66320 Africa Trade Policy Notes Why Trade Facilitation Note #27 is Important for Africa Barbara Rippel * November, 2011 Trade facilitation can provide important However, most African countries face opportunities for Africa by increasing the considerable challenges to achieving more open benefits from open trade, and contributing to trade. One reason is that the costs of trading economic growth and poverty reduction. remain stubbornly high, which prevents Removing trade barriers has contributed to the potential African exporters competing in global expansion of global trade in the decade after and even in regional markets. Realizing this the conclusion of the trade negotiations of the trend, policy makers have started paying more Uruguay Round in 1994 and the subsequent attention to addressing trade-discouraging non- establishment of the World Trade Organization tariff barriers. (WTO). However, the quest for more open trade is not an end in of itself but driven by the Trade facilitation measures have become a key experience that open trade provides more instrument to create a better trading economic opportunities for people. Producers environment. The international community has can offer their goods and services to more acknowledged that for many lower income customers, and consumers have more choices, countries having better market access to lower prices, and access to innovations. Open industrial countries is insufficient unless the markets increase prospects of producing and capabilities to trade are addressed as well. The selling new ideas and products locally, resulting trade capacity building activities regionally and in global markets, which leads to evolved into a broader and comprehensive Aid more income opportunities and the for Trade agenda, with trade facilitation playing improvement of living standards. a major role in these efforts. This chapter argues for approaching trade facilitation in a comprehensive way by 1 addressing the new challenges to trade, which Trade facilitation has grown beyond “fixing no longer arise predominantly from high tariffs borders� but from barriers behind the border. This approach highlights the need for cross-sector The reasoning behind the efforts to address the analysis, for example along the value-chain of trade challenges beyond the traditional areas is products, to address trade bottlenecks. the impact on trade costs of factors along the However, the biggest obstacle to greater trade whole trading chain. The more comprehensive integration is the lack of accompanying policy approach to trade facilitation examines the and regulatory reforms. Trade facilitation can costs that traders and producers face from provide opportunities for African exporters if production until the delivery of their goods and hard infrastructure and technical advice are services to the overseas buyer and thereby backed by equally ambitious policy reforms. includes all the transaction costs both directly and indirectly associated with the trading The new approach to trade facilitation process. “Classic view� The term “trade facilitation� has different Trade facilitation measures must therefore be interpretations. Even among international designed to assist countries to lower trade costs organizations engaged in trade promotion, such and become more competitive in regional and as the World Trade Organization (WTO), the global markets. With the removal of most Organization for Economic Cooperation and quotas and a general reduction of tariffs, the Development (OECD), and the World Bank search for the causes of high trading costs is slightly different approaches have emerged. shifting towards: However, the classic approach could be  Costs of transportation and logistics: described as focused predominantly on the determined by components such as removal of barriers to the international availability and quality of logistics services, movement of goods and. in particular, on the market structures and the degree of procedures at and around borders (e.g., competition that they allow, transportation simplification of customs procedures). fleets, and regulatory environments;  Physical infrastructure: for example, The trade facilitation part of the WTO hazardous roads, lack of capacity of ports negotiations, for example, focuses on and airports, and railways hampered by transactions at the border, such as decaying networks; documentary requirements, transparency of  Additional market entry barriers: mandatory customs clearance and transit procedures, and or voluntary quality and safety standards disciplines on fees and taxes. This traditional which can inhibit the access to regional and view of trade facilitation is motivated to overseas markets (particularly prevalent in improve border and transit management food trade but also exist in a range of procedures and their implementation and technical products); limited information thereby remove obstacles to trade in goods at about overseas markets marketing and the border; less attention is paid to “behind and consumer demands reduce opportunities. between the border� issues. 2 Figure 7.1: The extended spectrum of trade facilitation •Export promotion Competitiveness •Meeting int. standards • Roads, ports etc. Physical Infrastructure • Telecommunication Infrast. Logistics and Transport • Promoting competition Services Customs-Border-Transit Traditional focus Management of trade facilitation The extended spectrum of trade facilitation, see issues. Since several of the barriers are most Figure 7.1, allows for identification of efficiently addressed on a regional level, for constraints along the whole of the trading example, trade infrastructure and standards, chain, including the factors that can adversely trade facilitation has become a major topic for impact a country’s overall trade performance. regional economic communities and The challenge is to identify the most important cooperation. constraints for trade in a specific country and region and to target and design trade Trade facilitation contributes to Africa’s facilitation interventions in a way most suitable growth to the situation. Focusing on constraints at the border may have little impact on trade and Trade facilitation can help countries to reduce competitiveness if there are more important trade costs and increase competitiveness of the barriers to trade further back in the value and private sector. Despite the reduction in tariffs distribution chain. and improvement in market access many countries and regions in Africa are still lacking The realization of the close linkage of an regional and global integration. This enabling environment and a country’s trade disconnection can have negative consequences performance has led to a broader agenda for for the economic opportunities of private sector research and cooperation on trade facilitation businesses, employees, and consumers. Despite across sectors and technical fields. Most African efforts, some countries have found it difficult to countries face a multitude of challenges to expand trade and take advantage of integration into the international trading preferential market access programs, such as system and therefore value a more the Everything but Arms (EU) and the African comprehensive approach to addressing these Growth and Opportunity Act (U.S.). For example, the main exporters under AGOA still 3 remain those that trade in oil and other natural “Tackling trade costs, therefore, is a resources. core element of the Trade Strategy because they have a direct bearing on In addition, certain provisions in preferential poverty reduction.� (World Bank, trading schemes might discourage the creation 2011b). of regional value chains. For example, if one country loses access to AGOA (eligibility is Trade facilitation can help reaching annually reviewed) producers along the development goals regional value chain might suffer as well. In Madagascar in 2010, the loss of duty-free The aim of facilitating trade is not simply to access for Madagascar’s apparel industry also expand trade but also to focus on the broader had negative spillover effects on its suppliers in goal of sustainable and broad-based economic Zambia, Lesotho, Swaziland, Mauritius, and growth. The expectation is that economic South Africa (Page and Moyo 2011). growth becomes a catalyst for poverty reduction by creating more and broad-based Economic benefits also come from the job and income opportunities. Quantifying contribution that trade facilitation can provide precisely the contribution of trade and export to regional integration in Africa. Official intra- expansion to poverty reduction might be African trade is still relatively low and African difficult and has been the subject of academic companies are struggling to participate in and public debate; nevertheless numerous regional and global value chains. A recent World countries have demonstrated that a vibrant Bank report on harnessing regional integration export sector and affordable access to imports as an opportunity to expand trade in the can contribute to economic growth and poverty Southern African region underscores that point reduction. (World Bank 2011a). Despite the existing diversity and potential for production, regional Several African countries have been successful in expanding trade and exports, nevertheless value chain production is mostly absent in the region, and as result opportunities for job and countries lacking natural resources such as oil, income creation are lost. natural gas, and minerals, have found it more difficult to expand exports. While the well- The dilemma has been widely recognized and endowed countries have enjoyed success, partly has led to the inception of trade capacity due to high prices for many commodities, they building programs, which have evolved into the also have struggled to diversify their export- current Aid for Trade agenda. For example the base to avoid being too dependent on a few new World Bank Africa Strategy specifically export products. The risk of drastic price highlights the issue of competitiveness as one declines might be limited, but the export of the three pillars of the new strategy. The new earnings from the capital-intensive natural World Bank Trade Strategy also points out, after resources sector often benefit a small share of assessing the lessons from earlier engagement the population and do little to provide in trade supporting activities: substantial new job opportunities. 4 Contrary to public perceptions, smaller and Trade facilitation efforts should therefore focus mid-size companies are a key part of on establishing a fostering environment for international trade—for example in the U.S. SMEs by addressing the whole trade value almost 98 percent of exporters in 2009 were chain. A successful example of where trade small and medium-sized enterprises (companies facilitation measures have been pivotal in with fewer than 500 workers) representing 33 assisting a landlocked country in reaching percent of exports by value, according to the international markets is the export of fresh U.S. Department of Commerce. This mangoes from Mali to Europe. The export demonstrates the essential role of SMEs in program, which was supported by international connecting to the international trading system. donors, was able to overcome several challenges including transport and logistics However, smaller companies might depend problems, lack of market information and much more than multinational companies on investment on the production level, as well as a reliable trade-enabling environments. Large less than conducive regulatory environment for companies, for example, might be able to exporters. By designing interventions along the create private solutions to a lack of whole value chain, including harvest and infrastructure by investing in company roads transport, Malian exporters were able to access and port facilities. Also, in the policy debate the the market in Europe, benefiting small-scale voice of large companies are often better growers in Mali (Sangho et al. 2010). represented than those of SMEs, which tend to be less organized and not well connected to policy-makers. Figure 7.2: How trade facilitation can contribute to reaching development goals 5 Trade facilitation measures to reduce trade Reduced travel times but also less wear-and- costs tear and lower fuel consumption for transport fleets can increase trading opportunities. The The trade facilitation measures can reduce the rehabilitation and modernization of trade costs of trading in Africa in a variety of ways. A infrastructure can spur investment in modern number of reforms can help to reduce the time fleets with more loading capacities leading to needed for travel, border-crossings and greater efficiencies. administrative procedures: better border management, such as the introduction of Other areas for reducing trade costs are automated customs systems and streamlining harmonized technical, product, and safety of border procedures. For example, the standards. Producers and traders can lower modernization of border-crossing facilities and their costs if products and services can be streamlining procedures (see the example of delivered to a larger number of consumers in the Chirundu border post between Zambia- different markets. However, adjusting to the Zimbabwe in Box 7.1) have reduced waiting cornucopia of official and informal technical, product and safety requirements in different Box 7.1: One stop border post: Chirundu between Zambia and Zimbabwe The Chirundu one-stop border post between Zambia and Zimbabwe was officially inaugurated in December 2009. It was hailed as the first African one-stop border post. The goal is to address the challenges of one of the busiest border crossings in the region where transporters experienced significant delays due to clearance of consolidated loads and procedures by the revenue authorities at the border (Curtis 2009). The establishment of the one-stop border post has provided some significant improvements, for example, passengers and commercial traffic stop only once to complete border formalities for both countries, and waiting times for commercial traffic have been reduced from about four to five days to a maximum of two days and often to a few hours. However, the process of transforming the border-crossing and complete integration of all procedures is a long-term project that has shown that trade facilitation is not only about bricks-and-mortar investment but requires commitment, negotiations, and harmonization of procedures and policies. The initial results also indicate that it is very important to start the discussion on reforms of rules and procedures early in the process Source: TradeMark Southern Africa 2011 times and resulted in lower costs for traders. local and regional markets in Africa, often adds to the costs for producers and consumers. The Better roads, especially along the main lack of information about requirements and transport corridors improving the North-South different enforcement procedures reduce the connections, and more investment in railroads reliability of delivering products and services. and ports have contributed to costs savings. 6 Trade facilitation measures improve many benefits for transporters and traders, less competitiveness damage to trucks, and reduced travel times; however, too often the impacts are less than Trade facilitation measures contribute to they should be. Consumers and producers improved competitiveness of private sector frequently do not benefit from the fall in costs companies. To achieve deeper regional trade due to uncompetitive market structures and and greater integration into the global trading obsolete regulatory environments. It is system, private companies have to be able to therefore essential that infrastructure compete in price and quality. Yet their chances investment is accompanied by typically less of success increase considerably if companies costly (in financial but not political terms), but can operate in a trade-enabling environment. often more intricate, policy and regulatory Competitiveness of companies is closely related reforms. Successful reforms require a long and to the ability to transport and provide products intensive commitment by countries and and services at competitive rates but also to be potential supporters, because the changes to able to develop and produce new products and institutions, laws, and regulations demand services. Local capacities and regulatory intensive dialogue to find compromises and the environments to create new products and best solutions for the country or countries produce according to consumers’ demands with involved. For example, it is important to limited administrative burdens are key factors consider how negative unintended to success. Hence, trade facilitation consequences, especially for vulnerable groups interventions are an important feature of can be avoided or mitigated. Since this work is comprehensive efforts for developing the generally less glamorous because it lacks competitiveness of the private sector in Africa. visibility to the public and donors, policymakers However, the critical piece of policy and often shy away from this inherently difficult but regulatory reforms, which contributes to reduce essential part of trade facilitation. Nevertheless overall trade costs and enhance there is good news about such reforms: they competitiveness, has not received the are a cost-effective way to encourage trade. necessary attention. “Soft trade facilitation� is an effective way to Setting priorities for trade facilitation assist low-income countries Essential: Need for policy reforms Hard infrastructure projects are visible signs of assistance and economic cooperation; however Countries have often invested significant the less visible support of reforming the amounts of money, sometimes with the help of regulatory and business environment in a international donors, in trade facilitation country is often at least as important as the projects, but have often neglected to roads and bridges. The so-called “soft trade implement the necessary policy reforms to fully facilitation� is often the hardest to implement; utilize these investments. such work frequently faces strong vested interest in the countries and takes place For example road improvements, especially without the ribbon-cutting ceremonies and along the main transport corridors, provide 7 other public events that make it more attractive restrictions benefit a small group while those for politicians and the donor community. who bear the costs of the trade barriers are numerous. For example, outdated transport However, in times of tight budgets this should regulation in large parts of the trucking sector in be of great interest: research by Helble, Mann, West Africa is beneficial for some transporters and Wilson (2009) indicates that aid for trade but has prevented lower prices for consumers. money spent on policy and regulatory reform However, consumers lack sufficient information might be a particular prudent investment. The on what drives the prices for everyday products research focused on the question of how aid and rarely organize themselves against trade spent on trade facilitation relates to trade flows restrictions. Specifically, if the additional costs (export and imports). Based on calculations are small per purchase,(for example, about effectiveness of aid for trade facilitation, agricultural trade barriers might cost consumers the trade initiating effect of one dollar spent on in the U.S. and the EU a few cents every time measures directed towards trade policy and they shop) the willingness of consumers to regulation reform were estimated to be organize political pressure to remove such dramatically higher than the trade creation barriers is limited. The dynamics of the political from investments in the other areas of trade economy of reform has occupied economists support (economic infrastructure and trade and political scientists for a longtime. For development). example Mancur Olson in 1965 “The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory The main benefit according to this study comes of Groups,� addressed the issue of how groups from providing “soft� trade facilitation support. can form around the benefits they can protect. The introduction of policy reforms and Protecting these benefits can be a motivating improving the regulatory environment is less factor in defending the status quo. If trade costly and provides significant impacts. Of barriers protect certain jobs it is easy to see course the costs for infrastructure projects are why the potential losers might evidence strong high compared to advisory services, for resistance to change if such change would mean example, but the important result is that a loss of income. relatively small amounts of money invested in the areas of regulatory and policy reform can Trade facilitation is a multi-sectoral approach have a large impact on trade expansion. Measuring the exact benefit of such trade Trade facilitation covers activities across a wide assistance is difficult, but the basic message range of sectors along the value chains stays the same: policy and procedural reforms important for production and trading. Any are very effective ways to foster an comprehensive approach to trade facilitation environment where traders and producers can includes complimentary activities so that take advantage of market opportunities. investment and progress in one area, (e.g., infrastructure investment in roads) is not stifled Nevertheless policy and regulatory reforms are by the absence of reforms in another (e.g., the difficult to implement because of several transportation sector) so that the investment complicating factors. The status quo has benefits a broad range of society and winners and losers. In most cases trade encourages economic growth. To be successful, 8 trade facilitation must address this cross-sector Business services have become an important character at the planning phase of the factor for success for exporting companies. measures taken to support trade. Companies trying to establish themselves in regional and global market often rely on the Among the sectors profiting from trade business service providers for essential inputs. facilitation measures are the transport and Access to technical advice, marketing expertise, logistics sectors. Transport costs in sub-Saharan and legal and accounting services is important Africa have remained high despite investment to be able to compete in international markets. in the transport infrastructure in recent years. However, transport costs depend on a range of Services can also help to develop new export factors, such as capital, labor, and fuel costs in products, as well as being a major export sector addition to service costs for maintenance. The themselves. These exports can include a wide costs for transporting goods in Africa differ range of services, for example education, legal considerably between regions. Central and services, and accounting and technical advice. West Africa generally facing higher prices for Trade facilitation measures can address the road transport than Southern Africa, for regulatory environment in which these exports example, due to formal or informal queuing can take place, for example improving mutual systems in the trucking sector, which has led to recognition of educational and technical uncompetitive market structures.1 As a result certificates. traders and consumers lose out on the potential benefits from improved transport infrastructure Trade facilitation to improve private sector (Teravaninthorn and Raballand 2009). capacity Services are another important sector that can Trade facilitation contributes to the expansion benefit from trade facilitation but have often of private sector capacity to participate in been neglected in public debate about the international trade. Private sector actors, benefits of trade. While trade in services is less especially small and medium-sized businesses, visible the greater integration of regional often lack the know-how and capacity to meet markets in services has important economic the requirements of formal trading across potential. For example the closer integration of borders. Smaller traders might be active in professional services in the Southern Africa informal cross-border trading but find it difficult region could provide job opportunities, address to expand due to limited financial resources and skill shortages and lower input prices for lack of information about requirements and businesses (World Bank 2011a). procedures in markets abroad. Many small enterprises, which provide a large number of jobs and incomes in Africa, find it difficult to 1 In these queuing systems large and small firms meet the prerequisites for formalization “queue up� and loads are distributed according to because of limited information and capacity or next turn. The goal of these systems has been to high costs relative to limited benefits. However, ensure the survival of small companies but has led to the purpose of trade facilitation is to expand less competition, higher prices, and low-quality trade beyond large companies and already service. successful trading networks. Even mid-sized 9 companies often find access to information and supporting transport corridors in Africa, Central financial resources difficult, which are necessary Asia and other regions. Countries benefiting for to adjust to price, quality, and safety standards this enhanced connectivity can then use trade in new markets. Trade facilitation measures can facilitation measures to address regulatory assist with access to information and support barriers in transport and logistics, for example, transparent procedures of formalization, such or remove persistent roadblocks along trade as licenses and standards. corridors. Cross-sector integration can be achieved through reforms of the business How to integrate trade facilitation across environment for small and medium-size sectors enterprises along the trade corridors or as suppliers for the expanded production area. The challenge for countries is to incorporate Simultaneously the removal of transit trade facilitation in overall development and restrictions and open trade policies with poverty reduction strategies. Trade capacity neighboring countries ensures the goods can be building, which focused on specific technical sold across the border or easily trans-shipped to assistance, has become broad-based Aid for markets outside of the region. Trade to address obstacles in whole value chains and sectors. Only integrated analysis of Creating transparent mandates, along with all factors can reveal major constraints to trade identifying and assigning specific tasks to the and economic growth. This essential analytical cooperating agencies and donors can achieve a step needs to be conducted with substantial coordinated approach among government input from local and regional actors to obtain a agencies, the private sector, and donors. Some realistic picture of the barriers with the biggest countries have opted for creating committees impact not simply those most visible. Trade or other coordinating mechanisms to promote facilitation support often encourages multi- and monitor progress. While this requires close sector concepts, and countries should therefore cooperation among all actors plenty of success consider the benefits of integrated reform stories show that cooperation across sectors is concepts. In addition, regional solutions are an essential ingredient for encouraging trade often feasible and can help to reduce costs, and economic opportunities. improve efficiency, and the exchange of best practices. Trade facilitation and the informal sector Assume, for example, a country with natural Trade facilitation can play a pivotal role in resources or agricultural potential wants to supporting small-scale informal traders. This improve the use of those resources. One support may, in the long run also bring more obstacle for expansion of production and trade participants from the informal sector into the might be a lack of infrastructure and production official economy. The informal sector often capacity. Even when private investors (local or faces an even more onerous trading outside) are found to invest in production environment. For example, in the Great Lakes expansion the infrastructure needs require region in Central Africa the majority of traders additional financial sources. International between the Democratic Republic of Congo development banks have been active in 10 (DRC), Uganda, Burundi and Rwanda are small- transparency and high fees can be an scale traders, predominantly women. insurmountable barrier for informal traders to join the formal sector. This often deprives the These traders face a wide range of obstacles to trader of rights and security during their their daily cross-border transports of small transactions and the state receives less revenue amounts of goods. According to research and that could be used in providing government surveys the traders have to pay unofficial fees services. and bribes and often experience physical harassment at the border. Despite these Regional integration challenges the traders and their families depend on the trade for their income but with little Trade facilitation and regional integration are influence over policy-makers power to improve joint enterprises. Trade facilitation is a key trading conditions (see Chapter 2). instrument in advancing regional integration by fostering intra-African trade that enhances Cross-border traders between DRC and the economic opportunities and competitiveness. In Republic of Congo confront prohibitive prices addition, closer political and economic for official river crossings between Kinshasa and cooperation on the regional level, for example Brazzaville, according to research and surveys. through the regional economic communities, Because of high administrative costs most contributes to the creation of the necessary companies have abandoned shipping across the environment for the private sector river or use informal methods to get their goods development essential for intra-regional trade. to the other side. The average cost of a return trip for official crossings are estimated to be Regional integration is necessary for African about US$40, or the equivalent of between 40 companies to be able to grow and ultimately and 80 percent of the average monthly income become part of regional and global value earned by Kinshasa residents (see Chapter 3). chains. Other emerging economies, for instance in East Asia, are already further integrated with Trade facilitation can contribute to reducing the clear economic benefits. Despite existing costs of trading for those vulnerable groups that agreements on closer integration, most regions work on small margins and have a limited, if at in Africa are still trying to implement many of all, financial safety net. Even low-cost trade the basic provisions of these agreements. facilitation measures, such as training of border Nevertheless, this is an essential step if African guards or installing proper illumination at countries are to become and stay competitive in border crossings, can have almost instant the more closely integrated global economy. In impact for traders and the informal sector. In contrast developing countries in Asia such as addition, improving hard and soft trade Vietnam have become an integral part of infrastructure important for small and rural regional and global production chains. Asia has traders and producers, such as feeder roads to become the second biggest trader, behind regional markets, and establishing market price Europe, of intermediate goods an indicator of information systems, policy and regulatory greater regional integration, with Vietnam reforms often benefit the informal sector. being among the most active importers in the Laborious paperwork requirements with little last 15 years (WTO-IDE 2011). 11 Trade facilitation measures support closer expansion. Trade facilitation can provide these regional integration through regional trade himportant opportunities: infrastructure, such as trade corridors, but also by supporting bilateral cooperation at the  More open trade connections, in food border. For example, the goal of one-stop staples for example, can encourage regional border posts is to reduce paperwork and trade and reduce vulnerability from food waiting times; this requires not only physical insecurity; infrastructure but also detailed agreement on  Regional cooperation on trade facilitation mutual recognition of process and procedures. can contribute to closer integration beyond Regional agreements often include additional trade. For example, addressing regional trade facilitation measures, such as standards on products, services and harmonization of safety and quality standards procedures encourages trade but also for regional products. Mutual recognition of intellectual exchange and collaboration on services such as truckers insurance and safety and social concerns affecting often a educational degrees are important for whole region beyond national boundaries; developing integrated economic areas that  Closer regional integration will provide benefit from synergies and reduced transaction opportunities for developing regional value costs. chains that increase competitiveness and An important factor for trade and economic provide access to the increasingly globalized development in general is the availability of value chain production; cross-border financial services. Trade  Finding common positions on trade-related facilitation and regional integration agreements issues and so enhancing the ability to assist with creating regional financial transfer represent these interests in the systems that reduce transaction costs and can international arena. help to make financial services more accessible. Particularly, small and medium-sized  Since the main goal of trade facilitation is to enterprises and traders, often working in the reduce trade costs the following informal sector, have limited access to credit, (measurable) objectives for trade banking, and other financial services. Those facilitation could be used to set benchmarks services might encourage trade expansion for to assess progress. However, this will those producers and traders not already well require coordinated efforts in the areas of connected to cross-border trading networks. data collection and defining benchmarks, and will require consistent monitoring by all partners. Objectives could include: Future opportunities for Africa o Trade costs Trade facilitation is an integrated part of o Export expansion (amounts, value development strategies in most African and diversification of exports) countries because it is a catalyst for further o Cross-border trade with progress in areas beyond trade and export neighboring countries 12 o Transport delays are reduced (focus Page, J. and P. Moyo. 2011. “Supporting Deeper on the relevant bottlenecks in each Regional Integration in Africa.� in Improving country) AGOA: Toward a New Framework for U.S.-Africa Commercial Engagement, Africa Growth Initiative Brookings Institution, Washington, DC; pp. 8-10. *About the Authors Sangho, Y., P. Labaste, and C. Ravry. 2010. Barbara Rippel is a Senior Economist in the “Growing Mali’s Mango Exports: Linking Africa Region of the World Bank. This work is Farmers to Markets through Innovations in the funded by the Multi-Donor Trust Fund for Trade Value Chain.� World Bank. and Development supported by the Teravaninthorn, S. and G. Raballand. 2009. governments of the United Kingdom, Finland, “Transport Prices and Costs in Africa�, World Sweden and Norway. The views expressed in Bank, Washington, D.C.. this paper reflect solely those of the authors and not necessarily the views of the funders, the TradeMark Southern Africa. 2011. “Improving World Bank Group or its Executive Directors. Service Delivery and Reducing Clearing Times at Chirundu Border Post.� TMSA Case Study Series, This work is funded by the Multi-Donor Trust Pretoria. Fund for Trade and Development supported by the governments of the United Kingdom, U.S. Department of Commerce, International Finland, Sweden and Norway. The views Trade Administration. 2009. 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