致了 ECD 资金投入相 42 引 言 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 childhood development guide for policy dialogue and project preparation. Directions in development; human development; Africa regional educational publications. Washington, DC: World Bank. Schweinhart, L. J., Montie, J., Xiang, Z., Barnett, W. S., Belf ield, C. R., &Nores, M. (2005). Lifetime effects: The HighScope Perry Preschool study through age 40 . (Monographs of the HighScope Educational Research Foundation, 14). Ypsilanti, MI: HighScope Press. Wu, Kin Bing. 2011. Early childhood development and education in China: breaking the cycle of poverty and improving future competitiveness. Washington, DC: World Bank. Young, M.E. 2002. Investing in Our Children’s Future.From Early Child Development to Human Development. Washington, DC: World Bank. The research produced f ive interrelated studies: (i) a survey of existing ECD policies and institutions in Yunnan; (ii) the f inancing of preschools; (iii) a household survey of a representative sample of 3-to 6-year-olds in rural Yunnan; (iv) a survey of preschool quality in Kunming using the Figure 1.0　Research Design 43 图 1.0 研究设计 对不足或不公平的问题。 第三部分列出了有关云南农村地区家庭照顾条件和儿童发展状况 以及影响学前教育机构入学人数和发展的相关因素。 的家庭调查情况， 第四部分利用 ECERS—R 对昆明地区 24 个农村和城市的学前教育 机构进行了分层随机抽样，并以此为依据提供了有关云南学前教育机 构质量的概貌。 第五部分是对幼儿教师的需求与供应以及招聘、职业发展、工资 和其他工作条件的深入调研。 最后，本报告根据调研的结果阐释了相关政策和项目建议。 因为这一点国内外的许 本报告并没有赘述儿童早期教育的重要性， 多教育工作者、社会学家、经济学家、心理学家和发展问题专家都提供了 有力的证明。相关的最新论证可以参见世界银行报告《中国早期儿童 发展： （Wu， 打破贫困循环并提高未来竞争力》 2012） Young 和 Cai， 。 44 引 言 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 internationally-recognized ECERS-R scale; and (v) a study of preschool teachers in Yunnan. Figure 1.0 below summarizes the overall research design. Accordingly, this report is structured into f ive distinctive substantive parts: Part I reviews the main relevant policies, regulations, as well as institutions relevant to early childhood education. At the same time, Part I summarizes the major achievements in ECDE over the last decade.In the process, it highlights some of the policy and service delivery gaps in particular as they relate to access to preschool for the rural and disadvantaged population. Part II reviews the education f inancing system, especially as it impacts the f inancing of ECDE and details the fact that decentralized education f inancing, coupled with a preoccupation with compulsory basic education, has resulted in relatively inadequate and inequitable f inancing on ECD. Part III presents the most recent f indings from the rural household survey on the home care conditions, developmental status of children in rural Yunnan, and the determinants of preschool enrollment and development. Part IV provides a snapshot of the quality of Yunnan preschools based on the application of ECERS-R in a stratif ied random sample of 24 rural and urban preschools in Kunming area. Part V is an in-depth study of the preschool teacher demand and supply, as well as recruitment, professional development, salary and other working conditions. Finally, the report offers policy and program implications based on the f indings from the study. This report does not reiterate the importance of early childhood education as it has been argued most convincingly already by many educators, sociologists, economists, psychologists, and development specialists from both global and country perspectives. The most relevant and recent argument can be found in the World Bank publication on “Early Child Development in China: Breaking the Cycle of Poverty and Improving Future Competitiveness” (Wu, Young, and Cai, 2012). 45 第一部分 有关儿童早期教育的政策和儿 童早期教育现状 Part I Existing Policies on and Status of Early Childhood Education 46 第一部分 有关儿童早期教育的政策和儿童早期教育现状 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 47 法律和制度框架 过去十年中，中国一直致力于实现“两个基本”的目标，即：普及 九年义务教育和扫除青壮年文盲。为此，国家对学前教育的重视不断 提高。自从 2000 年以来，专门针对儿童早期教育的新规定和新指导方 针在不断增加。 中国的儿童早期教育政策受法律和教育主管部门制定的全国性 规定指导。省级人大和政府根据本地区的情况，通过具体的规定来监 督和落实。表 1.1 概述了与全国以及云南省与学前教育活动相关的主 要法律和法规。 表 1.1　有关学前教育的部分法律和规定 全国人大批准的法律 通过或发布日期 教育法 1995 年 3 月 教师法 1993 年 10 月 民办教育促进法 2002 年 12 月 由国务院和教育部发布的关于幼儿园管理的指导方针和规定 关于基础教育改革和发展的决定 2001 年 关于幼儿教育改革与发展的指导意见 2003 年 民办教育促进法实施条例 2004 年 2 月 关于当前发展学前教育的若干意见 2010 年 11 月 国家中长期教育改革和发展规划纲要（2010—2020 年） 2010 年 5 月 中国儿童发展纲要（2011—2020 年） 2011 年 8 月 48 第一部分 有关儿童早期教育的政策和儿童早期教育现状 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Legal and Institutional Framework In the past decade, China has been working toward completing its target of achieving the “Two Basics,” that is, achieving universal access to 9-year compulsory education, and eliminating illiteracy among young and middle-aged people. With this, the attention to preschool education on the national agenda has been growing more than ever before. Since the new millennia, new regulations and guidelines specif ically for early childhood education have been increasing. China’s early childhood education policies were guided by laws approved by the People’s Congress and by guidelines and national regulations as set forth by the State Council, in particular, the Ministry of Education (MOE). The Provincial Congress and government will then, based on their regional situations, pass specific regulations to monitor and implement service delivery. Table 1.1 outlines the major laws and regulations relevant to the operation of preschool education at the national level, and at the provincial level in Yunnan. Table 1.1 Selected Laws and Regulation on Preschool Education Date Passed or Laws approved by the National Congress Promulgated Education Law March 1995 Teacher Law October 1993 Private Education Promotion Law December 2002 Guidelines and Regulations issued by the State Council and Ministry of Education on Kindergarten Management Decisions on National Primary Education Reform and Development 2001 Guidelines on National Early Childhood Education Reform and 2003 Development Private Education Promotion and Implementation Guidelines February 2004 Suggestions on Current Development of National Preschool Education November 2010 National Medium — and Long-term Educational Reform and May 2010 Development Plan (2010—2020) 49 （续表） 全国人大批准的法律 通过或发布日期 教育部幼儿园管理条例 1989 年 9 月 教育部幼儿园办学原则 1996 年 3 月 教育部幼儿园教育指导纲要 2001 年 教育部幼儿园收费管理暂行办法 2011 年 12 月 教育部 3—6 岁儿童学习与发展指南 2012 年 9 月 教育部学前教育督导评估暂行办法 2012 年 2 月 教育部幼儿园教职工配备标准 2013 年 1 月 由国务院制定的关于教师培训和管理的指导方针与规定 教师资格条例 1995 年 职责和岗位要求 幼儿园园长任职资格、 1996 年 1 月 教育部中小学教师继续教育规定 1999 年 9 月 教育部教师教育课程标准 2011 年 11 月 教育部幼儿园教师专业标准 2012 年 12 月 由云南省政府制定的规定与指导方针 云南省幼儿园登记注册管理办法 1993 年 6 月 云南省示范幼儿园办园水平综合评价方案（征求意见稿） 2010 年 [1] 云南省学前教育三年行动计划（2011—2013 年） 2011 年 5 月 云南省中长期教育改革与发展规划纲要（2011—2020 年） 2011 年 5 月 云南省学前教育条例 2012 年 11 月 云南省普惠性民办幼儿园评估指标体系 2013 年 1 月 云南省幼儿园收费管理办法 正在制定中 云南省幼儿园教职工配备标准 正在制定中 [1] 2010 年修订版目前正在审查中。原版本出版于 1997 年。 50 第一部分 有关儿童早期教育的政策和儿童早期教育现状 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 (Continued) Date Passed or Laws approved by the National Congress Promulgated The Guidelines on Chinese Children Development (2011—2020) August 2011 MOE Regulation on Kindergarten Management September 1989 MOE Working Principles on Kindergarten Operations March 1996 MOE Guiding Principles on Kindergarten Education 2001 MOE Regulation on Kindergarten Fee Collection December 2011 MOE Learning and Development Guidelines for 3-to 6-Year-Old Children September 2012 MOE Guiding Principles on Preschool Education Monitoring and February 2012 Evaluation MOE Kindergarten Staff ing Standards January 2013 Guidelines and Regulations issued by State Council Teacher Training and Management Regulation on National Teacher Qualif ication 1995 Regulation on Qualifications and Responsibilities of Kindergarten Directors January 1996 MOE Regulation on Post-service Training of Primary and Secondary September 1999 School Teachers MOE Pre-service Curriculum Standards of National Teachers November 2011 MOE Qualif ication Standards for Kindergarten Teachers December 2012 Regulations and guidelines set forth by Yunnan Provincial Government Yunnan Kindergarten Registration Policy June 1993 [1] Yunnan Provincial Exemplary Kindergarten Management Scales 2010 Yunnan Provincial Preschool Education 3-year Action Plan (2011—2013) May 2011 Yunnan Provincial Medium — and Long-term Educational Reform May 2011 and Development Plan (2011—2020) Yunnan Provincial Regulation on Preschool Education November 2012 Yunnan Evaluation Scale for Nonprof it Private Kindergarten January 2013 Under Yunnan Provincial Regulation on Kindergarten Fee Collection development Under Yunnan Provincial Standards for Kindergarten Staff ing development [1] The 2010 revised version is currently under review. The original version was published in 1997. 51 于 20 世纪 90 年代中期颁布的《教育法》和《教师法》系统地为教 育管理和教师的法律地位奠定了基础。这些法律从广义上说也是执 行的指导方针和规定的基础。2002 年为了对公共教育服务进行补充， 第九次全国人大通过了《民办教育促进法》，从而在法律上对私立教育 机构的办学活动进行了界定。加上国务院 2004 年制定的《民办教育促 进法实施条例》，这些文件为民间—政府合作以实现教育效果和效率 的最大化铺平了道路。 1989 年出台的《教育部幼儿园管理条例》和 1996 年出台的《教育 部幼儿园办学原则》是有关幼儿园管理和办学活动的首批全国性法律 文件。这些规定确立了幼儿园管理、基本活动、安全以及健康和卫生、 人员组织、课程、家庭社区和财务的具体规范与标准。 21 世纪初，由于 85% 的中国人口达到了“两个基本”的要求，因此 非义务的学前教育受到空前重视。自 2001 年以来，颁布的有关幼儿 园管理和教师资格的全国性规定数量不断增加，以便对儿童早期教育 服务的实施进行指导 [1]。然而，直到 21 世纪头十年的末期，在全国都实 现了 （包括于 2009 年实现 “两个基本” “两个基本”的云南省）的情况 下，国家和各省对早期儿童发展与教育新的支持才越来越兴盛。有关 儿童发展和学前教育的彼此加强并互为参照的一系列指导方针得以 引入： ·《中国中长期教育改革与发展规划纲要（2010—2020 年）》制 [1] 分别于 2001 年和 2003 年出台的 《国务院关于基础教育改革与发展的决定》 和《关于幼 儿教育改革与发展的指导意见》 均建议较为贫困的省份 （那些有 15% 的人口没有实现 “两个基本” 的省份） 应该 “致力于实现 ‘两个基本’ ，适度发展高中教育， 积极推动学前 教育”，并 “在五年 （2003—2007 年）内使 3—6 岁儿童的幼儿园毛入园率达到 35%，5—6 岁儿童的毛入园率达到 60%” 。 52 第一部分 有关儿童早期教育的政策和儿童早期教育现状 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 The Education Law and the Teacher Law promulgated in the mid-90s laid the systematic foundation for the legal status of education governance and teachers. These laws also served as the basis for further implementation- oriented guidelines and regulations in broad terms. In 2002, to supplement the public education services, the 9th National People’s Congress passed the Private Education Promotion Law to legally outline the operations of private education institutions. Together with the 2004 Private Education Promotion and Implementation Guidelines set by the State Council, these documents paved the way for private-government cooperation to maximize educational effectiveness and eff iciency. The 1989 MOE Regulation on Kindergarten Management and 1996 MOE Working Principles on Kindergarten Operations were the f irst national legal documents on the management and operations of kindergarten services. These regulations set specif ic norms and standards for kindergarten administration, basic activities, safety, as well as health and hygiene, organization of personnel, classes, family communities and f inance. At the beginning of the 21 st century, as 85 percent of the Chinese population reached the “Two Basics” requirements, more emphasis than ever was put on non-compulsory preschool education. Since 2001, an increasing number of national regulations on kindergarten management and teacher qualif ications were issued to guide the implementation of Early Childhood Education services.[1] However, it was not until the late 2000s when the whole nation accomplished the “Two Basics” (including Yunnan Province in 2009), that a blossoming of new national and local support for ECE was realized. A series of mutually reinforcing and crossed-referenced guidelines on childhood development and preschool education were introduced including: · China’s Medium — and Long-Term Educational Reform and Development [1] In 2001 and 2003 respectively, the National Decision on Primary School Reform and Development and the Guidelines on Early Childhood Education Reform and Development recommended that the poorer provinces (those covering 15 percent of the population not achieving the “two Basics”) should “work hard towards the fulf illment of ‘Two Basics’, moderately develop Senior Middle education, and actively promote preschool education”, and “in 5 years (2003—2007) the gross enrollment of 3—6-year-olds at kindergarten should achieve 35 percent, while the 5-to 6-year-olds’gross enrollment rate should reach 60 percent”. 53 定了扩大学前教育的目标，并期望将学前教育问题纳入今后十 年的城市规划。 ·《关于当前发展学前教育的若干意见》就如何扩大学前教育， 包括提高教师质量、确保各级政府的预算拨款和指导政府各部 门间开展合作等提出了具体的建议。 ·《中国儿童发展纲要（2011—2020 年）》进一步详细阐明了旨 在扩大学前教育的政策干预以及扩大学前教育的目的和目标， 包括政府规划过程、私立部分对补充公共教育体系所起的作用 （特别是在农村地区）、覆盖的理想状态、为入园提供资金的授 权以及不同地区的发展的灵活性。 要将这些指导方针变成行动，国务院下属的教育部以及云南省政 府提出了具体的标准、地区性目标和实施计划。 ·《教育部幼儿园教育指导纲要》和《教育部 3—6 岁儿童学习与 发展指南》概述了学前教育阶段在社会和认知的各个方面儿 童发展的具体目标，为幼儿园教育、督导和评估提供指导。 ·《教育部学前教育督导评估暂行办法》就督导与评估学前教育 方面的管理、方法和可靠性提供了进一步的指导。 · 在 1987 年版的基础上更新的《教育部幼儿园教职工配备标准》 对各类已有和新建幼儿园的教师、保育员和园长的数量提出了 具体的要求。 ·《云南省学前教育三年行动计划（2011—2013 年）》和《云南 省中长期教育改革与发展规划纲要（2011—2020 年）》制定了 该地区的教育目标，并承认当前农村幼儿园供应和需求的挑 战、重申了学前教育作为省政府今后十年的一个工作重点的 54 第一部分 有关儿童早期教育的政策和儿童早期教育现状 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Plan (2010 —2020) sets targets for the expansion of preschool education and looks to incorporate preschool education into urban planning for the next decade. · Suggestions on the Current Development of National Preschool Education provide concrete suggestions about how to expand preschool education, including strengthening teacher quality, ensuring budgetary appropriations at different levels of government, and guiding coordination between government departments. · The Guidelines on Chinese Children Development (2011—2020) explain the interventions, goals, and targets to expand preschool education in further detail, including the government planning process, the role of the private sector in supplementing the public education system (especially in rural areas), the ideal state of coverage, the mandate to fund enrollment, and the flexible nature of development for different geographical areas. To translate these guidelines into actions, the MOE within the State Council, and the Yunnan provincial government proposed concrete standards, regional targets and implementation plans. · The MOE Guiding Principles on Kindergarten Education and MOE Learning and Development Guidelines for 3-to 6-Year-Old Children outline the specif ic targets of childhood development during the preschool education stage along a variety of social and cognitive dimensions, providing instructions for kindergarten education, and monitoring and evaluation. · The MOE Guiding Principles on Preschool Education Monitoring and Evaluation provide further guidance on the administration, methods, and accountability in monitoring and evaluating preschool education. · The MOE Kindergarten Staff ing Standards, updated from the 1987 version, provide specif ic requirements on the number of teaching staff, caregivers, and directors for established and new kindergartens of different types. · The Yunnan Provincial Preschool Education 3-year Action Plan (2011—2013) and Yunnan Provincial Medium and Long-term Educational Reform and Development Plan (2011—2020), which set the regional education targets, acknowledge the challenges of current supply 55 重要性，并公布预算拨款要“每年大幅增加”以支持扩大学前 教育。 ·《云南省学前教育条例》是自 1993 年以来最新颁布的关于学 前教育行政管理的详细的省级规定，该条例对政府各部门的 职能结构、设施的地点及管理、儿童照顾的原则、教育及教师 培训、对私立幼儿园和农村人口进行支持的措施进行了简要 的描述。 这些措施和规划明白地显示出，中国特别是云南学前教育的新 时代来临。云南有着数量最多的低于国家贫困线的县 [1]，还集中了最 多的少数民族。该省的目标是打破贫困循环、提升社会和谐和提高 未来的竞争力。在中国“十一五”规划的最后几年里，国家拨了 20 亿 元人民币（合 3.28 亿美元）资金给中西部省份以支持其学前教育扩大 试点项目 [2] （其中云南省获得 3 亿元）。2011 年，根据“十二五”规划 （2011—2015 年）中央预算前所未有地拨出 500 亿元（合 82 亿美元）以 支持扩大学前教育。到 2013 年，除了 2 亿元的云南省政府特别拨款，云 南还花费了 17.4 亿元支持幼儿园建设、民间参与、教师培训和贫困家 庭补贴。 2012 年，教育部颁布了《3—6 岁儿童学习与发展指南》，该指南对 儿童的各个发展阶段进行了描述并建议在健康、语言、社会、科学和艺 术方面进行教育干预。目前中国正在致力于制定一部具体的儿童早 [1] 根据国务院扶贫开发领导小组办公室的数据， 截至 2012 年 3 月， 592 个国家扶贫开发工 作 重 点 县 中 有 73 个 是 在 云 南 省。http://www.cpad.gov.cn/publicf iles/business/htmlf iles/ FPB/fpyw/201203/175445.html [2] 教育部、 发改委、 财政部有关负责人就学前教育三年行动计划和国家学前教育重大项目答 问， 2011。http://www.mof.gov.cn/zhengwuxinxi/zhengcejiedu/2011zhengcejiedu/201109/ t20110928_597049.html 56 第一部分 有关儿童早期教育的政策和儿童早期教育现状 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 and demand for rural kindergartens, reaff irm the importance of preschool education as a priority for the provincial government in the next decade, and promulgate an “annual major increase” in budget appropriations to support the expansion. · The Yunnan Provincial Regulation on Preschool Education was the newest detailed provincial regulation on the administration of preschool education since 1993, which outlines the structure of responsibilities across government departments, location and management of facilities, principles of child care, education and teacher training, as well as support measures for private kindergartens and rural populations. These implementation-oriented measures and plans shine a light on the new era for the development of preschool education in China and Yunnan Province in particular. Yunnan has the most counties under the national poverty standards,[1] as well as the largest concentration of ethnic minorities. The goals are to break the poverty cycle, increase social harmony, and improve future competitiveness. In the last years of China’s 11th 5-year plan (2006—2010), a national fund of 2 billion RMB ($328 million) was allocated to support pilot preschool expansion projects[2] in central-western provinces (of which Yunnan Province received 300 million RMB). In 2011, an unprecedented 50 billion RMB($8.2 billion) central budget was allocated to support the expansion of preschool education under the 12th 5-year plan (2011—2015). By 2012, in addition to 200 million annual special appropriations from the Yunnan provincial government, about 1.74 billion RMB was used in Yunnan to support kindergarten construction, private participation, training of teachers and poor family subsidies. In 2012, the Ministry of Education issued Learning and Development Guidelines for 3-to 6-Year-Old Children which describe children’s development [1] According to the National Group Off ice of Poverty Alleviation and Development, 73 out of 592 National Poverty Alleviation and Development focal counties were in Yunnan as of March 2012. http://www.cpad.gov.cn/publicf iles/business/htmlf iles/FPB/ fpyw/201203/175445.html [2] Interviews with staff of the Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of Education, and Development and Reform Commission on National Preschool Education Projects(教育 部、发改委、财政部有关负责人就学前教育三年行动计划和国家学前教育重大项目答 问), 2011. http://www.mof.gov.cn/zhengwuxinxi/zhengcejiedu/2011zhengcejiedu/201109/ t20110928_597049.html 57 期教育法。 管理与服务提供 为了落实这些政策，中国目前有一个三级管理和协调系统。在中 央一级，国务院妇女儿童工作委员会是协调政府有关部门职责的最高 机构。它通过规划、协调和监督《促进儿童发展的国家行动计划》以 及《促进妇女发展的国家行动计划》的实施来领导促进妇女和儿童权 益的工作。平行的各部则负责国家政策的制定和监督。特别是，由教 育部负责制定标准、起草规定和监督 3—6 岁儿童学前教育的实施。 在省一级，教育厅负责制定对所有学前儿童产生影响的当地落实 工作的政策，而且通常还要负责进行当地幼儿园教师的培训并为此提 供资金。卫生厅及其他平行厅局与儿童妇女工作部，还有教育厅，要 对县一级的工作提供指导和进行监督。 尽管有中央和省政府的大量财政转移支付，提供服务及其所需资 金主要还是县政府的职责。它们监督幼儿园的办园工作，管理自身的 预算并产生其他额外预算资源来支持完成这一使命。 表 1.2 显示了云南省“十二五”规划期间扩大学前教育的职责分 配情况。 表 1.2　云南省扩大学前教育的部分工作 人力资 住房建 教育厅 财政厅 发改委 卫生厅 源厅 设厅 新建幼儿园融资 √ ○ ○ 贫困家庭补助 √ ○ 58 第一部分 有关儿童早期教育的政策和儿童早期教育现状 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 stages and suggest appropriate education interventions in health, language, society, science, and art. Efforts are now underway to develop a specif ic early childhood education law in China. Administration and Service Delivery To implement these policies, a tertiary level of administration and coordination currently exists in China. At the central level, the National Working Committee for Children and Women under the State Council is the highest body coordinating ministry responsibilities. It leads the promotion of women’s and children’s benef its by planning, coordinating and monitoring the National Plan of Action for Children, and the National Plan of Action for Women. Parallel line ministries are responsible for national policy-making and supervision. In particular, the Ministry of Education sets standards, drafts regulations and oversees the implementation of preschool education for 3-to 6-year-old children. On the provincial level, the Bureau of Education sets local implementing policies affecting all preschool children, and usually operates and f inances training sessions for local kindergarten teachers. Together with the Department of Children and Women, the Bureau of Health as well as other line bureaus, the Bureau of Education also oversees service delivery at the county level. Despite the large central and provincial financial transfers, service provision and financing are primarily the responsibilities of the county government. They oversee the operation of kindergartens, manage their own budgets and generate other extra-budgetary resources in supporting the mission. Table 1.2 shows the distribution of responsibilities toward the expansion of preschool education during the 12th 5-year plan at the Yunnan provincial level. Table 1.2 Selected Expansion of Preschool Education in Yunnan Bureau Development Bureau Bureau Bureau Bureau of of &Reform of Human of of Education Finance Committee Resource Housing Health Financing of new √ ○ ○ Kindergartens Subsidy for poor √ ○ families 59 （续表） 人力资 住房建 教育厅 财政厅 发改委 卫生厅 源厅 设厅 教师（园长）培训 √ ○ ○ ○ 幼儿园质量评估 √ ○ 将学前教育支出纳入 √ √ 日常预算 幼儿园建设与重建 ○ ○ √ 将学前教育纳入城市 ○ √ 规划 幼儿教师退休后帮扶 ○ √ 制定幼儿园收费政策 ○ ○ √ 制定幼儿园教职工配 ○ ○ √ 备政策 儿童保育监督和指导 ○ √ 注：√：牵头部门；○：参与部门 资料来源：云南省政府（2011 年）。 云南省儿童早期教育的主要趋势 过去十年中整个中国学前教育的扩大令人印象深刻。到 2011 年， 官方统计数字显示中国的毛入学率（GER）为 62%。根据 2010 年统计 数据，中国 GER 相比其他东亚太平洋地区国家，与该地区的平均 GER 持平（54%）。在这一地区，韩国、泰国、新西兰、文莱和日本的学前 GER 要高得多（图 1.1）。经济合作与发展组织（OECD）的最新估计 表明，超过 90% 的 3 岁以上儿童进入了某种形式的学前教育机构。 60 第一部分 有关儿童早期教育的政策和儿童早期教育现状 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 (Continued) Bureau Development Bureau Bureau Bureau Bureau of of &Reform of Human of of Education Finance Committee Resource Housing Health Teacher (principal) √ ○ ○ ○ training Assessing kindergarten √ ○ quality Incorporate preschool √ √ expenditures into routine budgets (Re)Construction ○ ○ √ of kindergartens Incorporating preschool ○ √ education into urban planning Preschool teacher retirement ○ √ support Setting policy for kindergarten fee ○ ○ √ collection Setting policy for kindergarten ○ ○ √ staff ing Childcare monitoring and ○ √ instruction Note: √: Lead Authority; ○: Participating Authorities Source: Yunnan Provincial Government (2011). Main Trends in Early Childhood Education in Yunnan Across China over the last decade, there has been impressive expansion at the preschool education level. In 2011, GER reached 62 percent in China. 61 图 1.1　2010 年部分国家学前教育毛入学率（GER） 资料来源：世界银行数据 云南省的 GER 与国内其他地区相比偏低，且内部差 异很大 中国各地区的估计 GER 表明相比于发达的东部省份，西部各省的 入学率较低，而云南则落后的更多。不过，近几年贫困地区在慢慢赶 [1] 上来（图 1.2） 。 [1] 跟全国统计数字所显示的一样， 估计 GER 是将幼儿园和一年制学前班的入学人数都计 算在内的， 3—6 岁儿童的人口数量是根据年出生率和人口调查计算得出的， 因此，估计 GER 与小学前三年制幼儿园 GER 并不完全相等， 而是略高一点。要了解只根据幼儿园 入学人数估计的入学率， 请参看附录。 62 第一部分 有关儿童早期教育的政策和儿童早期教育现状 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Figure 1.1 2010 Gross Enrollment Rate (GER) in selected East Asia and Pacific Countries Source: World Bank Data. When compared with other countries in the East Asia and Pacif ic region using 2010 statistics, China is at the average level of all developing countries in the region (54 percent). Within the region, Korea, Thailand, New Zealand, Brunei Darussalam, and Japan all have a much higher GER at the preschool level. The latest estimates by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) indicate that over 90 percent of children at the age of three or above attend some form of preschool in OECD countries. Yunnan’s GER is Low by National Comparison, with Major Internal Disparities An estimated regional GER in China indicated that western provinces have a lower enrollment rate as compared to developed eastern provinces, where Yunnan lagged even further behind. There was however a slow 63 图 1.2　2004—2010 年中国部分地区学前教育机构毛入学率（估计） 资料来源： 作者根据 NBSb 2000—2011 年，MOEa 2010 年的数据进行的估计 注：MOE= 教育部；NBS= 国家统计局 在该省内，估计入学率也存在很大的差异 [1]，最高的在首府昆明 市，为 95%，最低的在与四川和贵州交界的多山的地级市昭通，为 33%。 2011 年在 16 个地州中有 8 个地州的 GER 低于全省的平均水平；其中 6 个地州的主要居民为少数民族（表 1.3）。 表 1.3　2011 年云南省的估计毛入学率（按地州） 云南 62.1% 昭通 33.0% 迪庆 * 35.7% 怒江 * 37.7% 普洱 * 41.3% 临沧 47.4% [1] 这些入学率也包括一年制学前班的入学数据。 64 第一部分 有关儿童早期教育的政策和儿童早期教育现状 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 catching-up for poor provinces in recent years (Figure1.2)[1]. Figure 1.2 Gross Enrollment Rate (est.) of Preschools, by Region, 2004-2010 Sources: Author’s estimate based on NBSb 2000—2011, MOEa 2010. Note: MOE = Ministry of Education; NBS=National Bureau of Statistics Within the province, there were also wide disparities in the estimated enrollment rates[2], with the highest in the capital city (Kunming) at 95 percent to the lowest of 33 percent in Zhaotong, a mountainous county bordering Sichuan and Guizhou. 8 out of 16 counties were lower in GER than the provincial average in 2011; 6 of them were primarily inhabited by ethnic minorities (Table 1.3). Table 1.3 Estimated Gross Enrollment Rate in Yunnan, by County, 2011 Yunnan 62.1% Zhaotong 33.0% Diqing* 35.7% [1] The estimated GER accounted for enrollment to both kindergartens and one-year pre- school classes as shown in national statistics. The population of 3-to 6-year-old children was calculated based on annual birth rates and demographic surveys. Therefore it is not exactly equal to the Kindergarten GER of three years before primary schools, but slightly higher. For estimates based on only kindergarten enrollment, please refer to Appendix. [2] These rates also include one-year preschool enrollment. 65 （续表） 文山 * 51.6% 楚雄 * 56.9% 丽江 * 61.7% 红河 * 67.1% 西双版纳 * 67.6% 德宏 * 68.4% 保山 73.5% 大理 * 74.4% 玉溪 78.4% 曲靖 79.8% 昆明 94.9% * 人口主要为少数民族 资料来源： 作者根据 SBY 2006—2009 年，NBSb 2012 年的数据进行的估计 注：SBY= 云南省统计局 私立机构所占入学人数的比例一直在增长 与基础教育阶段公立学校占了入学人数的大部分形成反差的是， 中国儿童早期教育阶段的特点是私立机构所占入学人数的比例相对 较高。就全国而言，2012 年，学前教育机构有 41% 是私立的，其师生 人数分别占入学总人数的 34% 和教师总人数的 40%（表 1.4）。总的 来说，过去十年中私立机构的入学人数不论是从所占比例还从数量上 来说一直增长缓慢（图 1.3）。在云南省，私立机构占学前教育机构的 42%，其师生人数分别占学前教育机构入学人数的 26% 和教师总数的 66 第一部分 有关儿童早期教育的政策和儿童早期教育现状 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 (Continued) Nujiang* 37.7% Pu’er* 41.3% Lincang 47.4% Wenshan* 51.6% Chuxiong* 56.9% Lijiang* 61.7% Honghe* 67.1% Xishuangbanna* 67.6% Dehong* 68.4% Baoshan 73.5% Dali* 74.4% Yuxi 78.4% Qujing 79.8% Kunming 94.9% * Primarily populated by ethnic minorities Sources: Author’s estimate based on SBY 2006—2009, NBSb 2012. Note: SBY=Statistical Bureau of Yunnan Share of Private Enrollment Has Been Increasing In direct contrast with the basic education sector where the majority enrollment is in the public sector, early childhood education in China is characterized by a relatively high share of private enrollment. Nationwide, in 2012, 41 percent of preschools were privately-owned, accounting for 34 percent of total enrollment and 40 percent of total teachers (Table 1.4). In general, private enrollment has been increasing slowly in both the share and number for the past decade (Figure 1.3). In Yunnan Province, private 67 37%。过去十年云南私立机构的入学情况也存在类似的增长趋势（图 1.4）。这表明无论是在云南还是在整个中国，私立学前教育机构与公 立的相比通常规模较小，学生—教师比较低。 表 1.4　2012 年中国及云南省私立和公立学前教育机构各自所占比例（入学人数 和教师人数） 占学校数量的比例 占入学人数的比例 占教师总数的比例 全国私立 40.7 33.5 39.6 全国公立 59.3 66.5 60.4 [1] 云南省私立 41.8 26.0 37.1 云南省公立 58.2 74.0 62.9 资料来源：NBSa 2013 年，MOEb 2010 年。 图 1.3　2005—2012 年中国私立学前教育机构所占入学人数的比例 资料来源：NBSa 2011—2013 年，MOEa 2006—2010 年。 [1] 云南省的私立和公立学前教育机构数量和入学人数来自 2009 年的数据。 68 第一部分 有关儿童早期教育的政策和儿童早期教育现状 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 ownership accounted for 42 percent of preschools, 26 percent of preschool enrollment and 37 percent of total teachers. A similar increasing trend of private enrollment existed for the past decade in Yunnan as well (Figure 1.4). This indicates that in both Yunnan and China, private preschools on average tend to be smaller in size and have lower pupil-teacher ratiosas compared to public preschools. Table 1.4 Share of Private and Public Preschools, Enrollment and Teachers, 2012 Share of Share of Total Share of Schools Enrollment Teachers National Private 40.7 33.5 39.6 National Public 59.3 66.5 60.4 Yunnan Private[1] 41.8 26.0 37.1 Yunnan Public 58.2 74.0 62.9 Sources: NBSa 2013, MOEb 2010. Figure 1.3 Share of Enrollment in Private Preschools in China, 2005-2012 Sources: NBSa 2011—2013, MOEa 2006-2010. [1] Yunnan’s private and public preschool numbers and enrollments are derived from 2009 data. 69 图 1.4　2003—2009 年云南省私立学前教育机构所占入学人数的比例 资料来源：MOEa 2003—2009 年，MOEb 2003—2009 年。 一年制学前班在云南农村地区十分普遍 在中国，3—6 岁儿童的早期教育主要由常规的三年制幼儿园计划 和一年制学前班构成。尽管常规的三年制幼儿园通常财务上是独立 的，而且以面向儿童发展的课程为特点，一年制的学前班却和小学一 年级的教育非常类似。这类模式 20 世纪 80 年代开始在城市出现，目的 是缓解对学前教育迅速增长的需求。其结果是，学前班更专注于管理 和课程结构。课程通常以预先界定的学习内容为目标，比如拼音、加 减法和英语词汇。有些学龄前儿童甚至需要向学校交家庭作业。儿 童发展专家普遍认为这种学习模式不能引起学习兴趣并激发儿童的 创造力，因此，对儿童的发展来说是不合适的。 到 2010 年，全国学前班数量不断减少，幼儿园数量不断增加后 [1]， （2009 年） [1] 正如 Zhang 的研究中所总结的，学前班数量的减少是幼儿园覆盖面扩大（特 别是城市中） 和对 “小学化”（即用教小学生的方法来教学龄前儿童的不恰当做法）负 面影响的认识共同作用的结果。 70 第一部分 有关儿童早期教育的政策和儿童早期教育现状 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Figure 1.4 Share of Enrollment in Private Preschools in Yunnan, 2003-2009 Sources: MOEa 2003—2009, MOEb2003—2009. One-year Pre-primary Classes are Prevalent in Rural Areas of Yunnan In China, early childhood education for 3-to 6-year-olds consists mainly of a three-year regular kindergarten program and a one-year pre-primary class.While the regular three-year kindergarten program is often financially independent, and features a development-oriented curriculum, the one-year pre-primary school class bears a close resemblance to grade one elementary school education. This type of provision started to appear in urban cities in the 1980s to alleviate the rapidly growing demand for preschool education. As a result, one-year pre- primary class has a more rigid focus on management and course structure. The curriculum often targets at pre-defined learning content such as Pinying (拼音), addition and subtraction, and English vocabulary. Some preschool children even need to submit homework for school. This learning model is widely believed by child development experts to disengage the learning interest and creativity of young children, and is therefore developmentally inappropriate for them. By 2010, after a continuous drop in the number of one-year pre- primary classes and the expansion of kindergartens nationwide,[1] the share [1] As Zhang (2009) summarized, the decrease in the number of pre-primary classes was a result of the combined effect of increasing access to kindergartens (especially in cities), as well as the awareness of the negative impact of “Xiaoxue Hua”, an inappropriate practice to teach preschool children in the same way as primary school students are taught. 71 一年制学前班占入学人数的比例降至 14%（图 1.5），而且其中 96% 是 附属于小学的（图 1.6）。由于 21 世纪头十年末期发达城市和省份要求 禁止学前班的规定越来越多，独立的学前班大量减少，由此可能推动 了 2010 年幼儿园班级的大量增加。 尽管近来幼儿园的覆盖面有所扩大，但在不同地区的分布依然非 图 1.5　2003—2010 年中国学前班级数量 a 资料来源：MOE 2003—2010 年。 图 1.6　2003—2010 年中国的一年制学前班数量 a 资料来源：MOE 2003—2010 年。 72 第一部分 有关儿童早期教育的政策和儿童早期教育现状 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 of one year pre-primary class enrollment had dropped to 14 percent (Figure 1.5), and among them 96 percent were primary school-attached (Figure 1.6). With the increasing number of mandates to forbid one-year pre-primary classes in developed cities and provinces in the late 2000s, it is likely that the vast increase of kindergarten classes was driven by the major decrease of independent pre-primary classes in 2010. Despite the recent improvements in access to kindergartens, different regions still have greatly distorted distributions. Figures 1.7 and 1.8 illustrate Figure 1.5 All Preschool Classes in China, 2003-2010 Source: MOEa 2003—2010. Figure 1.6 One-year Pre-primary Classes in China, 2003-2010 Sources: MOEa 2003—2010. 73 常不平衡。图 1.7 和 1.8 展示了各省农村、县城和城市地区学前班所占 的比例。在发达的东部和沿海各省 [1]，一年制学前班在学前教育机构 （5.4%） 总入学人数中所占的比例是全国平均水平的 1/3 ，而在西部各 省 [2] 这一比例几乎是全国平均水平的两倍（26%）。特别是在云南省， 每三个入学的孩子里就有一个上的是学前班。这种不平衡在对农村、 县城和城市地区加以区分后就变得更大。就全国平均水平而言，农村 地区超过 1/4 的入学人数上的是一年制学前班，较城市地区的平均水 平（2.6%）高 10 倍，较县城地区（8.7%）高 3 倍。然而，在云南农村地 区，这一比率高达 56%，在全国是最高比率的地区之一（如图 1.7 所示 仅低于西藏、贵州、宁夏和广西），几乎是东部省份农村地区的 5 倍。鉴 县城和农村地区一年制学前班入学人数占学前教育机 图 1.7　2010 年中国部分城市、 构总入学人数的百分比 资料来源：MOEa 2011 年。 [1] 包括北京、天津、河北、辽宁、上海、江苏、浙江、福建、山东、广东和海南。 [2] 包括内蒙古、广西、重庆、四川、贵州、云南、西藏、山西、甘肃、青海、宁夏和新疆。 74 第一部分 有关儿童早期教育的政策和儿童早期教育现状 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 the share of one-year pre-primary classes in all provinces across rural, county and urban areas. In the developed eastern and coastal provinces[1], the prevalence of one-year pre-primary classes as a share of total preschool enrollment is only one-third of the national average (5.4 percent), whereas in the western provinces[2] it is almost twice as high (26 percent). In Yunnan province in particular, 1 out of 3 entrants was enrolled in one-year pre- primary classes. The imbalance is even greater when distinguishing among rural, county, and urban areas. Regarding the national average, more than one- fourth of the rural enrollment is through one-year pre-primary classes — 10 times higher than the average in urban area (2.6 percent) and 3 times higher than county areas (8.7 percent). In rural Yunnan however, this rate is as high as 56 percent, one of the highest in the country (only below Tibet, Guizhou, Ningxia and Guangxi as illustrated in Figure 1.7) and almost 5 times as Figure 1.7 Enrollment in One-year Pre-primary Classes as a Percentage of Total Preschool Enrollment in Cities, Counties and Rural Areas, by Province, 2010 Source: MOEa 2011. [1] Including Beijing, Tianjin, Hebei, Liaoning, Shanghai, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Fujian, Shandong, Guangdong, and Hainan. [2] Including Inner Mongolia, Guangxi, Chongqin, Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan, Tibet, Shanxi, Gansu, Qinhai, Ningxia, and Xinjiang. 75 县城和农村地区一年制学前班在学前教育机构入 图 1.8　2010 年中国部分地区城市、 学总人数中所占的比例 资料来源：MOEa 2010 年。 于到 2010 年时几乎所有学前班都附属于小学，这样的分布说明，与生 活在县城和城市地区的儿童相比，农村儿童（特别是云南农村儿童） 获得优质的学前教育服务的可能性要小得多。 云南省是全国农村地区在学前教育机构入学人数中 所占比例最高的省份之一 截至 2010 年，中国共有超过 150 ，000 所幼儿园（含学前班），其 中一半在农村地区（图 1.9）。尽管近年来幼儿园数量和入学人数一 直在增长，但自 2006 年以来农村地区在儿童入学人数中所占的份额 却下降了 6%（图 1.10 — 1.11）。这反映出多数新增入学人数不是在 农村地区实现的这一事实。与 40% 这一全国平均水平相比，到 2010 76 第一部分 有关儿童早期教育的政策和儿童早期教育现状 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Figure 1.8 Enrollment in One-year Pre-primary Classes as a Percentage of Total Preschool Enrollment in Cities, Counties and Rural Areas, by Regions, 2010 Source: MOEa 2010. much in the rural areas of the eastern provinces. Given that almost all one- year pre-primary classes were attached to primary schools by 2010, this distribution implied rural children(especially in Yunnan) were much less likely to attend quality preschool services as compared to children living in county and urban areas. Yunnan’s Rural Share of Preschool Enrollment is One of the Highest in the Country There were over 150,000 kindergartens (including preschool classes) in China as of 2010, with half of them located in rural areas (Figure 1.9). While the number of kindergartens and enrollment have been growing in recent years, the share of children enrolled in rural areas had declined by about 6 percent since 2003 (Figure 1.10—1.11). This reflects the fact that most new enrollment was not realized in rural areas. Compared with the national average of 41 percent, the share of rural enrollment in Yunnan Province still held half of total enrollment by 2010, that is, the 5th 77 图 1.9　2003—2010 年中国幼儿园的数量 资料来源：MOEa 2003—2010 年。 图 1.10　2003—2010 年中国幼儿园和一年制学前班学生人数 资料来源：MOEa 2011 年。 78 第一部分 有关儿童早期教育的政策和儿童早期教育现状 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Figure 1.9 Number of Kindergartens in China, 2003—2010 Source: MOEa 2003—2010. Figure 1.10 Number of Students in Kindergartens and One-year Pre-primary Schools in China, 2003—2010 Source: MOEa 2011. 79 图 1.11　2003—2010 年云南省幼儿园和一年制学前班学生人数 资料来源：MOEa 2011 年。 图 1.12　2003—2010 年西部各省幼儿园和一年制学前班学生人数 资料来源：MOEa 2011 年。 80 第一部分 有关儿童早期教育的政策和儿童早期教育现状 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Figure 1.11 Number of Students in Kindergartens and One-year Pre-primary Schools in Yunnan, 2003-2010 Source: MOEa 2011. Figure 1.12 Number of Students in Kindergartens and One-year Pre-primary Schools in Western Provinces, 2003-2010 Source: MOEa 2011. 81 年时云南省农村地区入学人数仍占总入学人数的一半，在全国排第 [1] 五，在所有西部省份中仅低于新疆（58%） 。考虑到在云南农村地区 小学附属的一年制学前班在学前教育机构中所占的比重较高，这意 味着云南农村地区能获得优质学前教育服务的人口要比其他省少 得多。 农村地区学生—教师比的不断下降和受过培训的教 师供应的不平均 教师的分配从另一个侧面揭示了学前教育服务覆盖的不均。从 2003 年到 2010 年，总体上，教师供应 [2] 的增长速度一直比学前教育机 构入学人数的增长速度快（表 1.5）。他们中的多数（2010 年时为 95% 以上）具有相当于中等职业专科学校或者更高的学历，受过适当培训 的教师 [3] 的人数也呈现类似的趋势。值得注意的是农村地区受过培 训的教师人数增长速度甚至更快，特别是在云南和其他西部省份。根 据最近的数据（图 1.13）显示，这些情况导致多数省份出现学生—教 师比逐渐下降的情况——然而，要达到国内的一般水平还有很大的提 升空间 [4]。 [1] 农村地区在学前班和幼儿园入学总人数中所占比例超过 50% 的省份有： 河北 （62%） 、新 疆（58%） 、江西 （55%）、江西（55%）、河南（54%）、山东（52%）和云南 （50%） 。资料来源： MOEa 2011 年。 [2] 包括园长、 班主任、 助理教师 （保育员） ，不包括代课或兼职教师。 [3] 界定为至少具有中专或相当于中专学历的教师。 [4] 教职工与幼儿比的定义是入学幼儿的人数除以幼儿园教职工人数 （包括全职教师、 保育 员、保健和管理人员以及其他辅助人员——不包括兼职教师） 。根据 2013 年新公布的教 育部幼儿园教职员工配备标准 （KSS），全日制幼儿园的这一比例应该不超过 9 ： 1，每个 幼儿园班级应该有两名全职教师和一个保育员。另一个基准是保教人员与幼儿比， 其 中只包括全职幼儿教师和保育员。同样根据 KSS 规定， 这一比例不应超过 7： 1。 82 第一部分 有关儿童早期教育的政策和儿童早期教育现状 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 highest in the country and second only to Xinjiang (58 percent) in all of the western provinces.[1] Considering the much higher proportion of one- year primary-school-attached pre-primary classes rather than independent kindergartens in rural Yunnan, this could imply a much smaller population in rural Yunnan as compared to other provinces that had quality access to preschool services. Declining Pupil-teacher Ratios and Inequality in Supply of Trained Teachers in Rural Areas Another dimension that reveals inequity in access to preschool services was the distribution of teachers. From 2003 to 2010, the supply of teachers[2] had been growing at a faster rate than preschool enrollment as a whole (Table 1.5). Most of them (over 95 percent in 2010) had a degree equivalent to junior vocational or higher. The number of teachers with proper training[3] had therefore followed the same trend. It is noteworthy that the increase of trained teachers in rural areas had been growing at an even faster rate, especially in Yunnan and other western provinces. These factors had given rise to a steady decline of pupil-teacher ratios in most provinces according to recent statistics (Figure 1.13) — but there is still great space for improvement to reach the national standards.[4] [1] The provinces that have over 50 percent share of total preschool and kindergarten enrollment in rural areas are Hebei (62 percent), Xinjiang (58 percent), Jiangxi (55 percent), Henan(54 percent), Shandong (52 percent) and Yunnan (50 percent).Source: MOEa 2011. [2] Including principals, head teachers and assistant teachers (caregivers), not including substitute or part-time teachers. [3] Def ined as teachers with at least junior vocational or equivalenteducation. [4] The pupil-teacher ratio (教职工与幼儿比) is def ined as the number of enrolled children divided by the number of kindergarten teaching staffs (including full-time teachers, caregivers, healthcare and administrative personnel, and other supporting staffs — not including part-time teachers). Based on the newly promulgated MOE Kindergarten Staff ing Standards (KSS, 幼儿园教职员工配备标准 ) in 2013, this ratio for full-day operated kindergartens should be no more than 9 : 1, with each kindergarten class staff ing two fulltime teachers and one caregiver. Another benchmark is the pupil-teaching staff ratio ( 保教人员与幼儿比 ), which only includes fulltime kindergarten teachers and caregivers. As was also regulated by the KSS, the ratio is expected to be no more than 7: 1. 83 表 1.5　2003—2010 年中国部分地区教师和入学人数的年增长率（%） 受过培训的 受过培训的农 入学人数的平 教师人数的 教师人数的 村教师人数的 均增长率（%） 增长率（%） 增长率（%） 增长率（%） 云南 4.9 10.2 10.2 18.4 西部省份 5 9.4 9.5 13.6 东部省份 6 8.4 8.2 8.5 全国平均值 5.8 9.6 9.4 12.4 资料来源：MOEa 2004—2011 年。 图 1.13 2003—2010 年中国各地区学生—教师比 a 资料来源：MOE 2003—2010 年。 然而，各省之间的教师质量依然存在明显的差别，农村、县城和 城市地区之间也是一样。图 1.14 用 2010 年的学生—教师比和省人均 GDP 绘制的曲线清晰地显示出这两者存在负相关。根据新公布的教 84 第一部分 有关儿童早期教育的政策和儿童早期教育现状 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Table 1.5 Annual Growth Rates of Teachers and Enrollment, 2003—2010 (%) Growth rate Growth rate Average Growth rate in number in number of growth rate in number of of trained trained rural of enrollment teachers teachers teachers Yunnan 4.9 10.2 10.2 18.4 Western 5 9.4 9.5 13.6 Provinces Eastern 6 8.4 8.2 8.5 Provinces National 5.8 9.6 9.4 12.4 Average Source: MOEa 2004—2011. Figure 1.13 Pupil-Teacher Ratio, by Region, 2003-2010 a Source: MOE 2003—2010. However, there was still a stark gap in pupil-teacher ratio between provinces, as well as among rural, county and urban areas. Figure 1.14 plots pupil-teacher ratios with provincial GDP-per capita in 2010, which shows a clear negative relationship. According to the newly-published MOE Kindergarten Staff ing 85 育部幼儿园教职员工配备标准，理想状态下，根据幼儿园性质的不同， 每个全职教师或保育员可以照顾 7 到 13 名儿童，因为大教室对促进儿 童发展效率较低。根据这些新标准，显然多数省份仍需要大量增加教 师供应才能满足今后三年（2013—2015 年）制定的目标要求。而那些 目前学生—教师比高的省（比如贵州、广西、新疆和云南等）则需要向 教师培训和支持项目投入大量资金。 图 1.14　2010 年中国部分省市幼儿园学生—教师比 资料来源：MOE 2011 年。 图 1.15 描述了农村、县城和城市地区在入学人数和教师能否接受 培训方面的不平衡。云南省 2010 年学前教育机构的入学人数有 50% 在农村，而受过培训的农村教师只占 22%。与此同时，入学人数中有 16% 在城市，有 34% 在县城，而其中受过培训的教师的比例约为 29% 和 48%。尽管农村受过培训的教师人数不足是一个全国性的现象，与 其他地区相比，云南省的情况比较突出。 86 第一部分 有关儿童早期教育的政策和儿童早期教育现状 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Standards, it is ideal for each full-time teacher or caregiver (保育员) to take care of 7 to 13 children depending on the nature of kindergarten, because large classrooms are less eff icient for child development. Under these new standards, it is clear that most provinces will need to improve the supply of teachers greatly in order to meet the requirements set for the next three years (2013—2015). For provinces having high ratios at the time (such as Guizhou, Guangxi, Xinjiang, and Yunnan, and so on), this would require signif icant investment in teacher training and support. Figure 1.14 Pupil-Teacher Ratios in Kindergartens, by Province, 2010 Source: MOE 2011. Figure 1.15 depicts the imbalance of enrollment and access of trained teachers in rural, county and urban areas. In Yunnan, with 50 percent of total preschool enrollment in rural areas, the percentage of trained rural teachers accounted for only 22 percent of all trained teachers in 2010. Meanwhile, 16 percent of enrollments in urban areas and 34 percent of enrollments in counties employed respectively 29 percent and 48 percent of all trained teachers. Despite the fact that the insuff icient number of rural trained teachers was a national phenomenon, compared to other regions, the intensity of contrast in Yunnan was still among the greatest in all China. 87 图 1.15　2010 年中国部分地区农村、县城和城市所占的入学人数和受过培训的教师 的比例 资料来源：MOEa 2011 年。 总结与讨论 中国虽然还没有专门的儿童早期教育法，但形成了相当完备的一 套关于儿童早期教育的指导方针和规定，其中多数是过去十年中制定 的。显然，在实现了义务基础教育后，中国政府，包括云南省，正在带 头制定针对儿童早期教育的政策。对过去十年官方统计数据的回顾 表明中国和云南的儿童早期教育有几个重要的趋势。 在过去几年中，儿童早期教育的发展速度令人印象深刻，幼儿园 和一年制学前班的估计 GER 从 2004 年的 49% 增加到 2010 年的 63% 左 右。尽管云南在儿童早期教育覆盖方面出现了类似的速度发展，但该 省总体覆盖水平依然落后于全国平均水平和其他西部省份。2010 年 其 GER 为 55%，低于 63% 的全国平均值，也低于西部省份平均值。云 南省内部的差异也非常显著，省内各地的 GER 从 95%（首府昆明市） 88 第一部分 有关儿童早期教育的政策和儿童早期教育现状 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Figure 1.15 Share of Enrollment and Trained Teachers in Rural, County and Urban Areas by Region, 2010 Source: MOEa 2011. Summary and Discussion China does not yet have a specif ic early childhood education law. However, it has developed a rather comprehensive set of guidelines and regulations concerning early childhood education. Much of these efforts occurred during the last decade. It is apparent that after the achievement of compulsory basic education, the Chinese government, including Yunnan Province, is spearheading policy development for early childhood education. A review of off icial statistics in the last decade reveals a few important trends in early childhood education in China as well as in Yunnan. Early childhood education experienced a rather impressive growth rate within just the last few years, with estimated GER for both kindergarten and one-year pre-primary classes increasing from 49 percent in 2004 to about 63 percent in 2010. While Yunnan experienced a similar rate of improvement in access to early childhood education, the province lags behind the national average as well as the other western provinces in the overall level of preschool coverage. Its GER of 55 percent in 2010 is lower than the national average of 63 percent as well as the average for western provinces. Disparities are also very signif icant within Yunnan, as GER ranges from 95 percent in 89 到 33%（昭通县）不等。 不论是在整个中国还是在云南一省，私立学前机构入学人数所占 的比例一直在增加。云南省大约有 42% 的学前教育机构是私立的，吸 收了入学人数的大约 26%。这种局面与全国的趋势相当类似，全国有 吸收了总入学人数的大约 34%。 大约 41% 的私立学前教育机构， 另一个重要特点是，在云南省从学前教育机构入小学人数中占比 较高的是一年制学前班而不是常规的三年制幼儿园。云南学前教育 机构的每三个入学学生中就有一个上的是一年制学前班，相比之下全 国平均水平为 15%，西部各省的平均水平为 26%。在云南农村地区，一 年制学前班在入学人数中所占比重高达 56%，进一步凸显了云南农村 地区学前教育发展水平相对较低的现状。 最后，幼儿教师供应的增长一直快于总入学人数的增长，这使得 全国出现了学生—教师比显著下降的良好效应。在云南，近几年里学 生—教师比从大约 2003 年的 30 下降到 2010 年的 20，然而，合格教师的 分布则进一步向城市地区倾斜，在农村地区学生占总入学人数 50% 的 情况下，只有 22% 受过培训的教师在农村任教。 90 第一部分 有关儿童早期教育的政策和儿童早期教育现状 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 the capital of Kunming city to only 33 percent in Zhaotong County. Both in China and in Yunnan, the share of private preschool enrollment has been increasing. About 42 percent of preschools in Yunnan are private, absorbing about 26 percent of student enrollment. This picture is rather similar to the national trend where about 41 percent of preschools are private, and absorb about 34 percent of total enrollment. Another important feature is that a higher proportion of Yunnan’s preschool enrollment is actually in one-year pre-primary class as opposed to the regular three-year kindergarten programs. Almost one in every three children enrolled in preschool in Yunnan is in the one-year program as compared to the national average of 15 percent, and the western average of 26 percent. In rural Yunnan, the proportion of enrollment in the one-year program reaches a high of 56 percent, further highlighting the relatively lower development status in rural Yunnan. Finally, the supply of preschool teachers has been growing at a faster rate than overall enrolment to result in the favorable effect that there has been a dramatic decrease in pupil-teacher ratio across the nation. In Yunnan, pupil-teacher ratio experienced a decline from about 30 in 2003 to 20 in 2010. However, the distribution of qualif ied teachers is skewed toward urban areas. Whereas 50 percent of total enrollment is in rural areas, only 22 percent of all trained teachers are serving in rural areas. 91 第二部分 儿童早期教育的资金投入 Part II Financing Early Childhood Education 92 第二部分　儿童早期教育的资金投入 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 93 不同地区之间儿童早期教育服务覆盖的差异可以从中国教育资 金投入分散化体系中寻根溯源。尽管就政策和法规而言中国是高度 集中化的，但在地方管理和地方财政方面却相当分散。这个部分简要 描述了整个国家以及云南省的学前教育资金构成。 教育资金的构成 中国总的教育资金可以分为政府拨款和非政府资金投入两类。 尽管不同层次的教育之间资金构成存在差异，但在全部的教育资金中 大约有 80% 是来自政府渠道。私人投资和公众捐款合在一起只占不 到总资金的 1%，而学费和其他学校收入占大约 19%（图 2.1）。根据全 国的统计数据，2012 年国家财政性教育经费占全国 GDP 的 4%，达到了 图 2.1　2011 年国家教育资金（包括所有教育阶段）的构成 资料来源：MOEc 2011 年。 94 第二部分　儿童早期教育的资金投入 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 The disparity in access to early childhood education services across different regions can be traced back to the very nature of China’s decentralized education f inancing system. Although the country is highly centralized in terms of policy and regulations, it is rather decentralized in local administration and finance. This section outlines the composition of educational finances in preschool services in China in general and the Yunnan province in particular. Structure of Educational Finance China’s total educational funds are categorized into governmental appropriations and non-governmental funds. Despite the differences among educational levels, about 80 percent of all educational funds available in China are channeled through the government. Private investment and public donations on the whole only account for less than 1 percent of total f inances, while tuition and other school revenue account for about 19 percent (Figure 2.1). According to national statistics, total government allocations in education increased to 4 percent of national GDP in 2012, reaching the 4 percent threshold goal called for by the Educational Law. Figure 2.1 Composition of National Educational Funds (all educational subsectors), 2011 Sources: MOEc 2011. 95 《教育法》要求的目标。鉴于中国经济和政府收入的高速度增长，各教 育部门分配到的和人均资金都得到了提高。 政府的教育拨款包括两个部分，每年划拨的预算资金用于教师 薪酬、新建设项目、研究及其他目的，与此同时，地方政府还通过教育 税收和收费获得预算外资金。预算外拨款占政府总的教育资金的约 10%，但这部分资金在各教育阶段的分配也是不均衡的。图 2.2 是对学 生人数在各教育阶段分布状况的说明。表 2.1 是对各教育阶段的资金 来源构成主要数据的概括。 表 2.1　2011 年入学人数和教育资金在各个教育阶段的分布（%） 非政府资金在全部可获 入学人数 预算内教 所有政府 得资金（例如学费和私 （2010 年） 育资金 拨款 人投资）中所占比例 高等教育 11.5 22.8 22.0 41.7 高级职业 8.3 6.2 6.8 23.2 教育 高级中学 9.4 9.2 9.7 27.8 初级中学 19.4 21.0 21.0 6.3 小学 38.3 31.6 31.0 4.2 特殊教育 0.2 0.4 0.4 3.0 学前教育 13.0 2.1 2.2 59.2 其他及行 — 6.7 6.8 11.3 政管理 资料来源：MOEa 2010 年，MOEc 2011 年。 比较而言，中国的预算内教育资金严重向高等教育倾斜。除 了政府拨款外，非政府资金在高等教育总资金投入中所占比重高 96 第二部分　儿童早期教育的资金投入 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Given the country’s fast economic growth rate and equally fast-growing governmental revenues, this translates into a real-term increase in both aggregate and per student base in all subsectors of education. There are two components under the government’s educational appropriations. The annual allocation of budgetary funds covers the fundamental needs for teacher compensation, new construction projects, research and other purposes. Meanwhile, local government also acquires extra-budgetary funds through educational taxes and fees. The average share of extra-budgetary allocations takes about 10 percent of the total of the government’s educational funds, but it is also unevenly distributed among different educational levels. Figure 2.2 illustrates the distribution of enrollment by levels of education. Table 2.1 summarizes the key statistics of the f inancing structure at the different levels of education. Table 2.1 Distribution of Enrollment and Educational Funding, by Level of Education, 2011 (%) Non-governmental Budgetary All funds as a share of Enrollment educational governmental total available funds (2010) funds appropriation (e.g. tuition and private investment) Higher 11.5 22.8 22.0 41.7 education Senior 8.3 6.2 6.8 23.2 vocational Senior middle 9.4 9.2 9.7 27.8 Junior middle 19.4 21.0 21.0 6.3 Primary 38.3 31.6 31.0 4.2 education Special 0.2 0.4 0.4 3.0 education Preschool 13.0 2.1 2.2 59.2 education Others and — 6.7 6.8 11.3 administration Source: MOEa 2010, MOEc 2011. 97 图 2.2　1980—2010 年中国学生人数在各个教育阶段的分布状况 资料来源：MOEa 多个年份的数据。[1] 达 42% 。这意味着除了得到了更多的预算支持外，中国的高等教 育还通过其他社会支持方式（学费、捐款和私营部门投资等）获得 资金。 相反，学前教育虽然占了总入学人数的 13%，但只获得了 2% 的国 家教育预算。令人吃惊的是在学前教育中有 59% 的资金来自非政府 投资，这意味着学前教育资金对私人投资的依赖要重得多。与其他国 家相比较，中国早教的教育预算相对较低。瑞典 2010 年早教占了公共 教育支出的 10%。泰国和芬兰的早教也各自占了公共教育支出的 7% 和 6%。[2] 考虑到儿童早期教育的长期效益十分重要，政府支持的缺乏 可能会导致学前教育覆盖的不公平，并使富裕和欠发达地区之间出现 长期的发展差距。 [1] 特殊教育没有包括在图中是因为它所占的预算拨款比重较小，但它被计入了全国统计 数据。 [2] UNESCO 数据中心。 98 第二部分　儿童早期教育的资金投入 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Figure 2.2 Distribution of Students by Level of Education, 1980-2010 Sources: MOEa various years.[1] By comparison, there is a strongly skewed distribution of budgetary educational funds toward higher education in China, where about 12 percent of total enrollment accounts for 22 percent of total government educational appropriations. In addition to government appropriations, the non- governmental share of total funds in higher education amounted to 42 percent in total. This means that aside from a larger share of budgetary support, higher education in China is also heavily f inanced through other means of social support (tuition, donations, private sector investment, and so on). By contrast, preschool education accounts for 13 percent of total enrollment, but only commands 2 percent of the national educational budget. A staggering 59 percent of total educational funds come from non- governmental sources, which implies a much heavier f inancial reliance on private investment. In comparison to other countries, China’s educational budget for preschool education is also at the lower end of the spectrum. In Sweden, 10% of public expenditure on education went to pre-primary level in 2010. Similarly, pre-primary education enjoyed 7% and 6% of Thailand’s [1] Special Education was not included in the graph due to its extremely small size in budget allocation share, it is however calculated in the national statistics. 99 对学前教育进行资金投入 在学前教育方面的经费支出 [1] 长期以来中国教育的战略重点是实现全民九年义务教育。在 云南，这个目标于 2009 年末得以实现。自上个 10 年以来已出台了 许多促进学前教育的全国性指导方针，云南在增加学前教育入学人 数和设施方面已走在了前面。 2011 年，该省将 GDP 的 6.4% 投入教 育，相比之下，西部省份的平均投入为 4.9% ，东部省份的平均投入 为 3.1% 。 2005 年至 2011 年间，云南用于学前教育的总教育资金一 直以每年 32% 的速度增长，总预算资金则以每年 22% 的速度增长。 从 2007 年 到 2011 年，在每个学生身上的教育经费支出也从每年 1，732 元 增 加 到 2 ，750 元（即 每 年 增 长 13%）。下列图（图 2.3）和 表（表 2.2）对中国以及云南省的政府拨款和预算支出进行了比较。 表 2.2　2011 年中国各地区教育资金投入和学前教育状况（%） 全国 云南省 西部省份 东部省份 平均值 投入教育的 GDP（%） 3.9 6.4 4.9 3.1 投入学前教育的 0.09 0.11 0.11 0.08 GDP（%） 政府拨款占教育资 77.9 85.9 82.4 76.0 金的 % 政府拨款占学前教 40.8 46.0 50.8 40.1 育资金的 % [1] 学龄前教育总经费的来源包括：政府教育拨款，私人投资和公共捐赠，学费和其他学校 收入，其他拨款。 100 第二部分　儿童早期教育的资金投入 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 and Finland’s public expenditure, respectively. [1] Given the importance of the long-term benef its of early childhood education, this lack of governmental support would probably result in access inequities and long- term development disparities between wealthy and under-developed areas. Financing Preschool Education Total spending on preschool education[2] China has long placed its strategic educational emphasis on achieving universal 9-year compulsory schooling. In Yunnan, this objective was accomplished in late 2009. With numerous national guidelines on promoting preschool education already in place since the last decade, Yunnan is on the frontier of the national agenda to expand and catch up on preschool enrollment and facilities. In 2011, 6.4 percent of provincial GDP was invested in education compared to 4.9 percent of western provinces and 3.1 percent of eastern provinces. Yunnan’s total educational funding for the preschool sector has been increasing at an annual rate of 32 percent from 2005 to 2011, while total budgetary funds increased by 22 percent each year. From 2007 to 2011, total spending per student also increased from 1,732 RMB to 2,750 RMB (13 percent annually) per year. The following graph (Figure 2.3) and table (Table 2.2) compare governmental appropriations and budgetary spending in China in general and in Yunnan specif ically. Table 2.2 Education Funding and Preschool Education in China, by Region, 2011 (%) National Yunnan Western Eastern Average Province Provinces Provinces GDP % in education 3.9 6.4 4.9 3.1 GDP % in preschool education 0.09 0.11 0.11 0.08 [1] UNESCO Data Centre. [2] The sources of total spending on preschool education include: government educational appropriations, private investment and public donation, tuition and other school revenue, and other appropriations. 101 （续表） 全国 云南省 西部省份 东部省份 平均值 私人投资占教育资 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.4 金的 % 私人投资占学前教 2.9 4.8 3.2 2.5 育资金的 % 学费占教育资金的 % 13.9 9.2 10.7 14.7 学费占学前教育资 48.4 34.5 36.4 50.1 金的 % 预算外资金在教育 9.6 7.4 6.6 12.7 拨款中所占的比重 预算外资金在学前 教育拨款中所占的 15.4 3.6 11.9 17.1 比重 资料来源：MOEc 2011 年。 102 第二部分　儿童早期教育的资金投入 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 (Continued) National Yunnan Western Eastern Average Province Provinces Provinces Government % in educational 77.9 85.9 82.4 76.0 funding Government % in preschool 40.8 46.0 50.8 40.1 educational funding Private investment % in 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.4 educational funding Private investment % in preschool 2.9 4.8 3.2 2.5 educational funding Tuition % in educational funding 13.9 9.2 10.7 14.7 Tuition % in preschool educational 48.4 34.5 36.4 50.1 funding Extra-budgetary funds as a share 9.6 7.4 6.6 12.7 of educational appropriations Extra-budgetary funds as a share of 15.4 3.6 11.9 17.1 preschool educational appropriations Source: MOEc 2011. 103 图 2.3　2011 年中国及云南省的学前教育资金构成 c 资料来源：MOE 2011 年。 学前教育阶段生均经费支出 无论就生均教育经费支出还是生均财政预算教育经费支出而言， 云南省都处于落后状态。如图 2.4 所示，2011 年云南生均教育经费支 出（2，750 元），只有西部 12 个省平均水平（5，319 元）的一半，沿海各 省平均水平（8，076 元）的 1/3。生均预算支出也呈现同样的模式。云 南省生均预算支出的近 3/4 被用于满足个人部分支出 [1] （图 2.5），其中 主要包括教师的工资和福利。只有不到 1/5 的资金投入公用部分 [2]，用 于从办公和教学用品到土地征用等各种日常办学所需。 还应注意的是用于学前教育的非政府资金（学费和其他收费）主 [1] 个人部分支出： 包括“工资福利支出”“对个人和家庭的补助” 、 两部分。工资福利支 出：反映学校或单位开支的在职职工和临时聘用人员的各类劳动报酬， 以及为上述人员 缴纳的各项社会保险费等。对个人和家庭的补助： 反映政府对个人和家庭的补助支出。 [2] 公用部分支出包括 “商品和服务支出” 和“其他资本性支出”两部分。商品和服务支 出：反映学校或单位购买商品和服务的支出 （不包括用于购置固定资产的支出）。其他 资本性支出：反映非各级发展与改革部门集中安排用于学校或单位购置固定资产、 土地 和无形资产，以及构建基础设施、大型修缮所发生的支出。 104 第二部分　儿童早期教育的资金投入 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Figure 2.3 Composition of Preschool Education Funding, China and Yunnan, 2011 Source: MOEc 2011. Per-student expenditure on preschool education Yunnan fell short in terms of both total[1] and budgetary preschool education spending per student. The overall spending per child (RMB 2,750) in 2011 is only half of the average for all 12 western provinces (RMB 5,319), and one-third of the average for coastal provinces (RMB 8,076), as shown in Figure 2.4. Budgetary spending per student follows the same pattern. Nearly three-quarters of budgetary spending in Yunnan was used on personnel expenditures (Figure 2.5), which includes primarily teacher salaries and benef its. Less than one out of f ive RMB was invested in daily operations of services, which spans from usage of supplies to land acquisition. It should also be noted that non-governmental funds for preschool education (tuition and fees) have been primarily directed toward the expansion of operations rather than personnel costs of preschool services. This is a nationwide phenomenon across regions, even though areas that have larger shares of tuition and smaller numbers of children (for example, in the [1] The sources of total spending per student include: government educational appropriations, private investment and public donation, tuition and other school revenue, and other appropriations. 105 图 2.4　2011 年中国各地区各类学前教育阶段生均教育经费支出状况 资料来源：MOEc 2011 年。 图 2.5　2011 年中国各地区各类生均财政预算教育经费支出状况 资料来源：MOEc 2011 年。 106 第二部分　儿童早期教育的资金投入 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Figure 2.4 Total Spending per Student on Preschool Education, by Type and Region, 2011 Source: MOEc 2011. Figure 2.5 Budgetary Spending per Student on Preschool Education, by Type and Region, 2011 Source: MOEc 2011. 107 要投向了扩大办学而不是人员费用方面。这是一种全国普遍存在的 现象。尽管那些学费收入高而学生人数少的地区（例如，东部各省） 因此获益更多。图 2.6 说明了各省生均预算支出和生均教育经费支出 存在的巨大差异。 图 2.6　2011 年中国学前教育阶段生均预算支出和生均教育经费支出状况 资料来源：MOEc 2011 年。 2010 年，云南生均个人部分支出为 1，286 元，比 2007 年增长 4.6%， 但其经费水平仍低于全国和西部地区平均水平，分别比全国和西部地 区低 886 元和 390 元。在西部各省份中，云南生均个人部分支出属于偏 低水平，仅为内蒙古和青海的 1/4 和 1/3，反映云南幼儿园教师工资收入 水平在西部各省份中属于较低的水平 [1]。 [1] 《云南学前教育发展状况分析》， 2013 年。 上海市教育科学研究院智力开发研究所， 108 第二部分　儿童早期教育的资金投入 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 eastern provinces) would benef it more than those that rely more heavily on governmental appropriations. Figure 2.6 illustrates the vast disparities of per student budgetary and total preschool funding across provinces. Figure 2.6 Budgetary and Total Spending per Student on Preschool Education in China, by Province, 2011 Source: MOEc 2011. In 2010, the per-student personnel expenditures[1] in Yunnan reached 1,286 RMB, a growth rate of 4.6 percent from 2009 levels.[2] However, Yunnan’s per-student personnel expenditures still lag behind; at 886 RMB, they are lower than the national average. They are also 390 RMB lower than the average of the western regions. Among western provinces, per-student [1] Personnel expenditures include two parts: “wage and benef its expenditures” and “individual and family subsidies expenditures.” Wage and benef its expenditures reflect the various types of remuneration schools/f irms pay to active and temporary employees, as well as the social security, insurance and other types of fees schools/f irms pay for them. The individual and family subsidies expenditures include government subsidies to individuals and families. [2] “Analysis of Preschool Education Development in Yunnan,” Shanghai Academy of Educational Sciences Intelligence Development Agency, 2013. 109 图 2.7　2010 年中国部分省幼儿园生均个人部分支出状况 资料来源： 2013 年。 上海市教育科学研究院智力开发研究所， 2010 年，云 南 生 均 公 用 部 分 支 出 为 734 元，比 2007 年 增 长 48.8% ，但仍低于全国和西部地区的平均水平，分别比全国和西部 地区低 576 元和 388 元。在西部各省份中，云南生均公用部分支出 很低，仅约为内蒙古的 1/3 ，反映云南维持幼儿园日常运转的费用 较低。 然而，学前教育服务资金投入方面的最大差异不是在东部与 西部地区之间，而是在各省内部的农村和非农村地区之间。在云 南 省，农 村 的 学 前 教 育 机 构（包 括 幼 儿 园 和 一 年 制 学 前 班）占 了 全省入学人数和设施数量的 50% ，而它们获得的资金只占全部学 前教育资金的 28% 和政府对学前教育的预算资金投入的 13%（图 2.9）。在将学生人数考虑进来的境况下，这种对比的反差就更大。 图 2.9 和图 2.10 简要描述了农村地区的生均教育经费支出和生均 预算支出。 110 第二部分　儿童早期教育的资金投入 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Figure 2.7 Per-Student Kindergarten Personnel Expenditures in China, in RMB, 2010 Source: Shanghai Academy of Educational Sciences Intelligence Development Agency, 2013. personnel expenditures in Yunnan are at the lower end of the spectrum: about 1/4 of Inner Mongolia’s level, and 1/3 that of Qinghai. These differences reflect the relatively low income levels of kindergarten teachers in Yunnan. In 2010, per-student operational expenditures [1] amounted to 734 RMB in Yunnan. Even though expenditures grew by 48.8 percent from 2007, they are still 576 RMB lower than the national average, and 389 RMB lower than the average level of the western region. Compared to other western provinces, Yunnan’s per-student operational expenditures are very low, about 1/3 of Inner Mongolia’s level. This reflects the fact that the daily operation costs of kindergartens are relatively low in Yunnan. The largest funding disparity in the f inancing of preschool services, however, is not between the east and the west. It lies within provinces [1] Operational expenditures include “goods and services expenditures” and “other capital expenditures.” Goods and services expenditures reflect the expenditure on goods and services that schools/f irms purchase (excluding expenditures on f ixed assets). Other capital expenditures reflect expenditure on f ixed assets, land, and intangible assets, as well as expenditures on infrastructure building and large-scale renovation that schools/f irms incur outside the central arrangement by all levels of development and reform departments. 111 图 2.8　2010 年中国部分省幼儿园生均公用部分支出状况 资料来源： 2013 年。 上海市教育科学研究院智力开发研究所， [1] 图 2.9　2011 年中国各地区农村学前教育机构占用资金和入学人数的比例 资料来源：MOEa 2010 年，MOEc 2011 年。 [1] 入学人数为截至 2010 年的数据。 112 第二部分　儿童早期教育的资金投入 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 between rural and non-rural areas. In Yunnan, rural preschool institutions (including both kindergartens and one-year pre-primary classes) account for 50 percent of both enrollment and number of facilities in the province, Figure 2.8 Per-Student Kindergarten Operational Expenditures in China, in RMB, 2010 Source: Shanghai Academy of Educational Sciences Intelligence Development Agency, 2013. [1] Figure 2.9 Share of Rural Preschool Finance and Enrollment, by Region, 2011 Source: MOEa 2010, MOEc 2011. [1] Enrollments are as of 2010 data. 113 图 2.10　2011 年中国各地区各类农村学前教育机构生均预算支出状况 资料来源：MOEc 2011 年。 图 2.11　2011 年中国各地区各类农村学前教育机构生均教育经费支出状况 资料来源：MOEc 2011 年。 114 第二部分　儿童早期教育的资金投入 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 to which only 28 percent of all preschool funding and 13 percent of government budgetary funds on preschool were dedicated (Figure 2.9). The contrast is even more polarized when the number of students is taken into account. Figures 2.9 and 2.10 summarize the total and budgetary expenditures per student in rural areas. Figure 2.10 Budgetary Spending per Student on Rural Preschool Education, by type, 2011 Source: MOEc 2011. Figure 2.11 Total Spending per Student on Rural Preschool Education, by type, 2011 Source: MOEc 2011. 115 私人在学前教育上的支出 学前教育的学费及其他收费相对较高给家庭造成了沉重的负担。 2010 年，云南省的学费和其他收费的收入达到 6.5 亿元，占该省学前教 育总投资的 43.6%。在西部地区，学费和其他收费平均占学前教育总 投资的 40.8%，其中云南省的学费和其他收费占学前教育总投资的百 分比相对较高，高于内蒙古、青海和其他省。 图 2.12　2010 年中国部分省幼儿园学杂费及占教育经费总投入的比例 资料来源：上海市教育科学研究院智力开发研究所，2013 年。 表 2.3　昆明市幼儿园收费项目和标准 项目 收费 注释 （1）杂费 20 元 / 每学生每学期 1. 寄宿制幼儿园加收 50 （2）儿童保育 元 / 月寄宿费。 一级幼儿园 150 元 / 月 2. 寒暑假期间的留园班 加收 50 元 / 月留园费。 二级幼儿园 110 元 / 月 116 第二部分　儿童早期教育的资金投入 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Private Spending on Preschool Education The relatively high proportion of preschool education tuition and fees poses a signif icant burden on families. In 2010, tuition and fees revenue reached 650 million RMB in Yunnan, accounting for 43.6 percent of total investment in preschool education in the province. In the western region, tuition and fees on average accounted for 40.8 percent of total investment in preschool education. Among western provinces, tuition and fees make up a relatively high percentage of total investment in preschool education in Yunnan, higher than that of Inner Mongolia, Qinghai, and other provinces. Figure 2.12 Percentage of Tuition and Fees out of Total Investment in Preschool Education in China, 2010 Source: Shanghai Academy of Educational Sciences Intelligence Development Agency, 2013. Table 2.3 Items and Standards for Kindergarten Fees in Kunming Items Fees Comments 20 RMB per student 1. Boarding kindergartens may (1) Miscellaneous per semester charge extra 50 RMB/month boarding (2) Childcare fee. 2. Day-care classes during summer Grade One Kindergartens 150 RMB/month and winter holidays may charge Grade Two Kindergartens 110 RMB/month extra 50 RMB/month fee. 117 （续表） 项目 收费 注释 三级幼儿园 90 元 / 月 未评级幼儿园 70 元 / 月 资料来源：昆明市信息港，2011 年。 表 2.3 呈现的是云南昆明市 2011 年公布的幼儿园收费标准，2010 年沿用了同样的标准。需要进行进一步的计算才能弄清幼儿园学费 和其他收费对云南的家庭来说是怎样的负担。假定云南一个家庭幼 儿寒暑假不留园且不寄宿，每年上 9 个月的幼儿园，则不同等级的幼儿 园所要收取的保育费分别为：一级园 1，350 元 / 年；二级园 990 元 / 年； 三级园 810 元 / 年；未评级园 630 元 / 年；此外还需缴纳 40 元的杂费。 根据《中国统计年鉴 2011》统计，云南 2010 年城镇居民家庭人均年收 入为 16，065 元；农村居民家庭人均纯收入为 3，952 元。那么对城镇居 民家庭来说，孩子如果选择一级园，则每年缴纳的学杂费占人均收入 的比例为 8.7%；而农村家庭这一比例为 35.2%。从图 2.13 可以看到， 人均家庭收入用于支付幼儿学杂费的比例较高，对农村家庭来说，负 担更重。 总结与讨论 中国政府拨款是教育最大的资金来源，不过，对学前教育的拨款 依然很少。政府拨款差不多占全部可用教育经费的 80%。2012 年，政 府对教育的拨款总额已增至全国 GDP 的 4%，其结果就是总体教育预 118 第二部分　儿童早期教育的资金投入 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 (Continued) Items Fees Comments Grade Three Kindergartens 90 RMB/month Ungraded Kindergartens 70 RMB/month Source: Kunming Information Center, 2011 Table 2.3 presents the 2011 public announcement of kindergarten fee standards in Kunming, Yunnan, which remain the same as the 2010 rates. A further calculation is needed to understand the burden of kindergarten tuition and fees on families in Yunnan. Assuming a non-boarding child takes summer and winter breaks off and attends kindergarten for 9 months, the annual childcare fee differs by the rated grade of the kindergarten: 1,350 RMB/year for f irst-grade kindergartens; 990 RMB/year for second-grade kindergartens; 810 RMB/year for third-grade kindergartens; and 630 RMB/ year for ungradedkindergartens. Families also need to pay an additional 40 RMB for miscellaneous fees. According to the China Statistics Yearbook 2011, the average per-capita annual income in Yunnan in 2010 was 16,065 RMB for urban residents and 3,952 RMB for rural residents. Therefore, the annual fees for a f irst-grade kindergarten child would account for 8.7 percent of urban residents’ per-capita annual income, and 35.2 percent of rural residents’ per-capita annual income. Figure 2.13 illustrates that kindergarten tuition and fees account for a higher percentage of average per- capita household income in Yunnan, particularly for rural residents. Summary and Discussions Governmental appropriations are the biggest funding source for education in China. However, allocations to preschool education remain small. Government appropriations comprise approximately 80 percent of all available educational funds. In 2012, total government allocations in education increased to 4 percent of national GDP, which resulted in an increase in the educational budget at both the aggregate and per-student levels. However, distribution of budgetary educational funds is still heavily skewed against preschool education: although preschool enrollment 119 图 2.13　2010 年中国城镇与农村居民人均收入支付不同类型幼儿园学杂费的所占比 例情况（%） 资料来源：上海市教育科学研究院智力开发研究所，2013 年。 算和学生人均教育预算都出现增加。然而，预算内教育经费在学前教 育方面的分配依然严重失衡：尽管学前教育入学人数占了总入学人数 的 13%，但学前教育分配到的国家教育预算只有 2%。学前教育更多地 依赖私人投资，学前教育经费总额中有 59% 来自非政府资金。 尽管云南省学前教育总资金投入在 2005 年到 2011 年期间以每年 32% 的速度增长，但不论是生均教育经费支出还是生均财政预算教育 经费支出，云南都落后于全国平均水平和其他西部省份的水平。个人 部分支出占到生均预算支出的近 3/4，与全国和其他西部省份的平均水 平相比，无论是生均个人支出还是生均公用部分支出依然较低，这表 明该省的教师工资与日常办学经费较低。农村和非农村地区之间的 资金投入一直存在显著差异，尽管农村学前教育机构占该省入学人数 和设施数量的 50%，但它们只得到了学前教育总资金投入的 28% 和政 120 第二部分　儿童早期教育的资金投入 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Figure 2.13 Proportion of Kindergarten Tuition and Fees of Average Per-Capita Income by Kindergarten Grade, Urban versus Rural residents, in RMB, 2010 Source: Shanghai Academy of Educational Sciences Intelligence Development Agency, 2013. accounts for 13 percent of total enrollment, it only receives 2 percent of national educational budget allocations. Preschool education relies more heavily on private investment, as 59 percent of total educational funds come from non-governmental sources. Yunnan has made a signif icant investment in preschool education, and yet low per-student expenditures and funding disparities still exist. Total educational funding for the preschool sector rose at an annual rate of 32 percent from 2005 to 2011 in the province. However, both total spending per-student and budgetary spending per-student in Yunnan lag behind the national average and other western provinces. Personnel expenditures accounted for nearly three-quarters of per-student budgetary spending. Both per-student personnel expenditures and per-student operational expenditures remain low as compared to the national average and other western provinces, reflecting lower teacher salaries and daily operational costs in the province. Considerable funding disparities persist between rural and non-rural areas. Even though rural preschool institutions accounted for 50 percent of both enrollment and number of facilities in the province, 121 府预算资金的 13%。 家庭，特别是农村地区的家庭，学前教育费用负担沉重。在云南， 学费和其他收费带来的收入占学前教育总投资的 43.6%，这个比例高 于西部地区的平均水平。进入一级幼儿园所需的学费和其他收费可 能耗费城市居民人均年收入的 8.7%，农村居民人均年收入的 35.2%。 早教显著的社会利益，比如减低犯罪率和机会不平等性，意味着应该 有更多的公共投资，以补贴家庭，减轻经济负担。 122 第二部分　儿童早期教育的资金投入 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 they only received 28 percent of all preschool funding, and 13 percent of government budgetary funds. Families, especially those in rural areas, bear a signif icant burden in paying for preschool education. In Yunnan, tuition and fee revenue comprise 43.6 percent of total investment in preschool education, a higher proportion than the western region average. Potentially, tuition and fees for a f irst- grade kindergartener could consume 8.7 percent of urban residents’ annual per-capita income and 35.2 percent of rural residents’ annual per-capita income. Given the signif icant social benef its of early childhood education, such as lower crime rate and inequality of opportunity, there is economic rationale for greater public investment to subsidize and lower the burden on individual households. 123 第三部分 云南农村儿童的现状：农村住 户调查结果 Part III Status of Children in Rural Yunnan: Results from a Rural Household Survey 124 第三部分　云南农村儿童的现状：农村住户调查结果 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 125 全国和省级数据表明，云南省在儿童接受学前教育、学前教育质 量和学前教育资金方面都有明显的城乡差距。我们对云南农村大约 1，000 户有 3—6 岁儿童的家庭展开调查，详细了解农村儿童的现状，包 括身体发育、社会和认知发展等主要指标，还有家庭照顾条件和照顾 方式，以及参加各类早教项目的情况。 我们用分层随机设计进行住户采样。先选择县级单位，然后分 （2）非边境、 （1）边境县； 成四组： （3）非边境、 少数民族县； 非少数民 族、 （4）非边境、 贫困县； 非少数民族、非贫困县。再用国内生产总值 （GDP）、年度预算开支和人均收入复合指数将每个组里所有的县整理 排列。然后用概率抽样法随机抽取 10 个县级单位。总样本包含 10 个 县、30 个村、1，031 户家庭。[1] 调查工具最初是由世界银行与国家卫生和计划生育委员会合作 设计的，首先用于湖南省。最近，中国发展基金会（CDRF）也沿用工 具在云南省寻甸县展开调查。为适应云南省的特殊情况，我们对这套 工具作了少许修改。调查问卷有 461 个多选项， 涵盖儿童和家长（或主 要监护人）的人口统计信息、住户特征、监护人对儿童性别的偏好、照 顾方式、是否上亲子班或幼儿园、家人行为、营养和饮食、详细的教育 状况、家庭生活条件等内容。此外，调查人员还会进行多项目测试，直 接观察 3—6 岁儿童的表现，评估他们的社会和认知发展状况，在此基 [1] 调查过程中，由于山体滑坡等道路障碍，调查人员无法抵达 3 个取样村庄，于是选用附 近村庄代替。此外，由于村庄大小和村民数量信息不正确，另有 3 个村庄没有进行取样 调查。 126 第三部分　云南农村儿童的现状：农村住户调查结果 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 The national and provincial data reveal major rural-urban disparities in Yunnan with regard to access to and quality of preschool education, as well as f inancial constraints in providing these services. In this section, we detail the status of 3-to 6-year-old children living in rural Yunnan based on an extensive household survey. About 1,000 rural households with 3-to 6-year- old child (children) were interviewed for major physical, social and cognitive development indicators, home care conditions and childrearing practices, as well as enrollment in various early childhood education programs. The sampling of households followed a stratif ied random design. County units were selected and categorized into four subgroups: (i) counties on the border; (ii) non-border, ethnic minority counties; (iii) non-border, non-minority, poor counties; and (iv) non-border, non- minority, non-poverty counties. Within each group, all counties were sorted by a compound index comprised of GDP, annual budget expenses and income per capita. Ten county-level units were then randomly selected using the probability proportionate to group size. The total sample includes 10 counties, 30 villages, and 1,031 households.[1] The survey instrument was initially designed by the World Bank in collaboration with the National Health and Family Planning Commission. It was f irst f ielded in Hunan Province and most recently adopted by the CDRF, and then applied in the Xundian County of Yunnan Province. The version used for the study has been slightly modif ied to suit the particular circumstances of Yunnan. It contains 461 multiple choices regarding demographic information on children and parents (or primary guardian), household characteristics, guardians’ opinion on gender, childrearing practices, attendance at parent-child classes and kindergartens, family behavioral conditions, nutrition and diet, details on educational status, and living conditions of households. In addition, a multiple-item test for direct observation of 3-to 6-year-olds was also used by survey workers to [1] During the implementation of the survey, 3 villages were not reached due to landf ills or other road conditions; nearby villages were sampled instead. Three other villages were not sampled due to incorrect information about village size or villagers. 127 础上计算得出两套指数。 调查旨在为以下问题提供实证证据： · 云南农村 3—6 岁儿童的发展现状如何？ · 谁在照顾他们，主要的家庭照顾条件和照顾方式是什么？ · 男童和女童、汉族和少数民族、国家级贫困县和非贫困县、留守 儿童和父母亲自照顾的儿童之间，他们的社会和认知发展指标 有多大差距？ · 在性别、留守与否、家长 / 监护人教育水平以及家庭收入同等的 条件下，是否参加亲子班和幼儿园，是否参加体检，以及良好的 育儿方式是否会和儿童发展指标相关联？ · 哪些社会、地理或者家庭因素与儿童是否上幼儿园相关联？ 农村家庭照顾条件、育儿方式，以及儿童发展现状 谁在照顾孩子们 总体而言，调查所及 76% 的儿童主要由父母照顾（N=778），23% 由祖父母照顾（N=253），2% 由其他亲属照顾。非父母亲自照顾的儿 童中，181 人是“留守儿童”，占 71%。[1] 新生儿体重和母乳喂养率 如图 3.2 所示，少数民族县和贫困县的新生儿体重要低于非少数民 族和非贫困县，边境县和非边境县的差距并不明显。母乳喂养看来很普 [1] 本次调查中“留守儿童” 由其他亲属照顾照看的儿童。 指的是父母离家打工， 128 第三部分　云南农村儿童的现状：农村住户调查结果 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 assess childhood social and cognitive development status. Two indexes were respectively calculated based on these test questions. The survey sought to provide empirical evidence to the following questions: · What is the development status of 3-to 6-year-olds living in rural Yunnan? · Who is taking care of rural 3-to 6-year-olds, and what are the prevalent home care conditions and childrearing practices? · How large is the disparity in social and cognitive development indicators between boys and girls, between Han and ethnical minorities, between national poverty and non-poverty counties, and between left-behind children and children cared for by their own parents? · Is there an association between parent-child classes and kindergartens, access to health checkups, and good parenting rearing practices and children’s development indicators, after controlling for gender, left-behind status, educational attainment of parents/guardians and family income? · What social, geographical or household factors correlate with kindergarten enrollment? Rural Home Care Conditions, Childrearing Practices, and Childhood Developmental Status Who is taking care of the children? In total, 76 percent of the children in the survey were primarily taken care of by their own parents (N=778), 23 percent were cared for by their grandparents (N=253), and 2 percent by other relatives. Among those who were not cared for by their parents, 71 percent or 181 of them are considered “left-behind” children.[1] Infant birth weight and prevalence of breastfeeding As Figure 3.2 shows, children’s birth weight is comparatively lower in minority and poverty counties versus non-minority and non-poverty ones. The difference in border/non-border counties is not signif icant. [1] According to the survey, this was def ined as dependent(s) whose parents work far away from home and are cared for by other relatives. 129 图 3.1　2013 年云南省样本县儿童主要照顾人情况 资料来源：云南省住户调查，2013 年。 图 3.2　2013 年云南省农村新生儿体重 资料来源：云南省住户调查，2013 年。 130 第三部分　云南农村儿童的现状：农村住户调查结果 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Figure 3.1 Children’s Primary Caregiver in Sample Counties in Yunnan, 2013 Source: Yunnan Household Survey, 2013. Figure 3.2 Birth Weight of Children in Rural Yunnan, 2013 Source: Yunnan Household Survey, 2013. 131 92% 的受访家庭都表示婴儿由母乳喂养 遍， （图 3.3）。各个县结果相近。 父母和照顾人教育水平 母亲的文化水平一般低于父亲（图 3.4）。一般情况下，父亲或母 图 3.3　2013 年云南省不同类型的县婴儿母乳喂养情况 资料来源：云南省住户调查，2013 年。 父亲和其他照顾人教育水平情况 图 3.4　2013 年云南省母亲、 资料来源：云南省住户调查，2013 年。 132 第三部分　云南农村儿童的现状：农村住户调查结果 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Breastfeeding appears to be the predominant form of infant feeding with 92 percent of all respondents reporting that their children were breastfed by their mothers (Figure 3.3). Different counties have similar results. Educational level of parents and caregivers Compared with fathers, the mothers’ educational level was more skewed toward the lower end of the educational spectrum (Figure 3.4). Figure 3.3 Infant Breastfeeding in Yunnan, by County Type, 2013 Source: Yunnan Household Survey, 2013. Figure 3.4 Educational Levels of Mothers, Fathers, and Caregivers in Yunnan, 2013 Source: Yunnan Household Survey, 2013. 133 亲有初中文化水平。母亲的文盲率高于父亲，其他照顾人的教育水平 也较低。照顾人教育水平分布情况与母亲接近，这说明照顾人大部分 都是母亲。 家庭年收入 总体来看，少数民族自治县和汉族县、边境和非边境县的家庭年 收入分布不均（图 3.5）。一般情况下，少数民族县和边境县的家庭收 入分别高于非少数民族县和非边境县。 图 3.5　2013 年云南省家庭收入状况 资料来源：云南省住户调查，2013 年。 儿童照顾方式 与儿童一起读书、玩耍和看电视占用的时间，在少数民族县和非 134 第三部分　云南农村儿童的现状：农村住户调查结果 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 The average mother or father tends to have a junior secondary degree. The illiteracy rate among mothers was comparatively higher than that of fathers, while other shares of education attainments were lower. Caregivers had very similar education distribution to mothers, reflecting the fact that a majority of them were also mothers themselves. Annual Household Income Overall, annual household income was unevenly distributed across minority autonomous counties and Han counties, as well as border and non-border counties (Figure 3.5). On average, households in minority and border counties had higher incomes respectively than households in non- minority and non-border counties. Figure 3.5 Annual Household Income in Yunnan, 2013 Source: Yunnan Household Survey, 2013. Child rearing practices The time spent on reading and playing with children as well as spent 135 少数民族县都很接近，但在贫困县和非贫困县之间有一定差距（图 3.6 和图 3.7）。贫困县照顾人与儿童一起读书和玩耍的时间明显低于非贫 困县，但一起看电视的时间比较接近。另外，贫困县近一半住户过去 一年从未给孩子读过书。 令人震惊的是，过去一年，从未与儿童一起玩耍或读书的家庭在 贫困县的比例分别高达 72% 和 47%。但在另一方面，3—6 岁儿童看电 视的情况极为普遍。大约 25% 的儿童每天看电视超过 2 小时，30% 或 更多儿童每天看电视 1—2 小时。 饮食习惯 贫困县和非贫困县的饮食习惯差距非常明显。贫困县的 26% 家 玩耍和看电 图 3.6　2013 年云南省少数民族县与非少数民族县家庭与儿童一起读书、 视的时间 资料来源：云南省住户调查，2013 年。 136 第三部分　云南农村儿童的现状：农村住户调查结果 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 on watching TV across minority and non-minority counties was quite similar, but not evenly distributed across poor counties and non-poverty counties (Figure 3.6 and 3.7). Disparities emerged as households in poverty counties spent considerably less time reading and playing with children, while the time spent on watching TV was similar. Almost half of the households living in poor counties never read to their children during the past year. An astonishingly high proportion of households in poverty counties never played with their children (72 percent) or read to them (47 percent) in the past year. On the other hand, TV watching is very prevalent among 3-to 6-year-olds. About 25 percent of children watch TV for more than 2 hours a day, and another 30 percent or more children watch TV for 1 to 2 hours per day. Dietary habits Dietary differences between poverty counties and non-poverty counties Figure 3.6 Reported Time Spent Reading and Playing with Children and Watching TV in Yunnan, 2013 Source: Yunnan Household Survey, 2013. 137 玩耍和看电视的时间 图 3.7　2013 年云南省贫困县与非贫困县家庭与儿童一起读书、 资料来源：云南省住户调查，2013 年。 庭称孩子从没喝过牛奶，11% 从未吃过肉或蛋，而非贫困县家庭的这个 比例是 7%。另外，非贫困县有 50% 以上家庭称孩子每周喝奶超过 2— 3 次，而贫困县家庭中这一比例是 38%。吃水果的比例也与之类似（图 3.8）。非贫困县的 56% 家庭的孩子每天可以吃到水果，而贫困县家庭 只有 37%。 家庭图书数量 总体而言，云南省农村没有藏书或者阅读的习惯。大部分样本住 户家中没有一本书。不同类型的县之间，家中图书数量的差异是一致 的。一般说来，少数民族、贫困和边境县家庭，家中图书数量都要少于 非少数民族、非贫困和非边境县（图 3.9）。贫困县 80% 的家庭一本书 138 第三部分　云南农村儿童的现状：农村住户调查结果 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Figure 3.7 Reported Time Spent Reading and Playing with Children and Watching TV in Yunnan, 2013 Source: Yunnan Household Survey, 2013. were striking. 26 percent of respondents in poverty counties reported that their children almost never drank milk, and 11 percent never ate meat/eggs, as compared with 7 percent in non-poverty counties. However, over 50 percent of households in non-poverty counties said that their children drank milk more than 2—3 times a week, as compared to 38 percent in poverty counties. Similar results were also observed for fruit intake (Figure 3.8). 56 percent of households in non-poor counties reported that their children ate fruits everyday as compared to only 37 percent in poor counties. Number of books at home Overall, rural Yunnan does not have a book/reading culture. Most households sampled do not own any books at home. There is a persistent difference in the number of books available at home between different county types. Minority, poor and border counties in general had fewer books than non-minority, non-poverty and non-border counties (Figure 3.9). 80 139 图 3.8　2013 年云南省儿童各类食物摄取频率 资料来源：云南省住户调查，2013 年。 图 3.9　2013 年云南省各类县家庭藏书数量 资料来源：云南省住户调查，2013 年。 140 第三部分　云南农村儿童的现状：农村住户调查结果 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Figure 3.8 Frequency of Various Types of Food Intake in Yunnan, 2013 Source: Yunnan Household Survey, 2013. Figure 3.9 Number of Books at Home across County Types in Yunnan, 2013 Source: Yunnan Household Survey, 2013. 141 都没有。总体而言，只有 7% 的家庭家中藏书超过 30 册。 家人吸烟情况 烟草是云南农村的主要农作物。遗憾的是，人们对保护儿童不受 二手烟伤害的知识缺乏了解，所以吸烟在农村极为普遍（表 3.1）。贫 困县和非贫困县家庭，家人吸烟情况比较类似。一般而言，少数民族 县的吸烟率低于非少数民族县。少数民族及非贫困县家庭，在儿童面 前吸烟的情况一般较少。贫困县的 93% 家庭和非少数民族县的 94% 家庭，都有在自己 3—6 岁的儿童面前吸烟的情况。 表 3.1　2013 年云南省各地区家庭吸烟习惯 非贫困县 贫困县 非少数民族县 少数民族县 家中有人吸烟 80 83 88 77 有 1 人吸烟 55 57 63 51 有 2 人吸烟 23 21 22 22 有 3 人吸烟 1 4 2 3 超过 3 人吸烟 1 1 0 1 父母吸烟 75 73 82 68 在儿童面前吸烟 87 93 94 88 资料来源：云南省住户调查，2013 年。 家庭使用语言 只有 2% 的受访家庭在家里用标准普通话交流，大部分家庭用 云南普通话。绝大部分家庭主要用带有当地口音的普通话交流（图 3.10）。不过，少数民族县用当地方言交流的家庭比例明显超过非少数 142 第三部分　云南农村儿童的现状：农村住户调查结果 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 percent of households in poor counties do not own any books at all. Overall, only 7 percent of households have more than 30 books at home. Household smoking habits Tobacco is one of the main crops in rural Yunnan. Unfortunately the overall prevalence of smoking is high in rural Yunnan, as is the lack of awareness of avoiding the impact of second-hand smoking in front of children (Table 3.1). Households in poor/non-poverty households presented similar patterns of domestic smoking. Minority counties had on average a lower prevalence as compared to non-minority counties. Households in both minority and non-poverty counties were less likely to have members smoke in front of children. 93 percent of households in poor counties and 94 percent of all non-minority households have members smoke in front of their 3-to 6-year-olds. Table 3.1 Smoking Habits in Yunnan, by Region, 2013 (%) Non-poverty Poor Non-minority Minority counties counties counties counties Someone in the 80 83 88 77 household smokes 1 person smoke 55 57 63 51 2 person smoke 23 21 22 22 3 person smoke 1 4 2 3 More than 3 people 1 1 0 1 smoke Parent smoke 75 73 82 68 Smoke in front of child 87 93 94 88 Source: Yunnan Household Survey, 2013. Language(s) spoken at home Only 2 percent of households surveyed speak standard Mandarin at home. A majority of households used a Mandarin dialect (a local variant of the standard Mandarin) as the primary language of communication at home (Figure 3.10). However, the share of households using local 143 图 3.10　2013 年云南省家庭主要语言 资料来源：云南省住户调查，2013 年。 民族县。由于边境县大都是少数民族自治县，所以边境县和非边境县 之间也有同样差异。再者，标准普通话往往是学校使用的官方语言， 但在家中几乎不用。 幼儿园入园特点 样 本 家 庭 儿 童 入 园 率 平 均 达 到 59%（N=603）。25% 的 儿 童 （N=151）上一年制学前班。按不同类型的县来看，少数民族 / 非少数 民族县差别最大。总的来看，贫困县、边境县和少数民族县的入园率 分别低于非贫困、非边境、非少数民族县。地区差异见图 3.11。 如果有学前班 / 幼儿园可上，家长的两大主要考虑因素就是安全 和上学距离（图 3.13）。对那些没有上学前班 / 幼儿园的儿童来说，距 离也是重要因素之一（图 3.14）。就读或者入园费用的重要性排名并 144 第三部分　云南农村儿童的现状：农村住户调查结果 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Figure 3.10 Primary Communication Language(s) at Home in Yunnan, 2013 Source: Yunnan Household Survey, 2013. minority dialects is considerably higher in minority counties than in non- minority counties. Since most border counties were administered as ethnic autonomous regions, this signif icance carried through border/non-border counties. Further, standard Mandarin, often the off icial language at schools, was used very little at home. Characteristics of Kindergarten Enrollment The average sampling enrollment rate is 59 percent (N=603). 25 percent of children (N=151) were enrolled in one-year pre-primary classes. Across different counties, the enrollment differences were largest in minority/non-minority counties. In general, households in poor, border and minority counties have lower enrollment rates than in non-poverty, non- border, and non-minority counties, respectively. Figure 3.11 displays the regional differences. Safety and distance were the f irst two considerations if choices of enrolling in preschools/kindergartens were available (Figure 3.13). For those children not enrolled in preschools/kindergartens, distance was also a signif icant factor (Figure 3.14). It is not surprising to see that the cost 145 图 3.11　2013 年云南省各类县儿童就读幼儿园或一年制学前班情况 资料来源：云南省住户调查，2013 年。 图 3.12　2013 年云南省各类县儿童幼儿园或一年制学前班就读率 资料来源：云南省住户调查，2013 年。 146 第三部分　云南农村儿童的现状：农村住户调查结果 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Figure 3.11 Enrollment of Kindergarten/One-year Pre-primary Classes, by County Type in Yunnan, 2013 Source: Yunnan Household Survey, 2013. Figure 3.12 Enrollment Rate in Kindergartens or One-year Pre-primary Classes, by County Types, 2013 Source: Yunnan Household Survey, 2013. 147 图 3.13　2013 年云南省儿童选择幼儿园或学前班的主要原因 资料来源：云南省住户调查，2013 年。 图 3.14　云南省样本县家庭儿童不上幼儿园或学前班的主要原因 资料来源：云南省住户调查，2013 年。 148 第三部分　云南农村儿童的现状：农村住户调查结果 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Figure 3.13 The Most Important Reason(s) for Selecting Kindergartens/Preschools in Yunnan, 2013 Source: Yunnan Household Survey, 2013. Figure 3.14 The Most Important Reason(s) for not Attending Kindergartens/ Preschools in Sample Counties in Yunnan Source: Yunnan Household Survey, 2013 149 不高，这也能够理解，因为在很多地方，有没有学前班 / 幼儿园才是最 严峻的问题。[1] 与最近的幼儿园的距离和每月费用 受访家庭对上学距离和费用的感知有明显差距（图 3.15 和表 3.2、 表 3.3）。根据受访家庭的表述，与最近一所幼儿园的平均距离较远， 有 6 公里；与最近一所小学的平均距离是 2.6 公里，前者超过后者的两 倍。虽然这可能说明，在云南农村，儿童上幼儿园的机会比上小学的 机会要少，但实际上，受访家庭对幼儿园距离估算的标准差很高，达到 12.9 公里，这表明受访家庭的估算可能并不准确。为了衡量住户与幼 儿园的相对距离，调查人员设定了一个新变量，在最近一所小学的距 图 3.15　受访家庭对最近一所幼儿园的距离和相关费用的估算 资料来源：云南省住户调查，2013 年。 [1] 不上幼儿园 / 学前班的其他原因主要是： （1） 家长或幼儿园认为孩子还太小（20%）； （2）没有幼儿园， 学前班还太小（14%）（3）家长认为孩子身体不好、 ； 不合群或沟通交流 能力不佳（7%） 。 150 第三部分　云南农村儿童的现状：农村住户调查结果 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 was not high on the list — as in many cases, availability was the primary issue. [1] Distance to the nearest kindergarten and monthly fees for kindergartens Respondents’ perceptions about the distance to the nearest kindergarten and the associated monthly fees varied signif icantly (Figure 3.15 and Tables 3.2, 3.3). As reported, average distance to the nearest kindergarten is rather long at 6 km, and more than twice the reported distance to the nearest primary school (2.6 km). This could reflect the relative lack of access to kindergartens as compared to primary schools in rural Yunnan. In fact, the standard deviation for the estimated distance to kindergartens is very large at 12.9 km, which could indicate that respondents may not be as accurate in estimating distance to kindergartens. In order to measure the relative distance of kindergartens, researchers created a new variable of whether there is a kindergarten within the distance of a nearest Figure 3.15 Respondents’Estimates of Nearest Kindergartens and Associated Costs Source: Yunnan Household Survey, 2013 [1] Other reasons for non-attendance include primarily: (i) children are considered too young to attend kindergartens (20 percent, 家长或幼儿园认为孩子还太小); (ii) children are under-aged for pre-primary classes (14 percent, 没有幼儿园, 学前班还太小); and (iii) parents believe that their children are unf it because of poor health or underdeveloped social or communication skills (7 percent身体不好、不合群或沟通交流能力不佳). 151 离之内，是否有幼儿园。的确，受访家庭对最近一所小学的距离估算 更可靠（标准差小了很多）。图 3.16 显示了新变量（命名为“更近”） 的统计和分布情况。由图可知，边境县和非边境县“最近”这一变量 值差距最大，其次是贫困县和非贫困县，也许说明这些地区的幼儿园 更少。 每月估计费用、 表 3.2　与最近一所幼儿园的估计距离、 与最近一所小学的估计距 离的描述性统计 变 量 数量 均值 标准差 最低 最高 与最近一所幼儿 990 6.1 公里 12.9 公里 0 公里 74 公里 园的估计距离 估计每月费用 794 229.4 元 158.4 元 0元 1，225 元 与最近一所小学 1，013 2.6 公里 5.7 公里 0 公里 74 公里 的估计距离 资料来源：云南省住户调查，2013 年。 表 3.3　受访家庭估计的平均每月费用 最近一所幼儿园的平均 就读类型 观察数量 收费（元） 没有上幼儿园 / 学前班 212 216 一年制学前班 164 138 幼儿园 257 434 合计 229 788 资料来源：云南省住户调查，2013 年。 152 第三部分　云南农村儿童的现状：农村住户调查结果 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 primary school. Indeed, the estimation of distance to primary schools was much more reliable (much smaller standard deviation). Figure 3.16 shows the statistics and the distribution of the new variable (named “closer”). The gap is widest among border/non-border counties followed by poor/non- poverty counties, which may imply that kindergartens were distributed even more thinly in those areas. Table 3.2 Descriptive Statistics of Estimated Distances to Nearest Kindergartens, Estimated Monthly Fees, and Estimated Distances to Nearest Primary Schools Variable N Mean Std. Dev. Min Max Estimated distance to 990 6.1 km 12.9 km 0 km 74 km nearest kindergarten Estimated monthly fee 794 229.4 RMB 158.4 RMB 0 RMB 1,225 RMB Estimated distance to 1,013 2.6 km 5.7 km 0 km 74 km nearest primary school Source: Yunnan Household Survey, 2013. Table 3.3 Average Monthly Fees as Perceived by Respondents Average Fees for Nearest Number of Enrollment type kindergarten (RMB) Observations Not enrolled 212 216 One-year pre-primary class 164 138 Kindergarten 257 434 Total 229 788 Source: Yunnan Household Survey, 2013. 153 图 3.16　2013 年云南省各类县受访家庭认为幼儿园比小学更近的比例 资料来源：云南省住户调查，2013 年。 儿童发展结果的相关因素 根据个人对有关儿童社会能力和认知能力发展问卷的回应，我们 计算了所有 3—6 岁样本儿童的社会能力和认知能力发展指数 [1]。得分 在 0—2 点的区间呈连续性，为所有得到回应的问题的均值。表 3.4 和 图 3.17 分析了得分和主要原因，并对要点进行了分析。需要重点指出 的是： · 发展得分没有性别差异； [1] 这两项指数根据另一项与住户研究人员合作展开的儿童调查而得出。此调查由世界银 行和中国国家卫生和计划生育委员会合作开发。针对不同年龄段， 两名走访人员用一 套含有 25—37 个项目的评分工具， 对儿童的社会能力和认知能力发展做出评估。评估 内容包括基本社会意识 （即姓名、身体部位、情感和社会规范）、 记忆和模仿能力等。计 算儿童社会能力发展指数时， 还包括了针对照看者调查中的 6 个行为问题（问题 322、 323、324、327、330 和 331）。 154 第三部分　云南农村儿童的现状：农村住户调查结果 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Figure 3.16 Percent as a Share of Households that Recognize a Closer Kindergarten than a Nearest Primary School in Yunnan, by County Type, 2013 Source: Yunnan Household Survey, 2013. Correlates of Development Outcomes Based on the individual responses on the children’s social and cognitive questionnaire, we calculated the social development and cognitive development indexes for all 3-to 6-year-old children in the sample.[1] The score is continuous, between 0 and 2 points, reflecting the average of all questions answered. Table 3.4 and Figure 3.17 depict the key f indings when scores were tabulated with main explanatory variables. In this context, it is important to note the following: [1] The indexes were calculated based on a separated children’s survey conducted with the household research. The survey was designed by the World Bank and China’s National Health and Family Planning Commission. Two interviewers measured the children’s social and cognitive development with a scaled instrument containing 25—37 items for different age levels. These covered basic social awareness (that is, names, body parts, emotions and social norms) as well as memorization and imitation. Six behavioral questions in the caregiver’s survey were also included in the social development index (question numbers 322, 323, 324, 327, 330, 331). 155 · 留守儿童和少数民族县儿童的社会能力发展指数明显偏低，但 在认知能力发展上并无区别； · 少数民族儿童的社会能力和认知能力发展得分明显低于汉族 儿童； · 贫困县或边境县儿童的社会能力和认知能力发展得分低于其 他地区的儿童； · 上幼儿园的儿童，其社会能力和认知能力得分明显高于不上幼 儿园的儿童。 表 3.4　主要原因变量的指数得分 社会能力发展指数 认知能力发展指数 得分 数量 得分 数量 平均 1.4 1，019 0.84 1，036 男童 1.40 547 0.85 549 女童 1.39 472 0.84 477 汉族 1.42* 539 0.92*** 483 少数民族 1.38 480 0.78 543 上幼儿园 1.46*** 597 1.02*** 600 不上幼儿园 1.31 414 0.60 418 留守儿童 1.35** 178 0.83 180 与父母同住 1.41 841 0.85 846 住在贫困县 1.34*** 517 0.80** 520 不住在贫困县 1.46 502 0.89 506 住在少数民族县 1.38* 609 0.83 612 156 第三部分　云南农村儿童的现状：农村住户调查结果 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 · Development scores do not differentiate between genders; · Left-behind children and children living in minority counties have signif icantly lower social development scores, but do not differentiate between cognitive development scores; · Minority children have signif icantly lower social and cognitive development scores than Han children; · Children living in poor or border counties have signif icantly lower social and cognitive development scores than children who live elsewhere; · Children enrolled in kindergarten have signif icantly higher social and cognitive development scores than children who do not attend kindergarten. Table 3.4 Selected Index Scores across Main Explanatory Variables Social development Cognitive index development index Score N Score N Average 1.4 1,019 0.84 1,036 Boy 1.40 547 0.85 549 Girl 1.39 472 0.84 477 Han 1.42* 539 0.92*** 483 Minority 1.38 480 0.78 543 Enrolled in kindergarten 1.46*** 597 1.02*** 600 Not enrolled 1.31 414 0.60 418 Left-behind 1.35** 178 0.83 180 Live with parents 1.41 841 0.85 846 Live in poor county 1.34*** 517 0.80** 520 Do not live in poor county 1.46 502 0.89 506 Live in minority county 1.38* 609 0.83 612 157 （续表） 社会能力发展指数 认知能力发展指数 得分 数量 得分 数量 不住在少数民族县 1.43 410 0.87 414 住在边境县 1.31*** 200 0.74*** 202 不住在边境县 1.42 819 0.87 824 独生子女 1.48 260 0.89* 258 非独生子女 1.37*** 759 0.83 768 * 表示重要性低于 0.05 ** 表示重要性低于 0.01 *** 表示重要性低于 0.001 资料来源：云南省住户调查，2013 年。 图 3.17　2013 年云南省各类县儿童社会能力和认知能力发展情况 资料来源：云南省住户调查，2013 年。 158 第三部分　云南农村儿童的现状：农村住户调查结果 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 (Continued) Social development Cognitive index development index Score N Score N Do not live in minority county 1.43 410 0.87 414 Live in border county 1.31*** 200 0.74*** 202 Do not live in border county 1.42 819 0.87 824 * Is the single child 1.48 260 0.89 258 Is not the single child 1.37*** 759 0.83 768 * indicates <0.05 signif icance ** indicates <0.01 signif icance *** indicates <0.001 signif icance Source: Yunnan Household Survey, 2013. Figure 3.17 Social and Cognitive Development Scores across Regions in Yunnan, 2013 Source: Yunnan Household Survey, 2013. 159 我们通过多元分析确定不同变量对儿童发展结果的影响，用体 重、身高 [1]、社交能力发展和认知能力发展来衡量发展结果。每一项变 量的均值和标准差见附录。 人口分布特点 · 儿童体重与出生体重和最近一次测体重的年龄正相关。女童、 少数民族县或贫困县这些变量与儿童体重负相关。与未受教 育的母亲相比，母亲的大专文化也与儿童体重正相关。母乳喂 养虽不是明显的预测指标，但也与儿童体重正相关。 · 儿童身高与最近一次测身高的年龄正相关。其他条件不变的 情况下，高收入家庭（年收入超过 10 万元人民币）的儿童身高 明显高于低收入家庭（年收入不足 1 万元人民币）。贫困县或 大家庭环境都与儿童身高负相关。 · 社会能力发展指数与儿童年龄和家庭财富正相关。与年收入 低于 1 万元的家庭相比，年收入 1—2 万、2—5 万和 5—10 万的 家庭，收入与子女社交能力发展指数逐级正相关。其他条件不 变，贫困县和边境县因素与儿童社交能力发展负相关。以普通 话而不是少数民族方言为家庭主要语言，与儿童社交能力发展 正相关。 · 家庭收入水平和儿童认知能力关系密切。高收入家庭子女的 认知能力一般也比较高，但收入最高的家庭（10 万元以上）除 [1] 本次调查没有测量儿童的标准体重和身高， 而是向父母 / 照看者询问了儿童最近所测的 身高 / 体重情况。回归分析模型将这一估值作为结果变量， 同时将儿童最近一次测体重 / 身高时的年龄作为一个控制量。鉴于父母 / 照看者估算的准确程度， 以及能够提供完整 信息的受访者数量有限， 这只是一个粗略的分析结果。 160 第三部分　云南农村儿童的现状：农村住户调查结果 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Multivariate analysis of the data was conducted to determine the effects of different variables on childhood development outcomes. Weight, height,[1] social development and cognitive development were used as outcome measures. The mean and standard deviation of independent variables used can be found in the Appendix. Demographic Characteristics · The weight of children was positively correlated with weight at birth, and the age at which the latest weight was measured. Being a girl and coming from a minority or poverty county were negatively correlated with weight. Compared with no educational attainment, mothers with a tertiary education were also positively correlated with the weight of the child. Breastfeeding, though not a signif icant predictor, had a positive association with the weight of the child. · The height of children was positively correlated with the age at which the latest measurement was taken. When controlling for other factors, a child from a high-income household (more than 100,000 RMB in annual income) was signif icantly taller than one from a low-income household (less than 10,000 RMB in annual income). Coming from a poverty county or living in a big family were also negatively correlated with height. · The social development index was positively correlated with children’s age and the wealth of the family. Compared with households with less than 10,000 RMB in annual income, households with 10,000—20,000, 20,000—50,000 and 50,000—100,000 RMB in annual income had a positive and incremental correlation coeff icient with children’s social development score. With all else being controlled, coming from a poverty or border county was negatively correlated with the social development score. Speaking Mandarin rather than minority dialects as the primary language was [1] During the survey, no standard weight or height was measured. Instead, survey workers asked the parents/caregivers to give the latest weight/height measured. The regression models took this estimate as outcome variables while controlling for the age at which the measurement was taken. This result was still rough due to the quality of estimates as well as the limited number of respondents who provided complete information. 161 外。与家庭年收入 5—10 万的家庭相比，年收入 10 万元以上对 子女认知能力得分的影响较低。母亲的文化水平也和儿童认 知能力发展结果有紧密的联系。回归系数表明，初中水平以上 者，母亲文化水平越高，子女认知能力发展结果越好。此外，独 生子女和汉族（而非少数民族）这两个因素，也与儿童认知能 力有正相关关系。 政策干预可以影响的其他因素 研究人员加入一组更容易受政策干预，而不是家庭特点影响的新 变量，来预测儿童发育情况，包括： · 上不上幼儿园（包括一年制学前班）和亲子班； · 体检频率和疫苗接种情况； · 照顾方式（家庭图书数量；与儿童一起玩耍、读书和看电视的 频率、管教方式）； · 饮食习惯和营养状况（钙吸收；肉、蛋、奶的摄取频率）。 主要结论如下： · 上幼儿园 / 学前班与儿童的社交和认知能力都有统计相关意 义，与儿童最近一次所测身高和体重有正相关关系。 · 管教和照顾方式是预测儿童社交和认知能力发展的重要指标。 每周与儿童一起读书与从不读书相比，前者与儿童的社交和认 知能力发展有明显的正相关。每天看电视 1—2 小时或 2 小时 以上，也与儿童的认知能力发展有明显的正相关。 “经 · 年龄和贫困县居住仍是预测儿童体重和身高的重要指标。 常”体检与“从不”体检相比，前者与儿童体重正相关。此外， 162 第三部分　云南农村儿童的现状：农村住户调查结果 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 positively correlated with children’s social development. · Likewise, there is a strong association between family income levels and children’s cognitive skills. Higher annual incomes in general correlate with higher cognitive scores, except for the highest stratum (with over 100,000 RMB), which had a lower effect on children’s cognitive scores as compared to households with 50,000—100,000 RMB. Mothers’ education levels also highly correlate with children’s cognitive development outcomes. The regression coeff icients for degrees higher than junior middle school showed an incremental positive effect on the outcome variable. Also, single child status and being a Han (other than ethnic minorities) also had positive correlations with cognitive scores. Other factors amenable to policy intervention New groups of variables were added by the researchers as predictors of child development outcomes because they are more likely to be influenced by policy interventions than family characteristics. They include the following: · Whether or not the child attends kindergarten (including one-year pre-primary classes) and parent-child classes; · Frequency of health check-ups and immunizations; · Parent or child-rearing practices (number of books at home, frequency of playing with child, reading to the child, watching TV, and means of punishment); and · Dietary habits and nutrition (calcium intake, frequency of eating meat, eggs and drinking milk). The main f indings include the following: · Enrollment is both statistically correlated with children’s social and cognitive skills, and positively associated with children’s recent weight and height. · Parenting practices are highly correlated with social and cognitive development. Reading to children on a weekly basis, as compared to never reading to children, had a signif icantly positive correlation with both social and cognitive development. Watching TV for 1 to 2 hours a day and more than 2 hours a day also had a signif icantly positive effect on improving cognitive skills. 163 前者与儿童体重明显相关。 每周喝一次牛奶与从不喝牛奶相比， · 与“从不管教”错误行为相比，因为淘气或犯错“偶尔”和“经 常”管教儿童的做法，与儿童体重和身高呈正相关关系。 · 与只参加免费疫苗接种的儿童相比，也参加自费接种的儿童认 知能力发展较好。 · 需要指出的是，加入是否上幼儿园、体检频率或疫苗接种、照顾 方式等政策相关变量后，家庭地理位置、家庭收入和父母受教 育水平这些因素与儿童身体、社交和认知能力发展的最初联系 性有所减弱。这表明，地理位置、收入和父母的教育程度对儿 童发展的影响可能是通过这些政策相关变量为途径。加入政 策变量后，最初四个模型的判定系数（R2）都有所上升。加入 政策变量后的模型 8 解释了 51% 的儿童认知能力的不同，而模 型 4 的解释能力为 43%（参照附录）。 幼儿园入园率的相关因素 以上分析表明，上幼儿园往往和儿童的社交和认知能力发展紧密 相连。逻辑回归分析帮我们了解到云南农村儿童是否参加学前教育 的相关因素。根据同一项调查，我们选定人口分布、社会和地理位置 这三个变量，完整的模型分析结果见附录。 [1] 主要结论包括： · 年龄和家庭收入与入园率密切关系。年收入 1—2 万元的家 （probabilities）根据比值比 [1] “入园率” （odds ratio）估算而得。 164 第三部分　云南农村儿童的现状：农村住户调查结果 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 · Age and residence in a poverty county remained signif icant factors of children’s weight and height. Health check-ups at the frequency of “Sometimes” were positively correlated with children’s recent weight as compared to “Never” responses. In addition, taking milk once a week was signif icantly correlated with children’s height as compared to never taking any. · Compared with “no punishment” toward wrong-doings, children receiving “occasional” and “constant” punishments for being naughty or making mistakes have positive correlations with weight and height. · Compared with children who take free immunizations only, children who had taken both free and paid immunization have better cognitive development. · It is also noted when policy-friendly variables were added into the equation — such as whether to attend kindergartens, frequency of medical check-ups or immunizations, as well as child-rearing practices, the original correlation between geological location, household income and parents’ education and children’s physical, social and cognitive development become weaker. This suggests that some of the impact of location, income, and parents’ education on child development might be through the policy-friendly variables. The adjusted R-squared of these models were higher than the original four without variables amenable to policy interventions. The revised model 8 explained 51 percent of variance in cognitive scores, up from 43 percent in model 4 (see Appendix). Correlates of Kindergarten Enrollment These survey analyses reveal that enrolling in kindergarten tends to correlate positively with children’s social and cognitive development. Logistic regressions also help us to understand the correlates of preschool enrollment in rural Yunnan. Based on the same survey, demographic, social and geographic variables were chosen. The full model results are contained in the Appendix. Key f indings include:[1] [1] All odds ratios are estimated as probabilities in the explanations. 165 庭，子女上幼儿园的可能性几乎是年收入不足 1 万元家庭的 两倍。 · 若其他条件相同，留守儿童上幼儿园的可能性也几乎是非留守 儿童的两倍。 · 民族也是重要因素之一。与少数民族相比，汉族儿童上幼儿园 的可能性较高。这一现象在少数民族和非少数民族县一样明 显。少数民族县子女上幼儿园的可能性低 60%。 · 母亲的教育背景也很重要。有高中或大学文化的母亲与没受 过教育的母亲相比，更有可能送子女上幼儿园。 · 与最近一所幼儿园的距离也是重要相关因素之一。由于在调 查中发现受访者对距离的感受不够准确，所以研究人员用居住 地和最近一所幼儿园与居住地和最近一所乡镇小学的相对距 离来测算。结果表明，如果在居住地和最近一所小学之间有一 所幼儿园的话，儿童上幼儿园的可能性就较高。 · 有趣的是，家人交流采用的语言也有很大影响。与普通话家庭 相比，使用云南普通话或少数民族方言的家庭的子女上幼儿园 的可能性低很多。但由于样本中普通话家庭数量极其有限，这 个结果可能会有偏差。 总结与讨论 通过对农村住户调查的分析，可以了解云南农村 3—6 岁儿童的大 致现状。在描述性分析的基础上，我们得以揭示农村儿童的家庭照顾 条件、照顾人的照顾方式，儿童在认知和社交领域的发展状况以及接 166 第三部分　云南农村儿童的现状：农村住户调查结果 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 · Age and household income were strongly correlated with the odds ratio of enrollment. Compared with households of less than 10,000 RMB of income, the rough likelihood of children attending kindergartens in households with 10,000—20,000 RMB of income almost doubled. · Left-behind children were almost twice as likely to attend kindergartens as compared with non-left-behind children, when other constraints were held constant. · Ethnicity plays an important role. Compared with ethnic minorities, Han children were more likely to attend kindergartens. This tendency was evident in minority and non-minority counties as well. Households in minority counties are 60 percent less likely to have enrolled their children in kindergartens. · The mothers’ educational background also played an important role in preschool enrollment. Those mothers with a high school or university education were more likely to have their children attend kindergartens as compared to mothers with no educational attainment. · There is also a strong association between distance to the nearest kindergartens and enrollments. In the survey, due to the roughness of personal estimates, a relative distance compared to the nearest township/village primary school was used. The result shows a strong likelihood of attending preschool when it was located within the distance of a nearest primary school. · Interestingly, language spoken in the family also had a strong correlation with kindergarten enrollment. Compared to Mandarin- speaking families, households using either a Mandarin dialect or minority dialects were much less likely to have children attending kindergartens. However, this result could be biased due to the very limited number of cases of Mandarin-speaking families. Summary and Discussion The analyses of rural household surveys provide a snapshot of the status of 3-to 6-year-olds living in rural Yunnan. Based on descriptive analysis, we were able to reveal rural children’s home care conditions, 167 受学前教育的情况。此外，通过多元回归分析，加入背景和政策变量， 我们也得以确定影响儿童发展结果和入园率的相关因素。 意外的是，在云南农村，由祖父母或其他亲戚而不是父母照顾的 儿童只有大约 25%，其中绝大部分都是留守儿童。留守儿童的比例比 我们预想的要低，不过各个县的情况可能并不一样。我们了解到，昭 通等县留守儿童比例较高，而西双版纳等县极少有人外出打工，反而 会在割胶忙季从外县甚至外省招募临时工。父母一般都有初中文化， 而祖父母一般只有小学水平。 照顾方式方面，虽然云南农村的母乳喂养普及率超过了 90%，但其 他重要领域仍有很多可以改善的空间。尤其值得注意的是，贫困县家 庭对幼儿的早期刺激不足。贫困县 72% 的家庭报告说，他们从来没有 和自己的孩子玩耍过；47% 的家庭从来没有给孩子读过书；80% 的家 庭家中没有一本书，这种情况不免令人遗憾。有证据表明，与儿童一 起玩耍和读书都是最基本的早期刺激方式，与儿童健康积极的发展结 果相关。 专栏 3.1　早期阅读对儿童认知能力发展的影响 大量文献证明，早期阅读对儿童认知能力的发展有积极 作用。 Sénéchal 针对早期阅读和儿童发展结果之间的关系进 行 14 次 干 预 研 究，然后展开荟萃分析（Sénéchal ，2006 年）。 结果表明，在幼儿园到三年级期间，父母的参与对儿童识字能 力有正面影响，能让儿童在标准识字考试中的得分平均提高 10 分。 168 第三部分　云南农村儿童的现状：农村住户调查结果 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 caregiver’s childrearing practices, and their developmental status for both cognitive and social dimensions, and status of enrollment in any form of preschool. Further, using multivariate regression analysis, we were also able to estimate what factors are strongly associated with childhood development outcomes, as well as their enrollment status at preschools. Both background and policy variables were used in the regression analysis. Contrary to expectations, only about 25 percent of children in rural Yunnan are not cared for by their own parents, but by grandparents and other relatives. Of those, most are indeed left-behind children. The proportion of left-behind children is smaller than we expected though it may differ from county to county, as we know some counties such as Zhaotong have a much higher proportion of left-behind children, whereas other rural counties such as Xishuangbanna are known to have very few migrants out of the county. Instead, they tend to attract workers from outside the county or even province during busy rubber tree harvest seasons. The average education for the parents’ generation is junior middle school, which is higher than the average primary education for the grandparents. With regard to childrearing practices, although more than 90 percent of the households breastfed their children, there is much room for improvement in other important childrearing practices in rural Yunnan. In particular, households in poor counties are not providing suff icient early stimulation for their young children. Unfortunately, for households in poor counties, 72 percent reported that they never played with their children; 47 percent reported that they never read to their children; and 80 percent reported that they do not have any books in the home. Playing with and reading books to young children are the most basic early stimulation measures that have been proven to be associated with positive child outcomes. Box 3.1 The Effect of Early Reading on Children’s Cognitive Development A body of literature attests to the positive effects of early reading on children’s cognitive development. Based on a meta-analytic review of 14 intervention studies (Sénéchal, 2006) of the relationship between early reading and the childhood development outcomes, parental involvement has a positive effect on children’s literacy skills from kindergarten to grade 169 谈到具体的参与方式，父母教子女识字是最有效的。在 7 份 研究报告中，父母接受了怎样教孩子掌握某项具体技能的培训， 例如认字母表或认字。这些活动让孩子的识字测试得分平均提 高了 17 分。Kalb 和 van Ours（2013 年）则找到证据，证明父母的 阅读与儿童阅读能力和认知能力发展有因果关系。他们采用澳 大利亚儿童研究的纵向数据，经分析发现，4—5 岁的儿童，如果 父母经常给他们读书，对他们的阅读和认知能力会有显著的积 极影响，这种影响至少持续到儿童 10—11 岁。每周 6—7 天为男 童读书对其认知能力的提高相当于儿童认知能力一年的发展， 对女童的影响更明显一些。 资料来源： Sénéchal, M. (2006). The Effect of Family Literacy Interventions On Children’s Acquisition of Reading From Kindergarten to Grade 3. National Institute for Literacy, RMC Research Corporation. Kalb, G. & van Ours, J. (2013). Reading to Young Children: A Head-Start in Life? IZA Discussion Paper No. 7416. 在云南农村，有些负面的育儿方式极为普遍，对幼儿发展很有害。 例如，约 90% 的家庭有在幼儿面前吸烟的情况，对二手烟损害儿童健 康和发育毫不知情。大量研究证实，二手烟对婴儿和儿童的健康有很 大损害。怀孕期间吸二手烟是造成婴儿出生体重较轻的一个直接原 因。出生后吸二手烟的婴儿更有可能面临 SIDS 的风险。父母吸烟会 使婴儿更有可能患上呼吸道和下呼吸道疾病，如哮喘、支气管炎、中耳 170 第三部分　云南农村儿童的现状：农村住户调查结果 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 3. The average effect size for parental involvement in children’s reading activities is a 10-point increase on a standard literacy test. With respect to the specif ic intervention types, the approach of parents teaching their children literacy skills is the most effective intervention. Parents in seven studies received training to teach their childspecif ic reading skills, such as teaching them the alphabet or how to read words. These reading activities produce an average of a 17-point increase on the literacy test. Kalb and van Ours (2013) f ind evidence for a causal relationship between parental reading and children’s reading skills and cognitive development. Using longitudinal data of Australian children, the authors f ind that frequent parental reading to children at ages 4 to 5 has a signif icant and positive effect on children’s reading and cognitive skills, at least up to an age of 10 to 11. In terms of effect size, reading 6 to 7 days a week to boys has a similar effect on cognitive skills development as being almost one year older, and the effect is slightly larger for girls. Source: Sénéchal, M. (2006). The Effect of Family Literacy Interventions on Children’s Acquisition of Reading From Kindergarten to Grade 3. National Institute for Literacy, RMC Research Corporation. Kalb, G. & van Ours, J. (2013). Reading to Young Children: A Head- Start in Life? IZA Discussion Paper No. 7416. Some practices that are highly detrimental to children’s health and development are prevalent. For example, approximately 90 percent of households have members smoke in front of their young children, with absolutely no awareness that secondhand smoking affects their children’s health and development. A large number of research studies have conf irmed that secondhand smoke has many harmful effects on infant and child health. Secondhand smoke during pregnancy is a direct cause of low infant birth weight. Infants who are exposed to secondhand smoke after birth face a bigger risk of SIDS. Parental smoking leads to higher rates of both upper and lower respiratory tract illnesses such as asthma, bronchitis, middle ear infection (otitis media), and pneumonia among infants. Furthermore, 171 感染（中耳炎）和肺炎。此外，3 米以内的二手烟会使婴儿在出生后 18 个月内的住院率增高（Leung 等人，2004）。对于吸二手烟的年龄较大 的儿童，他们的肺部发育不及那些没有吸二手烟的儿童。他们也更容 易患上哮喘和耳部感染。 此外，随着生活水平的改善，大部分农村家庭都有了电视，子女 每周都有大量时间在看电视。多元回归分析揭示了每天看电视超过 2 小时与认知发展呈正相关。一种可能的解释是，看电视可以帮助他 们讲普通话，更好地掌握普通话。但无论如何，看电视过量会让子女 和父母以及其他照顾者之间缺乏积极互动，可能给儿童造成其他负 面影响。 专栏 3.2　看电视对儿童发展结果的影响 对电视与儿童发展结果的研究有不同结果。Huang 和 Lee （2010）重点研究看电视的时间，他们发现 6—7 岁儿童每天看电 视少于 2 小时，会对他们在 8—9 岁时的阅读得分产生少量但积 极的影响。但是，6—7 岁和 8—9 岁期间看电视，对他们在 8—9 岁期间的数学分数都有总体负面影响。 大量文献表明，看电视的效果有赖于电视节目的内容和 类型。有充分的证据表明，适龄的、早教类节目能够对儿童 的认知发展和入学准备产生积极影响。例如，Linebarger 和 Walker（2004） 对 30 个 月 大 的 美 国 学 前 儿 童 的 研 究 发 现， “Dora the Explorer”和“Blue ’ s Clues”等互动节目有助于儿 童 增 加 词 汇 量 和 提 高 语 言 表 达 能 力。Anderson 等 人（2001） 172 第三部分　云南农村儿童的现状：农村住户调查结果 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 secondhand smoke within 3 meters of the infant is associated with higher hospital admission rates for all illnesses of infants in the f irst 18 months of life (Leung et al., 2004). For older children, those who breathe secondhand smoke experience less lung growth than those who do not. They are also more vulnerable to asthma attacks and ear infections. Further, it appears that as living conditions improve, the majority of rural households own TV and their children spend substantial amounts of time watching TV every week. Multivariate analysis revealed a positive relationship between watching TV more than 2 hours a day and cognitive development. We speculate that this can be attributed to the fact that TV promotes Mandarin speaking and helps children master the Mandarin language better. Nevertheless, excessive TV viewing, tends to be associated with a lack of other positive interactions with parents and other caregivers, and can potentially affect the children in negative ways. Box 3.2 The Effect of TV Watching on Childhood Development Outcomes Research on the effect of TV watching on childhood development outcomes has produced mixed results. Focusing just on the number of hours of TV watching, Huang and Lee (2010) f ind that watching less than 2 hours of TV per day during ages 6—7 has a small but positive effect on reading scores at ages 8—9. However, watching TV during ages 6—7 and 8—9 has an overall negative effect on math scores at ages 8—9. A body of literature suggests that the effect of TV viewing is contingent upon the content and type of the TV programs. There is well- documented evidence that age-appropriate, curriculum-based educational television programs can have a positive effect on children’s cognitive development and school readiness. For example, according to Linebarger and Walker (2004), watching interactive TV programs such as “Dora the Explorer” and “Blue’s Clues” was associated with higher vocabularies and expressive language scores for 30-month-old American preschool children. Anderson et al. (2001) conducted a longitudinal study and found that watching educational TV programs was associated with higher grades and more books read in high school. 173 的纵向研究发现，教育类节目与高中生得到较高分数和阅读 更多书籍有关。 一些早期研究也表明，童年时接触电视上的暴力内容与今 后的攻击性行为是紧密相连的。Huesmann 等人（2003）用纵向 研究方法，对暴力性电视内容的长期影响展开调查，他们走访了 329 名小学生，等他们长大到 20 出头再走访一次。结果显示，无 论是男性还是女性，原来的攻击性是高是低，社会地位如何，更 多接触电视上的暴力内容，对与自己同性别攻击性角色的认同， 都与成年后的更多攻击性行为有关。 资料来源： Anderson, D. R., Huston, A. C., Schmitt, K. L., Linebarger, D. L., & Wright, J. C. (2001). Early childhood television viewing and adolescent behavior: The recontact study. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 66(1), 1—147. Center on Media and Child Health, Children’s Hospital Boston. (2005). The Effects of Electronic Media on Children Ages Zero to Six: A History of Research. Prepared for the Kaiser Family Foundation. Fali, H., and Myoung-Jae, L. (2010). Dynamic treatment effect analysis of TV effects on child cognitive development. Journal of Applied Econometrics , 25(3), 392 —419. doi: 10.1002/ jae.1165 Linebarger, D. L., and Walker, D. (2005). Infants’ and Toddlers’ Television Viewing and Language Outcomes. American Behavioral Scientist, 48(5), 624—645. doi: 10.1177/0002764204271505 174 第三部分　云南农村儿童的现状：农村住户调查结果 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 A number of earlier studies have also suggested that exposure to violence on TV during childhood is closely linked to more aggressive behavior. Huesmann et al. (2003) investigates the long-term effect of viewing violent TV in a longitudinal study that interviewed 329 children in elementary school, and then again when they were in their early 20s. Results show that viewing more TV violence and identification with aggressive same-sex TV charactersis associated with more adult aggression for both male and female participants, regardless of their initial aggression level or social status. Source: Anderson, D. R., Huston, A. C., Schmitt, K. L., Linebarger, D. L., & Wright, J. C. (2001). Early childhood television viewing and adolescent behavior: The recontact study. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 66(1), 1—147. Center on Media and Child Health, Children’s Hospital Boston. (2005). The Effects of Electronic Media on Children Ages Zero to Six: A History of Research. Prepared for the Kaiser Family Foundation. Fali, H., and Myoung-Jae, L. (2010).Dynamic treatment effect analysis of TV effects on child cognitive development. Journal Of Applied Econometrics, 25(3), 392—419. doi:10.1002/jae.1165 Linebarger, D. L., and Walker, D. (2005).Infants’ and Toddlers’ Television Viewing and Language Outcomes. American Behavioral Scientist, 48(5), 624—645. doi:10.1177/0002764204271505 Huesmann, L.R., Moise-Titus, J., Podolski, C.L., and Eron, L.D. (1993) “Longitudinal Relations Between Children’s Exposure to TV Violence and Their Aggressive and Violent Behavior in Young Adulthood: 1977—1992,” Developmental Psychology, Vol. 39, No. 2. Interesting results also emerged from the multivariate analysis. Some patterns of childhood development are evident. Children’s physical development as measured by weight is negatively associated with being a female child either in poor or minority counties, but positively associated with maternal education (tertiary education), family income, and regular health checkups. Similarly, a child’s height also seems to be correlated with 175 Huesmann, L.R., Moise-Titus, J., Podolski, C.L., and Eron, L.D. (1993) “Longitudinal Relations Between Children’s Exposure to TV Violence and Their Aggressive and Violent Behavior in Young Adulthood: 1977 —1992,” Developmental Psychology, Vol. 39, No. 2. 多元分析也得出了一些值得关注的结论。一些儿童发展模式已 得到证实。女童的身体发育（体重）与性别负相关，无论是贫困县还 是少数民族县都一样；但与母亲教育水平（大专文化）、家庭收入和定 期体检都呈正相关。类似的，儿童身高也与家庭收入、贫困县居住或 大家庭因素有关。经常喝牛奶对儿童身高有积极影响。 家庭收入和母亲（而不是父亲）教育水平是儿童认知能力发展 的重要相关因素。独生子女和汉族家庭也与儿童认知水平较高有关。 家庭收入和讲普通话与社交能力发展正相关。贫困县或边境县往往 与儿童社交能力发展负相关。 值得注意的是，入园率、体检频率、积极的照顾方式都与积极 的儿童发展结果有明显联系。尤其是，经常给孩子读书与儿童的 社交和认知能力发展正相关。每天看电视 1 — 2 小时或者超过 2 小 时有利于认知能力的发展，但不利于社交能力发展（不具备统计学 意义）。 对于入园率的相关因素，我们发现家庭收入、留守儿童、母亲教育 水平、与最近的幼儿园的距离、家人交流所用语言都和儿童是否入园 密切相关。尤其是，年收入 1—2 万元的家庭，子女上幼儿园的可能性 是年收入 1 万元以下家庭的两倍。此外，有高中文化水平的母亲，其子 176 第三部分　云南农村儿童的现状：农村住户调查结果 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 family income, as well as living in a poor county or coming from a big family. Drinking milk frequently has a positive impact on child’s height as well. Family income and maternal (but not paternal) education are highly associated with child’s cognitive development. Being a single child and being a Han are also correlated with higher cognitive skills. Family income and speaking Mandarin are positively correlated with social development. Coming from a poor or border county tends to be negatively correlated with social development. Interestingly, enrollment in preschools, frequency of health checkups, and positive childrearing practices are clearly correlatedwith positive childhood development outcomes. In particular, reading frequently to a child is positively correlated with social and cognitive development. Watching TV 1 to 2 hours or more than 2 hours a day tends to be associated with higher cognitive skills, but lower social skills (not statistically significant). With regard to preschool enrollments, we f ind that family income, “left-behind” children, maternal education, distance to the nearest kindergarten, and language spoken at home all have a high correlation with enrollment status. In particular, for households with income between 10,000 RMB to 20,000 RMB the odds of their children attending preschool are two times that of children from families with income below 10,000 RMB. Further, mothers with a high school education are 1.5 times more likely to send their children to preschool as compared to mothers who have no educational attainment. The study demonstrates that there is great merit in promoting more preschool education for rural children, in particular those who have not yet had access to such education. For children 3 years of age and older, global evidence suggests that center-based programs (preschools) are appropriate and effective in improving children’s cognitive and social-emotional development and school readiness. The impact is greater with higher quality programs, although informal and community-based programs also have proven benef its. Although most of the factors impacting enrollment such as gender, location, and family income may not be immediately amenable to policy interventions, some factors can be more easily influenced. These include 177 女入园的可能性比无教育背景的母亲高出 1.5 倍。 研究表明，推广农村儿童学前教育大有好处，对那些尚无渠道接 触学前教育的农村儿童尤其有益。大量证据表明，对 3 岁及以上儿童 来说，基于中心的学前教育（幼儿园）是一种适当和有效的方式，有助 于提高儿童认知能力和社会情感发展，为入学做好准备。优质学前教 育的影响更大，但非正式和社区型学前教育也被证明是有效方式。 虽然，影响入园率的诸多因素，例如性别、居住地和家庭收入等， 很多都难以通过政策干预即刻收效，但政策干预仍可影响一些决定性 因素，包括母亲的教育水平、与最近的幼儿园的距离、对学前教育费用 的负担能力等。 此外，需要记住的是，家庭在儿童发展中发挥的作用及其重要。 大量文献已经表明，缺乏学习机会以及照顾者与孩子之间低质量的互 动，都是儿童发展的主要风险。除了基本的健康和营养需要，儿童发 展的长足进步还需要管教、刺激和早期教育的改善。 遗憾的是，我们的调查结果表明，早期激发、玩耍、学习在儿童的 整体发展中发挥着至关重要的作用，而人们对此普遍缺乏认识。这种 趋势迫切需要得到遏制，具体做法是通过各种干预措施，形成积极的 幼儿家庭环境。家长可以通过与孩子交谈、与孩子一起阅读玩耍，为 孩子提供更优质的刺激和互动。家访、来自健康和教育服务提供者的 指导和支持，以及家长的集体培训，都能够改善家庭环境并提高家长 的照顾能力。 178 第三部分　云南农村儿童的现状：农村住户调查结果 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 maternal education, distance to nearest kindergartens, and affordability of preschool education. At the same time, it is important to remember that families play at least an equally important, if not more important role, in their children’s development. Vast research evidence conf irms thata lack of learning opportunities and poor quality caregiver-child interaction pose major risk for childhood development. In addition to basic health and nutrition needs, substantial gains in childhood development require improvements in parenting, stimulation and early education. Unfortunately our survey results indicate a general lack of awareness of the critical importance of early stimulation, playing, and learning for overall childhood development. Such a trend needs to be reversed as a matter of urgency, and can be done via various interventions that promote a more positive home environment for young children. Parents can provide more quality stimulation and interactions for their children by talking to them, and reading and playing with them. Parental caregiving can be enhanced through home visits, guidance and support from health providers, and group parent training. 179 第四部分 昆明幼儿园的质量 Pa r t I V P re s c h o o l Q u a l i t y i n Kunming 180 第四部分　昆明幼儿园的质量 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 181 在这一部分，我们对云南省学前教育的整体质量进行了测评。这 是一项具有多重难度的艰巨的工作，其中儿童发展方面的结果相当难 衡量。为撰写本报告，我们采用了更实际的、可加以衡量的指标来评 估学前教育质量。 在这方面有官方质量标准和各类幼儿园排名。在云南省，新开办 的公立和私立幼儿园都要遵守一系列标准。新办公立幼儿园需要满 足 （以下简称 《云南省学前教育条例》 《条例》）的各项要求，包括设 施、选址、管理员资历、教师和专业卫生员的质量、教室和班级的大小 《条例》 以及卫生条件等。 具体规定，幼儿园每个班配备至少两名教师 和一名保育员。新办私立幼儿园则要遵守《云南省民办学前教育机 构设置指导标准》，除了以上针对公立幼儿园的要求之外，还要求拥有 可持续的资金来源。创办公立和私立幼儿园都要通过当地教育部门 的审批。 目前，云南省基于《云南省示范幼儿园办园水平综合评价法案》 来评估幼儿园质量。这套评价体系分为三级，一级最佳；每一级又分 三等，一等最佳。根据这套评估体系，一级一等幼儿园为最高等级。 评估过程中，幼儿园先按照 36 项标准进行自评，然后由相关教育部门 委派的专家组进行外部评价。 云南省现行评价体系涵盖了幼儿园四个主要区域：办园条件、 行政管理、教学质量和幼儿园影响。值得指出的是，幼儿园自评标 准范围很广，包括规划和发展、学校设施、人力资源、管理和激励机 制、膳食、卫生、教学和研究、父母和社区的参与、评估和反馈、儿童 182 第四部分　昆明幼儿园的质量 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 In this section, we provide a measure of the overall quality of preschools in Yunnan Province. This is indeed a very challenging task with multiple layers of complication. One ambitious measure of outcome of course would be childhood level developmental outcomes. For the purpose of this report, however, we adopt more realistic and measurable indicators of preschools through the use of a quality proxy. At the policy level, there are off icial quality standards and rankings of various preschools. In Yunnan, new public and private preschools have to subscribe to a series of standards. New public preschools need to meet the requirements under the Yunnan Province Preschool Education Guidelines (云 南省学前教育条例 ) on facilities, location, qualif ications of administrators, quality of teachers and healthcare professionals, size of classroom and class, and sanitation. Specif ically, the Guidelines state that each kindergarten class needs to have at least two teachers and one caregiver (保育员). New private schools have to fulf ill standards stipulated by the Yunnan Province Private Preschool Education Institutions Establishment Guidelines and Standards (云南 省民办学前教育机构设置指导标准 ) on the aforementioned areas, plus provide sustainable funding sources. The local department of education is responsible for approving the creation of both public and private preschools. Currently, kindergartens in Yunnan are evaluated based on the Yunnan Exemplary Kindergarten Performance Comprehensive Evaluation Plan(云南省 示范幼儿园办园水平综合评价法案 ) . Of the standard of three classes, kindergartens may receive a rating title of Class 1, 2, or 3, with Class 1 being the best rating. Within each class, there is a further distinction of Grade 1, 2, and 3. Class 1, Grade 1 is the highest rating title under the evaluation plan. In the evaluation process, kindergartens f irst conduct a self-evaluation on a set of 36 criteria, and then receive an external evaluation by an expert team commissioned by the relevant department of education. The current rating system in Yunnan covers four major areas of kindergarten performance: kindergarten conditions, kindergarten administration, quality of the system, and school impact. It is noteworthy that the kindergartens have to self-evaluate on a wide range of aspects in kindergarten performance, including the following: planning and development, school 183 全面发展、教师质量和改善以及幼儿园特色的开发等。外部评估小 组收集的信息则包括父母满意度、教师质量、硬件资源、行政管理文 件等。 但是，现行评估体系，尤其是外部评估，对学生在园内的学习和 发展体验缺乏适当的重视。以儿童为中心的一些领域，如课程、室 内师生互动、儿童得到的个人护理等，都需要提高重视并进行重点 评估。 研究小组采用 ECERS—R 来评估云南省幼儿园的质量和环境。这 是一套国际评估标准，其结果可用于比较分析。 用 ECERS-R 标准评估幼儿园质量 调查涵盖昆明市 24 所幼儿园，用国际公认的 ECERS—R 测评表来 反映云南省会城市的学前教育状况。我们根据区县级学前教育总体 质量和所有制类型（公立 / 私立）选择了 24 所样本幼儿园。用概率抽 样法在两个分组（学前教育质量高 / 低的县）中随机抽取样本，然后按 所有制情况进一步分类。抽样结果分布摘要见表 4.1。 表 4.1　样本规模和分布 样本规模 地区 农村 3 城乡接合部 7 城市 14 184 第四部分　昆明幼儿园的质量 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 facilities, human resources, management and incentive mechanism, meals, sanitation, pedagogy and research, engagement with parents and the community, evaluation and feedback, the child’s all-around development, teacher quality and improvement, and the development of special kindergarten features. The external evaluation team collects information that ranges from parental satisfaction, teacher quality, physical resources, to administrative documents. However, the current evaluation system in Yunnan, particularly the external evaluation, still lacks appropriate emphasis on student learning and development experience within the institution. Child-centered aspects such as curriculum, student-teacher interactions within the classrooms, and personal care received by the children are areas that still need greater attention and focus in evaluations. The research team applied the ECERS-R scale to assess the quality and atmosphere of Yunnan preschools. Since the ECERS-R scale is internationally benchmarked, the assessment results can also be used for comparative analysis. Assessment of Preschool Quality with ECERS-R A study on the quality of 24 kindergartens in Kunming was conducted to reflect the status of preschool education services in the capital city of Yunnan using the internationally-recognized ECERS-R rating scale. A sample of 24 kindergartens was drawn according to the overall preschool education quality at the county/district level, as well as type of ownership (public or private). A PPS (probability proportional to size) random sampling was used in two sub-groups (counties with high and low preschool education quality) and further stratif ied by ownership types. Table 4.1 summarizes the distribution of the sample result. Table 4.1 Sample Size and Distribution Sample size Regions Rural 3 Rural-urban continuum 7 Urban 14 185 （续表） 样本规模 地理位置 平原地区 21 山区 3 所有制 私立 18 公立 6 政府评级 一级一等（最高） 1 一级二等 3 一级三等 5 二级一等 4 二级二等 1 二级三等 1 其他及未评级 9 资料来源：昆明学前教育机构调查，2013 年。 我们采用中国学者赵振国和周欣翻译的 ECERS—R 中文版进行 评估。这套评估量表分 7 个方面（空间和家具、个人护理常规、语言— 推理、活动、互动、项目结构、家长和教职员），43 个项目 470 个指标，从 “不足”到“优秀”依次打分，满分 7 分。这项研究旨在回答以下问题： · 昆明幼儿园的总体质量如何？ · 与国内其他地区和国际基准相比，昆明幼儿园的质量如何？ · 城乡之间、评级与未评级之间、公立和私立之间，幼儿园的质量 186 第四部分　昆明幼儿园的质量 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 (Continued) Sample size Geographic Plain area 21 Mountain area 3 Ownership Private 18 Public 6 Government rating Class 1 Grade 1 (Best available) 1 Class 1 Grade 2 3 Class 1 Grade 3 5 Class 2 Grade 1 4 Class 2 Grade 2 1 Class 3 Grade 1 1 Others and Unrated 9 Source: Kunming Preschool Survey 2013. The instrument for assessment is the Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale-Revisited (ECERS-R), translated by the Chinese scholars Zhenguo Zhao and Xin Zhou. The scale has 43 items and 470 indicators in the systemic evaluation of 7 subscales (space and furnishings, personal care routines, language-reasoning, activities, interactions, program structure, and parents and staff), and is scored on a 7-point scale ranging from “Inadequate” to “Excellent.” The study aims to answer the following questions of interest: · What is the overall quality of kindergartens in Kunming? · What is the quality of Kunming kindergartens as compared with other domestic or international benchmarks? · Are there disparities of quality between rural and urban areas, 187 是否有差距？ 要点和结论 昆明样本幼儿园的 ECERS—R 整体得分较低。24 所幼儿园的总 平均分为 90.5，平均每项得分 2.17，按评估量表的标准，均应归入“不 足”类。全部样本幼儿园中，5 所得分评为“最低”，其余 19 所评为“不 足”。24 所幼儿园之间也有明显差异。 7 个方面（见表 4.2）中， “家长与教师”平均分最高，得分是 3，但仍 是“最低”类，其余指标得分均为“不足”“机构活动结构” 。 得分最低， 总分 7 分只得 1.69 分。 表 4.2　昆明学前教育机构调查 ECERS-R 平均得分和评级 平均 类别 机构活动结构 1.69 不足 活动 1.88 不足 生活常规 1.88 不足 语言—推理 1.91 不足 空间设施 2.26 不足 互动 2.36 不足 家长与教师 3.00 最低 资料来源：昆明学前教育机构调查，2013 年。 在每个方面及相关项目上，所有样本幼儿园都是“不足”占最大比 例。只有与“家长与教师”有关的项目例外，这方面被评为“最低”的 188 第四部分　昆明幼儿园的质量 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 between rated and unrated kindergartens, and between public and privately-owned schools? Key Findings and Results ECERS-R scores for the Kunming sample are low overall.The total average score for all 24 kindergartens is 90.5, or 2.17 for each item, which are both categorized as “Inadequate” according to the instrument. Among all schools, 5 kindergartens had scores rated “Minimum,” while the remaining 19 were categorized as “Inadequate.” There were also signif icant internal differences within the sample. Among the 7 subscales (as shown in Table 4.2), parents and staff had the highest average score of 3, which was the only scale categorized as “Minimum,”, while the remaining measures were classif ied as“Inadequate.” The program structure was rated the lowest of all (with only 1.69 out of 7). Table 4.2 Mean ECERS-R Scores and Ratings of Kunming Preschools Survey Mean Category Program Structure 1.69 Inadequate Activities 1.88 Inadequate Personal Care 1.88 Inadequate Language-Reasoning 1.91 Inadequate Space and Furnishing 2.26 Inadequate Interaction 2.36 Inadequate Parents and Staff 3.00 Minimum Source: Kunming Preschool Survey 2013. For each subscale and associated items, the “Inadequate” rating was the largest share of all sample kindergartens. The only exception was related to parents and staff, which included slightly more kindergartens rated as “Minimum.” Only two subscales had one kindergarten rated at the level of 189 幼儿园数量略高一些。只有两个项目各有一所幼儿园被评为“良好”。 与现有国际研究相比，昆明幼儿园的 ECERS—R 得分远远落后。 Aboud（2006 年）的研究曾对孟加拉农村的非政府半日制幼儿园项目 （Plan Bangladesh） “孟加拉计划” 进行过评估。该项目在运作 5 年之后 于 2001 年开始采用 ECERS—R 作为评估质量的手段。Aboud 挑选 3 个 农村地区的 22 所幼儿园进行评估，平均得分是 2.89。 表 4.3　昆明幼儿园和孟加拉 Plan Bangladesh 幼儿园 ECERS-R 平均得分比较 昆明 孟加拉计划 机构活动结构 1.69 2.64 活动 1.88 2.47 生活常规 1.88 2.21 语言—推理 1.91 3.40 空间设施 2.26 2.23 互动 2.36 4.06 家长与教师 3.00 3.25 合计 2.17 2.89 资料来源：Aboud（2006）、昆明学前教育机构调查，2013 年。 世界银行 2008 年出版，Mwaura 和 Mohamed 合著的《撒哈拉以南 （Early Childhood Care in Sub-Saharan Africa） 非洲地区早期儿童照顾》 中， 描述了东非 Madrasa 学前教育项目的影响研究。这是由肯尼亚、乌干达 和桑给巴尔合作发起的一个地区项目，目的是“创建一个有效的、社区 基础上的、低成本的方式”，从事儿童早期教育，为 1980 年代以来身处 社会经济背景底层的儿童服务。研究选择 32 所 Madrasa 项目幼儿园和 21 所本地区非 Madrasa 项目的幼儿园，将其 ECERS—R 得分加以比较， 190 第四部分　昆明幼儿园的质量 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 “Good.” There were signif icant gaps in ECERS-R scoresas compared with available international research. Aboud (2006) evaluated Plan Bangladesh, a non-governmental half-day preschool program in rural Bangladesh, where in 2001, ECERS-R scores were taken as a quality assessment measure after f ive years of operations. Three rural sites were chosen and 22 preschools were assessed. The average sample score was 2.89. Table 4.3 Comparison of Mean ECERS-R Scores between Kunming and Plan Bangladesh Preschools Kunming Plan Bangladesh Program Structure 1.69 2.64 Activities 1.88 2.47 Personal Care 1.88 2.21 Language-Reasoning 1.91 3.40 Space and Furnishings 2.26 2.23 Interactions 2.36 4.06 Parents and Staff 3.00 3.25 Total 2.17 2.89 Sources: Aboud (2006) and Kunming Preschool Survey 2013. In the World Bank’s 2008 publication Africa’s Future, Africa’s Challenge:Early Childhood Care and Development in Sub-Saharan Africa, Mwaura and Mohamed (2008) describe the impact study of a Madrasa preschool program in East Africa. A regional initiative involving Kenya, Uganda and Zanzibar, it sought to “create an effective, community-based and low-cost approach” to early childhood education among children with low social-economic background since the 1980s. The study compared ECERS-R scores of 32 Madrasa preschools with 21 non-program preschools in the region as part of the impact evaluation, and found that Madrasa Resource Centers (MRCs) were rated better on most subscales than non-program schools. 191 以评估 Madrasa 项目的影响。研究发现，Madrasa 项目幼儿园（Madrasa Resource Centers，MRC）的大部分得分都高于非 Madrasa 幼儿园。 表 4.4　昆明幼儿园与东非 Madrasa 项目幼儿园 ECERS-R 平均得分比较 MRC 幼儿园 非 MRC 幼儿园 昆明幼儿园 机构活动结构 5 3 1.69 活动 3 2 1.88 生活常规 4 3 1.88 语言—推理 5 3 1.91 空间设施 4 2 2.26 互动 6 4 2.36 家长与教师 4 4 3.00 合计 4.43 3 2.17 资料来源：Mwaura 和 Mohamed（2008）、昆明学前教育机构调查，2013 年。 Goelman（2006）对参与加拿大儿童护理中心项目的 239 所幼儿园 的 326 间教室进行了质量研究，这是加拿大有史以来最大规模、最深入 广泛的一次同类调查。Goelman 用 ECERS—R 评估量表对教室的学习 环境质量进行评估。调查发现，非营利中心的总平均分是 4.83，商业护 理中心的总平均分是 4.44。参与调查的 7 个省中，平均分最低是萨斯 喀彻温省的 4.09，最高是哥伦比亚省的 5.56。样本总平均分为 4.71。 最近的比较研究是 2010 年 138 所幼儿园参与的巴西国家调查，由巴 西教育部和美洲开发银行支持。与昆明幼儿园调查结果相比，我们可以 巴西幼儿园在 7 个项目中的 6 项得分高于昆明， 发现， 昆明幼儿园仅在“家 长与教师”一项上得分略高， “互动” 其余均落后于巴西， “生活常规” 、 和 “语言—推理”这三项的差距尤为突出。各项得分比较见下表（表 4.5）。 192 第四部分　昆明幼儿园的质量 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Table 4.4 Comparative Mean ECERS-R Scores between Kunming and Madrasa Project Preschools in East Africa MRC Non-MRC Kunming Preschools Preschools Program Structure 5 3 1.69 Activities 3 2 1.88 Personal Care 4 3 1.88 Language-Reasoning 5 3 1.91 Space and Furnishings 4 2 2.26 Interactions 6 4 2.36 Parents and Staff 4 4 3.00 Total 4.43 3 2.17 Sources: Mwaura and Mohamed (2008) and Kunming Preschool Survey 2013. Goelman (2006) reported the results of a quality study of 326 classrooms in 239 participating Canadian child care centers, the largest and most extensive study ever undertaken in Canada. ECERS-R scores were used to measure the quality of classroom learning environments. The total mean score was 4.83 for non-prof it centers, and 4.44 for commercial centers. Across 7 provinces participating in the research, average scores ranged from 4.09 in Saskatchewan to 5.56 in British Columbia. The total sample mean was 4.71. The most recent and comparable research was the Brazil National Survey of 138 preschools conducted in 2010, and supported by the Brazilian Ministry of Education and the Inter-American Development Bank. In general, the comparison showed that Brazil had higher scores in 6 out of 7 subscales. Kunming’s kindergartens had scores only slightly higher in parents and staff, although lagging behind mostly in the subscales of interaction, personal care and language-reasoning. The following table (Table 4.5) summarizes the average itemized score of the comparison. 193 表 4.5　昆明幼儿园和巴西幼儿园 ECERS-R 平均得分比较 巴西 昆明 机构活动结构 2 1.69 活动 1.9 1.88 生活常规 3.1 1.88 语言—推理 2.8 1.91 空间设施 2.4 2.26 互动 4.1 2.36 家长与教师 2.7 3.00 合计 2.6 2.17 资料来源：昆明学前教育机构调查，2013 年、巴西国家调查，2010 年。 在中国，极少采用 ECERS—R 评价量表对学前教育质量进行系统 性研究。2008 年，胡碧颖和朱宗顺对北京 7 所一级一等示范幼儿园的 40 间活动室进行了观察研究。尽管调查没有采用随机取样方法，也不 包含 7 大项的最后一项“家长与教师”，但仍可以发现，北京幼儿园和 昆明幼儿园的得分有类似之处（例如“互动”“机构活动结构” 、 和“活 动”）。这也许可以归结为中国传统文化的影响。但是，北京幼儿园的 各项得分均明显高于昆明幼儿园。比较见下表。 表 4.6　昆明幼儿园与北京幼儿园的 ECERS-R 平均得分比较 北京 昆明 机构活动结构 3.55 1.69 活动 3.29 1.88 生活常规 5.10 1.88 语言—推理 4.66 1.91 194 第四部分　昆明幼儿园的质量 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Table 4.5 Comparative Mean ECERS-R Scores between Kunming and Brazilian Preschools Brazil Kunming Program Structure 2 1.69 Activities 1.9 1.88 Personal Care 3.1 1.88 Language-Reasoning 2.8 1.91 Space and Furnishing 2.4 2.26 Interaction 4.1 2.36 Parents and Staff 2.7 3.00 Total 2.6 2.17 Sources: Kunming Preschool Survey 2013 and Brazilian National Survey, 2010. In China, very little research on preschool quality has been systematically conducted using the ECERS-R.In 2008, Hu and Zhu (2009) conducted 40 classroom observations at 7 Exemplif ied Class 1, Grade 1 kindergartens in Beijing. Despite a non-randomized sample and the fact that research didn’t contain the last sub-scale (parents and staff), there are still some similarities between kindergartens in Beijing and Kunming in terms of high and low subscale score distribution (such as interaction, program structure and activities), which could possibly trace back to similar cultural roots in China. Still, the Beijing sample scored signif icantly higher than Kunming on all subscales. Table 4.6 depicts the comparison. Table 4.6 Mean ECERS-R Scores between Kunming and Beijing Preschools Beijing Kunming Program Structure 3.55 1.69 Activities 3.29 1.88 Personal Care 5.10 1.88 Language-Reasoning 4.66 1.91 195 （续表） 北京 昆明 空间设施 3.75 2.26 互动 5.60 2.36 家长与教师 — 3.00 合计 4.32 2.17 资料来源：胡碧颖和朱宗顺（2009）、昆明学前教育机构调查，2013 年。 昆明的幼儿园之间存在明显差异 比较发现，已评级和未评级幼儿园也存在差异。 评级幼儿园各项得分明显较高。但是，除了在“家长与教师”一 项上得分归为“最低”之外，评级和未评级幼儿园的其他各项得分均 属“不足”之列。在 43 个小项上，12 所评级幼儿园的得分属于“最低” （得分高于 3），但只有 3 所未评级幼儿园得分列入“最低”类。受样本 大小所限，没有发现评级幼儿园之间有明显区别（例如，一级一等幼儿 园与一级二等幼儿园的得分比较）。 表 4.7　昆明已评级幼儿园与未评级幼儿园的 ECERS-R 平均得分比较 已评级幼儿园 未评级幼儿园 机构活动结构 1.94 1.08 活动 2.14 1.23 生活常规 2.16 1.22 语言—推理 2.13 1.36 196 第四部分　昆明幼儿园的质量 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 (Continued) Beijing Kunming Space and Furnishings 3.75 2.26 Interactions 5.60 2.36 Parents and Staff - 3.00 Total 4.32 2.17 Sources: Hu and Zhu (2009) and Kunming Preschool Survey 2013. There are Signif  icant Internal Disparities within Kunming’s Kindergartens Comparisons between rated and unrated kindergartens were also drawn to reveal any internal differences. Rated kindergartens have higher and signif icant scores in all subscales. However, except for parents and staff being categorized as “Minimum,” all other subscales in both rated and unrated kindergartens were labeled as “Inadequate.” Of all 43 items, 12 of the rated kindergartens were scored at “Minimum” (with a score higher than 3), while only 3 of the unrated kindergartens had the same level. Due to sample sizes, there were no signif icant differences for different rating status among all rated kindergartens (for example, Class 1, Grade 1 rating versus Class 1, Grade 2 rating). Table 4.7 Mean ECERS-R Scores between Rated and Unrated Kindergartens in Kunming Rated Kindergartens Unrated Kindergartens Program Structure 1.94 1.08 Activities 2.14 1.23 Personal Care 2.16 1.22 Language-Reasoning 2.13 1.36 197 （续表） 已评级幼儿园 未评级幼儿园 空间设施 2.58 1.48 互动 2.69 1.57 家长与教师 3.38 2.07 合计 2.46 1.45 资料来源：昆明学前教育机构调查，2013 年。 城市幼儿园、城乡接合部和农村幼儿园的得分模式相近。城市和 “家长与教师” 城乡接合部幼儿园得分最高。 的得分评价为“最低”， 其他项目得分均为“不足”。此外，农村幼儿园在 43 个小项中 36 项 （74%）得分都是最低的 1 分。这说明，按国际标准衡量，昆明农村幼儿 园质量极差。 表 4.8　昆明各地区幼儿园 ECERS-R 平均得分比较 城市 城乡接合部 农村 机构活动结构 1.86 1.63 1 活动 2.05 1.88 1.07 生活常规 2.18 1.64 1.06 语言—推理 1.88 2.18 1.42 空间设施 2.55 2.14 1.17 互动 2.61 2.34 1.17 家长与教师 3.34 3.05 1.28 合计 2.38 2.16 1.17 资料来源：昆明学前教育机构调查，2013 年。 198 第四部分　昆明幼儿园的质量 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 (Continued) Rated Kindergartens Unrated Kindergartens Space and Furnishings 2.58 1.48 Interactions 2.69 1.57 Parents and Staff 3.38 2.07 Total 2.46 1.45 Source: Kunming Preschool Survey 2013. Kindergartens located in urban, urban-rural continuum, and rural areas followed a similar pattern. The urban and urban-rural continuum kindergartens scored the highest. The parents and staff subscale was rated as “Minimum,” with all of the remaining subscales classif ied as “Inadequate.” Further, among rural kindergartens, 36 items out of 43 (74 percent) had the very lowest score of 1, reflecting a very poor quality in rural Kunming by international standards. Table 4.8 Mean ECERS-R Scores in Kunming, by Area Rural-Urban Urban Area Rural Area Continuum Program Structure 1.86 1.63 1 Activities 2.05 1.88 1.07 Personal Care 2.18 1.64 1.06 Language- 1.88 2.18 1.42 Reasoning Space and 2.55 2.14 1.17 Furnishing Interaction 2.61 2.34 1.17 Parents and Staff 3.34 3.05 1.28 Total 2.38 2.16 1.17 Source: Kunming Preschool Survey 2013. 199 “家长与教师” 公立幼儿园得分一般高于私立幼儿园， 得分差距最 “空间设施” 大， “互动” 、 、 “语言—推理”“机构活动结构” 、 和“生活 常规”的得分差距相对较小。但由于样本数量有限，这些差异不具备 统计学意义。 表 4.9　昆明公立和私立幼儿园 ECERS-R 平均得分比较 公立幼儿园 私立幼儿园 机构活动结构 2.12 1.61 活动 2.23 1.79 生活常规 2.28 1.81 语言—推理 2.29 1.83 空间设施 2.56 2.14 互动 2.82 2.30 家长与教师 3.7 2.74 合计 2.61 2.05 资料来源：昆明学前教育机构调查，2013 年。 总结与讨论 本报告采用 ECERS—R 评估量表衡量昆明市幼儿园的学前教育质 量和环境，这在云南省尚属首次。重要的是，研究小组能够通过这项 调查展开比较研究。在绝对评价量表上，昆明幼儿园在 ECERS—R 评 估的所有七个方面得分都很低，在“项目活动结构、活动、生活常规、语 言—推理、空间设施，以及互动”上得到的评价是“不足”，在“家长与 教师”上得到的评价是“最低”。与孟加拉、肯尼亚和加拿大的部分幼 200 第四部分　昆明幼儿园的质量 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Public kindergartens on average had higher scores than private kindergartens. The difference was largest again for the subscale parents and staff, and relatively small for space and furnishings, interactions, language- reasoning, program structure and personal care. Due to the sample size, these differences were not statistically signif icant. Table 4.9 Mean ECERS-R Scores in Kunming, by Ownership Status Public Kindergartens Private Kindergartens Program Structure 2.12 1.61 Activities 2.23 1.79 Personal Care 2.28 1.81 Language-Reasoning 2.29 1.83 Space and Furnishings 2.56 2.14 Interactions 2.82 2.30 Parents and Staff 3.7 2.74 Total 2.61 2.05 Source: Kunming Preschool Survey 2013 Summary and Discussion The research and evaluation instrument presented here represent the f irst ever effort in Yunnan province to measure quality (or quality proxy) of preschools using an international rating scale. Using the ECERS-R as the assessment instrument, the kindergarten survey conducted in Kunming provides an account of the quality and atmosphere of preschool education services in the capital of Yunnan. Importantly, the research team was able to provide a comparative perspective. On an absolute scale, Kunming’s kindergartens scored low on all seven aspects of the ECERS-R assessment, receiving “inadequate” on “program structure, activities, personal care, language-reasoning, space and furnishings, and interactions,” and a “minimum” score on “parents and staff.” Compared to select preschool 201 儿园相比，昆明的幼儿园在所有被评估的方面得分均较低。在全市范 围内，评级幼儿园平均得分高于未评级幼儿园，而城市幼儿园优于农 村幼儿园。 研究小组认为，尽管一方面昆明的幼儿园 ECERS—R 评估得分低 反映了云南省和昆明市学前教育质量薄弱，但在一定程度上，中国一 些特有的文化习惯也可能导致了这样的评估结果。 首先，中国人认为参加集体活动和服从是良好行为的表现，而往 往对发展孩子的独立性缺乏重视。因此，在中国被考察的幼儿园里孩 子经常服从教师的安排，正如得分较低的项目，例如午睡 / 休息、鼓励 孩子沟通、纪律、员工与儿童互动及儿童之间的互动等所显示的那样。 其次，大多数幼儿园均缺乏教育材料开展多元、有创意的活动。 这可能反映的是对儿童个人发展需求意识的普遍缺乏。教育资源的 匮乏也可能是一个原因。一些项目得分低也说明了这一点，这些得分 低的项目包括积木、砂 / 水、戏剧、电视 / 电脑的使用、书籍和图片、用于 放松和安抚的家具以及私密空间。 第三，健康和安全惯例以及建筑标准需要大幅改进，餐点 / 小吃、 如厕 / 换尿布、卫生惯例、游戏室和室内空间等项目得分较低就反映了 这一点。此外，幼儿教师也得不到足够的支持，这与前面提到的学前 教育质量薄弱密切相关。满足员工的专业需求、员工互动以及专业成 长机会等关键指标的得分都很低。 从这些研究结果中，可以得出一些重要的政策建议。总的来说， 也许有必要采取更全面的措施来评估学前教育质量，这些措施要超越 硬件和其他投入等传统重点，把重点放在课程、活动和师生互动上。 ECERS—R 就是这样一个范例，也已被越来越多地使用。可以把针对 202 第四部分　昆明幼儿园的质量 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 programs in Bangladesh, Kenya, and Canada, Kunming also lags behind in its preschool services. Within the city, rated kindergartens on average scored higher than unrated ones, and urban kindergartens performed better than rural kindergartens. The research team believes that the very low scores of Kunming’s kindergartens according to the standard ECERS-R reflect both def iciencies in quality of service provision in Yunnan and Kunming, as well as some cultural habits that are unique to China. First, it is widely believed that joining collective activities and obedience are symbols of good behavior in China. Little attention has been given to promoting children’s own independence. This resulted in a situation in most observed kindergartens whereby children were asked to do only what the teachers had planned for them. This was in turn reflected in low scores in items such as nap/rest, encouraging children to communicate, discipline, staff-children interaction and children interaction, and so on. Second, most kindergartens were not equipped with suff icient material to support a diverse and innovative learning environment. It was reflected in low item scores in many areas including blocks, sand/water, dramatic play, use of TV/computer, books and pictures, furnishings for relaxing and comfort, and space for privacy. This suggests that there might be a lack of awareness of or attention to children’s personal needs in development. Inadequate resources could also be one possible cause. Third, health/safety practices and construction standards in Kunming’s kindergartens need great improvement. This was primarily reflected in low scores on meals/snacks, toileting/diapering, health practices, room for play, and indoor space. There was also a lack of ongoing support to kindergarten teachers, which relates closely to the above def iciencies. Low scores on the provision of professional needs of staff, staff interaction, opportunities for professional growth were also key indicators. Based on the aforementioned research f indings, some important policy lessons may be drawn. Overall, it may be advisable to develop a more sophisticated instrument for assessing the quality of preschools, beyond the traditional focus on hardware and other inputs, and with more attention to curriculum, activities, and teacher-child interactions. The ECERS-R is only one example of such an instrument, which is being adopted more 203 “薄弱”环节的定期评估当作一种管理策略和工具，用以改善课堂环境 和互动。教师和幼儿园园长可以用这类评估的反馈来改善课堂的教 学实践。持续评估的结果也可以用来显示幼儿教师培训计划的进展。 在重庆的试点研究表明，精心设计的短期教师培训课程对所观察 到的教师的课堂行为有一定影响（宋映泉和黄晓婷，2012）。一组随机 选取的教师参与了为期两个周末（24 小时）的培训。在这期间，他们 使用联合国儿童基金会和教育部开发的以儿童为中心的教材，接受了 各种形式的学前教育教学培训，包括讲座、参观学校和分组展示。接 受培训的教师随机挑选并参加两周教学法短训班的教师，其威尔逊评 估量表（Wilson Scale）得分平均提高 0.30，而控制组只有 0.16。 教育部新颁布的《3—6 岁儿童学习与发展指南》是政府在制定标 准方面迈出的第一步，不仅包括了学前教育的投入，也包括了儿童学 习和发展过程和结果。开发幼儿教师培训课程时可参考该指南，落实 教师培训则有助于改善云南省幼儿园教师整体质量。 204 第四部分　昆明幼儿园的质量 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 widely. Regular assessment of the relatively “weak” dimensions can be used as a management strategy and tool to improve the classroom environment and interactions. Feedback from such evaluations can be used by teachers and preschool directors to improve teaching and learning practices in the classrooms. Results from continuous assessment can also be used to inform the development of preschool teacher training programs. A pilot study in Chongqing, using a similar scale, demonstrates that well-designed teacher training programs can have an impact on observed classroom behavior (Huang and Song, 2012). A group of teachers were randomly selected to attend a two-weekend (24 hours) training program during which they received various forms of training on preschool pedagogy, including lectures, school visit, and group presentation, using children- friendly materials developed by UNICEF and Ministry of Education. The teachers that received the training exhibit on average an improvement in the Wilson Scale score of 0.30, as compared to only 0.16 of the control group. The newly-published MOE Learning and Development Guidelines for 3-to 6-Year-Old Children represents the f irst effort by the government to provide standards for childhood development and learning, not only for inputs, but also for process as well as outcomes. These guidelines can be used to steer the development of preschool teacher training modules that can in turn be implemented to improve the overall quality of preschool teachers in Yunnan. 205 第五部分 云南省幼儿教师现状调查 Part V Study of Preschool Teachers in Yunnan 206 第五部分　云南省幼儿教师现状调查 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 207 提供儿童早期教育服务的一个重要制约因素就是能否拥有自愿 从事儿童教育和保育工作并获得良好支持的合格人员，在大多数国家 情况都是如此，云南也不例外。 研究小组利用对教师和园长的调查，以及对现行政策、数据及其 他相关调研的考察，来考察那些与幼儿教师相关的重要方面，包括招 聘、职业阶梯、教师培训与支持以及工资和补偿。我们根据几个可能 出现的情景和最新的人口估计，对幼儿教师未来的需求进行了预测。 在可能的范围内，还提供了相关的国际比较。最后，我们还对基于学 历、工资和教师支持的幼儿教师国际比较进行了简要概括。 对教师 / 园长调查的描述 对教师和园长的具体问卷由学前教育专家编写，教师职业基本特 点的五个主要方面为关注焦点，具体包括：招聘要求和做法、教师职业 阶梯、教师支持以及工资和补偿。通过与幼儿园园长和教师进行精心 安排的面谈，调查旨在对下列问题作出回答： （1）云南幼儿教师在学历、招聘流程和职业发展方面现状如何？ （2）对这些教师有哪些支持机制？ （3）教师的工资福利和待遇如何？ 本调查与学前教育机构质量调查选取了相同的 24 所幼儿园作 为样本，另外还通过方便取样方式选取了两所城市幼儿园。取样涵 盖了昆明的公立、私立、城市、农村等各种类型的幼儿园。在每个幼 208 第五部分　云南省幼儿教师现状调查 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Similar to most other countries, a key constraint to the provision of early childhood education is the availability of qualif ied personnel who are motivated and well supported to teach and care for the children. Yunnan is no exception. The research team used a combination of teacher and director surveys, as well as a review of existing policies, statistics and other related studies to examine key aspects related to preschool teachers, including recruitment, career ladder, teacher training and support, and pay and compensation. Future demand for preschool teachers is further projected based on a few plausible scenarios and the latest population estimates. To the extent possible, relevant international comparisons are also provided. Finally, we also provide a brief summary of international comparisons of preschool teachers based on qualif ications, salaries, and teacher support. Description of the Teachers/Director Survey Specif ic preschool teacher and director questionnaires were developed by preschool education experts focusing on f ive main aspects of basic characteristics: recruitment requirements and practices, teacher career ladder, teacher support, and pay and compensation. Through structured interviews with the preschool principal and the teachers, the study intended to answer the following questions: 1) What are the qualif ications, recruitment process, and career development of preschool teachers in Yunnan? 2) What is the support mechanism for these teachers? 3) What is the status of teacher payment and compensation? This study sample includes the same 24 kindergartens selected for the preschool quality study, plus two urban kindergartens drawn through convenience sampling, and encompassing public, private, urban, and rural schools in Kunming. For each kindergarten, the researchers conducted a structured interview with the principal and two teachers recommended by the principal. A total of 52 kindergarten teachers and 26 principals were 209 儿园，研究人员都对园长和由园长推荐的两位教师进行了精心安排 的面谈。总共面谈了 52 位幼儿园教师和 26 位园长。表 5.1 展示了幼 儿园的分布情况，表 5.2 展现的是年龄、工作年限等关于教师的描述 性数据。 表 5.1　样本规模和分布 样本规模 地区 农村 11 城市 15 所有制 私立 20 公立 6 政府评级 一级（现有最优质的） 10 二级 7 三级 2 未评级 7 资料来源：昆明学前教育调查，2013 年。 表 5.2　教师样本的年龄和工作年限的平均数和标准差 教师年龄 从事幼儿教师的时间 均值 N 标准差 均值 N 标准差 城市园 32.75 8 4.16 12.75 8 4.56 公办 农村园 36.25 4 7.41 12.00 4 5.52 总计 33.91 12 5.38 12.50 12 4.70 210 第五部分　云南省幼儿教师现状调查 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 interviewed. Table 5.1 presents the distribution of the kindergartens. Table 5.2 presents the descriptive statistics of the teachers with regard to their age and years of work experience. Table 5.1 Sample Size and Distribution Sample size Regions Rural 11 Urban 15 Ownership Private 20 Public 6 Government rating Grade 1 (Best available) 10 Grade 2 7 Grade 3 2 Unrated 7 Source: Kunming Preschool Survey 2013. Table 5.2 Mean and Standard Deviation of Age and Years of Preschool Work Experience of Kindergarten Teachers in the Sample Preschool Work Age Experience (year) Mean N SD Mean N SD Urban 32.75 8 4.16 12.75 8 4.56 Public Rural 36.25 4 7.41 12.00 4 5.52 Total 33.91 12 5.38 12.50 12 4.70 211 （续表） 教师年龄 从事幼儿教师的时间 均值 N 标准差 均值 N 标准差 城市园 30.22 22 6.81 10.04 22 6.67 民办 农村园 29.94 18 5.99 5.00 18 4.32 总计 30.10 40 6.38 7.77 40 6.21 城市园 30.90 30 6.25 10.76 30 6.23 总计 农村园 31.09 22 6.56 6.27 22 5.22 总计 30.98 52 6.32 8.86 52 6.19 资料来源： 昆明学前教育调查，2013 年。 注：N= 教师数量 主要的调查结果 幼儿教师的资质 云南幼儿教师的要求以人大和国务院颁布的法律法规为依据。 而教育部具体负责对教师培训、证书颁发和资格认证的总体运行作出 规定和进行监督。严格的申请、教育上的要求、普通话测试、课堂教学、 认可和认证程序共同构成了中国幼儿教师的职业准入体系。然而，正 如本研究所表明的，相比于其他发达国家的那些具体且得到大力执行 的要求，资质要求在中国有时会打折扣，这是因为对学术证书和测试 分数的过分强调。 教育部《教师资格条例》有关幼儿教师的学历条件规定应当具备 幼儿师范学校毕业及以上学历。2012 年颁布，2013 年 3 月开始实施的 《云南省学前教育条例》第十六条规定，学前教育机构负责人、教师应 212 第五部分　云南省幼儿教师现状调查 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 (Continued) Preschool Work Age Experience (year) Mean N SD Mean N SD Urban 30.22 22 6.81 10.04 22 6.67 Private Rural 29.94 18 5.99 5.00 18 4.32 Total 30.10 40 6.38 7.77 40 6.21 Source: Kunming Preschool Survey 2013. Note: N = number of teachers; SD=standard deviation. Key Findings and Results Preschool Teacher Qualif ications The entry requirements for preschool teachers in Yunnan are based on laws and regulations promulgated by the People’s Congress and the State Council. In particular, the Ministry of Education sets forth and supervises the overall operation of teacher training, certif ication, and qualif ications management. A rigorous application, educational requirement, Mandarin test, class teaching, recognition and certif ication process jointly compose the entry system of preschool teachers in China. However, as the research indicated, compared with the specif ic and strongly-enforced requirements in other developed nations, the qualif ication requirements in China are sometimes compromised because of the over-emphasis on academic certif icates and test scores. While the Teachers Law of the People’s Republic of China stipulates that all preschool teachers need to have a vocational senior secondary degree or above, Yunnan released a provincial Preschool Education Regulations in 2013 which requires preschool teachers to have at least a junior college degree or pass relevant government tests. Under the new Regulations , the entry educational level for preschool teachers in the sample is on average relatively low. Upon entering the teaching force, 51.9 percent of preschool teachers have a senior vocational/high school degree, and 42.3 percent have a junior college (Dazhuan) degree or higher. Teachers in rural kindergartens have lower qualif ications 213 当具备专科以上文化程度，或经教育行政部门考核合格。根据该条例， 调查中幼儿教师任职的学历水平平均而言相对较低。在加入教师队 伍时，有 51.9% 的幼儿教师具备高职 / 高中学历（包括幼师），有 42.3% 的幼儿教师具备大专或更高的学历。农村幼儿园教师的学历比城市 的要低。事实上，城市的幼儿教师有 46.7% 都有大专或更高学历，而具 备同等学历的农村幼儿教师只有 36.4%。此外，还有 9.1% 的农村幼儿 教师只有初中学历（见表 5.3）。 表 5.3　不同类别幼儿园教师职前学历构成情况 教师职前学历 中专 / 高中 大专 本科 初中 合计 f 8 3 1 0 12 公办 % 66.7 25.0 8.3 0.0 100.0 幼儿园性质 f 19 15 3 3 40 私立 % 47.5 37.5 7.5 7.5 100.0 f 27 18 4 3 52 合计 % 51.9 34.6 7.7 5.8 100.0 f 15 12 2 1 30 城市 % 50.0 40.0 6.7 3.3 100.0 城市 / 农村 f 12 6 2 2 22 农村 % 54.5 27.3 9.1 9.1 100.0 f 27 18 4 3 52 合计 % 51.9 34.6 7.7 5.8 100.0 资料来源：昆明学前教育机构调查，2013 年。 许多在职的幼儿教师寻求通过各种渠道提高他们的学历。在调 214 第五部分　云南省幼儿教师现状调查 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 than their urban counterparts. Indeed, 46.7 percent of urban preschool teachers have a junior college degree or higher, whereas the percentage of rural teachers with the same educational level is only 36.4 percent. In addition, 9.1 percent of rural teachers have only a lower secondary degree (see Table 5.3). Table 5.3 Entry Educational Level of Preschool Teachers Entry Educational Level Vocational Senior Junior Lower Secondary/ College Total College secondary High School f 8 3 1 0 12 Public Public/ % 66.7 25.0 8.3 .0 100.0 Private f 19 15 3 3 40 Private % 47.5 37.5 7.5 7.5 100.0 f 27 18 4 3 52 Total % 51.9 34.6 7.7 5.8 100.0 f 15 12 2 1 30 Urban Urban/ % 50.0 40.0 6.7 3.3 100.0 Rural f 12 6 2 2 22 Rural % 54.5 27.3 9.1 9.1 100.0 f 27 18 4 3 52 Total % 51.9 34.6 7.7 5.8 100.0 Source: Kunming Preschool Survey 2013. In-service teachers seek ways to improve their educational level through various channels. In the sample, 100 percent of in-service public kindergarten teachers and 77.5 percent of private kindergarten teachers have met the requirement of obtaining at least a junior college degree. In rural 215 查中，所有的在职公立幼儿园的教师和 77.5% 的私立幼儿园教师已经 取得了大专及以上学历。然而，农村的幼儿园中仍有 31.8% 的教师没 有获得要求的学历（见表 5.4）。 表 5.4　不同类别幼儿园教师当前学历构成情况 目前学历 中专 大专 本科 初中 合计 f 0 2 10 0 12 公办 % 0.0 16.7 83.3 0.0 100.0 幼儿园性质 f 6 22 9 3 40 私立 % 15.0 55.0 22.5 7.5 100.0 f 6 24 19 3 52 合计 % 11.5 46.2 36.5 5.8 100.0 f 1 14 14 1 30 城市 % 3.3 46.7 46.7 3.3 100.0 城市 / 农村 f 5 10 5 2 22 农村 % 22.7 45.5 22.7 9.1 100.0 备注：中专学历中包括幼师 资料来源：昆明学前教育机构调查，2013 年。 然而，大多数私立和农村幼儿园的教师没有教师资格证书。2013 年 3 月 1 日云南省人大颁布实施的《云南省学前教育条例》第十六条规 定：学前教育机构的负责人、教师、保育员等人员应当遵守法律、法规 和职业道德规范，符合国家和省规定的任职资格或条件，并持证上岗。 根据调查结果来看，这一要求还没有完全达到。平均而言，有 67.3% 的 幼儿园教师有适当的教师资格证书。各类学校之间也存在某些差异： 216 第五部分　云南省幼儿教师现状调查 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 kindergartens, however, 31.8 percent of teachers still have not obtained the required educational level (see Table 5.4). Table 5.4 Current Educational Level of Preschool Teachers Current Educational Level Vocational Junior Lower Senior College Total College Secondary Secondary f 0 2 10 0 12 Public Public/ % 0.0 16.7 83.3 0 100.0 Private f 6 22 9 3 40 Private % 15.0 55.0 22.5 7.5 100.0 6 24 19 3 52 Total 11.5 46.2 36.5 5.8 100.0 f 1 14 14 1 30 Urban Urban/ % 3.3 46.7 46.7 3.3 100.0 Rural f 5 10 5 2 22 Rural % 22.7 45.5 22.7 9.1 100.0 Source: Kunming Preschool Survey 2013. However, a signif icant proportion of private and rural kindergarten teachers do not have a teacher licensure. According to the Yunnan Preschool Education Guidelines, preschool administrators, teachers, and caregivers need to have appropriate teacher licensure or certif ication. This requirement has not been completely fulf illed based on survey results. On average, 67.3 percent of kindergarten teachers have appropriate teacher licensure. There is also some disparity across school types: whereas 100 percent of public kindergarten teachers have teacher licensure, only 57.5 percent of private kindergarten teachers and 37.8 percent of rural kindergarten teachers have met this requirement. 217 公立幼儿园所有的教师都有教师资格证书，只有 57.5% 的私立幼儿园 教师和 37.8% 的农村幼儿园教师达到了这一要求。 招聘 公立幼儿园面临着比私立幼儿园更严重的教师短缺问题，而它们 的教师招聘率却更低。在接受面谈的公立幼儿园园长中，有 82.3% 的 人表示他们面临教师短缺的问题，而私立幼儿园的这一比例只有 50%。 然而，每年招聘新教师的公立幼儿园只有 16.7%，相比之下每年进行招 聘的私立幼儿园则有 77.7%。这表明私立幼儿园教师的流动性更高， 同时也说明公立幼儿园的招聘流程中可能存在更多制约因素。 园长们普遍感到招聘合格的幼儿教师存在困难。72% 的幼儿园园 长表示招聘新教师的流程不令人满意。而且，73.9% 的园长认为新招 聘的教师无法达到预期的标准。在接受面谈时，园长们指出幼儿教师 人选普遍短缺以及对这些人选的制度化培训不足是招聘过程中存在 的两大问题。另外，教师流动性高对维持合格的教师队伍来说也是一 个挑战。作为应对，多数幼儿园利用合同教师和代课教师来填补教师 需求的空缺。有些幼儿园还尝试减少入学人数或扩大班级规模。 教师的职业阶梯 职称体系对职业阶梯机制来说是必不可少的。云南目前仍沿用 1986 年建立的中小学职称体系，这个体系根据幼儿园教师的教育背 景、教学经验、各种认证的获得情况等给他们指定不同等级的职称。 教师的职称能反映他们的工作表现并可能与工资直接挂钩。因此，通 218 第五部分　云南省幼儿教师现状调查 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Recruitment Public kindergartens face a higher level of teacher shortages than private kindergartens. However, the teacher recruitment rate is lower in public kindergartens. Of the public kindergarten principals interviewed, 82.3 percent indicate that they face teacher shortages, which is higher than the 50 percent rate for private kindergartens. However, only 16.7 percent of public kindergartens recruit new teachers every year, as compared to 77.7 percent of private kindergartens that conduct annual recruitment. This suggests higher teacher mobility in the private kindergarten setting, as well as potentially more constraints in the hiring process for public kindergartens. Principals express a general sense of diff iculty in recruiting qualif ied preschool teachers. 72 percent of kindergarten principals said that the recruitment process of new teachers is unsatisfactory. Furthermore, 73.9 percent of principals think that the newly-recruited teachers cannot meet the expected standards. During the interviews, principals pointed out that a general shortage of preschool teacher candidates and the inadequate institutional training of those candidates are two major challenges in the recruitment process. In addition, high teacher mobility poses a challenge to sustaining a qualif ied teaching force. In response, most kindergartens use contract teachers and/or substitute teachers to f ill the gap in teacher demand. Some kindergartens have also tried to decrease enrollment or increase class size. Preschool Teacher Career Ladder Mechanism The professional title system is essential to the career ladder mechanism.Yunnan currently adopts the 1986 evaluation system which assigns kindergarten teachers different levels of professional titles based on their educational background, teaching experience, attainment of various certif icates, and so on. Teachers’ titles reflect their work performance and can be directly tied to salaries. Therefore, having an effective career ladder mechanism through professional titles can help provide incentives to teachers to pursue career development, as well as promote teacher 219 过职称体系建立有效的职业阶梯机制有助于鼓励教师追求职业发展， 并能促进教师的保留。 根据抽样结果显示，83.3% 的农村私立幼儿园教师没有职称，而 100% 的公立幼儿园教师和 50% 的私立幼儿园教师拥有各种等级的职称。 教师支持 平均而言，各类幼儿园的学生—教师比都不是最理想的。根据 《幼儿园教职工配备标准（暂行）》，建议的全日制幼儿园师生比应该 在 1：5 到 1：7 之间 [1]。尽管如此，学生—教师比依然很高。表 5.5 展示 了各类幼儿园的平均学生—保教人员比 [2]。尽管 15：1 的总体平均值听 起来还算合理，但不同幼儿园之间的差距可能非常大，其中最大的师 生比达到每一个教师 / 保育员对 33 个学生。农村私立幼儿园通常学 生—教师比最高。 表 5.5　不同类别幼儿园全园保教人员师生比平均数与标准差 均值 N 标准差 极小值 极大值 城市园 12.31 12 1.85 9.82 14.74 公办 农村园 18.51 6 10.09 9.31 27.72 总计 14.38 18 6.419 9.31 27.72 城市园 11.46 33 7.45 5.44 33.20 私立 农村园 19.68 26 8.08 7.50 32.00 总计 15.08 59 8.70 5.44 33.20 [1] 教师一类中还包括保育员。 [2] 教师、保育员和其他行政管理人员全都被包括在内来计算这一比例。 220 第五部分　云南省幼儿教师现状调查 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 retention. Based on sample results, 83.3 percent of rural private teachers do not have a professional title, whereas 100 percent of public kindergarten teachers and 50 percent of private kindergarten teachers do have various levels of professional titles. Teacher Support The pupil-teacher ratio is, on average, suboptimal across all kindergarten types. According to the Kindergarten Teachers and Administrators Provision Standards (Tentative), the recommended pupil-teacher ratio for full- time kindergartens should be below 9 : 1.[1] Nevertheless, pupil-teacher ratios are still high. Table 5.5 shows the average pupil-teacher ratio across kindergarten types. [2] Although the overall average of 15 : 1 may sound reasonable, the disparity can be very large with the maximum ratio reaching 33 students for one teacher/caregiver. Rural private schools tend to have the highest pupil-teacher ratios. Table 5.5 Pupil-Teacher Ratio across Kindergarten Types Mean N SD Minimum Maximum Urban 12.31 12 1.85 9.82 14.74 Public Rural 18.51 6 10.09 9.31 27.72 Total 14.38 18 6.419 9.31 27.72 Urban 11.46 33 7.45 5.44 33.20 Private Rural 19.68 26 8.08 7.50 32.00 Total 15.08 59 8.70 5.44 33.20 [1] including full-time teachers, caregivers, healthcare and administrative personnel, and other supporting staffs — not including part-time teachers [2] Teachers, caregivers, and other administrators are all included to calculate the ratio. 221 （续表） 均值 N 标准差 极小值 极大值 城市园 11.69 45 6.43 5.44 33.20 总计 农村园 19.46 32 8.32 7.50 32.00 总计 14.92 77 8.19 5.44 33.20 资料来源： 昆明学前教育机构调查，2013 年。 注：N= 学校数量 在职培训 2003 年，中国国务院发布了《关于幼儿教育改革与发展的指导意 见》，对教师的职后培训给予了前所未有的重视。相应地，自 2010 年 以来，设计并推出了由中央政府支持的年度全国性培训，它由针对有 经验的骨干教师、园长以及新入职教师的阶梯形培训课程构成。2012 年，云南农村的 4，403 名教师参与了该项目。 此外，云南还一直得到外国非营利组织的持续支持，例如，英国救 助儿童会（Save the Children UK）就曾提供资金帮助云南建立早期儿 童发展中心，作为 ECD 相关活动和资源的平台。该组织为家长和教师 提供 ECD 培训。 幼儿园相当注重职业发展。幼儿教师可以获得各种培训机会。 根据抽样调查的结果，92.8% 的幼儿园提供教师在职培训。培训采取 各种形式，覆盖面从教学法到学生安全等，十分广泛。教师可以接受 在校培训或者寻求在幼儿园以外的培训机会。 幼儿园园长对教师的职业发展显示出支持的态度。建立教研组 就是管理人员支持教师培训的一个例子。93% 的城市幼儿园和 77.4% 的农村幼儿园都建立了教研组以促进教师之间的交流。属于同一组 222 第五部分　云南省幼儿教师现状调查 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 (Continued) Mean N SD Minimum Maximum Urban 11.69 45 6.43 5.44 33.20 Total Rural 19.46 32 8.32 7.50 32.00 Total 14.92 77 8.19 5.44 33.20 Source: Kunming Preschool Survey 2013. Note: N = number of schools; SD = standard deviation. Professional Development In 2003, China’s State Council issued the MOE Guideline on Preschool Education Reform and Development, which placed an unprecedented heavy emphasis on post-service training of teachers. Accordingly, since 2010, annual national training supported by the central government was designed and put forward. It is composed of tiered sessions for experienced head teachers, principals and new entrants. In 2012, 4,403 teachers in rural Yunnan participated in the program. In addition, Yunnan has been receiving continuous support from foreign non-prof it organizations. Save the Children UK, for example, has provided funding for Yunnan to establish early childhood centers as a platform for ECD-related activities and resources. The organization has also provided ECD training for parents and teachers. Kindergartens place considerable emphasis on professional development. Preschool teachers have access to various types of training. Based on sample results, 92.8 percent of kindergartens provide in-service teacher training. The training takes on different forms, ranging from pedagogy to student safety. Teachers can receive in-school training or seek training opportunities outside of their kindergartens. Kindergarten principals indicated a supportive attitude toward their teachers’ professional development. The creation of teaching and research groups is an example of administrative support for teacher training. 93 percent of urban kindergartens and 77.4 percent of rural kindergartens have established teaching and research groups to facilitate communication among teachers. Teachers belonging to the same group gather together regularly to 223 的教师会定期碰头，讨论教学法并对授课进行评价。 教师的工资和福利 教师的工资是影响教师招聘和保留的一个重要因素。在中国，幼 儿教师的工资与地理位置、文凭和资格级别是密切相关的。而这些在 很大程度上又取决于学前教育机构的所有制和人员配置。一般情况 下，公立机构的幼儿教师受教育的年限更长，事实上，他们中大部分具 有更高的学历，相应地获得的薪酬与私立机构的教师相比也更高。除 农村地区幼儿教师无论学历还是工资都比城市的同行们要低。 此之外， 在教师工资方面各类幼儿园之间存在差异。被抽样的幼儿园教 师的平均工资大约为 2,200 元。不过，城市公立幼儿园教师享受的工 资水平最高，为 2,900 元，而农村私立幼儿园教师得到的平均工资最 低，大约为 1,600 元。表 5.6 对各类幼儿园的工资水平进行了比较。 表 5.6　不同类型幼儿园教师的工资收入均数和标准差 幼儿园 均值 N 标准差 极小值 极大值 性质 公办 2，902 12 576 2，000.00 4，000.00 城市园 私立 2，264 33 621 1，100.00 4，200.00 总计 2，434 45 667 1，100.00 4，200.00 公办 2，583 6 467 2，000.00 3，000.00 农村园 私立 1，606 27 742 800.00 4，000.00 总计 1，783 33 792 800.00 4，000.00 公办 2，796 18 550 2，000.00 4，000.00 总计 私立 1，968 60 749 800.00 4，200.00 总计 2，159 78 787 800.00 4，200.00 资料来源： 昆明学前教育机构调查，2013 年。 注：N= 教师人数 224 第五部分　云南省幼儿教师现状调查 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 discuss pedagogy and evaluate lessons. Teacher Salaries and Compensation Teacher salary is an important factor for teacher recruitment and retention. In China, the payment of preschool teachers has been closely related to geographic location, academic credentials and qualif ication levels. These, in turn, depend heavily on the ownership and staff ing status of preschools. In general, public preschool teachers have more years of education. Indeed, a larger proportion of them have higher qualif ications, and consequently a higher pay as compared to teachers in private preschools. In addition, both the qualifications and salary of preschool teachers in the rural area are lower than those of their urban counterparts. Disparities exist in teacher salaries across kindergarten types. The average salary for kindergarten teachers in the sample is approximately 2,200 RMB. However, urban public kindergarten teachers enjoy the highest salary level of 2,900 RMB, whereas rural private teachers receive the lowest average salary of approximately 1,600 RMB. Table 5.6 compares salary levels across kindergarten types. Table 5.6 Salaries of Kindergarten Teachers across Kindergarten Types Mean N SD Minimum Maximum Urban 2,902 12 576 2,000.00 4,000.00 Public Rural 2,264 33 621 1,100.00 4,200.00 Total 2,434 45 667 1,100.00 4,200.00 Urban 2,583 6 467 2,000.00 3,000.00 Private Rural 1,606 27 742 800.00 4,000.00 Total 1,783 33 792 800.00 4,000.00 Urban 2,796 18 550 2,000.00 4,000.00 Total Rural 1,968 60 749 800.00 4,200.00 Total 2,159 78 787 800.00 4,200.00 Source: Kunming Preschool Survey 2013. Note: N = number of teachers; SD = standard deviation. 225 · 人员编制体制内的教师工资水平大大高于那些编制体制 外的。 中国的公立幼儿园必须同意采用政府规定的人员编制体制。人 员编制体制明确了每家幼儿园可以雇用的员工人数。这些教师不仅 由政府直接支付薪酬，他们还享受医疗保险、社会保障和其他补贴等 全部的福利。然而，配额常常不能满足云南的教师需求，导致出现严 重的教师短缺。 在这种情况下，幼儿园不得不诉诸在人员编制体制外雇用代课教 师或合同制教师。不过，不论在城市还是农村，编制体制内雇用的教 师的工资要大大高于那些体制外雇用的教师。表 5.7 展示了编制体制 内和体制外教师工资的比较。 表 5.7　在编和不在编教师的工资收入均数和标准差 是否在编 均值 N 标准差 在编 2，680.00 9 446.21 城市园 不在编 2，238.10 21 670.43 总计 2，370.67 30 638.22 在编 2，471.43 7 543.80 农村园 不在编 1，350.00 15 376.54 总计 1，706.82 22 681.79 在编 2，588.75 16 485.69 总计 不在编 1，868.06 36 714.66 总计 2，089.81 52 729.87 资料来源： 昆明学前教育机构调查，2013 年。 注：N= 教师人数。 226 第五部分　云南省幼儿教师现状调查 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 · Teachers within the staff quota system have much higher salaries than those outside of the staff quota system. Public kindergartens in China have to subscribe to the staff quota system regulated by governmental authorities. The staff quota system def ines the number of employees each kindergarten can hire. Not only does the government directly pay for those teachers’ salaries, they also enjoy full benef its of medical insurance, social security, and other subsidies. However, the quota is often insuff icient for teacher needs in Yunnan, resulting in a severe teacher shortage. Within this context, kindergartens have to resort to hiring temporary teachers or contracted teachers outside of the staff quota system. However, teachers hired within the quota system have signif icantly higher salaries than those hired outside of the system in both urban and rural settings. Table 5.7 shows the comparison of salaries for teachers within and outside of the quota system. Table 5.7 Salary Level for Teachers within and outside and Staff Quota System Quota Mean N SD System Within 2,680.00 9 446.21 Urban Outside 2,238.10 21 670.43 Total 2,370.67 30 638.22 Within 2,471.43 7 543.80 Rural Outside 1,350.00 15 376.54 Total 1,706.82 22 681.79 Within 2,588.75 16 485.69 Total Outside 1,868.06 36 714.66 Total 2,089.81 52 729.87 Source: Kunming Preschool Survey 2013. Note: N = number of teachers; SD = standard deviation. 227 总体来看，根据 2010 年的《中国劳动力统计年鉴》，在年度补偿 方面幼儿教师无法和小学教师相比。从高到低，教师的平均工资依 次是：高中教师 47，693 元（合 7，790 美元），初中教师 34，169 元（合 5，583 美 元），小 学 教 师 31，037 元（合 5，071 美 元），幼儿教师只有 18，533 元（合 3，028 美元）。 其他来源的全国统计数据也表明，2010 年云南幼儿教师的平均收入 各级教师的平均收入比全国平均水平低 50%。 比全国平均水平低 82%， 表 5.8　2003—2010 年云南省幼儿教师平均工资 2010 2009 2008 2007 按百万元计的平均预算内支出（个人） 91.0 45.6 40.2 37.1 幼儿园教职工数 47,001 40,322 37,011 33,826 幼儿园平均工资（元） 19,357 11,306 10,872 10,961 全省平均工资（元） 30,000 26,992 24,030 20,481 全国幼儿园教职工平均工资（元） 23,183 9,930 9,007 8,018 全国职工平均工资（元） 36,539 32,244 28,898 24,721 2006 2005 2004 2003 按百万元计的平均预算内支出（个人） 32.3 29.0 26.5 21.7 幼儿园教职工数 30,944 28,284 26,410 23,857 幼儿园平均工资（元） 10,461 10,231 10,027 9,104 全省平均工资（元） 18,711 16,980 — — 全国幼儿园教职工平均工资（元） 6,619 6,022 5,623 5,140 全国职工平均工资（元） 20,856 18,200 15,920 13,969 资料来源：MOE—多年，云南省教育厅—多年。 228 第五部分　云南省幼儿教师现状调查 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 On an aggregate scale, preschool teachers do not match primary school teachers in annual compensation, according to the 2010 China Labor Statistical Year Book. From the highest to the lowest, high school teachers received an average salary of 47,693 RMB ($7,790), middle school teachers 34,169 RMB ($5,583), primary school teachers 31,037 RMB ($5,071), and preschool teachers only 18,533 RMB ($3,028). In Yunnan, other sources of national statistics also indicated that the average income for preschool teachers in 2010 is 82 percent lower than the national average salary and 50 percent lower than the average teachers’ income at all levels. Table 5.8 Average Preschool Teacher Salary in Yunnan, 2003—2010 2010 2009 2008 2007 Average Budgetary Expenditure (Personal) in 91.0 45.6 40.2 37.1 millions RMB Number of Teachers 47,001 40,322 37,011 33,826 Average Preschool Teacher Salary (RMB) 19,357 11,306 10,872 10,961 Provincial Average Salary (RMB) 30,000 26,992 24,030 20,481 National Average Preschool Teacher Salary (RMB) 23,183 9,930 9,007 8,018 National Average Salary (RMB) 36,539 32,244 28,898 24,721 2006 2005 2004 2003 Average Budgetary Expenditure (Personal) in 32.3 29.0 26.5 21.7 millions RMB Number of Teachers 30,944 28,284 26,410 23,857 Average Preschool Teacher Salary (RMB) 10,461 10,231 10,027 9,104 Provincial Average Salary (RMB) 18,711 16,980 — — National Average Preschool Teacher Salary (RMB) 6,619 6,022 5,623 5,140 National Average Salary (RMB) 20,856 18,200 15,920 13,969 Sources: MOE-various years, Yunnan Bureau of Education-various years. 229 与云南省内的其他行业相比，就平均工资而言，教育在 11 个行业 中排第 6 位。 表 5.9　2011 年云南省各行业平均工资 000 元） （人民币 10， 全国 云南 平均值 4.18 3.54 金融 8.11 8.56 水、电、燃气生产 5.27 5.15 信息计算机、软件 7.09 4.87 交运、仓储、邮政 4.71 4.63 科研技术 6.43 4.4 教育 4.32 3.71 公共管理 4.21 3.57 采矿 5.22 3.44 制造 3.67 3.4 建筑 3.21 2.58 住宿餐饮 2.75 1.96 资料来源：MOE—多年，云南省教育厅—多年。 教师对他们的工资水平表现出了不满。将近 2/3 接受调查的幼儿 教师对工资不满或非常不满。许多幼儿园教师认为他们的工资没有 准确反映出他们的工作负担或工作强度。 云南幼儿教师的需求与供应 云南幼儿园的数量在过去十年中增加了两倍有余，从 2001 年时的 230 第五部分　云南省幼儿教师现状调查 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Within the province and compared with other occupations, education in Yunnan ranked 6 out of 11 industries in average salary in the province. Table 5.9 Average Salary (RMB10,000), by Occupation in Yunnan, 2011 National Yunnan Average 4.18 3.54 Finance 8.11 8.56 Water, Electricity, Gas 5.27 5.15 Information System 7.09 4.87 Transportation 4.71 4.63 Research 6.43 4.4 Education 4.32 3.71 Public Management 4.21 3.57 Mining 5.22 3.44 Manufacturing 3.67 3.4 Construction 3.21 2.58 Restaurant 2.75 1.96 Sources: MOE-various years, Yunnan Bureau of Education-various years. Teachers revealed dissatisfaction with their salary levels. Almost two- thirds of preschool teachers surveyed in this study are either dissatisf ied or very dissatisf ied with their salaries. Many kindergarten teachers think their salaries do not correctly reflect their workload or work intensity. Demand and Supply for Preschool Teachers in Yunnan In the past ten years, the number of kindergartens in Yunnan has tripled from 1,530 (2001) to 4,768 (2012). In the meantime, the number of 231 1,530 家增至 2012 年的 4,768 家。在此期间教师人数也增加了将近两 倍，从 13,100 人增至 35,600 人。不过，幼儿园招生人数也大致翻倍，从 62.7 万人增至 110 万人。根据教育部新近出台的《幼儿园教职工配备 标准（2013）》，理想的幼儿园的学生—教师比应低于 15。我们基于不 同的比率假设，并考虑到学生入园率的变化，对未来十年云南的幼儿 教师需求情况做出了几种估计。 2011 至 2020 年估计毛入学率： 表 5.10　2011—2020 年云南省毛入园率的分解指标（%） 毛入 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 园率 学前 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 一年 学前 66 67 68 69 70 72 74 76 78 80 两年 学前 56 57 58 59 60 62 64 66 68 70 三年 资料来源：赵振国，周欣（2013）。 情景 1：学生—教师比维持在 2012 年的水平： 表 5.11　2013—2020 年云南幼儿教师的估计需求和缺口（人） 2013 2014 2015 2016 幼儿教师的估计需求 38,053 39,149 40,394 41,129 幼儿教师的估计缺口 2,472 3,568 4,813 5,548 232 第五部分　云南省幼儿教师现状调查 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 teachers had increased almost twofold from 13,100 to 35,600. However, the enrollment also doubled from 627,000 to 1.1 million students. According to the latest MOE Kindergarten Staff ing Standards (2013), pupil-teacher ratios at kindergartens should ideally be below 15. Several estimates were made based on different ratio assumptions for Yunnan’s preschool teacher demand in the next decade while taking into consideration estimated changes in student enrollment. Estimated gross enrollment rates from 2011 to 2020: Table 5.10 Estimated Gross Enrollment Rate, 2011—2020(%) Gross Enrollment 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Rate 1-yr 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 Preschool 2-yr 66 67 68 69 70 72 74 76 78 80 Preschool 3-yr 56 57 58 59 60 62 64 66 68 70 Preschool Source: Zhao, Zhou (2013). Scenario 1: Pupil-teacher ratio maintained at 2012 level: Table 5.11 Estimated Demand for and Shortages of Preschool Teachers in Yunnan, 2013—2020 2013 2014 2015 2016 Estimated Demand for Preschool Teachers 38,053 39,149 40,394 41,129 Estimated Shortage of Preschool Teachers 2,472 3,568 4,813 5,548 2017 2018 2019 2020 Estimated Demand for Preschool Teachers 42,237 43,300 44,366 45,426 233 （续表） 2017 2018 2019 2020 幼儿教师的估计需求 42,237 43,300 44,366 45,426 幼儿教师的估计缺口 6,656 7,719 8,785 9,845 资料来源：赵振国，周欣（2013） 根据当前的学生—教师比，仅整体招生扩大一项因素就将使云南 2020 年幼儿教师需求较 2012 年增加约 27.7%。而且不同地州将面临不 同程度的幼教师资短缺，举例来说，昭通、普洱和文山的幼儿教师需求 最大。 情景 2：到 2020 年时学生—教师比降至 15：1 幼儿教师需求和缺口 表 5.12　2013—2020 年云南的估计学生—教师比、 2013 2014 2015 2016 学生—教师比 29.7 27.86 26 23.38 幼儿教师的估计需求 40,410 44,321 49,001 55,484 幼儿教师的估计缺口 4,829 8,740 13,420 19,903 2017 2018 2019 2020 学生—教师比 21.6 19.94 17.2 15 幼儿教师的估计需求 61,673 68,489 81,355 95,516 幼儿教师的估计缺口 26,092 32,908 45,774 59,935 资料来源：赵振国，周欣（2013） 234 第五部分　云南省幼儿教师现状调查 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 (Continued) 2017 2018 2019 2020 Estimated Shortage of Preschool Teachers 6,656 7,719 8,785 9,845 Source: Zhao, Zhou (2013). At the current pupil-teacher ratio, the demand for preschool teachers in Yunnan will increase by about 27.7 percent from 2012 to 2020, simply due to the overall expansion of enrolment. Different counties will face varying degrees of shortages: for example, Zhaotong, Puer and Wenshan will experience the highest demand for preschool teachers. Scenario 2: Pupil-teacher ratios drop to 15 by 2020: Table 5.12 Estimated Pupil-Teacher Ratios, Demand for and Shortages of Preschool Teachers in Yunnan, 2013—2020 2013 2014 2015 2016 Pupil-Teacher ratios 29.7 27.86 26 23.38 Estimated Demand for Preschool Teachers 40,410 44,321 49,001 55,484 Estimated Shortage of Preschool Teachers 4,829 8,740 13,420 19,903 2017 2018 2019 2020 Pupil-Teacher ratios 21.6 19.94 17.2 15 Estimated Demand for Preschool Teachers 61,673 68,489 81,355 95,516 Estimated Shortage of Preschool Teachers 26,092 32,908 45,774 59,935 Source: Zhao, Zhou (2013). If Yunnan is to decrease the pupil-teacher ratio gradually to 15 (a ratio stipulated by the government) by 2020 while expanding preschool coverage, the shortage of teachers will reach almost 60,000. This indicates that an 235 如果云南要在扩大学前教育覆盖面的同时，按政府规定在 2020 年 之前将学生—教师比逐步降至 15，那么在这种情况下的师资缺口将达 到约 60，000 人。这表明平均每年需要新增 7，492 名幼儿教师。[1] 情景 3：到 2015 年时学生—教师比降至 15：1 为如实反映各地州学生—教师比的差异，我们在情景 3 中做出了 进一步假设，以估计到 2020 年时幼儿教师的需求情况。对于那些学 生—教师比在 2012 年已经达到 15 的地区，这一比率将保持不变。对于 那些尚未达标的地州，在缺口收拢前将留有三年的窗口期。因此，这 一发展路线图要求到 2015 年所有地州的学生—教师比都要达到或维 持在 15。这一估计结果显示，从现在起的 10 年时间里，云南将面临新 增幼儿教师普遍短缺的局面，到 2020 年缺口将多达 60，000 名。昆明、 曲靖、昭通、红河、文山和大理对新增幼教师资的需求最大，而昭通、红 河、曲靖、文山、临沧、昆明和保山的师资缺口最大。到 2020 年，对新增 教师需求最大的昭通地区面临超过 11，000 名的幼儿教师缺口。 表 5.13　2013—2020 年云南省各地市幼儿教师需求量预测数据（人） 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 云南 47,690 61,377 85,208 86,874 89,189 91,423 93,667 95,895 昆明 10,842 12,344 14,037 13,952 13,926 13,897 13,871 13,845 曲靖 6,062 7,749 11,381 11,465 11,630 11,793 11,953 12,115 玉溪 2,815 3,431 4,650 4,613 4,602 4,591 4,581 4,571 [1] 这一估计假设没有教师离开教师队伍。 236 第五部分　云南省幼儿教师现状调查 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 average of 7,492 new preschools teachers per year will be needed.[1] Scenario 3: Pupil-teacher ratios drop to 15 by 2015: In order to reflect the actual differences in pupil-teacher ratios among counties, a further assumption was made in the third scenario to estimate the demand of teachers by 2020. For those counties that already reached the national standards of 15 in 2012, the ratios would remain the same; for those that had yet to reach the target, there will be a 3-year window before the gaps are closed. The roadmap thus requires all counties to reach or maintain the pupil-teacher ratio at or below 15 by 2015. As a result of the estimate, Yunnan will face a general shortage of 60,000 new preschool teachers in 2020. Kunming, Qujing, Zhaotong, Honghe, Wenshan, and Dali will have the largest demand for new teachers, whereas Zhaotong, Honghe, Qujing, Wenshan, Lincang, Kunming, and Baoshan will have the largest shortage. Zhaotong will face the highest shortage of over 11,000 teachers in 2020. Table 5.13 Estimated Demand for Preschool Teachers in Yunnan, 2013—2020 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Yunnan 47,690 61,377 85,208 86,874 89,189 91,423 93,667 95,895 Kunming 10,842 12,344 14,037 13,952 13,926 13,897 13,871 13,845 Qujing 6,062 7,749 11,381 11,465 11,630 11,793 11,953 12,115 Yuxi 2,815 3,431 4,650 4,613 4,602 4,591 4,581 4,571 Baoshan 1,570 2,457 5,019 5,060 5,131 5,192 5,254 5,314 Zhaotong 2,841 4,932 11,789 11,969 12,313 12,637 12,962 13,286 Lijiang 1,222 1,518 2,008 2,050 2,107 2,157 2,208 2,258 Pu’er 2,714 3,413 4,521 4,605 4,735 4,852 4,970 5,087 [1] This estimate assumes that no teacher leaves the teaching force. 237 （续表） 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 保山 1,570 2,457 5,019 5,060 5,131 5,192 5,254 5,314 昭通 2,841 4,932 11,789 11,969 12,313 12,637 12,962 13,286 丽江 1,222 1,518 2,008 2,050 2,107 2,157 2,208 2,258 普洱 2,714 3,413 4,521 4,605 4,735 4,852 4,970 5,087 临沧 1,659 2,504 4,579 4,694 4,827 4,949 5,071 5,193 楚雄 2,346 3,134 4,481 4,542 4,667 4,780 4,893 5,005 红河 4,215 5,837 9,019 9,173 9,432 9,673 9,915 10,156 文山 3,263 4,486 6,862 6,956 7,148 7,330 7,512 7,693 版纳 1,151 1,456 2,086 2,094 2,127 2,155 2,184 2,211 大理 3,526 4,399 6,366 6,261 6,250 6,235 6,221 6,208 德宏 1,216 1,704 2,723 2,755 2,801 2,841 2,881 2,920 怒江 566 795 1,106 1,115 1,147 1,177 1,207 1,236 迪庆 316 439 635 610 627 642 657 671 资料来源：赵振国，周欣（2013） 表 5.14　2012—2020 年云南省各地市幼儿教师缺额量预测数据（人） 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 云南 12，109 25，796 49，627 51，293 53，608 55，842 58，086 60，314 昆明 1，189 2，691 4，384 4，299 4，273 4，244 4，218 4，192 曲靖 608 2，295 5，927 6，011 6，176 6，339 6，499 6，661 玉溪 852 1，468 2，687 2，650 2，639 2，628 2，618 2，608 保山 446 1，333 3，895 3，936 4，007 4，068 4，130 4，190 昭通 1，442 3，533 10，390 10，570 10，914 11，238 11，563 11，887 238 第五部分　云南省幼儿教师现状调查 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 (Continued) 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Lincang 1,659 2,504 4,579 4,694 4,827 4,949 5,071 5,193 Chuxiong 2,346 3,134 4,481 4,542 4,667 4,780 4,893 5,005 Honghe 4,215 5,837 9,019 9,173 9,432 9,673 9,915 10,156 Wenshan 3,263 4,486 6,862 6,956 7,148 7,330 7,512 7,693 Banna 1,151 1,456 2,086 2,094 2,127 2,155 2,184 2,211 Dali 3,526 4,399 6,366 6,261 6,250 6,235 6,221 6,208 Dehong 1,216 1,704 2,723 2,755 2,801 2,841 2,881 2,920 Nujiang 566 795 1,106 1,115 1,147 1,177 1,207 1,236 Diqing 316 439 635 610 627 642 657 671 Source: Zhao, Zhou (2013). Table 5.14 Estimated Shortage of Preschool Teachers in Yunnan, 2013—2020 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Yunnan 12,109 25,796 49,627 51,293 53,608 55,842 58,086 60,314 Kunming 1,189 2,691 4,384 4,299 4,273 4,244 4,218 4,192 Qujing 608 2,295 5,927 6,011 6,176 6,339 6,499 6,661 Yuxi 852 1,468 2,687 2,650 2,639 2,628 2,618 2,608 Baoshan 446 1,333 3,895 3,936 4,007 4,068 4,130 4,190 Zhaotong 1,442 3,533 10,390 10,570 10,914 11,238 11,563 11,887 Lijiang 298 594 1,084 1,126 1,183 1,233 1,284 1,334 Pu’er 1,090 1,789 2,897 2,981 3,111 3,228 3,346 3,463 Lincang 661 1,506 3,581 3,696 3,829 3,951 4,073 4,195 Chuxiong 691 1,479 2,826 2,887 3,012 3,125 3,238 3,350 239 （续表） 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 丽江 298 594 1，084 1，126 1，183 1，233 1，284 1，334 普洱 1，090 1，789 2，897 2，981 3，111 3，228 3，346 3，463 临沧 661 1，506 3，581 3，696 3，829 3，951 4，073 4，195 楚雄 691 1，479 2，826 2，887 3，012 3，125 3，238 3，350 红河 1，014 2，636 5，818 5，972 6，231 6，472 6，714 6，955 文山 703 1，926 4，302 4，396 4，588 4，770 4，952 5，133 版纳 261 566 1，196 1，204 1，237 1，265 1，294 1，321 大理 850 1，723 3，690 3，585 3，574 3，559 3，545 3，532 德宏 281 769 1，788 1，820 1，866 1，906 1，946 1，985 怒江 194 423 734 743 775 805 835 864 迪庆 163 286 482 457 474 489 504 518 资料来源：赵振国，周欣（2013） 在情景 3 的基础上，研究小组进一步估计了到 2020 年时需要的不 同学历的教师人数。 表 5.15　2012—2020 年云南省幼儿教师学历层次需求量预测数据（人） 年份 总计 中专 专科以上 本科 人数 % 人数 % 人数 % 2013 47，690 15，261 32.00 32，429 68.00 9，052 18.98 2014 61，377 18，610 30.32 42，767 69.68 12，177 19.84 2015 85，208 24，369 28.60 60，839 71.40 17，638 20.70 2016 86，874 23，352 26.88 63，522 73.12 18，730 21.56 240 第五部分　云南省幼儿教师现状调查 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 (Continued) 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Honghe 1,014 2,636 5,818 5,972 6,231 6,472 6,714 6,955 Wenshan 703 1,926 4,302 4,396 4,588 4,770 4,952 5,133 Banna 261 566 1,196 1,204 1,237 1,265 1,294 1,321 Dali 850 1,723 3,690 3,585 3,574 3,559 3,545 3,532 Dehong 281 769 1,788 1,820 1,866 1,906 1,946 1,985 Nujiang 194 423 734 743 775 805 835 864 Diqing 163 286 482 457 474 489 504 518 Source: Zhao, Zhou (2013). Based on the results of the third scenario, the research team further estimated the number of teachers required with different qualif ications by 2020. Table 5.15 Estimated Number of Teachers Required, by Level of Educational Background Junior Vocational Senior Vocational Year Total Tertiary and Below and above Number % Number % Number % 2012 23,178 12,001 33.73 23,580 66.27 6,462 18.16 2013 47,690 15,261 32.00 32,429 68.00 9,052 18.98 2014 61,377 18,610 30.32 42,767 69.68 12,177 19.84 2015 85,208 24,369 28.60 60,839 71.40 17,638 20.70 2016 86,874 23,352 26.88 63,522 73.12 18,730 21.56 2017 89,189 22,440 25.16 66,749 74.84 19,996 22.42 2018 91,423 21,430 23.44 69,993 76.56 21,283 23.28 241 （续表） 年份 总计 中专 专科以上 本科 人数 % 人数 % 人数 % 2017 89，189 22，440 25.16 66，749 74.84 19，996 22.42 2018 91，423 21，430 23.44 69，993 76.56 21，283 23.28 2019 93，667 20，344 21.72 73，323 78.28 22，611 24.14 2020 95，895 19，179 20.00 76，716 80.00 23，974 25.00 资料来源：赵振国，周欣（2013） 虽然由师范院校和相关职业培训项目输送的幼儿教师人数大 幅增长，但仍不足以满足激增的需求。研究表明，师资缺口的主体 （53，136 人）是那些接受过高等职业教育或高等教育的幼儿教师。这 意味着，以 2012 年为参照基准，从 2013 到 2020 年每年需要新增 6，642 名拥有这种学历的幼儿教师。这个数字比 2012 年幼师专业招生人数 或毕业生人数高出许多（表 5.16）。 随着小学生人数的减少，将过剩的小学教师转至幼教岗位是一个 解决师资缺口的可行方案。但是，这么做将带来使幼儿教育向小学教 育过度倾斜的风险。如果采用这种做法，那么对这些教师进行实践培 训，使他们转岗成为符合学前教育要求的教师将是至关重要的。 中国某些地区一直在探索新的方法来增加农村幼儿教师的人数。在 中国发展研究基金会的支持下，云南寻甸展开了一项由志愿者教师提供 “走教”的实验。这个试点项目将各个乡村的闲置校舍作为早教点，招募 幼教志愿者并给予他们一定补贴，然后送这些教师去各个早教点提供长 课时（时长是一般课时的三倍以上）的早教课程。这一项目要求志愿者 242 第五部分　云南省幼儿教师现状调查 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 (Continued) Junior Vocational Senior Vocational Year Total Tertiary and Below and above Number % Number % Number % 2019 93,667 20,344 21.72 73,323 78.28 22,611 24.14 2020 95,895 19,179 20.00 76,716 80.00 23,974 25.00 Source: Zhao, Zhou (2013). Although the supply of preschool teachers from teachers’ colleges and relevant vocational programs is increasing substantially, it is still insuff icient to meet the surging need. The majority of shortages (53,136) will be for teachers with senior vocational or tertiary education according to the research. This translates into about 6,642 teachers each year from 2013 to 2020 (taking 2012 as baseline). This f igure is much higher than the number of enrollments or graduates in 2012 (Table 5.16). As the number of students in primary school decreases, transferring the surplus of primary school teachers to preschool education could be one feasible solution to the shortage. However, this carries the risk of making preschool education too “primary-education-focused.” If this transfer is adopted, practical training is crucial to transitioning these teachers to the preschool setting. Some parts of China have been exploring new ways to increase the supply of rural preschool teachers. One of the experiments supported by the China Development Research Foundation was conducted in Xundian, Yunnan based on the “walk-teaching (走教)” model of volunteer teachers. The pilot utilized empty school houses as teaching sites in separated villages.The pilot program recruited and subsidized preschool teaching volunteers, and sent them between sites to offer preschool education that lasted more than 3 times as long per session. The volunteer teachers needed to be able to give instructions in Mandarin. The pilot model considerably improved the children’s daily habits, language expression, observation abilities, and so on. Given the success and low cost of this operation, the Ministry of Education expanded the program to all volunteering counties in central-western provinces in 2011. Six counties 243 教师能够以普通话授课。这一试点项目大大改善了孩子们的日常习惯、 语言表达和观察能力等。鉴于这种做法取得了成功而且成本较低，教育 部在 2011 年将这一计划扩展至中西部省份所有自愿参与的县。云南的六 2013 年共计聘用了 80 名教师。然而， 个县参与了走教项目， 关于该项目的 财务可持续性以及对志愿者教师的资质认可等问题仍有探讨。 录取 表 5.16　2011—2012 年云南师范院校和省级职业学校学前教育专业报考、 和毕业人数 2011 2012 学前教育 招生 在校生 毕业生 招生 在校生 毕业生 中职 5，993 11，619 1，949 6，796 15，423 2，677 普通本科 1，080 2，631 310 1，184 3，365 435 专科 2，061 3，951 857 1，757 5，079 609 资料来源：赵振国，周欣（2013） 国际比较 这一部分横向比较了美国、英国和韩国等国的幼儿教师的状况， 重点放在了资质、工资和支持这三个方面。 资质 在美国， 美国幼儿教育协会（National Association for the Education of Young Children）颁发的 4—5 年幼儿教师教育计划指南（Early Childhood Teacher Education Guidelines for Four and Five Year Programs）描述了 针对幼儿教师的工作要求。该指南围绕以下六大核心标准展开： 1）促进儿童发展和学习； 244 第五部分　云南省幼儿教师现状调查 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 in Yunnan participated, with 80 teachers in 2013. There are, however, still discussions about the program’s f inancial sustainability, as well as recognition and qualif ications of volunteers. Table 5.16 Number of Enrollments, Admissions and Graduations at Teachers’ Colleges and Provincial Vocational Schools Majoring in Preschool Education in Yunnan, 2011—2012 2011 2012 Preschool Education Admitted Enrolled Graduated Admitted Enrolled Graduated Junior 5,993 11,619 1,949 6,796 15,423 2,677 Vocational Tertiary 1,080 2,631 310 1,184 3,365 435 Senior 2,061 3,951 857 1,757 5,079 609 Vocational Source: Zhao, Zhou (2013). International Comparison This section presents a comparison of the status of preschool teachers in other countries such as United States, Japan, and Korea, focusing on three areas: qualif ications, salary, and support. Qualif ications In the United States, the Early Childhood Teacher Education Guidelines for Four-and Five-Year Programs released by the National Association for the Education of Young Children frames preschool teacher preparation in the country. The guidelines are centered on six core standards: 1) Promoting childhood development and learning; 2) Building family and community relationships; 3) Observing, documenting, and assessing support for young children and families; 4) Using developmentally-effective approaches to connect with children and families; 245 2）建立家庭和社区关系； 3）观察、记录和评估对幼儿及其家庭的支持情况； 4）利用有发展效益的方式与儿童及其家庭建立联系； 5）利用学科内容知识组织有意义的课程； 6）成为专业人士。 这一指南既适用于美国高等学府幼教专业的课程安排，也可以在 全国或各州幼教工作的多项评估中发挥作用。此外，这份指南还可用 于评估所有从事幼儿相关工作的人士，包括保育员、公立学校助教、儿 童保护工作者、课程顾问等。 获得教师资格证书是在美国任教的前提。各州对于获取幼教资格 证书的具体要求不尽相同，但总体标准基本一致。以宾夕法尼亚州为 例，规定取得教师证书者，须符合下列条件：① 年龄在 18 岁以上；②具 备良好的品德；③ 非酒精中毒或毒品使用者；④ 经州政府认可的大学 院校或机构毕业者；⑤ 经州教育委员会认可完成师资培育课程者。 在美国多数州，候选教师还必须通过教师证考试——Praxis 测试， 内容涉及基本技能、教学基本原理、早期教育，其中基本技能又分为阅 读、数学和写作。 日本有很高的幼儿教师从业标准。无论幼儿园是何种类型，所 有教师都必须持证上岗，无论他们是通过相关专业大学学习还是通过 在职培训（针对那些已有数年实际教学经验的教师）的方式获得的教 师资格证书。日本在 1949 年颁布的 （Teacher 《教员许可法及实施令》 Certif ication and Implementation Law）确立了教师资格认证政策。日 本幼儿园教师资格证书分为普通资格证书和临时资格证书两大类型。 终身有效的普通资格证书要求持证人至少接受过两年的学前教育专 246 第五部分　云南省幼儿教师现状调查 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 5) Using content knowledge to build a meaningful curriculum; and 6) Becoming a professional. The guidelines are applicable to preschool teacher preparation programs across degree levels at tertiary institutions, and are used in a number of nationwide or statewide preschool teacher evaluations. They are also relevant to assessing any professional working in the preschool setting, including caregivers, public school teacher aides, child protection service workers, curriculum developers, and so on. Obtaining a teacher certif ication is the prerequisite for being able to teach in the United States. The specif ications for earning a preschool teacher certif ication differ across states, but the general criteria overlap. For example, in Pennsylvania, teacher candidates have to meet the following requirements to receive a teacher certif ication: (i) hold a bachelor’s degree; (ii) complete an approved program of study leading to certif ication in the area of certif icate requested; (iii) hold a 3.0 Grade Point Average (GPA); iv) successfully completePennsylvania state-required tests; and (v) meet all Pennsylvania requirements related to citizenship, moral, ethical and physical/mental f itness. In most states, teacher candidates must also pass the Praxis test, a teacher certif ication exam on reading, writing, mathematics, preschool content knowledge, curriculum, and instruction. Japan has very high preschool teacher standards. Regardless of kindergarten type, all teachers must obtain teacher certif ication, either through relevant college programs or through in-service training (for educators who have already worked in the f ield for a number of years). Released in 1949, the Teacher Certif ication and Implementation Law in Japan established the country’s teacher certif ication policy. There are two types of preschool teacher certif ications: regular and temporary. The regular certif ications require at least two years of tertiary-level early childhood education study and has lifelong validity. The temporary certif ication is granted to high school graduates who successfully complete the local preschool personnel examination. However, the temporary certif ication is valid for three years, and only for becoming teacher aides or caregiver aids. Korea has a clear advancement system for preschool teacher qualif ications from prospective teacher to teacher certif ication level 1. According to legal regulations, candidates who successfully pass the 247 业高等教育；而临时资格证仅在当地的都道府县使用，有效期三年。 持临时资格证的人只能做助理教谕或助理养护教谕。 韩国拥有清晰的进阶式幼儿教师资格认证体系，从准教师资格逐 步升级至一级教师资格。根据法律规定，那些通过了幼教证书考试的 候选教师可以获得准教师称号。只有继续接受了相关专业高等教育 的准教师能够获得二级教师资格证书。再进一步累积了三年以上工 作经验或取得了硕士学位的幼儿教师才能获得一级教师资格证书。 工资 各 国 幼 儿 园 教 师 的 工 资 水 平 各 不 相 同。 美 国 劳 工 部 统 计 局 （Department of Labor Statistics）的数据显示，2004 年美国幼儿园教师 的工资水平明显低于 1—3 年级的小学教师。相比之下，韩国和日本公 立幼儿园的教师拥有公务员身份。因此，他们的工资水平和社会地位 与小学和中学教师相当。在日本，幼儿园教师的工资较公务员平均工 资高出 20%。在韩国，四年制幼教专业的大学毕业生平均工资约合人 民币 1 万元，以后还会逐年递增。 表 5.17 比较了一些国家幼儿教师的工资水平。 表 5.18 和表 5.19 分别比较了奥地利和波兰各个行业的工资水平。 表 5.20 比较了各国教师的月工资和每周工作时间。 表 5.17　各国幼儿园教师的工资水平比较 占小学教师工资 国家 教育人员的主要类型 年龄范围 百分比 澳大利亚 教师 0—8 100% 比利时 幼儿教师 2.5—6 100% 248 第五部分　云南省幼儿教师现状调查 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 preschool certif ication exam can receive the title of prospective teacher. Only after f inishing further relevant academic studies can the prospective teacher receive the teacher certif ication level 2. After 3 or more years of work experience or obtaining a Master’s degree, preschool teachers are then eligible for receiving a teacher certif ication level 1. Salary The salary level of kindergarten teachers differs across countries. According to the U.S. Department of Labor Statistics, in 2004, the salary for kindergarten teachers in the United States was signif icantly lower than for grade 1—3 elementary school teachers. By contrast, public kindergarten teachers in Korea and Japan are recognized as civil servants.Therefore, their salary level and social status are on par with elementary and secondary teachers. In Japan, preschool teacher salaries are 20 percent higher than that of an average civil servant. In Korea, graduates of a four-year preschool university program have an average salary of approximately 1,600 dollars, with subsequent annual increases. Table 5.17 compares the salary level of preschool teachers in a number of countries. Table 5.18 and Table 5.19 present a salary comparison across industries in Austria and Poland, respectively. Table 5.20 compares the monthly salary and weekly work hours of preschool teachers across countries. Table 5.17 Kindergarten Teacher Salary Comparison across Countries Kindergarten Teacher Salary/ Education Personnel Student Age Country Elementary Type Group School Teacher Salary (%) Australia Teacher 0—8 100 Belgium Preschool teacher 2.5—6 100 Preschool teacher 3—6 75 Czechoslovakia Teachers at daycare centers need to have a Bachelor’s or 0—7 81 Master’s Degree in Education. 249 （续表） 占小学教师工资 国家 教育人员的主要类型 年龄范围 百分比 幼儿教师 3—6 75% 捷克 日托中心教师要有教 0—7 81% 育学士或硕士学历 社会教师要拥有社会 0—6 芬兰 科学方面大专学历 实用保育 0—7 教师 4—12 100% 爱尔兰 儿童保育助教 0—6 60% 意大利 幼儿教师 0—3 或 3—6 100% 荷兰 幼儿教师 4—12 或 0—4 100% 挪威 幼儿教师 1—6 88—96% 幼儿教师 3—6 100% 葡萄牙 教师，保育员 0—3 教师由学前教师、闲暇 瑞典 1—7 100% 小学教师组成 教师、 公共学校教师 4—8 或 0—8 100% 美国 开端计划教师 0—5 来源：姜勇，严婧，徐利智（2013） 表 5.18　奥地利各行业工资水平对比 行业 月工资（美元） 每周工作小时数 飞行员 2,565 38.5 会计 2,179 38.5 职业护士 1,684 40.0 250 第五部分　云南省幼儿教师现状调查 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 (Continued) Kindergarten Teacher Salary/ Education Personnel Student Age Country Elementary Type Group School Teacher Salary (%) Social studies teachers need to 0—6 Finland have a related associate degree. Practical care giving 0—7 Teacher 4—12 100 Ireland Caregiver/aide 0—6 60 Italy Preschool teacher 0—3 or 3—6 100 The Preschool teacher 4—12 or 0—4 100 Netherlands Norway Preschool teacher 1—6 88-96 Preschool teacher 3—6 100 Portugal Teacher, caregiver 0—3 Preschool teachers, substitute/ part-time teachers, and Sweden 1—7 100 elementary school teachers comprise the teaching force. Public school teacher 4—8 or 0—8 100 United States Pilot program teacher 0—5 Sources: Jiang, Y., Yan, J., and Xu L., 2013. Table 5.18 Salary Comparison across Industries in Austria Industry Monthly Salary (US$) Weekly Work Hours Pilot 2,565 38.5 Accountant 2,179 38.5 Nurse 1,684 40.0 251 （续表） 行业 月工资（美元） 每周工作小时数 工程师 1,499 38.0 编程员 1,427 38.5 办公文员 1,338 38.5 辅助护士 1,279 40.0 心理治疗师 1,271 40.0 汽车修理员 1,238 40.0 教师 1,231 40.0 司机 1,151 40.0 面包师 1,188 38.5 邮递员 1,103 40.0 矿工 1,147 38.5 木匠 1,143 39.0 消防员 1,134 40.0 家具制造 1,027 40.0 销售员 925 38.5 裁缝 830 40.0 酒店接待 816 40.0 来源：姜勇，严婧，徐利智（2013） 表 5.19　波兰各行业工资水平对比 行业 月工资（美元） 每周工作小时数 编程员 892 41.0 矿工 694 43.0 252 第五部分　云南省幼儿教师现状调查 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 (Continued) Industry Monthly Salary (US$) Weekly Work Hours Engineer 1,499 38.0 Programmer 1,427 38.5 Off ice Clerk 1,338 38.5 Nursing Aid 1,279 40.0 Psychologist 1,271 40.0 Car Mechanic 1,238 40.0 Teacher 1,231 40.0 Driver 1,151 40.0 Bread Baker 1,188 38.5 Mail Carrier 1,103 40.0 Miner 1,147 38.5 Carpenter 1,143 39.0 Firef ighter 1,134 40.0 Furniture Manufacturer 1,027 40.0 Salesperson 925 38.5 Tailor 830 40.0 Hotel Receptionist 816 40.0 Sources: Jiang, Y., Yan, J., and Xu L., 2013. Table 5.19 Salary Comparison across Industries in Poland Industry Monthly Salary (US$) Weekly Work Hours Programmer 892 41.0 Miner 694 43.0 Engineer 664 41.0 253 （续表） 行业 月工资（美元） 每周工作小时数 工程师 664 41.0 会计 617 40.0 职业护士 563 22.0 教师 543 25.0 消防员 500 40.0 司机 408 40.0 办公文员 398 41.0 裁缝 389 41.0 邮递员 371 40.0 汽车修理员 365 41.0 面包师 363 42.0 木匠 324 41.0 酒店接待 318 42.0 心理治疗师 296 35.0 辅助护士 296 35.0 家具制造 281 41.0 销售员 264 41.0 来源：姜勇，严婧，徐利智（2013） 表 5.20　各国幼儿园教师的月工资和每周工作时间对比 国家 每月净收入（美元） 每周工作小时数 美国 4，055 36.6 德国 3，309 40.0 254 第五部分　云南省幼儿教师现状调查 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 (Continued) Industry Monthly Salary (US$) Weekly Work Hours Accountant 617 40.0 Nurse 563 22.0 Teacher 543 25.0 Firef ighter 500 40.0 Driver 408 40.0 Off ice Clerk 398 41.0 Tailor 389 41.0 Mail Carrier 371 40.0 Car Mechanic 365 41.0 Bread Baker 363 42.0 Carpenter 324 41.0 Hotel Receptionist 318 42.0 Psychologist 296 35.0 Nursing Aid 296 35.0 Furniture Maker 281 41.0 Salesperson 264 41.0 Sources: Jiang, Y., Yan, J., and Xu L., 2013. Table 5.20 An International Comparison of Monthly Salary and Weekly Work Hours for Kindergarten Teachers Net Monthly Income Country Weekly Work Hours (US$) United States 4,055 36.6 Germany 3,309 40.0 Britain 3,568 32.5 255 （续表） 国家 每月净收入（美元） 每周工作小时数 英国 3，568 32.5 韩国 2，096 39.7 澳大利亚 2，742 39.1 加拿大 2，236 31.1 芬兰 2，311 36.4 葡萄牙 1，441 24.4 奥地利 1，231 40.0 泰国 388 38.0 科威特 1，506 36.0 捷克 681 37.9 墨西哥 651 38.0 波兰 543 25.0 立陶宛 300 29.4 巴西 299 22.3 斯洛伐克 363 31.1 罗马尼亚 302 38.8 来源：姜勇，严婧，徐利智（2013） 教师支持 世界上多数国家已经意识到通过提高幼儿教师素质来改善早教 质量的重要意义。许多国家已经实施了旨在激励在职培训的新政策。 具体例子包括：废止幼儿教师终身制、不再批准普通资格证书的发放 （美国和日本）以及把教师培训与升职相挂钩（美国、日本和英国）等。 此外，包括美国、日本、英国、法国和瑞典在内的许多国家的政府在幼 256 第五部分　云南省幼儿教师现状调查 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 (Continued) Net Monthly Income Country Weekly Work Hours (US$) Korea 2,096 39.7 Australia 2,742 39.1 Canada 2,236 31.1 Finland 2,311 36.4 Portugal 1,441 24.4 Austria 1,231 40.0 Thailand 388 38.0 Kuwait 1,506 36.0 Czechoslovakia 681 37.9 Mexico 651 38.0 Poland 543 25.0 Lithuania 300 29.4 Brazil 299 22.3 Slovakia 363 31.1 Romania 302 38.8 Sources: Jiang, Y., Yan, J., and Xu L., 2013. Teacher support Most countries in the world have realized the importance of improving preschool teacher quality as a means of advancing early childhood education. Many countries have implemented new policies to provide incentives for in-service training. Eliminating lifelong tenure for preschool teachers and regular teacher certif ication approval (United States and Japan), and linking teacher training with promotion (United States, Japan, and Britain) are examples of such incentives. In addition, 257 儿教师培训方面进行了大笔投资，以确保充足的资金支持。 美国、日本和韩国都制定了全面的在职培训标准。为了提高幼儿 教师素质，美国提倡教师需要接受在职培训。此外，法规规定教师必须 参加定期在职培训并累积大学学分，否则他们的合同将不会续签。日 本也通过法律要求幼儿园教师必须花时间深造。他们可以选择多种培 训项目，包括到大学进修以及参加由 ECD 组织发起的研讨会。韩国也 专门用于培养新教师、 提供各类在职培训， 完善教师的教学和实践等。 特别值得一提的是，许多国家出台了旨在改善农村及贫困地区 教师素质的特殊政策。具体例子包括：美国的“农村教育成就项目” （REAP，是联邦专项拨款项目）和阿肯色州倡导的“教育更新区计划” （ERZ，是高校参与农村教师培训的范例）、墨西哥的“农村及贫困地区 （PARE， 教师教育项目” 运用建构主义的一些方法帮助农村地区的教 师进行学习）、澳大利亚的 （PSP， “优先学校计划” 该项目的关注重点 之一就是提高贫困地区教师队伍的质量）和乡村地区计划（CAP，是澳 大利亚政府发展乡村教育的重要举措之一）。表 5.21 展示了各国幼儿 园教师的在职培训计划。 表 5.21　各国幼儿园教师的在职培训 国家 教育对象 在职培训 澳大利亚 0—8 教师每年有几天被资助接受培训。2001 年， 澳大利亚联邦 教育部启动了 “面向 21 世纪教师培训”项目，颁布了教师 教育的重要文件 《21 世纪的教师教育政策的具体实施措 施——联邦政府教师质量行动》 。政府专项拨款 8，000 万 澳元， 用于师资培训、 管理者培训、 管理投入、奖励计划等 4 大领域。其中师资培训的经费占到 90% 以上。通过各种 培训方案和措施， 提升教师的基本素养， 改善教师的专业 地位， 促进整个教师队伍的质量提高。 奥地利 3—6 资助培训，每年 3—5 天。 258 第五部分　云南省幼儿教师现状调查 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 many countries’ governments have made substantial investments in preschool teacher training (Untied States, Japan, Britain, France, Sweden, and so on) to ensure suff icient funding. United States, Japan, and Korea all have a comprehensive set of standards for in-service training. To improve preschool teacher quality, the United States has promoted in-service training to preschool teachers. In addition, relevant regulations stipulate that teachers participate in regular in- service training and accrue university credits; otherwise their contract will not be renewed. Similarly, legal documents require kindergarten teachers to devote time to further studies in Japan. They can access a variety of training options ranging from university courses to workshops provided by ECD organizations. In Korea, various types of in-service training are designed to train new teachers, improve teachers’ pedagogy and practice, and so on. In particular, many countries have initiated specif ic policies to improve teacher quality in rural and poor regions. Examples include: the Education Renewal Zones initiative in Arkansas and the Rural Education Achievement Program in the United States, the Program to Reduce Educational Backwardness (Program para Abatir el Rezago Educativo) in Mexico, and the Country Areas Program in Australia. Table 5.21 presents the in-service training schemes across countries. Table 5.21 In-Service Training for Kindergarten Teachers Student Country Age Training Content Group Teachers receive subsidized training for a few days every year. In 2001, the Australian Ministry of Education launched the “Teachers forthe 21st Century: Making the Difference” initiative. The government allocated 80 million Australian dollars to teacher training, administrator training, managementinvestment, and Australia 0—8 incentive schemes. In particular, teacher training funding accounts for 90 percent of total funding. A variety of training programs and initiatives are provided to enhance teachers’ basic qualifications, to improve the professional status of teachers, and to promote overall teacher quality. Austria 3—6 Subsidized training 3—5 days every year. 259 （续表） 国家 教育对象 在职培训 芬兰 0—7 教师必须每年参加为期三天的规划和职业发展培训。政 府为教师职业发展项目拨款约 3，000 万美元。 韩国 3—6 由当地教师中心提供给所有幼儿园教师和儿童保育教师。 墨西哥 3—6 每年有几天接受资助培训，在每个工作年都有义务接受三 天的专业发展培训。 葡萄牙 3—6 每年最低 56 个小时，由当地教师中心和综合类大学提供 给所有教师。 来源：姜勇，严婧，徐利智（2013）；Salberg, Pasi. (2010). 总结与讨论 昆明对幼儿教师进行的调查反映出该市幼儿教师队伍在资质、招 聘、职业阶梯系统、教师支持以及工资和补偿等方面的现状。应该注 意到的是作为云南的首府，昆明是该省最发达的城市之一，因此，调查 结果可能比该省其他地方的调查结果要好得多。这项调查使人得以 窥见该省作为一个整体在幼儿教师队伍方面存在的问题，并反映出省 与省之间的差距。 就资质、招聘和职业阶梯而言，幼儿教师在最开始加入教师队伍 的时候学历相对较低。不过，他们可以通过在职教育提高自身的学 历。幼儿园通常都面临不同程度的教师短缺和招聘合格教师的困难。 幼儿园通常采用的应对策略是雇用代课或合同制教师。目前的职业 阶梯机制就是多级职称评定。 在教师支持领域，学生—教师比仍远远高于相关指导意见建议的 水平。教师无论在幼儿园内外都有获得各种职业发展的机会。教研 260 第五部分　云南省幼儿教师现状调查 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 (Continued) Student Country Age Training Content Group Teachers must devote three days per year to planning Finland 0—7 and professional development. The government allocates approximately $30 million to teacher professional development. Training is provided by local teacher centers to all kindergarten Korea 3—6 teachers and caregivers. Teachers receive subsidized training for a few days every year. Mexico 3—6 They must also receive three days of professional development training every year. Teachers have to receive at least 56 hours of training, provided Portugal 3—6 by local teacher centers and universities. Sources: Jiang, Y., Yan, J., and Xu L., 2013. Sahlberg, P. (2010). Summary and Discussion The preschool teacher study conducted in Kunming reflects the current status of the preschool teaching force in the city with regard to qualif ications, recruitment, the career ladder system, teacher support, and payment and compensation. It should be noted that as the capital of Yunnan, Kunming is one of the most developed cities in the province. Therefore, the results are likely to be more favorable than those of other parts of the province. This survey provides a glimpse of the existing problems in the preschool teaching force in the province as a whole, reflecting provincial disparities. With respect to qualif ications, recruitment and the career ladder, preschool teachers have relatively low educational qualif ications when f irst entering the teaching force. However, they are able to improve their educational qualif ications through in-service education. Kindergartens in general face various levels of teacher shortages, as well as diff iculties in hiring qualif ied teachers. The common strategy kindergartens adopt is to hire temporary or contractual teachers. The current career ladder 261 组是管理人员支持教师职业发展的例证。 教师工资和补偿引起了幼儿教师的很大不满。公立和私立幼儿 园在教师工资方面存在明显差别。除此之外，编制体制内雇用的教 师，工资要高于体制外的同行。大部分教师对他们的工资水平不满。 在维持目前的人口预测的情况下，根据学生—教师比在 2015 年达 到 15 ：1 这一进步最大的情景所做的预测显示，10 年内云南将在 2020 年面临短缺 60，000 名新增幼儿教师的局面，昭通的师资缺口最大，大 约需要 11，000 名。昆明，曲靖、昭通、红河、文山和大理对新增幼教师 资的需求最大，而昭通、红河、曲靖、文山、临沧，昆明和保山的师资缺 口最大。 根据本研究，缺口（53，136 名）主要将出现在高职或高等教育教 师方面，亦即从 2013 年到 2020 年每年大约缺 6，642 名教师。这比 2012 年的幼教专业入学人数或毕业人数都要高出很多。 本调查凸显出不同类型的学前教育机构之间的差异，城市地区公 立学前教育机构在入职学历、职业发展机会、工资和其他福利等各方 面都是表现最好的。而另一方面，任职于农村私立幼儿园的教师往往 有最低的入职学历、最少的职业发展机会以及最低的工资和补偿。资 金不足、缺少职业发展、激励措施乏力使得维持合格的教师队伍变得 非常困难，特别是对农村地区和私立学前教育机构来说。 262 第五部分　云南省幼儿教师现状调查 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 mechanism in place is the multi-level professional title evaluation. In the area of teacher support, the pupil-teacher ratio is still much higher than recommended by related guidelines. Teachers do have access to various types of professional development opportunities, both within their kindergartens and outside of the school setting. Teaching and research groups are examples of administrative support for teachers’ professional development. The topic of teacher salaries and compensation garnered much dissatisfaction from preschool teachers. There is a marked difference in teacher salaries between public and private kindergartens. In addition, teachers hired within the quota system receive higher salaries than their counterparts hired outside of the system. Most teachers are dissatisf ied with their salary levels. Projections based on the most progressive scenario of reaching a pupil-teacher ratio of 15:1by 2015 with the current population projections demonstrate that in 2020, Yunnan will face a general shortage of 60,000 new preschool teachers. Zhaotong will face the highest shortage of over 11,000 teachers. Kunming, Qujing, Zhaotong, Honghe, Wenshan, and Dali will have the largest demand for new teachers, whereas Zhaotong, Honghe, Qujing, Wenshan, Lincang, Kunming, and Baoshan will have the largest shortage. The majority of shortages (53,136) will be for teachers with senior vocational or tertiary education according to the research. This translates into about 6,642 teachers each year from 2013 to 2020. This is much higher than the number of enrollment or graduates in 2012. The study highlights the disparities between different types of preschools. Public preschools in urban areas fare the best of all categories of entry qualif ication, access to professional development, higher salaries and other benef its. At the other end of the spectrum are the teachers serving in rural private kindergartens that tend to have the lowest entry qualif ication, the least access to professional development and other career opportunities, and the lowest pay and compensation. In suff icient funds, lack of career development, and weak incentives make it very hard to maintain a qualif ied teaching force, especially in rural areas and for the private preschools. 263 第六部分 政策和计划影响 P a r t VI P o l i c y a n d P r o g r a m Implications 264 第六部分　政策和计划影响 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 265 鉴于上述深入研究的结果，我们提出七项重要政策和规划干预措 （1） 加大公共财政对学前教育的投入， 施： 尤其是针对弱势群体的投 （3）改善现有幼儿园的质量； （2）扩大服务提供模式； 入； （4）加强家 （6） 发展学前教育的 （5） 提高对二手烟危害的认识； 庭和家长教育； （7）推进一体化的 ECD。 师资力量； 加大公共财政对学前教育的投入，多渠道投入、扩大 服务提供模式 学前教育是中国财政投入最不足的一个领域，学前教育机构的学 生总数与各级教育学生总数的 13%，但只得到了 2% 的国家教育预算分 配。而在国际上，学前教育占总教育预算的比例通常为 6%—8%。为 了扩大 ECDE 项目的覆盖面和提高它的效率，特别是针对农村贫困地 区人群的覆盖和效率，云南省以及省内各县、市可以考虑加大财政投 入力度，这可以通过多种方式做到。 最先进的方式就是把学前教育纳入免费的公共教育体系（国内有 些地区已经进行了试点）。表 6.1 列举了实施此类政策的地方政府名单。 表 6.1　中国延长免费公共教育案例 延长免费基 免费基础教 延长年限（年） 实施地区 础教育类型 育时长（年） 学前班 1 10 厦门（福建），延安志丹（陕西） 学前班 3 12 东营河口（山东） 266 第六部分　政策和计划影响 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Based on the in-depth analyses presented here, we propose policy and programming interventions in the following seven main ways: (i) increasing public f inancing on preschool education, especially for the disadvantaged; (ii) expanding service delivery models; (iii) improving the quality of preschools; (iv) strengthening family and parental education; (v) increasing awareness of secondhand smoke’s harmful effects; (vi) developing a preschool teaching force; and (vii) moving toward integrated ECD provision. Increasing Public Financing of Preschool Education and Diversifying Financing/Delivery Models Preprimary education is the most seriously underfunded sector in China, accounting for 13 percent of the total number of students in the system, but receiving only 2 percent of the budget. Internationally, for some advanced countries preprimary education claims 6-8 percent of the total education budget. To improve the coverage and eff icacy of its ECDE programs, particularly for the rural poor segments of the population, Yunnan and/or some cities/counties within Yunnan may consider further increasing their level of financial commitment. This can be done through a variety of approaches. The most progressive approach which has already been piloted by some local governments is the incorporation of preschool education into the free public education system. Table 6.1 provides a list of local governments implementing such policies. Table 6.1 Examples of Extended Free Public Education in China Type of Length of Extension Extended Free Basic Duration Implemented Areas Free Basic Education (in (year) Education years) Xiamen (Fujian), Yan’an Zhidan Pre-School 1 10 (Shaanxi) Pre-School 3 12 Dongying Hekou (Shandong) 267 （续表） 延长免费基 免费基础教 延长年限（年） 实施地区 础教育类型 育时长（年） 珠海 （广东） ，武清区 （天津） ， 宁波鄞州 （浙 江），鄯 善（新 疆），海西（青海） ，福州马尾 （福建） ，安康镇坪 （陕西） ，湘 西（湖南） ，玉溪红塔（云南） ， 高中 3 12 邹城 （山东） ，尼勒克 （新疆） ， 内 蒙 古，南 沙（广 州），勐 海 （云南） ，临汾古县 （山西） ，临 汾蒲县 （山西） ，临汾宁县（山 西）， 朔州平鲁 （山西） 安 康 宁 陕（陕 西），吴 旗（陕 学前班 + 西），神木（陕西） ，府谷 （陕 3+3 15 高中 西），兖州（山东） ，长治 （山 西）， 西藏 注：括号内为地区所在的省市。 根据云南目前的学生人均支出以及学前儿童总数，很容易就能算 出上述措施的成本。不难理解，在全省范围内推广这一举措可能成本 过高。 另外一种措施就是：为贫困、边境和少数民族县的学前教育提供 定向资金。我们的研究清楚地表明，生活在这些县的儿童其家庭照看 环境更差、发展状况更糟糕。另外，由于缺乏必要的条件，他们能享受 到学前教育的可能性更低。摸清楚村与村之间服务提供的差别、确定 应优先扶持的村、建立省级财政转移机制就显得非常重要，因为这类 村最有可能资金匮乏，无法自己负担提供新的服务。 还可以考虑采取一整套多元化创新融资和服务提供机制。基于 中心的全日制幼儿园模式虽然正规但费用相对昂贵，但它不是唯一 268 第六部分　政策和计划影响 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 (Continued) Type of Length of Extension Extended Free Basic Duration Implemented Areas Free Basic Education (in (year) Education years) Zhuhai (Guandong), Wuqing (Tianjing), Ningbo Yinzhou(Zhejiang), Shanshan (Xinjiang), Haixi (Qinghai), Fuzhou Mawei (Fujian), AnkangZhenping (Shaanxi), Xiangxi (Hunan), Yuxi Senior High 3 12 Hongta (Yunnan), Zoucheng School (Shandong), Nilka (Xinjiang), Inner Mongolia, Nansha (Guangzhou), Menghai (Yunnan), LinfenGu (Shanxi), Linfen Pu(Shanxi), Linfen Ning (Shanxi), Shuozhou Pinglu (Shanxi) AnkangNingshan (Shaanxi), Wuqi Pre-School + (Shaanxi), Shenmu (Shaanxi), Fugu Senior High 3+3 15 (Shaanxi), Yanzhou (Shandong), School Changzhi (Shanxi), Tibet Note: The name of the province/city is indicated inside the parentheses. The cost of such provisions can be easily projected based on current per student expenditures and the total number of preschool children in Yunnan. Understandably, such a policy may be too expensive for a province-wide rollout. Another approach is to set up targeted funding for preschool provision in poor, border, and minority counties. Our research clearly shows that children living in these counties tend to have worse home care conditions, lower developmental status. In addition, they are less likely to be enrolled in preschool education due to lack of availability. It would be important to map out the gaps in service provision from village to village, identify priority villages, and establish provincial f iscal transfer mechanisms, as such villages are most likely to be poor and unable to afford new provisions themselves. 269 可行的模式。除了正规的基于中心的幼儿园模式，可以采用其他灵 活的早教服务提供模式，如家庭照顾、亲子教育、通信和媒体宣传，这 些形式在其他国家已经被用来提高早期发展服务的覆盖率，增加了 父母的育儿知识并改善了他们的抚养方式，并最终改善了儿童早期 发展的结果。 创新方式包括利用多余的小学教室，与私营实体合作（如“公办民 营”），建立农村早教卫星中心（围绕县级中心学前班），购买私立幼儿园 的场地（代金券） 以便藉此获得多样化的资金 。公私合作尤其值得探索， 来源和早教模式，并为新的学前教育提供商创造市场空间。我们可以从 以下上海农民工子女使用代金券就读私立小学的做法中学到许多东西。 专栏 6.1 上海教育券制度提高农民工子女入学率、改善教育质量 作为全国最大的农民工接收城市之一，上海截至 2010 年共 有 410,000 名农民工子女。大批需要接受高质量教育的农民工 子女让上海面临严峻的挑战。为了应对这一形势，上海投入大 量精力解决上述问题，采取的措施包括开办新的民办农民工子 女学校、实行教育券制度鼓励农民工子女入学接受教育。 为了满足日益增长的教育需求，上海投入了大量资源用于 建设高质量的民办农民工子女学校。从 2008 年到 2010 年，政府 总共批准了 162 所专门为民工子弟设立的民办小学。政府还给 予 500，000 元的经费资助用于改善教学设施和资源。另外，2010 年上海市政府还投资逾 2,000 万元人民币用于改造这些民办农 民工子女学校的图书馆和体育场馆设施。 270 第六部分　政策和计划影响 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 A diverse and innovative set of f inancing and delivery mechanisms can be considered. The formal, but expensive, center-based full-time model of care is not the only viable model. Other models employing flexible service delivery could be adopted in addition to formal center-based care. Home-based care, parenting education, and communication and media campaigns, have been used in other countries to improve access to ECDE services, parental knowledge and practices, and ultimately childhood development outcomes. Innovative ways include using the surplus primary classrooms, partnering with private entities such as “公办民营”, satellite centers (around the central preschool at the county level), and the purchasing of spaces in private preschools (vouchers). Public-private partnerships in particular are worth exploring to diversify sources of funding, models of delivery, and the creation of markets with new providers for ECDE. Shanghai’s use of vouchers for migrant children attending private primary schools is instructive in this context. Box 6.1 Shanghai’s Voucher System to Improve Education Access and Quality for Migrant Children As one of the largest migrant-receiving cities, Shanghai hosts 410,000 migrant children as of 2010. The large number of migrant children in need of quality education poses considerable challenges to the city. In response, Shanghai has devoted signif icant attention to resolving the issue through the building of new private migrant schools and the adoption of a voucher system to encourage educational access for migrant children. Shanghai has invested signif icant resources in building quality private migrant schools to meet the increasing educational demand. Between 2008 and 2010, the government approved 162 private elementary schools specif ically designed to educate migrant children. The government allocated 500,000 RMB as an incentive to improve school facilities and resources. In addition, the government invested over 20 million RMB in 2010 to improve the library and gym facilities at these private migrant schools. 271 最值得关注的是，上海市政府还创立了教育券制度，鼓励公 立和民办农民工子女学校接收农民工子女。值得一提的是，上海 是中国第一个取消农民工子女基础教育学杂费的城市，从而方便 了农民工子女入读公立学校。另外，从 2008 年以来，上海政府还 按人头为公立和民办学校提供补助，分担它们接收农民工子女的 相关成本。对每个入读的农民工子女，补助标准从 2008 年的每 学生 1，000 元提高到 2011 年的每学生 2，000 元。这种教育券制度 不仅为农民工家庭消除了子女入读公立和民办学校的资金障碍， 同时也显示出政府推动农民工子女接受基础教育的持续决心。 上海在推动农民工子女获得教育的问题上取得了显著的成 效。截至 2012 年，73% 的农民工子女入读上海公立学校。不过， 随着农民工子女数量的持续增加，上海在教育资源和师资力量 上面临的压力也将越来越大。据估计，到 2015 年，上海初中学生 人数将超过 610，000 人，需要再增加约 3，000 个班级设置。 按照这样的人口增长预期，上海政府将需要加强措施平衡 农民工子女的入学问题和教育质量问题。另外，公立高中的教 育问题也值得关注。在上海工作的农民工父母必须满足一定的 条件后，他们的孩子才能在上海参加普通高校的录取考试。如 何调整政策，让农民工子女也能够像他们的城市同龄人一样享 受公立普通高中教育，在政策的制定和执行上依然是个问题。 资料来源： 中国教育和科研计算机网，新华通讯社，2011 年 8 月 30 日 272 第六部分　政策和计划影响 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Most notably, the Shanghai government has created a voucher system to encourage both public and private migrant schools to admit migrant children. It should be noted that Shanghai became the f irst city in China to eliminate basic education tuition and miscellaneous fees for migrant children, thereby facilitating migrant children enrollment at public schools. In addition, since 2008, the government has allocated a per- capita subsidy to both public and private schools to defray costs associated with enrolling migrant children. For each admitted migrant student, the subsidy increased from 1,000 RMB per student in 2008 to 2,000 RMB per student in 2011. This voucher system not only lifts the f inancial barrier for migrant families to enroll their children in either type of school, but also demonstrates the government’s continuous commitment to improving access to basic education for migrant children. Shanghai has achieved impressive results in improving educational access for migrant children. By 2012, 73 percent of migrant children were enrolled in public schools in Shanghai. However, as the migrant children population continues to grow, Shanghai will face increasing pressure on educational resources and teacher capacity. It is estimated that by 2015, the student population for junior high school in Shanghai will surpass 610,000 — creating an additional need of approximately 3,000 class settings. With this projected population growth, Shanghai will need to strengthen its initiatives to balance educational access and quality for migrant children. In addition, the provision of public high school education also merits attention. Migrant parents in Shanghai must meet a set of requirements so that their children can take the entrance exam for regular high school. How to adjust policy so that migrant children can enjoy regular public high school education — such as their urban peers — remains an open policy and implementation question. Source: Xinhua News 2011/08/30. It is also important to introduce demand-side f inancing mechanisms. Even if preschool education were to be made free, there would still be families that do not send their children to preschool. Thus, scholarships 273 也还是会 引入需求侧的融资机制也同样重要。即使学前教育免费， 有家庭不将孩子送入幼儿园。如此一来，需要考虑为贫困儿童提供奖学 金或者甚至是有条件的现金转移支付。菲律宾有条件现金转移支付项 确认它对促进教育需求有积极影响。 目最近接受了世界银行的评估， 专栏 6.2 菲律宾有条件现金转移支付项目 Pantawid Pamilyang 项目为贫困家庭提供现金转移支付，条 件是这些钱必须投资于儿童的教育和健康以及孕产妇健康服 务。这个项目的目标是推动对儿童教育和健康的投资。贫困 家庭是依据一项透明的贫困家庭遴选机制来确定的。家庭收 入低于贫困线的家庭都被认定为贫困家庭。在这些贫困家庭 中，Pantawid Pamilya 项目再选取符合条件的家庭，即那些有 0 到 14 岁的儿童和（或）有孕妇的家庭。之后，这些贫困家庭每 两个月都会收到一笔现金补助，标准是每月每户 500 至 1，400 菲律宾比索，具体数额取决于家庭中符合条件的儿童人数。 研究结果表明，总体而言，这个项目通过提高儿童（3 到 11 岁）入学率达到了帮助贫困儿童上学的目标，同时也达到了提高 6—17 岁学生出勤率的目标。研究发现，与没有参加该项目的贫 困家庭相比，受惠家庭中 3 到 11 岁儿童的入学率更高（3—5 岁年 龄段提高了 10%，6—11 岁年龄段提高了 4.5%）。 资料来源： Nazmul、 Chaudhury、 2013年。Philippines Jed Friedman和Junko Onishi， Conditional Cash Transfer Program Impact Evaluation 2012年。世界银行。 274 第六部分　政策和计划影响 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 for the poor children, or even conditional cash transfers,might also be considered. The Philippines conditional cash transfer program, which was recently evaluated by the World Bank, conf irms a positive impact on boosting the demand for education. Box 6.2 Philippines Conditional Cash Transfers The Pantawid Pamilyang Program provides cash transfers to poor households, conditional upon investments in child education and health as well as the use of maternal health services. The objective of the program is to promote investments in the education and health of children. Poor households are identif ied based on a transparent poverty targeting mechanism. Households with an estimated income below the poverty line are classified as poor. From the resulting database of poor households, Pantawid Pamilya identif ies and selects eligible households who have children 0 to 14 years of age and/or a pregnant woman. These households then receive cash grants every two months ranging from PhP 500 to PhP 1,400 per household per month, depending on the number of eligible children. Findings of the study indicate that, overall, the program is meeting its objective of helping to keep poor children in school by increasing enrollment among younger children (3-to 11-year-olds) as well as by increasing attendance among 6-to 17-year-olds. The study found higher rates of school enrollment among children 3 to 11 years of age in the beneficiary households (by 10 percentage points for 3-to 5-year-olds, and by 4.5 percentage points for 6-to 11-year-olds), as compared to poor households who were not participants in the program. Source: Chaudhury, Nazmul, Jed Friedman, and Junko Onishi. 2013. Philippines Conditional Cash Transfer Program Impact Evaluation 2012. World Bank. Expanding Service Delivery Models The formal, but expensive, center-based, full time model of care is not the only viable model. Other models employing flexible service delivery could be adopted in addition to the formal center-based care. Home-based care, 275 扩大服务提供模式 基于中心的全日制幼儿园模式正规但费用相对昂贵，但它不是唯 一可行的模式。除了正规的基于中心的幼儿园模式，可以采用其他灵 活的早教服务提供模式，如家庭照顾、亲子教育、通信和媒体宣传，这些 形式在其他国家已经被用来提高早期发展服务的覆盖率，增加了父母 的育儿知识和改善了他们的抚养方式，并最终改善了儿童早期发展成 果。国际经验表明，即使每周接触学习活动的时间只有 15 个小时，大多 数儿童在认知上仍有所收益。缩短幼儿园和早教点运营照顾时间，也 可以降低成本，接纳更多儿童。另外，可以利用对家长的教育让家长把 还可以通过有组织的同伴互动对此进行补充。 课程信息带到家里执行， 在云南，在农村幼儿园中心开展的试验项目已经取得了很好的经 验。例如，中国发展研究基金会（CDRF）采用的一种服务提供模式就 主要依靠志愿教师，并提供教学材料，实行灵活的运营照顾时间，同时 改造原有或建立新的早教点。救助儿童会也通过发放早教材料、培训 家长志愿者当老师和社区协助，在云南的一些山村提供早教服务。 改善现有幼儿园的质量和环境 需要开发更多完善的工具用以评估幼儿园的质量，传统上重点仅 放在硬件和其他投入上，而现在需要更多地关注课程、活动、师生互动 和其他过程指标。ECERS-R 只是使用越来越广泛的工具的一个例子。 可以把对较“弱”方面进行定期评估当作一种管理策略和工具，用以 改善课堂环境和互动。教师和幼儿园园长可以利用这种评估的反馈 276 第六部分　政策和计划影响 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 parenting education, communication and media campaigns have been used in other countries to improve access to ECDE services, improve parental knowledge and practices, and ultimately improve childhood development outcomes. International experience shows that most children will have cognitive gains even if they are exposed to learning activities for only 15 hours a week. Shortening the time of center-based care can also reduce costs and accommodate more children. Alternatively, parenting education can be used to deliver curriculum-based information for implementation at home that can also be complemented by organized peer interactions. Within Yunnan, there are already good experiences from pilot programs at rural preschool centers, for example by the Child Development Research Foundation (CDRF), using a service delivery model that relies primarily on volunteer teachers and provision of teaching learning materials, flexible hours of operation, as well as renovation or establishment of the physical site. Save the Children also has community- based ECD provision in a number of villages through provision of teaching learning materials, use of parent volunteer teachers, and general community support. Improving Quality and Atmosphere of Existing Preschools More sophisticated instruments need to be developed for assessing the quality of preschools — beyond the traditional focus on hardware and other inputs, but with more attention to curriculum, activities, teacher-child interactions, and other process indicators. ECERS-R is only one example of such an instrument that is being adopted more widely. Regular assessment of the relatively “weak” dimensions can be used as a management strategy and tool to improve the classroom environment and interactions. Feedback from such evaluations can be used by teachers and preschool directors to improve teaching and learning practices in the classrooms. Results from continuous assessment can also be used to inform the development of preschool teacher training programs. A pilot study in Chongqing demonstrates that well- designed, short term teacher training programs can have a positive impact on 277 来改善课堂的教学实践。持续评估的结果也可以用来显示幼儿教师 培训计划的进展。在重庆的试点研究表明，精心设计的短期教师培训 课程对所观察到的教师的课堂行为有一定影响。 加强家庭和家长教育 我们的研究揭示出幼儿家庭环境存在严重差距，特别是在农村、 贫困和边境县。需要记住的是，家庭在儿童发展中发挥的作用极其重 要。广泛的研究证据证实，如果缺乏学习机会而且照顾者与儿童互动 质量差，极易造成儿童的不良发展。除了基本的卫生和营养需求，儿 童发展成果的提高还有赖于养育、刺激和早期教育的改善。遗憾的 是，我们的调查结果表明，早期激发、玩耍、学习在儿童的整体发展中 发挥着至关重要的作用，而人们对此普遍缺乏认识。这种趋势迫切需 要得到遏制，具体做法是通过各种干预措施，形成积极的幼儿家庭环 境。家长可以通过与孩子交谈、与孩子一起阅读玩耍，为孩子提供更 优质的刺激和互动。家访、来自健康和教育服务提供者的指导和支持 以及家长的集体培训能够改善家庭环境并提高家长的照顾能力。 提高对二手烟危害的认识 鉴于约 90% 的调查家庭有在儿童面前吸烟的行为，提高公众对二 手烟危害健康的认识至关重要。在社区层面，广泛的宣传活动是一种 有效的策略，包括在公共场所张贴警示海报，给居民分发宣传小册子， 并在社区会议中作宣传。媒体也是一个功能强大的沟通渠道。精心设 278 第六部分　政策和计划影响 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 observed classroom behavior. Strengthening Family and Parental Education Our study reveals a serious gap in young children’s home environment, especially in rural, poor, and border counties. It is important to note that families play at least an equally important role — if not more important role — in childhood development. Vast research evidence conf irms that a lack of learning opportunities and poor quality caregiver-child interactions pose major risks for development outcomes. In addition to basic health and nutrition needs, substantial gains in children’s development require improvements in parenting, stimulation and early education. Unfortunately, our survey results indicate a general lack of awareness of the critical importance of early stimulation, playing, and learning plays in overall childhood development by parents. Such a trend needs to be reversed as a matter of urgency via various interventions that promote a positive home environment for young children. Parents can provide more quality stimulation and quality interactions to their children by talking to them, and reading and playing with the child. The parents’ ability for caregiving can be enhanced through home visits, guidance and support from health providers, and group parent training. Increasing Awareness of Secondhand Smoke’s Harmful Effects Given that ninety percent of households in the survey have members smoke in the presence of children, it is crucial to increase public awareness of the negative health impact of secondhand smoke. At the community level, an extensive information campaign, involving displaying graphic warnings in public space, distributing information brochures to households, and giving presentations in public gatherings, could be an effective strategy. Media could also be a powerful communication channel. Well-designed TV and radio commercials that emphasize secondhand smoke’s negative impact might reach a wider population. At the household level, families with pregnant women or children merit special attention. For example, 279 计的电视和电台广告，强调二手烟的负面影响，可能会辐射到更广泛的 人群。在家庭层面上，孕妇和有儿童的家庭特别值得关注。例如，在产 前保健的卫生机构和儿科医院提供的信息中可以包括二手烟对健康的 危害。针对家中儿童由父母之外的家族成员照顾的家庭，也应该有相 关措施，让他们确保孩子在一个无烟的环境中成长。另一个重要的措 施是培训医生护士常规地询问孕妇和父母是否在家中吸烟，并告知他 们孩子在场时必须停止吸烟。在诊断和治疗婴幼儿哮喘、耳部感染和 呼吸道感染的方案中，可以包括提供给家长关于禁烟的辅导。在资源 许可的情况下，当地政府也可以考虑实施一些减少吸烟的干预措施，比 如给那些希望戒烟的成年人提供援助以及教育青少年儿童杜绝吸烟。 发展学前教育的师资力量 提供足够的合格幼儿教师是云南面临的最大挑战。幼儿教师作 为一个群体在教师队伍中已经边缘化。幼儿教师的教学能力及对儿 童发展需要的意识和敏感性有待提高。农村和贫困县合格幼儿教师 短缺尤为严重。 需要重新审视幼儿教师标准，应突出强调教师在教导幼儿方面 的专业能力和教学能力。在招聘时，特别是为农村和私立幼儿园招聘 时，应要求应聘者提供教师证。 未来十年里幼儿教师的在职培训和支持应该受到高度重视，应该 为现有及新增教师的发展和培训投入更多资金，以满足日益增长的需 求。根据《学习与发展指南》，培训应该更加注重学前教学法。 与此同时，有必要设计出更具创新性的政策措施，以吸引更多有 280 第六部分　政策和计划影响 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 health facilities that offer prenatal and/or pediatric care could give out health education packages with information on secondhand smoke.Training of nurses and doctors to regularly ask pregnant women and parents whether they smoke in the household and inform them of the need to stop smoking when the children are around is another important measure. Providing counseling to parents against smoking could be included as part of the diagnostic and treatment protocols for asthma, ear infections and respiratory tract infections in infants and children. For households in which family members other than the parents are the primary caregivers, it is important to design targeted measures so that they ensure the children are in a smoke-free environment. If resources permit, the local government could also consider interventions that reduce smoking in general, such as offering assistance to adults who wish to quit smoking and enhancing education effort to prevent children and youth from starting to smoke. Developing a Preschool Teaching Force Adequate provision of qualif ied preschool teachers presents the biggest challenge for Yunnan. Preschool teachers as a group have become marginalized from the rest of the teaching force. There is a need to improve preschool teachers’ pedagogical competency as well as awareness of and sensitivity to children’s development needs. The shortage of qualif ied preschool teachers is particularly acute in rural, poor, and minority counties. In particular, standards for preschool teachers need to be reviewed to emphasize more teachers’ professional and pedagogical competencies with regard to teaching young children. There is a need to enforce the requirement of teaching certif icates at hiring, especially for rural and private preschools. In-service training and support for preschool teachers should be a high priority in the next decade. Indeed, more funds should be directed to the development and training of both new and current teachers in order to meet the growing demand. The focus of training should be devoted more to preschool pedagogy as per the Learning and Development Guidelines. At the same time, there is a need to devise more innovative policy 281 能力的高中毕业生进入高职和高等学校学前教育专业学习职前课程。 还需要特别努力招聘更多男性幼儿教师，更为积极地进行招生管理和 职业生涯辅导。还应该减免学费、提供更多的奖学金机会和有针对性 的工作安排。高等院校也可以考虑建立学前教育准备中心，鼓励前任 小学教师和其他失业但对学前教育有兴趣的大学毕业生到幼儿园再 就业。 需要检讨幼儿教师的职业阶梯和相应的薪酬，逐步对其加以完 善，最终使幼儿园和小学教师的就业机会与工资水平没有任何区别。 还需要特别重视改善工作条件、提高农村幼儿教师的工资。还应制定 特别奖励，以留住农村幼儿教师，其中包括更多的培训项目、更高的薪 酬、更好的住宿和更完善的支持网络。鼓励城乡之间的教师交换；将 交换服务纳入日常教师评价中。 对于私立和农村幼儿园教师，应建立正式的招聘、培训、签约和评 价机制，把他们纳入公共教育当局的管理之下。设定农村以及私立幼 儿园教师最低薪资可能是值得考虑的。 为所有孩子包括 0—3 岁儿童提供一体化的 ECD 在刚开始设计研究的时候，我们希望研究能将早期儿童发展视为 一项一体化服务。但是，无论是在云南还是在中国，儿童早期发展作 为一个概念还没有出现这一点已经非常清楚了。幼儿服务的提供依 旧是按教育、卫生和儿童保护等部门界限来进行的。所以要就“一体 化服务”收集数据或进行任何有意义的政策对话还不适宜。在与幼儿 有关的各个部门中，教育是最大的部门，所以我们将关注点缩小到儿 282 第六部分　政策和计划影响 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 measures to attract more capable high school graduates into pre-service programs in both senior vocational and tertiary preschool education programs. In particular, efforts should be made to recruit more male preschool teachers, and provide more active admission management, as well as career counseling. Tuition waivers, more access to scholarships, and targeted job placement should be made available. Colleges can also consider establishing preschool education preparation centers and encouraging job re-placement for former primary school teachers and other unemployed graduates who are interested in preschool education. There is a need to review the preschool teacher career ladder and associated salaries. Gradual improvements should be made so that eventually there will not be any difference in career opportunities and salaries between preschool and primary school teachers. Particular emphasis should be paid to improving the working conditions and pay for rural preschool teachers. Special Incentives should also be developed to retain rural preschool teachers, including more training programs, higher compensation, better accommodations, and improved support networks. Encouraging exchanges of teachers between rural, county and urban areas would also be benef icial, as would incorporatingexchange services into routine teacher evaluations. It is also important to establish formal recruiting, training, contracting and evaluating mechanisms for private and rural preschools teachers, and incorporate them under the management of public educational authorities. There may be merit to setting minimum teacher salaries for rural as well as for private preschools. Moving toward Integrated ECD Provision for all Including 0- to 3-year-olds With this research design, the team had hoped that the study would be able to cover early childhood development as an integrated service. However, it soon became clear that early childhood development as a concept has yet to emerge in Yunnan or in China as a whole. The provision of services for young children continues to be organized along sectoral boundaries of education, health, and child protection. It was impossible to collect data or to have any meaningful conversation about “integrated 283 童早期教育上。 但是，全球发展趋势越来越倾向于提供更为一体化的幼儿服务， 将产前、健康、早期激发 / 教育、营养和儿童保护服务汇聚到一起，集中 在一个儿童发展机构之下。教育家、心理学家、发育专家和经济学家 都认为人类发展是一个生命周期发展的过程，早在孩子出生之前就开 始了。从长远来看，云南可以着手形成 ECD 概念和制定相关政策与制 度，从提供产前服务到为 0—3 岁儿童提供的服务再到为 3—6 岁儿童 提供的服务，甚至包括与小学教育的衔接。 尽管这可能仍然是个长期目标，但有些领域可能已经需要政府给 予更多的政策关注了，如 0—3 岁儿童的照顾和发展。这一领域一直以 来在很大程度上被忽视了。到目前为止，这一领域没有任何公共服务 涉及。父母用他们自己的方式，或者在家庭内部或者通过私人市场， 来照顾他们 0—3 岁的儿童。私人市场往往不规范，对幼儿的发展存在 潜在威胁。 而与此同时，中国劳动力参与率，包括女性劳动力参与率都非常 高。现在大多数幼儿都由受教育程度较低的祖父母照顾。因此，迫切 需要制定针对 0—3 岁儿童的适当的政策干预，尤其是对已经面临风险 的儿童。对于 0—3 岁组，重点应放在改善对孕妇的产前照顾和通过提 供营养套餐、家长和照顾者教育以及对幼儿的早期社会和认知刺激来 提高其营养和健康状况上。国际经验表明，以家庭为基础和（或）以 社区为基础的方法有助于互动，而由营养、健康和刺激方面的专家对 母亲和照顾者进行培训极具成本效益。 284 第六部分　政策和计划影响 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 services.” Among the various sectors relevant to young children, education is the largest department, so the team narrowed its focus to only early childhood education. By contrast, increasingly, global trends move toward more integrated provision of services for young children — bringing together prenatal, health, early stimulation/education, nutrition and child protection services — usually under an umbrella childhood development agency. Educators, psychologists, developmental specialists, and economists are converging on the view that human development is a lifecycle development process that starts before the child is born. In the long term, Yunnan could start developing the ECD concept and related policies and institutions, covering prenatal services, to services for 0- to 3-year-olds, 3-to 6-year-olds, and even aligning with primary school education. Although this may still be a long-term goal, there are some areas that deserve more policy attention now by the government, for example, the care and development of the 0- to 3-year-olds. This is an area that has been largely neglected. As of yet, there is no public service provision for this age group. Parents use their own means either within the family or in the private market to care for their 0- to 3-year-olds. The private market is often unregulated and poses a potential development threat to young children. At the same time, labor force participation, including female labor force participation, is very high in China. Most of the young children are now left in the care of grandparents who have relatively less education than their children. There is a great urgency to develop appropriate policy interventions for the 0- to 3-year-olds, and in particular for those who are at risk. For the 0 to 3 group, emphasis should be placed on improving prenatal care to pregnant mothers, improving the nutritional and health status of young children through the provision of nutritional packages, enhancing parental and caregiver education, and promoting early social and cognitive stimulation to young children. International experience shows that home- based and/or community-based approaches that facilitate interaction and training of mothers and caregivers by persons knowledgeable about nutrition, health and stimulation can be highly cost effective. 285 附录 Appendix 286 附 录 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 287 A. 2004—2010 年中国不同地区学前三年幼儿园毛入 学率（估计值） 来源：作者根据 NBS 2000 年至 2011 年数据、MOE 2010 年数据估算 这份毛入学率估算数据只涵盖了小学之前三年的三年制幼儿园的 入学率（不包括一年制学前班）。而报告中的入学率数据包括上述两 类学前教育的入学率。由于在包括云南省在内的西部省份，学前教育 很大一部分是一年制学前班，因此该项入学率数据体现出的东部和西 尽管后者正在取得一定的进步。 部相对落后省份之间的差距更加明显， 由于数据不足，研究人员无法搜集到 2010 年之后完整的地区数 据。不过，上述估计数据与 2010 年的全国公开统计数据很相似。2010 年之前，国家和各省份在计算幼儿园单独 GER 和计算幼儿园加上一年 制学前班 GER 时，一直把这两种提法混在一起使用，因此造成了一些 混淆。 288 附 录 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 A. Kindergarten Gross Enrollment Rate (est.) of Three Years before Primary School, 2004-2010, by Region Source: Sources: Author’s estimate based on NBSb 2000—2011, MOEa 2010 This estimated Gross Enrollment Rate (GER) accounts only for three- year kindergarten enrollment (not counting one-year pre-primary classes) three years before primary school, as compared to counting both kinds of enrollment in the report. Because of the large share of one-year pre-primary classes as a mean of pre-school enrollment in western provinces including Yunnan, the enrollment rate contrasts even more between developed eastern provinces and relatively underdeveloped western provinces, even though the latter is experiencing some catching up. The researchers were not able to collect complete regional data beyond 2010 due to data def iciencies. But the estimate resembles publicized statistics on national level well in 2010. Before 2010, there has been a mixed use of both terms on national and provincial level in terms of GER for kindergartens enrollment alone and GER for both kindergartens and one- year pre-primary class enrollment, thus creating some confusions. 289 B. 2013 年云南儿童发展家庭调查多元回归（模型 1—8）和逻辑（模型 9）分析结果 模型 （1） （2） （3） （4） 变量 体重 体重 身高 身高 1.13 1.03 -0.25 -0.69 出生体重 *** *** （0.28） （0.27） （1.02） （1.03） 0.12 0.12 0.54 0.55 近期身高（或体重）测量时年龄 *** *** *** *** （0.01） （0.01） （0.05） （0.05） 0.77 0.63 1.87 1.06 男孩 =1 ** * （0.30） （0.31） （1.12） （1.16） 0.34 0.09 -0.54 0.40 母乳喂养 =1 （0.47） （0.12） （1.78） （1.88） 0.10 0.35 -0.78 -0.90 家庭成员数量 * * （0.11） （0.49） （0.39） （0.40） -0.75 -0.71 -4.83 -4.42 贫困县 =1 * * *** *** （0.32） （0.31） （1.41） （1.32） -0.48 0.08 -2.54 -3.42 边境县 =1 （0.45） （0.52） （2.44） （2.63） -0.82 -0.65 -0.86 -1.41 少数民族县 =1 ** （0.33） （0.34） （1.35） （1.46） -0.65 -0.60 -1.78 -0.36 留守儿童 =1 （0.48） （0.51） （1.96） （2.03） 家 庭 收 入 =10,000 至 20,000 元 0.02 -0.05 -1.86 0.35 人民币 290 附 录 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 B. Regression Results of Multivariate (Model 1—8) and Logistic (Model 9) Analysis of the Household Survey on Childhood Development in Yunnan, 2013 Model (1) (2) (3) (4) Variable Weight Weight Height Height 1.13 1.03 -0.25 -0.69 Weight at birth (0.28)** (0.27)*** (1.02) (1.03) Age when recent weight (or height) 0.12 0.12 0.54 0.55 is measured (0.01)*** (0.01)*** (0.05)*** (0.05)*** 0.77 0.63 1.87 1.06 Boy=1 (0.30)** (0.31)* (1.12) (1.16) 0.34 0.09 -0.54 0.40 Breastfed=1 (0.47) (0.12) (1.78) (1.88) 0.10 0.35 -0.78 -0.90 Family size (0.11) (0.49) (0.39)* (0.40)* -0.75 -0.71 -4.83 -4.42 Poverty county=1 (0.32)* (0.31)* (1.41)*** (1.32)*** -0.48 0.08 -2.54 -3.42 Border county=1 (0.45) (0.52) (2.44) (2.63) -0.82 -0.65 -0.86 -1.41 Minority county=1 (0.33)** (0.34) (1.35) (1.46) -0.65 -0.60 -1.78 -0.36 Left-behind children=1 (0.48) (0.51) (1.96) (2.03) Household income=more than 0.02 -0.05 -1.86 0.35 10,000, less than 20,000RMB 291 （续表） 模型 （1） （2） （3） （4） 变量 体重 体重 身高 身高 （0.40） （0.43） （2.05） （2.22） 家 庭 收 入 =20,000 至 50,000 元 0.56 0.60 -2.20 0.02 人民币 （0.42） （0.44） （2.13） （2.17） 家 庭 收 入 =50,000 至 100,000 元 0.70 0.44 0.31 3.19 人民币） （0.53） （0.62） （2.63） （2.65） 家 庭 收 入 = 超 过 100,000 元 人 0.98 1.40 6.34 12.57 民币 （1.31） （1.36） （3.03）* （3.17）*** -0.32 -0.23 3.30 3.22 母亲教育程度 = 小学 （0.57） （0.60） （3.12） （3.18） 0.41 0.17 0.58 0.68 母亲教育程度 = 初中 （0.58） （0.57） （2.91） （3.12） 母亲教育程度=高中/职业 0.26 0.37 1.59 4.08 中学 （0.85） （0.82） （3.37） （3.14） 2.94 2.80 3.61 6.33 母亲教育程度 = 高职学校 （1.70） （1.80） （3.54） （3.99） 3.03 2.76 6.33 9.23 母亲教育程度 = 大学及以上 *** ** （0.78） （0.89） （4.21） （4.88） -0.35 -0.71 -3.52 -5.23 照顾者教育程度 = 小学 （0.53） （0.57） （2.82） （2.91） 0.01 0.16 0.75 0.03 照顾者教育程度 = 初中 （0.56） （0.58） （2.55） （2.82） 照顾者教育程度=高中/职业 -0.69 -1.08 -3.26 -6.08 中学 （0.86） （0.85） （3.21） （3.00） 292 附 录 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 (Continued) Model (1) (2) (3) (4) Variable Weight Weight Height Height (0.40) (0.43) (2.05) (2.22) Household income=more than 0.56 0.60 -2.20 0.02 20,000, less than 50,000RMB (0.42) (0.44) (2.13) (2.17) Household income=more than 0.70 0.44 0.31 3.19 50,000, less than 100,000RMB (0.53) (0.62) (2.63) (2.65) Household income=more than 0.98 1.40 6.34 12.57 100,000RMB (1.31) (1.36) (3.03) * (3.17)*** Mother’s education = Primary -0.32 -0.23 3.30 3.22 School (0.57) (0.60) (3.12) (3.18) Mother ’s education = Junior 0.41 0.17 0.58 0.68 middle school (0.58) (0.57) (2.91) (3.12) Mother’s education = Senior high 0.26 0.37 1.59 4.08 school/Junior vocational school (0.85) (0.82) (3.37) (3.14) Mother ’s education = Senior 2.94 2.80 3.61 6.33 vocational school (1.70) (1.80) (3.54) (3.99) Mother’s education = Tertiary and 3.03 2.76 6.33 9.23 above (0.78)*** (0.89)** (4.21) (4.88) Caregiver’s education = Primary -0.35 -0.71 -3.52 -5.23 School (0.53) (0.57) (2.82) (2.91) Caregiver’s education = Junior 0.01 0.16 0.75 0.03 middle school (0.56) (0.58) (2.55) (2.82) Caregiver’s education = senior -0.69 -1.08 -3.26 -6.08 high school/Junior vocational school (0.86) (0.85) (3.21) (3.00) 293 （续表） 模型 （1） （2） （3） （4） 变量 体重 体重 身高 身高 -2.46 -3.00 -1.66 -7.56 照顾者教育程度 = 高职学校 * （1.42） （1.42） （3.34） （4.37） -2.38 -2.28 1.64 -3.13 照顾者教育程度 = 大学及以上 * * （1.08） （1.21） （6.32） （6.60） 0.27 0.32 -1.02 -0.87 独生子女 =1 （0.33） （0.34） （1.29） （1.50） 0.05 -0.13 1.76 1.66 汉族 =1 （0.28） （0.32） （1.17） （1.37） 0.35 0.91 就读幼儿园或一年制学前班 （0.34） （1.60） 0.52 4.14 上亲子班 （0.77） （3.25） 1.04 5.50 健康体检 = 偶尔 * （0.52） （3.53） 0.49 4.40 健康体检 = 每年一次 （0.46） （3.50） 0.35 -1.61 免疫接种 = 免费和自费 （0.39） （1.80） -0.57 0.91 给孩子读书频次 = 每周 1—2 次 （0.34） （1.61） 0.12 2.00 给孩子读书频次 = 每周 >2 次 （0.39） （1.78） 294 附 录 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 (Continued) Model (1) (2) (3) (4) Variable Weight Weight Height Height Caregiver’s education = senior -2.46 -3.00 -1.66 -7.56 vocational school (1.42) (1.42) (3.34) (4.37)* Caregiver’s education = Tertiary -2.38 -2.28 1.64 -3.13 and above (1.08)* (1.21)* (6.32) (6.60) 0.27 0.32 -1.02 -0.87 Single child=1 (0.33) (0.34) (1.29) (1.50) 0.05 -0.13 1.76 1.66 Han ethnicity=1 (0.28) (0.32) (1.17) (1.37) Enrolled in kindergarten or one- 0.35 0.91 year pre-primary classes (0.34) (1.60) 0.52 4.14 Attended parent-child classes (0.77) (3.25) 1.04 5.50 Health check=Occasional (0.52)* (3.53) 0.49 4.40 Health check=once a year (0.46) (3.50) Immunization = both free and 0.35 -1.61 paid (0.39) (1.80) Read to children frequency = 1—2 -0.57 0.91 times per week (0.34) (1.61) Read to children frequency = >2 0.12 2.00 times per week (0.39) (1.78) 295 （续表） 模型 （1） （2） （3） （4） 变量 体重 体重 身高 身高 0.39 -2.63 陪孩子玩耍时间 = 每天 <1 小时 （0.34） （1.41） 陪 孩 子 玩 耍 时 间 = 每 天 1—2 -0.27 -2.17 小时 （0.51） （2.12） 0.13 -3.77 陪孩子玩耍时间 = 每天 >2 小时 （0.62） （4.37） -0.25 1.12 喝奶 = 每天 （0.71） （1.90） -0.88 1.02 喝奶 =2—3 天一次 （0.67） （2.03） 0.24 8.53 喝奶 = 每周一次 *** （0.84） （2.60） -0.10 1.91 喝奶 = 很少 （0.61） （2.22） 0.63 -1.32 吃肉 = 每天 （0.40） （3.20） -0.02 -4.26 吃肉 =2—3 天一次 （0.44） （3.24） 0.33 -2.17 吃肉 =　偶尔 （0.47） （3.30） 0.48 3.00 吃蔬菜 = 每天 （0.67） （2.97） 296 附 录 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 (Continued) Model (1) (2) (3) (4) Variable Weight Weight Height Height Play with children = <1 hour per 0.39 -2.63 day (0.34) (1.41) Play with children = 1—2 hours -0.27 -2.17 per day (0.51) (2.12) Play with children = >2 hours per 0.13 -3.77 day (0.62) (4.37) -0.25 1.12 Milk intake=Everyday (0.71) (1.90) -0.88 1.02 Milk intake=once every 2—3 days (0.67) (2.03) 0.24 8.53 Milk intake=once every week (0.84) (2.60)*** -0.10 1.91 Milk intake=Seldom (0.61) (2.22) 0.63 -1.32 Meat intake=every day (0.40) (3.20) -0.02 -4.26 Meat intake=once every 2—3 days (0.44) (3.24) 0.33 -2.17 Meat intake = Occasionally (0.47) (3.30) 0.48 3.00 Vegetable intake=every day (0.67) (2.97) 297 （续表） 模型 （1） （2） （3） （4） 变量 体重 体重 身高 身高 0.45 1.38 吃蔬菜 =2—3 天一次 （0.80） （3.47） 0.83 2.39 吃蔬菜 = 偶尔 （0.87） （3.76） -0.49 -2.56 吃水果 = 每天 （0.84） （3.55） -0.79 -0.33 吃水果 =2—3 天一次 （0.85） （3.83） -0.48 -0.84 吃水果 = 偶尔 （0.85） （3.64） -0.03 -2.03 补钙 =1 （0.39） （1.45） 0.98 6.30 教导 = 有时 * *** （0.41） （1.74） 1.62 8.65 教导 = 总是 ** ** （0.63） （3.01） 5.89 4.52 77.88 70.09 常数 *** * *** *** （1.39） （1.79） （5.84） （9.20） 观察次数 554 531 313 301 相关系数 0.28 0.34 0.45 0.53 调整后的相关系数 0.25 0.27 0.40 0.44 来源：作者 * 注：括号内为标准误差； 显著性水平 5%; ** 显著性水平 1%; *** 显著性水平 0.1%。 298 附 录 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 (Continued) Model (1) (2) (3) (4) Variable Weight Weight Height Height Vegetable intake=once every 2—3 0.45 1.38 days (0.80) (3.47) 0.83 2.39 Vegetable intake=Occasionally (0.87) (3.76) -0.49 -2.56 Fruit intake=every day (0.84) (3.55) -0.79 -0.33 Fruit intake=once every 2—3 days (0.85) (3.83) -0.48 -0.84 Fruit intake=Occasionally (0.85) (3.64) -0.03 -2.03 Calcium supplement=1 (0.39) (1.45) 0.98 6.30 Discipline=sometimes * (0.41) (1.74)*** 1.62 8.65 Discipline=always (0.63)** (3.01)** 5.89 4.52 77.88 70.09 Constant (1.39)*** (1.79)* (5.84)*** (9.20)*** Number of Observations 554 531 313 301 R-squared 0.28 0.34 0.45 0.53 Adjusted R-squared 0.25 0.27 0.40 0.44 Source: Authors’ analysis. Note: Standard errors in parentheses. * signif icant at 5 percent; ** signif icant at 1 percent; *** signif icant at 0.1 percent. 299 模型 （5） （6） （7） （8） 社会发展 社会发展 社会认知 社会认知 变量 能力指数 能力指数 能力指数 能力指数 0.003 0.001 0.026 0.022 月龄 ** *** *** （0.001） （0.001） （0.001） （0.001） 0.012 0.010 -0.009 -0.011 男孩 =1 （0.019） （0.019） （0.023） （0.023） 0.000 -0.001 0.007 0.009 家庭成员数量 （0.006） （0.005） （0.008） （0.007） -0.076 -0.067 -0.063 -0.048 贫困县 =1 *** ** * （0.020） （0.021） （0.025） （0.026） -0.077 -0.084 -0.025 -0.012 边境县 =1 * * * （0.033） （0.036） （0.040） （0.044） -0.003 0.017 0.068 0.102 少数民族县 =1 * ***[1] （0.022） （0.023） （0.028） （0.028） -0.018 -0.020 -0.022 -0.060 留守儿童 =1 （0.027） （0.028） （0.033） （0.033） 家庭收入 =10，000 至 20，000 0.054 0.044 0.089 0.032 元人民币 （0.024）* （0.025） （0.030）** （0.029） 家庭收入 =20，000 至 50，000 0.086 0.071 0.099 0.024 元人民币 （0.025） *** （0.025） ** （0.032） ** （0.032） 家庭收入=50，000至100，000 0.132 0.099 0.268 0.123 元人民币 （0.043） ** （0.045）* （0.051）*** （0.050）* [1] 少数民族县对儿童认知能力发展影响的显著性有少许偏差。研究者后来发现原因可能 是，此项调查设计将一个似乎是非少数民族县的县份 （少数民族人口少于 20%）归入少 数民族县（少数民族人口通常大于 50%）样本池，并被选中。为尊重原始设计， 未就此对 报告进行改动。特此加注说明。 300 附 录 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 Model (5) (6) (7) (8) Social Social Cognitive Cognitive Variable development development development development index index index index 0.003 0.001 0.026 0.022 Age in months (0.001)** (0.001) (0.001)*** (0.001)*** 0.012 0.010 -0.009 -0.011 Boy=1 (0.019) (0.019) (0.023) (0.023) 0.000 -0.001 0.007 0.009 Family size (0.006) (0.005) (0.008) (0.007) -0.076 -0.067 -0.063 -0.048 Poverty county=1 *** ** * (0.020) (0.021) (0.025) (0.026) -0.077 -0.084 -0.025 -0.012 Border county=1 (0.033)* (0.036)* (0.040)* (0.044) -0.003 0.017 0.068 0.102 Minority county=1 [1] (0.022) (0.023) (0.028)* (0.028)*** -0.018 -0.020 -0.022 -0.060 Left-behind children=1 (0.027) (0.028) (0.033) (0.033) Household income=more than 0.054 0.044 0.089 0.032 10,000, less than 20,000RMB (0.024) * (0.025) (0.030) ** (0.029) Household income=more than 0.086 0.071 0.099 0.024 20,000, less than 50,000RMB (0.025) *** (0.025) ** (0.032) ** (0.032) Household income=more than 0.132 0.099 0.268 0.123 50,000, less than 100,000RMB (0.043)** (0.045)* (0.051)*** (0.050)* [1] The significance for Minority County having effect on children’s cognitive development is somewhat misleading. The researcher later found this could because the survey design had categorized a seemingly non-minority county (with less than 20% minority population) into the sampling pool of minority counties (usually above 50% of population), and that county was selected. No changes were made as to respect the original design and a note was added. 301 （续表） 模型 （5） （6） （7） （8） 社会发展 社会发展 社会认知 社会认知 变量 能力指数 能力指数 能力指数 能力指数 家庭收入 = 超过 100，000 元 0.113 0.088 0.200 0.086 人民币 （0.069） （0.074） （0.078）** （0.089） 0.000 -0.014 0.016 -0.001 母亲教育程度 = 小学 （0.033） （0.034） （0.042） （0.040） -0.005 -0.010 0.141 0.095 母亲教育程度 = 初中 *** * （0.036） （0.035） （0.042） （0.040） 母亲教育程度 = 高中 / 职业 -0.002 -0.023 0.154 0.082 中学 （0.062） （0.062） （0.060）* （0.063） -0.101 -0.072 0.188 0.175 母亲教育程度 = 高职学校 * * （0.138） （0.137） （0.082） （0.075） 0.048 0.025 0.271 0.080 母亲教育程度 = 大学及以上 *** （0.045） （0.055） （0.057） （0.068） -0.005 -0.029 -0.058 -0.074 照顾者教育程度 = 小学 （0.034） （0.035） （0.042） （0.039） 0.056 0.010 -0.033 -0.057 照顾者教育程度 = 初中 （0.035） （0.035） （0.041） （0.037） 照顾者教育程度 = 高中 / 职 0.062 0.013 -0.096 -0.138 业中学 （0.057） （0.055） （0.059） （0.057）* 0.124 0.049 -0.160 -0.264 照顾者教育程度 = 高职学校 * （0.134） （0.126） （0.100） （0.090） 照顾者教育程度=大学及 0.027 -0.014 0.007 0.041 以上 （0.080） （0.083） （0.113） （0.143） 302 附 录 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 (Continued) Model (5) (6) (7) (8) Social Social Cognitive Cognitive Variable development development development development index index index index Household income=more 0.113 0.088 0.200 0.086 than 100,000RMB (0.069) (0.074) (0.078)** (0.089) Mother’s education = Primary 0.000 -0.014 0.016 -0.001 School (0.033) (0.034) (0.042) (0.040) Mother’s education = Junior -0.005 -0.010 0.141 0.095 middle school (0.036) (0.035) (0.042)*** (0.040)* Mother’s education = Senior -0.002 -0.023 0.154 0.082 high school/Junior vocational school (0.062) (0.062) (0.060)* (0.063) Mother’s education = Senior -0.101 -0.072 0.188 0.175 vocational school (0.138) (0.137) (0.082)* (0.075)* Mother’s education = Tertiary 0.048 0.025 0.271 0.080 and above (0.045) (0.055) (0.057) *** (0.068) Caregiver’s education = Primary -0.005 -0.029 -0.058 -0.074 School (0.034) (0.035) (0.042) (0.039) Caregiver’s education = Junior 0.056 0.010 -0.033 -0.057 middle school (0.035) (0.035) (0.041) (0.037) Caregiver’s education = senior 0.062 0.013 -0.096 -0.138 high school/Junior vocational school (0.057) (0.055) (0.059) (0.057)* Caregiver’s education = senior 0.124 0.049 -0.160 -0.264 vocational school (0.134) (0.126) (0.100) (0.090)* Caregiver’s education = Tertiary 0.027 -0.014 0.007 0.041 and above (0.080) (0.083) (0.113) (0.143) 303 （续表） 模型 （5） （6） （7） （8） 社会发展 社会发展 社会认知 社会认知 变量 能力指数 能力指数 能力指数 能力指数 0.041 0.032 0.059 0.019 独生子女 =1 * （0.023） （0.024） （0.028） （0.027） 0.013 -0.007 0.102 0.070 汉族 =1 *** * （0.024） （0.025） （0.027） （0.026） -0.068 -0.012 0.012 0.101 主要使用语言 = 普通话 （0.047） （0.047） （0.070） （0.066） 主要使用语言=少数民族 -0.113 -0.069 -0.026 0.074 方言 （0.054）* （0.055） （0.074） （0.073） 0.098 0.226 就读幼儿园或一年制学前班 *** *** （0.023） （0.029） 0.005 0.084 上亲子班 （0.038） （0.057） -0.010 0.048 健康体检 = 偶尔 （0.028） （0.035） -0.003 -0.004 健康体检 = 每年一次 （0.028） （0.036） 0.010 0.005 家庭书籍数量 =1—10 （0.026） （0.031） 0.020 -0.006 家庭书籍数量 =11—30 （0.035） （0.047） -0.017 0.085 家庭书籍数量 = 超过 30 （0.039） （0.052） 304 附 录 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 (Continued) Model (5) (6) (7) (8) Social Social Cognitive Cognitive Variable development development development development index index index index 0.041 0.032 0.059 0.019 Single child=1 * (0.023) (0.024) (0.028) (0.027) 0.013 -0.007 0.102 0.070 Han ethnicity=1 (0.024) (0.025) (0.027)*** (0.026)* Primary language spoken= -0.068 -0.012 0.012 0.101 Mandarin dialect (0.047) (0.047) (0.070) (0.066) Primary language spoken= -0.113 -0.069 -0.026 0.074 minority dialect (0.054) * (0.055) (0.074) (0.073) Enrolled in kindergarten or 0.098 0.226 one-year pre-primary classes (0.023)*** (0.029)*** 0.005 0.084 Attended parent-child classes (0.038) (0.057) -0.010 0.048 Health check=Occasional (0.028) (0.035) -0.003 -0.004 Health check=once a year (0.028) (0.036) Number of books at home= 0.010 0.005 1—10 (0.026) (0.031) Number of books at home= 0.020 -0.006 11—30 (0.035) (0.047) Number of books at home = -0.017 0.085 more than 30 (0.039) (0.052) 305 （续表） 模型 （5） （6） （7） （8） 社会发展 社会发展 社会认知 社会认知 变量 能力指数 能力指数 能力指数 能力指数 -0.005 0.084 看电视时间=每天少于1小时 （0.049） （0.053） 0.012 0.128 看电视时间 = 每天 1—2 小时 * （0.048） （0.055） -0.008 0.142 看电视时间=每天超过2小时 * （0.050） （0.057） -0.041 0.070 免疫接种 = 免费和自费 ** （0.021） （0.027） 给孩子读书频次 = 每周 1— 0.084 0.065 2次 （0.024）*** （0.030）* 0.089 0.097 给孩子读书频次=每周>2次 *** ** （0.026） （0.031） 陪 孩 子 玩 耍 时 间 = 每 天 <1 0.015 -0.015 小时 （0.021） （0.025） 陪孩子玩耍时间 = 每天 1— 0.006 0.000 2 小时 （0.038） （0.058） 陪 孩 子 玩 耍 时 间 = 每 天 >2 0.075 -0.018 小时 （0.061） （0.064） -0.010 0.020 惩罚 = 有时 （0.024） （0.028） -0.053 -0.041 惩罚 = 总是 （0.050） （0.057） 306 附 录 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 (Continued) Model (5) (6) (7) (8) Social Social Cognitive Cognitive Variable development development development development index index index index Time watching TV = less than -0.005 0.084 1 hour per day (0.049) (0.053) Time watching TV = 1—2 0.012 0.128 hours per day (0.048) (0.055)* Time watching TV = more -0.008 0.142 than 2 hours per day (0.050) (0.057)* Immunization = both free and -0.041 0.070 paid (0.021) (0.027)** Read to children frequency = 0.084 0.065 1—2 times per week (0.024)*** (0.030)* Read to children frequency = 0.089 0.097 >2 times per week (0.026)*** (0.031)** Play with children = <1 hour 0.015 -0.015 per day (0.021) (0.025) Play with children = 1—2 0.006 0.000 hours per day (0.038) (0.058) Play with children = >2 0.075 -0.018 hours per day (0.061) (0.064) -0.010 0.020 Punish=sometimes (0.024) (0.028) -0.053 -0.041 Punish=always (0.050) (0.057) 307 （续表） 模型 （5） （6） （7） （8） 社会发展 社会发展 社会认知 社会认知 变量 能力指数 能力指数 能力指数 能力指数 1.297 1.289 -0.783 -0.907 常数 *** *** *** *** （0.084） （0.096） （0.104） （0.111） 观察次数 983 938 990 945 相关系数 0.13 0.18 0.45 0.53 调整后的相关系数 0.11 0.14 0.43 0.51 来源：作者 * 注：括号内为标准误差； 显著性水平 5%; ** 显著性水平 1%; *** 显著性水平 0.1%。 模型 （9） 变量 学籍状况（0 或 1） 0.946 男孩 =1 （0.162） 1.094 月龄 *** （0.009） 2.366 家庭收入 =10,000 至 20,000 元人民币 *** （0.530） 2.739 家庭收入 =20,000 至 50,000 元人民币 *** （0.614） 12.402 家庭收入 =50,000 至 100,000 元人民币 *** （6.470） 4.096 家庭收入 = 超过 100,000 元人民币 （3.424） 308 附 录 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 (Continued) Model (5) (6) (7) (8) Social Social Cognitive Cognitive Variable development development development development index index index index 1.297 1.289 -0.783 -0.907 Constant (0.084)*** (0.096)*** (0.104)*** (0.111)*** Number of Observations 983 938 990 945 R-squared 0.13 0.18 0.45 0.53 Adjusted R-squared 0.11 0.14 0.43 0.51 Source: Authors’ analysis. Note: Standard errors in parentheses. * signif icant at 5 percent; ** signif icant at 1 percent; *** signif icant at 0.1 percent. Model (9) Variables Enrollment status (0 or 1) 0.946 Boy=1 (0.162) 1.094 Age in months (0.009)*** Household income=more than 10,000, 2.366 less than 20,000RmB (0.530)*** Household income=more than 20,000, 2.739 less than 50,000RmB (0.614)*** Household income=more than 50,000, 12.402 less than 100,000RmB (6.470)*** 4.096 Household income=more than 100,000 (3.424) 309 （续表） 模型 （9） 变量 学籍状况（0 或 1） 1.920 留守儿童 =1 ** （0.526） 0.971 母亲教育程度 = 小学 （0.280） 1.686 母亲教育程度 = 初中 （0.531） 2.539 母亲教育程度 = 高中 / 职业中学 * （1.185） 2.547 母亲教育程度 = 高职学校 （2.618） 4.3e7 母亲教育程度 = 大学及以上 * （5.7e7） 1.366 照顾者教育程度 = 小学 （0.377） 1.085 照顾者教育程度 = 初中 （0.328） 1.530 照顾者教育程度 = 高中 / 职业中学 （0.652） 1.701 照顾者教育程度 = 高职学校 （1.779） 0.000 照顾者教育程度 = 大学及以上 （.） 310 附 录 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 (Continued) Model (9) Variables Enrollment status (0 or 1) 1.920 Left-behind children=1 (0.526)** 0.971 Mother’s education = Primary School (0.280) Mother’s education = Junior middle 1.686 school (0.531) Mother ’s education = Senior high 2.539 school/Junior vocational school (1.185)* Mother’s education = Senior vocational 2.547 school (2.618) 4.3e7 Mother’s education = Tertiary and above (5.7e7)* 1.366 Caregiver’s education = Primary School (0.377) Caregiver’s education = Junior middle 1.085 school (0.328) Caregiver’s education = senior high 1.530 school/Junior vocational school (0.652) Caregiver’s education = senior vocational 1.701 school (1.779) Caregiver’s education = Tertiary and 0.000 above (.) 311 （续表） 模型 （9） 变量 学籍状况（0 或 1） 4.620 幼儿园更接近小学 =1 *** （1.149） 1.987 独生子女 =1 *** （0.424） 0.366 少数民族县 =1 *** （0.074） 0.867 贫困县 =1 （0.153） 1.138 边境县 =1 （0.347） 0.117 主要使用语言 = 普通话 ** （0.098） 0.106 主要使用语言 = 少数民族方言 * （0.093） 2.126 汉族 =1 *** （0.430） 观察次数 989 伪决定系数 0.29 来源： 作者 注： 括号内为让步比、 标准误差； * 显著性水平 5%; ** 显著性水平 1%; *** 显著性水平 0.1%。 312 附 录 云南学前教育研究 挑战和机遇 (Continued) Model (9) Variables Enrollment status (0 or 1) 4.620 Kindergarten closer to primary school=1 (1.149)*** 1.987 Single child=1 (0.424)*** 0.366 Minority county=1 (0.074)*** 0.867 Poverty county=1 (0.153) 1.138 Border county=1 (0.347) Primary language spoken=mandarin 0.117 dialect (0.098)** Primary language spoken=minority 0.106 dialect (0.093)* 2.126 Han ethnicity=1 (0.430)*** Number of Observations 989 Pseudo R-Squared 0.29 Source: Authors’ analysis. 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