COLOMBIA Gender Assessment INFO LEGAL PAGE Index Overview............................................................................................................................1 I. The agency of women..................................................................................... 9 I. Legal framework for gender equality.................................................................... 10 II. Institutions for gender equality............................................................................... 12 III. Policies for gender equality..................................................................................... 18 IV. Voice and decision making....................................................................................... 18 V. Child marriage............................................................................................................ 23 VI. Violence against women........................................................................................... 25 VII. Attitudes and gender norms.................................................................................... 28 II. Endowments.................................................................................................. 31 I. Health........................................................................................................................... 32 a. Life expectancy, fertility, and ageing.......................................................................32 b. Maternal health...........................................................................................................34 c. Adolescent pregnancy................................................................................................34 d. Contraceptive use........................................................................................................36 II. Education..................................................................................................................... 38 a. Enrolment and literacy...............................................................................................38 b. Attainment....................................................................................................................39 c. Performance................................................................................................................41 d. Segregation in higher education..............................................................................42 e. The transition to work................................................................................................42 III. Economic Opportunities............................................................................... 47 I. Labor force participation.......................................................................................... 48 II. Time use....................................................................................................................... 49 III. Unemployment........................................................................................................... 54 IV. Quality of employment.............................................................................................. 55 V. The gender wage gap................................................................................................ 56 VI. Entrepreneurship and assets.................................................................................. 57 VII. Poverty......................................................................................................................... 58 IV. The rural-urban divide, the conflict and the migration crisis – issues particular to the Colombian reality, affecting gender equality across different dimensions......................................................... 61 I. The rural-urban divide.............................................................................................. 62 II. Gender and conflict.................................................................................................... 70 III. Venezuelan Migration................................................................................................ 74 V. The Road Ahead............................................................................................ 77 I. The challenges............................................................................................................ 77 II. Policy recommendations.......................................................................................... 79 References..................................................................................................................... 84 Annex 1: Legislation on the issue of gender equality in Colombia..................... 91 Figures Figure I-1: Regions with a Secretary of Women........................................................................... 15 Figure I-2: Percentage of Women members of parliament........................................................ 19 Figure I-3: Percentage of Women in house of representatives and senate............................ 19 Figure I-4: Percentage of Women in Ministerial cabinet positions........................................... 20 Figure I-5: Percentage of women Mayors...................................................................................... 20 Figure I-6: Percentage of Women Local Councilors..................................................................... 20 Figure I-7: Decision Making in the household (share of women who report that these decisions were made solely by their partners or someone else)..................................................... 22 Figure I-8: Decision Making in the household by education level (share of women who report that these decisions were made solely by their partners or someone else)..................................................... 22 Figure I-9: Child Marriage in Latin America and Caribbean (2008-2014)............................... 23 Figure I-10: Percentage of women 15-49 who reported age at first marriage, intercourse or birth 18 years or less by education level........................................ 24 Figure I-11: Adolescents (percent) who are married or in union by education 2015...................................................................................... 24 Figure I-12: Age of partner in Adolescent´s couples by education 2015................................. 24 Figure I-13: Violence against women in colombia (% of women 15-49 y.o. married or in union who have experienced any form of…).............................. 25 Figure I-14: Perceptions and Attitudes towards the role of women (% of people who agree with the following statements)......................................... 29 Figure I-15: Perceptions and Attitudes towards the role of women: Correlation with employment outcomes.................................................................... 29 Figure I-16: Situations under which wife beating is considered justified by education..................................................................................................................... 29 Figure II-1: Fertility and Life expectancy at birth (total years)................................................... 33 Figure II-2: Population Pyramid Latin America and the Caribbean and Colombia 2016......................................................................................................... 34 Figure II-3: Access to Maternal Services in Colombia.................................................................. 35 Figure II-4: Adolescent fertility rate................................................................................................. 36 Figure II-5: Contraceptive use among Women 15-49 years of age 2015.................................. 37 Figure II-6: Adult literacy rates in Colombia and in LAC.............................................................. 38 Figure II-7: Primary education enrollment rates in Colombia and LAC (net)rates in Colombia and LAC.................................................................................... 39 Figure II-8: Secondary education enrollment rates in Colombia and LAC education completion rates in Colombia and LAC.................................................... 39 Figure II-9: Primary education completion rates in Colombia and LAC.................................... 40 Figure II-10: Lower-secondary education completion rates in Colombia and LAC................. 40 Figure II-11: Number of student graduates by level and gender................................................ 40 Figure II-12: PISA scores for Math and Verbal test 2015.............................................................. 42 Figure II-13: Difference on SABER 11 by sex.................................................................................. 42 Figure II-14: percentage of men and women enrolled in tertiary education by area 2017.............................................................................. 43 Figure III-1: Labor force participation in LAC, 2017....................................................................... 49 Figure III-2: Hours per week dedicated to non-remunerated domestic and care work 2017...................................................................................... 50 Figure III-3: Reasons For not looking for a job 2017 by sex and location.................................. 50 Figure III-4: Women’s Unemployment rate in LAC......................................................................... 53 Figure III-5: Gap in unemployment rates 2017 by education level............................................. 54 Figure III-6: Women’s unemployment rate by age group 2017................................................... 54 Figure III-7: Informality rates in Latin America 2015.................................................................... 55 Figure III-8: Workers who contribute to a pension fund by sex................................................... 55 Figure III-9: International Comparison of Gender Wage Gaps..................................................... 57 Figure III-10: Account ownership at a financial institution or with a mobile-money-service provider................................................................. 57 Figure III-11: Poverty rates and gender poverty gap by age groups 2017................................ 58 Figure IV-1: Decision Making in the household by location (share of women who report that these decisions were made solely by their partners or someone else)..................................................... 63 Figure IV-2: Percentage of women 15-49 who reported age at first marriage, intercourse or birth 18 years or less by location..................................................... 63 Figure IV-3: Share of adolescents married or in union by rural-urban residency 2015.................................................................................... 63 Figure IV-4: Age gap between the bride and the groom by rural-urban residency.............................................................................................. 63 Figure IV-5: Situations under which wife beating is considered justified by location................................................................................... 65 Figure IV-6: Percentage of youth (16-24 years of age) Not in Employment, Education or Training (NEETS)................................................. 66 Figure IV-7: Women’s labor force participation by location. 2017.............................................. 66 Figure IV-8: Women’s Unemployment rate by location. 2017...................................................... 66 Figure IV-9: Principal activity over the last week 2017 by sex and location............................. 67 Figure IV10: Women’s labor force participation by location. 2017............................................. 68 Figure IV-11: Reasons For not looking for a job 2017 by sex and location............................... 68 Figure IV-12: Gender wage gap by location..................................................................................... 69 Figure IV-13: Types of war crimes by victim´s gender................................................................. 71 Figure V-1: Summary of gender gaps and challenges.................................................................. 78 Figure V-2: Summary of recommendations.................................................................................... 82 Boxes BOX 0-1: The WDR 2012 Framework for Gender Equality......................................................... 1 BOX I-1: Thematic lines of the department for Gender Equity.............................................. 13 BOX II-1: Female sterilization in Colombia................................................................................. 38 BOX II-2: The Ser Pilo Paga program........................................................................................... 41 BOX II-3: NEETs (youth who are not in employment, education or training) in LAC........... 44 BOX III-1: The challenges of care................................................................................................... 51 BOX III-2: Parental leave policies in Sweden............................................................................... 52 BOX III-3: The effects of childcare provision for FLFP.............................................................. 53 BOX IV-1: The Colombian conflict.................................................................................................. 71 BOX IV-2: The peace process and agreement............................................................................. 73 Tables Table I-1: Colombia in ‘Women, Business and the Law 2018’.................................................. 11 Table I-2: Main national institutions involved in Gender Equality in Colombia..................... 13 Table I-3: National entities with gender units/groups in the last gender plan cycle........................................................................................ 14 Table I-4: Municipal mechanisms for the implementation of gender equality policies in capital cities............................................................... 16 Table I-5: Women in business management............................................................................... 21 Table III-1: Women in business ownership.................................................................................... 57 Acronyms CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against Women CT Cash Transfer CCT Conditional Cash Transfer DANE National Administrative Department of Statistics DHS Demographic and Health Survey ECLAC Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean ELN National Liberation Army ENDS Encuesta Nacional de Demografía y Salud FARC Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia GA Gender Assessment GEIH Gran Encuesta Integrada de Hogares GDP Gross Domestic Product IDB Interamerican Development Bank ILO International Labor Organization LAC Latin America and the Caribbean NEETs Youth who are not in employment, education or training PISA Program for International Student Assessment OECD Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development SABER System Approach for Better Education Results SEDLAC Socio-Economic Database for Latin America And the Caribbean SENA National Service of Learning STEM Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics TEA Total Early Stage Entrepreneurial Activity UMI Upper-middle income country UN United Nations UNDP United Nations Development Program UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund WB World Bank WDI World Development Indicators viii COLOMBIA Acknowledgements The Gender Assessment (GA) was co-led by Sergio Olivieri (Sr. Economist, GPV04) and Miriam Muller (Social Scientist, GPV04). The core team included Carmen de Paz (Consultant, GPV04) and Julieth Pico Mejía (Consultant, GPV04). Oliver Balch (Consultant, GPV04) edited the document and Desiree Gonzalez (Program As- sistant, GPV04) provided outstanding administrative assistance. The assessment was prepared under the supervision and guidance of Ulrich Zachau (Country Director, LCC4C), Oscar Calvo-Gonzalez (Practice Manager, GPV04), William Wiseman (Program Leader, LCC4C), Jutta Ursula Kern (Manager Operations, LCC4C), and Jo- hannes Widmann (Senior Operations Officer, LCC4C). The team is grateful for valuable inputs received from Paula Tav- ares (Senior Private Sector Development Specialist, DECID), Diana López (Consultant, GPV04) and from the peer reviewers, Ana Maria Oviedo (Senior Economist, GPV03) and Lourdes Rodriguez (Econ- omist, GPV04). Gender Assessment ix Overview Achieving gender equality in Colombia is critical gender gaps and is working on multiple fronts to the country’s future economic development to realize this objective. However, and although and social cohesion; yet it remains an ongoing preliminary findings indicate that substantial challenge. The government of Colombia recog- progress has been made over the last two de- nizes the importance of closing the country’s cades, a number of challenges remain. BOX 0-1: The WDR 2012 Framework for Gender Equality The interplay between households, markets and institutions is central to understanding gender outcomes and their associations with development.1 The decisions of households are based on preferences, incentives and constraints, which are largely shaped by informal institutions such as social norms or networks, formal institutions and markets. Markets, institutions and households interact to shape the status of women vis-à-vis men with regards to agency (the capacity to decide on own life), endowments (accumulation of human capital in the form of education and health) and economic opportunity (access to employment and income generation activities). It is then crucial to look into the functioning and structure of these and the role that public policy has in shaping them, to gain a proper grasp of the challenges that any country faces in closing the gender divide. Gender equality Policie s Informal institutions Economic opportunities Markets Households Agency Endowments Formal institutions Growth 1 1 World Bank (2012) Gender Assessment 1 Using the framework provided by the 2012 World considerably, from 80 births per 1,000 women Development Report (see Box 0-1), this assess- aged 15-19 years old in 1990, to 50 in 2016. This ment allows identifying the main existing gender enables young women to remain in education and gaps across the areas of agency, endowments thereby improve their life chances. and economic opportunity, and the major driving factors with regards to households, institutions In addition, gender gaps in education have de- and markets (chapters I, II, III, and IV). Based on creased over time. Not only gender gaps to the this diagnostic, chapter V provides some policy advantage of men have been closed, but now recommendations that may help to close the ex- differences to their detriment are observable in isting gender gaps. enrollment and attainment. As an example, 82 percent of girls compared to only 76 of boys are Colombia has taken a number enrolled in secondary education in Colombia. The same trend can be observed for tertiary educa- of important steps to correct the tion: 63 percent of women are enrolled in this country’s historic gender imbalances… level compared to 54 percent among men. The centrality of gender equality is now recog- Economic opportunities for Colombia’s wom- nized in the Colombian law and public institu- en have also grown over time. While certain tions, while some advances in women´s agency inequalities still persist in the country’s labor can be highlighted. As the result of changes to market, employment opportunities for women the national legislation over recent years, Co- have opened up considerably in recent years. lombia now boasts one of the most comprehen- Far more women are now in active paid employ- sive legal frameworks in Latin America and the ment as a consequence: In 2017, labor force par- Caribbean when it comes to women’s rights and ticipation (18 years of age and above) was 57.7 gender parity. At the household level, women percent for women and 80.8 percent for men. are increasingly gaining space in decision mak- This has probably led to a decrease in income ing. As an example, the proportion of women inequality between men and women, resulting in who reported that the final decision about their positive ramifications for female agency. Based own health fell to their partner or someone else on the scarce data available, levels of entrepre- halved (from 12 percent to 6 percent) between neurial activity and business ownership among 2000 and 2015. This trend is most marked Colombian women can also be considered rela- among urban women, especially those with high tively high. levels of education. It must also be noted that women have played Colombia has also notched up some notable a central role in the peace process. For many achievements in women’s health, and now com- decades, Colombia’s long-running civil conflict pares favorably to other countries in the region. impaired the rights of women and exacerbated In recent decades, the number of women dying gender inequalities. Since the peace agreement during pregnancy or as a consequence of giving two years ago, women have been heavily in- birth has dropped substantially, from 118 deaths volved in the peace process. Colombia’s wom- per 100,000 live births in 1990 to 64 in 2015. en’s movement was also instrumental in ensur- In tandem, women are benefiting from more ing that the final peace agreement prominently widespread access to maternal health services reflected gender-related issues. Going forward, – around 96 percent of Colombian women had ac- women’s groups continue to provide a vocal cess to a skilled professional during delivery and and constructive input to discussions about the 90 percent to prenatal checkups in 2015. Likely shape of the country’s post-conflict future. in connection with a sharp increase in contracep- tive use, adolescent fertility rates have dropped 2 COLOMBIA …yet persistent and important gender in family and household care activities are most at risk of having their education disrupted. The gaps remain, especially in rural areas share of young women aged 16-24 who are not Everyday practice is taking time to catch up in education, employment or training (NEETs) is with improvements on paper, resulting in se- as a result twice that of men - 33.6 percent com- vere limitations in women’s capacity to both pared to 14.2 percent, in 2017. make decisions and to act on them. This is ev- Persistent patriarchal social attitudes also ident in their ongoing exclusion from the deci- carry implications for the health of Colombia’s sion-making process in public spaces and firms. women. A notable case in point relates to the As an example, despite the existing 30 percent use of contraception. While this has gradually quota in candidates´ lists, fewer than one in five increased over the years, a significant proportion (18 percent) members of parliament (MPs) were of women (20 percent) still decline to use any women in 2018, one of the lowest shares in the form of contraception. The reasons that female whole LAC region. Another concerning manifes- teenagers cite for that are a further reflection of tation of limitations on agency is the continued their limited agency when deciding about their high incidence of child marriage in Colombia. sexual and reproductive health: 18 percent of Around five percent of Colombian girls are mar- urban and 29 percent of rural female teenagers ried before they turn 15 years old and 23 percent report that their main reason for the non-use of before they are 18 years old (2015). Legislative contraception is opposition from their partners and enforcement gaps appear to account for the or someone else. In addition, and despite sex- incidence of this phenomenon. ual relationships with minors being illegal, the Gender violence also remains a prevalent issue number of children born to girls aged between across Colombia. High levels of violence have 10 and 14 years old increased by more than 4 characterized the recent history of Colombia percentage points between 2016 and 2017. for men and for women. However, while the on- Colombia faces considerable demographic set of the peace process has led to a fall in the challenges, which have implications for gen- likelihood of men being victims of violence, the der equality. As is the case across much of risks to women and girls appear to remain high. Latin America and the Caribbean, Colombia is Violence against women is perpetrated primar- experiencing an aging population. This demo- ily in the home. Almost one in two (48 percent) graphic risk could lead to a slowdown in eco- and more than one in four (27 percent) married nomic growth if the necessary precautions are women or in union reported experiencing emo- not taken. In order to prevent such slowdown tional and physical violence by their partners in and to take advantage of the so-called second Colombia (2015), respectively. Important institu- demographic dividend, Colombia will need to tional weaknesses seem to stand on the way to take advantage of the untapped reservoir of la- reducing the incidence of this type of violence. bor represented by the large share of inactive Despite advances in the accumulation of edu- and unemployed women, and to increase the la- cation endowments, relevant gaps still remain. bor force productivity of both men and women Although the participation of girls in primary ed- through adequate investments in human capital. ucation has gradually increased over the years, Colombian women do not have the same oppor- the transition to higher levels of education is tunities for economic participation as men. With proving problematic, with female absenteeism only six in ten (61 percent) of women in work, and dropout rates commonplace during this pe- Colombia still trails some countries of the region riod. Girls who are subject to patriarchal social in regard to female inclusion in the labor mar- expectations at home or who are heavily involved ket. Colombian women also register the highest Gender Assessment 3 unemployment rate in the region, at around 12 half of women between 13 and 24 years old are percent in 2017. A major contributing factor for not attending any educational institution in rural women’s low participation rates is the dispro- areas, compared to around 37 percent of simi- portionate responsibility they have for household larly-aged women in urban areas. Unlike girls tasks and care work. When women do find paid and young women in Colombia’s cities, those in employment, it tends to be of low quality and rural areas are more likely to cite child preg- poorly paid. Existing research suggests that gen- nancy or marriage as the main reason for not der discrimination accounts for a significant pro- attending school or university. For rural girls in portion of the wage gap experienced by women. school, grades tend to be sub-standard, espe- cially in math. Partly as a result of all these, four Their exclusion from the labor market has di- in ten (40.7 percent) young women are not in ed- rect ramifications for women, but also import- ucation, employment or training in rural areas. ant economic implications for the Colombian so- ciety. One telling statistic relates to the incidence The rural-urban divide is also clear in the area of poverty among women, which appears to be of economic opportunity. There is a sizeable higher among those in the prime working-age gap in labor market participation rates between group. In addition, just over one third of women rural and urban women (of between 27 and 22 pay into a pension fund at present, compared to percentage points for women 25-40 years old). more than half of men. This trend is especially Women in towns and cities are twice as likely concerning given the higher share of women to be in paid employment (55 percent) as com- among the elderly population. Equal inclusion in pared to their non-urban counterparts (24 per- the labor market will benefit Colombia’s econo- cent). Occasional paid employment is the reality my as well as advance gender equality. Not only for many (38.6 percent) rural women, more than women outnumber men, but their skills and double the national average (18.8 percent). This preparation are now as high as those of men if type of work is more prevalent in the agriculture not higher. It has been estimated that the poten- sector, which represents the predominant em- tial economic losses over the long term due to ployment opportunity for rural women. Despite gender gaps in Colombia’s labor market amount rural women’s growing role in farming, they con- to 17.6 percent in gross income per capita.2 tinue to have limited access to, and control over, productive resources. This has negative knock- Gender gaps in general seem to remain more on effects for their agency and decision-making substantive in rural areas than in cities, es- capabilities. The result of all these factors com- pecially in relation to endowments. Even in di- bined is widespread poverty and lack of opportu- mensions such as education and health, where nity among the female population of Colombia’s overall progress has occurred, the gains have rural areas. More than one in three (37.6 percent) been significantly lower for rural women than rural women are currently in poverty (compared for their urban counterparts. As an example, to one in four – 24.9 percent – in urban areas). almost all the births in cities were attended by skilled professionals compared to 88 percent in The reasons for the imbalance between rural the countryside in 2015. In addition, more than and urban women are multiple and complex. However, high on the list must be Colombia’s 2 Cuberes and Teignier (2016). About one fifth of this decades-long conflict, the worst effects of which loss in GDP per capita derives from distortions in oc- were felt in the countryside. As repeatedly ref- cupations held by women relative to men. The model erenced throughout this report, another major estimation implies that two factors lead to the income contributing factor is the higher prevalence of loss. First, a misallocation of entrepreneurial talent which affects the productivity of the economy. Second, patriarchal and traditional social norms in rural women’s lower participation in the market leads to areas. This goes a long way to explaining why the underutilization of the available human capital. the participation of women in household deci- 4 COLOMBIA sions has not increased in rural households and Putting in place the necessary institutional ca- contrasts with the increasingly greater voice that pacity to plan, monitor and implement policies, urban women have begun to enjoy over the last and to ensure the enforcement of the law. En- two decades. The burden for household chores, hancing the capacity – financial resources and for instance, falls particularly heavily on rural qualified staff – of the institutions in charge of women, more than half (56 percent) of whom de- planning, monitoring, implementation, oversight scribe themselves as being “mostly engaged” in and evaluation of gender equality policies would domestic tasks. The corresponding figure for ur- also be important. Special attention should be ban women is 37 percent. In view of the marked given to strengthening the agenda’s security and gaps between rural and urban women in Colom- justice capacities to effectively enforce existing bia, prioritizing gender issues when considering legislation on gender equality. Colombia’s rural economic development and so- cial inclusion represents a manifest imperative. Advancing women´s participation in decision making. Moving towards this objective would Women living in rural areas where armed con- require ensuring the effective enforcement of flict persists, and Venezuelan female immi- the existing 30 percent quota, the eventual legal grants, face an additional layer of risk. Recent mandate of parity (50-50) in public institutions, reports indicate that many female civil-society and the establishment of incentives or quotas to leaders in rural communities are either with- encourage a more equal representation of wom- drawing from the peace process or moving away en in decision making in private companies. entirely for their own safety. A second major risk factor for women is the massive and sudden Eliminating all forms of gender-based violence. immigration flows from neighboring Venezuela. This goal would particularly demand strengthen- Both these phenomena put women and girls at ing the institutions that provide protection and serious risk of sexual assault, human trafficking, assistance to women victims, legislating against and forced labor or prostitution. These risks are all types of child marriage, and improving the highest for those women and girls who already legal framework to fight gender-based violence find themselves in vulnerable situations. – and, more importantly, its enforcement. For the later, a better understanding of what is driving Based on the analysis presented here, the current low levels of conviction would be necessary. several policy recommendations can be made moving forward. Prompting and sustaining a positive change in social norms. This would require a combination of diverse interventions across sectors centered Enhancing women´s voice and on education, seizing the opportunities offered agency by ICTs and social media, ensuring a focus on adequately engaging men and boys and making Ending institutional fragmentation for gender use of role models. Pedagogical campaigns will equality. The clear attribution of responsibili- be necessary in the short term to improve the ties and accountability to sectoral and territori- general knowledge of what gender equality is al organizations in the development plan would about. be necessary for this purpose; these should be linked to specific and well-defined objectives and indicators. Results-based programs and gender-sensitive budgeting represent important tools to effectively advance this agenda. Gender Assessment 5 Enhancing investments in endow- grants, and a special focus on providing protec- tion for women and girls at risk – at a minimum ments and ending the rural-urban through their regularization – would be neces- divide sary. The provision of support services to victims Narrowing the gap in the coverage and quality of violence is also important. of basic services provision. Providing additional revenue-raising powers to the territories or in- Ensuring women´s access to eco- troducing results-based financing that considers gender objectives could help in this regard. Im- nomic opportunity proving the monitoring and evaluation system of Easing the transition to work. Expanding ac- service delivery particularly paying attention to cess to work for young women would require gender equality objectives would be in any case consolidating youth programs under a unified required. Measures to generally improve the framework, paying special attention to the spe- quality of the education system would need to cific needs of girls and women, and establishing center on rural areas. a skills agency that similarly considers such dif- ferentiated needs. Addressing gaps in access to education and dropout. The reverse gender gap in access to Preventing and sanctioning gender-based dis- higher education should be monitored. Special crimination in economic opportunity. Legal and attention to transitions would be required among institutional measures would be key in this area, boys in lower-secondary education and girls in including prohibiting prospective employers to higher levels, and more so in rural areas, through enquire about the family status of women, estab- subsidies, academic or financial support or skills lishing the principle of equal pay for equal work, leveling programs that cater to their needs. or setting up anti-discrimination commissions. Improving access to health services by women Promoting a more balanced distribution of re- and girls, especially in rural areas. Addressing sponsibilities over work and care through pa- the existing differences will likely require efforts rental leave policies. This would require the es- to improve the coverage and quality of services, tablishment of adequate parental policies that and their gender sensitivity. Access to sexual encourage fathers to effectively share family re- health information appears to be necessary for sponsibilities with mothers, following the exam- girls and women especially in rural areas of the ple of best practice countries such as Sweden. country. Enhancing effective access to quality childcare Continuing efforts to attain sustainable peace. to ease the burden of care on women. Access to Some measures to be considered in this area quality childcare is a pre-condition for women to include establishing a protocol to dismantle the join the labor market. Affordability tends to be structures that have supported the disposses- a central barrier in this area. Making payments sion of land, ensuring a sustainable implemen- for childcare tax deductible could thus improve tation of the Victim´s Law, with a particular focus access to these services. Introducing a quality on women, and investing in connectivity infra- assurance system for ECD would also be recom- structure, among others.3 mended.4 Addressing the gender implications of the Ven- Expanding access to productive assets and ezuelan migrant crisis. Further dissemination promoting entrepreneurship. Female entre- of information on service availability among mi- preneurship should continue being promoted 3 Ibid. 4 Ibid. 6 COLOMBIA through targeted programs that facilitate access to mentoring, training, finance and networks. Ensuring land reintegration to women under the peace accord, or providing financial instruments specifically tailored to rural women would be recommended. 5 5 Ibid. Gender Assessment 7 I THE AGENCY OF WOMEN This chapter presents an overview of the current status of women’s agency in the country. The concept of agency is used here to refer to the capacity of women and girls to make decisions for themselves and to act on those decisions. Agency is not only important in and of itself, it is also instrumental for other dimensions of gender equality; when agency is weak, it translates into unequal outcomes in other areas. To evaluate the situation in Colombia, the chapter looks at different areas that are considered manifestations of (the lack of) agency: legal and institutional framework for gender equality; political representation and voice; decision-making capacity within the family; exposure to violence; child marriage; and social norms. Some important advances can be highlighted. For instance, although certain gaps exist in the legal framework for gender equality, Colombia is considered a frontrunner in this area among Latin American and Caribbean countries. However, the current institutional capacity appears to be inadequate to enforce the existing laws or to fulfill the ambitious Colombian gender policy agenda. Largely as a result, and despite the positive progress on paper, the agency of Colombian women remains severely constrained in practice. A particularly extreme reflection of women’s lack of agency is the high incidence of all forms of gender-based violence, which acts as a barrier to the country’s social and economic development. Child marriage is also a common phenomenon. The weak empowerment of women in Colombia is further evidenced by their limited representation in decision making, especially in public spheres. Evidence exists that negative outcomes for women are correlated with traditional and patriarchal norms. I. Legal framework for the Mexico8, Quito9 and Brasilia10 consensus, and gender equality 8 Regional Consensus adopted after the Ninth Re- Colombia has made important positive ad- gional Conference on Women in Latin America and the Caribbean held in Mexico City in June 2004. The vances in the development of an adequate governments of the region renewed their commitment legal framework for gender equality. Indeed, to continue adopting measures aimed at the advance- the country is considered a “pioneer in legis- ment of women´s rights, incorporating a gender lation and jurisprudence with respect to wom- perspective into public policies, adopting proactive en’s rights” and is recognized, in particular, policies for job creation, recognizing the economic value of domestic work, guaranteeing sexual and re- for developing a comprehensive framework to productive rights, curtailing violence against women, address violence against women.6 The country or addressing HIV/AIDS, among others. is part and signatory to the main international 9 The Consensus followed the Tenth Regional Confer- initiatives in this area, including the Convention ence on Women in Latin America and the Caribbean on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination held in Quito, Ecuador, in August 2007. The Consensus focused on two strategic issues: i) political participa- Against Women (CEDAW) (1996), the Belém Do tion and gender parity in decision making at all levels, Pará Convention to Prevent, Sanction, and Erad- and ii) the contribution of women to the economy and icate Violence against Women7 (ratified in 2014), social protection, especially in relation to unpaid work. Representative governments established specific measures to overcome gender discrimination in polit- 6 Bouvier (2016) ical participation, employment, education, health, and 7 Approved in 1995, it recognizes that gender-based vi- the economy. olence constitutes a serious violation of human rights 10 Government leaders agreed to facilitate women’s ac- that the States need to prevent, punish and eradicate. cess to new technologies, promote a democratic and 10 COLOMBIA Table I-1: Colombia in ‘Women, Business and the Law 2018’ Latin America OECD High Global & Caribbean Income Accessing institutions: examines women’s legal 100 97 100 91 capacity, agency, and freedom of movement. Using property: examines women’s legal ability to 100 98 99 83 manage, control, and inherit property. Getting a job: monitors restrictions on women’s 68 68 90 67 employment and parental leave policies. Providing incentives to work: examines laws around childcare and personal income tax 80 77 86 66 liabilities. Going to court: considers the ease and affordability 50 67 86 68 of accessing justice. Building credit: examines nondiscrimination in access to finance and the inclusiveness of credit 50 41 52 30 reporting systems. Protecting women from violence: examines sexual 80 61 75 54 harassment and domestic violence laws. Source: World Bank (2018) other international commitments such as the violence against women (see Annex 1 for further Beijing Platform for Action,11 the Millennium details). Indeed, as shown in Table I-1, the coun- Development Goals (2000) and the Sustainable try has been assigned the maximum score in Development Goals (2015). In 2009, Colombia the Women, Business and the Law assessment also became subject to the jurisdiction of the (2018) regarding access to institutions and the International Criminal Court, whose Rome Stat- use of property. ute includes sexual and gender-based crimes as war crimes and crimes against humanity. The Despite the progress registered over the last country has also translated such commitments decades, some legal barriers to women’s full into national laws and has a very comprehensive inclusion still exist.12 In the international sphere and advanced legal framework for gender equal- Colombia has ratified some of the main ILO Con- ity in place. This framework includes legislation ventions pertaining to gender equality issues preventing all forms of discrimination in the eco- (Convention 100 on the right to equal pay, since nomic, social, and political spheres. Among other 1964; 111 on the right to not be discriminated guarantees, it ensures women’s rights are on an against, since 1969; and 189 on domestic work- equal footing with men and sanctions any type of 12 Women, Business and the Law measures gender non-discriminatory media, improve health and sexual equality in the law across 189 economies, including and reproductive rights of women, and promote inter- Colombia. The dataset identifies barriers to women’s national and regional cooperation for gender equity. economic participation and encourages the reform of 11 The Beijing Platform for Action, adopted at the UN’s gender-differentiated laws across seven indicators. To Fourth World Conference on Women (Beijing, China, understand where laws facilitate or impede women’s 1995), flagged 12 key areas where urgent action was economic participation, Women, Business and the Law needed to ensure greater equality and opportunities 2018 provides economy scores for each of the seven for women and men, as well as girls and boys. It also indicators covered. Scores are obtained by calculating laid out concrete ways for countries to bring about the unweighted average of scored questions within change. that indicator and scaling the result to 100. Gender Assessment 11 ers in 2014). Other international Conventions re- at 14 years old and above – is permitted in ex- main unratified, however (156 on workers with ceptional circumstances with parental consent. family responsibilities or 183 on the protection In all other circumstances, child marriage is of maternity). At the domestic level, relative- considered void. However, no penalties exist for ly important gaps also appear to exist in some those knowingly involved in it. As regards sexual critical areas relating to labor market inclusion, harassment, women have legal protection from protection against violence, and, in particular, ac- such practices in their places of work, although cess to justice and credit. These gaps will be dis- not in public spaces.14 cussed in further detail in the next paragraphs. Although the main legislative measures for the promotion of gender equality in labor markets II. Institutions for gender are now in place in Colombia, some weakness- equality es can be highlighted. As an example, Colombi- an law does not explicitly prohibit prospective The main Colombian entities that are respon- employers from asking a woman about her fam- sible for gender equality in Colombia are sum- ily status during the hiring process. Other legal marized in the Table I-2. While planning and shortcomings include the lack of entitlement to oversight functions are with the National Depart- flexible work arrangements for parents and the ment for Planning and the National Presidential absence of the principle of equal remuneration Council for Women, implementation lays with a for work of equal value. Gaps relating to paren- multiplicity of institutions at the national level, tal rights are also in evidence. At present, for including all line ministries15, a variety of depart- instance, no legal provision exists for paid pa- ments16, agencies17, institutes18, and others (i.e., rental leave to be shared between both mother the School of Public Administration, the Historic and father. Nor are payments for childcare cur- Memory Center, the General Attorney Office, the rently tax deductible, discouraging participation National Police or the Council for Human Rights). in pre-school education.13 Finally, the law does not guarantee mothers an equivalent position 14 Ley 599 de 2000, Art. 210A; Ley 1010 de 2006; and Ley after returning from maternity leave nor does 1257 del 2008, Art.29. it entitle employees to paid or unpaid leave in 15 In the former Plan (2013-2016): Ministry of Trade, order to care for sick relatives. Industry and Tourism, Ministry of the Environment and Sustainable Development, Ministry of Education, Min- istry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Ministry of Room also exists for improvements regarding Mines and Energy, Ministry of Justice, Ministry of ITCs, the legislation on access to justice and finance, Ministry of Employment, Ministry of Culture, Ministry as well as in the legislative framework against of Defense, Ministry of International Affairs, Ministry gender-based violence. At present, there is no of Health and social protection, Ministry of Transport, legal mandate in Colombia for legal aid in civil/ Ministry of Interior, Ministry for Housing. family matters, nor does the country have any 16 In the former Plan (2013-2016): Administrative department for Sports and Spare Time, Department anti-discrimination commissions in place. Co- for Statistics, Department for Social Prosperity, lombian law does not prohibit discrimination Administrative Department for Science technology based on gender or marital status in respect and Innovation, National service for learning, National of access to financial services. In addition, the Department for Planning, Administrative Department provisions of the Domestic Violence law (Law for civil Service 1257 2011) do not extend to former spouses or 17 Agency for the renovation of the territory, Agency for the Reintegration of persons and groups in arms, unmarried intimate partners. Child marriage – Agency for Rural development. 18 Colombian Institute for Family Wellbeing, National 13 Colombia records a score of 50 for its pre-school and Institute for Health, National Institute for Legal Heath primary education. and Forensic Sciences. 12 COLOMBIA Table I-2: Main national institutions involved in Gender Equality in Colombia Planning National Department for Planning. National Presidential Council for Women - Consejería Presidencial para la Equidad de la Mujer Implementation Multiplicity of national entities. Inter-sectoral Commission. Oversight and National Department for Planning. evaluation BOX I-1: Thematic lines of the department for Gender Equity The Department for Gender Equity works along six specific thematic lines. These were defined by the Consejo Nacional de Política Económica y Social (National Advisory Board for Economic and Social Policy, CONPES) in 2013.19 The department’s themes include: (1) cultural transformation and peace building; (2) economic autonomy and access to assets; (3) participation in power scenarios and decision making; (4) health and sexual and reproductive rights; (5) gender focus in education; and, (6) a comprehensive plan to guarantee women a life free of violence. In addition, it works on preventing teenage pregnancy and supporting victims of the armed conflict. All these were coordinated for the implementa- nerships with the private sector, international tion of the previous gender plan (2013-2016) by organizations, non-governmental organizations, the Inter-sectoral Commission created for that and centers of investigation. This unit is also re- purpose in 2013.19 sponsible for dictating the umbrella principles or main lines for gender equality policies to be The Presidential Council for Gender Equity developed at the ministerial or local level. (Consejería Presidencial para la Equidad de la Mujer)20, which is part of the Administrative De- However, the capacity of the Council has been partment of the Presidency, is in charge of the limited. As the diagnosis of the new National planning and monitoring functions.21 The Coun- Development Plan (2018-2022) highlighted, the cil is tasked with assisting the President and the budget allocated to this agency is low relative to national government in the design, management, other countries in the region. 22 The budget allo- and monitoring of pro-equality public policies. Its cated to the Council accounted to only 0.000178 mandate also includes promoting and strength- percent of the total in 2016, compared to for in- ening research concerning women’s status (see stance 0.02 percent in Mexico or 0.001 percent Box I-1). The Council achieves this through part- in Chile.23 In addition, it has been decreasing: it fell by 63 percent between 2013 and 2017. 24 The managerial and technical capacities of the Coun- 19 See Document No. 161, ‘Gender Equity for Women’ (https://colaboracion.dnp.gov.co/CDT/Conpes/So- cil also appear to be weak, while one of the main cial/161.pdf) 20 Alta Consejería para la Equidad de la Mujer (http:// www.equidadmujer.gov.co/Paginas/equidad-mujer. 22 Government of Colombia (2019) aspx) 23 Proyectamos Colombia SAS (2017) 21 DAPRE for its name in Spanish 24 Government of Colombia (2019) Gender Assessment 13 Table I-3: National entities with gender units/groups in the last gender plan cycle Ministry for Agriculture and Rural Development Rural Women Direction (Decree 2369 – 2015) Ministry of Education Women and gender Committee Ministry of Justice and Law Gender Group (Resolution 0737 – 2013) Ministry of Mines and Energy Labor Gender Equity Committee (Resolution 90014 -2015) Ministry of Employment Labor Gender Equity (Resolution 162 – 2012). Working group on Gender Equity. National Statistics Administrative Department Internal Group for Gender Statistics (Resolution 1567- 215). National Department for Planning Gender Sub-direction (Decree 1163 -2013) General Attorney’s Office Working Group on Gender and Differentiated Approaches (Resolution 2530 -2016) National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Gender-Based violence group (Oficio 056-2017) Sciences Colombian Agency for Reintegration Group for Programmatic Direction Design National Center for Historic Memory Working Group for Gender Approach Administrative Department for Sports and Spare Time Social Community Sport Dependency Presidential Council of Human Rights Gender table Ministry of the Environment and Development Working group on gender Ministry of Trade, Industry and Tourism Gender table Ministry of Foreign Affairs Gender table Ministry of Health Informal gender table National Police Gender instance National Service for Learning (SENA) Focal points in three directions. Source: Proyectamos Colombia SAS (2017) dependent agencies – the Gender Observatory – agencies involved in the implementation of the lacks the necessary staff and technologies to ful- gender plan has been encouraged. In 2017 out fill its legal mandate.25 Civil society organizations of the 32 entities involved in the implementation systematically claim that the role and capacity of of the gender plan 19 (59 percent) had created this institution should be notably strengthened. 26 a group, table, committee or any other instance devoted to gender affairs. However, out of these In order to adequately fulfill its mandate, the only 9 had been institutionalized through a reso- Council has promoted the creation of gender lution, circular or decree (see Table I-3). 27 equality units or working groups within min- istries and other relevant national agencies The Council is currently promoting the creation to implement the gender agenda. The limited of especially dedicated gender offices at the resources – and especially staff – of the Conse- territorial level. Out of the 32 regions (depar- jería make it impossible for it to ensure gender tamentos) today around half have an institution mainstreaming in all policies, and across differ- dedicated to gender equality issues at the high- ent sectors. In order to make this possible, the est decision level - in the form of a women´s creation of units or working groups in each of the secretary (see Figure I-1). Others have gender equality or women´s offices within other main 25 Ibid. 26 Proyectamos Colombia SAS (2017) 27 Ibid. 14 COLOMBIA Figure I-1: Regions with a secretary of women Bolívar La Guajira Sucre Norte de Santander Córdoba Santander Antioquia Caldas Cundinamarca Tolima Meta Valle del Cauca Cauca Nariño Amazonas Source: Own elaboration.28 Note: Santander and Tolima, in process. secretaries or departments. At the local level, ing gender mainstreaming, strengthening the only 11 out of 32 capital cities have a woman´s knowledge of the technical teams, improving the secretary (see Figure I-1). The creation of gen- internal articulation of the topic and making the der-dedicated municipal offices depends on the dialogue with the citizenship more fluid. 29 existence of resources; in some instances, and when such resources are not available, the task Due to the multiplicity of actors involved at the of supervising the application of gender policies national level, an Inter-sectoral Commission is integrated in the social policy secretary. 28 was set up in 2013. The main objective of this entity was to coordinate the implementation and The sectoral mechanisms for gender equality follow up of the last national policy on gender present specific weaknesses and strengths. equality. The Commission was also meant to pro- Reports from the entities where these groups vide guidance on the mechanisms that guarantee operate indicate that challenges persist with the implementation of the Action Plan and over- regards to their composition (biased either to- see the development of a control system that wards management or towards technical levels allowed following up the objectives of the plan, with little power), the low levels of training of among others. The commission convened every the members, their high workload and the high three months at the request of the Counselor for rotation rates among the personnel. On the oth- Gender Equity and was integrated by the main er hand, reports also indicate that these groups ministers or their delegates,30 the General Direc- appear to have been successful in improving awareness on the issue across entities, advanc- 29 Ibid. 30 The Minister (or his/her delegate) of Justice; Agri- 28 Created using DataWrapper. culture and Rural Development; Health and Social Gender Assessment 15 Table I-4: Municipal mechanisms for the implementation of gender equality policies in capital cities Women´s/equity Other secretary Amazonas – Leticia X Antioquia – Medellín X Bogotá – Bogotá X Bolívar – Cartagena de Indias X Boyacá – Tunja X Caldas – Manizales X Caquetá – Florencia X Casanare – Yapal X Cauca – Popayán X Cesar – Valledupar X Chocó – Quibdó X Córdoba – Montería X Cundinamarca – Bogotá X Guainía – Inírida X Guaviare – San José del Guaviare X Huila – Neiva X La Guajira – Riohacha X Magdalena – Santa Marta X Meta – Villavicencio X Nariño – San Juan de Pasto X Norte de Santander - – San José de Cúcuta X Putumayo – Mocoa X Quindío – Armenia X Risaralda – Pereira X San Andrés y Providencia – San Andrés X Santander – Bucaramanga X Sucre – Sincelejo X Tolima – Ibagué X Valle del Cauca – Cali Vaupés – Mitú X Vichada – Puerto Carreño X Source: Own elaboration. 16 COLOMBIA tor of the Planning National Department and of However, important challenges remain. Al- the Administrative Department of the Presidency though central gender institutions located within (who headed it), and other high-level officials.31 the office of the head of government, as in Co- lombia, afford access to decision-making and Specific challenges constrained the effective facilitate coordination, monitoring and account- functioning of this entity. These included the low ability, 33 the Colombian Council, which remains participation of high-level decision makers, since absent from the council of ministers, does not the representation was most usually delegated have the necessary authority or decision-making to technical staff with little or no decision mak- capacity. In addition, and although the Colombian ing competencies, its use for accountability and model has not been evaluated to date, various reporting on advances rather than as the delib- reports indicate that the high degree of fragmen- erative strategic space that it was originally in- tation that characterizes the Colombian institu- tended to be, the high rotation of the staff taking tional framework for gender equality entails very part in these meetings, and the lack of important relevant coordination challenges. These features institutions including the National Police or the operate as major obstacles to the effective im- General Attorney´s Office as permanent mem- plementation of a comprehensive gender-equali- bers. 32 ty policy in Colombia. In addition, various sources Relevant actions have been adopted to indicate that the capacity of the institutions in- strengthen the institutional and policy frame- volved in the implementation of gender-related work for gender equality in recent years. In or- policies in Colombia remains limited, particularly der to ensure that the territorial entities under- in connection with the necessary skilled staff.34 stand the relevance of adopting a gender lens Ensuring effective coordination across bodies in policy making, all new governors and mayors is central to ensure the implementation of gen- will undertake a course that includes a gender der equality initiatives. The main principles for equality module. In addition, the National Depart- setting up an effective institutional structure for ment for Planning will provide a ¨territorial kit¨ gender equality include: defining clear responsi- where the main priority lines on gender will be bilities, roles and lines of accountability among explained. The new National Development Plan the different agencies in charge; bolstering the has established that activities and resources de- capacity and resources of gender equality insti- voted to gender equality within broader projects tutions; ensuring their capacity to integrate gen- or interventions would be tagged as such. The der equality perspectives in their activities; and secretaries are expected in this context to make strengthening coordination mechanisms – both sure that these resources are effectively used vertical and horizontal – for policy coherence.35 for that purpose. Gender tags of actions or re- International experience indeed indicates that sources, however, do not entail in any case an formal coordination mechanisms are key to en- increase in the existing budget of territorial en- sure that all actions are aligned with a broader, tities. The specific institutional architecture for common, vision. 36 gender equality in Colombia should be seen as a first effort to help to strengthen the Council. A survey of OECD countries37 identifies ¨the 33 OECD (2016) Protection; Employment; Education; ITCs. 34 Government of Colombia (2019); Departamento Nacio- 31 The Director of the national Institute of Family Well- nal de Planeación (2017) being, the Director the Director of the Administrative Department of Civil Service, the Director of the Presi- 35 Ibid. dential Program for Human Rights, and the Director of 36 OECD (2014) the Administrative Department for Social Prosperity. 37 OECD Survey on National Gender Frameworks, Gender 32 Proyectamos Colombia SAS (2017) Public Policies and Leadership Gender Assessment 17 ability to advance gender equality objectives on powerment of women to eliminate gaps in labor a whole-of-government basis¨ as a key factor markets; the articulation and coordination of for success. This type of integral and cross-sec- systems and policies related to care; the political toral approach requires: 38 (1) Central gender empowerment of women; the promotion of wom- institutions that are properly resourced and en’s welfare and health (especially with regards staffed, and with authority to oversee and en- to their sexual and reproductive rights); the pro- sure an overarching view; (2) Line ministries and motion of the right to a life free of violence; the sectoral agencies with clearly defined responsi- recognition of rural women as pillars of develop- bilities and sufficient capacity to implement gen- ment; and, gender equity for peace building. The der initiatives and analyze the gender impacts of two other priorities for the next four years are other policies; (3) Robust coordination and mon- gender-based violence, and teenage pregnancy itoring mechanisms to ensure policy coherence and child marriage. and data-collecting to improve gender sensitive and gender impact indicators; and (4) Adequate The new Plan prioritizes strengthening the in- evaluation, accountability and oversight in order stitutional framework for gender equality in to encourage compliance, for instance through Colombia. Specific measures include redesign- gender equality commissions or legislative com- ing the Gender Observatory, and mainstreaming mittees. gender equality across all other sectors and ar- eas. The plan also anticipates the establishment Moreover, gender-responsive budgeting and of an inter-sectoral mechanism in charge of results-based programs are important tools gender violence.40 To strengthen the role of the to achieve gender equality. Gender-responsive Council as the main mechanism for the advance- budgeting signals a particularly strong com- ment of women in the country, the budget of the mitment to the gender equality agenda. Gender entity was increased by 746 percent between budgeting practices encompass many different 2018 and 2019. 41 Recently, the Government has forms, but generally entail an effort to formulate also launched the so-called High Instance for fiscal policies and/or public financial manage- Gender (Alta Instancia de Género), comprised by ment tools in a way that promotes gender equal- representatives from the Presidency, the Council, ity objectives, and/or the allocation of adequate and other agencies. Its mission is to coordinate resources for achieving them. More in particular, and ensure the application of a gender approach performance-based budgeting - where the focus in the implementation of the peace agreement. shifts from inputs to objectives - lends itself bet- ter than input-based approaches to incorporat- ing policy-related objectives including gender IV. Voice and decision into the budgeting process.39 making The Constitutional Court in Colombia requires III. Policies for gender all political parties to have a minimum quota of equality women on its electoral lists.42 The quota, which is set at 30 percent, is designed to increase fe- The National Development Plan 2018-2022 in- cludes for the first time a chapter on Gender Equity. The main pillars of the agenda include: 40 Ibid. increasing the educational and economic em- 41 http://mlr.vicepresidencia.gov.co/100/Equidad-Gene- ro.html 42 http://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/ 38 Ibid. Democratic%20Governance/Women-s%20Empower- 39 IMF (2016), IMF (2017). ment/ColombiaFinal% 20-%20HiRes.pdf 18 COLOMBIA Figure I-2: Percentage of Women Figure I-3: Percentage of Women in house members of parliament of representatives and senate 35 35 Share Share (%) (%) of women of women 1990-2022 1990-2022 30 30 Gender quota law Gender 30% quota law 30% 25 25 25 25 20 20 20 20 15 15 10 10 15 15 5 5 0 0 10 10 1990-1994 1990-1994 1994-1998 1994-1998 1998-2002 1998-2002 2002-2006 2002-2006 2006-2010 2006-2010 2010-2014 2010-2014 2014-2018 2014-2018 2018-2022 2018-2022 5 5 0 0 1997 2000 1997 2002 2000 2004 2002 2006 2004 2008 2006 2010 2008 2012 2010 2014 2012 2016 2014 2018 2016 2018 Colombia Colombia LAC LAC House House of representatives SenateSenate of representatives Source: UN Women/UNDP; ECLAC. Source: UN Women/UNDP; ECLAC. male representation in public decision-making of the House of Representatives (See Figure I-2) positions. Quotas generally strengthen the po- and 23 percent of the Senate (See Figure I-3). sition of women in political parties, increase the number of capable, educated women with the Similarly, despite positive progress over time, necessary professional experience in the field the 27-percent share in ministerial cabinet po- of politics and management of states and have a sitions that women gained in the last electoral symbolic function in terms of women’s political mandate was low (See Figure I-4). However, it participation.43 should be pointed out that the recently appointed government includes as many women as men. This marks a historic first for Colombia. More- over, women are present in ministries that have Despite this measure, fewer than one in five traditionally been managed by men, such as the (18 percent) members of parliament (MPs) Ministry of Transport and the Ministry of Internal were women in 2018. This is one of the lowest Affairs.45 rates in Latin America and the Caribbean. As a consequence, women’s organizations are advo- At the local level the situation is even less posi- cating even more strongly for the effective im- tive. Here, the share of women mayors and local plementation of gender parity in electoral lists.44 councilors has remained systematically very low At the same time, it must be noted that women’s and is still below average for Latin America and representation in the House of Representatives the Caribbean (see Figure I-5 and Figure I-6). and the Senate has increased substantially over time. Between 1990-1994, women only repre- Different obstacles prevent women from par- sented 9 and 7 percent of the two chambers, ticipating in politics in Colombia. First, the quo- respectively. Today, women make up 18 percent tas established by law are often not enforced due to the lack of effective sanctions. Second, a 43 Poskočilová (2015) 44 https://www.reuters.com/article/us-colombia-wom- 45 https://www.eltiempo.com/politica/gobierno/el-ga- en-politics/colombia-shatters-glass-ceiling-with-gen- binete-de-ministros-de-ivan-duque-para-su-gobier- der-equal-cabinet-idUSKBN1KG2HM no-ultimas-noticias-243018 Gender Assessment 19 Figure I-4: Percentage of Women in Ministeri- male-dominated political culture and the prev- al cabinet positions alence of patriarchal social norms dissuade women from engaging in political activities, especially at higher levels.46 In addition, indica- 90 16 35 80 14 tions exist that political violence against women 30 70 12 is widespread across Colombia. 25 47 According to a 60 50 10 recent study, nearly two 20 thirds (63 percent) of 8 40 6 women in politics report 15 receiving some form of 30 4 aggression due to their 10 gender. Common mani- 20 10 2 festations of aggression 5 include restrictions on 0 0 0 women speaking and the refusal to grant them 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2016 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2016 I II III the full financial and administrative resources Male Female required for Colombia their public duties.48 LAC Colombia LAC Women are also poorly represented in deci- Source: UN Women/UNDP; ECLAC. sion-making positions in the private sector. Note: I: 2006-2010 II: 2010-2014 III: 2014-2017 Only 12 percent of firms had a female manager Figure I-5: Percentage of women Mayors in 2010. By comparison, the regional average in 2017 was 21.3 percent, which is in line with the average for upper-middle income (UMI) coun- 16 35 14 tries (20 percent) for the same year (Table I-6). 30 12 25 The same trend is reflected in the boardroom, 10 20 with women making up fewer than one in ten 8 6 15 (9 percent) board directors in listed companies 4 10 in Colombia in 2012.49 Research from 2016 in- 2 5 dicates that the situation is not improving.50 Ac- 0 0 cording to Catalyst data, however, 14.5 percent 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2016 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2016 I II III of the seats in boards in Colombian companies Male Female Colombia LAC were LAC by women in 2016, compared to occupied Colombia only 7.2 percent on average in LAC51 There is also evidence that women in decision-making Source: ECLAC positions earn lower salaries than men.52 Figure I-6: Percentage of Women Yet, firms with high inclusion of women in de- Local Councilors cision making are shown to perform better. 35 46 http://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/ 30 Democratic%20Governance/Women-s%20Empower- 25 ment/Colombia Final%20-%20HiRes.pdf 20 47 ONU Mujeres (2016) 15 48 https://www.elespectador.com/noticias/politica/ 10 el-63-de-las-mujeres-que-hacen-politica-en-colom- 5 bia-son-victimas-de-violencia-de-genero-articu- 0 lo-684343 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2016 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2016 49 Marrugo Salas (2016) Colombia LAC Colombia LAC 50 Ibid. 51 https://www.catalyst.org/research/wom- en-in-the-workforce-latin-america Source: ECLAC 52 Aequales (2017) 20 COLOMBIA Companies with above-average representation measures. Since 2008, the country requires all of women on their boards throughout the world boards to have at least 40 percent female repre- tend to be rated higher for corporate social re- sentation. In 2002, less than 10 percent of board sponsibility, for example.53 The same extends to members in the largest publicly listed Norwe- financial performance.54 Zhang (forthcoming) gian companies (known in Norway as Allmen- highlights that the effects of gender diversity in naksjeselskap, or ASA companies) were women. the company´s leadership on performance are By January 2008, women made up more than 40 determined by the normative and regulatory ac- percent of the board members of ASA compa- ceptance in the institutional environment. In ad- nies. 59 dition, companies with greater gender diversity among their management are shown to have a More positively, women’s participation in higher survival rate than those with male-domi- household decisions has witnessed an increase nated management.55 in Colombia over recent years. In 2000, around one quarter (27 percent) of women reported that Table I-5: Women in business management their partner or someone else had the final say on decisions regarding large household pur- 2010 2017 chases (see Figure I-7). By 2015, this had fallen Colombia 12.1 .. to less than one fifth (18 percent). Similarly, the LAC .. 21.3 proportion of women who reported that the final UMI .. 20.1 decision about their own health fell to their part- ner or someone else halved (from 12 percent to Source: World Development Indicators (WDI) 6 percent) over the same time period. Yet deci- http://databank.worldbank.org/ sions on purchases are to a larger extent made (Accessed October 2018) solely by a partner or someone else. The evidence of the effects of different fac- The higher a woman’s education level, the less tors for the higher representation of women in likely it is that her male partner or someone boards is diverse. Some studies highlight the else takes the household decisions. Around important role of shareholder´s advocacy and one third of women with no education report legislative support.56 Others point to institutional that their partners or some other person have and cultural factors,57 or to circumstantial needs the final say on decisions pertaining to house- – e.g., in times of crisis boards seem to be more hold’s purchases for daily needs (Figure I-8). open to gender diversity.58 Among women with a higher education, however, Public strategies to increase the participation this percentage decreases to one tenth. A sim- of women at the top of companies are in any ilar pattern is observed in respect of decisions case becoming more common across coun- about large household purchases as well as de- tries, especially in Europe. Quotas, in particular, cisions about women’s health. In the case of the seem to especially serve that purpose. Norway latter, the differences are especially stark. Only is the most paradigmatic example of this type of 3 percent of women with a high education report that health decisions are taken by their partners, 53 Harjoto et al. (2015); Soares et al. (2015) compared to 21 percent of women with no edu- 54 https://www.catalyst.org/research/why-diversi- cation – a sevenfold difference. ty-and-inclusion-matter-financial-performance 55 Women´s Age, Teléfonica Open Future - https:// soyemprendedor.co/estidio-open-future/4442 56 Perrault (2014) 57 Grosvold and Brammer (2011), Carrasco et al. (2015) 58 Sun et al. (2014) 59 Smith (2018) Gender Assessment 21 Figure I-7: Decision Making in the household (share of women who report that these decisions were made solely by their partners or someone else) % of women who are married or in union 30 20 10 % of women who are married or in union 30 0 2000 2005 2010 2015 20 Making large household purchases Own health Making household purchases for daily needs Food to be cooked each day 10 Visits to family and relatives 0 Source: DHS 2000, 2005, 2010 and 2015. 2000 2005 2010 2015 Note: Women 15-49 years old who are in% union aof womenor married. 15-49 who are married or in union... 2015 Making large household purchases Own health 35.0 Making household purchases for daily needs Food to be cooked each day in the Figure I-8: Decision Making Visits 30.0 household by education level (share of women who report that to family and relatives 25.0 these decisions were made solely by their partners or someone else) 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 % of women 15-49 who are married or in union... 2015 Making Making Own health Visits to Food to be 35.0 household large family and cooked 30.0 purchases household relatives each day 25.0 for daily needs purchases 20.0 15.0 None Primary Secondary Higher 10.0 5.0 0.0 Making Making Own health Visits to Food to be household large family and cooked purchases household relatives each day for daily needs purchases None Primary Secondary Higher Source: DHS 2015. Note: Women 15-49 years old who are in a union or married. 22 COLOMBIA Figure I-9: Child Marriage in Latin America and Caribbean (2008-2014) 50 40 30 20 10 0 Nicaragua Dominica… Brazil Honduras Guatemala Panama Cuba Belize El Salvador Uruguay Colombia Guyana Mexico Ecuador Bolivia Costa Rica Peru Paraguay Haiti Trinidad y… Jamaica Saint Lucia Chile % married by 15 y.o. % married by 18 y.o. Source: UNICEF, Global database Note: The figure reports the percentage of women aged 20 to 24 years old who were first married or in union before the ages of 15 and 18. V. Child marriage cline in the share of women who got married or had their first child at or before they were 18 Child marriage continues to be a common phe- years old is observed as education increases. nomenon in Colombia. UNICEF data (Demograph- Higher education also impacts the age of first in- ic and Health Survey, 2015) indicate that around tercourse, although the increase is less marked five percent of Colombian girls are married be- (See Figure I-10). In 2015, the average age at fore they turn 15 years old and 23 percent before which women in the highest quintile of income they are 18 years old (see Figure I-9). Colombia entered into marriage was 24.4 years old, ac- ranks 20th in the World with respect to the share cording to the World Bank’s World Development of girls married before their fifteenth birthday. Indicators. This compares to an average of 19.3 Compared to other Latin American and Carib- years old for women in the lowest quintile. A re- bean countries, Colombia also ranks among the cent study also shows that both men and women highest. 60 Existing legislation facilitates early from families with more resources and where marriages in the country. Although the legal age the accumulation of human capital is promoted for getting married is 18 years old, the law per- tend to stay single for longer.62 mits both boys and girls to marry since they turn Adolescent marriage is associated with the 14 years old with parental consent.61 Moreover, level of education of girls and with an age gap as stated above, no penalties exist for those in- between the bride and the groom. The percent- volved. age of adolescents married or in union has re- Education and income affect the age that wom- mained relatively constant over recent decades. en enter their first marriage. An important de- In 2015, 16 percent of adolescents were mar- ried or in union – down 2 percentage points from 60 https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/wp-content/ 2000. However, differences in incidence exist uploads/2017/01/Child-marriage-in-LAC-Es- depending on women’s educational level (37.5 pañol-08.2017-1.pdf 61 https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/child-marriage/colombia 62 Rios Piñerez (2016) Gender Assessment 23 Figure I-10: Percentage of women 15-49 who reported age at first marriage, intercourse or birth 18 years or less by education level Family formation and Education. 2015 100 80 60 40 20 0 None Primary Secondary Higher Age at 1st intercourse 18 years or less Age at 1st marriage or union 18 years or less Age at 1st birth 18 years or less Source: DHS 2015. Note: Women 15-49 years old. Figure I-11: Adolescents (percent) who are Figure I-12: Age of partner in Adolescent´s married or in union by education 2015 couples by education 2015 25.0 22.7 40.0 21.2 35.0 20.0 17.3 17.8 30.0 15.0 25.0 20.0 10.0 15.0 5.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 Primary Secondary Primary Secondary Higher Adolescent's age Partner's age Source: DHS 2015. Source: DHS 2015. Note: Women 15-19 years old Note: Women 15-19 years old 24 COLOMBIA Figure I-13: Violence against women in colombia (% of women 15-49 y.o. married or in union who have experienced any form of…) Violence Against Women (% of women 15-49 y.o married or in a union who have ever experienced any form of ...) 72 67 66 65 62 52 60 36 48 34 32 27 26 25 27 18 8 8 6 5 2000 2005 2010 2015 Threat of Violence Emotional Violence Physical Violence Any Violence Sexual Violence Source: DHS 2000, 2005, 2010 and 2015. Note: Women 15-49 years old married or in an union percent among adolescents with primary edu- is true for restrictions in their physical mobility cation, compared to 7.9 percent among those and limitations in their decision-making abilities. with higher than secondary) (See Figure I-11). In Most importantly, child brides may be disem- addition, the male partners are 3.7 years older powered in ways that deprive them of their basic on average. This age gap is also more predom- rights to health, education, and safety.64 inant among adolescents with only primary ed- ucation (See Figure I-12). Such difference in age may contribute to further unbalancing power VI. Violence against women relationships within the couple. Indeed, there is evidence that having a much older partner can There is evidence of persistently high levels increase the risk of intimate partner violence.63 of violence against women in Colombia. The DHS captures information on levels of emotion- Child marriage has significant impacts on a al, physical and sexual violence, as well as the wide range of development outcomes for girls threat of such violence by an intimate partner.65 who are married early, as well as for their chil- dren, their families, and for society at large. Globally, girls married before the age of 18 are 64 Wodon et al. (2017) at a greater risk on a number of fronts. For in- 65 Emotional violence refers to attitudes that undermine women or reflect a controlling behavior from the stance, compared to their peers who marry at partner, such as accusations of infidelity, restricted later ages, they are more likely to experience access to family and friends, and being ignored. Phys- poor health outcomes, have children before they ical violence refers to attitudes or actions of physical are ready to do so, drop out of school, earn less aggression. These range from being pushed, slapped over their lifetimes, and live in poverty. Also, the or hit through to being threatened or actually attacked with a knife or gun. Sexual violence refers to the act likelihood of child brides experiencing intimate of coercive sex. Threat of violence refers to behaviors partner violence tends to be higher. The same reflecting intimidation or economic abuse by a wom- an’s partner. Examples include threatening to take the children away from home or to withdraw economic 63 Klugman et al. (2014) support Gender Assessment 25 Emotional violence is the most frequent form of cides committed by men over recent years has violence experienced by women in Colombia. Be- led Latin American countries to adopt special tween 2000 and 2010, around two in every three measures to fight the phenomenon, especially Colombian women (63 percent) who were mar- after the 1994 Convention of Belém do Pará.70 ried or in union admitted to having experienced One primary focus here has been the inclusion some form of emotional violence from their part- in national legislation of “femicide” as a specific ners. Although this figure declined to around half aggravated crime. (48 percent) of all married or in-union women by 2015, emotional violence continued to rank Femicide is also a major social challenge in Co- as the most common form of violence against lombia. According to the National Institute of Le- women. The most frequent manifestation of gal Medicine and Forensic Sciences, every three emotional violence is men accusing their female days a woman was murdered by her partner or partners of infidelity. ex-partner in 2017.71 This rate is similar to the one observed in LAC as a whole.72 In 2016, the After emotional violence, the most prevalent number of medical examinations for homicides form is physical violence, followed by threat of that were allegedly carried out by the victim’s violence and sexual violence (Figure I-13). Fig- partner or ex-partner amounted to 172. Of these, ures for 2015 show that more than one in four 128 corresponded to femicides, a 12.3 percent (27 percent) women reported experiencing phys- increase on the previous year.73 In LAC at least ical violence and nearly one in five (18 percent) 2,795 women were victims of the same crime in reported being threatened with violence. The Na- 2017 in 23 countries of LAC – an average of 121 tional Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic per country. 74 It must be however noted that the Sciences has been warning over the last years homicide rate is much higher among men, and about the high and growing incidence of sexual especially young men (in 2016 the intentional abuse of children, especially girls and in the age homicide rate was 47.5 per 100,000 men com- range 10-14 years old. Instances of sexual abuse pared to 4.2 per 100,000 women)75. against girls aged 10 to 14 years old averaged 21 per day in 2016.66 67 measuring and comparing the incidence of femicide Femicide also represents a concerning phe- across countries due to lack of capacity, under-report- nomenon across Latin America and the Carib- ing, and so forth. bean.68 Current data point to the fact that the 70 http://www.oas.org/en/mesecvi/convention.asp region has one of the highest rates of femicide 71 Corporación SISMA Mujer (2017) in the world, especially in Central American 72 https://www.cepal.org/es/comunicados/ce- countries.69 The increase in violent female homi- pal-al-menos-2795-mujeres-fueron-victimas-femini- cidio-23-paises-america-latina-caribe 73 Colombia’s National Institute of Legal Medicine and 66 UNICEF (2016). Forensic Sciences does not categorize all homicides 67 These figures are based on the examinations conduct- of women as femicides. The definition of femicide ed by the Institute. is based on the Law 1761 of 2015 (better known as 68 Femicide is generally understood to involve the ‘Ley Rosa Elvira Celis’). For the murder of a woman to intentional murder of women because of their sex. qualify as a femicide, the victim must be related to the The crime is most usually carried out by the victims’ aggressor or have an intimate or coexistence rela- current or former partners (e.g., WHO - https://apps. tionship with him. In addition, evidence is required of who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/77421/ WHO_ physical, sexual, psychological, or patrimonial violence RHR_12.38 _eng.pdf; jsessionid=452C0BE0A8EDF2FF- prior to the crime. 67B250276C52F8BC?sequence=1). 74 https://www.cepal.org/es/comunicados/ce- 69 See: http://www.unwomen.org/en/news/ pal-al-menos-2795-mujeres-fueron-victimas-femini- events/2018/09/event-spotlight-on-femicide-in-lat- cidio-23-paises-america-latina-caribe in-america. Note: numerous difficulties exist in 75 World Development Indicators 26 COLOMBIA At the societal level, violence against women offices guaranteed in any significant way. Indeed, seems to bear important economic implica- there is wide variation in the way they function tions. According to some studies not only do- across municipalities, since they depend entirely mestic violence tends to affect the poorest and on local governments and the resources allocat- least educated women, but it also increases their ed to them at that level. There are reports that economic and social disadvantage.76 Londoño suggest the mission of the offices is not being and Guerrero (1999) find that violence in gen- fulfilled due to their lack of capacity.80 eral, including domestic violence, represents a cost to the economy equivalent to 11 percent of The level of conviction of reported aggressors the GDP. Rivero and Sánchez (2004), in addition, remains very low. The share of women who re- estimate that the economic cost of domestic vio- ported violence or asked for help in Colombia lence alone amounts to 4 percent of GDP. has increased in 2015 with respect to previous measures; however, only 21 percent of the cas- Based on the existing literature, access to es taken to the police ended in sanction for the economic opportunity is associated with the aggressor.81 persistence and incidence of violence against women in Colombia. On the one hand, there is Receiving monetary support from a Cash Trans- evidence that Colombian women´s economic in- fer (CT) program seems to reduce domestic vi- dependence may reduce the persistence of do- olence in Colombia. In her recent study of Fa- mestic violence.77 On the other, a recent study fo- milias en Acción82 and its impact on domestic cused on rural women indicates that it may help violence at the municipal level, Rodriguez (2015) to reduce its incidence too, but only in certain investigated the exogenous variation in time activities: increased women´s earnings in coffee, and place of the transfers received. Her findings fruits, industry and trade led to a decrease in vi- show that the rate of domestic violence decrease olence, whereas among women in services they by 6 percent during the months in which women appeared to be associated with an increase. 78 received monetary transfers. The study draws on data about domestic violence cases reported The Family Police Offices are the main entity by the National Institute of Legal Medicine and for the prevention of violence and assistance Forensic Sciences. These cases include physical to victims. These administrative entities are in violence directed by men against their partner, charge of preventing, guaranteeing, re-estab- their children, or other members of their family lishing, and repairing the rights of family mem- in the household.83 bers that have been victims of domestic or fami- ly violence. Family Police Offices are spread over Yet the international evidence concerning the all the national territory. In the capital, Bogotá, impact of CTs on domestic violence remains for example, there are 36 in total.79 However, as mixed. In the case of the Oportunidades CT pro- recognized in the National Development Policy, gram in Mexico, for example, female beneficia- their existing information and monitoring sys- ries are shown to be less likely to suffer phys- tems do not give an accurate picture of the assis- ical violence but more likely to receive violent tance provided. Nor is the performance of these threats with no associated physical violence.84 76 Gaviria and Vélez (2001); Friedmann-Sánchez and 80 Government of Colombia (2019) Lovatón (2012) 81 ENDS (2015) 77 Gáfaro and Ibañez (2012) 82 Familias en Acción is a Conditional Cash Transfer pro- 78 Iregui-Bohórquez et al. (2019) gram implemented in Colombia since 2002. 79 http://www.integracionsocial.gov.co/index.php/noti- 83 The authors use data from the National Institute of cias/95-noticias-familia/2298-sabe-usted-como-fun- Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences. cionan-las-comisarias-de-familia 84 Bobonis et al. (2013) Gender Assessment 27 Another study suggests that violence decreas- ban and rural areas: while the share of rural re- es towards women who receive small transfers, spondents that agreed with that view amounted but increases for those receiving large transfers to 78.7 percent, the percentage drops to 65 per- (particularly when their partners hold traditional cent in urban areas. 88 views about gender roles).85 In Peru, meanwhile, evidence from the CT program Juntos shows a The prevalence of patriarchal values and be- short-term reduction in physical and emotional liefs may explain some of the observed gaps in violence against female recipients.86 outcomes. Research has found a strong asso- ciation between social norms and female labor Results from an unconditional CT program in force participation in Latin American and Carib- rural Ecuador suggest that women’s education bean countries.89 As shown in Figure I-15, there matters for the direction of the impact. Evidence is a clear, positive correlation between the share from this program shows that a significant de- of women in employment across the region and crease in psychological violence is registered the share of Latinobarómetro respondents who for women who have education beyond primary believe that women should only work when men school level. However, women with primary ed- do not make enough money.90 ucation or less typically encounter an increase in emotional violence when their level of education More in particular, a low share of Colombian exceeds or equals that of their partners.87 women justify wife beating, although women’s attitudes differ according to education levels. Wife beating is justified to a larger extent by VII. Attitudes and gender women with no education. According to women, the main justification for this is their neglect of norms their children. Among women with no education, 10 percent agree that wife beating is justified if Attitudes towards the role of women in society women neglect their children. This figure falls to show a mixed picture, with traditional norms 1.2 percent among women with a higher educa- appearing to be more prevalent in rural areas. tion (Figure I-16). On the one hand, women widely reject patriar- chal views of women’s social role. For example, Social views on abortion also indicate the prev- the World Value Survey 2010-14 asked wom- alence of traditional norms in this area. In 2010, en whether they agreed or disagreed that men Colombia legalized abortion under three circum- make better political leaders or business execu- stances: (1) if the continuation of the pregnancy tives. More than seven in ten of those questioned constitutes a danger to the life or health of the said that they either disagreed or strongly dis- mother; (2) in the case of life-threatening fetal agreed. At the same time, when presented with malformations; and (3) if the pregnancy is the statements characterizing the role of women as result of a sexual assault, incest, or a non-con- that of a housewife or care provider, around half sensual artificial insemination.91 Most men and agreed that these traditional assumptions were women (over 60 percent) agree with the des-pe- justified (Figure I-14). A wide majority of respon- nalization of abortion in certain cases, with the dents in the ENUT (Encuesta Nacional del Uso exception of the mother´s mental health, incest del Tiempo) 2015-2016 also believe that women are better qualified to carry out domestic work 88 https://www.dane.gov.co/files/investigaciones/bole- than men. Differences are evident between ur- tines/ENUT/Presentacion_ENUT_2016_2017.pdf 89 Fortin (2005); Goldin (2006); Fernández and Fogli 85 Angelucci (2008) (2006) 86 Hidrobo (2013) 90 Muller and Sousa (2018) 87 Ibid. 91 Burgos (2015) 28 COLOMBIA Figure I-14: Perceptions and Attitudes towards Figure I-15: Perceptions and Attitudes towards the role of women (% of people who agree with the role of women: Correlation with employ- the following statements) ment outcomes Perceptions and attitudes towards the role of women 90 CHL BRA Disagree or strongly disagree 80 URY PER 84.3 72.8 ECU 57.8 70 48.2 50.2 ARGDOM PRY 41.2 60 BOL (%) CRI 23.5 MEXSLV 14.7 NIC COL 50 PAN 40 GTM When a mother On the whole, On the whole, Being a HND works for pay, men make better men make better housewife is just 30 the children political leaders business as fulfilling as su er than women do executives than working for pay 30 50 70 90 women do Female labor force particiaption rate Strongly agree/agree Disagree/strongly disagree (15+) Source: WVS. 2010-1014. Source: Muller and Sousa (2018) calculated based on WDI (http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/WVSOnline.jsp) and 2015 data of Latinobarómetro Database. Note: The x axis reports the female labor force participa- tion rate in 2014 (+15). The y axis the share of adults who disagreed or strongly disagreed that women should only work if the partner does not earn enough. Figure I-16: Situations under which wife and when she is under 14 years old. However, beating is considered justified by education less than 15 percent of the population appears to agree with its full des-penalization. The largest Wife beating is justified if ... shares of population disagreeing with abortion (% women 15-49 y.o who agree by education level) under the legal circumstances are found among 12 10.1 lower income and lower educated women and 10 men.92 8 6.0 6 Different sectors and actors need to be involved 3.7 4 3.0 1.8 in efforts to change social norms around gen- 2 der. As shown by a growing body of evidence, 0 She goes She neglects She argues She refuses She burns access to information and the role of mass me- out without her children with him to have sex the food dia are key in this regard. Roles models and telling him leaders also play a central role, as does educa- None Primary Secondary Higher tion.93 Legal reforms, policies and programs can drive changes in gender norms by introducing Source: DHS 2015. news standards or licensing changes occurring Note: Women 15-49 years old. in practice.94 However, this ¨top-down¨ strate- gies need to be complemented and integrated in a balanced manner with ¨bottom-up¨ initia- 92 ENDS (2015) 93 Marcus et al. (2015) 94 Marcus et al. (2015) Gender Assessment 29 tives such as community dialogues, youth asso- particular type of media initiatives that promote ciations or communication activities.95 Inclusive positive stories and messages around gender social mobilization processes that enlist men roles and norms.96 The growing penetration of and boys as critical partners are also needed. In- social media offers special potential among formation campaigns to support positive change younger population groups. could be strengthened through ´edutainment´, a Final remarks: The information presented in this chapter indicates that, despite the progress made in developing a comprehensive legal and institutional framework for gender equality in Colombia, much room for improvement remains. Guaranteeing women’s rights and ensuring gender equality in practice will require Colombia to transcend its commitments on paper, by: first, having in place the necessary capacity to enforce them; second, promoting women’s voices and enabling them to make decisions and act as free individuals (e.g. free in the sense of who and when to marry, for example, or free from violence and its threats); and third, promoting and sustaining positive change in social views and norms around gender roles and related attitudes. Constraints in agency prevent women from making free decisions and inhibit investments in their accumulation of crucial endowments such as education and health, which are essential for ensuring their equal economic participation. Adequate investments in health and education, in turn, will help remove the existing barriers to women’s agency in Colombia. Given the vital importance of education and health outcomes in evening up the imbalance between men and women in Colombia, it is to these two themes that the next chapter will turn. 95 Watson (2014) 96 Watson (2014) 30 COLOMBIA II ENDOWMENTS Women’s limited access to health services and education can have important consequences for their accumulation of human capital, therefore influencing their ability to fulfill their potential as individuals and as members of society. In the context of an ageing, late dividend country such as Colombia, investments in human capital become even more crucial. This is especially the case with regards to inactive women, who comprise an important reservoir of untapped labor (see Chapter 3). This chapter reviews the situation of women vis-à-vis men in relation to the crucial endowments of health and education. As will be seen below, significant progress has been made by Colombian women in these two areas. With regards to health, this is manifested in women’s improved access to maternal health services, the rise in contraceptive use, and the rapid decline in the adolescent fertility rate registered over the last two decades. With regards to education, Colombian women are not only better educated today as compared to two decades ago, but they also outnumber men in enrollment and attainment at higher educational levels. Despite this positive record, however, some gaps deserve special attention. Demographic trends, for instance, are leading to a rapid population ageing process that affects women in particular. Adolescent fertility rates still remain comparatively high, while constraints on adolescents’ capacity to make decisions about their reproductive health persist. With regards to education, women still face higher absenteeism and dropout rates than men, while gender gaps in performance and segregation by field of study remain common. In addition, the share of female NEETs is much higher than that of men. This chapter will analyze these and other related challenges in further detail. I. Health tributed to the increased availability of modern contraceptives.97 More recently, there has been a a. Life expectancy, fertility, and ageing shift in the timing of motherhood and a postpone- ment of second births. These changes are most Demographic changes can have relevant gen- marked among women with a university educa- der implications. Variables such as fertility rate tion, but they are also apparent among women and life expectancy determine the age and sex with lower educational levels.98 Between 1990 composition of a country’s overall population. and 2016, the fertility rate dropped from three to The fact that the sex composition is unbalanced fewer than two children per woman (1.9). This is across age groups can, in some instances, serve below the average for both middle-income (2.3) as a reflection of prevailing gender disparities, and Latin America and the Caribbean countries such as sex selection at birth. It can also pro- (2.1), as well as below the replacement rate (See vide an indication of further potential challeng- Figure II-1). es, such as the coverage of elderly women vis- à-vis men by social protection instruments; or In addition, the life expectancy of Colombians of opportunities for development, such as the has notably increased, with women outliving existence of a large reservoir of working-age, men by an average of over seven years. The inactive women. life expectancy of Colombian women has grown from 72 to 78 years old between 1990 and 2016; The fertility rate in Colombia has decreased today it is almost at par with the regional av- since the 1960s, as in all other Latin American and Caribbean countries. The decline in the fer- 97 Batyra (2016) tility rate up until the 1980s has been mostly at- 98 Ibid. 32 COLOMBIA Figure II-1: Fertility and Life expectancy at birth (total years) 4.0 80 3.5 78 3.0 76 2.5 74 2.0 72 1.5 70 1.0 68 0.5 66 0.0 64 1990 2000 2010 2016 COL LCN MIC COL LCN MIC Female Male Source: World Development Indicators (WDI) http://databank.worldbank.org (Accessed October 2018) Note: COL refers to Colombia. LAC refers to Latin America and the Caribbean. MIC refers to Middle-Income Countries erage, and five years above the average among health, social security, education, socio-cultural MICs. The difference with males – whose life ex- activities, family life, and the labor market.101 pectancy was almost 71 years old in 2016 – is Moreover, although men tend to outnumber also at par with the regional average, but higher women in younger cohorts, women are more than the gap registered in MIC countries: namely, numerous in older cohorts (see Figure II-2). One seven years compared to only four (See Figure important gender dimension of this phenome- II-1). Survival at age 65 for women is also higher non is that most Colombian women have never in Colombia relative to all middle-income coun- contributed to a pension fund. This renders them tries: 85 compared to 80 percent in 2016. Likely particularly vulnerable to poverty in old age. in connection with these trends, the population growth rate for women has been 2 percentage Women should play a crucial role in the process points higher than that for men. Today, there are of reaping the economic benefits of the second 95 men in Colombia for every 100 women.99 demographic dividend. In order to counteract the risks of economic deceleration that popula- As a result of these demographic changes, pop- tion ageing entails (mainly due to the shrinking ulation ageing has proceeded at a fast pace in size of the workforce) and to prompt the second Colombia, and it is more visible among wom- demographic dividend in Colombia, economical- en than men. The share of Colombians aged 65 ly inactive women would need to join the labor years old or over has increased notably over the market in increasingly large numbers. The fact last years and is projected to reach over 11 mil- that women represent a greater share of the lion (out of Colombia’s total population of 54.7 overall population makes this especially perti- million) by 2050.100 Population aging has import- nent. For this purpose, it is necessary to contin- ant implications across diverse areas, including ue to build women’s human capital through ade- quate investments in education and health. This will also have the benefit of boosting productivity 99 The Colombian population as a whole increased in growth. The next sections will examine the accu- size by around 42 percent between 1990 and 2016. During this time, the female population rose from a mulation of education and health endowments total of 17,250,802 to 24,708,400 people, whereas the male population rose from 17,020,763 to 23,945,019. 100 UN Population Division 101 Ince Yenilmez (2015) Gender Assessment 33 Figure II-2: Population Pyramid Latin America and the Caribbean and Colombia 2016 LAC COLOMBIA 80 and above (1.3) 2.1 80 and above (1.1) 1.6 75-79 (1.2) 1.6 75-79 (1.1)1.4 70-74 (1.8) 2.1 70-74 (1.7) 2.0 65-69 (2.6) 2.9 65-69 (2.7) 3.0 60-64 (3.5) 3.8 60-64 (3.7) 4.1 55-59 (4.3) 4.6 55-59 (4.7) 5.0 50-54 (5.2) 5.5 50-54 (5.8) 6.1 45-49 (5.8) 6.1 45-49 (6.4) 6.7 40-44 (6.6) 6.7 40-44 (6.4) 6.6 35-39 (7.4) 7.3 35-39 (7.4) 7.5 30-34 (8.0) 7.9 30-34 (8.2) 8.1 25-29 (8.5) 8.2 25-29 (8.6) 8.3 20-24 (8.8) 8.4 20-24 (8.8) 8.3 15-19 (9.0) 8.5 15-19 (8.6) 8.0 10-14 (8.8) 8.3 10-14 (8.6) 8.0 5-9 (8.6) 8.1 5-9 (8.2) 7.7 0-4 (8.7) 8.1 0-4 (7.9) 7.4 Male Female Male Female Source: World Development Indicators (WDI) http://databank.worldbank.org/ (Accessed October 2018) by women vis-à-vis men.102 siderably above the average among middle-in- come countries, which stood at 83 percent in b. Maternal health 2014 (Figure II-3). Similarly, around 90 percent Maternal health has significantly improved over of women had access to at least four prenatal the last 15 years in Colombia. This change has controls in 2015. been characterized by a decline in the maternal Since 2006, different policies aimed at decreas- mortality ratio (i.e. the number of women who ing maternal mortality have been implemented. die from pregnancy-related causes while preg- Among the principal policies are new models for nant or within 42 days of pregnancy termination emergency obstetric care for the monitoring of per 100,000 live births). In 2015, Colombia’s ma- extreme maternal morbidity. In addition, a 2010 ternal mortality ratio stood at 64, down from 118 strategy to strengthen compliance with the pro- in 1990. This is nearly one third of the average of cesses that govern the provision of assistance to middle-income countries, which was 180 in 2016 pregnant women has been introduced. In 2006, (Figure II-3). Unsafe abortion is considered one meanwhile, Colombia adopted a separate strat- of the leading causes of maternal mortality in egy for dealing with vulnerable populations, as Colombia. Women who survive unsafe abortions well as a new protocol for assisting the victims are likely to suffer long-term health complica- of sexual abuse. 104 tions.103 c. Adolescent pregnancy The decrease of maternal mortality is likely to be associated with improved access to mater- Although the adolescent fertility rate has de- nal health services over the period. As an ex- creased over the last two decades in Colom- ample, the share of births attended by skilled bia,105 it still remains above the average for health staff increased from 86.1 percent in 2000 upper-middle-income countries (UMCs). The to 95.9 percent in 2015. This puts Colombia con- 104 Burgos (2015) 102 World Bank (2016) 105 The adolescent fertility rate is the number of births 103 Haddad and Nour (2009) per 1,000 women aged between 15 and 19 years old. 34 COLOMBIA Figure II-3: Access to Maternal Services in Colombia Births attended by skilled 102 Health sta (% of total) 100 98 99.2 96 94.8 87.3 86.1 94 82.9 92 63.1 90 88 86 84 82 Total Urban Rural % of women who received prenatal care 2000 2016 % of women attended by skilled sta in delivery COL LAC MIC % of women who received postnatal care Source: World Development Indicators (WDI) http://databank.worldbank.org/ (Accessed October 2018); ENDS 2015 Note: Data for MICS and LAC is from 2014. Women in graph 2 between 13 and 49 years old. fertility rate among Colombian adolescents has alone does not significantly determine low birth decreased at a faster pace than the regional av- weight. Of greater relevance is the age of the fa- erage in recent years: from 80 births per each ther, research suggests. If the mother is aged 9 1,000 women aged 15-19 years old in 1990, to to 14 years old and the father is aged over 18 50 in 2016. The figures for Latin American and years old, then the probability of low birth weight the Caribbean are 85 and 62, respectively (see increases by one percentage point – compared to Figure II-4). It should be noted, however, that the when the father´s age is lower than 18 and thus number of children born to girls aged between closer to that of the mother.109 10 and 14 years old increased by more than 4 percentage points between 2016 and 2017 Conditional cash transfers (CCTs) may be an ef- (DANE, 2017). This increase comes despite sex- fective instrument for reducing teenage child- ual relationships with minors being illegal.106 bearing. In Latin America, studies suggest a positive impact of CCTs on teenage pregnancy, Teenage births can have negative consequenc- even though the mechanisms behind the results es for the mother and the baby. Evidence sug- are still uncertain. A CCT can positively impact gests that adolescent mothers aged between 10 teenage pregnancy by increasing school atten- and 19 years old have higher risks of eclamp- dance, reducing household poverty, and encour- sia, puerperal endometritis, systemic infections, aging more frequent health checks (which gives low birth weight, preterm delivery, and severe adolescents the opportunity to access informa- neonatal conditions.107 Studies have shown tion about contraceptive methods).110 In Peru, an that mothers’ education and age are positive- increase in CCT-related spending at the district ly associated with birth weight, for example.108 level was associated with a reduction in the ado- In the case of Colombia, however, Meisel-Roca lescent fertility rate.111 Cortes et al. (2015) exam- et al. (2017) demonstrate that a mother’s age ine the impact of two different CCT programs im- 106 Government of Colombia (2019) 109 In Colombia, sexual intercourse with a minor under 14 107 Ganchimeg et al. (2014) years of age is a crime (Codigo Penal. Art 208) 108 Currie and Moretti (2003); Siza (2008); Ganchimeg et 110 Azevedo et al. (2012) al. (2014) 111 Ibid. Gender Assessment 35 Figure II-4: Adolescent fertility rate urban and rural women. In 2015, the prevalence of contraceptive use among married or in-union women was 79 percent in rural areas and 81 90 percent in urban areas. However, it is higher for 80 women with secondary education than for those 70 with no education: 82 percent of women with 60 50 secondary education use contraception, com- 40 pared to 70 percent of those with no education 30 – a difference of 12 percentage points.114 20 10 Among adolescents, contraceptive use does 0 not vary by urban-rural location either, but by 1990 2000 2010 2016 marital status. The prevalence of contracep- Colombia LAC UMC tive use among adolescents (15 to 19 years of age) is 30 percent in both urban and rural areas. Source: World Development Indicators (WDI) http://da- However, differences can be observed between tabank.worldbank.org/ (Accessed October 2018). those teenagers who are married or in a rela- tionship (61 percent of those girls and boys use contraception) and those who are not (76 and 85 plemented in Bogotá. Their results suggest that percent). The share of married female teenag- average teenage pregnancy rates reduce most ers using contraception is the lowest. The most significantly when a CCT program’s renewal is common contraceptive methods used by Colom- conditional on school success. bian adolescents are injections (29 percent), fol- lowed by condoms (23 percent) and the pill (12 d. Contraceptive use percent).115 Contraceptive use in Colombia is above the re- The most common reasons for women overall gional average. In 2015, an average of around not to use a contraceptive method are hysterec- seven in every ten (71 percent) women of repro- tomy, menopause, and infertility. In 2015, half of ductive age in Latin America and the Caribbean all the women who reported not using a contra- were using some form of contraception. Rates ceptive method said their decision was motivated varied largely across the region, however. The by a hysterectomy, the menopause, or infertility. level of contraceptive use was 62 percent in the A further 13 percent said it was due to infrequent Caribbean, for example, while it measured 71 sexual intercourse or not being married. Among percent and 75 percent for Central America and the other reasons (which in total account for 21 South America, respectively.112 In 2015, around percent) were lack of time and health concerns, four-fifths (81 percent) of Colombian women followed by the practice of same-sex relations. who are married or in union reported using a Lack of knowledge or opposition are cited as contraceptive method of some kind. Around reasons for not using a contraceptive method by three-quarters (76 percent), meanwhile, report- only 6 percent of women (Figure II-5). In coun- ed using a modern contraceptive method.113 tries with low fertility rates, two reasons tend to While geographical area is not a determinant account for the non-use of contraception: either of contraceptive use, education seems to be. women do not want more children, or they are The use of contraceptive methods is similar for infertile. In countries with high fertility rates, in 114 It is important to point out that a small share of wom- 112 United Nations (2015) en have no education. 113 Demographic and Health Survey, DHS 115 Government of Colombia (2019) 36 COLOMBIA Figure II-5: Contraceptive use among Women 15-49 years of age 2015 Reason for not using a contraceptive method Contraceptive method used (% women who do not use a contraceptive method) (% Women who use a contraceptive Method) Infrequent Pill Other 9.95 Other sex/not 18.67 20.83 , married 12.71 IUD or Male Opposition/la sterilizatio , injections ck of knowledge 19.1 3.36 or access 5.74 Wants more Histerectomy/me Condom children , nopausal/infertile Female 10.17 10.82 49.91 sterilization 38.74 Source: DHS 2015. Note: Women aged 15 to 49 years old, either in an union or not in an union contrast, the primary reasons typically center on contraception method among Colombian wom- lack of access to contraceptive methods and op- en. Colombian women employ long-term con- position to contraception.116 traceptive methods extensively, with nearly four in ten women (39 percent) reporting the use of The reasons for not using contraception among female sterilization (according to the DHS 2015). adolescents indicate the prevalence of con- Although female sterilization is common in Latin straints to girls’ agency. Based on 2015 DHS America and the Caribbean, its use is particular- data, the most common reason among teenag- ly high in Colombia (see Box II-1). According to ers not to use contraception in urban areas is the 2015 Demographic and Health Survey (DHS), the desire to have more children (20 percent). female sterilization acts as the country’s most However, this is followed closely by opposition common contraceptive method (at 39 percent). from their partners or other people (18 percent). Its widespread use contrasts with male steriliza- Among adolescents residing in rural areas, the tion, which represents the least-used method of order reverses. Here, the most frequently cited contraception (at 3.4 percent). Both condoms and reason for the non-use of contraception is oppo- the pill are used by 10 percent of women, while sition from their partners or someone else (29 20 percent of women used intrauterine contra- percent), while not wanting more children marks ceptive devices (IUDs) or injections (Figure II-5). the second main reason (15 percent). The fact Worldwide, two long-term contraceptive meth- that as many as 29 percent of non-users in ru- ods – female sterilization and IUDs – are most ral areas and 18 percent in urban areas report common among married women and those in a opposition by a partner as the main reason for union. Latin America and the Caribbean is the re- not using contraception is particularly telling as gion with the highest use of female sterilization it provides an indication of how constrained the in the world, with around 27 percent of wom- capacity of girls is to make decisions on their en relying on the method. Next in line is Asia, own reproductive health. where 23 percent of women depend on this form Female sterilization is the most commonly used of long-term contraception. 117 116 Florez and Soto (2008) 117 United Nations (2015) Gender Assessment 37 BOX II-1: Female sterilization in Colombia Globally, female sterilization is one of the most commonly used long-term contraceptive methods for birth control. This is particularly the case in lower-income countries.118 Studies show there is a high acceptance of female sterilization among women, particularly in non-Islamic countries. Yet, demands for more information are also high.119 Women who are considering this type of contraception need to be properly informed and should be offered other long-term alternatives that are more easily reversible.120 In 2010, Colombia passed a law (Law 1412 of 2010) that promotes female and male sterilization as a way of encouraging responsible motherhood and fatherhood. Under the law, everyone aged 18 years old or above can be sterilized free of charge. No restrictions or conditions are applied. When an individual requests sterilization, doctors are required to provide him/her with details about the procedure. Medical staff must also bring to patients’ attention the consequences and benefits of sterilization, as well as inform them about alternative methods. II. Education Figure II-6: adult literacy rates in colombia and in LAC a. Enrolment and literacy118 119 120 The gender gap in literacy rates has been al- 100 96 most negligible over the last two decades in 95 94 Colombia, especially when compared to the re- 92 gional trend. Both Colombian women and men 90 90 show much higher rates of literacy than the 85 average for Latin America and the Caribbean. 88 Meanwhile, the literacy gap between Colombian 80 86 men and women is minimal, albeit with a slight 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2015 2016 advantage in women’s favor (a positive differ- Colombia female LAC female ence of 0.34 percentage points). This bucks the Colombia male LAC male trend for the region as a whole, where male adult literacy is on average one percentage point high- Source: World Development Indicators (WDI) http://da- er than that of women (see Figure II-6). tabank.worldbank.org/ (Accessed October 2018). With regards to enrollment rates, gender gaps are small across all levels of education. On av- a whole. Yet, the enrollment gap between boys erage, primary education enrollment rates are and girls is smaller in the case of Colombia (see lower for both boys and girls in Colombia than Figure II-6). In Colombia, the existing gender they are in Latin American and the Caribbean as gap in enrollment at the primary level advan- tages boys. In secondary and tertiary education, 118 Joshi et al. (2015) the situation changes. The gender gap not only 119 Kohls et al. (2017) becomes slightly larger, but it switches to girls’ 120 Joshi et al. (2015) advantage (Figure II-7 and Figure II-8). In both 38 COLOMBIA Figure II-7: Primary education enrollment rates Figure II-8: Secondary education enrollment in Colombia and LAC (net)rates rates in Colombia and LAC education comple- in Colombia and LAC tion rates in Colombia and LAC 100 100 98 80 96 94 60 92 90 40 88 20 86 84 0 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2015 2016 2017 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2015 2016 2017 Colombia female LAC female Colombia female LAC female Colombia male LAC male Colombia male LAC male Source: World Development Indicators (WDI) http://databank.worldbank.org/ (Accessed October 2018). cases, enrollment rates among women and men ment rate (at 63 and 54 percent respectively) are generally higher in Colombia than in the re- than the regional average (55 and 42 percent) gion on average – except for male enrollment in and the average for Mexico (37 and 36 percent). secondary education. That said, Colombia compares poorly to the OECD average of 78 percent among women and 67 per- Colombia compares favorably to the regional cent among men. It also falls far behind Chile. average with regards to gender gaps in enroll- ment in higher education but still lags behind b. Attainment the OECD average.121 Based on WDI data for 2016, enrollment in secondary education in Co- A relatively large reverse gender gap in comple- lombia (at 82 for girls and 76 for boys) is above tion exists at the secondary level. At the primary the average for Latin America and the Caribbean level, the gender gap is almost non-existent (see (of 78 and 75, respectively). However, Colombia’s Figure II-9). However, while 78 percent of young performance is much below the enrollment rates women in Colombia are expected to graduate observed in the OECD (registered at 90 and 91, from upper secondary education at some point in respectively). In addition, the existing gender gap their lives, the same is true for only 62 percent of is larger in the case of Colombia. The difference men. This 16 percentage-point gap is one of the is also noticeable when looking at the case of highest among all OECD and partner countries.122 Chile: enrollment rates at the secondary level It is also above the average for Latin America and are 89 and 86 for both girls and boys. Mexico on the Caribbean (see Figure II-10). the other hand has a lower enrollment rate (79) However, absenteeism and dropout among among girls. The same trend can be observed in women remain an issue at higher grades. Out of enrollment rates at the tertiary education level. the total adolescent and young women between Colombia has a higher female and male enroll- 13 and 24 years old, as many as 40.5 percent 121 Invited to become a member of the OECD in 2018, Colombia will be the third LAC country in this associa- 122 http://gpseducation.oecd.org/Content/EAGCountry- tion, together with Mexico and Chile. Notes/EAG2016_CN_COL.pdf - OECD (2016) Gender Assessment 39 Figure II-9: Primary education completion rates Figure II-10: Lower-secondary education in Colombia and LAC completion rates in Colombia and LAC 140 120 120 100 100 80 80 60 60 40 40 20 20 0 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 0 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Colombia female LAC female Colombia female LAC female Colombia male LAC male Colombia male LAC male Source: World Development Indicators (WDI) http://databank.worldbank.org/ (Accessed October 2018). is not attending any educational institution; that and rural (11.8) areas. 124 is, for every three women of schooling age who attend education, another two do not. The high- Figure II-11: Number of student graduates est index of absenteeism or dropout is observed by level and gender among women with complete secondary educa- tion. This provides an indication of the difficul- Number of students graduated ties in entering university that women face. At by level and sex, 2010-2015 grade 7, there is a gender gap of three percent- 120,000 8,000 age points in the probability of survival among Bachelor Degree 100,000 Master Degree all adolescents – both urban and rural. This gap 6,000 increases to seven percentage points at grade 80,000 11. Among the main factors associated with sur- 60,000 4,000 vival throughout secondary education are a per- 40,000 2,000 son’s gender, his/her socio-economic strata, and 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 whether he or she receives a CCT.123 Bachelor Female Master Female Bachelor Male Master Male The reasons for not attending school or univer- sity are different for men and women. Almost 7 percent of girls who were not attending school Source: Ministerio de Educación Nacional. 2016. in 2015 cite pregnancy as the main reason, es- In 2015, more women than men graduated with pecially among those who completed primary a bachelor’s or master’s degree. For every man or secondary education. Difficulties in covering graduating with a bachelor’s degree, there were education-related costs and the need to make 1.4 women in 2015. The number of students who money are also mentioned by 7.3 and 5.3 percent graduated from a master’s degree course was of girls. Among men, on the other hand, the main slightly higher among women than men (7,500 reason for not studying is the need to make mon- and 7,000, respectively). Between 2010 and ey. This is the case in both urban (11.5 percent) 123 Sanchez et al. (2016) 124 Government of Colombia (2018) 40 COLOMBIA BOX II-2: The Ser Pilo Paga program The program Ser Pilo Paga, initiated in 2015, aims to help the best low-income students to join higher education in Colombia. The program provides financial support in the form of a condonable credit for the students. This covers the registration fee and additional basic expenses. The precise level of maintenance support is determined case by case and depends on whether the student needs to move or travel to study. The program targets students who completed level 11 and scored above 342 in the SABER exam. Successful applicants also need to have been admitted to a higher education institution and program. Selected students must fulfill their obligations in order for the credit to be condoned. If not, they are obliged to return the credit to the educational authorities.127 2015, the number of women graduating from a Differences in performance exist between boys master´s degree increased by 63 percent. The and girls. For mathematics, Colombian girls equivalent increase for men was 55 percent (Fig- score ten points lower than boys and as much ure II-11). Out of the total students that graduat- as 100 points lower than OECD girls, on average. ed in rural areas and completed that transition However, the gap in mathematics has decreased successfully, over 77 percent are enrolled in ter- over time, with increasingly more girls having tiary education programs in a different locality. scores comparable to those of boys.128 Colom- According to the ENDS 2015, only 12 percent of bian girls also achieve lower scores than their men and 15.7 percent of women in rural areas peers in Mexico and Chile. In the verbal test, Co- that finalized their secondary education studies lombian girls score 15 points higher than boys, are currently enrolled in the next level; these fig- but nearly 80 points lower than OECD girls, on ures double in urban areas.125 To improve access average (Figure II-12). to higher education by lower income students, the government introduced the Ser Pilo Paga The nationwide high school exam, known as program back in 2015126 (see Box II-2).127 SABER 11, reveals similar results. SABER 11 is the national standardized exit exam for high- c. Performance school students. Depending on their graduation date,129 high-school seniors take the exam either According to the PISA 2015 results, Colombia in the spring or the fall.130 Figure II-13 shows performs poorly from an international per- the difference between boys’ and girls’ scores spective. Colombian boys and girls score below on the verbal and math tests. During the peri- the OECD average in the PISA mathematics and od analyzed (2014-2016), the girls’ scores in verbal tests, and in particular below the levels mathematics were three points lower than that reached by boys and girls in Mexico and Chile for boys, on average. For the verbal test, the dif- (the two other OECD members in Latin America ference was around 0.5 points in favor of girls. and the Caribbean). Rural girls show the lowest math test scores. 125 Ibid. 128 Government of Colombia (2019) 126 Program Ser Pilo Paga was replaced by program Gen- 129 The majority of students take the exam during the Fall eración e in 2019 semester 127 https://www.icetex.gov.co/dnnpro5/en-us/fondos/ 130 In Colombia, there are two graduating cohorts per programasespeciales/serpilopaga3.aspx year. Gender Assessment 41 Figure II-12: PISA scores for Math and Verbal Figure II-13: Difference on SABER 11 by sex test 2015 Pisa test score. Math and Verbal. 2015 Di erence on Pruebas Saber 11 (Boys score-girls score) 499 510 491 482 465 3.42 453 3.01 2.97 432 432 431 2.36 2.49 412 413 404 417 416 395 384 0.25 -0.16 Boy Girl Boy Girl -0.45 -0.58 -1.15 Math Verbal 2014-2 2015-1 2015-2 2016-1 2016-2 CHL COL MEX OECD Verbal Math Source: OECD data base. Source: Subdirección de Educación-Departamento Nacio- Note 1: Colombia has been provisionally accepted as an nal de Planeación OECD member, yet it will only become an official member Note: From fall 2014 onwards, the methodology changed once all treaties are ratified. Until this occurs, the country and hence only information from that moment onwards will not appear in the statistics for OECD countries. is used. The exam covers five areas: verbal, math, social Note 2: ‘OECD’ here refers to the average among the 36 sciences and English. The scale goes from 0 to 100, with OECD countries excluding Latvia, for which no data were mean 50 and standard deviation 10. All differences in the available. left-hand panel are statistically significant. d. Segregation in higher education However, gender segregation by field of study remains more limited in Colombia than in most Gender segregation by field of study can be ob- OECD countries. Compared to OECD countries, served at the tertiary level. While there are 1.4 Colombia displays good gender balance in al- women studying business and administration for most all fields of study at the tertiary level. As every man studying the same, the rate for engi- an example, there are two female graduates for neering is 2.3 men for every one woman. Of all every male graduate in the field of education in female students enrolled in tertiary education, Colombia. This compares with the OECD average 52.2 percent choose either business, adminis- of four women for every man. Similarly, and as tration or law, whereas only 10.8 percent select seen above, two men graduate for every woman engineering, manufacturing, or construction. In in engineering in Colombia, compared with an the arts and humanities, nearly as many wom- average of three men for every woman in OECD en as men typically enroll. A notable gender countries.132 gap is evident in the areas of education, social sciences, journalism, and health and welfare. In e. The transition to work these subjects, the number of women enrolled is much higher than the number of men (Figure The proportion of female NEET (youth who are II-14). Women remain clearly under-represented not in employment, education or training) 133 is in most STEM fields of study, except for fields four times that of men in Colombia. Women are related to health and biology. In mathematics, for instance, only 29 percent of enrolled students 132 http://gpseducation.oecd.org/Content/EAGCountry- are women.131 Notes/EAG2016_CN_COL.pdf - OECD (2016) 133 NEET refers to youths (16-24 years old) who are not in 131 Government of Colombia (2019) employment, education or training. 42 COLOMBIA Figure II-14: percentage of men and women enrolled in tertiary education by area 2017 Tertiary education by area. 2017 60.0 50.0 52.2 40.0 38.5 30.0 25.4 20.0 10.0 10.8 0.0 Education Social Sciences, Arts and Business, Information and Engineering, Health and Other Journalism and Humanities Administration Communication Manufacturing Welfare Information and Law Technologies and Construction Male Female Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, http://data.uis.unesco.org/, November 17, 2018 overrepresented among the young population Factors such as teenage pregnancy and percep- who are out of school and not in work (25.5 per- tions about women’s social role can influence cent compared to 5.9 percent of men ages 16-24 women’s education and labor decisions. A study in 2017). This is despite the fact that the survival of 15-24-year-olds in Bogotá by the Inter-Amer- rate at grade 11 is higher for Colombian wom- ican Development Bank shows that variables en than for men and that more women gradu- such as age and poverty level are weakly cor- ate with a bachelor´s degree. These imbalances related with women’s decisions about employ- have persisted since 2010. ment and education.135 In contrast, teenage pregnancy and perceptions of women’s social The reasons for not working neither studying role strongly correlate with such decisions. Re- appear to be different among Colombian men search by Machado and Muller (2018) in Brazil and women. A recent study on this phenomenon demonstrates that internal barriers related to in Colombia134 highlights that while a relevant aspirations and motivations often derive from share of male NEETs is unemployed, 92 percent deeply-rooted views about gender roles and of the female NEETs are dedicated to household stereotypes. These barriers strongly impact ef- tasks. Over 85,000 NEET fathers who took part in forts by young women to engage in education the study do not dedicate any time to the house- and work. hold chores or to taking care of children. Only 10 percent of the total of male participants report- Several programs aimed at facilitating access ed taking part in these activities, compared to for young adults aged 18-28 years-old to the 52 among women. In addition, low educational labor market have been implemented in Co- levels are a determinant factor in the ability of lombia in recent years. The goal of these pro- female NEETs to integrate in the labor market, grams is to raise the quality of education and which is increasingly specialized. When they to facilitate young people’s transition to the la- manage to find a job, it is oftentimes as low- bor market. These include: (1) the extension of er-skilled workers with poor working conditions the school day (Jornada Unica);136 (2) the Todos and low salaries. 135 Bernal et al. (2018) 136 The school day was extended from five to eight hours, 134 Universidad del Rosario (2017) although the measure is not yet implemented in all Gender Assessment 43 BOX II-3: NEETs (youth who are not in employment, education or training) in LAC The number of youths (15-24 years of age) in Latin America and the Caribbean who were out of school and out of work amounts to nearly 18 million. Of these, 12 million are women. At around one fifth of the population of that age, the proportion of NEETs in the region has remained relatively steady over time. In 1990, the proportion stood at 23.4 percent. By 2010, it had fallen to its present level of 20 percent. As in Colombia, NEETs in Latin America and the Caribbean are more commonly found in rural areas (21 percent) than in urban areas (17 percent). 139 The proportion of NEETs in Latin America is similar to that in Europe and Central Asia (19 percent) and Sub-Saharan Africa (24 percent), but it is lower than the proportion in the Middle East and North Africa (32.3 percent) or in South Asia (30.3 percent). A possible explanation for the relative steadiness in the proportion of NEETs over time is a lack of employment opportunities, which delays young people’s entry into the labor market. This delay comes at a time when schooling levels are improving.140 The increase in the number of male NEETs between 1992 and 2010 accounted for almost the entire growth in the NEET´s population throughout the period (1.8 million individuals). This carries especially relevant implications within a context of increasing criminal activities because the raise in the number of male NEETs appears to be correlated with crime and violence. The main driving force behind the persistently high shares of NEETs in the region seems to be the limited opportunities for entry into the labor market. However, this pattern applies more to men than women. For women, meanwhile, there has been a more significant decline in the NEETs’ share. This is the result of their increased school attendance and relatively stable rate of working. 141 a Aprender program, which aims at improving employment and entrepreneurship among youth teaching practices; (3) the Colombia Bilingue (Law 1780 of 2016, better known as Ley del 2014-2018 program, which is designed to im- Primer Empleo). Following this, programs such prove English learning in primary and middle as 40 mil Primeros Empleos have been estab- school; (4) the middle-school articulation with lished to facilitate access to formal employment the Servicio Nacional de Aprendizaje (SENA),137 in private firms through subsidies or tax exemp- which focuses on strengthening technical ed- tions. As yet, however, no impact evaluation has ucation; 138 and Transfórmate, a program that been conducted to assess the outcomes of this helps 16-28 years old people that have been vic- program. The law also promotes remunerated tims of the conflict to reintegrate into the labor internships in the public sector.139140141 market. In 2016, a law was passed to promote public schools. 137 SENA is the government agency in charge of develop- 139 De Hoyos et al. (2016) ing vocational training programs. 140 Ibid. 138 Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo (2018) 141 Ibid. 44 COLOMBIA Final remarks: The analysis presented in this chapter confirms the commendable progress that Colombia has been made to eliminate gender differences in health and education in recent decades. Maternal mortality rates have been curtailed, while the coverage of maternal services has become almost universal. The analysis also indicates that parity has long been achieved in educational enrollment, even to the disadvantage of boys and young men. Yet, and at same time, some relevant gaps persist. Teenager´s agency over their sexual and reproductive health appears to be limited, as indicated by the still large share of them who report not using contraception due to opposition by their partners or someone else. Teenage pregnancy, although to a lesser extent, still remains a challenge in the country. With regards to education, gender gaps to the detriment of girls still persist in dropout and absenteeism, and in performance, while segregation by field of study remains common. In addition, the overall large number of Colombian female young people who do not work nor study – and the large share of women in this situation – suggests that women face particular barriers in the transition to work. The next chapter will explore this hypothesis in more detail. More broadly, it will assess whether the investments that Colombia has made in health and education over recent years are translating into improved economic participation for the country’s women. Gender Assessment 45 III ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES Access to economic opportunity refers to the possibility for women to take part in the same paid and productive employment as men and to have the same opportunities for participation in entrepreneurship, business management and ownership, or to access productive assets such as land. Gender equality across these areas can have large impacts not only on women’s lives and those of their families, but also on an economy’s productivity.142 It has been estimated that the potential economic losses over the long term due to gender gaps in Colombia’s labor market amount to 17.6 percent in gross income per capita.143 The estimated productivity loss from women staying out of labor market amounts to 5.7 percent of the current GDP.144 Colombian women have joined the labor market in increasing numbers over the last decades. However, women in Colombia are more likely to be unemployed, and those in employment typically have lower quality jobs than men. Partly as a result of these trends, only one third of employed women contribute to a pension fund. This is especially concerning given the fact that women tend to live longer than men, and also to retire earlier.145 A major factor for women’s poorer inclusion in the labor market is domestic and household-related work, the primary responsibility for which falls on women’s shoulders. Gender discrimination in the labor market is also evidenced by the rather large and unexplained gender wage gap. Likely as a consequence of all the former, poverty rates appear to be higher among working age women than men in Colombia. This chapter will review these and other issues in order to assess whether greater investments in women´s endowments are ultimately translating into the improved economic participation and empowerment of Colombian women. 142 World Bank (2012) 143 Cuberes and Teignier (2016). About one fifth of this loss in GDP per capita derives from distortions in occupations held by women relative to men. The model estimation implies that two factors lead to the income loss. First, a misalloca- tion of entrepreneurial talent which affects the productivity of the economy. Second, women’s lower participation in the market leads to the underutilization of the available human capital. 144 Mateo Díaz and Rodriguez-Chamussy (2016). 145 Their legal retirement age is 57 vis-à-vis 62 for men since 2014. I. Labor force participation Female labor force participation varies slightly by age group. Women’s labor force participation Female labor force participation in Colombia is is higher among women aged 25-40 years old. high in international comparison. Colombia has The highest rate is observed for young women increased its female labor force participation at (25-40 years of age), whose participation stood a high rate over the last two decades,146 and as at 73 percent in 2010 and 76 percent in 2017. shown in Figure III-1, it performs above the LAC Among women aged 41 to 59 years old, partici- average in this area. In 2017, labor force par- pation rates are also high, measuring 64 percent ticipation (18 years of age and above) was 57.7 in 2010 and 67 percent in 2017. The lowest par- percent for women and 80.8 percent for men. ticipation rates are observed among the elderly Moreover, at 23.1 percentage points, the gap be- (60 years old and above).147 tween men and women in Colombia is smaller Civil status, children, education and socio-eco- than in many other Latin American and Carib- bean countries. 147 Labor force participation is defined as the economi- cally active population over working-age population. Working age is defined as 12 years of age or older for urban areas, and 10 years of age or older for rural areas. For this analysis, we only focus on women aged 146 See Mateo Díaz and Rodriguez-Chamussy (2016). 18 years old or above. 48 COLOMBIA nomic background are all correlated to Co- Figure III-1: Labor force participation in LAC, lombian women’s participation in the labor 2017 market. Women who were in a union (separat- ed, divorced, or widows) are most likely to work (75.6 percent of all women workers), followed 80 by women in a union (57.8 percent), and finally by single women (38.5 percent). Women without 60 children are found to be working less frequent- ly than those with children. Among mothers, 40 the frequency of occupation decreases with the 20 number of children. With regards to education, it is women with either tertiary (68.9 percent) or 0 primary education (51.3 percent) who are most 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2017 frequently found working. Women with second- Colombia LAC ary education are even less likely to work (44 percent) than those without any education (49 percent). Women from the highest income quin- Source: World Development Indicators (WDI) tile (61.2 percent) are also found to be working http://databank.worldbank.org/ (Accessed March 2019) more frequently than those from the lowest quintile (39.1 percent).148 1.1 percent of men said that family reasons pre- vented them from looking for a job (see Figure III-3). Gender differences are also evident in the II. Time use freely available time that people have. Around 13 percent of women reported feeling that they had Women take on the lion’s share of care and insufficient time, compared to 8 percent of men. household work in Colombia. In 2017, over 82 Box III-1 provides a summary of the challenges percent of women participated in non-remuner- of care in Colombia. ated domestic and care work. This compared to only 37 percent of men. On average, women work Parental leave policies can contribute to en- on these tasks 34.1 hours per week, compared to hancing the gender balance in the distribution 18.4 hours among men. In all age groups, wom- of family and household responsibilities. Mater- en dedicated more hours to care and household nity leave extensions have been less successful tasks than men, on average. The largest gap ex- than the enactment of paternity leave in increas- ists among younger women (aged 18-24 years ing female labor force participation. Elements old), where the difference between men and such as wage replacement or the level of obliga- women amounts to 19.3 hours per week (Figure tion to share it with their partners are important III-2).149 in this regard.150 Changing the views of employ- ers and employees seems to be the most prom- The gender gap in domestic and household-re- ising approach. Sweden, which is considered to lated work seems to be a fundamental factor represent a typical dual earner/dual caregiver that keeps women out of the labor force, espe- regime, is the main international reference in cially in rural areas. More women than men cite this area (see Box III-2). Job protection also leads family reasons as the motivation for not looking to substantial increases in participation of moth- for a job. In 2017, 28.6 percent of women and ers with children under the age of 6.151 148 ENDS (2015) 150 Schonberg and Ludsteck (2014) 149 Perfetti del Corral et al. (2018) 151 Low and Sánchez-Marcos (2015) Gender Assessment 49 Figure III-2: Hours per week dedicated to non-remunerated domestic and care work 2017 40 36.2 35 40 36.2 30 35 25 30 20 25 17 15 20 17 10 15 5 10 0 5 10 to 15 to 18 to 25 to 45 to 65 and 0 14 17 24 44 64 more 10 to 15 to 18 to 25 to 45 to 65 and 14 17 Men 24 Women 44 64 more Men Women Source: Gran Encuesta Integrada de Hogares (GEIH). 2010-1017. Figure III-3: Reasons For not looking for a job 2017 by sex and location 100% 100% 80% 80% 60% 60% 40% 40% 20% 20% 0% Male Female Male Female 0% Male Urban Female Male Rural Female Urban Rural No jobs available Family responsibilities To study Retirement No jobs available Family responsibilities Sickness Don't want to work To study Retirement Age Other Sickness Don't want to work Age Other Source: Gran Encuesta Integrada de Hogares (GEIH). 2017. Note: Reasons for not looking for a job are computed over inactive population. 50 COLOMBIA BOX III-1: The challenges of care The World Bank has recently developed a package of activities aimed at increasing gender-relevant data and evidence to inform care-related policies in Colombia.152 It did so based on a demand and supply analysis of care services. This analysis revealed that almost 40 percent of the Colombian population (equivalent to around 18,049,451 people) depend on care for reasons of age and/or disability. Indeed, almost 80 percent of households in Colombia have at least one member in need of care (either because of young age, old age, or disability). At around 80 percent, the majority of caregivers are women. Female caregivers mostly declare household activities as their main activity, while more than 50 percent of male caregivers declare that they also work outside the home. Female caregivers tend to belong to households from the two poorest quintiles. Around 12 percent of care providers are also subjects of care, most of whom are women. Provision of care happens predominantly within the family. Unpaid caregivers spend between 35 and 45 percent of their daily working time (6 hours out of 16 hours per day) providing general home care or care to specific members of the household. In addition to this workload, between 32 percent and 45 percent of the unpaid caregivers list a paid job outside of the home as their main activity. Public and private-sector supply of services at the national and local levels are divided into transfers (money and in-kind) and services (direct, including care institutions, and indirect, such as trainings and workshops). Households with only elderly people and households with two or more members in need for care are the most vulnerable, as they present the highest dependency rates and the highest rates of unmet care needs. This makes them a priority for the design of policies aiming to alleviate the care burden and improve the quality of care. Demand for care services is expected to increase in the future due to demographic reasons (i.e. aging society), suggesting that the dual challenge of increasing coverage and quality of care (including, among other things, in the definition of standards for care) will be at the forefront of the policy agenda. 152 152 Abreu et al. (2018) Gender Assessment 51 BOX III-2: Parental leave policies in Sweden Sweden shows one of the strongest positions of women on the labor market, one of the highest fertility rates among Western countries, and very low levels of child poverty. These very positive outcomes are largely attributed to the ambitious family policies package that exists in the country, which combines flexible leave and working hours for parents with young children, affordable, high-quality childcare, and generous spending on family benefits.153,154 In particular, Sweden has one of the most advanced and generous leave systems. In 1974 Sweden became the first country in the world to allow both parents to take time off from work to take care of their children, promoting the involvement of men in childcare and of women in the paid labor market.155 For children born in 2016 or later each mother and father has the right to 3 remunerated months of leave that cannot be transferred (mammamånader or ‘mother’s quota’ and pappamånader or ‘father’s quota’), while there is flexibility to distribute the remaining 10 months between them. 156 Out of the 64 weeks or 16 months of parental leave, 13 months are remunerated at 80 percent of the most recent salary, with a ceiling of 51,000 euros per year in 2016; the rest are remunerated at a fixed rate of 21 euros per day.157 A particularity of the Swedish system is the so-called “speed premium”. Different reforms have been made over time to promote fathers’ leave uptake. Given that a minimum for fathers did not exist, when the systems started to be implemented, they barely took parental leave: only about 0.5 percent of fathers doing so in the first year. In 1995 a minimum of one month was established for fathers and mothers that was not transferable.158 This minimum was extended to 2 months in 2002, up to the current 90 days since January 2016. The generosity of the system has also grown over time. 159 Both the introduction of the one- month father’s quota in 1995 and its extension in 2002 led to more fathers taking more leave. 160 In 2008, a gender equality bonus161 was established. A study on the effects of these reforms found that the reservation of the first month to the father was the most effective, while the bonus did not show any impact.162 153154155156157158159160161162 153 https://www.perfar.eu/policy/family-children/sweden 154 Andersson (2008), Lofstrom and Westerberg (2002), Thévenon (2011) 155 Wells and Bergner (2014) 156 European Platform for Investing in Children, Sweden profile 157 European Platform for Investing in Children, Sweden profile 158 http://qz.com/587763/how-swedens-daddy-quota-parental-leave-helps-with-equal-parenting/ 159 Duvander y Johansson (2012) 160 Duvander y Johansson (2012) 161 Couples that shared the leave would obtain a fiscal credit: for each day that the mother returned to work and the father took the leave the mother would accumulate a fiscal credit of 10 euros to be used next year. 162 Duvander y Johansson (2012) 52 COLOMBIA BOX III-3: The effects of childcare provision for FLFP The expansion of access to early childcare and pre-schooling services consistently lead to higher female labor force participation across countries. Lokshin (2004) and Fong and Lokshin (2000) conclude that mothers’ labor force participation and working hours are responsive to changes in the price of childcare in Russia and Romania, respectively. Indeed, the introduction of free public preschool for children aged 3 and 4 in Israel led to a sharp increase in Arab mothers’ labor supply (Scholsser 2011). Barros et al. 2011 also find that access to free publicly provided child care services led to a considerable increase in mothers’ employment (from 36 to 46 percent) in Brazil. Medrano (2009) finds that the expansion of ECC in Chile increased female labor force participation by 2.6-10 percentage points. Additionally, a childcare subsidy induced by a program aimed at expanding pre-primary school facilities in Argentina was found to increase maternal employment (Berlinski and Galiani 2007). Moreover, the proportion of children 0–3 attending childcare and rates of female labor force participation (FLFP) are strongly correlated in both Europe and LAC. The relationship is stronger for children 0–3 than for children 3–5, suggesting that easing barriers to FLFP is strongly related to the competing demands for mothers’ time.167 The provision of adequate childcare also con- Figure III-4: Women’s Unemployment tributes to keeping women in the labor mar- rate in LAC ket. The evidence of the impacts of childcare for female labor market inclusion is broad from across countries (see Box III-3). For the case of 14.0 12.0 Colombia, Attanasio and Vera-Hernandez (2004) 10.0 show that the probability of female employment 8.0 increased from 0.12 to 0.37 as a consequence of 6.0 the community nursery program in rural Colom- 4.0 bia. Cardona and Morales (2015) also analyze 2.0 the case of Medellin and find that in those areas 0.0 Mexico* Peru* El Salvador* Honduras* Dominican… Paraguay Ecuador* Panama* Bolivia Uruguay* Chile** Argentina Costa Rica Brazil* Colombia where there are no child care centers, only three out of ten women participate in the labor mar- ket. In contrast, twice as many women partici- pate in areas where there is a center 500 meters Female Male away or less. Colombia’s landmark community nurseries program “Hogares Comunitarios” has Source: SEDLAC evolved into a more structured early childhood Note: * 2016, ** 2015; data for Colombia come from the development strategy. Although there is diverse Encuesta de Hogares. evidence of the positive effects of this expan- sion on children´s developmental outcomes,163 163 Bernal and Fernández (2013), Bernal and Ramírez (2018). Gender Assessment 53 Figure III-5: Gap in unemployment rates 2017 Figure III-6: Women’s unemployment rate by education level by age group 2017 Gap in unemployment rates (men's minus women's) Unemployment rate by age group (18 years of age and older) by education level. 2017. 30 29 27 26 24 25 24 24 15 14 2.5 - 14 13 13 13 12 12 9 9 8 - 3.5 - 3.5 8 7 7 7 7 - 6.6 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 None Primary Secondary Higher 25-40 41-59 18-24 Source: Gran Encuesta Integrada de Hogares (GEIH) 2017. Source: Gran Encuesta Integrada de Hogares (GEIH). Note: Gap is defined as men’s unemployment rate minus 2010-1017. women’s unemployment rate. It is calculated for those 18 years of age and above studies on the effects that this measure had for of highest in OECD countries. 164 mothers, and in particular with regards to their labor market inclusion, are scarcer. Flexible Women’s unemployment rates are highest work arrangements and after-school programs among young women aged 18 to 24 years old, could also help parents better balance work and living in urban areas, and regardless of the ed- family responsibilities. ucational level.165 The unemployment rates for women 18-24 years of age have been around 13 percentage points above the average since III. Unemployment 2010. In 2017, women’s unemployment rate was on average 12 percent, compared to 25 percent The unemployment rate for women in Colombia for those 18-24 years of age. The difference in is the highest in Latin America and the Carib- unemployment rates is around -3 percentage bean. In 2017, the unemployment rate was 12.3 points across all education levels with the ex- percent for women and 7.2 percent for men. As ception of secondary education (Figure III-5). The shown in Figure III-4, the female unemployment gender gap is larger in rural areas (see Figure rate is by far the highest in the region, and even III-6), likely because of the more prominent role higher than those registered in Latin American of women in the care economy and in non-remu- and Caribbean countries with much lower in- nerated family activities.166 167 come levels, such as El Salvador or Honduras. Having a professional or technical degree de- This trend can have multiple interpretations, however, since it also means that many Colom- 164 Government of Colombia (2019) bian women who may have otherwise been sim- 165 In Colombia, unemployment rate is defined as total ply inactive were looking for a job. The gap in the number of unemployed over total economically active unemployment rate between men and women is population. also the largest in regional perspective and one 166 Ibid. 167 Mateo Díaz and Rodriguez-Chamussy (2016). 54 COLOMBIA Figure III-7: Informality rates Figure III-8: Workers who contribute in Latin America 2015 to a pension fund by sex 100.0 50 80.0 40 60.0 30 40.0 20 20.0 10 0.0 0 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Bolivia Paraguay Mexico* Nicaragua* El Salvador Colombia Ecuador Dominican… Costa Rica Brazil Chile Uruguay Urban Women Rural Women Urban Men Rural Men Women 15-24 Women 25-64 Total (women & men) Source: SEDLAC (CEDLAS and WB). Source: Gran Encuesta Integrada de Hogares (GEIH). Note: Share of salaried workers in informal jobs. The legal 2008-1017. definition of ‘informal’ refers to a worker who does not Note: Percentages are calculated as the ratio of # working have the right to a pension when retired. *For Mexico and women (men) who contribute to a pension fund/# work- Nicaragua, figures correspond to 2014. ing women (men). It does not include individuals who are already retired. Computed among those 18 years of age and above creases the duration of unemployment for Colombia is within the average for Latin Amer- women, while the presence of children under ica and the Caribbean. As across the region in two years of age increases it. According to Aran- general, the highest informality168 rates are go et al. (2016), women with a technical degree observed among young people (15-24 years of tend to experience shorter unemployment peri- age). This is true for both men and women. In ods. The number of years of education appears particular, over half (54.2 percent) of the women to increase the duration of unemployment for in this age bracket are informal workers (Fig- both men and women, although the elasticity is ure III-7). For the working population as a whole, larger for men. For women, having a technical around half of employed men (52 percent) and a degree decreases the duration of unemployment slightly higher proportion of employed women by 0.06 percent; no statistically significant coef- (55 percent) had a contract in 2017. Yet, in rural ficient is found for men. The presence of family areas, only one third of employed workers have members under two years of age decreases the a contract. In the case of women, 60 percent of duration of unemployment for men but increas- those in urban areas have a contract, compared es that of women. This result is aligned with the to 30 percent in rural areas.169 different roles of men and women with regards to care and household chores. Working women are also less likely to con- tribute to a pension fund compared to working men. Only around one third of working women IV. Quality of employment contributed to a pension fund since 2008. In Informality is common among Colombian work- 168 Legal definition: a worker is considered informal if (s) ing women. The rate of informality of women in he does not have the right to a pension when retired. 169 GEIH (2017) Gender Assessment 55 contrast, half of working men did. The share of that the figures presented so far do not control both working women and men contributing to a for any covariate and must therefore be inter- pension fund has slightly increased over time, preted with caution. however: in 2017, around 38 percent of wom- en and 52 percent of men contributed to a pen- The existing literature on the topic confirms the sion fund compared to only 33 and 47 percent in existence of a rather large gender wage gap 2008, respectively. Rural male (16 percent) and that is largely unexplained by observable char- female (13 percent) workers are less likely to acteristics. Hoyos et al. (2010) found that men’s contribute to a pension fund. However, between hourly wages were 18.3 percent higher than 2008 to 2017, an increase of 15 percent has been those of women during the period 1994-1998. registered in the share of working women who Most of this difference cannot be fully explained contributed to a pension fund in urban areas. The by socio-demographic characteristics. This gap increase was even greater for women in rural decreased to 13.8 percent in 2000-2001 and to areas, at 35 percent (Figure III-8). Moreover, the 13.5 percent in 2002-2006. Tenjo and Bernat legal retirement age for Colombian women is (2018) also contend that the gap has been de- lower than that of men, and, as seen above, they creasing over time and that it is larger among tend to live longer. All these combined represent self-employed people. They conclude that if the a large challenge, as it is not clear how these unobservable factors were not in place, wom- women will be sustained in old age. en would earn between 12 and 15 percent more than men given that women’s productivity in- dicators are better. Earlier studies also found V. The gender wage gap a gender wage gap that was not explained by observable characteristics, but by different re- A gender wage gap has been identified in Co- munerations to the same attributes. To a cer- lombia.170 In OECD countries, the average wage tain extent, this could be attributed to gender gap (defined as the difference between the me- discrimination.172 According to Abadia (2005), dian earnings of men and women relative to the however, wage discrimination in Colombia only median earnings of men for full-time employees) exists in the private sector and tends to be more remained steady at 14 percent in the three years noticeable among women who are married or in up to 2016. The gender wage gap in Colombia a union. was below the OECD average during this period. The wage gap in Colombia appears to be larg- The gap grew between 2013 to 2015, from 7.1 to est at the extremes of the income and education 11.1 percent. In 2016, the gap returned to 2013 distributions. A study on the National Household levels (Figure III-9). One possible explanation for Survey 1982-2000 (Angel-Urdinola and Wodon, this decrease may be the deterioration of labor 2003) found that the gap among unskilled work- market conditions in urban areas over the last ers averaged 8 percent over the period under in- two years. When defined as the percentage of vestigation. For those with tertiary education, the men’s monthly wage that is not earned by wom- average gap increased to 10 percent. However, it en,171 the gender wage gap has averaged around was close to zero for workers with incomplete 20 percent since 2008 (although in 2017 it mea- tertiary and technical education. According to sured 17.6 percent). It should be noted, however, Hoyos et al. (2010), the wage gap is most pro- nounced among those with lower and higher in- 170 Gender wage gap = comes, as well as among those with lower and median wages of men-median wages of women ( median wages of women )*100. higher education. Glavis (2011) reinforces the 171 Gender wage gap = ( median wages of men-mean wages of women )*100. 172 Tenjo (1993); Tenjo et al. (2005); Bernat (2009); Glavis median wages of women (2011) 56 COLOMBIA Figure III-9: International Comparison Table III-1: Women in business ownership of Gender Wage Gaps 2006 2010 2017 Colombia 43 35.3 .. Gender Wage Gap LAC .. .. 44.3 18.3 UMI .. .. 37.8 16.7 16.5 15.4 14.2 Source: World Development Indicators (WDI) http:// databank.worldbank.org/ (Accessed October 2018) 14.3 14.3 13.9 9.6 7.1 11.1 7.1 Figure III-10: Account ownership at a financial 2013 2014 2015 2016 institution or with a mobile-money-service provider MEX COL OECD 80 Source: OECD data base. Note: Colombia has been accepted to be an OECD 60 member, yet it will only be a member once all treaties are ratified. The gender wage gap is defined as the dif- 40 ference between median earnings of men and women 20 relative to median earnings of men. Data refer to full- time employees 0 2011 2014 2017 conclusion that gender wage gaps are more sig- Colombia, female LAC, female nificant in the lower-income group. In contrast, Colombia, male LAC, male Bernat (2009) finds that the gaps are largest among women with higher education and with more years of professional and management Source: World Development Indicators (WDI) experience. Other studies also find evidence http://databank.worldbank.org/ (Accessed October that the wage gap is more relevant in the low- 2018) est and highest income percentiles.173 Badel and Pena (2010) describe this phenomenon as the this period. Data for 2017 indicate that the gap “glass-ceiling” and the “quick-sand floor” effects. in Colombia is similar to the average for Latin America and the Caribbean (see Figure III-10). VI. Entrepreneurship and Based on the most recent WDI data the rep- assets resentation of women in business ownership appears to be comparatively high, although it Access to finance appears to be low for region- has declined over time. The last WDI data avail- al standards among both men and women. The able indicate that the share of firms with female share of men and women with an account at a participation in ownership in Colombia in 2006 financial institution or with a mobile-money pro- (at 43 percent) was very high for regional stan- vider has grown substantially since 2011, while dards (see Table III-1). Over ten years later, the the difference between them has decreased over average for Latin America and the Caribbean was still 44.3 percent. Yet, by 2010 the share of Colombian women in business ownership had 173 Fernandez (2006); Badel and Pena (2010) Gender Assessment 57 Figure III-11: Poverty rates and gender poverty gap by age groups 2017 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70 + Women Men Source: World Bank staff’s calculation based on GEIH 2017 decreased, dropping to 35 percent. VII. Poverty Other sources seem to confirm that Colombia compares favorably to other countries in this Around 27 percent of Colombians live in pover- area. Based on the Global Entrepreneurship ty177 and women represent more than half (52 Monitor, Colombia has made important prog- percent) of the poor. In 2017, there is a small ress with regards to female entrepreneurship. and non-significant difference between male and According to this report, Colombia was the Lat- female poverty rates (26.2 and 27.6 percent, re- in American and Caribbean country where the spectively). However, this small difference (disag- number of women entrepreneurs registered the gregated by sex alone) reflects the facts that: (i) highest increase between 2014 and 2015: from poverty is measured at the household level and 15 to 25 percent of the total female population, by definition all household members are classi- an increase of around 68 percent. Over this same fied as either poor or non- poor; and (ii) the ratio period, the regional average only increased by 1 of males to females is roughly 50/50 in both poor percent. The female/male total early stage en- and non-poor households.178 Although poverty trepreneurial activity (TEA) ratio174 was also high rates for both women and men have decreased (89 percent), and Colombia ranked 14 among all over time, there is still more than a quarter of 64 countries examined. Regarding the female/ men and women living in poor households. male opportunity ratio, however, the country only There are differences in the incidence of pov- ranked 42.175 176 erty between men and women across age groups. Girls and boys are consistently poorer than adults and seniors. Between the ages of 20 174 The central indicator of GEM is the Total Early-stage Entrepreneurial Activity (TEA) rate, which measures and 39 years old, men and women diverge sig- the percentage of the adult population (18 to 64 years) nificantly with respect to their relative poverty, that are in the process of starting or who have just started a business. 177 All numbers in this note are based on official moder- 175 Perception of opportunity for entrepreneurial activity. ate poverty line. This is U$S 5.4 a day (2011 PPP). 176 Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (2016-2017) 178 Buitrago et al. (2018) 58 COLOMBIA in favor of men (see Figure III-11). This differ- the poor population also increases. Poor women ence coincides with the peak productive and re- represent 52 percent of the total poor popula- productive ages of men and women. In addition, tion aged 15 years old and above who have no when looking at data for marital status, the pov- formal education. This share becomes larger as erty rate is twice as high for divorced women as the education level increases (i.e. 55 percent in for divorced men.179 the case of women with secondary education and 61 percent for those with tertiary education). The interaction between educational attainment Children and dependents are an important vul- or family composition and poverty is more im- nerability factor, particularly for women. Among portant for women. The likelihood of being poor the households composed solely of adult women diminishes with formal education, for both wom- (either one or more), those with children have en and men. Nevertheless, as the level of formal an average poverty rate that is five times higher education increases, the share of women among than those without.180 Final remarks. As the analysis summarized in this chapter indicates, gender gaps are especially evident in the area of economic opportunity in Colombia. Despite advances to improve women’s health and education outcomes in recent decades, a large share of Colombian women still remains excluded from the labor market. For those who work, the quality of jobs and the associated conditions tend to be lower. This may serve as a disincentive for many inactive women to join the labor market. The existing gaps appear to be strongly related to the prevalence of traditional social views and the central role of women in the household and in care. All these challenges represent a high cost to the Colombian society, not only in the form of wasted investments in human capital, but also in terms of the opportunity costs of misallocating a large share of the population. Working towards the full inclusion of women in economic activity will be key in future years if Colombia is to reap the benefits of a second demographic dividend. If Colombian women are to participate in the economy on equal terms with men, further efforts will be required. These include ensuring that they can choose to work if they wish. Making sure that investments in education pay equally is also essential. Finally, it is important to bring about a fairer gender balance in the distribution of care and household tasks, and to guarantee equal access to productive resources. 179 Ibid. 180 Buitrago et al. (2018) Gender Assessment 59 IV THE RURAL-URBAN DIVIDE, THE CONFLICT AND THE MIGRATION CRISIS – ISSUES PARTICULAR TO THE COLOMBIAN REALITY, AFFECTING GENDER EQUALITY ACROSS DIFFERENT DIMENSIONS Colombia presents three specific phenomena with relevant gender implications across all areas explored in previous chapters, which deserve special attention and analysis. First, the clear rural-urban divide across all areas and outcomes, which indicates that rural women find themselves in a much more disadvantaged position compared to both rural men and urban women in Colombia; second, the decades of conflict between armed forces, the paramilitary and the guerrilla, which has deepened gender gaps on many fronts, and especially so with regards to gender violence and in rural areas of the country; and third, the recent mass migration flows from neighboring Venezuela. The large observable differences between women living in cities and in the countryside are of considerable significance as they indicate the co-existence of two different and distinctive ‘countries’ within Colombia: rural Colombia and urban Colombia. The two major crises represented by the conflict and the mass migration from Venezuela have rendered women and girls, and especially those living in conflict-affected areas and irregular migrants, especially vulnerable to abduction, sexual assault, or trafficking by the criminal and armed groups operating in much of the Colombian countryside and in border regions. Access to basic services such as health and education for these girls and women is especially challenging given the existing lack of capacity of institutions in remote conflict affected areas and the likely strained resources and services as a result of the large inflow of Venezuelans into towns and cities. Their more vulnerable situation makes these women and girls also less susceptible to engage in productive work or entrepreneurial activities, and in many instances leaves them exposed to poverty and prostitution. This section will provide further details on the gender-related aspects and challenges of both the armed conflict and Venezuelan immigration inflows, as well as the details of the rural-urban divide in gender gaps and outcomes. I. The rural-urban divide made by someone else as compared to urban areas (Figure IV-1). Limitations to women´s agency are more evi- Child marriage and related practices differ ac- dent in rural areas of Colombia. As an example, cording to residence. The share of women in ru- the share of women who report that household ral areas that married at, or before, they turned decisions are made solely by their partners or 18 years old has increased over time. This is in others is higher for all categories in rural areas. parallel with the share of women who have their This gap is particularly striking in decisions re- first intercourse and their first birth at, or before, lated to women’s own health. For instance, 11.5 the age of 18. This may indicate a relationship percent of rural women see those decisions in Colombia’s rural areas between practices of made by someone else, compared to 4.8 per- marriage, first intercourse, and child bearing, cent of urban women. The difference is also es- and it may suggest that they are becoming less pecially large with regards to the decisions on protective of girls’ rights. On the other hand, in large and daily household purchases. Around urban areas, it is only the share of women hav- 43-44 percent more women in rural areas than ing their first intercourse at, or before, 18 years in urban areas report that these decisions are old that has increased over time. In contrast, the made by their partners or other persons. On the share of women getting married and having their other hand, slightly fewer women in rural areas first child at, or before, age 18 has decreased report having decisions on food to be cooked 62 COLOMBIA Figure IV-1: Decision Making in the household Figure IV-2: Percentage of women 15-49 who by location (share of women who report that reported age at first marriage, intercourse or these decisions were made solely by their part- birth 18 years or less by location ners or someone else) 30 % of women 15-49 who reported age at first marriage, intercourse or birth 18 years or less 25 90 20 70 15 50 30 30 % of women 15-49 who reported age at first 10 10 marriage, intercourse or birth 18 years or less 25 5 Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban 90 20 0 70 2000 2005 2010 2015 Own health Making large Making Visits to Food to be 15 50 household household family and cooked Age at 1st marriage or union 18 years or less purchases purchases relatives each day 30 10 for daily needs Age at 1st intercourse 18 years or less 10 5 Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Age at Urban 1st birth Rural 18 years Urban or less Rural Urban 0 2000 2005 2010 2015 Own health Making large Making Visits to Food to be Source: DHS 2015. household household family and cooked Age2005, Source: DHS 2000, 2010 and at 1st marriage 2015. or union 18 years or less purchases purchases relatives each day Note: Women 15-49 years old who are for daily needs in a union Note: Women 15-49 years old who are in a union Age at 1st intercourse 18 years or less or married. or married. Rural Urban Age at 1st birth 18 years or less 30.0 4.2 Figure IV-3: Share of adolescents married or in Figure IV-4: Age gap between the bride and the 25.0 union by rural-urban residency 2015 groom 4.0 by rural-urban residency 20.0 3.8 15.0 30.0 4.2 3.6 10.0 25.0 4.0 3.4 5.0 20.0 0.0 3.8 3.2 15.0 Rural Urban Rural Urban 3.6 10.0 3.4 5.0 0.0 3.2 Rural Urban Rural Urban Source: DHS 2015. Source: DHS 2015. Note: Women 15-19 years old Note: Women 15-19 years old (See Figure IV-2). The share of married ado- Women in rural areas are more likely to have lescents varies between rural and urban areas experienced some form of violence by their (24.6 percent vis-à-vis 13.8 percent) (See Figure partners. In 2015, the percentage of rural women IV-3). In addition, an age gap with the groom is who reported experiencing physical violence was also more predominant among rural adolescents 27.3 percent, compared to 26.7 in urban areas. (See Figure IV-4). In the case of threat of violence, the figures were Gender Assessment 63 19.1 percent in rural vis-à-vis 17.5 percent in ur- reason for the non-use of contraception is oppo- ban areas. However, emotional violence seems sition from their partners or someone else (29 to be more common – or reported to a larger ex- percent), while wanting more children marks the tent – among urban women: 49.1 compared to second main reason (15 percent). Although lack 43.7 for rural women.181 The higher prevalence of of knowledge or access to contraception does violence in rural areas of the country could be re- not figure highly in the reasons given for non- lated to the decades of armed conflict and related use, the proportion of adolescents citing either overall violence. However, the existing evidence of these last two reasons is higher in rural areas does not confirm that point; on the contrary, a re- (3.3 percent) than in urban areas (0.8 percent). cent study concludes that the presence of armed groups in the municipality was not associated Educational attainment is also lower among with intrahousehold violence. The authors argue rural women, while there are geographical dif- that this result may be related to the fact that the ferences in the main reasons not to study. In period of study corresponds to the de-escalation 2017, rural women aged 18 to 30 years of age of the conflict (2009-2013). 182 registered an average of 8.8 years of schooling. This compares with 11.6 years for urban wom- Women’s attitudes with regards to violence en. Absenteeism and dropout among women are also differ according to geography. The differ- higher in the case in rural areas: over 50 percent ence in the incidence of gender-based violence of women between 13 and 24 years old is not at- between urban and rural areas could also be tending any educational institution, compared to related to the higher prevalence of patriarchal around 37 percent in urban areas.183 The share social norms in the latter. Indeed, wife beating of girls whose main reason for not studying was is justified to a larger extent by rural than urban pregnancy is higher in rural areas: 9.7 percent, women. The main justification for this is their compared to 6 percent in urban areas. Around neglect of their children, which is cited by 4.4 2.4 percent of rural women also cite the need percent of rural women and 2 percent of urban to help their family, while 4.9 percent reference women (Figure IV-5). marriage. The proportion in both cases for ur- ban women, meanwhile, is a mere 0.9 percent. Differences exist between rural and urban ar- The most important cited reason for rural men eas of the country in the area of health – ac- is not having the desire to pursue any studies: cess to health services and health outcomes. 18.8 percent of rural men report this, vis-à-vis For instance, the share of women whose deliv- 6.7 percent of men in urban areas. 184 ery was attended by skilled staff was higher in urban areas, at 99 percent. This compares to a Important differences between rural and ur- share of only 88 percent in rural areas. Similarly, ban areas exist in the transition from lower to 98.9 percent of urban women received prenatal higher education levels. According to data from attention, compared to only 93.7 percent in rural SNIES – MEN, women were more present in areas. Based on 2015 DHS data, the most com- higher education in urban areas in 2016 (53 per- mon reason among teenagers not to use contra- cent of urban students are female). This situation ception in urban areas is the desire to have more reverses in rural areas, however, where women children (20 percent), followed by opposition comprise only 47 percent of total students. In from their partners or other people (18 percent). any case, the number of students in urban areas Among adolescents residing in rural areas, the is around 89 times higher than that in rural ar- order reverses. Here, the most frequently cited eas. The transit rate from secondary to tertiary education is twice as high among students that 181 Figures based on DHS data; differences are statistical- ly significant. 183 ENDS (2015) 182 Iregui-Bohórquez et al. (2019) 184 Government of Colombia (2018) 64 COLOMBIA Figure IV-5: Situations under which wife areas, the proportion of NEET women is six times beating is considered justified by location that of men: a difference of 40.7 percent com- pared to 6.2 percent (see Figure IV-6). As high- Wife beating is justified if ... (% women 15-49 y.o who agree by area) lighted by Pardo (2017), in addition to pregnan- cy and social norms, male but especially female 4.4 youth in Colombia perceive that opportunities for good-quality economic opportunities are low. This lack of opportunity appears to be particu- 1.8 2.0 larly discouraging for youth in rural areas. Co- 1.6 1.1 1.2 1.4 1.5 lombian young rural women also report stronger 1.1 1.0 divisions in gender roles within the household and in farming activities.186 She goes out She neglects She argues She refuses She burns without her children with him to have sex the food Important differences in labor force participa- telling him tion are also observed between rural and urban Rural Urban areas (see Figure IV-7). The labor force partic- ipation rate of women in rural areas is low as Source: DHS 2015. Note: Women 15-49 years old. compared to both women in urban areas and ru- ral men. Indeed, the gap between men and wom- en is much larger in Colombia’s rural areas than completed their secondary education in urban in its towns and cities. Urban women in the age areas of the country as compared to those that group 25-40 years old have a participation rate studied in rural areas.185 that is 27-22 percentage points higher as com- Differences in performance between rural pared to rural women (79-81 percent compared and urban areas may indicate variability in to 52-59 percent). Rural men appear to join the the quality of the education services provided. labor market earlier than any other group and As can be seen in Figure IV-6, both rural boys in larger numbers. In addition, their labor force and girls show poorer results in math and ver- participation is shown to stay quite stable over bal tests than their peers in urban areas. Rural time. In the case of urban women, a clear de- girls are systematically those with the lowest clining trend can be observed, especially from results, as compared to both rural boys and ur- the 35-39 years old group onwards. The gap in ban girls, especially in the math exam. Despite unemployment rate is also higher among rural improvements in the coverage of the system and women (see Figure IV-8). in enrollment, therefore, there seems to be very The fact that most women do not join the labor relevant disparities in the quality of education market in rural areas of the country may be offered in rural and urban areas of the country. related to personal choices and lack of oppor- Given most rural students in rural areas will not tunity, but also to the higher prevalence of tra- continue their education, it is very probable that ditional views on the roles of women and men. these performance gaps could be reflected in Consistent with the general findings of this anal- their labor market outcomes later on. ysis, the situation is different for rural women Finally, the NEET phenomenon is more pro- than their urban counterparts. For example, just nounced among rural Colombian women, large- over one third (35 percent) of urban respondents ly in connection with lack of economic oppor- (both male and female) to the National Survey tunities and stronger gendered roles. In rural on the Use of Time 2015-2016 agree with the statement that “it is the man who must earn the 185 Ibid. 186 Pardo (2017) Gender Assessment 65 Figure IV-6: Percentage of youth (16-24 years of age) Not in Employment, Education or Training (NEETS) % of youth (16 to 24 years of age) % of youth (16 to 24 years of age) who don't work and don't study. 2010-2017. Urban areas who don't work and don't study. 2010-2017. Urban areas 32 31 31 30 30 29 29 29 % of youth (16 to 24 years of age) 55 % of youth (16 to 24 years of age) 56 54 52 51 51 49 48 17 don't who 16 work and don't study. 2010-2017. Urban areas 16 who don't work and don't study. 2010-2017. Urban areas 15 15 15 14 15 10 11 12 11 12 10 11 10 32 31 31 30 30 29 29 29 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2010 2011 55 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 56 54 52 51 51 49 48 17 16 15 15 15 15 16 14 Men Women Men Women 10 11 12 11 12 10 11 10 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Source: Gran Encuesta Integrada Men Hogares (GEIH). 2010-2017. deWomen Men Women Note: Figures are computed as number of youth who do not work, do not study and are not searching for a job/number of youth aged 16-24 years old. . 100 IV-7: Women’s labor force participation Figure Figure IV-8: Women’s Unemployment 90 by location. 2017. rate by location. 2017. 80 14 70 12 100 10 60 90 8 50 80 14 6 40 70 12 4 30 10 2 60 20 8 0 50 10 6 Men Women Men Women 40 0 4 30 15-19 25-29 35-39 45-49 55-59 Urban Rural 2 20 Urban Men Rural Men 0 10 Urban Women Rural Women Men Women Men Women 0 15-19 25-29 35-39 45-49 55-59 Urban Rural Urban Men Rural Men Urban Women Rural Women Source: Gran Encuesta Integrada de Hogares (GEIH) 2017. Source: Gran Encuesta Integrada de Hogares (GEIH). 2010-1017. 66 COLOMBIA money, while women’s duty is to take care of the Figure IV-9: Principal activity over the last home and the family”. The corresponding share week 2017 by sex and location in rural areas increases to 54 percent, split be- Principal activity over the last week tween 57 percent of total men and 51 percent of 1 (% 18 years and above) women, respectively.187 The armed conflict may 0.8 well also be a determining factor here. Rural areas bore the brunt of Colombia’s five-decade 0.6 conflict. That said, the data required to prove that hypothesis are not currently available. 0.4 The gender gap in the time dedicated to care 0.2 activities and household chores is especially pronounced among rural women. As shown in 0 Male Female Male Female Figure IV-9, over seven out of every ten men re- Rural Urban ported working as their main activity over the previous week. Household chores was, on the Working Studying contrary, the least reported main activity over Searching a job Household Chores the last week – only reported in 3.9 percent of Source: Gran Encuesta Integrada de Hogares (GEIH). 2017. cases. In the case of women, however, just over Note: Principal activity rates are computed over work- three women out of every ten responded that ing-age population in each group of interest (i.e. men, work was their main activity over the previous women, rural women, and urban women). week. Their main reported activity was house- hold chores, indicated in over four of every ten er than one quarter (24 percent) in rural areas cases. Around 11 times more women than men (Figure IV-10). reported that household chores were their main activity in the previous week. When looking only The gender differences in the main cited rea- at women in rural and urban areas, it becomes sons for not looking for a job also appear to be evident that many more rural than urban wom- particularly pronounced among rural popula- en (72 percent compared to only 45 percent) tions (see Figure IV-11). As many as 58 percent are mostly engaged in household chores, while of women in rural areas reported in 2017 that fewer report working as their main activity (24 the main reason for not looking for a job was percent compared to 46 percent). their household responsibilities. This compares to 2.4 percent of rural men who cited the same Important differences arise in the type of jobs reason and 47.5 percent in the case of urban held by rural women compared to urban wom- women. Sickness appears to be by far the larg- en. Among women and men in the formal econ- est reason cited by rural men for not looking omy, around half are employed by someone else for a job (46.3 percent), followed by studying. In and half are self-employed. In rural areas, how- urban areas, sickness and studies are also ma- ever, women are more likely to be self-employed jor reported reasons (in 29.5 and 18.9 percent or unpaid family workers. The share of women of cases, respectively). Retirement also appears who are unpaid workers in rural areas is nearly as a central justification for not looking for work five times that of women in urban areas. Large among urban men (18.8 percent). differences are also observed in being an em- ployee. Over half (55 percent) of urban women The most precarious jobs are held by women are employees, for example, compared to few- in rural areas. Other indicators of the quality of jobs are their continuity and the type of remu- neration. At 19.4 percent, the share of women 187 ENDS (2015) Gender Assessment 67 Figure IV-10: Women’s labor force participation Figure IV-11: Reasons For not looking for a job by location. 2017. 2017 by sex and location 100% 60.0 80% 40.0 60% 40% 20.0 20% 0% 0.0 Male Female Male Female Women Men Women Men Urban Rural Urban Rural No jobs available Family responsibilities Employee Unpaid worker To study Retirement Employer Other Sickness Don't want to work Self-employed Age Other Source: Gran Encuesta Integrada de Hogares (GEIH) Source: Gran Encuesta Integrada de Hogares (GEIH). 2017. Source: Gran Encuesta Integrada de Hogares (GEIH). Note: Reasons for not looking for a job are computed over 2010-1017. inactive population. Note: Percentages are computed over those who are employed in each group of interest who are not paid increases notably in agricul- producers do not have access to it.189 Women tural work in rural areas. The largest differenc- are at a particular disadvantage. Only one quar- es observed relate to payment in cash for rural ter of the land owners in Colombia are women. agricultural jobs. This is the case for 87 percent Moreover, and as a result of the conflict, many of men, but only 70 percent of women. It is also women are the sole heads of households today these types of jobs that are, in many cases, occa- and millions have been displaced. Of these, a sional and/or seasonal. While the national share large share does not have formal marriage cer- of women who work occasionally is 18.8 percent, tificates and therefore struggle to assert their it increases to 37.6 percent in agriculture and to claim to land ownership.190 Although the peace 38.6 percent in rural areas. While 71.2 percent agreement includes the reintegration of land of rural men engaged in agriculture work for the among its main themes, women are not partic- entire year, this is only the case for 41.4 percent ularly benefiting from these measures as yet. It of women – a large 29.8 percentage points dif- has been estimated that for every five women ference.188 The gender wage gap is almost twice who benefit from programs designed to increase as high in rural areas (Figure IV-12). land access and legal land management, there are eight male beneficiaries.191 Gender gaps in access to the legal property and in the exploitation of land also appear to In addition, the productivity of land owned by be a persistent phenomenon in Colombia. Af- women tends to be lower. Most of the units of ter decades of violent conflict in rural areas of agricultural production owned by women are the country, today the ownership of land is more concentrated than ever before, and most small 189 Bouvier (2016) 190 Tafur et al. (2015) 188 ENDS (2015) 191 Government of Colombia (2019) 68 COLOMBIA Figure IV-12: Gender wage gap by location and 60 percent less likely to suffer abuse from partners. Women with access to land have also four times higher incomes, save more, and have Gender Wage Gap. 2008-2017. Total, better access to finance.195 In addition, the edu- Urban and Rural 55 cational and health outcomes of their children improve. While women provide 45 percent of 45 household food in Latin America and the Carib- 35 bean, they only own 18 percent of the land. Fur- thermore, inequitable access to other resources 25 makes the productivity of their crops much low- er.196 Limited access to land translates into fur- 15 ther constrains to women’s productive activities. 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Cases in point include limited access to finance Total Urban Rural and low participation in decision-making.197 Although the gender gap in access to credit ap- Source: Gran Encuesta Integrada de Hogares (GEIH). pears to have declined in Colombia, it appears 2010-2017. to be more pronounced among rural women. Note: The gender wage gap is defined as the percentage of men’s monthly wage which is not earned by women. Recently released figures show that women are the main receptors of credit in Colombia. Wom- en received over half (53.6 percent) of all cred- below the five-hectare threshold in Colombia.192 its given in the first half of 2015, for instance.198 According to a study in Anzoátegui and San Gil, Meanwhile, women represented a majority (57 women in both regions concentrate in small or percent) of all the clients of the microcredit insti- micro properties below three hectares. There tution Bancamía.199 Rural women seem to be un- also seems to be some indication that the prop- der-represented, however. Although around 44 erty of the land does not necessarily translate percent of the savings accounts of the Agrarian into land use or land management by women. Bank belong to women, only 20 percent of the Fi- In addition, the land owned by women in the ru- nagro credits for small producers were awarded ral district of Anzoátegui, Tolima, appears to be to female clients.200 of lower quality-value than that owned by men. The opposite trend is observed in the more ur- Poverty is especially pronounced among rural ban case of San Gil, Santander.193 Moreover, rural women, although most female poor are living women in Colombia have limited access to, and in urban areas of the country. The female pov- control over, productive resources such as cred- erty rate was 37.6 percent in 2017 in rural ar- it. This is despite the increased role of women eas, compared to 24.9 percent in urban areas of in agriculture and climate change mitigation.194 195 www.land-links.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/ Multiple benefits however stem from ensur- USAID_Land_Tenure_LRDP_Womens_ Land_Rights_ ing adequate access to land by women. For in- Colombia.pdf stance, it has been found that women who own 196 https://www.land-links.org/wp-content/up- loads/2017/03/USAID_Land_Tenure_LRDP_ Wom- land are eight times less likely to suffer violence ens_Land _Rights_Colombia.pdf 197 Government of Colombia (2019) 192 Ibid. 198 Experian: www.eltiempo.com/archivo/documento/ 193 Perfetti del Corral et al. (2018) CMS-16527871 194 https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/han- 199 www.eltiempo.com/archivo/documento/CMS- dle/10568/67364/Genero%20y%20Agricultura%20 16527871 en%20Colombia.pdf?sequence=1 200 Government of Colombia (2019) Gender Assessment 69 Colombia. However, most poor Colombian wom- ed to exacerbate gender inequality and deepen en live in cities: 71.1 percent, compared to 28.9 structural factors of discrimination.206 This is be- percent who live in the countryside. The male cause they impose specific gender-based risks, poverty rate is also higher in rural than urban of which the most significant relate to violence areas, although slightly lower than that regis- and sexual abuse.207 In different conflicts, girls tered for women.201 In addition, it must be noted and women have been singled out for rape, im- that households headed by women in rural areas prisonment, torture, and execution. In particu- are at particular risk. Around 40 percent of rural lar, women and girls are the primary targets of households with a female head are poor, for ex- sexual violence committed in conflict and war. In ample, compared to 35.5 percent of those with a addition, women can not only be victims, but also male head.202 active participants in armed conflict. Within the Colombian FARC-EP, for instance, women com- prised approximately 40 percent of the guerrilla II. Gender and conflict forces and the organization had many female commanders at the local and regional levels.208 Millions of men and women have been exposed to the consequences of armed conflict in Colom- Visible differences exist between the kinds of bia over the last five decades, and especially so war crimes that Colombian men and women in rural areas. As explained in further detail in have suffered. As shown in Figure IV-13, men the Box IV-1, the conflict originated already in the have been more likely to be kidnapped, tortured, late 1940s over the control of land in rural areas and forcibly recruited by the different armed of the country. The main combatants were gov- actors, while male youths constitute the major- ernment armed forces, the so-called ‘guerrilla’ ity of mortal victims. Women and girls, on the (the FARC and ELN, primarily) and paramilitary other hand, are more likely to be subjected to groups. Levels of violence started to decline at sexual violence, forced labor, forced prostitution, the turn of the century. In total, the conflict led to and enslavement. These risks are exacerbated a death toll of 262,197 people and around eight by membership in other historically disenfran- million forcibly displaced – the second largest chised groups of society, such as indigenous displaced population after Syria.203 There were peoples. Moreover, women survivors often as- many partial and frustrated attempts at peace sume the role of household heads and are more over this period. The last negotiation of a peace likely to take care of those who were disabled agreement between the FARC and the govern- by war. In Putumayo, for instance, organizations ment began in 2012 and came to a successful working in the field note that one out of every ten end in 2016. This process represented an oppor- women is a widow.209 tunity to end the violence that had shattered the Of the almost eight million displaced persons country for over half a century. registered, around 51 percent were women and Armed conflicts have important gender dimen- girls. In recent years (2012-2019), this share has sions, as recognized in different international instruments.204 205 Armed conflicts can be expect- 201 Ibid. 202 Government of Colombia (2019) 203 UNOCHA (2019); Centro de Memoria Histórica. 206 Salamanca et al. (2016); Bouvier (2016) 204 Bouvier (2016) 207 ACNUR (2009) 205 The women, peace and security agenda promoted by UN Security Council resolution 1325 (2000) and sub- 208 Salvesen and Nylander (2017) sequent UN resolutions. 209 Bouvier (2016) 70 COLOMBIA BOX IV-1: The Colombian conflict Colombia has endured one of the longest-running armed conflicts in the Western Hemisphere.210 Confrontations have occurred between the guerrilla (FARC211 and ELN212), the government, and paramilitary forces. The origins of the modern conflict can be traced to La Violencia (1948–1958), a period of civil violence triggered by political disputes and by tensions between landowners and peasants, and, more specifically, by the assassination of Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, the leader of the Liberal Party.213 From the mid-1980s onwards, violence towards civilians escalated as Colombia’s armed groups struggled for control of territories suitable for producing and trafficking illegal drugs and for extracting natural resources.214 The death toll for over half of a century amounted to 262.197 people, most of whom were civilians; around eight million people were forcibly displaced from their land since the conflict ensued, leaving half of Colombia´s land in the hands of 1 percent of the population.215 210 211 212 213 214 215 increased to 52 percent.216 Displacement is the Figure IV-13: Types of war crimes source of particular vulnerabilities for poor rural by victim´s gender women, who most often lack official land titles, and for indigenous women, whose cultural and 100% spiritual values revolve around land. Displaced 90% 80% people tend to be poor, most often live without 70% 60% access to basic services, and are at heightened 50% risk of having their basic human rights violated. 40% 30% Many of the displaced women also are heads of 20% the household, which makes them and their chil- 10% 0% dren even more vulnerable to exploitation and Explosive Enlisting children Tortured Eviction Kidnapped Other Sexual crimes Terrorist action Loss of assets Disappeared Threats Homicide abuse.217 It has also been demonstrated that women can play a very important role in peace build- Female Male ing processes. As concluded in a recent study of peace agreements in 42 armed conflicts be- Source: Unidad de Victimas: https://cifras.unidadvictimas.gov.co/Home/Dinamico. 210 ICTJ (2009) 211 Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia 212 National Liberation Army 213 https://es.scribd.com/presentation/64041949/Colom- bia-Conflict-Map 214 Moya (2018) 215 Bouvier (2016); UNOCHA (2019); Centro de Memoria Histórica. 216 UNOCHA (2019) 217 Bouvier (2016) Gender Assessment 71 tween 1989 and 2011, women’s participation in the commission contributed to raising the profile peace negotiations increases the durability and of gender issues in the negotiations. Among oth- the quality of peace (35% more likely to last at er things, it invited several delegations of women least 15 years) while peace agreements signed and LGBT+ representatives to the negotiations in by female delegates demonstrate higher im- Havana, including victims, female leaders, and plementation rates.218 According to UN Women, former female combatants from other peace however, women generally remain excluded processes. Women were also represented in the from peace negotiation and agreement process- Technical Sub-commission on Ending the Con- es around the world. For instance, only 2 percent flict, which was established in 2014 to address of mediators and 8 percent of negotiators in all issues such as the ceasefire, prisoners, and major peace processes between 1990 and 2017 criminal organizations.222 At 25 percent of the were women.219 Only 19 percent of peace agree- commission’s membership, however, the repre- ments examined between 1990 and 2017 includ- sentation of women was lower in this case. ed references to women and only 5 percent in- cluded a reference to gender-based violence.220 The involvement of women had multiple im- pacts on the peace process. Women were in- The Colombian peace process and agreement strumental in building coalitions and rallying (see Box IV-2) are considered among the most public support for the continuation of the pro- inclusive of their kind. Over decades of gener- cess. They also mediated in local cease-fires ally unfruitful peace negotiations, and even at and helped convince guerrillas to lift roadblocks, the beginning of the last peace process in 2012, allowing access to people, food, medicines, and a gender focus was barely present, and women they negotiated the release of prisoners. As a were largely absent from the table. Yet, as a re- result of their participation, the final agreement sult primarily of the advocacy work of women’s has an entire chapter dedicated to gender. In ad- organizations and the support of internation- dition, the language used in all the document is al actors, the parties ended up recognizing the gender-sensitive. Many sections also include a need to adopt a gender approach and to include gender perspective and secure women’s and in- women in the process in order to strengthen the digenous peoples’ rights, such as those on land legitimacy of the agreement. By 2015, women and political participation. Women also managed made up 20 percent of the government’s nego- to overturn an amnesty for crimes of sexual vio- tiating team and 43 percent of FARC delegates. lence committed during the conflict.223 The final agreement, even in its revised version, reflects the inclusive nature of the process. 221 However, significant implementation challeng- es remain. The implementation of the agreement The representation of women and the consider- is somewhat stalled, in many instances due to ation of gender issues were granted in different apparent lack of capacity or the government’s ways in the Colombian peace process. The most absence in affected rural areas.224 Over five mil- innovative institutional mechanism for including lion people still require assistance due to the women was the gender sub-commission, an offi- consequences of the conflict. Adding to exist- cial bipartisan group constituted in 2014, which ing demands, meanwhile, are the close to two aimed to include the voices of women and review million Colombian returnees and Venezuelan the peace agreements from a gender perspec- migrants who are escaping from the conflict in tive. Although its decisions were not mandatory, 218 Krause et al. (2018) 219 Council on Foreign Relations (2018) 222 Ibid. 220 Ibid. 223 Council of Foreign Relations (2019) 221 Salvesen and Nylander (2017); Bouvier (2016) 224 UNOCAH (2019) 72 COLOMBIA BOX IV-2: The peace process and agreement Negotiations and attempts to stop the conflict have been going on since the 1990s. Some of these resulted in the demobilization or disarmament of armed groups; others, in particular with the FARC and ELN, were incomplete.225 Definite negotiations for a peace agreement between the FARC and the Colombian government started in September 2012 in Havana and ended in August 2016 under the presidency of Juan Manuel Santos, who won the Noble prize as a result. The organization of a National Summit of Women for Peace in October 2013 was pivotal in securing women’s participation in the last peace process. However, the agreement was rejected by a narrow majority in a plebiscite held in October that year, partly due to the view that it encouraged a gender ideology that could harm family values. Its revised version, which still includes a strong gender equality focus, was finally ratified in November 2016.226 This final peace agreement put formally and end to the conflict. From this point on, however, other illegal armed groups have started filling the vacuum left by the FARC and insecurity is concerning. According to figures released by the Defensor del Pueblo227, more than 400 civil society leaders have been killed since 2016, while forced displacement and illegal land grabs continue.228 225 226 227 228 the neighboring country.229 As the Government areas of the country. For example, land grabbing diagnosis acknowledges,230 most of the mea- and forced displacement continue to be wide- sures foreseen after the peace agreement with spread in the post-agreement era.233 The ELN an explicit gender focus have not yet been initiat- continues its activity after failed negotiations ed (64 percent). Notable examples relate to land with the government. Meanwhile, organizations restitution and access to credit and services.231 of dissident guerrilleros, mafias, and paramili- Effective programs that provide a response to tary forces are fighting for control over the ille- the reintegration of female ex-combatants seem gal economies. This is especially the case in the to be generally lacking.232 border with Venezuela, where the production of coca is reported to have expanded significantly Moreover, the reactivation of violence threatens in recent years. One of the most extreme expres- the peace building process. While at the political sions of the persistence of conflict-related vio- level discussions are not moving forward, vio- lence is the systematic murder of social leaders lence appears to have reactivated in many rural in rural areas of the country; only in 2018, 172 social leaders were killed.234 225 Ibid. Resumed violence is taking its toll on women 226 Salvesen and Nylander (2017); Bouvier (2016) and girls. A total of 1,164 sexual crimes related 227 https://justiceforcolombia.org/news/colombian-au- thorities-423-social-leaders-killed-since-start-of-2016 to the conflict have been registered over the last 228 UNOCHA (2019) three years, 90 percent of which correspond to 229 Ibid. female victims. In regions where illegal mining 230 Government of Colombia (2019) 231 Ibid. 233 UN (2018); UNOCHA (2019) 232 Salvesen and Nylander (2017); Bouvier (2016) 234 Ibid. Gender Assessment 73 and crop production exist there are reports of Venezuelan female migrants face particular sexual abuse and exploitation, gender-based vi- vulnerabilities, especially when their residency olence, and forced enlisting of women and chil- is not regular. Those women living in temporary dren.235 On the border with Venezuela, the risk or improvised camps and settlements often lack to women and girls of becoming victims of sex- access to proper facilities, including water and ual and commercial exploitation has increased sanitation. Lack of privacy or protection are also with strengthening armed groups. Poverty has significant problems for them.237 Those women become a feminine phenomenon in the North and girls who do not have residency permits are Western part of the country. This is connected at particular risk of prostitution, forced labor, and with the large share of indigenous and Afro-de- human trafficking. There is evidence that some scendent women living there. At the same time, Venezuelan migrants have turned to sex work in the new dynamics associated with territorial order to meet their economic needs and those of disputes between armed groups are leading to their families.238 Indeed, the arrival of Venezue- an increasing incidence and invisibility of pros- lan migrants has precipitated a fall in the price of titution and human trafficking. Many of the in- sex work. A study of sex workers in Bogotá,239 for digenous and rural female leaders are choosing instance, finds that the vast majority (96.5 per- to leave or resign due to the general climate of cent) are women.240 Among those sex workers insecurity.236 who report being born outside Colombia, almost all (99.8 percent) are from Venezuela. Women and girls who cross the Colombia-Venezuela III. Venezuelan Migration border and arrive in regions where the conflict is still active face heightened risk of violence and Colombia faces an unprecedented migratory abduction by the various armed groups fighting inflow of Venezuelans, motivated mainly by the in these areas.241 ongoing economic, political, and social crisis in the neighboring country. According to figures Preliminary results of a study conducted by from Migración Colombia, over 1.1 million Ven- the World Bank suggest that the growing im- ezuelans were living in Colombia in December migration flows can have gender-differenciated 2018. In what has been named as one of the impacts. First, such flows can increase the risk largest migration movements in the region’s of violence against women.242 According to the history, close to one million Venezuelans have National Health Institute, cases of gender-based abandoned their country as a consequence of the violence among the immigrant population in- recent crisis. Between October and December creased by 313 percent between 2017 and 2018. 2018 alone, the number of Venezuelans living in This phenomenon has already been observed in Colombia increased by 7 percent. Over 70 per- other large-scale migration contexts.243 Second, cent of these migrants are registered as regular the national poverty rate in Colombia is increas- (57 percent) or are in the process of becoming ing as a result of massive immigration, particu- so (16 percent). However, the remaining 30 per- larly among women; it has been estimated that cent are in the country illegally and are therefore an increase of 1 percent in the immigration rate more exposed to abuse. Women comprise just under half (47 percent) of the Venezuelans who 237 World Bank (2018b) have arrived in Colombia and have a permanent 238 Ibid. residence permit. 239 Secretaria Distrital de la Mujer (2017) 240 1.8 percent are transgender women. 241 UNOCHA (2019) 235 Ibid. 242 World Bank (2018b) 236 Ibid. 243 Ibid. 74 COLOMBIA leads to an increase of 2 percentage points in women and girls, providing capacity-building for the national poverty rate.244 The impacts on the health, psychosocial, security and legal service poverty rate are especially high among women, providers that are gender-sensitive and redou- working-age adults (25-54 years of age), and bling efforts to disseminate information on how unskilled workers. This may be related to the in- and where to access these.246 In addition, the au- ability of the labor market to adjust in the short thorities of the receiving country need to ensure term to the current high levels of immigration. that the necessary identification and travel docu- Another contributing cause may be a temporary ments are available to women, independently of decrease in local salaries in the areas most af- men. Targeted attention will be needed for wom- fected by immigration. However, the study also en who have been victims of sexual violence or concludes that immigration will ultimately have forced into survival sex, who are often margin- a positive effect on national economic growth alized or stigmatized. 247 Beyond the emergency once current adjustments are completed.245 response, efforts to integrate these populations with the least friction with local communities will The situation of women and girls in contexts of be required, including access to temporary hous- forced displacement requires special attention ing and services that, once again, are sensitive and responses. Some potential measures to to women´s needs, and to income generating address gender-based violence in humanitari- activities. an crises include: establishing safe spaces for Final remarks. One consistent finding across all gender equality indicators is the uphill struggle faced by rural women in particular. The agency, endowments and labor market outcomes of women appear to be more constrained in rural than in urban areas. This in principle indicates the need to concentrate efforts and resources in the countryside and particularly in remote areas affected by the conflict, strengthening not only the coverage of relevant service provision, but also its quality, to ensure an equalization of results – for instance in the area of education. In this sense, it is crucial to understand what are the differentiated factors that explain the marked rural-urban divide in the country, in order to assess what interventions would help to address these gaps. The two Colombian-specific crises represented by more than five decades of armed conflict between military, paramilitary and guerrilla forces, and by the recent massive migration inflows from neighboring Venezuela, add to the existing gender-related challenges in the country. As an example, it can be safely assumed that the ongoing violence in Colombia’s rural areas has a strong bearing with regards to the more limited access of women to economic opportunities in the countryside. Therefore, appropriately addressing these phenomena and their specific gender dimensions will be crucial to attain gender equality in the country. 244 The authors used as an instrument the distance between a Venezuelan province and a Colombian department. 246 UNICEF (2012) 245 World Bank (2018b) 247 Pittaway et al. (2016) Gender Assessment 75 V THE ROAD AHEAD I. The challenges participation in the labor force. This is largely the result of enhancements to the existing legal Gender equality will become an even more framework, which today is among the most com- important policy objective for Colombia in the prehensive in Latin America and the Caribbean, coming years. An upper middle-income country together with efforts to develop and implement about to become a member of the OECD, Colom- gender-sensitive institutions and policies. bia is one of the most developed economies and Yet, overall gender gaps persist. Violence societies in Latin America and the Caribbean. To against women is concerningly high, as is the consolidate such a position, ensuring greater rate of teenage marriages. In addition, the in- gender equality will be central in the future. Not vestments registered in education and health only is gender equality a pillar of any advanced have not yet fully translated into a significant im- society that leaves nobody behind, but also a provement access to good jobs for many Colom- driver of economic growth and shared prosper- bian women: female unemployment rates are ity. Increasing female labor force participation the highest in Latin America and the quality of and investing in raising women´s productivity employment among women is generally lower. A will be even more important in the context of notable gender wage gap also exists. Colombia the current and projected demographic trends experiences two country-specific phenomena in Colombia. that render many women and girls especially As seen in the analysis summarized in this vulnerable: the conflict that has been going on assessment, the country is on a good track. In in rural areas of the country for decades, and the particular, Colombian women today are better recent massive immigration flows from neigh- educated and appear to have better health out- boring Venezuela. comes than ever before. These investments have More noteworthy still is the existence of a large translated into increasingly higher rates of female urban-rural divide across all areas, giving raise Figure V-1: Summary of gender gaps and challenges Constraints on agency Fragmented institutional framework and lack of capacity Investments in Economic burden of household and care burden of household and care endowments opportunities Patriarchal social norms, chores on women’s time Patriarchal social norms, chores on women’s time Gaps in transition Women over-represented from secondary in anactive/unemployed education to work Gaps in access Women’s Jobs are of to quality services lower quality, prodcutivity in rural areas and earnings Limited voice and representation in decision making High levels of violence against women and child marriage to two very different countries within Colom- Specific causes or driving factors need to be bia. Women in rural areas systematically show addressed. The quite advanced legal and insti- poorer outcomes than urban women in all di- tutional framework for gender equality in Colom- mensions assessed, in particular with regards bia has not yet fully materialized into improved to education and employment outcomes. In ar- outcomes, partly due to capacity issues. The eas where the conflict had been active, it is more fragmentation of the institutional framework likely that access to services is especially limited remains a central barrier in this area. With re- and that economic opportunities are constrained. gards to access to economic opportunity, the Massive Venezuelan migration flows only add to disproportionate burden of household and care the existing challenges, largely by putting fur- responsibilities on women plays a central role ther strain on public service provision. and appear to explain women´s difficulties in the transition from education to a large extent. This Based on the analysis presented in this re- assessment also demonstrates the importance port, the following challenges seem to emerge of pursuing a longer-term preventive approach as priority areas for policy action. (1) The still so as to bring about a fundamental shift in gen- poor agency of women, manifested, as highlight- der norms, especially in rural areas of the coun- ed before, in the high incidence of gender-based try. Discrimination based on such norms appears violence and teenage marriage, and their low to be a major factor explaining gaps in wages. representation in spaces of decision making; (2) Differences in the coverage and quality of ser- the significant gender gaps in the transition from vices, and more broadly the lack of state pres- education to employment, as the country regis- ence in some rural areas of the country due to ters higher dropout rates among young wom- the decades of conflict, seem to largely account en, a higher share of female NEETs, and lower for the observed rural-urban divide. female participation in the labor force; (3) the existing gap in access to quality jobs, the wide The assessment also identifies a number of gender gap in wages and the feminization of knowledge gaps that would require further poverty; and (4) the large rural-urban gaps in all analysis or research. These include: areas assessed, in connection with the conflict and Venezuelan migration crises. 78 COLOMBIA 1. What are the barriers to the effective func- tioning of the institutional framework for II. Policy recommendations gender equality? 2. What is preventing the enforcement of the Enhancing women´s voice and comprehensive legal framework in this agency area? Ending institutional fragmentation for gender 3. What lays behind the low level of effective equality. Establishing clear goals that assign ac- sanctioning of aggressors in cases of gen- countability to the specific sectors and territories der-based violence? in the National Development Plan will be crucial to pursue a comprehensive approach to gender 4. What have been the main drivers of the equality that puts an end to the existing insti- decrease in teenage pregnancy and the in- tutional fragmentation. Creating results-based crease in the use of contraceptives? programs attached to adequate gender equality objectives and indicators, and introducing gen- 5. What are the factors behind and the impact der-responsive budgeting mechanisms, could of the high use of female sterilization in Co- further help to advance this agenda. lombia? Ensuring the adequate institutional capacity is 6. What has been the impact (and gender-spe- in place. First, by improving the capacity of the cific channels) of public policy programs Women´s Council and that of sectoral or terri- promoting access to formal employment torial institutions to plan, monitor and evaluate and facilitating young’s people transition to the gender impact of policies; adequate data the labor market? collection and the increased role and capaci- 7. What has been the impact of the expansion of ty of the Gender Observatory would be instru- childcare on female labor market inclusion? mental in this regard. Second, by putting into place effective oversight and accountability 8. What modalities and characteristics of child- mechanisms such as Equality Commissions, care are most valued in rural vis-à-vis urban Parliamentary Committees and Ombuds (man/ areas? woman) institutions. 9. What is the presence of women in business Putting in place the necessary structures for and entrepreneurship, and what are the the adequate enforcement of the law. Special main barriers or drivers? attention should be given to strengthening the agenda’s security and justice capacities to ef- What explains the existing rural-urban 10. fectively enforce existing legislation on gender breach across all areas examined? equality. In particular in the area of gender-based 11. In particular, what are the gender ramifica- violence the capacity of the Family Police Offices tions of the conflict in the countryside, and should be enhanced, while adequate supervision how best to address the existing gaps? mechanisms should be in place. In addition, a mandate for legal aid in all family-related mat- 12. What are the specific gender implications ters would be required. Supporting women´s or- of the current massive immigration of Ven- ganizations can also be instrumental to ensure ezuelans to the country and its impacts, and legal enforcement in Colombia. what lessons from other contexts would help to tackle them? Advancing women´s participation in deci- sion-making. The effective enforcement of the legal quota in candidates’ lists would require Gender Assessment 79 sanctions to parties in order to include female groups. Special attention needs to be paid in this candidates at the top. In any case legislation that context to building alternative masculinity refer- helps to ensure real parity (50-50 percent) in ences and discourses.248 all democratic institutions would be required. To increase the presence of women in private com- panies´ top positions, affirmative quotas and Equalizing investments in endow- other incentives (e.g., fiscal) could also be con- ments and ending the rural-urban sidered. Educational institutions and the media divide could play a central role to change the mentality and norms around the role of men and women Increasing the coverage and quality of basic in this area. Female leadership programs should services. Providing additional revenue-raising also be promoted. powers to the largest departments and munic- ipalities would help to reduce transfer depen- Eliminating all forms of gender-based violence. dency. The provision of technical assistance, Strengthening the institutions and services that the introduction of results-based grants, or the provide protection and assistance to women vic- consolidation of an integrated delivery system tims is required, and especially so in rural areas for social protection programs would also be of the country that are particularly affected by important measures moving forward. Improv- violence. A stronger focus on prevention, at the ing the monitoring and evaluation system of same time, would be recommended. Legislative local service delivery outcomes with a gender reforms to prohibit and sanction child marriage equality lens would be in any case required in under any circumstance are required. The pro- the medium term, as it would be to increase the visions of the Domestic Violence law would also financial support to build capacity at that level.249 need to be extended to former spouses or un- married intimate partners, while legal protec- Improving the quality of education services in tions for women against sexual harassment in rural areas. To improve the quality of the edu- all public spaces would need to be put into place. cational system overall, the Government may want to consider using information for decision Prompting and sustaining a positive change in making, strengthening pedagogical support pro- social norms. Social and gender norms can only grams and the socio-emotional skills of gradu- be expected to change over the long term, and ates, and, in the long run, reforming the upper as a result of concerted efforts across multiple secondary education system.250 Ensuring that areas and actors. Long-term measures would the educational staff has at least a basic un- revolve around developing an educational cur- derstanding of gender equality notions will be riculum that portrays an equal image of women necessary. A special focus in this regard will be and men in society, promoting champions and required in rural areas, where quality appears adequate role models or mentors in all public to lag behind. spheres, and training service providers and oth- er government officials on gender issues. In the Improving access to health services by wom- medium or shorter term, pedagogical or infor- en and girls, especially in rural areas. It would mation campaigns deployed through the media be first necessary to understand what is driving to explain what gender equality is, why it is im- gaps in access to maternal health service provi- portant, and its societal and economic impacts, sion in rural areas. Addressing the existing dif- would be potentially effective measures to start ferences will likely require efforts to improve the changing the mentality of the population. The spread of the new technologies and social me- 248 Ruiz and Sobrino (2018) dia offer important new avenues for action, es- 249 World Bank (2018c) pecially when aiming at the younger population 250 For more details please see World Bank (2018c) 80 COLOMBIA coverage and quality of services, and their gen- Continuing efforts to attain sustainable peace. der sensitivity. Access to sexual health informa- The persistence of conflict-related violence in tion appears to be necessary for girls and wom- rural areas is likely to continue undermining the en especially in rural areas of the country. CCTs position of women vis-à-vis their urban coun- appear to have a positive impact in this area. terparts. Putting a definite end to such violence therefore is of the utmost importance. Some Addressing gaps in access to education and measures to be considered in this area include drop-out. It would be important to continue mon- establishing a protocol to dismantle the struc- itoring the growing reverse gap in access to edu- tures that have supported the dispossession cation at the secondary level, which may eventu- of land and a judicial police team specialized ally require measures targeted at boys. Special in land matters; harmonizing the legal frame- attention to transitions is required among boys work for demobilization and reintegration, with at lower-secondary education, and among girls a focus on female members of armed groups; as the level increases. Subsidies, academic or eliminating illicit crops; ensuring a sustainable financial support or skills leveling programs implementation of the Victim´s Law, with spe- could help the large numbers of students that cial attention to female victims; and investing in leave the system every year to continue to the connectivity infrastructure, among others.253 The next level.251 measures foreseen under the peace agreement Easing the transition to work. It is of particu- with an explicit gender focus should in any case lar importance for both men and women to be implemented. strengthen the transition to the labor market, Addressing the gender implications of the Ven- through for instance consolidating youth pro- ezuelan migrant crisis. The Government will grams under a unified framework or establish- need to continue coordinating with internation- ing a skills agency with a strong private sector al actors and local authorities to provide a hu- leadership. Rural female students and workers manitarian emergency response in the border will require particularly targeted measures that regions. Additional resources will be required adequately account for their specificities. to strengthen the existing structure and service Improving access to productive assets, espe- provision in areas covering registration, security, cially in rural areas of the country, and address- legal assistance, health services, and psycholog- ing poverty. Female entrepreneurship should ical support, among others, and to make them continue being promoted through targeted pro- gender-sensitive. Special dissemination efforts grams that facilitate access to mentoring, train- about these services will be required to reach ing, finance and networks. Ensuring the effective potential beneficiaries. Particular efforts will implementation of the peace accord with regards also be needed to provide targeted and effective to land reintegration to women will be crucial in support and assistance to women and girls vic- this area. Access to finance could be expanded tims of violence. Continuing working towards the by developing financial instruments specifically regularization of female Venezuelan migrants to tailored to rural women, who are still one of the prevent their invisibility and therefore provide most under-served groups in Colombia.252 Addi- some level of protection against mafias and po- tionally, anti-poverty programs will need to con- tential aggressors would also be key. sider working age women, older women without pension rights and female household heads as priority target groups. 251 Ruiz and Sobrino (2018) 252 Ibid. 253 Ibid. Gender Assessment 81 Figure V2: Summary of recommendations Constraints on agency Strengthening the institutional framework towards hogher responsability and accountability of the sectors and territories Investments in Economic Changing social norms through Chaning social moms throught a combination of measures a combination of measures endowments opportunities Youth programs Eliminating discriminatory (subsides, academic legislation and expanding support or skills leveling) access to productive assets Having adecuate parental Improving coverage leave policies and access and quality of services to quality and a ordable in rural areas childcare Increasing women’s presence in decision-making through quotas Preventing and sanctioning violence against women and child marriage; providing adequate services to vulnerable women and victims Ensuring women´s access to eco- shared between both mother and father. A re- cent study on the effects of the 2011 extension of nomic opportunity maternity leave in Colombia254 indeed indicates Preventing and sanctioning gender-based dis- that complementary policies are necessary to crimination, in particular in access to economic promote a better distribution of such tasks be- opportunity. Discrimination appears to be a ma- tween men and women. A better distribution jor driver of some of the existing gender gaps of leaves between both parents – for instance observed in labor market outcomes. Curtailing through the establishment of daddy quotas or discriminatory practices first requires improv- bonuses to stimulate the use of shared parental ing the legislation aimed at fighting this type of leave can contribute to a more balanced distri- practices. In particular, by legally prohibiting bution of family responsibilities and to diminish- prospective employers to enquire about the fam- ing gender-based labor market discrimination. ily status of women and discrimination based on In addition, it would be important to create the marital status with regards to access to financial legal entitlement for parents to flexible working services, establishing the principle of equal pay arrangements. Guaranteeing mothers an equiv- for equal work, or setting up anti-discrimination alent position after returning from maternity commissions. Colombia could consider in con- leave will also ensure that women are not fur- nection with all these becoming part of the ILO ther taxed for childbearing. Conventions 156 on workers with family respon- Enhancing effective access to quality childcare sibilities and 183 on the protection of maternity. to ease the burden of care on women. The provi- In addition, employers must see women and men sion of quality and affordable childcare is key to as equally costly; parental leave policies are an allow women – and men – to better manage fam- important tool in this regard. ily and work responsibilities. Access to childcare Promoting a more balanced distribution of services in Colombia has improved over time. responsibilities over work and care through Indeed, it is relatively high for LAC standards, parental leave policies. In Colombia there is no legal provision for paid parental leave to be 254 Ramirez et al. (2015) 82 COLOMBIA although it still remains far from the levels ob- served in EU countries. 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(2012). “World Development Report 2012: Gender and Development.” Washington, Zhang, L. (forthcoming). “An Institutional Ap- DC: World Bank. proach to Gender Diversity and Firm Perfor- mance”. Organization Science. World Bank. (2016). “Global Monitoring Report 2015/2016: Development Goals in an Era of Demographic Change”. Washington, DC: World Bank. 90 COLOMBIA Annex 1: Legislation on the issue of gender equality in Colombia Law 100 (1993) creates the integral social sys- port their cases to the Ombudsman will not tem that recognizes as special participants of have to testify before the authorities. Confi- the social security system pregnant women dentiality will be guaranteed. and women after delivery and over breast- feeding, community mothers, and female Law 1010 (2006) adopts measures to prevent household heads. and sanction harassment at the workplace. Law 248 (1995) obligates the Colombian state, Law 1257 (2008), promulgated in 2011, sanc- as a signatory to the OAS Inter-American Con- tions all forms of violence against women as vention to Prevent, Sanction and Eliminate Vi- a violation of human rights, and typifies sex- olence against Women, to reduce and elimi- ual harassment. The law is comprehensive in nate violence against women. scope across the judicial, health, education and labor sectors and guarantees women a Law 294 (1996) characterizes domestic violence life free of violence. as a crime. Law 1413 (2010) includes the care economy and Law 599 (2000) establishes the sanction of abor- non-remunerated care work in the national tion for any reason other than danger to the accounts system. health or life of the mother, malformation, rape or incest; it also assigns penalties for The Victims and Land Restitution Law (2011, Art. sexual violence. 114-18) establishes preferential treatment for women seeking restitution after having been Law 575 (2000) moves the competency over in- expelled from their lands and provides specif- tra-family violence cases to the family courts ic reparations for women and girl survivors of and police offices. sexual violence. Law 581 (2000) establishes a quota of 30 per- Law 1.475 (2011) adopts a quota of 30 percent cent of women in all administrative positions. women in all candidate lists. Law 742 (2002) by which the Statute of Rome is Law 747 (2012) to reform the criminal code and approved. sanction human trafficking. Law 797 (2003) modifies the retirement ages – Law 1.639 (2013) to strengthen measures to en- for women 55 and for men 60. sure the protection of the integrity of victims of crimes with acid.  Law 882 (2004) increases sanctions for in- tra-family violence but eliminates sexual mal- Law 1719 (June 2014) improves women’s access treatment as behavior causing the crime. to justice, provides protection for survivors of conflict-based sexual violence, holds that sex- Law 985 (2005), adopts measures against hu- ual violence can be considered a crime against man trafficking and to protect victims. humanity, and expands the range of punish- Law 975 (Ley de justicia y paz) (2005) establish- able offenses in the Penal Code. es that the victims of gender violence that re- Gender Assessment 91 Law 1719 (2014) modifies articles in others to adopt measures that guarantee access to jus- tice by the victims of sexual violence, especial- ly in the context of the armed conflict. Law 1761 (2015) creates femicide as a special crime (Law Rosa Elvira Cely). Law 1.822 (2017) increases maternity leave to 18 weeks and paternity leave to 8 days. 92 COLOMBIA