58847 The Changing Wealth of Nations Measuring Sustainable Development in the New Millennium ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT The Changing Wealth of Nations E N V I R O N M E N T A N D D E V E L O P M E N T A fundamental element of sustainable development is environmental sustain- ability. Hence, this series was created in 2007 to cover current and emerging issues in order to promote debate and broaden the understanding of environmental challenges as integral to achieving equitable and sustained economic growth. The series will draw on analysis and practical experience from across the World Bank and from client countries. The manuscripts chosen for publication will be central to the implementation of the World Bank's Environment Strategy, and relevant to the development community, policy makers, and academia. Topics addressed in this series will include environmental health, natural resources management, strategic environmental assessment, policy instruments, and environmental institutions, among others. Titles in this series: The Changing Wealth of Nations: Measuring Sustainable Development in the New Millennium Convenient Solutions to an Inconvenient Truth: Ecosystem-Based Approaches to Climate Change Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects: Findings and Recommendations Environmental Health and Child Survival: Epidemiology, Economics, and Experiences International Trade and Climate Change: Economic, Legal, and Institutional Perspectives Poverty and the Environment: Understanding Linkages at the Household Level Strategic Environmental Assessment for Policies: An Instrument for Good Governance Strategic Environmental Assessment in Policy and Sector Reform: Conceptual Model and Operational Guidance The Changing Wealth of Nations Measuring Sustainable Development in the New Millennium © 2011 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org All rights reserved 1 2 3 4 13 12 11 10 This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this volume do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgement on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. R I G H T S A N D P E R M I S S I O N S The material in this publication is copyrighted. Copying and/or transmitting portions or all of this work without permission may be a violation of applicable law. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank encourages dissemination of its work and will normally grant permission to reproduce portions of the work promptly. 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HC59.15.C434 2010 338.9'27--dc22 2010034836 Cover photos: Kirk Hamilton/World Bank (outer circle); Scott Wallace/World Bank (inner circle) Cover design: Naylor Design C O N T E N T S xi Foreword xiii Acknowledgments xiv Abbreviations P A R T 1 1 Changes in Wealth, 1995 to 2005 C H A P T E R 1 3 Introduction and Main Findings: The Changing Wealth of Nations 5 How Does Wealth Change with Development? 9 Harnessing Natural Capital for Development 11 Extending and Deepening Wealth Accounts 16 The Agenda for Future Work on Natural Wealth 17 Summing Up 21 Annex: Missing Natural Capital and Ecosystem Services 24 Notes 25 References C H A P T E R 2 27 Wealth and Changes in Wealth, 1995­2005 27 Changing Global Wealth 29 Changing Composition of Wealth 31 Changing Wealth Per Capita 33 Wealth Creation in Developing Countries 37 Savings and Changes in Wealth 41 Population Growth and the Adjusted Net Saving Gap 42 Conclusions 44 Annex 2.1: Countries Excluded from the Analysis of Changes in Wealth 45 Annex 2.2: Per Capita Wealth, 1995 and 2005, and Changes in Per Capita Wealth and Population, 1995­2005, by Region and Income Group 49 Notes 49 Reference v vi CONTENTS C H A P T E R 3 51 Changes in Natural Capital: Decomposing Price and Quantity Effects 52 Decomposition: A Note on the Methodology 53 Contribution of Land and Subsoil Assets to Changes in Wealth 59 Summing Up: Land Values and Subsoil Assets 61 Annex 3.1: Decomposition Methodology 63 Annex 3.2: Decomposition of Changes in Total Wealth by Income Group and Region, 1995­2005 67 Annex 3.3: Decomposition of Changes in Total Wealth in Selected Countries in the Middle East and North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa, 1995­2005 71 Notes 71 Reference P A R T 2 73 A Deeper Look at Wealth C H A P T E R 4 75 Wealth Accounting in the Greenhouse 76 Climate Science and the Development Consensus 77 Some Economics of Climate Change 80 Estimated Values of Carbon Stocks and Flows in 2005 84 Discussion: Issues of Law and Equity 85 Summing Up 87 Annex: Sources and Technical Details 89 Notes 89 References C H A P T E R 5 93 Intangible Capital and Development 94 Theoretical Considerations 96 Explaining Intangible Capital 99 The Role of Intangible Capital in Development 102 Summing Up 103 Notes 103 References C H A P T E R 6 105 Human Capital and Economic Growth in China 107 Stocks of Human Capital in China 109 Human Capital by Rural-Urban Location and by Gender 112 Comparison with World Bank Estimates of Human Capital 113 Summing Up 114 Annex 6.1: Methodology--Jorgenson-Fraumeni Lifetime Income Approach CONTENTS vii 116 Annex 6.2: Recasting the Data to be Consistent with World Bank Methodology 117 Notes 117 References C H A P T E R 7 119 Linking Governance to Economic Consequences in Resource-Rich Economies: EITI and Wealth Accounting 121 Governance, Accountability, and Transparency along the Extractives Value Chain 123 EITI and Transparency 123 EITI++: Extending Good Governance along the Value Chain 124 Wealth Accounts: Extending Transparency to Macroeconomic Performance 125 Summing Up 127 Notes 127 References C H A P T E R 8 129 Country Experiences with Wealth Accounting 130 Current Country Practices 133 Mineral and Energy Accounts 134 Other Natural Capital Accounts 136 Balance Sheets 136 Wealth Accounting in Recent Initiatives 137 Summing Up 138 Notes 138 References Appendixes 141 Appendix A: Building the Wealth Estimates: Methodology 161 Appendix B: Total Wealth, Population, and Per Capita Wealth in 1995, 2000, and 2005 173 Appendix C: Wealth Estimates in 2005 185 Appendix D: Calculating Adjusted Net Saving as a Percentage of Gross National Income, 2008 197 Appendix E: Effect of Population Growth on Savings and Changes in Wealth Per Capita, 2005 203 Appendix F: Decomposition Analysis as a Percentage of Change in Total Wealth, by Economy, 1995­2005 213 Index viii CONTENTS Boxes 18 1.1 Measures of Economic Performance: Wealth or Production? 38 2.1 Adjusted Net Saving and Missing Capital 44 2A.1 Countries with Wealth Accounts in 2005 but Not in 1995 Figures 8 1.1 Changing Volume and Composition of Wealth in Lower-Middle-Income Countries, 1995­2005 10 1.2 Produced Capital Per Capita, Actual and Hypothetical, in Five Resource-Rich Countries, 2005 11 1.3 Resource Abundance and Capital Accumulation: Where Has the Hartwick Rule Been Applied? 29 2.1 Additions to Wealth by Type of Asset and Income Group, 1995­ 2005 32 2.2 Growth in Per Capita Wealth, 1995­2005 33 2.3 Changing Composition of Wealth in Lower-Middle-Income Countries, 1995­2005 34 2.4 Change in Wealth and Per Capita Wealth in Developing Countries, 1995­2005 35 2.5 Changes in Wealth in Developing Countries by Type of Asset, 1995­2005 38 2.6 Calculating Adjusted Net Saving for Sub-Saharan Africa, 2008 39 2.7 Adjusted Net Saving in Resource-Rich Countries, 2008 40 2.8 Adjusted Net Saving for Developing-Country Regions, 1975­2008 42 2.9 Population-Adjusted ANS and Population Growth Rates in Developing Countries, 2005 54 3.1 Decomposition of Changes in Natural Capital by Asset and Income Group, 1995­2005 54 3.2 Decomposition of Changes in Natural Capital by Factor in Developing Countries, 1995­2005 55 3.3 Decomposition of Changes in Land Values by Region, 1995­2005 56 3.4 Decomposition of Changes in Subsoil Asset Values by Region, 1995­2005 80 4.1 The Value of a Reduction in the Stock of CO2 81 4.2 Stock of CO2: Top 10 Emitters 81 4.3 Value of CO2 Stock as a Percentage of GNI: Top 10 Emitters 96 5.1 Distribution of Implicit Rates of Return on Comprehensive Wealth, 2005 109 6.1 Population of China, 1982­2007 110 6.2 Population of China by Educational Attainment, 1982­2007 122 7.1 The Extractive Industries Value Chain 125 7.2 Recovery of Resource Rent from Mining in Botswana, 1980­2005 126 7.3 Growth of Real Per Capita Wealth and GDP in Botswana and Namibia, 1980­2005 CONTENTS ix Tables 7 1.1 Wealth and Per Capita Wealth by Type of Capital and Income Group, 1995 and 2005 28 2.1 Total Wealth and Shares by Type of Asset and Income Group, 2005 28 2.2 Total Wealth and Population, with Shares by Income Group, 1995­2005 30 2.3 Total Wealth and Shares by Type of Asset and Income Group, 1995 and 2005 32 2.4 Total Wealth Per Capita, 1995­2005 36 2.5 Composition of Natural Capital in Developing Regions, 2005 46 2A.1 Per Capita Wealth by Region and Income Group, 1995 47 2A.2 Per Capita Wealth by Region and Income Group, 2005 48 2A.3 Changes in Per Capita Wealth and Population, 1995­2005 64 3A.1 Decomposition of Changes in Total Wealth by Income Group and Region, 1995­2005 68 3A.2 Decomposition of Changes in Total Wealth in Selected Countries in the Middle East and North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa, 1995­2005 78 4.1 Distribution of Published Marginal Social Costs of CO2 Emissions 82 4.2 CO2 Stock and Current Emissions, 2005 83 4.3 Eastern Europe and Central Asia: CO2 Stock and Current Emissions, 2005 94 5.1 National Wealth and Income in Canada, 2009 98 5.2 Estimated Constituents of Intangible Wealth 100 5.3 Human Capital and Country Fixed Effects in Selected Countries, Average 1995­2005 101 5.4 Elasticities of Output with Respect to Production Factors 108 6.1 Total Human Capital in China, 1985­2007 111 6.2 Total Real Human Capital in China by Rural-Urban Location and Gender 111 6.3 Per Capita Real Human Capital in China by Rural-Urban Location and Gender 131 8.1 Overview of Country Practices in Wealth Accounting for Nonfinancial Assets 134 8.2 Country Practices in Mineral and Energy Asset Accounting 146 A.1 Median Lifetime in 2005 for Proven Reserves 151 A.2 Calculating Adjusted Net Saving 162 B.1 Wealth and Wealth Per Capita by Economy 171 B.2 Regional and Income Group Aggregates Using a Balanced Sample of 124 Countries 174 C.1 Wealth Estimates for 2005 186 D.1 National Saving Flows for 2008 198 E.1 Effect of Population Growth on Savings and Changes in Wealth Per Capita, 2005 204 F.1 Decomposition Analysis as a Percentage of Change in Total Wealth, 1995­2005 Foreword "What is not measured is not managed" is one of the truisms of management science, and it points to a weakness in the indicators we use to gauge develop- ment progress. As this book demonstrates, natural resources account for over 20 percent of the wealth of developing nations. Yet indicators like the growth rate of gross domestic product (GDP), used by ministries of finance and develop- ment everywhere, do not account for the depletion of those natural resources. Not only are natural resources an important share of national wealth, but the composition of natural wealth varies widely across developing countries and regions. Some countries are blessed with mineral and energy resources which can generate significant revenues for governments but which may also distort development by providing "easy money." Some countries are rich in crop and pasture lands, which places a premium on protecting soil fertility and managing the water resources which underpin productive use of the land. Other countries have magnificent forests, as well as wild lands with abundant biodiversity, which can draw ecotourists to visit from all over the world. Without sound manage- ment, this natural patrimony is at risk. This book is about development and measuring development progress. While precise definitions may vary, development is, at heart, a process of building wealth--the produced, natural, human, and institutional capital which is the source of income and wellbeing. A key finding is that it is intangible wealth-- human and institutional capital--which dominates the wealth of all countries, rising as a share of the total as countries climb the development ladder. The accounting of wealth in over 100 countries over the decade from 1995 to 2005 points to the important progress that has been made in developing countries. xi xii FOREWORD The first chapter of the book ends by suggesting that "how we measure develop- ment will drive how we do development." We invite the reader to join us in an exciting endeavor--taking a truly comprehensive approach to development by building the wealth of nations. INGER ANDERSEN Vice President and Head of Network Sustainable Development Network The World Bank OTAVIANO CANUTO Vice President and Head of Network Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network The World Bank Acknowledgments The Changing Wealth of Nations has been written by a team including Glenn- Marie Lange, Kirk Hamilton, Giovanni Ruta, Lopa Chakraborti, Deval Desai, Bram Edens, Susana Ferreira, Barbara Fraumeni, Michael Jarvis, William Kingsmill, and Haizheng Li. Research assistance was provided by Justin Ram. The contributions of Xiaolin Ren and Jana Stoever to the development of the database are gratefully acknowledged. The report received insightful comments from the peer reviewers, Giles Atkinson, Jan Böjo, Richard Damania, and Marian Delos Angeles. We are grateful to colleagues inside and outside the World Bank who provided useful feedback. Our thanks go to Milan Brahmbhatt, Julia Bucknall, Kevin Carey, Charles di Leva, Marianne Fay, Michael Levitsky, Eduardo Ley, Ian Noble, Per Ryden, Apurva Sanghi, Susanne Scheierling, Jon Strand, Mike Toman, Dominique van der Mennsbrugghe, and Jeff Vincent. Finally, we are indebted to the late Professor David Pearce, the father of much of the economics of sustainable development, John O'Connor, who led the first work on wealth accounting at the World Bank, and three individuals--John Dixon, Partha Dasgupta, and Karl-Goran Mäler--who have contributed not only to theory and practice, but have also tirelessly championed the cause of applying environmental economics to development problems through their writing and teaching across the developing world. The financial support of the Government of Sweden is acknowledged with gratitude. xiii Abbreviations $/tCO2 dollars per ton of carbon dioxide $2005 constant 2005 U.S. dollars ANS adjusted net saving CAIT Climate Analysis Indicators Tool CDIAC Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center CEA Country Environmental Analysis CEM Country Economic Memorandum CO2 carbon dioxide CO2D CO2 damages CW crop wealth Depr depreciation ED energy depletion EE education expenditure EITI Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative EU European Union FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FAOSTAT Food and Agriculture Organization database GDP gross domestic product GHG greenhouse gas Global FRA Global Forest Resources Assessment (of the FAO) GNI gross national income GNS gross national savings GTAP Global Trade Analysis Project IEA International Energy Agency IMF International Monetary Fund IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change J-F Jorgenson-Fraumeni LMDI logarithmic mean Divisia index MD mineral depletion NFD net forest depletion NGO nongovernmental organization NNI net national income NNS net national savings NPV net present value xv xvi ABBREVIATIONS OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development PIM Perpetual Inventory Method PM particulate matter PMD particulate matter damages ppmv parts per million by volume PV present value SCC social cost of carbon SEEA System of Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting SNA System of National Accounts UN United Nations UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization UNSD United Nations Statistics Division USGS U.S. Geological Survey WDI World Development Indicators WDR World Development Report WTP willingness to pay Note: Dollar amounts are U.S. dollars unless otherwise indicated. P A R T 1 Changes in Wealth, 1995 to 2005 C H A P T E R 1 Introduction and Main Findings: The Changing Wealth of Nations C H A P T E R 2 Wealth and Changes in Wealth, 1995­2005 C H A P T E R 3 Changes in Natural Capital: Decomposing Price and Quantity Effects C H A P T E R 1 Introduction and Main Findings: The Changing Wealth of Nations PERHAPS THE EARLIEST ASSESSMENT OF THE WEALTH OF nations was the Domesday Book, prepared at the command of William the Conqueror in 1085­86. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the book aimed to record "what, or how much, each man had, who was an occupier of land in England, either in land or in stock, and how much money it were worth." William's goal in measuring the wealth of England was fiscal. He needed to know the value of crown lands in the conquered territory, as well as the value of individual landholdings that could be subject to taxation. Our goals in this book are both more modest and more ambitious than those of William the Conqueror: more modest because we will not present accounts at the level of individual property holdings, and more ambitious because we set forth broad wealth accounts for over 120 countries for the years 1995, 2000, and 2005. When we pose the question of "how much money it were worth" for assets such as land, we are inevitably asking a question about the future: what is the flow of rents (or economic profits) that this asset can sustain in the future? This concern with futurity is, we argue, the principal reason to build wealth accounts. If we extend this concept to comprehensive wealth--produced capital; natural capital; and human, social, and institutional capital--then measuring changes in wealth permits us to measure the sustainability of development. This is an urgent concern today in the poorest developing countries, as we will show. 3 4 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS More generally, measuring changes in real, comprehensive wealth provides an indication to governments of whether policy, broadly conceived, is producing increases in both current and future well-being--what economists would term "social welfare."1 It certainly could be argued that the fundamental duty of government is to ensure that its policies lead to increases in social welfare. Today, wealth accounts are an integral part of the System of National Accounts (SNA), which provides the basis for the measurement of economic progress used by ministries of finance around the world (European Commission et al. 2009).2 However, wealth accounts are not nearly as widely implemented as are the measures of production and income. The traditional indicator of economic progress is growth in gross domestic product (GDP), a broad measure of the value of production occurring within a nation's borders. The problem with GDP growth as an indicator, however, is that it treats both the production of goods and services and the value of asset liquidation as part of the product of the nation. Thus, a country could grow its GDP by depleting stocks of forests and minerals, for example, but this growth would not be sustainable. This book extends and builds upon Where Is the Wealth of Nations? Measuring Capital for the 21st Century (World Bank 2006), which reported comprehensive wealth accounts for more than 120 countries. As in that book, we conceive of development as a process of building and managing a portfolio of assets. The challenge of development is to manage not just the total volume of assets--how much to save versus how much to consume--but also the composition of the asset portfolio, that is, how much to invest in different types of capital, including the institutions and governance that constitute social capital. The Changing Wealth of Nations adds several new components to the previous work. Most important, because wealth accounts are now available over a 10-year period, 1995 to 2005, it is possible to go beyond a snapshot of wealth at a point in time and provide the first intertemporal assessment of global, regional, and country performance in building wealth and achieving sustainable development.3 In this book we take a comprehensive approach to measuring wealth, presenting accounts for the following categories of assets: Total wealth: The measure of total (or comprehensive) wealth is built upon the intuitive notion that current wealth must constrain future consumption. Chapter 5 presents the theory underpinning this assumption and the methods used to estimate total wealth. Produced capital: This comprises machinery, structures, and equipment.4 Natural capital: This comprises agricultural land, protected areas, forests, minerals, and energy. Intangible capital: This asset is measured as a residual, the difference between total wealth and produced and natural capital. It implicitly includes measures of human, social, and institutional capital, which includes factors such as INTRODUCTION AND MAIN FINDINGS: THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS 5 the rule of law and governance that contribute to an efficient economy. Net foreign financial assets, the balance of a country's total financial assets and financial liabilities, are generally included as part of intangible capital in this book (with the exception of chapter 5, in which theoretical concerns are tightly linked to empirical estimation methods). The book is divided into two parts. The first part provides the big picture of changes in wealth by income group and geographic region, with a focus on natural capital because it is especially important for low-income developing countries. The second part presents case studies that illustrate particular aspects of wealth accounting, including accounting for climate change, the role of intan- gible capital in growth and development, measuring human capital, and the use of wealth accounting to improve transparency and governance in resource-rich economies. The final chapter reports on the implementation of wealth accounting by countries. The appendixes provide the full wealth accounts for individual countries and for aggregations by income group and geographic region. How Does Wealth Change with Development? Where Is the Wealth of Nations? established the links between development outcomes and the level and composition of comprehensive wealth. Some of the important insights from that volume, based on wealth accounts for 2000, continue to apply in 2005 and, indeed, across the decade from 1995 to 2005. In chapter 2 of this volume, we begin by analyzing patterns of wealth and changes in per capita wealth for countries grouped by income category. Grouping countries by income is useful because it reveals the direct links between wealth, income, and development. Among income groups, trends for low-income countries are of particular interest because of the concentration of the world's poor in these countries. Developing countries must make decisions about (a) how much to invest versus how much to consume and (b) what mix of assets to invest in. The middle-income countries are important because they shed light on this process of wealth creation during the transition from low to high income. High-income countries provide insight into the volume and composition of wealth in those countries that have achieved high material standards of living. We then look more closely at developing countries, grouping them by geographic region because of the importance of shared geographic and historical features. Between 1995 and 2005, global wealth increased in per capita terms by 17 percent in constant 2005 U.S. dollars.5 Wealth grew fastest in the lower- middle-income countries, which are dominated by the economy of China; per capita wealth in this group increased by nearly 50 percent. High-income countries in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) continue to hold most of the world's wealth (82 percent), but there 6 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS have been slight gains by low- and middle-income countries. The world's poorest countries, accounting for 10 percent of the global population, hold less than 1 percent of global wealth (table 1.1). Intangible wealth is the largest single component of wealth in all income groups, and the fastest growing one as well. Whether one compares wealth across different income groups for a single year or looks at a single income group over time, the comprehensive wealth accounts tell a clear story about the relationship between development and wealth: development entails building total wealth, but also changing the composition of wealth. Most countries start out with relatively high dependence on natural capital--agricultural land, subsoil assets, and/or forests. They use these assets to build more wealth, especially produced capital and intangible (human and institutional) capital. This relationship between development and capital is clearly seen in the lower-middle-income countries, where the economy of China dominates. As figure 1.1 shows, per capita wealth has increased dramatically, and just as impor- tant, the composition has changed markedly. The share of natural capital fell from 34 percent in 1995 to 25 percent in 2005 (although, as chapter 2 shows, the level of natural capital per person actually increased by nearly $1,100), while the shares of produced capital and intangible capital increased strongly. The rapid growth of intangible capital is due partly to increased educa- tional attainment in most countries, but a significant part of the increase in intangible capital results from improvements in institutions, governance, and other factors that contribute to better, more efficient use of all of a country's capital--produced, natural, and human. The study of China in chapter 6 shows that rapid economic change and the transition to a market-oriented economy offered people opportunities to realize much higher returns for a given level of educational attainment. Although wealth is dominated by intangible capital, in low-income coun- tries natural capital constitutes a large share of comprehensive wealth, larger than produced capital. In upper-middle-income countries, natural capital is only slightly less than produced capital, 15 percent and 16 percent, respec- tively. The high dependence of low-income countries on natural capital and the important role of natural capital in building wealth suggest that it should receive close attention. For countries dependent on nonrenewable natural capital, transforming natural capital into other forms of wealth is the path to sustainable development. Where natural capital is potentially renewable, such as forest land, appropriate property rights and management regimes are essential if the country is to develop sustainably rather than deplete its natural capital, ending up poorer than before. Furthermore, natural capital warrants special focus in the wealth manage- ment of all countries, even those where its share in wealth is small, because of TABLE 1.1 Wealth and Per Capita Wealth by Type of Capital and Income Group, 1995 and 2005 1995 2005 Total Wealth Per Capita Intangible Produced Natural Total Wealth Per Capita Intangible Produced Natural (US$ Wealth Capital Capital Capital (US$ Wealth Capital Capital Capital Income Group billions) (US$) (%) (%) (%) billions) (US$) (%) (%) (%) Low income 2,447 5,290 48 12 41 3,597 6,138 57 13 30 Lower middle income 33,950 11,330 45 21 34 58,023 16,903 51 24 25 Upper middle income 36,794 73,540 68 17 15 47,183 81,354 69 16 15 High income OECD 421,641 478,445 80 18 2 551,964 588,315 81 17 2 World 504,548 103,311 76 18 6 673,593 120,475 77 18 5 Source: Authors' calculations based on World Bank data. Note: Figures are based on the set of countries for which wealth accounts are available from 1995 to 2005. Data in this table do not include high-income oil exporters. 7 8 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS several characteristics that set it apart from most produced and intangible capital. Natural capital is the source of many ecosystem services, provided as externalities without market prices; hence, these services are often undervalued and vulner- able to threats. Many forms of natural capital are nonrenewable, or renewable only under restricted management regimes. Losses and degradation of natural capital may lead to irreversible changes in the provision of ecosystem services and biodiversity, and the potential for substitution is limited (for example, in the case of the ozone layer). Some natural "bads" (atmospheric carbon dioxide [CO2] for example) are global in scope and provenance and are both nonrival and nonexcludable; only cooperative solutions can deal with the problem. As chapter 2 shows, among the developing countries, all geographic regions have increased their per capita wealth, but the gains appear smallest in FIGURE 1.1 Changing Volume and Composition of Wealth in Lower-Middle-Income Countries, 1995­2005 18,000 16,000 14,000 12,000 US$ per capita 10,000 8,000 6,000 4,000 2,000 0 1995 2000 2005 natural capital produced capital intangible capital Source: Authors' calculations based on World Bank data. INTRODUCTION AND MAIN FINDINGS: THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS 9 Sub-Saharan Africa: only 4 percent between 1995 and 2005. If we look more closely at this region, however, we find two sharply distinct stories. One story is about a handful of countries, led by resource-rich Nigeria, that experienced steep declines in per capita wealth and dragged down performance for the entire region relative to the rest of the world. The other story, however, is about the success in increasing per capita wealth achieved by nearly two-thirds of African countries over the decade. This second group was led by the largest African economy, South Africa, but also includes others such as Botswana, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Ghana, Mozambique, and Uganda. For the region as a whole, the successful countries were able to offset the decline in per capita wealth in the underperformers. Most of the increase in per capita wealth in all regions resulted from the growth of intangible capital--improvements in human capital, institutions, and technology that support more efficient use of produced and natural capital. But natural capital remains an important asset. Agricultural land dominates the natural capital of Asia, Latin America, and Sub-Saharan Africa, while subsoil assets account for more than 60 percent of the natural capital of Europe and Central Asia and the Middle East and North Africa. Forest land is particu- larly important in Latin America. Both Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia experienced a decline in natural capital from 1995 to 2005, which is worrying given the continued dependence of so many people on agriculture. Harnessing Natural Capital for Development The Hartwick rule (Hartwick 1977; Solow 1986) provides a simple rule of thumb for sustainable development in countries that depend on nonrenewable natural resources. The Hartwick rule holds that consumption can be maintained--the definition of sustainable development--if the rents from nonrenewable resources are continuously invested rather than used for consumption. But, in fact, many resource-rich developing countries do not reinvest the rents. So here we pose a counterfactual question: "What would total capital be if, each year since 1980, countries had invested all the resource rent in produced capital?"6 The hypothet- ical capital stock is then compared to actual produced capital to see (a) whether countries followed the Hartwick rule, and (b) if they did not, how much richer they could have been if they had followed the rule. The consequences of not investing resource rents in productive assets were highlighted in Where Is the Wealth of Nations? through the analysis of the "Hartwick rule counterfactual." We update these figures to 2005 to show what is foregone when resource-rich countries do not reinvest resource rents from nonrenewable natural capital. Figure 1.2 shows the results of the Hartwick rule counterfactual for five resource-rich countries. In 2005, Trinidad and Tobago had accumulated $20,021 10 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS FIGURE 1.2 Produced Capital Per Capita, Actual and Hypothetical, in Five Resource-Rich Countries, 2005 80,000 67,994 66,359 2005 US$ per captia 70,000 60,000 45,246 50,000 40,000 30,000 20,021 18,885 20,000 16,088 12,793 5,349 10,000 3,741 1,369 0 Trinidad Venezuela, Gabon Nigeria Congo, Rep. and RB Tobago actual produced capital hypothetical produced capital (Hartwick rule) Source: Authors' calculations based on World Bank data. Note: Actual capital is the amount the country accumulated in 2005. Hypothetical produced capital is the amount the country could have accumulated if it had followed the Hartwick rule and reinvested all resource rents since 1980. per capita in manufactured capital. If it had followed the Hartwick rule and reinvested all the resource rents from oil and gas, it would have accumulated more than three times as much manufactured capital: $66,359 per capita. The situation is similar in the other four resource-rich countries shown in the figure: if rents had been reinvested, these countries would have accumulated far greater amounts of produced capital per person, substantially adding to the productive base of their economies. Figure 1.3 shows the same information for a large number of countries in which rents on nonrenewable resources constitute at least 1 percent of gross national income. The horizontal axis shows the share of resource rents in GDP, while the vertical axis shows how much more produced capital a country would have if it had reinvested all its resource rents. Countries falling at or below the zero line have produced capital that meets or exceeds the Hartwick rule. Those above the zero line have not reinvested rents; if they had, they would have greater wealth in 2005. Among the countries in figure 1.3 are a subset of resource-rich countries, defined as those in which resource rents account for at least 5 percent of GDP. A few of these countries have followed the Hartwick rule. Countries like Mexico (MEX) or Peru (PER) have largely compensated for depletion of minerals by investing in produced capital, so their hypothetical capital is not much different from their actual capital accumulation. Countries like Malaysia (MYS) and INTRODUCTION AND MAIN FINDINGS: THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS 11 FIGURE 1.3 Resource Abundance and Capital Accumulation: Where Has the Hartwick Rule Been Applied? increase in produced capital if Hartwick rule followed (%) 350 OMN COG 300 NGA GAB 250 VEN TTO ZAR 200 PNG 150 SUR SLE SYR 100 BOL IRN ZMB NOR ECU 50 CIV ARG CMR EGY ZAF GUY PER MEX 0 GBR TCD ZWE JAM COL DNK CAN MRT SDN MYS NZL NLDAUS TUN BRA USA CHL --50 BEN PAK GHA DOM IND BGD CHN THA BWA --100 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 share of resource rents in GDP (average 1980--2005, %) Source: Authors' calculations based on World Bank data. Note: Resource abundance is indicated by the share of resource rents in GDP. Capital accumulation shows the increase in produced capital a country could have achieved if it had reinvested all the rent. See World Bank (2006) for further explanation of the approach. Country names per ISO 3166­1 alpha­3. China (CHN) have invested far more than the Hartwick rule requires. However, many resource-rich countries have not followed the Hartwick rule. In fact, the greater the dependence on mineral rents, the greater the gap between actual produced capital and hypothetical capital. All countries in which rents account for 15 percent or more of GDP have underinvested. Extending and Deepening Wealth Accounts This introductory chapter has presented some key analytical insights derived from the wealth accounts for 1995, 2000, and 2005, regarding how wealth changes with development and how natural capital can drive development. These insights preview results that are presented in more detail in chapter 2, which examines the composition of and trends in total wealth and its compo- nents over the decade. We now turn to the main messages of the remaining chapters of the book. 12 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS Decomposing Changes in Natural Wealth from 1995 to 2005 Having described the changing composition of capital, we would also like to understand the driving forces behind this change. We focus on natural capital both because of the importance of natural capital to developing countries and because we have concrete, independent measures for detailed components of this type of wealth to support this analysis. Changes in the value of natural capital can result from many factors, some related to the price or returns to an asset and some related to the physical quan- tity of an asset. For example, the value of total agricultural land in a country may increase when more land is brought under cultivation (a quantity effect) or when the net price of crops produced on a given amount of land increases (price effect). Similarly, the value of subsoil assets may increase with rising world market prices (price effect) or an increase in proven reserves (quantity effect). Obviously, many of these factors change simultaneously and it is not easy to sort out the relative importance of each one. A technique called decomposition analysis, applied in chapter 3, is used to determine the relative importance of different factors that change the value of natural capital over time. We found that price changes played a significant role in many regions. Declining agricultural land value in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia has been driven mainly by declining prices for crop and livestock products.7 The decline was partly offset by increases in production and yields, but the price effect has dominated in these regions. By contrast, in East Asia and the Pacific as well as Latin America and the Caribbean, there was a net increase in agricultural land values because the decline in prices was more than offset by increases in crop production area, crop yields, and livestock production. Forest land has been particularly important to wealth creation in Latin America and the Caribbean, mainly because of the increase in timber prices. The effect is particularly important in Brazil. In other regions, the rising value of subsoil assets played a major role in changing the value of natural capital. While the expanding volume of reserves contributed, the most important factor was the sharp increase in unit rents for subsoil assets. Worldwide, 71 percent of the growth in subsoil asset values can be explained by increases in unit rents. In developing countries, unit rent increases contributed 65 percent of the increase in subsoil asset values. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and the Wealth of Nations Damages from greenhouse gas emissions will have an impact on future well-being and on the sustainability of individual countries and the world. The high level of global concern with climate change demands that we start to look at greenhouse gas emissions from a wealth­accounting perspective.8 Annual country emissions of greenhouse gases are closely monitored, and estimates of the shares of the INTRODUCTION AND MAIN FINDINGS: THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS 13 stock of atmospheric CO2 by country, based on emissions from 1850 to 2006, are now available from the Climate Analysis Indicators Tool (CAIT) database. In chapter 4, we calculate the economic value of the stock of CO2 attributable to countries by applying an estimate of the social cost of carbon to cumula- tive CO2 emissions by country, adjusted for the (slow) decay of CO2 in the atmosphere over time. In per capita terms, this value is particularly large in high-income countries, while it is large as a share of total wealth in many devel- oping countries, particularly in the transition economies of Eastern Europe and Central Asia. To bring these CO2 values formally into the national accounting and wealth framework, there would have to be agreement about property rights, the prin- ciples of international law to apply, and the ethics of imposing either climate damages or the costs of climate mitigation on developing countries. These stocks of carbon "depreciate" according to physical laws, unlike financial obligations that can be discharged by increased savings. Accordingly, as argued in World Development Report 2010, the development process itself must be transformed, because high-carbon growth is no longer sustainable (World Bank 2010b). Achieving this transformation must also accord with the "common but differenti- ated responsibilities" of all countries embodied in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Understanding the Intangible: The Importance of Human and Social Capital Intangible capital encompasses human, social, and institutional capital, and other unaccounted-for factors that contribute to human well-being. It makes up a large share of total wealth, an estimated 60­80 percent, in most countries. However, unless we understand more about the composition of intangible wealth, govern- ments may be tempted to conclude that a wide range of public expenditures are somehow yielding intangible benefits. Where Is the Wealth of Nations? showed that education and the rule of law accounted for most of the intangible capital (World Bank 2006). Using the more extensive database afforded by country wealth accounts for three time periods and new data on net foreign financial assets, this book is able to clarify the composition and contribution of intangible capital to development. Chapter 5 presents two key findings in this regard: Human capital is the most important component of intangible wealth for all countries and especially for high-income countries. In developing countries, human capital dominates intangible wealth, but the quality of institutions and the legacy of geography and history are also strong factors. Intangible capital is the only statistically significant factor of production in high-income OECD countries. This suggests that in these economies all of 14 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS the potential constituents of intangible capital--the quantity and quality of human capital, the constituents of total factor productivity (closely linked to technological change), and institutional quality broadly conceived--may be the key drivers of production and growth. This analysis holds clear policy implications for developing-country govern- ments. It is no surprise that investments in human capital are an important part of the development process. But strengthening institutions and developing the capacity to generate and use knowledge--the precursors to total factor produc- tivity growth--will also be strongly wealth-enhancing. Finally, our growth accounting analysis shows that governments also need to ensure that comple- mentary investments in infrastructure and natural resource management will support these investments in intangible capital, and vice versa. Human Capital Accounting in China Delving more deeply into human capital accounting, chapter 6 reports a case study for China, based on country-specific data (Li et al. 2009), to explore the relation between economic development and human capital. The Chinese case provides an important contribution to our understanding of the global importance of human capital. First, China is the most populous country in the world. Second, it has undergone very rapid economic and demographic changes (due, for example, to the one-child policy, migration, and urbanization), accompanied by the rapid expansion of education during the course of economic development. Human capital accounts support better assessment of the contribution of human capital to growth and development. Global evidence indicates that the share of human capital in total wealth increases as national income increases, and that is certainly the case for China. Between 1985 and 2007 both total and per capita human capital grew rapidly in China, especially after 1995, when annual growth averaged 9.6 percent. Growth of human capital has been driven mainly by increases in educational attainment and the higher returns to education offered by a market-driven economy, rather than by population growth, as evidenced by the rapidly increasing value of per capita human capital. A gender gap exists for total human capital, and on a per capita basis the gap between male and female human capital has increased somewhat since 1985. In 1985 the rural population held 60 percent of China's total human capital, but by 2007 the situation was reversed and a large urban-rural gap has developed since then. This is in part the result of urbanization and large-scale rural-urban migration, as well as higher educational attainment of the urban population and the higher returns to education in urban areas where the modern economy is concentrated. On a per capita basis, there is also a significant gap: by 2007 per capita human capital in urban areas was twice that of the rural population. INTRODUCTION AND MAIN FINDINGS: THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS 15 The Challenge Facing Resource-Rich Countries: Transforming Natural Wealth into the Capital Needed for Growth and Development Natural capital constitutes a major component of wealth and is a principal source of income for many developing countries. Nonrenewable resources, the subsoil assets, present a particular challenge: the revenue stream represents a one-time opportunity to finance rapid development and poverty reduction. Evidence has shown that the economic performance of less-developed countries has often been inversely related to their natural resource wealth, a phenomenon known as the "resource curse."9 However, this relationship is not deterministic; some countries such as Chile and Botswana have done well with their natural capital. As described in chapter 7, having the right policy matters. The development challenge for resource-rich economies is to transform nonrenewable natural capital into other forms of productive wealth so that once the extractive resources (oil, gas, and minerals) are exhausted, there are other income-generating assets to take their place. Mining is not sustainable, but the revenue from the extractive sector can be invested in other forms of wealth-- infrastructure, human capital, renewable natural capital, and strengthening institutions (social capital)--to build economies that are sustainable. To achieve this transformation requires getting policy right in three areas: Promoting efficient resource extraction in order to maximize resource rent generated A system of taxes and royalties that enables government to recover rent A clear policy for investment of resource rent in productive assets The last point is especially important: for sustainable economic development, income from nonrenewable resources must be reinvested, not used to fund consumption. Comprehensive wealth accounts can strengthen and underpin endeavors like the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) to promote greater accountability in resource-rich countries through transparency about the full economic consequences of revenue (mis)management. Mainstreaming Wealth Accounting in Country Statistical Systems In addition to the work by the World Bank reported in this volume, a consider- able amount of work on wealth accounting has been done by other institutions and individual scholars over the last two decades. Considering only work carried out by official statistical offices, wealth accounting has been institutionalized in more than 30 countries, 16 of which compile at least one type of asset account on a regular basis. The majority of countries focus on mineral and energy assets, but some countries, notably Australia and Norway, construct comprehensive accounts for natural capital. Chapter 8 provides a detailed description of this work. Along with the study by Hamilton and Clemens (1999) at the World Bank, substantial theoretical advances in comprehensive wealth accounting for 16 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS sustainable development have been achieved by Kenneth Arrow, Partha Dasgupta, and Karl-Göran Mäler (e.g., Arrow, Dasgupta, and Mäler 2003; Dasgupta and Mäler 2000, 2004). National statistical offices, the academic community, and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have produced a large body of empirical work on natural capital accounting at the national, regional, and local levels. Taken together, these studies have deepened our knowledge of wealth accounting and clarified issues related to it. At the same time there has been considerable effort over the past 20 years to develop statistical methodology for environmental accounting (a broad framework that includes natural capital accounting) under the aegis of the United Nations (UN) Statistical Commission. The Commission established the London Group on Environmental Accounting and later a high-level body, the UN Committee of Experts on Environmental Accounting, to develop meth- odological guidelines. In 2003 the Handbook of National Accounting: Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting, commonly referred to as the SEEA, was produced (United Nations et al. 2003). This manual is currently under revi- sion and will become part of the statistical standard, like the System of National Accounts that establishes methodology for national accounts. Further support for the comprehensive wealth approach to sustainable devel- opment is provided in the recent report by Stiglitz, Sen, and Fitoussi (2009). The report proposes ways to modify and extend conventional national accounts in order to provide a more accurate and useful guide for policy. An important component of the proposed changes, to better reflect sustainability of econo- mies, is comprehensive wealth. The Stiglitz-Sen-Fitoussi report recommends the compilation of accounts for each category of asset reported in this book, and changes in the assets, which correspond to the components of adjusted net saving. The Agenda for Future Work on Natural Wealth Constructing detailed wealth accounts for 152 countries on a regular basis that are comparable both across countries and over time is a daunting task. We drew on a large number of databases compiled by national and international agen- cies.10 Specific natural resources are included in the accounts when they meet two criteria: (a) reliable data on price and volume are available on a regular basis, not from occasional or one-off studies, and (b) data are available for a large number of countries, if not for all. There are some natural resources where the available data do not meet these criteria, notably fisheries, certain minerals, and certain water services such as hydropower. As a result, the value of natural capital is underestimated, and for specific countries this omission can be significant. In addition, some components of natural capital, the regulating ecosystem services and environmental damages, do not appear explicitly in the wealth INTRODUCTION AND MAIN FINDINGS: THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS 17 accounts. Many of these services are already included in the value of agricultural land, but because they are only implicit, supporting what we value indirectly, their values are hidden. For example, the value of natural pollinators or groundwater is incorporated in the value of agricultural land. Fully accounting for the value of these ecosystem services would not add to the wealth of nations but would change the composition, for example by shifting part of the asset value from agricultural land to groundwater or forests. This information is useful for management of natural resources, because if policy makers are unaware that services critical to agriculture are provided by forests or wetlands, they may make decisions about forests that inadvertently reduce the productivity and value of agricultural land. But the land accounts--focusing on agricultural land, which is most important for developing countries and can be most readily measured--are not complete. We are missing ecosystem services associated with other types of land, notably residential and commercial land, but also other public land that is not under protected status.11 For these properties, the aesthetic amenity services provided by natural landscapes can be very important, especially in high-income countries where people are willing to pay high prices for lakeside or beachfront homes, for example. If the value of these ecosystem services were included in the natural capital accounts, it would likely increase the share of natural capital in total wealth, especially in high-income countries. The missing natural capital, treatment of ecosystem services, substitutability among different types of capital, and implications for the wealth accounts are discussed in more detail in the chapter annex. Filling the gaps in concepts, methods, and data, particularly for natural capital, constitutes an important agenda for improving the coverage and usefulness of wealth accounting. Summing Up The work reported in this book offers lessons about how countries can develop sustainably. The analysis of wealth accounts over the decade from 1995 to 2005 shows development to be a process of building wealth. Furthermore, in this process, the composition of wealth shifts away from natural capital and toward produced capital and, increasingly, intangible capital. The important role of the changing composition of wealth in the development process points to the need for comprehensive wealth accounting. Intangible capital dominates the wealth accounts of all countries. Investing in human capital is important in this process, but building good institutions and governance is equally important because this provides the basis for more efficient use of, and higher economic returns to, all forms of capital. For developing countries, where natural capital is a large share of compre- hensive wealth, sound management of natural capital to build wealth is critical. 18 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS However, even when a country's share of comprehensive wealth is small, it is essential to focus on management of natural capital because it differs in key ways from produced and intangible capital. Natural capital can provide a wide range of local and global public goods. Many forms of natural capital are nonrenew- able, or renewable only under certain management regimes. Losses of natural capital may lead to irreversible changes, and the potential for substitution is often limited. While produced and intangible capital share these characteristics to some degree--for example, provision of public goods, and limited substitut- ability--the danger of irreversible change is far less than for natural capital. If produced capital is damaged or destroyed, it can usually be replaced. Box 1.1 looks in more detail at the issue raised at the beginning of this chapter: if our concern is with increasing social welfare--the sum of present and future well-being--then we need to shift our focus from measuring output to measuring wealth and its changes over time. In this book we document how this can change our perspective on the process of development by emphasizing the shifting roles of natural, produced, and intangible capital as countries grow and develop. If we wish truly to understand economic development, then simple backward- looking indicators of output growth, such as GDP growth rates, will not suffice. Countries need to know where they are going, in addition to where they have been. To what extent have economic actors--households, firms, and govern- ments--increased the wealth of nations by saving and investing for the future? To what extent have institutional reform, technical progress, and investment in human capital accelerated the process of development? These questions have particular force and urgency in developing countries, where, our numbers show, many of the most resource-intensive economies are actually consuming wealth, and where the potential value of human capital is constrained by the quality of institutions and governance. How we measure development will drive how we do development. BOX 1.1 Measures of Economic Performance: Wealth or Production? The key to increasing standards of living lies in building national wealth, which requires investment and national savings to finance this investment. We have examined wealth accounts at three points over a decade; savings/investment is the dynamic behavior that explains how an economy moves from one point to the next. The companion to total or comprehensive wealth is adjusted net saving (ANS), also called genuine saving, defined as national net saving adjusted for the value of resource depletion and environmental degradation and credited (continued) INTRODUCTION AND MAIN FINDINGS: THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS 19 for education expenditures (a proxy for investment in human capital). Since wealth changes through saving and investment, ANS measures the change in a country's national wealth. The rule for interpreting ANS is simple: if ANS is negative, then we are running down our capital stocks and future well-being will suffer; if ANS is positive, then we are adding to wealth and future well-being. While wealth is typically a large number that changes slowly, ANS is an incremental measure and can change rapidly. Thus, ANS provides an early warning signal if an economy is on a downward path. Furthermore, ANS is very policy-sensitive: if government decides to spend more on education or enacts policies to increase private sector investment, the results will show up immediately in ANS. Small, negative ANS may not produce changes that are immediately noticeable, but if it is sustained over time, wealth and well-being will eventually decline. ANS for Sub-Saharan Africa, shown in the figure below as a percentage of gross national income (GNI), clearly shows an unsustainable trend since 1994--although, as noted earlier, this trend is driven mainly by a small handful of resource-rich states, particularly oil producers. While ANS is theoretically sound and relatively easy to implement, national saving is not an important indicator in the macroeconomic toolkit. The concept of accounting for depletion and degradation of natural capital is widely recognized, but countries have far more often experimented Adjusted Net Saving in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Percentage of Gross National Income 6 4 2 0 % GNI --2 --4 --6 --8 96 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 97 20 19 20 19 20 19 20 19 20 20 20 20 20 Source: Authors' calculations based on World Bank data. (continued) 20 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS BOX 1.1 (continued) with adjustments to conventional macroeconomic aggregates such as GDP or net national income (NNI), subtracting depletion and degradation of natural capital. Even the three countries that regularly compile wealth accounts, Norway, Australia, and Mexico, compile adjusted NNI or related indicators rather than ANS (see chapter 8). The major reason for this seems to be that macroeconomists most often focus on measures of output (GDP) rather than on well-being, a distinction that the landmark report by Stiglitz, Sen, and Fitoussi (2009) makes very clear. The information used to calculate ANS can also be used to adjust net national income, but the interpretation of the latter is less clear. The next figure shows NNI for Sub-Saharan Africa after adjusting for depletion and degradation. Adjusted NNI typically follows a trend line over time at a lower level than NNI, but adjusted NNI alone does not tell us whether growth is sustainable or not. However, if we add consumption to the graph, as seen in the figure, the interpretation becomes clear: a gap arises between consumption and adjusted NNI that becomes especially pronounced after 2004. This gap between consumption and adjusted NNI shows that Sub-Saharan Africa is consuming more than its current (net) income. It can only do this by liquidating its capital, which will leave its citizens poorer and with less capacity to generate income in the years to come. This gap is closely related to ANS, lacking only the adjustment to reflect investment in human capital. Consumption and Adjusted Net National Income in Sub-Saharan Africa, 1990­2008 12,000 11,000 10,000 US$ millions 9,000 8,000 7,000 6,000 5,000 4,000 90 92 94 96 98 0 02 04 06 8 0 0 19 19 20 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 final consumption expenditure (constant 2000 US$) adjusted net national income (constant 2000 US$) Source: Adapted from Hamilton and Ley 2010. INTRODUCTION AND MAIN FINDINGS: THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS 21 Annex: Missing Natural Capital and Ecosystem Services In this annex we discuss missing natural capital and ecosystem services. We identify obstacles to measurement and the likely impact of those omissions on measures of wealth. Missing Natural Resources: Minerals, Fisheries, and Water Minerals The wealth accounts include four energy resources and 10 major metals and minerals. Because of a lack of data, the accounts omit a number of mineral resources, such as diamonds, uranium, and lithium, even though they are extremely important for specific countries. Information about the volume and value of annual production is generally available, but information about reserves and the costs of production--needed to calculate asset values--is not. As a result, the value of natural capital is underestimated, and for certain countries this omission can be significant. Fisheries Fisheries are not included in the wealth accounts because of a lack of informa- tion about fish stocks and uncertainty about their future.12 But this omission probably has a smaller impact on global and country wealth accounts than the omission of minerals. The key issue here is management. Poor management is seen in the economics of fishing and in the depleted state of the world's fisheries (FAO 2009). Under current management, most commercial fishing operates with high net losses and is kept going only by extensive subsidies (Milazzo 1998; World Bank and FAO 2009). There are notable exceptions to this, such as fisheries in Iceland, New Zealand, and Namibia, where better management allows substantial rents to be generated. But in the majority of cases, very little if any rent is produced. Subsistence and small-scale fishing in developing countries often operates under open-access conditions that tend to erode resource rents. So the majority of fisheries have little or no economic value under current management. Water Water resources encompass a wide array of services, from drinking water and agricultural water to hydroelectric power and wetland services. Hydropower is one of the "missing" resources in the natural capital accounts. Among the countries that construct asset accounts for natural capital (discussed in chapter 8), only Norway includes hydropower in its wealth accounts. In a case study of the Lao People's Democratic Republic, the World Bank estimated hydropower 22 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS as part of the country's wealth accounts (World Bank 2010c). But there is not sufficient information across countries to include hydropower in the wealth accounts at this time. The largest use of water is as an input to agriculture, and in most instances agricultural water does not have a market price.13 Growing reliance on shared, international water resources and depletion of groundwater are major concerns and warrant close monitoring. The value of groundwater is incorporated in the value of agricultural land, but it is not explicit in the natural capital accounts. The value of other water resources may not be fully reflected in land values. Wetland ecosystem services and the recreational value of water bodies are at least partly captured in land and produced capital, which includes residential and recreational properties, but the values are likely to be underestimated as described in the section below on ecosystem services. Water poses an especially difficult challenge for wealth accounting because the values are highly site-specific. There have been many case studies of the value of water services, but they are not readily scaled up to the national level.14 Pollution and Damages to Human Health Adjusted net saving includes a measure of the human health damage from partic- ulate air pollution. The corresponding capital asset affected by pollution is human capital, which is part of intangible capital in the wealth accounts. Pollution damage is implicitly included in the intangible component of total wealth. Ecosystem Services The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2003) classified all ecosystem services into four broad categories: provisioning, cultural and recreational, regulating, and supporting services. Provisioning and cultural/recreational services are mostly those that we use directly and recognize an economic value for, such as food, fiber, timber, and tourism. Most of the provisioning services (with the exception of fisheries and some water services) are included explicitly in the wealth accounts in the form of agricultural land and forest land values that produce food, fiber, timber, nontimber forest products, and so on. Regulating and supporting services have value because they contribute indi- rectly to the production of goods and services that have economic values. For example, pollination services or groundwater services are valuable as inputs to agriculture. Many of these services are already included in the value of land assets, but because they are only implicit, supporting what we value indirectly, their values are hidden. For example, the value of natural pollinators or groundwater is incorporated in the value of agricultural land. INTRODUCTION AND MAIN FINDINGS: THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS 23 One "missing ecosystem service" likely to be of great economic significance, particularly in high-income countries, is the aesthetic service provided by natural landscapes, embodied in nonagricultural land values.15 People are willing to pay high prices for residences and, to some extent, for commercial properties in areas of great aesthetic beauty, such as lakefront, coastal, or woodland settings. Case studies have quantified the value of a home with beachfront, for example, compared to one farther from the shore. The value of this important service of natural capital is not included in the comprehensive wealth accounts due to a lack of data. If this value were included, it would likely increase the share of natural capital in total wealth, especially in high-income countries. Public goods, such as carbon storage and biodiversity, pose special chal- lenges and are not well represented in the wealth accounts. The wealth accounts include an estimated value for protected areas, but it is certainly an underes- timate. Protected areas provide many local and global ecosystem services, but these are largely nonmarket services that are difficult to measure. As with many other ecosystem services, the values are highly site-specific, and case studies do not provide values that can readily be scaled up to a national level. Given these severe data limitations, the wealth accounts apply what is a lower bound on the value of protected areas: the opportunity cost of an alternative land use, namely, agricultural use. This is certainly an underestimate because it does not include other ecosystem services that protected areas may provide, such as tourism, which is often far more economically valuable than the agricultural alternative, and biodiversity, whose value we do not know. This is a priority issue for future work. Substitutability among Different Types of Capital Comprehensive wealth accounting combines all forms of wealth into a single measure that assumes a very high degree of substitutability among different forms of capital. Such a measure does not convey the very real limits to substi- tutability, impending thresholds for natural capital, or possible irreversibilities and catastrophic events. Given the poor state of many of the world's ecosys- tems, these are serious concerns (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2003). In addition, economic sustainability is not the same as human well-being. Although the value of comprehensive wealth may be similar for countries, the well-being of citizens may be quite different, due to factors such as cultural capital that cannot be incorporated in economic values. A major review of current measures of economic performance such as GDP by Stiglitz, Sen, and Fitoussi (2009) discusses these issues; despite the limitations, the report recommends comprehensive wealth as one useful indicator of economic performance. 24 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS Notes 1 Strictly speaking, social welfare is equal to the present discounted value of current and future well-being. The link between change in real, comprehensive wealth and change in social welfare has been established in a large body of theoretical work by such authors as Hamilton and Clemens (1999), Dasgupta and Mäler (2000), and Asheim and Weitzman (2001). The theory has been tested empirically by Ferreira and Vincent (2005) and Ferreira, Hamilton, and Vincent (2008). 2 Note, however, that the SNA measure of wealth is much narrower than what is presented here, because the asset boundary includes only produced assets and natural assets that are subject to property rights. The expansion of the asset boundary for natural capital is discussed in the Handbook of National Accounting: Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting, which is currently undergoing revision (United Nations et al. 2003). 3 Net financial assets are not available for all countries. The information assists in the analysis of intangible capital in chapter 5 and is reported in the appendixes. 4 Note that urban land is estimated as a simple markup of the value of produced capital. It is generally reported as part of produced capital in the aggregates presented in this book. 5 Throughout the book, all wealth figures are reported in constant 2005 U.S. dollar prices. It is important to keep in mind that when we compare wealth across countries, we are using nominal market exchange rates. Because of this, wealth does not reflect the purchasing power of the income generated by wealth in a given country. To get an idea of the purchasing power of wealth, we would have to use purchasing power parity (PPP) exchange rates, which are often used to compare GDP across countries. Consequently, the wealth accounts are most appropriate for making comparisons across broad income groups and for looking at a country's wealth over time--its volume and composition-- but are less useful for making comparisons between individual countries. 6 In principle, the rents could be invested in human capital or renewable natural capital, but it is easiest to demonstrate the Hartwick counterfactual by assuming that all rents go into produced capital. 7 This has clearly changed since the rapid increase in food prices in recent years. 8 The release of the Stern review on the economics of climate change (Stern 2006), the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 2007), and World Development Report 2010 on development and climate change (World Bank 2010b) has significantly raised the profile of climate change as a development issue. 9 The resource curse is attributed to several factors, some related to macroeconomic management and some to political economy and governance. For a review of the resource curse literature, see Frankel (2010) and Humphreys, Sachs, and Stiglitz (2007). 10 See appendix A for description of the data and methods. 11 An estimate of urban land is included under produced capital. 12 Even accurate information about fish catch and its value is not readily available (World Bank 2010a). 13 Water is either abstracted without charge by the user or provided at a cost that does not represent value. 14 Issues regarding the valuation of water for wealth accounting are discussed in the United Nations final draft handbook on water accounting (UNSD 2006). INTRODUCTION AND MAIN FINDINGS: THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS 25 15 Even land classified as agricultural may be simultaneously used for recreation. The additional aesthetic and recreational values are not reflected in the value of agricultural land, which is based on the value of agricultural production. This missing value may be particularly important in some developed countries. 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American Economic Review 66: 972­74. Humphreys, Macartan, Jeffrey Sachs, and Joseph Stiglitz, eds. 2007. Escaping the Resource Curse. New York: Columbia University Press. IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2007. IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007. Geneva: IPCC. Li, Haizheng, Barbara M. Fraumeni, Zhiqiang Liu, and Xiaojun Wang. 2009. "Human Capital in China." NBER Working Paper 15500, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. Milazzo, M. 1998. "Subsidies in World Fisheries: A Re-examination." World Bank Technical Paper 406, World Bank, Washington, DC. 26 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. 2003. Ecosystems and Human Well-being: A Framework for Assessment. Washington, DC: Island Press. Solow, R. 1986. "On the Intergenerational Allocation of Natural Resources." Scandinavian Journal of Economics 88 (1): 141­49. Stern, Nicholas. 2006. The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review. Prepared for the U.K. Government. New York: Cambridge University Press. Stiglitz, Joseph E., Amartya Sen, and Jean-Paul Fitoussi. 2009. Report by the Commission on the Measurement of Economic Performance and Social Progress. Paris: Commission on the Measurement of Economic Performance and Social Progress. United Nations, European Commission, International Monetary Fund, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, and World Bank. 2003. Handbook of National Accounting: Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting 2003. New York: United Nations. http://unstats.un.org/unsd/envaccounting/seea.asp. UNSD (United Nations Statistics Division). 2006. "System of Environmental-Economic Accounting for Water." Final draft. World Bank. 2006. Where Is the Wealth of Nations? Measuring Capital for the 21st Century. Washington, DC: World Bank. http://unstats.un.org/unsd/envaccounting/ SEEAWDraft Manual.pdf. ------. 2010a. The Hidden Harvests: The Global Contribution of Capture Fisheries. Washington, DC: World Bank. ------. 2010b. World Development Report 2010: Development and Climate Change. Washington, DC: World Bank. ------. 2010c. "Lao PDR Development Report: Natural Resource Management for Sustainable Development." World Bank, Washington, DC. World Bank and FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2009. The Sunken Billions: The Economic Justification for Fisheries Reform. Washington, DC: World Bank. C H A P T E R 2 Wealth and Changes in Wealth, 1995­2005 THIS CHAPTER TELLS THE STORY OF WEALTH AND HOW IT changes over time, drawing out lessons for development. We start by comparing comprehensive wealth over several widely spaced intervals to understand how the volume and composition of wealth change with development and popu- lation growth. We then turn to adjusted net saving to understand better the process of building wealth on an annual basis. These two measures provide related ways of analyzing changes in social welfare and complementary infor- mation for policy makers seeking to guide their country on a path of sustainable development. Changing Global Wealth Global wealth reached $673,593 billion in 2005 (table 2.1).1 Intangible capital was the largest single component in all regions, and its share increases in importance with rising income, from 57 percent of total wealth in low-income countries to 81 percent in high-income countries. We see a symmetrical decline in the impor- tance of natural capital as income rises, from 30 percent in low-income countries to 2 percent in high-income countries. But does this apparent relationship between the composition of wealth and income, seen when comparing different regions 27 28 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS at a point in time, really hold for a given income group as it develops over time? To answer that question, we look at our wealth accounts from 1995 to 2005.2 Global wealth increased by 34 percent over the decade (table 2.2). All income groups increased their capital between 1995 and 2005, and there has been little change in the distribution of wealth over time. The majority of global wealth is concentrated in high-income countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), although its share declined slightly from 84 percent to 82 percent. Low- and middle-income countries saw their combined share grow from 14 percent to 17 percent; despite rapid accumulation of wealth, their share of wealth is still far less than their share of world population, which was 81 percent in 2005. The poorest countries, accounting for 10 percent of global population, held only 1 percent of global wealth. TABLE 2.1 Total Wealth and Shares by Type of Asset and Income Group, 2005 Total Wealth Intangible Produced Natural Income Group (US$ billions) Capital (%) Capital (%) Capital (%) Low income 3,597 57 13 30 Lower middle income 58,023 51 24 25 Upper middle income 47,183 69 16 15 High income OECD 551,964 81 17 2 World 673,593 77 18 5 Source: Authors' calculations based on World Bank data. Note: Figures are based on the set of countries for which wealth accounts are available from 1995 to 2005, as described in annex 2.1. High-income oil exporters are not shown. TABLE 2.2 Total Wealth and Population, with Shares by Income Group, 1995­2005 Total Wealth (world total in constant Population 2005 US$ billions) (world total in millions) Income Group 1995 2000 2005 1995 2000 2005 Low income (%) <1 1 1 9 10 10 Lower middle income (%) 7 7 9 61 61 61 Upper middle income (%) 7 7 7 10 10 10 High income OECD (%) 84 83 82 18 17 17 World 504,548 590,121 673,593 4,884 5,247 5,591 Source: Authors' calculations based on World Bank data. Note: Figures are based on the set of countries for which wealth accounts are available from 1995 to 2005, as described in annex 2.1. High-income oil exporters are not shown. Percentages may not total to 100 percent due to rounding. WEALTH AND CHANGES IN WEALTH, 1995­2005 29 Changing Composition of Wealth For the world as a whole, most of the new wealth created between 1995 and 2005 ($169,045 billion) consisted of intangible capital (80 percent), followed by produced capital (16 percent) and a relatively small amount of natural capital (4 percent) (figure 2.1). How has the composition of wealth changed over time? For the world as a whole, where high-income countries dominate trends in wealth, there is virtu- ally no change in composition over time. This reflects the virtually unchanged composition of capital in high-income countries, where intangible wealth already accounts for at least 80 percent of total wealth (table 2.3). However, a different dynamic is observed in low-income and lower-middle-income countries, where there was a large decline in the share of natural capital and a corresponding increase in produced and intangible capital. Among low-income countries, natural capital accounts for 30 percent of total wealth in 2005, down from 41 percent in 1995, and among the lower-middle- income countries, natural capital declined from 34 percent to 25 percent of FIGURE 2.1 Additions to Wealth by Type of Asset and Income Group, 1995­2005 100 90 80 70 % new wealth 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 low lower upper high world income middle middle income income income OECD natural capital produced capital intangible capital + net foreign assets Source: Authors' calculations based on World Bank data. Note: Figures are based on the set of countries for which wealth accounts are available from 1995 to 2005, as described in annex 2.1. 30 TABLE 2.3 Total Wealth and Shares by Type of Asset and Income Group, 1995 and 2005 1995 2005 Total Wealth Intangible Produced Natural Total Wealth Intangible Produced Natural Income Group (US$ billions) Capital (%) Capital (%) Capital (%) (US$ billions) Capital (%) Capital (%) Capital (%) Low income 2,447 48 12 41 3,597 57 13 30 Lower middle income 33,950 45 21 34 58,023 51 24 25 Upper middle income 36,794 68 17 15 47,183 69 16 15 High income OECD 421,641 80 18 2 551,964 81 17 2 World 504,548 76 18 6 673,593 77 18 5 Source: Authors' calculations based on World Bank data. Note: Figures are based on the set of countries for which wealth accounts are available from 1995 to 2005, as described in annex 2.1. High-income oil exporters are not shown. WEALTH AND CHANGES IN WEALTH, 1995­2005 31 wealth. Even in upper-middle-income countries, natural capital still accounts for 15 percent of wealth. The continued importance of natural capital in low- and middle-income countries suggests that management of natural resources, especially agricultural land, must be a key part of development strategies. In high-income OECD countries, natural capital has remained at only 2 percent of wealth. But its small share does not mean that natural capital is unimportant in these countries. Even at only 2 percent of the total, the value of natural capital in high-income countries ($10,367 billion) is still more than nine times that in low-income countries ($1,094 billion).3 Changing Wealth Per Capita In economies where the population is growing, and especially in developing countries that aspire to higher material standards of living for their citizens, sustainable development requires not just increasing wealth but also increasing per capita wealth. This requires sufficient accumulation of capital to overcome the "population dilution effect," whereby more and more people must share the benefits from a fixed amount of wealth, reducing the share each one receives. If wealth increases only enough to keep per capita wealth constant over time, there will be no sustainable increase in average social welfare. If wealth increases, but not enough to compensate for population growth, average social welfare will decline. Only when per capita wealth increases will average social welfare grow. Between 1995 and 2005, global wealth grew rapidly (by 34 percent), but population also grew rapidly, so that the net increase in per capita wealth was only 17 percent over the period (figure 2.2, table 2.4). Per capita wealth grew fastest, by 49 percent, in lower-middle-income countries, a group dominated by China's economy. Per capita wealth in high-income OECD countries continued to increase rapidly, widening the gap between them and many developing countries. Generally, the share of produced capital in total wealth is relatively similar across all income groups, a phenomenon noted in Where Is the Wealth of Nations? (World Bank 2006). The exception to this trend occurs in the lower-middle- income countries, which have a share of produced capital, 24 percent, that is a third higher than the global average of 18 percent. China is the largest economy in this group, large enough to determine the trends for this set of countries. China has invested heavily in produced capital to expand its manufacturing base, and this trend is reflected in the wealth accounts for the entire group of lower-middle-income countries. India, the second-largest economy in this group, has also invested heavily in produced capital, although not as much as China. The relationship between economic development and the changing compo- sition of wealth over time can be seen most clearly in this same group of lower-middle-income countries. From 1995 to 2005, the share of natural capital 32 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS declined while produced capital and intangible capital increased (figure 2.3). The changing relative shares of capital suggest a development process in which economic growth takes place in manufacturing and later services, sectors that require large amounts of human capital. FIGURE 2.2 Growth in Per Capita Wealth, 1995­2005 60 50 change in wealth (%) 40 30 20 10 0 low lower upper high high world income middle middle income income income income OECD non-OECD change in per capita wealth change in total wealth Source: Authors' calculations based on World Bank data. Note: Figures are based on the set of countries for which wealth accounts are available from 1995 to 2005, as described in annex 2.1. TABLE 2.4 Total Wealth Per Capita, 1995­2005 constant 2005 US$ Change from Income Group 1995 2000 2005 1995 to 2005 (%) Low income 5,290 5,672 6,138 16 Lower middle income 11,330 13,686 16,903 49 Upper middle income 73,540 77,986 81,354 11 High income OECD 478,445 538,364 588,315 23 High income non-OECD 225,664 232,583 236,504 5 World 103,311 112,474 120,475 17 Source: Authors' calculations based on World Bank data. Note: Figures are based on the set of countries for which wealth accounts are available from 1995 to 2005, as described in annex 2.1. WEALTH AND CHANGES IN WEALTH, 1995­2005 33 FIGURE 2.3 Changing Composition of Wealth in Lower-Middle-Income Countries, 1995­2005 60 50 % total wealth 40 30 20 10 0 1995 2000 2005 produced capital natural capital intangible capital Source: Authors' calculations based on World Bank data. Wealth Creation in Developing Countries Analysis by geographic region can provide additional insight into wealth crea- tion because of the importance of shared geographic and historical features. Our set of countries includes the low- and middle-income countries, organized by geographic region, and continues to include only those countries for which wealth accounts are available from 1995 to 2005. But we make an exception for Europe and Central Asia, as information for most countries in this region was only available from 2000. So, in the results discussed below, we include the comparison of wealth accounts in Europe and Central Asia from 2000 to 2005, while results for the other regions compare wealth in 1995 and 2005. Among developing countries, wealth creation, both total and per capita, was highest in East Asia, followed by South Asia (figure 2.4). Surprisingly, total wealth creation in Sub-Saharan Africa was relatively high--higher than in either Latin America or Europe and Central Asia. However, on a per capita basis those two regions both outperformed Sub-Saharan Africa. In both, the smaller increase in total wealth supported an increase in per capita wealth because their populations grew more slowly than the population of Sub-Saharan Africa. Looking more closely at Sub-Saharan Africa, we find that the regional results do not necessarily reflect the trends for most African countries. In this region, 27 countries increased per capita wealth between 1995 and 2005, including South Africa but also Botswana, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Ghana, Mozambique, Uganda, and many others. A much smaller number of countries, 12, saw per capita wealth decline. The latter group includes several whose poor performance is no surprise, such as the Democratic Republic of Congo, Nigeria, and Zimbabwe. 34 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS FIGURE 2.4 Change in Wealth and Per Capita Wealth in Developing Countries, 1995­2005 100 90 80 70 change in wealth (%) 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 East Asia Europe Latin Middle South Sub-Saharan and the and America East and Asia Africa Pacific Central Asia and the North Caribbean Africa wealth per capita wealth Source: Authors' calculations based on World Bank data. Note: Changes for Europe and Central Asia are for 2000 to 2005 due to lack of data for 1995. Sub-Saharan Africa is dominated by two economies: Nigeria and South Africa. Wealth in Nigeria declined by 15 percent, while South Africa--the larger of the two--increased per capita wealth by 13 percent from 1995 to 2005. The increase in per capita wealth in South Africa, and in most other Sub-Saharan African countries,4 offset the decline in Nigeria and raised per capita wealth for all of Sub-Saharan Africa by 4 percent. Indeed, the growth of per capita wealth in Sub-Saharan Africa was quite high in many countries and more similar to that observed in other regions. Intangible capital accounted for most of the growth in all regions except the Middle East and North Africa, where natural capital, mainly subsoil assets, accounted for 56 percent of additional wealth (figure 2.5).5 Natural capital declined in both South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. In South Asia, large increases in produced and intangible capital more than compensated for the decline in natural capital, so total wealth per capita increased by 38 percent. In Sub-Saharan Africa, by contrast, the increase in intangible and produced capital was much smaller, raising wealth per capita by only 4 percent over the decade, as noted above. Again, performance for the region as a whole is greatly affected WEALTH AND CHANGES IN WEALTH, 1995­2005 35 FIGURE 2.5 Changes in Wealth in Developing Countries by Type of Asset, 1995­2005 18,000 16,000 14,000 12,000 US$ billions 10,000 8,000 6,000 4,000 2,000 0 --2,000 East Asia Europe Latin Middle South Sub-Saharan and the and America East and Asia Africa Pacific Central Asia and the North Caribbean Africa intangible capital produced capital natural capital Source: Authors' calculations based on World Bank data. Note: Changes for Europe and Central Asia are for 2000 to 2005 due to lack of data for 1995. by Nigeria and a few other countries; the majority of countries in Sub-Saharan Africa did much better than the regional average would suggest over the decade. The Europe and Central Asia region appears to be an unusual case where wealth creation was almost entirely due to intangible capital. However, the story becomes more complex when one looks at natural capital for the region in more detail. Over the period 2000 to 20056 there was a substantial increase in subsoil assets, mainly oil and gas, but this gain was almost completely offset by a loss of value for agricultural land, forest land, and protected areas. The resulting net contribution of natural capital to a change in wealth was near zero (for details, see chapter 3 and annex 3.2). The importance of natural capital for developing countries, and the complex dynamics of changing value over time, suggests a closer look at natural capital (table 2.5). Subsoil assets dominate the natural capital of two regions: Middle East and North Africa and Europe and Central Asia. Forests are most important in Latin America, and agricultural land is most important in the other regions. 36 TABLE 2.5 Composition of Natural Capital in Developing Regions, 2005 Per Capita Wealth (US$ billions) Components of Natural Capital (%) Forest and Total Intangible Produced Natural Protected Subsoil Region Wealth Capital Capital Capital Crop Land Pasture Land Areas Assets East Asia and the Pacific 20,669 10,390 5,878 4,401 55 6 16 23 Europe and Central Asia 72,744 45,140 13,357 15,330 14 11 13 62 Latin America and the Caribbean 79,194 54,870 12,261 12,063 33 10 27 30 Middle East and North Africa 28,992 12,160 6,937 9,895 20 8 2 69 South Asia 10,441 5,978 1,826 2,637 49 25 13 13 Sub-Saharan Africa 13,888 8,291 1,911 3,686 35 13 17 36 Source: Authors' calculations based on World Bank data. Percentages may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding. WEALTH AND CHANGES IN WEALTH, 1995­2005 37 Natural capital is important in both South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, accounting for 25 percent and 28 percent, respectively, of total capital in 2005. The decline in per capita natural capital in both these regions was almost entirely due to a decline in agricultural land value and, to a lesser extent in Sub-Saharan Africa, forest land (reasons for this are discussed in the next chapter). This is indeed a worrisome trend given the dependence of large numbers of people on agriculture for their livelihood. Savings and Changes in Wealth The key to increasing standards of living lies in building national wealth, which requires investment and national savings to finance this investment. We have looked at per capita comprehensive wealth for three points in time between 1995 and 2005; savings/investment is the dynamic behavior that drives wealth changes from one point to the next. These dynamics are captured by adjusted net saving (ANS), or genuine savings, defined as gross national savings adjusted for the annual changes in the volume of all forms of capital. Since wealth changes through saving and investment, ANS measures the annual change in a country's national wealth. This discussion suggests that there are two ways of measuring a change in wealth: calculating ANS or comparing comprehensive wealth between two time periods. In theory they are very similar. The major difference is that comprehen- sive wealth includes capital gains--changes in the real prices of assets over time. But as currently implemented on a global scale, ANS differs from changes in comprehensive wealth because we do not have adequate data to measure changes in all types of capital on an annual basis. ANS is measured as net national savings minus the value of environmental degradation, depletion of subsoil assets, and deforestation, and credited for education expenditures (figure 2.6). Two impor- tant assets are missing: agricultural land and parts of intangible capital (box 2.1). Comprehensive wealth offers two advantages over ANS: it includes all assets and it can be used to monitor how per capita wealth is changing over time, not just total wealth. But we cannot provide comprehensive wealth each year because some of the assets it includes--those excluded from ANS--are difficult to measure meaningfully on an annual basis in many countries, as described in box 2.1. Hence, comprehensive wealth provides a medium- to long-term indicator that is more comprehensive than ANS, but ANS provides policy makers immediate feed- back on an annual basis about the direction the economy is headed and possible changes they may need to make. Furthermore, ANS includes most of the assets that policy makers can influence directly and for which the results can be directly measured. A policy maker looking at an ANS of 10 percent of gross national income (GNI) would be certain the country was on an unsustainable path if all assets were included. However, to the extent that we have unmeasured assets, the 38 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS FIGURE 2.6 Calculating Adjusted Net Saving for Sub-Saharan Africa, 2008 20 plus 15 minus educational depreciation expenditures 10 of fixed minus capital % GNI depletion of minus 5 natural pollution resources damages 0 --5 --10 gross net net saving depletion- adjusted net saving saving plus adjusted saving educational saving expenditures Source: Authors' calculations based on World Bank data. BOX 2.1 Adjusted Net Saving and Missing Capital Intangible capital, the largest component of wealth, is measured as a residual. In chapter 5, we report on work to identify the components of intangible capital, but we are far from having the ability to independ- ently measure these components. ANS includes a measure of additions to human capital, the largest component of intangible wealth. But it is measured from the cost side, by expenditures on education, rather than as the value of the asset created, that is, the net present value of returns to education. Regarding agricultural land, changes may only become apparent over a period of time longer than a year. Holding world market prices constant, agricultural productivity in a given year results from a combination of factors, mainly soil quality, annual weather, technology, and management decisions. Because all these factors fluctuate from year to year, their long-term implications for the value of agricultural land are hard to determine. When the calculation is done at the country level, with access to much more information, it may be possible (although difficult) to estimate these changes. policy maker would have to assume that unmeasured wealth increased by at least 10 percent of GNI before concluding that the economy was on a sustainable path. ANS, therefore, puts a bound around what is necessary to achieve sustainability. WEALTH AND CHANGES IN WEALTH, 1995­2005 39 ANS can be a particularly useful indicator for resource-rich countries, those where resource rents are at least 5 percent of GNI. For these countries, trans- forming nonrenewable natural capital into other forms of wealth is a major development challenge. The rule for interpreting ANS is simple and clear: if ANS is negative, then we are running down our capital stocks and reducing future social welfare; if ANS is positive, then we are adding to wealth and future well- being. Figure 2.7 shows the performance of resource-rich countries, measured by the importance of resource rents in GNI. Positive ANS occurs in countries like Botswana and China, where mineral depletion is offset by investment in other types of capital. Those countries with negative ANS, below the zero ANS line, such as Angola and Uzbekistan, are depleting their natural capital without replacing it and are becoming poorer over time. Figure 2.8 shows ANS for six developing-country regions. While there is marked volatility from year to year, two trends are clear: the upward trend of East and South Asia, where per capita wealth is increasing rapidly, and the downward trend of Sub-Saharan Africa, where per capita wealth barely changed between 1995 and 2005 (although, as noted earlier, this African trend is dominated by figures for Nigeria and a handful of other countries, particularly oil-exporting countries). FIGURE 2.7 Adjusted Net Saving in Resource-Rich Countries, 2008 40 Botswana China adjusted net saving as % GNI 20 0 Uzbekistan --20 Equatorial Guinea --40 Angola Congo, Rep. --60 0 20 40 60 80 100 energy and mineral rents as % GNI Source: Authors' calculations based on World Bank data. 40 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS FIGURE 2.8 Adjusted Net Saving for Developing-Country Regions, 1975­2008 A. Middle East and North Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, and Sub-Saharan Africa 15 10 5 0 % GNI --5 --10 --15 --20 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005 2008 Middle East and Latin America and Sub-Saharan North Africa the Caribean Africa B. East Asia and the Pacific, South Asia, and Europe and Central Asia 35 30 25 20 % GNI 15 10 5 0 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1933 1996 1999 2002 2005 2008 East Asia and South Asia Europe and the Pacific Central Asia Source: Authors' calculations based on World Bank data. WEALTH AND CHANGES IN WEALTH, 1995­2005 41 Population Growth and the Adjusted Net Saving Gap ANS captures change in total wealth, but for development, we are concerned with per capita wealth in order to maintain the standard of living for each person. So when population is growing, wealth must increase just to maintain the same amount of productive capital and income-generating potential per person. If ANS is negative, it is clearly an indication that wealth is declining. When ANS is positive, on the other hand, the signal for development is less clear. If ANS is high enough to maintain per capita wealth, then the economy is on a sustainable path; but if ANS is not sufficient, then the economy will not be able to maintain the same standard of living for its growing population. Using the comprehensive wealth accounts, we can calculate the amount by which ANS must increase each year simply to keep per capita wealth intact. This amount is called the "Malthusian term." If we subtract the Malthusian term from ANS, the remaining savings (divided by population) is the amount by which per capita wealth increases. For example, countries as diverse as Gabon, Algeria, República Bolivariana de Venezuela, the United States, and New Zealand have had positive ANS but a decline in per capita wealth because savings has not been sufficient to compensate for population growth. In Gabon, for example, despite positive ANS of $393 in 2008, population growth caused per capita wealth to decline by $641 (see appendix E). Figure 2.9 shows ANS adjusted for population growth scattered against the rate of population growth in 2005. The downward trend suggests that higher popu- lation growth rates are associated with lower per capita wealth accumulation, but it is notable that some countries had positive per capita wealth creation even at high rates of population growth. At the lower right-hand side, where ANS adjusted for population growth is extremely negative, we see countries that already had negative total ANS, like Angola and the Republic of Congo. Surprisingly, Uganda appears here as well. In the previous section, where we discussed changes in comprehensive wealth, Uganda appeared as one of the countries that had increased per capita wealth. Its negative performance under ANS reflects the fact that ANS does not include agricultural land and intangible capital--forms of capital that increased significantly in value in Uganda between 1995 and 2005. If they had been included, the population-adjusted ANS would have been positive. The adjusted net saving gap measures, as a percentage of GNI, the difference between actual ANS and the amount necessary to maintain per capita wealth. Appendix E reports the adjusted net saving gap for more than 150 countries. For example, the ANS gap for Algeria is 2.3 percent of GNI. So, for wealth per capita to at least stay constant, saving in Algeria should increase from the current rate of 12.2 percent to 15.5 percent. The savings gap for the United States and New Zealand is 2 percent. 42 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS FIGURE 2.9 Population-Adjusted ANS and Population Growth Rates in Developing Countries, 2005 50 Botswana population-adjusted ANS, % GNI per capita China Moldova Georgia Belarus Armenia Sri Lanka Djibouti Cape Verde Ukraine Morocco Maldives 0 Syrian Arab Republic BelizeUganda Nigeria Congo, Dem. Rep. ­50 Mauritania Angola Chad ­100 Congo, Rep. Burundi ­1 0 1 2 3 4 population growth rate (%) Source: Authors' calculations based on World Bank data. Note: Population-adjusted ANS is per capita ANS minus the Malthusian term (the amount by which total wealth would have to increase in order to maintain constant per capita wealth). It is presented as a percentage of per capita GNI. Conclusions The decade from 1995 to 2005 saw a large increase in global wealth, with intan- gible capital--already the largest share of global wealth--accounting for nearly 80 percent of the change. Whether looking at changes across income groups at a single point in time, or at changes for a single income group over time, the wealth accounts confirm that development is a process of building wealth and shifting its composition from natural capital to produced and intangible capital. The large disparity in wealth has persisted, although the distribution of wealth shifted slightly in favor of low- and middle-income countries, whose share increased from 14 percent to 17 percent. In most developing countries, wealth creation is dominated by intangible capital--increases in human capital, improvements in institutions and govern- ance, and technological changes that support more efficient use of produced and natural capital and higher levels of consumption. At the global level, the share of natural capital in total wealth is small and declined in all income groups over the period. But natural capital remains important for low-income and WEALTH AND CHANGES IN WEALTH, 1995­2005 43 lower-middle-income countries, where it accounts for 30 and 25 percent of wealth respectively in 2005. Agricultural land is the most important form of natural capital in most developing countries (aside from oil producers) and remains the basis of livelihoods for the majority of their people. Good manage- ment of agricultural land is therefore a priority for these countries. Total wealth grew rapidly over the decade, outpacing population growth, so that per capita wealth increased 17 percent. Asian countries, mainly China and India, saw phenomenal growth in per capita wealth, nearly 70 percent. Sub-Saharan Africa accumulated a great deal of wealth, but high population growth kept per capita wealth increases very low, around 4 percent over the decade. The low growth of per capita wealth in Sub-Saharan Africa was strongly affected by the poor performance of a handful of resource-rich countries, led by Nigeria, where per capita wealth declined. Per capita wealth in many other Sub-Saharan African countries increased, led by intangible capital and the resulting improvements in efficiency of produced and natural capital. Adjusted net saving provides a window on the dynamic process by which wealth grows over time. Most resource-rich countries had positive ANS in 2008, indicating that depletion is being offset by other forms of capital. But nine of these countries had ANS of 15 to 60 percent of GNI. While there may be gains in unmeasured capital, it is extremely unlikely that it would be sufficient to fully offset this loss. Looking at regional ANS from 1975 to 2008, clear trends emerge, with ANS (as well as per capita wealth) increasing in Asia and ANS declining in Sub-Saharan Africa. In both instances, a few countries dominate the trend: the stellar perform- ance of China and, more recently, India drives the positive trends in Asia, and the poor performance of Nigeria and a handful of other countries outweighs the positive performance of many other African countries. Finally, adjusting ANS for the population effect--the amount of additional capital necessary to maintain per capita wealth for a growing population--shows that even countries with positive ANS may fail to maintain per capita wealth. The adjusted net saving gap is not just a phenomenon of developing countries, although arguably it is more critical in such countries because of the very low level of per capita wealth with which they start. Even developed countries such as the United States and New Zealand have had positive ANS but a decline in per capita wealth because saving has not been sufficient to compensate for population growth. 44 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS Annex 2.1: Countries Excluded from the Analysis of Changes in Wealth The world wealth database for 1995 included 124 countries; over time, data for 28 additional countries became available and country coverage for 2000 and 2005 expanded to 152 countries. The 28 countries without data for 1995 are listed in box 2.2. Most of these missing countries (18) are in Europe and Central Asia. Our analysis of wealth by income class is based on the restricted set of 124 countries for which we have data for all three years. In the analysis of developing countries by geographic region, however, we include Europe and Central Asia but analyze change in wealth between 2000 and 2005 only. BOX 2A.1 Countries with Wealth Accounts in 2005 but Not in 1995 Albania* Kyrgyz Republic* Russian Federation* Angola Lao PDR Slovak Republic Armenia* Latvia* Tajikistan* Azerbaijan* Liberia Turkey* Belarus* Lithuania* Ukraine* Bulgaria* Macedonia, FYR* Uzbekistan* Cape Verde Maldives Vanuatu Croatia Moldova* Vietnam Czech Republic Poland* Georgia* Romania* * Countries in the Europe and Central Asia region. WEALTH AND CHANGES IN WEALTH, 1995­2005 45 Annex 2.2: Per Capita Wealth, 1995 and 2005, and Changes in Per Capita Wealth and Population, 1995­2005, by Region and Income Group TABLE 2A.1 46 Per Capita Wealth by Region and Income Group, 1995 constant 2005 US$ Region/Income Population Total Intangible Produced Natural Crop Pasture Forest/ Forest/ Protected Natural Hard Soft Group (millions) Wealth Capital Capital Capital Land Land Timber Nontimber Areas Oil Gas Coal Coal Minerals East Asia and the 1,553 12,225 5,996 2,985 3,243 2,181 148 222 46 168 229 64 143 1 41 Pacific Europe and 409 55,135 26,784 13,125 15,226 3,349 2,748 453 991 2,137 2,450 2,876 132 12 79 Central Asiaa Latin America and 459 71,536 49,458 11,556 10,523 4,013 1,561 809 379 1,063 2,116 246 3 0 333 the Caribbean Middle East and 203 25,015 12,628 5,912 6,475 1,962 838 64 21 125 2,763 680 2 0 20 North Africa South Asia 1,211 7,592 3,235 1,127 3,230 1,744 971 84 20 246 49 31 70 2 13 Sub-Saharan 534 13,295 5,912 1,989 5,393 2,023 1,329 564 249 288 776 25 61 0 78 Africa Low income 463 5,290 2,519 623 2,148 1,009 412 310 152 217 5 11 1 0 31 Lower middle 2,997 11,330 5,128 2,331 3,870 2,187 583 220 56 206 429 60 102 1 28 income Upper middle 500 73,540 50,212 12,578 10,750 3,595 2,128 661 343 1,016 2,143 435 66 0 362 income High income 881 478,445 382,491 85,496 10,458 2,605 2,711 1,213 359 2,254 684 453 13 7 160 OECD High income 43 225,664 122,821 48,613 54,230 1,261 559 19 15 5,735 43,344 3,294 0 0 3 non-OECD Worldb 4,884 103,311 78,632 18,634 6,045 2,287 1,109 451 149 708 989 193 72 2 86 Source: Authors' calculations based on World Bank data. a. Figures for Europe and Central Asia are for 2000; data not available for most Europe and Central Asia countries in 1995. b. World figures are for those countries for which we have wealth data. TABLE 2A.2 Per Capita Wealth by Region and Income Group, 2005 constant 2005 US$ Region/Income Population Total Intangible Produced Natural Crop Pasture Forest/ Forest/ Protected Natural Hard Soft Group (millions) Wealth Capital Capital Capital Land Land Timber Nontimber Areas Oil Gas Coal Coal Minerals East Asia and 1,707 20,669 10,390 5,878 4,401 2,424 277 374 56 272 334 251 302 1 109 the Pacific Europe and 408 72,744 44,057 13,357 15,330 2,146 1,624 239 519 1,241 4,249 4,789 318 39 167 Central Asia Latin America 531 79,194 54,870 12,261 12,063 4,025 1,225 1,711 386 1,120 2,477 416 16 0 687 and the Caribbean Middle East and 240 28,992 12,160 6,937 9,895 1,977 837 56 29 155 4,400 2,395 2 0 44 North Africa South Asia 1,440 10,441 5,978 1,826 2,637 1,288 663 171 18 161 82 107 109 2 37 Sub-Saharan 681 13,888 8,291 1,911 3,686 1,298 463 237 191 182 1,028 102 117 0 70 Africa Low income 586 6,138 3,484 788 1,866 879 369 200 139 165 43 50 1 0 20 Lower middle 3,433 16,903 8,550 4,088 4,265 1,997 500 323 53 255 634 232 196 2 73 income Upper middle 580 81,354 56,327 13,190 11,837 3,649 1,139 1,278 346 829 2,684 1,070 151 0 691 income High income 938 588,315 477,730 99,536 11,049 2,176 2,263 632 480 2,528 1,234 1,279 164 22 272 OECD High income 54 236,504 118,382 48,915 69,206 735 592 10 32 4,331 55,128 8,378 0 0 0 non-OECD Worlda 5,591 120,475 92,770 21,137 6,568 2,069 849 458 164 726 1,414 555 163 5 164 47 Source: Authors' calculations based on World Bank data. a. World figures are for those countries for which we have wealth data. TABLE 2A.3 48 Changes in Per Capita Wealth and Population, 1995­2005 constant 2005 US$ Region/Income Population Total Intangible Produced Natural Crop Pasture Forest/ Forest/ Protected Natural Hard Soft Group (millions) Wealth Capital Capital Capital Land Land Timber Nontimber Areas Oil Gas Coal Coal Minerals East Asia and 155 8,445 4,394 2,893 1,157 243 129 152 9 104 106 187 159 1 67 the Pacific Europe and 0 17,609 17,274 231 104 1,203 1,124 214 472 896 1,800 1,914 185 28 87 Central Asiaa Latin America and 72 7,658 5,412 706 1,541 12 336 901 7 57 362 170 13 0 355 the Caribbean Middle East and 37 3,978 468 1,026 3,420 15 1 8 8 30 1,638 1,715 0 0 25 North Africa South Asia 228 2,849 2,743 699 592 456 308 86 3 85 33 76 39 1 24 Sub-Saharan 147 593 2,378 78 1,707 725 866 327 58 106 252 76 56 0 8 Africa Low income 124 848 965 165 282 130 43 110 13 52 38 39 0 0 10 Lower middle 436 5,573 3,422 1,756 395 189 83 104 3 49 205 172 93 1 45 income Upper middle 80 7,814 6,114 612 1,087 54 989 616 3 187 541 636 84 0 329 income High income 57 109,870 95,239 14,040 591 429 448 581 121 273 550 827 150 15 113 OECD High income 11 10,840 4,438 302 14,977 526 33 9 17 1,404 11,784 5,084 0 0 3 non-OECD Worldb 707 17,164 14,138 2,503 523 217 259 7 15 18 426 362 91 3 78 Source: Authors' calculations based on World Bank data. a. Changes are from 2000 to 2005. b. World figures are for those countries for which we have wealth data. WEALTH AND CHANGES IN WEALTH, 1995­2005 49 Notes 1 All figures are reported in constant 2005 U.S. dollars. 2 Analysis of wealth accounts in this chapter is based on data for 124 countries for which wealth accounts are available for 1995, 2000, and 2005, as described in annex 1. An additional 28 countries for which wealth accounts are available only from 2000 are not included in this analysis. 3 As discussed in chapter 1, high-value ecosystem services associated with nonagricultural land, such as aesthetic services provided by natural landscapes, are missing from the wealth accounts due to lack of data. They are likely to be of particular importance in developed countries. If they were included, they would probably increase the share of natural capital in total wealth, at least in some countries. 4 Including those that make up the vast majority of countries in the low-income region. 5 Although the high-income oil producers are excluded, there are a number of developing countries in the region that rely heavily on oil and natural gas as well as other minerals. 6 Data are not available for most of these countries in 1995, so the analysis is reported for 2000 and 2005 only. Reference World Bank. 2006. Where Is the Wealth of Nations? Measuring Capital for the 21st Century. Washington, DC: World Bank. C H A P T E R 3 Changes in Natural Capital: Decomposing Price and Quantity Effects AS NOTED IN CHAPTER 2, WORLDWIDE GROWTH IN WEALTH between 1995 and 2005 has been driven by growth in intangible capital, which accounted for nearly 80 percent of the change. Developing countries differ sharply from developed countries with respect to the composition of new wealth. In developing countries, growth in intangible capital contributed 60 percent to growth in total wealth, compared to 86 percent in countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD); growth in produced capital contributed 24 percent, versus 14 percent in OECD countries; and growth in natural capital contributed 13 percent, versus 1 percent in OECD countries (figure 3.1). Developing countries, however, are not a homogeneous group. Investments in produced capital drive much of the total wealth growth in East Asia and the Pacific (33 percent), Middle East and North Africa (25 percent), and South Asia (22 percent). Growth in intangible capital is most important for changes in total wealth in Europe and Central Asia (106 percent), Sub-Saharan Africa (100 percent, dropping to 78 percent if South Africa and Nigeria are excluded), and South Asia (80 percent).1 The contribution of growth in natural capital to growth in total wealth is very high in the Middle East and North Africa, and is relatively high in Latin America and the Caribbean and in East Asia and the Pacific; natural capital actually declined in Sub-Saharan Africa. But natural capital's contribution 51 52 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS to changes in total wealth is often hidden by the opposite signs of changes in land and subsoil assets. Therefore, to understand the impact natural capital has on changes in total wealth, we need to decompose the effects of different natural assets such as land, forests, and nonrenewable resources. This chapter explores what has driven the changes in natural capital over the period 1995­2005. In addition to examining different types of assets, it decom- poses the effects of changes in prices, or unit rents, from the effects of changes in physical stocks.2 Agricultural land values can change because of changes in crop prices, input costs, yields, and area under production. Forest land values can change because of a change in production forest, which can result in a higher extraction rate or a change in depletion time, or because of a change in the value of timber. Subsoil asset values can change because of new discoveries, which extend the exhaustion time of the resources, changes in the unit rents from existing assets, or changes in forecasted production patterns.3 The first section of the chapter provides a short description of the methodology (a more detailed description can be found in annex 3.1). Subsequent sections analyze the data appearing in annex 3.2. Decomposition: A Note on the Methodology Annex 3.1 explains the application of the decomposition methodology, so a few brief observations will suffice here. We may think of the value of an asset as being determined by a combination of three factors: (a) the unit rent it generates over time, (b) the quantity of the resource it is possible to extract in any given period, and (c) the length of time over which the resource is expected to be available. For simplicity, let us assume the three terms are combined with each other in a multiplicative manner:4 Asset value (V) Unit rent (R) Production quantity (Q) Exhaustion time (T). (3.1) Assume we wish to decompose changes in the asset value (V) between period 1 and period 2. We are interested in the relative importance of each factor in the right-hand side of equation (3.1): V2 V1 R effect Q effect T effect. (3.2) Imagine for the moment that the only thing that changes between period 1 and period 2 is the unit rent the resource generates. In this case the decomposi- tion is very simple, since the Q effect and the T effect are zero: V2 V1 (R2 R1)Q1T1 0 0. (3.3) CHANGES IN NATURAL CAPITAL: DECOMPOSING PRICE AND QUANTITY EFFECTS 53 Notice that the higher the change in unit rents and the higher the initial values of Q and T, the higher will be the R effect. The same logic can be applied to the case in which production quantity and exhaustion time change one at a time. Let us now assume both unit rents and quantity change. The decomposition will have two positive terms, the R effect and the Q effect (the T effect will be zero), and a residual term: V2 V1 (R2 R1)Q1T1 (Q2 Q1)R1T1 0 (Q2 Q1) (R2 R1) T1. (3.4) The residual term in the right-hand side of equation (3.4) serves to balance the equation. Provided price and quantities do not change too much, the fourth term will be negligible compared to the other effects and can be ignored. The important issue here is that the decomposition works by looking at changes in each factor separately, holding everything else constant, and then adding up the various effects. It allows us to separate the effects of price changes from the effects of physical quantity changes. We turn now to the analysis of the numbers. Contribution of Land and Subsoil Assets to Changes in Wealth Changes in natural capital often account for a large part of the variation in total wealth over time (see annex 3.2 and chapter 2). For example, between 1995 and 2005, changes in natural capital accounted for 56 percent of the change in total wealth in the Middle East and North Africa and for 46 percent of the change in high-income oil exporters. Other regions have suffered declines in natural capital values, notably Sub-Saharan Africa, where the decline amounted to 15 percent of the change in total wealth. In some regions, changes in natural capital have a negligible effect, such as in the OECD countries. In others, such as South Asia and Europe and Central Asia, values for different natural assets have changed with opposite signs, offsetting each other's effects. In developing countries, increases in subsoil asset values have driven most of the growth in natural capital. Land values, on the other hand, have had a relatively small effect (figure 3.1). This is somewhat surprising given that land accounts for a large share of total wealth in many low- and middle-income countries. We can shed light on this issue by disentangling the effects of changes in unit rent, or price, and changes in physical quantity, such as yields and production area. Figure 3.2 shows that in developing countries, production- side variables such as area and yield have increased by an amount equal to 7 percent of the change in total wealth, while price declines have amounted to 5 percent of the change. The detailed data in annex 3.2 show that yields for all crops have increased throughout the developing world. This can be observed across income groups and regions. 54 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS FIGURE 3.1 Decomposition of Changes in Natural Capital by Asset and Income Group, 1995­2005 world developing countries OECD --5 0 5 10 15 % change in total wealth land forest subsoil assets Source: Authors' calculations. Note: Europe and Central Asia countries are excluded. FIGURE 3.2 Decomposition of Changes in Natural Capital by Factor in Developing Countries, 1995­2005 subsoil assets --1 6 4 land --5 7 --10 --5 0 5 10 15 % change in total wealth unit rent production exhaustion time Source: Authors' calculations. Note: Europe and Central Asia countries are excluded. The story of subsoil assets is qualitatively different from that of land values: price and quantity changes have both been positive. However, as can be seen in figure 3.4, changes in unit rents account for the majority of the growth in subsoil asset values in both developed and developing countries. CHANGES IN NATURAL CAPITAL: DECOMPOSING PRICE AND QUANTITY EFFECTS 55 The different regions in the developing world have distinctive natural resource endowments. It is useful, therefore, when decomposing changes in natural capital to summarize the changes by region. Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia In Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, declining land values are only partly offset by increases in subsoil asset values. Drops in land values amounted to 25 percent of the change in total wealth in Sub-Saharan Africa.5 These declines diminish in absolute value but keep the same sign if we exclude Nigeria and South Africa (see annex 3.3). In South Africa, the decline in land values amounted to 29 percent of the change in total wealth. In Nigeria the effect is even greater ( 170 percent). The decomposition analysis shows that a sharp decline in unit rents drove the drop in value of land assets in Sub-Saharan Africa (figure 3.3). The fall in crop prices contributed 17 percent and was not offset by the relatively modest increases in area under cultivation (+4 percent) and yields (+5 percent). It is important to note that the effect is mostly explained by drops in real prices rather than in nominal prices. Nominal prices have not shown substantial changes between FIGURE 3.3 Decomposition of Changes in Land Values by Region, 1995­2005 10 7 7 6 7 5 4 44 4 45 5 3 33 2 2 1 12 % change in land values 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 ­1 ­1 ­2 ­3 ­2 ­5 ­4 ­5 ­6 ­10 ­8 ­8 ­9 ­10 ­11 ­15 ­17 ­20 ­23 ­23 ­25 ­25 ­30 East Asia Europe Latin Middle South Sub- and the and America East Asia Saharan Pacific Central and the and Africa Asia Caribbean North Africa crop area crop yield crop land unit rent pasture production pasture land unit rent protected areas net effect Source: Authors' calculations. Note: Values for Europe and Central Asia refer to the change between 2000 and 2005. 56 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS 1995 and 2005, but once they are adjusted for inflation, the value of most crops goes down substantially. Also in Sub-Saharan Africa, pasture price drops have contributed 23 percent to the change in total wealth. The results do not change qualitatively if one excludes Nigeria and South Africa from the sample (see annex 3.3). Most of the effect is due to changes in real prices, but prices for pasture land products have also declined substantially in nominal terms. In South Asia, drops in crop prices have contributed 8 percent to the change in total wealth, and drops in pasture product prices have contributed 11 percent. Inflation played an important role here as well. Price drops have been just barely offset by increases in cultivated crop area (+1 percent), yields (+2 percent), and pasture production (+7 percent). While land values declined, subsoil asset values in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia increased between 1995 and 2005 (figure 3.4). In Sub-Saharan Africa, subsoil assets contributed 17 percent to the growth in total wealth, and the effect remains substantial even after Nigeria is excluded from the sample. This has partially offset the slump in agricultural land values. The increase in subsoil assets has been driven partly by unit rents and partly by production increases. FIGURE 3.4 Decomposition of Changes in Subsoil Asset Values by Region, 1995­2005 60 50 % change in subsoil asset values 50 46 40 35 33 30 23 20 18 17 13 13 10 7 87 6 6 55 5 24 2 2 30 1 0 0 0 ­1 ­4 --10 East Asia Europe Latin Middle East South Sub- High and the and America and Asia Saharan income Pacific Central and the North Africa Africa non-OECD Asia Caribbean production unit rent exhaustion time net effect Source: Authors' calculations. Note: Values for Europe and Central Asia refer to the change between 2000 and 2005. CHANGES IN NATURAL CAPITAL: DECOMPOSING PRICE AND QUANTITY EFFECTS 57 Increases in oil prices have contributed 5 percent to total wealth growth in the region, while increases in oil production have contributed 6 percent. Natural gas prices have contributed 1 percent, and increases in gas production 2 percent. Across all subsoil assets, price increases accounted for 45 percent of increases in value. That figure goes up to 53 percent if one excludes Nigeria from the sample. Nigeria stands out from other major oil producers in that it increased production at a much faster pace, and prices only accounted for 34 percent of the rise in subsoil asset values. In South Asia, increases in subsoil asset values and timber values have also helped offset part of the agricultural land declines. This has been driven mainly by unit rent increases, particularly for oil, natural gas, and timber, and to a lesser extent by increases in production of natural gas, coal, and minerals. Europe and Central Asia In Europe and Central Asia, changes in natural capital show features that are broadly similar to those in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. But there are some differences. For this reason, and because our dataset only allows us to estimate changes for the period 2000­2005 in this region, we keep the discussion of Europe and Central Asia separate. Natural capital's contribution to changes in wealth appears to be modest ( 4 percent), but this is because land values and subsoil asset values are moving in opposite directions. In fact, the value of land assets and forest assets has declined substantially over the period between 2000 and 2005, while the value of subsoil assets has increased in the same period by a similar order of magnitude (annex 3.2). The data on change in land value show that there has been a consistent drop in unit rents for cereals, fruits, vegetables, sugar crops, and other crops (including roots, pulses, and oil crops). At the aggregate level, unit rent declines accounted for 116 percent of the decline in crop land values. This has been partially offset by increases in yields, particularly for cereals and vegetables (+1 percent). Pasture product prices have also declined, causing a drop in pasture land values. Unit rent declines in agriculture substantially affect our estimates of protected areas, which are conservatively valued using a quasi­opportunity cost. The estimates show a negative contribution of 10 percent. Forest land values also declined, driven by a drop in both the unit rents for timber and the value of nontimber forest products. In this region the increase in subsoil asset value completely offset the decline in agricultural land values. The change is largely driven by the increase in oil and gas unit rents, which cumulatively account for 70 percent of the change in subsoil assets. Increases in oil and gas production account for 26 percent and are only marginally offset by a decline in the exhaustion time of oil reserves. 58 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS Middle East and North Africa Subsoil asset value increases between 1995 and 2005 have driven 50 percent of total wealth growth in the Middle East and North Africa. They explained 46 percent of wealth growth in high-income non-OECD countries. A common feature of oil exporters in the Middle East and North Africa and in the non-OECD group is that mostly unit rent increases--and not production increases -- explain the growth in natural capital. Production increases accounted for only 27­28 percent of total increase in subsoil asset values. In the Middle East and North Africa, production only contributed 6 percent to the increase in oil wealth. In high-income non-OECD countries, production contributed 20 percent to the increase in oil wealth. In the case of natural gas, the relative contribution of unit rents and production increases has been more even. As seen in annex 3.3, the values for the Middle East and North Africa are determined by a few countries, namely Algeria, the Arab Republic of Egypt, the Islamic Republic of Iran, and the Syrian Arab Republic. In the Islamic Republic of Iran, production has only contributed 10 percent to the increase in oil wealth; unit rent increases contributed the other 90 percent. In Syria, production of oil declined and the increase in exhaustion time and unit rents each contributed nearly 50 percent to the oil wealth increase. Algeria is the country in the group with the largest increases in oil production, accounting for 51 percent of growth in oil wealth. The decomposition analysis shows that the Middle East and North Africa and the group of high-income oil exporters have been investing in produced capital and accumulating financial assets. On the other hand, the numbers show a very small growth in intangible capital, which contributed only 9 percent of total wealth growth in the Middle East and North Africa and 10 percent in high-income non-OECD countries. This fact is consistent with the idea that high resource dependence, while making it possible to boost infrastructure and financial assets, may hinder the process of institution building and human capital creation that is the basis of income growth in the long term. Latin America and the Caribbean and East Asia and the Pacific Between 1995 and 2005, natural capital contributed 17 percent of total wealth growth in Latin America and the Caribbean and 15 percent in East Asia and the Pacific. In both regions, agricultural land, forest land, and subsoil assets all grew in value over the period. Agricultural land has been gaining importance, thanks in particular to produc- tion increases. It contributed 4 percent of total wealth growth in Latin America and the Caribbean and 7 percent in East Asia and the Pacific. Changes in production area and yields have been positive and have more than offset the decline in crop and pasture prices that we observed globally. In Latin America and the Caribbean, increased crop land area and yields each contributed 2 percent to growth in total CHANGES IN NATURAL CAPITAL: DECOMPOSING PRICE AND QUANTITY EFFECTS 59 wealth, and pasture production increases contributed 1 percent. In East Asia and the Pacific, increases in area under crops contributed 5 percent to growth in total wealth, yield increases contributed 3 percent, and pasture production contributed 2 percent. In Latin America and the Caribbean, increases in the value of timber land have contributed 7 percent to the growth in total wealth. This is in large part the effect of a rise in timber prices, which contributed 6 percent to the change in total wealth. Particularly noteworthy is the case of Brazil, where the rise in forest land value contributed 14 percent of the change in total wealth. That increase has been driven mainly by a price rise (12 percent) and to a lesser extent by an increase in production (2 percent). Timber price increases have also been relatively important in East Asia and the Pacific and in South Asia, where they contributed 2 percent of the growth in total wealth. Subsoil assets also contributed to the growth in natural capital wealth and in total wealth. In Latin America the subsoil asset contribution to total wealth growth was driven both by production increases in oil, natural gas, and minerals, and by unit rent increases, coming mostly from oil. A decrease in exhaustion time for oil in our dataset contributed a 3 percent reduction to the change in total wealth. In South Asia, an increase in unit rents for oil and natural gas contributed 2 percent to total wealth growth, and increases in production of oil, natural gas, coal, and minerals contrib- uted 3 percent. Summing Up: Land Values and Subsoil Assets Prices, or unit rents, have played a major role in boosting or reducing natural capital's contribution to changes in total wealth over the period 1995­2005(see figure 3.3). Declining prices for crop and pasture products have led to low or declining natural capital values in a number of countries. Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Europe and Central Asia, where natural capital changes have resulted in a deduction to total wealth, are a case in point. Such declines have been partially offset by increases in production and yields, but in most cases the price effect has dominated. Land values have contributed positively to growth in total wealth in other regions, namely East Asia and the Pacific and Latin America and the Caribbean. All in all, increases in land asset values have contributed 8 percent to total wealth growth in low-income countries. This is much higher than the 2 percent contribution in lower-middle-income countries and the 1 percent contribution in upper-middle-income countries. This result has been driven in large part by increases in production area for crops (which contrib- uted 4 percent of growth in total wealth), crop yields (5 percent), and pasture production (4 percent). A slump in agricultural and pasture prices has partially offset these effects, contributing 5 percent (see figure 3.4). 60 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS Over the period from 1995 to 2005, prices of subsoil assets increased sharply. This has contributed to large increases in natural capital in some regions. The effect has been greater in regions where subsoil assets are a greater share of total wealth. Consequently, in upper-middle-income countries, which are relatively well endowed with nonrenewable resources, the growth in subsoil asset values has contributed 11 percent to the growth in total wealth. In lower-middle-income countries the contribution was 8 percent, and in low-income countries 4 percent. In OECD countries, subsoil assets have contrib- uted only 1 percent to the growth in total wealth. Worldwide, the growth in subsoil asset values has been driven by increases in unit rents, which accounted for 71 cents of every dollar increase in total asset value. In developing countries, unit rent increases contributed 65 percent of the increase in subsoil asset values, but in OECD countries the contribution was 82 percent. The reason for the difference is that many developing countries have increased production over the period under study. Energy and mineral extraction increases have contributed as much as 13 percent to total wealth growth in the Middle East and North Africa, 8 percent in Sub-Saharan Africa, and 5 percent in Latin America and the Caribbean. Price rises have affected some regions more than others. Price increases accounted for 70 percent of subsoil asset increases in the Middle East and North Africa, but only 45 percent in Sub-Saharan Africa. The value goes up to 53 percent if one excludes Nigeria from the sample. By contrast, prices have repre- sented 75 percent of the subsoil asset value increase in the Islamic Republic of Iran and 62 percent in Algeria. CHANGES IN NATURAL CAPITAL: DECOMPOSING PRICE AND QUANTITY EFFECTS 61 Annex 3.1: Decomposition Methodology Total wealth in a given year is the sum of produced capital, natural capital, net foreign assets, and intangible capital (or residual). In our database, we esti- mate total wealth and the different types of capital for the period 1995­2005. Hence, we are able to estimate the change in wealth between 1995 and 2005 (for Europe and Central Asia the estimate is from 2000 to 2005). Decomposition of changes in total wealth into its four major categories (produced, natural, intangible, and net foreign assets) is straightforward since these are all addi- tive. We are interested in going one step further by carrying out decomposition of certain categories, particularly natural capital and intangible capital, into their subcomponents. Since produced capital is estimated as the accumulated stock of investment series, its decomposition would not yield new information. Decomposition of intangible capital is undertaken in chapter 5, so natural capital is our focus here. Since we build the estimates of natural capital using information on prices and on physical quantities such as area and yield, we are interested in decomposing the effects of different factors to show their relative importance. In this section we lay out a decomposition methodology adapted from Bacon and Bhattacharya (2007). Natural capital is composed of the present value of the returns to land from crops, pasture and protected areas, forests (timber and nontimber) and subsoil assets (oil, gas, coal, and minerals). Each component in turn is estimated using information on area and yield (or production), prices or unit rents, and exhaustion time. Equation (3A.1) shows how crop wealth (CW) is estimated as an example: CWt area yield real price rentalrate (T, d). (3A.1) Wealth is expressed as the product of area cultivated, yield, real price, rental rate, and a value (T, d). The term (T, d) captures the effect of taking the present value of current rents. Alpha depends on the resource's exhaustion time (when applicable) or the time span over which the present value is taken--expressed by T--and the value of the discount rate d. The logarithmic mean Divisia index (LMDI) is used to decompose change in crop wealth into the additive effects of changes in area, yield, real price, and alpha (rental rates for crops are assumed constant over time and across countries). For details, see Bacon and Bhattacharya (2007). The change in crop wealth from 2000 to 2005 can then be written as follows: CW CW(2005) CW(2000) Aeff + Yeff + Peff + Weff . (3A.2) 62 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS In equation (3A.2), Aeff is the effect of changes in area under crop cultivation; Yeff is the effect of changes in yield of crops; Peff is the effect of changes in real prices, since wealth in 1995 and 2005 is expressed in constant 2005 U.S. dollars; and Weff is the effect of changes in alpha. In our estimates, the rental rate is assumed to be constant. Applying the LMDI index, each one of these effects can be calculated as shown in equation (3A.3) for the changes in price: { } [CW(2005) CW(1995)] ______________________ P(2005)/P(1995) Peff [CW(2005) log _________ CW(1995) ] [ P(2005) log _______ P(1995) ] (3A.3) Hence, change in crop land value can be decomposed into the sum of the effects of changes in alpha, real prices, yields, and areas from 1995 to 2005. The change in total natural capital in turn can then be summed over changes in each one of these effects, capturing changes in the value of crop land, pasture land, protected areas, forests, and subsoil resources. CHANGES IN NATURAL CAPITAL: DECOMPOSING PRICE AND QUANTITY EFFECTS 63 Annex 3.2: Decomposition of Changes in Total Wealth by Income Group and Region, 1995­2005 64 TABLE 3A.1 Decomposition of Changes in Total Wealth by Income Group and Region, 1995­2005 % change in total wealth Latin Lower Upper High East Asia Europe and America Middle East Low Middle Middle Income and the Central and the and North South Sub-Saharan Income Income Income Non-OECD OECD Pacific Asiaa Caribbean Africa Asia Africa Change in total wealth 1,150 24,072 10,389 3,110 130,323 16,305 7,160 9,232 1,879 5,834 2,362 (2005 US$ billions) Intangible capital 75 55 74 10 86 49 106 72 9 80 100 Produced capital 15 29 13 18 14 33 1 13 25 22 10 Net foreign assets 0 3 1 25 0 3 3 2 10 0 4 Natural capital 10 13 14 46 1 15 4 17 56 1 15 Land 8 2 1 0 0 7 23 4 6 9 25 Cereals area 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Cereals yield 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 Cereals price, real 2 2 0 0 0 1 2 0 1 2 2 Fruits area 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 1 1 Fruits yield 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 Fruits price, real 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 2 1 2 Vegetables area 0 4 0 0 0 5 0 0 2 1 1 Vegetables yield 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 1 Vegetables price, real 0 2 0 0 0 2 2 0 2 1 2 Sugar crops area 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 Sugar crops yield 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 Sugar crops price, real 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 2 Other crops area 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 3 Other crops yield 2 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 3 Other crops price, real 3 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 1 10 Pasture production 4 3 2 0 0 2 0 2 4 7 7 Pasture price, real 2 4 6 0 0 0 6 3 2 11 23 Protected areas 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Protected areas value 1 1 1 0 0 1 10 0 0 1 1 per hectare, real Forest 1 2 4 0 0 2 4 6 0 2 6 Timber exhaustion time 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 7 Timber production 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 Timber price, real 7 2 4 0 0 2 1 6 0 2 0 Nontimber forest 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 exhaustion time Nontimber forest area 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Nontimber forest value 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 per hectare, real Subsoil assets 4 8 11 46 1 6 23 7 50 5 17 Oil exhaustion time 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 3 2 0 1 Oil production 1 1 3 7 0 0 5 3 2 0 6 Oil unit rent, real 1 3 4 29 0 1 6 4 23 1 5 (continued) 65 66 TABLE 3A.1 (continued) Latin Lower Upper High East Asia Europe and America Middle East Low Middle Middle Income and the Central and the and North South Sub-Saharan Income Income Income Non-OECD OECD Pacific Asiaa Caribbean Africa Asia Africa Gas exhaustion time 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Gas production 1 1 2 6 0 1 1 1 12 1 2 Gas unit rent, real 1 1 3 5 1 1 10 1 12 1 1 Coal exhaustion time 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Coal production 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 Coal unit rent, real 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 2 Minerals exhaustion time 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Minerals production 1 1 2 0 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 Minerals unit rent, real 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Source: Authors' calculations. a. Values for Europe and Central Asia refer to the change between 2000 and 2005. CHANGES IN NATURAL CAPITAL: DECOMPOSING PRICE AND QUANTITY EFFECTS 67 Annex 3.3: Decomposition of Changes in Total Wealth in Selected Countries in Middle East and North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa, 1995­2005 68 TABLE 3A.2 Decomposition of Changes in Total Wealth in Selected Countries in the Middle East and North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa, 1995­2005 % change in total wealth Iran, Syrian Other Middle Other Egypt, Islamic Arab East and South Sub-Saharan Algeria Arab Rep. Rep. Republic North Africaa Nigeria Africa Africa Change in total wealth (2005 US$ billions) 25 528 734 86 555 150 1,067 1,145 Intangible capital 1,744 62 24 0 79 94 124 78 Produced capital 146 8 38 18 16 52 1 13 Net foreign assets 349 3 10 37 3 54 1 3 Natural capital 1,149 27 75 45 7 100 25 6 Land 18 10 5 9 6 170 29 2 Cereals area 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 Cereals yield 5 1 1 3 0 3 0 1 Cereals price, real 5 0 1 4 0 23 0 1 Fruits area 15 1 3 1 0 5 0 1 Fruits yield 10 1 1 1 0 3 0 1 Fruits price, real 26 0 3 7 0 38 0 0 Vegetables area 9 3 2 1 1 21 0 1 Vegetables yield 15 1 2 5 1 5 0 1 Vegetables price, real 30 0 2 8 1 10 0 1 Sugar crops area 0 2 0 0 0 1 2 1 Sugar crops yield 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 Sugar crops price, real 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 Other crops area 3 0 0 2 0 41 0 2 Other crops yield 10 0 1 3 0 8 0 3 Other crops price, real 11 0 1 5 0 123 0 3 Pasture production 46 3 3 10 2 3 1 10 Pasture price, real 27 2 2 7 1 14 28 16 Protected areas 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 Protected areas value per hectare, real 7 0 0 0 0 2 3 0 Forest 4 0 0 0 0 59 1 4 Timber exhaustion time 12 0 0 0 0 24 1 10 Timber production 3 0 0 0 1 3 0 2 Timber price, real 13 0 0 0 1 36 0 5 Nontimber forest exhaustion time 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Nontimber forest area 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Nontimber forest value per hectare, real 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 Subsoil assets 1,128 17 70 54 1 129 6 12 Oil exhaustion time 68 2 0 21 1 0 0 2 Oil production 197 4 4 4 0 61 0 4 Oil unit rent, real 254 6 42 23 1 37 0 6 Gas exhaustion time 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Gas production 296 7 12 9 0 24 0 0 69 (continued) 70 TABLE 3A.2 (continued) Iran, Syrian Other Middle Other Egypt, Islamic Arab East and South Sub-Saharan Algeria Arab Rep. Rep. Republic North Africaa Nigeria Africa Africa Gas unit rent, real 448 6 11 5 0 6 0 0 Coal exhaustion time 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Coal production 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 Coal unit rent, real 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 Minerals exhaustion time 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Minerals production 1 0 1 0 0 0 2 1 Minerals unit rent, real 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 Source: Authors' calculations. a. Other Middle East and North Africa consists of Jordan, Morocco, and Tunisia. CHANGES IN NATURAL CAPITAL: DECOMPOSING PRICE AND QUANTITY EFFECTS 71 Notes 1 The value for Europe and Central Asia is limited to the 2000­05 period. 2 The analysis in this chapter concentrates on changes in real prices, that is, after accounting for inflation. 3 Unit rents increase as world prices of energy and mineral commodities increase, as unit rents are equal to price minus production costs. For low-production-cost countries, the effect of an increase in prices will be higher than for high-production-cost countries. 4 In reality, the way the three terms interact is given by the present value formula T RtQt _______ . V0 t 0 (1 d)t It is easy to show that for a constant discount rate d and assuming quantity and prices increase at a constant rate, the formula for V0 indeed becomes multiplicative. 5 Note that there can be relatively large figures for the changes in individual components of wealth, such as quantity changes, but the net effect of summing up these changes in components can be small owing to the cancellation of positive and negative factors. Reference Bacon, Robert W., and Soma Bhattacharya. 2007. "Growth and CO2 Emissions: How Do Different Countries Fare?" Environment Department Paper 113, World Bank, Washington DC. P A R T 2 A Deeper Look at Wealth C H A P T E R 4 Wealth Accounting in the Greenhouse C H A P T E R 5 Intangible Capital and Development C H A P T E R 6 Human Capital and Economic Growth in China C H A P T E R 7 Linking Governance to Economic Consequences in Resource-Rich Economies: EITI and Wealth Accounting C H A P T E R 8 Country Experiences with Wealth Accounting C H A P T E R 4 Wealth Accounting in the Greenhouse THE RELEASE OF THE STERN REVIEW ON THE ECONOMICS OF climate change (Stern 2006), the Fourth Assessment Report of the Inter- governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 2007b), and World Development Report 2010 on development and climate change (World Bank 2010) has given a significant boost to the profile of climate change as a development issue. Data on the emission of greenhouse gases have become central to the monitoring of emission reduction commitments by individual countries, while discussions about historical responsibility for the causes of climate change have focused on the accumulation of greenhouse gases emitted by individual countries (see, for example, den Elzen et al. 1999). In this chapter we approach the greenhouse gas problem from a wealth accounting perspective. This is important because the damages produced by these gases will have an impact on future well-being and on the sustainability of individual countries and the world. Greenhouse gases, and carbon dioxide (CO2) in particular, have distinctive economic characteristics that affect the analysis of the wealth of nations. Our goal is to estimate, for each country, the economic value of both the flow of CO2 emissions and the stock of atmospheric CO2 that is the result of historical emissions. The value of CO2 emissions is directly linked to the social cost of carbon, discussed below. Establishing the value of CO2 stocks requires an 75 76 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS economic rationale and methodology for valuing these stocks, and this is one of the contributions of the chapter. The chapter is best viewed as an exercise in what Paul Samuelson famously termed "positive economics." Our contribution to the climate debate is to establish values of CO2 stocks and flows by applying economic principles of valuation, without considering normative issues. But we obviously recognize that normative and ethical issues are at the heart of the climate debate, and so we offer some reflections on application of the principles of corrective justice as well as on the range of ethical principles that can be brought to bear on the climate problem. Climate change is driven by the emission of a range of substances with different warming potentials and atmospheric lifetimes, including methane, nitrous oxide, and black carbon, in addition to CO2. For the purposes of this chapter we will focus only on CO2, a choice that is driven by purely practical considerations: carbon dioxide is by far the largest contributor to climate change, and long time-series estimates of CO2 emissions are available. Below we outline the economics of climate change, highlighting the social cost of carbon as a key element. This is followed by an examination of how property rights to the global commons influence how we should do the wealth accounting. Finally, we present our estimates of the value of CO2 stocks and flows for 2005. We begin by presenting the scientific consensus on climate change and drawing out the implications for developing countries. Climate Science and the Development Consensus The successive assessment reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reflect an evolving scientific consensus on whether the global climate is changing and whether human activity has been the main driver of change. The fourth and latest assessment (IPCC 2007b) draws the strongest conclusions to date. A summary for policy makers (IPCC 2007a) makes the following assertions, among others: Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, as is now evident from observations of increases in global average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice and rising global average sea level. Most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic GHG [greenhouse gas] concentrations. It is likely that there has been significant anthropogenic warming over the past 50 years averaged over each continent (except Antarctica). Continued GHG emissions at or above current rates would cause further warming and induce many changes in the global climate system during the 21st century that would very likely be larger than those observed during the 20th century. WEALTH ACCOUNTING IN THE GREENHOUSE 77 Anthropogenic warming could lead to some impacts that are abrupt or irreversible, depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change. The scientific consensus presented by the IPCC is strong and clear, therefore. Below we draw upon the scientific literature to establish baselines for how much of the anthropogenic CO2 that was emitted historically still resides in the atmo- sphere, and we estimate each country's share of that stock. Climate change as a development challenge is the central focus of World Development Report (WDR) 2010. A key finding of the report is that up to 80 percent of the damages from climate change will be borne by developing coun- tries. This outcome is largely driven by the high dependence of developing countries on natural resources, particularly agricultural land, as a source of income. Other chapters of this book highlight the dependence of low-income countries, in particular, on natural resources as a share of total wealth. One of the principal policy messages of WDR 2010 is that the development process itself must be transformed in a greenhouse world. High-carbon growth, which has been the historical norm, is no longer an option. While low-income countries have contributed only a little over 1 percent of the anthropogenic stock of CO2, developing countries as a whole are now the largest annual emitters of CO2, and most of the growth in emissions during this century is likely to take place in developing countries.1 This establishes the setting for the analysis in this chapter. Climate change is happening now, is driven by human activities, and will likely accelerate unless action is taken to reduce greenhouse gas emissions very substantially. Its greatest impact will be on countries most dependent upon climate-sensitive sectors of the economy: developing countries characterized by high dependence on natural resources as a share of wealth. Accounting for carbon stocks and flows can contribute to the needed transformation of the development process. Some Economics of Climate Change In order to account for and value CO2 stocks and flows, it is essential to under- stand some of the basic economics of this pollutant. Two basic physical properties of CO2 have a profound influence on the economics of climate change: (a) it is a uniformly mixed pollutant, meaning that emissions at one point on the globe will affect the whole globe, and (b) it is a highly persistent pollutant.2 The high persistence of CO2 in the atmosphere is an important element in the economic analysis of climate change. Carbon cycles naturally through the biogeosphere, with stocks held in the atmosphere, in living matter, in soils, and in the ocean. The rate of decay of CO2 from the atmosphere after it has been emitted has been modeled by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC 2002), and this model has been applied in the Climate Analysis 78 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS Indicators Tool (CAIT) used in this chapter.3 To give a feel for the extent of this persistence, the model predicts that, while 50 percent of CO2 will have dissipated from the atmosphere 15 years after emission, 36 percent will remain in the atmos- phere after 50 years, and 30 percent will remain after 100 years. This has two basic implications. First, in accounting for the stocks of CO2 in the atmosphere that have been emitted by any given country, long time series of country emissions will be required. This is provided by the CAIT dataset. Second, in establishing the value of damages inflicted by a ton of CO2 that is emitted now (or has been emitted in the past), it will be necessary to model damages a century or more into the future and to take the present value of this flow of damages. This is how we measure the social cost of carbon. As this definition suggests, any esti- mate of the social cost of carbon is scenario- or model-dependent and is subject to all of the uncertainties that integrated climate-economy modeling entails.4 Table 4.1 summarizes the range of estimates of the social cost of marginal carbon emissions constructed by Tol (2005). Depending on model assump- tions, and particularly on discounting assumptions tied to the pure rate of time preference, the range in mean values is from roughly $4 to $70 per ton of CO2 in 2005 dollars. In this chapter we use a figure derived by Fankhauser (1995) of $20 per ton of carbon in 1995, the same figure used in estimates of adjusted net saving published by the World Bank since 1999. Translated to dollars per ton of CO2 ($/tCO2) and 2005 dollars, this amounts to $6.69 per ton of additional CO2 emissions. This figure lies within the range of estimates in table 4.1, roughly one-half of the mean social cost of carbon appearing in peer-reviewed papers, and nearly twice the median. TABLE 4.1 Distribution of Published Marginal Social Costs of CO2 Emissions constant 2005 US$ per ton of CO2 Mode Mean 5% 10% Median 90% 95% Base 0.40 25.40 2.60 0.40 3.80 45.00 95.50 Author weights 0.40 35.20 2.90 0.40 4.40 60.00 173.20 Peer reviewed 1.40 13.60 2.40 0.40 3.80 34.10 66.80 CoV 0.5 1.40 25.10 0.20 0.50 4.60 43.60 94.10 CoV 1.5 0.40 25.60 6.70 2.10 3.80 46.40 102.30 No equity weights 0.40 24.50 2.10 0.40 2.70 32.50 81.80 Equity weights 0.10 27.50 5.40 0.40 14.70 68.20 107.70 PRTP 3% only 0.40 4.40 1.50 0.40 1.90 9.50 16.90 PRTP 1% only 1.30 13.90 3.70 0.40 0.80 34.10 45.00 PRTP 0% only 1.90 71.20 6.40 0.40 10.60 205.90 439.10 Source: Tol 2005, with data converted to $/tCO2. Note: PRTP pure rate of time preference; CoV coefficient of variation. WEALTH ACCOUNTING IN THE GREENHOUSE 79 Note that the social cost of carbon is a marginal figure, that is, it represents the damage inflicted by one extra ton of CO2 emitted. It is like a price in this regard, and is therefore useful in many aspects of the economic analysis of climate change. When we value flows of carbon emitted, in the next section of this chapter, it is the marginal value of the social cost of carbon that is applied. However, when it comes to valuing stocks of CO2, it is clear that a marginal value of the social cost of carbon looking forward is not appropriate. To value CO2 stocks, we first turn to the question of starting points. The approach applied in this chapter is to measure a country's entire stock of CO2 residing in the atmosphere as a result of emissions dating from the start of the Industrial Revolution.5 To value this CO2 stock, we evaluate the reduction in global damages that would have occurred if that country's stock had not been emitted. That is, we invoke the assumption of ceteris paribus--"other things being equal." Because this value assumes that all other stocks of CO2--the result of emissions by all other countries--are still in the atmosphere, it is not possible to add up the stock values across countries to arrive at a global total because this would violate the "other things being equal" assumption. This also implies that the value of the CO2 stock for an aggregation of countries, such as the European Union (EU), will not equal the sum of the stock values for the individual coun- tries in the group. Figure 4.1 presents the stylized approach to valuing an atmospheric stock of CO2. It assumes that the social cost of carbon is a quadratic function of the atmospheric concentration of CO2. At the 2005 CO2 atmospheric concentration level of 379.8 parts per million by volume (ppmv), the social cost of carbon is $6.69, as indicated above.6 Since the social cost of carbon measures damages from anthropogenic emissions of CO2, it is assumed to be zero when its atmospheric concentration was at preindustrial levels: 284.0 ppmv. Suppose now that country X has emitted a stock of atmospheric CO2 that, if removed from the atmosphere, would bring concentrations down to 359.8 ppmv. Then the reduction in global damages that would be incurred if country X's stock had not been emitted is measured by the area under the curve between points a and b, times the conversion factor from ppmv to tons of CO2.7 This is the "other things being equal" value of the stock of CO2 attributed to country X. To make this question of average versus marginal social values of the stock of carbon more concrete, we can take the example of the EU, treated as a single emitter in this instance. CAIT estimates that the EU's share of the stock of anthro- pogenic CO2 in 2006 is 23.8 percent. Applying the approach shown in figure 4.1, we calculate the average social value of the EU stock of CO2 to be $5.72 per ton, obtained by dividing the value of damage (the area under the curve in figure 4.1) by the CO2 stock, measured in tons, attributed to the EU. This compares with the marginal social value of $6.69 per ton. 80 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS FIGURE 4.1 The Value of a Reduction in the Stock of CO2 a social cost of carbon ($/tCO2) 6.69 b 0 284.0 359.8 379.8 atmospheric concentration of CO2 (ppmv) Source: Authors. Estimated Values of Carbon Stocks and Flows in 2005 The CAIT database covers most countries in the world, providing estimates of each country's share of the stock of CO2 remaining in the atmosphere in 2006. It includes emissions from fossil fuel combustion and cement manufacture from 1850 to 2006 and emissions from land use change since 1990. These shares of the stock in 2006 are in effect discounted emissions, since they are estimated by summing up the amount of each year's historical emission net of dissipation from the atmosphere since the time of emission. We combine the shares of the stock from CAIT with an estimate of the total stock of anthropogenic CO2 in the atmosphere in 2005 to arrive at estimated stocks by country.8 Figure 4.2 shows the estimated stock of CO2 for the top 10 emitters, where EU countries feature both as part of the EU aggregate (of 27 countries) and singly. The stocks for the United States and the EU clearly dominate, but China and India feature in the top 10, as does the Russian Federation. The value of these stocks of CO2 is shown in figure 4.3, normalized to gross national income (GNI) measured at nominal exchange rates. Here, we see a very different picture of the top 10 historical emitters, with Russia, China, and India exhibiting the largest value of CO2 stocks as a share of national income. Compared with the United States and the EU, these countries have had higher ratios of CO2 emissions to GNI. WEALTH ACCOUNTING IN THE GREENHOUSE 81 FIGURE 4.2 Stock of CO2: Top 10 Emitters 225 200 175 gigatons of CO2 150 125 100 75 50 25 0 at ed io an a y n a ce da ra an do d Ge n in di an pa an ng te tio Un pe na St nit de ssi m Eu s Ch In rm Ja e Ki Uni n Fr Ca ro U Fe Ru Source: Authors' calculations based on CAIT data for 2009. FIGURE 4.3 Value of CO2 Stock as a Percentage of GNI: Top 10 Emitters 60 50 40 % GNI 30 20 10 0 ra an at ed io an a y n ia ce da do d Ge n in an pa ng te m d tio de ssi an Un pe na St nit Eu s Ch In Ki Uni rm Ja e n Fr Fe Ru Ca ro U Source: Authors' calculations based on CAIT data for 2009 and World Bank (2007). Table 4.2 summarizes both stocks and flows of anthropogenic CO2 for all countries exceeding 1 percent of the total atmospheric stock in 2005. In terms of shares of the stock, high-income countries dominate with 60 percent of the total, compared with 40 percent for developing countries (comprising upper- middle-income, lower-middle-income, and low-income countries). Looking at values of CO2 stocks per capita, the top countries, at over $3,000 per capita, are the United States, Germany, the United Kingdom, and Canada; China and India 82 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS are notably low. For CO2 stocks as a share of total wealth (a better comparator than GNI, since one stock is being compared to another), the big figures belong to developing and transition countries, including China, Russia, India, Ukraine, Poland, and South Africa. In aggregate, developing countries exhibit a value of CO2 stocks exceeding 1 percent of total wealth. Turning to current emissions, table 4.2 shows that the big emitters per capita are high-income countries--the United States, Japan, Canada, and Australia-- plus the Russian Federation. However, when share of GNI is considered, the TABLE 4.2 CO2 Stock and Current Emissions, 2005 CO2 Stock CO2 Emissions Share % % % Emitter (%) t/capita $/capita GNI wealth t/capita $/capita GNI United States 27.3 691 3,865 9.1 0.5 19.7 132 0.3 European Union 23.8 363 2,079 7.4 0.5 8.2 55 0.2 China 10.5 60 377 21.9 2.0 4.3 29 1.7 Russian Federation 8.1 422 2,684 51.5 3.7 10.6 71 1.4 Germany 6.1 549 3,535 10.3 0.7 9.7 65 0.2 United Kingdom 4.7 586 3,808 9.9 0.6 9.2 61 0.2 Japan 4.2 248 1,617 4.4 0.3 10.2 68 0.2 India 2.8 19 125 17.0 1.2 1.3 9 1.2 France 2.5 301 1,984 5.6 0.3 6.5 43 0.1 Canada 2.2 507 3,347 9.7 0.6 17.3 116 0.3 Ukraine 2.1 337 2,223 123.0 7.6 6.9 46 2.6 Poland 1.8 353 2,335 30.0 1.7 7.9 53 0.7 Italy 1.7 218 1,358 4.5 0.3 8.0 54 0.2 Australia 1.2 433 2,875 9.0 0.6 17.9 120 0.4 Mexico 1.2 84 559 6.9 0.4 4.2 28 0.3 South Africa 1.2 185 1,229 24.2 1.4 8.7 58 1.2 Korea, Rep. 1.1 166 1,105 6.3 0.5 9.8 66 0.4 Spain 1.0 172 1,146 4.5 0.3 8.2 55 0.2 Upper middle income 18.6 150 891 17.2 1.1 5.0 34 0.6 Lower middle income 19.8 41 244 19.1 1.4 2.6 18 1.4 Low income 1.5 12 80 23.8 1.2 0.5 3 1.0 Source: Authors' calculations based on CAIT data for 2009 and World Bank (2007). WEALTH ACCOUNTING IN THE GREENHOUSE 83 largest emitters are developing countries--China, India, and South Africa--plus Russia and Ukraine.9 The large number of transition economies seen in table 4.2 reflects an important legacy of the years of central planning. Table 4.3 takes a closer look at the countries of Eastern Europe and Central Asia. The values of CO2 stocks per capita exceed $2,000 in Kazakhstan, Poland, Russia, and Ukraine. As a share of total wealth, CO2 stocks exceed 5 percent in Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Moldova, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan. The value of current CO2 TABLE 4.3 Eastern Europe and Central Asia: CO2 Stock and Current Emissions, 2005 CO2 Stock CO2 Emissions Share % % % Emitter (%) t/capita $/capita GNI wealth t/capita $/capita GNI Albania 0.02 48 322 11.7 0.6 1.5 10 0.4 Armenia 0.04 98 653 39.8 2.2 1.4 9 0.6 Azerbaijan 0.19 169 1,133 82.0 7.4 4.2 28 2.0 Belarus 0.36 275 1,844 59.6 3.9 6.6 44 1.4 Bosnia and Herzegovina 0.06 119 794 26.8 1.2 6.8 45 1.5 Bulgaria 0.27 261 1,746 49.6 2.7 6.1 41 1.2 Georgia 0.06 101 673 46.4 2.5 1.1 7 0.5 Kazakhstan 0.89 439 2,942 86.6 7.8 11.7 78 2.3 Kyrgyz Republic 0.05 73 487 105.5 4.6 1.1 7 1.6 Latvia 0.05 163 1,088 15.8 0.9 3.1 21 0.3 Lithuania 0.09 197 1,320 17.8 1.0 4.1 27 0.4 Macedonia, FYR 0.04 147 984 34.8 1.7 5.5 37 1.3 Moldova 0.07 139 932 104.7 5.4 2.2 14 1.6 Poland 1.80 353 2,335 30.0 1.7 7.9 53 0.7 Romania 0.59 204 1,365 30.1 1.7 4.2 28 0.6 Russian Federation 8.08 422 2,684 51.5 3.7 10.6 71 1.4 Serbia 0.20 201 1,346 39.4 1.9 -- -- -- Tajikistan 0.03 34 230 67.2 3.4 0.9 6 1.7 Turkey 0.56 59 394 5.9 0.3 3.5 23 0.3 Turkmenistan 0.16 247 1,654 48.2 8.0 8.6 58 1.7 Ukraine 2.12 337 2,223 123.0 7.6 6.9 46 2.6 Uzbekistan 0.52 149 995 182.3 18.7 4.3 29 5.3 Source: Authors' calculations based on CAIT data for 2009 and World Bank (2007). Note: -- not available. 84 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS emissions as a share of GNI exceeds 1 percent in the majority of countries in the region. Discussion: Issues of Law and Equity While it is tempting to consider the value of these stocks of CO2 as a type of "environmental debt," and thus as figures that would appear as liabilities in the national balance sheet accounts, doing so would require a legal framework that first establishes responsibility for all the past emissions included in our calcula- tions and then creates an obligation for emitters to pay the countries harmed by their emissions. Similar difficulties accompany any attempt to establish liability for current CO2 emissions. An insightful article by Weisbach (2009) describes the major obstacles these endeavors would face. Taking the common law of tort as the model of corrective justice, Weisbach identifies the central issue as finding fault. To take just a few examples, are high CO2 emitters like Canadians at fault for living in a cold climate? Is consump- tion of meat unethical in the climate context, given that meat production is a major source of CO2 emissions? Do countries that industrialized earlier, before widespread awareness of the connection between emissions and the greenhouse effect, necessarily bear full historical responsibility? Weisbach notes, "To deter- mine fault on a global scale for pervasive activities that span more than a century is simply impossible." The alternative to finding fault is to impose strict liability. In the climate context this would imply that all emitters of CO2 would be liable for damages, without the need for a finding of fault as in tort law. But as Weisbach notes, applying strict liability retroactively--which would be required if historical emissions were to be subject to corrective justice--is almost unprecedented. As a general principle of due process, agents who would be subject to strict liability should be entitled to advance notice prior to any assumption of liability. In addition, corrective justice requires that there be some demonstrable connection between the agent causing harm and the party being harmed. When we consider the problem of damages from CO2 emitted over time, it is difficult at this time to see how this evidentiary requirement would be met. Finally, as already noted, imposing some form of sanction on developing- country emitters, whether the emissions of CO2 are current or historical, raises serious questions of equity. As a general principle it seems inequitable to require developing countries to finance a global public good, particularly when the largest portion of historical emissions creating the need for that public good has come from high-income countries. If we wish the solution to the climate problem to be equitable, the inevi- table next question concerns the equity criteria to be applied. A variety can WEALTH ACCOUNTING IN THE GREENHOUSE 85 be identified, including egalitarianism (implying equal per capita emission rights, for example), ability to pay, sovereignty (implying status quo rights), "maxi-min" (maximize net benefits to the poorest nations), horizontal equity (similar economic circumstances receive similar emission rights), vertical equity (higher compliance burdens should fall on those with higher ability to pay), Pareto compensation, and market justice (seek efficient solutions to the climate problem) (Rose et al. 1998; Rose and Kverndokk 2008). Applying any of these equity criteria would result in different outcomes concerning who pays for dealing with climate change, and making a choice among them is ultimately the responsibility of the nations of the world as they progress toward a comprehensive solution to the climate problem. Summing Up Our purpose in this chapter has not been to join the rancorous debate about historical responsibility for climate change. The CAIT figures are, on their own, sufficient to fuel that debate. Our contribution has been to devise an approach to economic valuation of the stocks of CO2 that can be attributed to each country and to present the resulting figures both in per capita terms and as a share of total wealth. In per capita terms the stock values are particularly large in high-income countries, while they are large in proportion to total wealth in the large middle-income countries, particu- larly in the transition economies of Eastern Europe and Central Asia. We also value current emissions, using the social cost of carbon. These figures are also large in per capita terms in high-income countries and large as a share of GNI in the large middle-income countries. It is clear that assigning property rights would be a necessary step in bringing these CO2 values into the national income, savings, and wealth accounts that are the focus of this book. If we assume that countries have the right not to be polluted by their neighbors--a fundamental principle of international environ- mental law--then each country's value of CO2 emissions could be accounted as a notional deduction from savings, while the value of the stock of CO2 attributed to the country could be a notional liability in the asset accounts. But any attempt to move from notional values to damages owed would raise the issues discussed earlier about the applicability of the model of corrective justice and the associ- ated ethical questions. The social cost of carbon employed in this chapter falls within the range of peer-reviewed estimates, $6.69 per ton of CO2. By way of comparison, the U.K. Department of Energy and Climate Change has published guidelines suggesting a central estimate of the value of carbon lying between £21 and £50 per ton of CO2 in 2008 (DECC 2009). The lower of these figures amounts to about $40 per 86 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS ton of CO2 in 2005 dollars, and at this social cost of carbon the average value of the U.S. stock of CO2 per citizen would amount to over $23,000, representing nearly 55 percent of GNI per capita or 3 percent of total wealth per capita. In addition, if the world were to agree on an emissions cap that would lead to stabili- zation of the global stock of CO2, the social cost of carbon would rise at the rate of interest, say 5 percent per year.10 But the rate of decay of CO2 stocks is much lower, averaging about 1.2 percent a year over 100 years. It is therefore likely that the value of these CO2 stocks will increase over time. The rate of depreciation of these stocks of CO2 is driven by physical processes. Unlike financial obligations, therefore, these stocks cannot be reduced by saving more today. But the rate of accumulation of new stocks of atmospheric CO2 is very much driven by the combination of economic and climate policy. This brings us back to one of the main messages of WDR 2010: the develop- ment process itself must be transformed because high-carbon growth is no longer sustainable. Achieving this transformation across a broad range of countries is part of what the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change terms the "common but differentiated responsibilities" of all countries. WEALTH ACCOUNTING IN THE GREENHOUSE 87 Annex: Sources and Technical Details This annex provides the sources of the data used in this chapter, as well some key technical details concerning the empirical estimates used. Stock of CO2 in 2005 A standard source for historical CO2 concentration data is the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) of the U.S. Department of Energy, which has published data on recent greenhouse gas concentrations (Blasing 2010). For this chapter we assume a preindustrial atmospheric CO2 concentration of 284 parts per million by volume (ppmv), based on work by Etheridge et al. (1998). We use a current concentration figure of 379.76 ppmv in 2005 based upon the Mauna Loa time series from Pieter Tans (2010) of the Earth System Research Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce. The difference between these two figures gives a concentration of anthropo- genic atmospheric CO2 equal to 95.76 ppmv. Concentrations are then converted to mass, based upon information from CDIAC (2010): 1 ppmv CO2 2.13 Gt C 7.81 Gt CO2. Our estimated mass of anthropogenic atmospheric CO2 for 2005 is therefore 747.9 Gt CO2. As noted in the text, CAIT assumes a rate of dissipation of CO2 from the atmosphere based upon UNFCCC (2002). The formula assumes different rates of decay for distinct fractions of the gas in the atmosphere. If we denote the fraction of emitted CO2 still in the atmosphere t years after emission as f(t), and emissions in year s as e(s), then the year 2005 stock S is calculated as 2005 S(2005) e(t) f (2005 t) t 1,850 As reported in the CAIT indicator framework paper (WRI 2009), CAIT calcu- lates an anthropogenic CO2 concentration in year 2000 of 83 ppmv compared with the observed figure of 90 ppmv. The difference is ascribed to the simple model of the carbon cycle used in the calculation and the omission of land-use change and forestry emissions prior to 1990. CAIT reports only the country shares of the anthropogenic stock of CO2, which are shown in tables 4.2 and 4.3. We multiply these shares by the total stock estimate of 747.9 Gt CO2 to arrive at country stocks, but the omission of emissions from land-use change in the nineteenth century probably biases developed-country stocks downward. 88 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS Average Versus Marginal Social Cost of Carbon Figure 4.1 presents the logic for how nonmarginal changes in the stock of atmo- spheric CO2 should be valued. We use a quadratic form of the relationship between the marginal social cost of carbon and the atmospheric concentra- tion of CO2, based upon an approximation of the damage function in the DICE (Dynamic Integrated Model of Climate and the Economy) 2007 model documented by Nordhaus (2008). The DICE 2007 integrated assessment model employs a piece-wise poly- nomial damage function to relate global damages (measured in percentage of gross domestic product lost) to the mean global temperature rise, with damage assumed to be zero for a zero rise in temperature. Since the temperature rise is an increasing function of the atmospheric concentration of CO2, and the social cost of carbon (SCC) is an increasing function of damages, we approximate these relationships as: SCC 0.00018407 x(x 284) Here x is the atmospheric concentration of CO2, and the leading numerical constant ensures that the social cost of carbon is equal to $6.69 when concentra- tions are at the 2005 level, 379.76 ppmv. The (x 284) term ensures that the social cost of carbon is zero when CO2 concentrations are at the preindustrial level of 284 ppmv. A superior solution to dealing with nonmarginal values of the social cost of carbon would be to run the DICE 2007 model (or another integrated assessment model) with alternative initial conditions for the current atmospheric concentra- tion of CO2, and then measure the associated social cost of carbon. Repeating this step would permit the tracing out of a more precise curve for figure 4.1, and numerical integration of the curve would yield the nonmarginal values of the social cost of carbon desired. This is a subject for future research. WEALTH ACCOUNTING IN THE GREENHOUSE 89 Notes 1 As the analysis will show, however, per capita emissions of CO2 in low- and middle-income countries are still much lower than in developed countries. 2 This list of characteristics is obviously not exhaustive. A key point, though not directly germane to the analysis in this chapter, is that climate mitigation is a global public good, creating strong incentives for countries to free ride on the efforts of their neighbors. Free riders increase their own profits by not applying costly CO2 abatement technologies while at the same time benefiting from abatement efforts by others. In the absence of an effective global regulatory regime, reducing climate change is a classic coordination problem. Barrett (2003) explores this problem at length. 3 CAIT Version 7.0 was developed by the World Resources Institute in Washington, DC (http://cait.wri.org/). 4 For an example of an integrated assessment model, see the DICE (Dynamic Integrated Model of Climate and the Economy) model of Nordhaus (2008). Integrated assessment models are linked economy-climate system models. 5 This seems a reasonable starting point, but it is not uncontroversial, as our discussion of finding fault will make clear. 6 The data underlying figure 4.1 and its functional form are referenced in the annex to this chapter. 7 Obviously, if country X's stock of CO2 is small, then points a and b nearly coincide, and marginal valuation of the stock is a reasonable approximation. 8 For sources and caveats on the data presented, see the annex to this chapter. Note that shares of anthropogenic CO2 in 2006 would not be significantly different from those for 2005, and so we apply the 2006 shares to the 2005 total stock in order to arrive at 2005 stocks of CO2 by country. 9 Note that the figures for the value of emissions are equal to the level of an efficient tax on carbon emissions in these countries. Some countries have suggested that taxing carbon at the point of emission is unfair, because much of the carbon is emitted in the produc- tion of export goods consumed in other countries; these producer countries therefore suggest taxing on the basis of carbon consumed. However, the logic of taxing consump- tion requires that there be border taxes on imports (see, for instance, Whalley 1979), so the suggested tax on carbon consumption would not necessarily reduce the tax burden on emitting nations. Atkinson et al. (2010) show that U.S. border taxes on the carbon content of imports from China, India, Russia, and South Africa could be very large, up to 10 percent of the total value of imports for a tax rate of $50 per ton of CO2. 10 The intuition here is that implementing a stabilization target is roughly equivalent to having a finite stock of emission rights that will be depleted over time. The Hotelling rule therefore applies to the price of these emission rights--that is, the social cost of carbon. References Atkinson, Giles, Kirk Hamilton, Giovanni Ruta, and Dominique van der Mensbrugghe. 2010. "Trade in `Virtual Carbon': Empirical Results and Implications for Policy." Policy Research Working Paper 5194, World Bank, Washington, DC. Barrett, Scott. 2003. Environment and Statecraft: The Strategy of Environmental Treaty-Making. New York: Oxford University Press. 90 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS Blasing, T. J. 2010. "Recent Greenhouse Gas Concentrations." Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge, TN. http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/current_ghg.html. CDIAC (Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center). 2010. "Frequently Asked Global Change Questions." CDIAC, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge, TN. http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html. DECC (Department of Energy and Climate Change). 2009. "Carbon Valuation in UK Policy Appraisal: A Revised Approach." U.K. Department of Energy and Climate Change, London. den Elzen, M., M. Berk, M. Schaeffer, J. Olivier, C. Hendriks, and B. Metz. 1999. "The Brazilian Proposal and Other Options for International Burden Sharing: An Evaluation of Methodological and Policy Aspects Using the FAIR Model." National Institute of Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, Netherlands. Etheridge, D. M., L. P. Steele, R. L. Langenfelds, R. J. Francey, J.-M. Barnola, and V. I. Morgan. 1998. "Historical CO2 Records from the Law Dome DE08, DE08-2, and DSS Ice Cores." In Trends: A Compendium of Data on Global Change. Oak Ridge, TN: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy. Fankhauser, Samuel. 1995. Valuing Climate Change: The Economics of the Greenhouse. London: Earthscan. IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2007a. Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report--Summary for Policymakers. Contribution of Working Groups I, II, and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Geneva: IPCC. ------. 2007b. IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007. Geneva: IPCC. Nordhaus, William. 2008. A Question of Balance: Weighing the Options on Global Warming Policies. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Rose, A., and S. Kverndokk. 2008. "Equity and Justice in Global Warming Policy." Nota di Lavoro 80.2008, Fondazione Eni Enrico Mattei, Milan. Rose, A., B. Stevens, J. Edmonds, and M. Wise. 1998. "International Equity and Differentiation in Global Warming Policy." Environmental and Resource Economics 12 (1): 25­51. Stern, Nicholas. 2006. The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review. Prepared for the U.K. Government. New York: Cambridge University Press. Tans, Pieter. 2010. "Trends in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide." Earth System Research Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, Boulder, CO. http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends. Tol, Richard. 2005. "The Marginal Damage Costs of Carbon Dioxide Emissions: An Assessment of the Uncertainties." Energy Policy 33: 2064­74. UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change). 2002. Scientific and Methodological Assessment of Contributions to Climate Change: Report of the Expert Meeting. Document FCCC/SBSTA/2002/INF.14. Bonn: UNFCCC. Weisbach, David. 2009. "Responsibility for Climate Change, by the Numbers." Law and Economics Working Paper 448, University of Chicago Law School, Chicago. Whalley, John. 1979. "A Simple Neutrality Result for Movements between Income and Consumption Taxes." American Economic Review 69 (5): 974­76. WEALTH ACCOUNTING IN THE GREENHOUSE 91 World Bank. 2007. World Development Indicators 2007. Washington, DC: World Bank. ------. 2010. World Development Report 2010: Development and Climate Change. Washington, DC: World Bank. WRI (World Resources Institute). 2009. "CAIT: Indicator Framework Paper." World Resources Institute, Washington, DC. C H A P T E R 5 Intangible Capital and Development IT HAS BEEN UNDERSTOOD SINCE AT LEAST THE TIME OF Irving Fisher (1906) that income is the return on wealth. But if we scale up this idea to the level of the national economy, we arrive at a puzzle: if we measure wealth only as produced capital, we see from the national balance sheet accounts of countries such as Canada that wealth is only a small multiple of gross national income (GNI). This implies unrealistically high implicit rates of return on wealth. Table 5.1 shows Canadian figures for 2009. The value of produced capital is less than three times GNI, while net worth (which includes commercial land and net financial assets) is a bit less than four times GNI. The implicit rates of return on wealth are correspondingly high, 35.9 percent and 25.4 percent respectively. Canadians appear to be a very productive bunch.1 The "solution" to this puzzle, of course, is that the national balance sheet accounts of the System of National Accounts (SNA) exclude values for many intangible assets, such as human capital and social/institutional capital.2 Moreover, the Canadian balance sheets highlighted in table 5.1 exclude the value of commercial natural resources.3 Since a "normal" rate of return on assets should be on the order of 5 percent, a comprehensive measure of national wealth should be approximately 20 times national income. The gap between such a measure 93 94 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS TABLE 5.1 National Wealth and Income in Canada, 2009 Can$ millions Net financial assets 109,452 Land assets 1,846,753 Produced capital (K) 4,191,919 Net worth 5,929,220 GNI 1,505,817 K/GNI 2.78 Implicit rate of return 35.9% Net worth/GNI 3.94 Implicit rate of return 25.4% Source: Statistics Canada 2010a, 2010b. of comprehensive national wealth and the SNA balance sheet value is what we have termed intangible capital. However, there is a risk that the intangible capital estimates derived in this book are simply a black box. We therefore revisit the analysis of the composition of intangible capital presented in chapter 7 of Where Is the Wealth of Nations? (World Bank 2006), bringing to bear our new wealth accounts for 1995, 2000, and 2005. We extend this analysis by exploring the role of intangible capital in production. But we begin by presenting the theoretical underpinnings of the measure of total wealth and intangible capital. Theoretical Considerations As documented in appendix A, total or comprehensive wealth is measured as the present value of future consumption, and intangible wealth is the residual derived by subtracting physical, natural, and net financial assets from total wealth. It is therefore important to understand in some detail how the total wealth estimates are derived. Hamilton and Hartwick (2005) show how to estimate a comprehensive measure of national wealth for a competitive economy with constant returns to scale. For production function F F(K, L, R) with factors K (produced capital), labor L, natural resource flow R, and interest rate r, comprehensive wealth is given by s W K H S t C(s) e t r(z)dz ds. (5.1) That is, comprehensive wealth can be measured either by adding up asset values K, H (human capital), and S (the value of the natural resource stock), or by measuring the present value of consumption C along the competitive devel- opment path. The intuition behind this result is clear: future consumption must be bounded by current wealth. INTANGIBLE CAPITAL AND DEVELOPMENT 95 To apply expression (5.1) we have to make assumptions about future consumption growth and the discount rate. To choose the discount rate we apply the Ramsey formula, which tells us how much a consumer would need to be compensated for deferring a unit of consumption from the current period to the next period. This is given by r g, (5.2) where is the pure rate of time preference, is the elasticity of the marginal utility of consumption, and g is the growth rate of per capita consumption. The discount rate is therefore the sum of the rate of impatience plus the rate of change of the marginal utility of consumption. If , , and g are constant, then expression (5.1) reduces to C(t) ____________ W(t) (5.3) (1 )g. Empirical estimates of are typically small (Pearce and Ulph 1999), on the order of 1­2 percent, while for they typically range from 1 to 2. However expression (5.3) implies that for 1, total wealth is a decreasing function of the growth rate of future consumption, a counterintuitive result. Based on this analysis, we therefore choose equal to 1.5 percent and equal to 1 in order to calculate total wealth. As seen in expression (5.1), the underlying growth theory assumes an infinite lifetime for the analysis. As a practical matter, we have chosen to carry out the wealth accounting on a generational basis, assuming a maximum lifetime for all assets of 25 years. Our total wealth estimates are therefore calculated as the present value of the current level of consumption (held constant), taken over 25 years and discounted at the pure rate of time preference, 1.5 percent. We assume an optimistic future rate of per capita consumption growth of 2.5 percent (historical values are typically less than 1.5 percent), so that our calculated interest rate using the Ramsey formula is 4 percent. Given these parameter choices, the logical next question is whether the resulting total wealth estimates are "reasonable." We define reasonability in terms of the implicit rate of return on wealth, as we did in the discussion of table 5.1. To test this we derive the following additional result from Hamilton and Hartwick (2005): if interest rate r is constant, is the depreciation rate for produced capital, and FRR is the value of resource depletion, then net income is just equal to the return on total wealth. That is: C K K FRR rW r t C(s) e r(s t) ds. (5.4) 96 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS FIGURE 5.1 Distribution of Implicit Rates of Return on Comprehensive Wealth, 2005 35 30 number of countries 25 20 15 10 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 60 0 70 0 5 0 5 06 03 04 05 07 08 03 04 05 06 07 08 --. --. --. --. --. --. --. --. --. --. --. --. 30 65 50 25 45 55 40 80 35 75 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 implicit rate of return Source: Authors' calculations. We use data from the World Bank's World Development Indicators (2010) to calculate net income and then apply expression (5.4) in order to derive the implicit rate of return on comprehensive wealth in each country. The distribu- tion of rates of return across countries is plotted in figure 5.1, which shows that 80 percent of the rates lie between 4 percent and 6 percent. As this discussion makes clear, calculating a value for total wealth involves questions of judgment, including the choice of the pure rate of time prefer- ence, the elasticity of the marginal utility of consumption, and the lifetime over which present values are calculated. Alternatives to the choices we have made are clearly possible, but the calculation of the implicit rate of return on wealth provides an essential reality check for any total wealth estimates that result. Finally, another caveat. Since intangible capital is measured residually, it implicitly includes all "missing" asset values. For example, since data on the value of diamond and fishery resources are not widely available, these natural assets are implicitly (and erroneously) included as part of the intangible capital for countries where these resources are important. Explaining Intangible Capital Chapter 7 of Where Is the Wealth of Nations? (World Bank 2006) attempted to open the black box of intangible capital by analyzing the extent to which other factors could explain the total variation in intangible capital across countries. INTANGIBLE CAPITAL AND DEVELOPMENT 97 The factors chosen--measures of human capital and institutional/social capital-- were selected on the basis of their plausibility as constituents of intangible wealth. Where Is the Wealth of Nations? estimated the composition of intangible wealth based upon a cross-sectional dataset of wealth estimates for the year 2000. This analysis had a number of limitations imposed by the cross-sectional nature of the data: in particular, there could be omitted variables relating to fixed country characteristics or to common shocks at a point in time that affect all countries. In addition, the analysis used a particular functional form (Cobb-Douglas) to carry out the decomposition, without sufficient discussion of the underlying theory of wealth accounting. Finally, the measure of human capital used in the analysis, average years of schooling per capita, did not account for declining marginal returns to education or for the quality of human capital. In this chapter we address all of these shortcomings. Marking an advance since the 2006 work, we now have a panel dataset with observations for 115 countries for the years 1995, 2000, and 2005. This permits the use of country and time fixed effects, which in turn helps mitigate omitted variable bias as long as the unobserved variables are constant over time and/or across countries. With regard to measuring human capital, the current consensus approach in the literature uses a log-linear relationship between earnings and years of schooling, first formulated by Mincer (1974). It expresses the human capital per worker h as an exponential function of years of schooling, h e (s), where the function (s) represents the efficiency of a unit of labor with s years of schooling relative to one with no schooling. We follow common practice and use (s) s, where is the rate of return to education. Our benchmark is 8.5 percent return on years of schooling, as in Klenow and Rodríguez-Clare (1997, 2005). This is the average of returns to education in Psacharopoulos and Patrinos (2004). Our estimates of years of schooling per worker are from Barro and Lee (2001). Next, we augment our indicator of human capital to account for the health of the population and of the workforce, based on the analysis by Caselli (2005), who introduces adult survival rates (equal to 1 minus the mortality rate for individuals between the ages of 15 and 60) as a proxy for health status. Shastry and Weil (2003) argue that differences in health status proxied by adult mortality rates map into substantial differences in energy and capacity for effort. For adult survival rate a we therefore calculate quality-adjusted human capital as a h e e s. (5.5) Adult survival rates are available in consistent form for a large cross-section of countries from World Development Indicators (World Bank 2010), while Weil (2007) estimates a value of = 0.653. 98 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS Turning to institutional quality, we follow Where Is the Wealth of Nations? in using a rule of law index from Kaufmann, Kraay, and Mastruzzi (2009) as the proxy measure. This index measures the extent to which agents have confidence in and abide by the rules of society. In particular, it measures the quality of contract enforcement, property rights, the police, and the courts, as well as the likelihood of crime and violence.4 The next issue is the functional form for estimating the constituents of intan- gible capital. The most parsimonious model is provided by expression (5.1). The underlying growth theory shows that total wealth (the present value of future consumption) is simply the sum of the different assets owned by a country. This suggests a linear model specification for decomposing intangible capital: icit i t h it h w wit . it (5.6) Here ic is intangible capital, i is the country fixed effect, t is the time dummy, h is human capital, and w is the rule of law. In estimating expression (5.6) we use three different models: (a) pooled data (no fixed effects or time dummies) with income dummies5 and human capital measured by years of schooling; (b) pooled data with income dummies and human capital measured as in expression (5.5); and (c) panel data with fixed effects, time dummies, and human capital measured as in expression (5.5). The results of the estimation (the values of coefficients h and w) are shown in table 5.2.6 The first column in table 5.2 bears a strong resemblance to the results in Where Is the Wealth of Nations (World Bank 2006 chapter 7, table 7.4). A one- unit increase in the rule of law index (out of a possible 100 units) yields $3,000 of intangible wealth, while one additional year of schooling per capita yields $11,025. The second model uses the human capital index rather than years of TABLE 5.2 Estimated Constituents of Intangible Wealth 2005 US$ Pooled Data, Years Pooled Data, Country Fixed Effects, of Schooling Human Capital Human Capital Rule of law 3,000 2,819 .. Years of schooling 11,025 Human capital 46,178 92,899 Time 10,013 Source: Authors' estimates. Detailed estimation results are reported by Ferreira and Hamilton (2010). Note: .. statistically insignificant coefficient. All other coefficients are significant at the 1% or 5% level. The time dummy is for 2005 relative to 1995. INTANGIBLE CAPITAL AND DEVELOPMENT 99 schooling. This index compresses the human capital scale, as shown in expression (5.5). In both models the rule of law index coefficient is statistically significant and close to $3,000. In the fixed effects model the rule of law index becomes insig- nificant, while the coefficient on human capital doubles and the time dummy (for 2005 relative to 1995) is positive and significant. The results shown in table 5.2 require careful interpretation. With the theoretically preferred specification of human capital based on expression (5.5), the pooled data model shows that both human capital and institutional quality (proxied by the rule of law index) are statistically significant components of intangible wealth. However, the fixed effects model is preferred because it controls for unobserved variable bias.7 With this specification, rule of law ceases to be a significant determinant of intangible capital. This suggests that the country fixed effects in expression (5.6) are picking up the effects of institutional quality, which makes sense given the short time span involved; institutional quality likely did not vary that much from 1995 to 2005. But the country fixed effects are also picking up other important endowment effects, potentially including geography and history. The data do not permit us to dig deeper into these other constituents. The other point to note in table 5.2 is the large coefficient on the passage of time from 1995 to 2005, over $10,000. This coefficient of time is typically considered to be a proxy measure of technical progress. The table can therefore be interpreted as saying that there is evidence for a considerable increase in intangible wealth per capita associated with technological change. Table 5.3 presents the value of the human capital index, the estimated value of human capital (based on the price of $92,899 shown in table 5.2), and the country fixed effects for selected countries. It is clear that human capital is the dominant form of intangible wealth in rich countries, but a sizable "residual of the residual" (that is, intangible wealth excluding human capital) remains in most cases.8 Other factors, such as total factor productivity, may be part of the intangible wealth story in high-income countries. As table 5.3 also shows, the fixed effects for developing countries are large, negative, and significant, often more than $200,000 per capita. This could be viewed as an artifact of using a single average global price for human capital. But an alternative interpretation is that this average global price represents the potential value of a unit of human capital, potential that is not realized in devel- oping countries owing to negative endowments, including institutional quality, geography, and history. The Role of Intangible Capital in Development In growth accounting (see, for instance, Mankiw, Romer, and Weil 1992) there is a long tradition of using data on factor accumulation to explain the growth 100 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS TABLE 5.3 Human Capital and Country Fixed Effects in Selected Countries, Average 1995­2005 2005 US$ Intangible Human Human Fixed Capital Capital Capital Effects Residual Country ($/capita) Index ($/capita) ($/capita) ($/capita) G7 countries Canada 385,939 4.9 455,093 .. 69,154 France 441,169 3.5 324,988 .. 116,181 Germany 413,737 4.3 399,283 .. 14,454 Italy 377,822 3.4 312,546 .. 65,276 Japan 364,893 4.1 380,438 .. 15,545 United Kingdom 499,841 4.0 375,106 .. 124,735 United States 562,835 5.0 464,335 .. 98,500 BRICS Brazil 52,822 2.6 237,230 198,561 China 6,662 3.0 281,606 288,846 India 4,441 2.5 236,169 248,193 Russian Federation 14,407 3.7 343,350 347,306 South Africa 58,802 2.4 226,898 184,072 Low-income countries (selected) Bangladesh 4,341 2.0 189,857 197,557 Ghana 4,660 2.2 207,742 217,626 Haiti 7,456 2.0 186,968 188,202 Kenya 5,219 2.1 194,752 200,795 Nepal 1,872 2.0 186,030 197,573 Senegal 9,571 2.2 199,972 204,724 Tajikistan 2,633 4.1 380,434 395,415 Uganda 1,253 1.9 172,075 182,969 Vietnam 4,196 2.6 245,243 271,825 Zambia 6,292 2.0 187,064 193,728 Source: Authors' calculations. Note: .. statistically insignificant coefficient. in economic output. The basic approach is to estimate a production function, using panel or cross-sectional data for countries, to relate output to factor inputs. We follow this tradition using our panel data set on produced, natural, and intangible wealth. First we regress the logarithm of output against the logarithms of the production factors. As a variant, we also use our calculated human capital INTANGIBLE CAPITAL AND DEVELOPMENT 101 index as a production factor in place of intangible capital. The log-log specifica- tion means that we can interpret the resulting regression coefficients as elasticities of output with respect to the different production factors, since the underlying functional form for the production function is Cobb-Douglas. Table 5.4 reports the results of our estimation of output elasticities across different production factors and different subsets of countries. In all cases we use country fixed effects and time dummies. The first column reports the results of estimating the production function for all countries using our human capital index rather than intangible capital as a factor of production. In this formulation, only produced capital has a significant coefficient; the elasticities for natural and human capital are not significantly different from zero. In the second column we report the estimated coefficients for a produc- tion function where we use intangible capital rather than human capital as a production factor. The largest elasticity is for produced capital, but now both natural and intangible capital are significant factors of production. The final two columns in table 5.4 report the estimated elasticities when we split the sample into developed and developing subsets of countries. In each case we treat intangible wealth as a factor of production. For developing countries the results are very similar to those obtained when the sample consists of all countries--produced, natural, and intangible capital have significant output elasticities, and the magnitude is similar in both samples. When the sample is limited to countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), however, only intangible capital is significant and the elasticity is very large, roughly 0.5. Summing up, we would intuitively expect that produced, natural, and human capital would all be statistically significant factors of production, but we obtain this result only when we treat intangible capital, rather than the human capital index, as a factor of production. This is consistent with the preceding subsection on explaining intangible capital, which shows that intangible capital TABLE 5.4 Elasticities of Output with Respect to Production Factors Developing OECD All Countries All Countries Countries Countries Produced capital 0.398 0.320 0.313 .. Natural capital .. 0.068 0.072 .. Human capital index .. Intangible capital 0.176 0.169 0.502 Source: Authors' calculations. Detailed estimation results are reported by Ferreira and Hamilton (2010). Note: .. statistically insignificant coefficient. 102 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS certainly includes the value of human capital but clearly measures more than that, including elements of institutional quality and technical progress as well. The results for the OECD country subsample suggest a different, and perhaps more substantial, role for intangible capital in high-income countries. Summing Up The finding that intangible capital makes up 60­80 percent of total wealth in most countries raises important questions for policy. As long as intangible capital is a black box, governments may be tempted to conclude that all public expenditures (excluding physical infrastructure) are in some sense investments in intangible wealth. Considerable unproductive expenditures could ensue, wasting precious fiscal resources. The analysis in this chapter helps clarify the composition and contribution of intangible capital to development. On composition, the key finding is the dominance of human capital as a constituent of intangible wealth. An expected result, this turns out to be unequiv- ocally true for high-income countries. For developing countries the potential value of human capital is extremely high when a single average global price is used for human capital, but this is offset by the negative endowment measured by the country fixed effects. It is certainly conceivable that the quality of institutions and the legacy of geography and history for developing countries can explain these large, negative fixed effects. Our analysis also shows that intangible capital is a significant factor of production across all countries. It would be surprising if this were not the case; the striking finding is that intangible capital is the only significant factor of production in OECD countries. This suggests that the accumulation of tangible factors--produced and natural capital--is not a significant contributor to growth in high-income economies. In these advanced economies all of the potential constituents of intangible capital--the quantity and quality of human capital, the constituents of total factor productivity, and institutional quality beyond the rule of law--may be the key drivers of production and growth. The policy conclusion for developing country governments from this analysis is that investments in human capital are an important part of the development process. This is no surprise. But the analysis also suggests that strengthening institutions and developing the capacity to generate and use knowledge--the precursors to total factor productivity growth--will also be wealth-enhancing. Finally, our growth accounting analysis leads us to a model where an increase in the quantity of one factor will increase the marginal product of all other factors. So governments also need to ensure that complementary investments in infra- structure and natural resource management will support these investments in intangible capital, and vice versa. INTANGIBLE CAPITAL AND DEVELOPMENT 103 Notes 1 As will be seen in the next section, it is net income, rather than GNI, that equals the return on total capital. The implicit rates of return reported in table 5.1 should therefore be multiplied by a factor of about 0.85. 2 The SNA has precise definitions for intangible fixed and intangible nonproduced assets, which include items such as mineral exploration expenditures and the value of patents. In this chapter we use the term "intangible" to include all nonphysical, nonfinancial assets. 3 While SNA 1993 requires inclusion of the value of commercial natural resources in the balance sheet accounts, to date only Australia has published such accounts. 4 In our analysis we transform the Kaufmann-Kraay-Mastruzzi rule of law figures into an index ranging from 0 to 100. 5 We include dummies for upper-middle-income, lower-middle-income, and low-income countries. 6 Chapter 7 of Where Is the Wealth of Nations? (World Bank 2006) also included remittances as a type of return to human capital in its model specification. Remittances were not significant in any of the specifications of the model of intangible wealth presented here. 7 We also performed F-tests for the joint significance of country and time fixed effects. In both cases we rejected the hypothesis that the fixed effects are equal to zero. 8 The exceptions are Canada and Japan. References Barro, Robert J., and Jong-Wha Lee. 2001. "International Data on Educational Attainment: Updates and Implications." Oxford Economic Papers 53 (3): 541­63. Caselli, Francesco. 2005. "Accounting for Cross-Country Income Differences." In Handbook of Economic Growth, vol. 1A, ed. Philippe Aghion and Steven N. Durlauf, chap. 9. Amsterdam: North-Holland. Ferreira, S., and K. Hamilton. 2010. "Comprehensive Wealth, Intangible Capital, and Development." Development Economics Research Group, World Bank, Washington, DC. Fisher, Irving. 1906. The Nature of Capital and Income. London: Macmillan. Hamilton, Kirk, and John M. Hartwick. 2005. "Investing Exhaustible Resource Rents and the Path of Consumption." Canadian Journal of Economics 38 (2): 615­21. Kaufmann, Daniel, Aart Kraay, and Massimo Mastruzzi. 2009. "Governance Matters VIII: Aggregate and Individual Governance Indicators 1996­2008." Policy Research Working Paper 4978, World Bank, Washington, DC. Klenow, Peter J., and Andrés Rodríguez-Clare. 1997. "The Neoclassical Revival in Growth Economics: Has It Gone Too Far?" In NBER Macroeconomics Annual 1997, ed. Ben S. Bernanke and Julio Rotemberg, 73­103. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ------. 2005. "Externalities and Growth." In Handbook of Economic Growth, vol. 1A, ed. Philippe Aghion and Steven N. Durlauf, chap. 11. Amsterdam: North-Holland. Mankiw, N. Gregory, David Romer, and David N. Weil. 1992. "A Contribution to the Empirics of Economic Growth." Quarterly Journal of Economics 107 (2): 407­37. Mincer, Jacob. 1974. Schooling, Experience, and Earnings. New York: Columbia University Press. 104 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS Pearce, David, and David Ulph. 1999. "A Social Discount Rate for the United Kingdom." In Economics and Environment: Essays on Ecological Economics and Sustainable Development, ed. David Pearce, 268­85. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar. Psacharopoulos, G., and H. Patrinos. 2004. "Returns to Investment in Education: A Further Update." Education Economics 12 (2): 111­34. Shastry, Gauri K., and David N. Weil. 2003. "How Much of Cross-Country Income Variation Is Explained by Health?" Journal of the European Economic Association 1 (2­3): 387­96. Statistics Canada. 2010a. "National Income and Expenditure Accounts: Data Tables." Publication 13-019-XWE, Ottawa. ------. 2010b. "National Balance Sheet Accounts: Data Tables." Publication 13-022-XWE, Ottawa. Weil, D.N. 2007. "Accounting for the Effect of Health on Economic Growth." Quarterly Journal of Economics 122 (3): 1265­306. World Bank. 2006. Where Is the Wealth of Nations? Measuring Capital for the 21st Century. Washington, DC: World Bank. ------. 2010. World Development Indicators 2010. Washington, DC: World Bank. C H A P T E R 6 Human Capital and Economic Growth in China WEALTH ACCOUNTS SHOW THAT INTANGIBLE CAPITAL IS THE largest component of wealth in virtually all countries and that human capital accounts for the majority of intangible capital. Many analysts believe that human capital is an important source of economic growth and innovation, an impor- tant factor in sustainable development, and a means of reducing poverty and inequality (see, among others, Stroombergen, Rose, and Nana 2002; Keeley 2007). For example, a detailed analysis of human capital accounts for Canada, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden, and the United States unambiguously shows that human capital is a leading source of economic growth. Developed countries have recognized the importance of monitoring human capital accumulation. Toward this end, they have established national and international efforts to measure human capital stock and develop national human capital accounts. Seventeen countries have joined a consortium under the auspices of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development to develop human capital accounts: Australia, Canada, Denmark, France, Italy, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Mexico, the Netherlands, Norway, New Zealand, Poland, Romania, the Russian Federation, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Two international organizations, Eurostat and the International This chapter is based on a more detailed report by Li et al. (2009). 105 106 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS Labour Organization, are also participating. But most developing countries have yet to start programs to measure human capital. Recent work to estimate human capital stocks in China represents an important step toward filling that gap. The Chinese economy has grown at a dramatic rate since the start of economic reforms in the 1980s. There is evidence that human capital has played a significant role in the Chinese economic miracle (see, for example, Fleisher and Jian 1997; Démurger 2001). Studies also show that human capital has an important effect on productivity growth and on reducing regional inequality in China (Fleisher, Li, and Zhao 2010). Despite the important role of human capital in the Chinese economy, however, there has been until now almost no comprehensive measurement of the total stock of human capital, and none that quantifies the changes in human capital in rural and urban areas and among males and females. Human capital measures for China can contribute greatly to an under- standing of the global importance of human capital, for a number of reasons. First, China is the most populous country in the world. It is important to understand how the dynamics of human capital in China are affected by demographic changes (driven, for example, by the one-child policy, migra- tion, and urbanization) and by the rapid expansion of education during the course of economic development. Second, such measures would allow for better assessment of the contribution of human capital to growth, development, and social well-being in empirical and theoretical research. Construction of human capital measures is an important step in assessing the contribution of human capital to economic growth. To date, such studies have used only partial measurement of human capital, having to do with education characteristics, for example.1 Additional benefits from human capital measures include the provision of useful information for policy makers, such as data that can be used to assess how the education policies of central and local governments affect the accumulation of human capital. This is especially important given the long-term nature of human capital investment. For example, since the early 1980s there has been a remarkable increase in the educational attainment of the Chinese population. In 1982 the largest population group was concentrated in the "no schooling" category. By 2007 the largest category was "junior middle school," equivalent to seven to nine years of schooling. This chapter summarizes an estimate of China's human capital stock from 1985 to 2007 by Li et al. (2009). Their work contributes to the objectives of this book in two ways: it provides an in-depth case study of an important asset, human capital, and how it has changed over time, and it provides an example of asset valuation derived entirely from country-specific data. HUMAN CAPITAL AND ECONOMIC GROWTH IN CHINA 107 Li and colleagues use the Jorgenson-Fraumeni (J-F) lifetime income method to estimate human capital in China. While there are several alternative approaches to estimating human capital,2 the J-F method is the most widely used, particularly in the growth literature. It has an advantage because of its sound theoretical foundation, and the data needed for estimation are relatively easy to obtain (Jorgenson and Fraumeni 1989, 1992a, 1992b). Under the J-F approach, an individual's human capital stock is equal to the discounted present value of all future incomes he or she is expected to generate. Human capital accumulates through formal education as well as on-the-job training. Using data for wage rates and labor market participation cross-classified by gender, age, rural-urban location, and educational attain- ment, the expected lifetime earnings for each individual can be estimated. Annex 6.1 provides a brief summary of the methodology as applied to China. Annex 6.2 explains how the original figures from Li et al. (2009) were recast to be consistent with the methodology of the World Bank wealth accounts reported in this book. Stocks of Human Capital in China China's total real human capital increased rapidly between 1985 and 2007, from $11,709 billion to $21,960 billion (in 2005 prices; see table 6.1). Average annual growth in this period was 2.9 percent. Growth actually declined between 1985 and 1994, but it accelerated to 9.6 percent in the period that followed. Growth in human capital overall was slower than economic growth; over the same period, gross domestic product (GDP) grew at an average annual rate of 9.3 percent. As a result, the ratio of human capital to GDP fell from 11 in 1985 to 7 in 2007. However, human capital has grown much faster in China than in other coun- tries. For example, in 1970­2000 the annual average growth of human capital in Canada was 1.7 percent per year (Gu and Wong 2009). Like other countries, China has much more human capital than physical capital, but physical capital has been growing much faster than human capital since 1985. Important unanswered questions for China are whether investment has been overly weighted toward physical capital relative to human capital and how to determine optimal relative values of human and physical capital for sustainable economic growth. Growth of human capital is attributable to several factors. Part of the growth is due to the increase in China's population, from 1.02 billion in 1982 to 1.32 billion in 2007 (figure 6.1). There has also been a rapid increase in the urban share of total population, from 21 percent in 1982 to 45 percent in 2007; this is important because urban dwellers have higher per capita human capital than rural dwellers. A large part of the increase in human capital, however, is due to an increase in 108 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS TABLE 6.1 Total Human Capital in China, 1985­2007 US$ billons Real Human Ratio of Human Nominal Capital Nominal Capital to GDP Year Human Capital (2005 US$) GDP (nominal prices) 1985 3,295 11,709 306 10.8 1986 3,100 10,362 298 10.4 1987 3,247 10,126 325 10.0 1988 4,034 10,591 403 10.0 1989 4,905 10,926 452 10.9 1990 4,161 8,998 391 10.6 1991 4,084 8,533 410 10.0 1992 4,450 8,730 488 9.1 1993 5,336 9,116 613 8.7 1994 4,827 6,639 559 8.6 1995 6,127 7,193 728 8.4 1996 7,424 8,041 856 8.7 1997 8,627 9,084 953 9.1 1998 9,330 9,897 1,019 9.2 1999 10,139 10,902 1,084 9.4 2000 11,170 11,954 1,198 9.3 2001 12,082 12,831 1,325 9.1 2002 12,877 13,777 1,453 8.9 2003 14,034 14,840 1,641 8.6 2004 15,571 15,854 1,932 8.1 2005 17,251 17,251 2,236 7.7 2006 19,482 19,196 2,658 7.3 2007 23,364 21,960 3,280 7.1 Source: Adapted from Li et al. 2009, with adjustments described in annex 6.2. educational attainment and the resulting increases in labor productivity and earnings. Five categories of educational attainment are identified: No schooling Primary school (grades 1­6) Junior middle school (grades 7­9) Senior middle school (grades 10­12) College and above HUMAN CAPITAL AND ECONOMIC GROWTH IN CHINA 109 FIGURE 6.1 Population of China, 1982­2007 1,400 1,200 population (millions) 1,000 800 600 400 200 0 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 national rural urban Source: Based on Li et al. 2009. The two categories with the least schooling saw their combined share of population fall dramatically, from roughly 75 percent in 1982 to 45 percent in 2007, while the three categories with more schooling increased from 25 percent to 55 percent over the same period (figure 6.2). The population with no schooling at all was cut by half, from 402 million in 1982 to 201 million in 2000, where it remained to 2007; this represents a decline from nearly 40 percent of the population to just 15 percent. The population with only a primary school educa- tion increased in absolute numbers, but its share of the population fell from 35 percent to 30 percent. Junior middle school registered the largest growth among all education levels: the number of junior middle school graduates increased from 181 million in 1982 to 471 million in 2007, roughly doubling their share of total population. But the most rapid growth was seen among college graduates: starting from a very low base of around 6 million in 1982, the number increased more than twelvefold by 2007 to more than 76 million. Human Capital by Rural-Urban Location and by Gender Table 6.2 shows total real human capital separately for the urban and rural populations. In 1985, rural China held more human capital ($6,935 billion) than urban China ($4,774 billion). This continued until 1993, when accumulation of human capital in urban areas overtook rural human capital. While human capital 110 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS FIGURE 6.2 Population of China by Educational Attainment, 1982­2007 500 population (millions) 400 300 200 100 0 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 19 19 19 20 19 19 19 19 20 20 19 19 20 no schooling primary school junior middle school senior middle school college and above Source: Based on Li et al. 2009. increased in both urban and rural China, urban human capital grew very fast and by 2007 the situation was reversed: human capital in urban areas is now 73 percent higher than in rural areas. A major factor in the rising urban-rural human capital gap is simply the growth in the urban population due to migration. The share of the urban population more than doubled, from 21 percent in 1982 to 45 percent in 2007. Rapid economic growth and the transition toward a market-oriented economy have provided opportunities for human capital to realize much higher returns throughout the Chinese economy, but especially in urban areas. The other major reason for the shift in human capital from rural to urban areas is the education gap. In urban areas, the population with education at college level or above accounted for 2.5 percent of the population in 1985 and increased to 13 percent by 2007. But in rural areas, the corresponding figures remained well below 1 percent even by 2007. Human capital increased for both males and females, but more slowly for females than for males. As a result, the gender disparity in human capital, already established in 1985, increased slightly by 2007. While females accounted for 44 percent of total human capital in 1985, their share decreased to 41 percent in 2007. Gaps can be the result of differential population growth, demographic changes, rural-urban migration, trends in educational attainment, differential rates of return to education and on-the-job training, and so on. In comparison to other countries, China's total human capital is quite large, more than that of any country except the United States. But this is due to its very HUMAN CAPITAL AND ECONOMIC GROWTH IN CHINA 111 TABLE 6.2 Total Real Human Capital in China by Rural-Urban Location and Gender 2005 US$ billions Population 1985 2007 Growth 1985­2007 (%) National 11,709 21,960 88 By location Urban 4,774 13,922 192 Rural 6,935 8,038 16 By gender Male 6,529 12,852 97 Female 5,180 9,108 76 Source: Adapted from Li et al. 2009, with adjustments described in annex 6.2. TABLE 6.3 Per Capita Real Human Capital in China by Rural-Urban Location and Gender 2005 US$ Population 1985 2007 Growth 1985­2007 (%) National 12,171 19,687 62 By location Urban 20,865 27,452 32 Rural 9,458 13,214 40 By gender Male 12,938 21,952 70 Female 11,325 17,185 52 Source: Adapted from Li et al. 2009, with adjustments described in annex 6.2. large population. China's per capita human capital is still relatively low. Per capita real human capital increased 62 percent, from $12,171 in 1985 to $19,687 in 2007 (table 6.3). All of the growth occurred in the period after 1994, when human capital increased at an annual rate of 9.2 percent. Therefore, although population growth contributed significantly to the total human capital accumulation before 1994, per capita human capital growth was the primary driving force after 1995. The substantial increase in educational attainment during 1985­2007 contrib- uted significantly to the growth in both total and per capita real human capital. Changes in per capita human capital are much more uniform for each popu- lation group compared to the changes in total human capital reported in table 6.2. In 2007, total male human capital was about 41 percent higher than total female human capital, but on a per capita basis they are similar: female per 112 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS capita human capital is nearly 78 percent of male per capita human capital. The gender gap appears to have widened over time, as per capita female human capital was 87 percent of male human capital in 1985. Most of the gender gap in total human capital can be attributed to differences in the size of the working population, returns to schooling and work experience, and gender differences in mandatory retirement age. (Retirement age is 55 for females but 60 for males under Chinese labor law; thus, men have an extra five years in which to generate income, increasing their human capital.) Although total urban human capital was lower than rural human capital in 1985, this gap reflects the very small urban population at that time. On a per capita basis, urban human capital was greater than rural, a gap that has decreased only slightly since then. The advantage of urban per capita human capital combined with the large migration from rural to urban areas shifted total human capital to urban areas by 2007. Comparison with World Bank Estimates of Human Capital In constructing global wealth accounts, the World Bank must use data readily available for all countries; often the same or slightly modified parameters are applied to many countries because of a lack of country-specific information. Naturally, when a country applies wealth accounting, using country-specific data instead of global parameters, the results may differ from the World Bank estimates. The estimated value of human capital in China reported in table 6.1, $17,251 billion in 2005, is 44 percent higher than the World Bank estimate of $12,007 billion.3 There is a fundamental difference between the two approaches to measuring human capital: the World Bank uses the residual approach, while Li and colleagues use the J-F lifetime earning approach. But these different approaches need not produce significantly different results if consistent assump- tions are made in both cases. Norway constructed human capital accounts using both approaches and found them to be very similar (Graeker 2008). Why does the estimated value of human capital from the China case study differ from the World Bank estimate? The difference is explained by assump- tions about a key parameter, the growth of future earnings--that is, the return to human capital.4 The case study authors based their assumptions on an analysis of growth in earnings over the past 30 years. Li et al. (2009) found that the average annual growth rate of real earnings was 4.1 percent in rural areas and 6.0 percent in urban areas and predicted that these growth rates for human capital will continue in the future. In the World Bank wealth accounts, the growth rate is 4 percent in all countries. Since most of China's human capital is in urban areas, the higher growth rate assumed in the Li case study will result in much higher human capital than the estimate in the World Bank wealth accounts. The human HUMAN CAPITAL AND ECONOMIC GROWTH IN CHINA 113 capital accounts for China demonstrate the importance of implementing wealth accounting at the national level, using country-specific information. Summing Up Both total and per capita human capital have grown rapidly in China since 1995, especially in urban areas. The main driver of this growth has been increases in educational attainment and in opportunities provided by a market-driven economy, rather than population growth. A gender gap exists for total human capital, and on a per capita basis the difference between male and female human capital has increased somewhat since 1985. A large urban-rural gap has developed as well, mainly because of urbanization and large-scale migration from the rural areas to the cities. Reducing the urban-rural disparity will require more invest- ment in rural human capital. Global evidence presented in this book indicates that the share of human capital in total wealth increases as national income increases. Assessing the optimal investment in different capital assets is essential to ensuring China's long-term sustainable development. The human capital accounts provide critical information that can inform growth analysis and investment strategy in China. 114 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS Annex 6.1: Methodology--Jorgenson-Fraumeni Lifetime Income Approach Jorgenson and Fraumeni estimate human capital using a lifetime income approach (1989, 1992a, 1992b). In principle, human capital includes both market and nonmarket components, but for China only market human capital was estimated because of data limitations. Lifetime income is estimated for the population based upon current education levels and income and expected future survival, education, income, and real wage growth rates. All estimated future income is discounted to the present to create estimates of human capital for a particular year. Jorgenson and Fraumeni separated an individual's lifetime into five stages. Stage 1. No school and no work: miy, s, a, e = sry+1, s, a miy, s, a+1, e 1 G ______ 1 1 R where the subscripts y, s, a, and e denote, respectively, year, sex, age, and educa- tional attainment, respectively; mi stands for lifetime market labor income per capita; and sr is the survival rate, defined as the probability of becoming one year older, G is the real income growth rate, and R is the discount rate. Stage 2. Schooling but no work: miy, s, a, e [senry 1, s, a 1, e 1 sry 1, s, a 1 miy, s, a 1, e 1 (1 senry ) 1, s, a 1, e 1 sry miy, s, a ] 1 G ______ 1, s, a 1 1, e 1 R where senr is school enrollment rate and subscript e+1 refers to the grade level of enrollment, the probability that an individual with educational attainment e is enrolled in education level e+1. Stage 3. Both schooling and work: miy, s, a, e ymiy, s, a, e [senry 1, s, a 1, e 1 sry 1, s, a 1 miy, s, a 1, e 1 (1 senry ) sry miy, s, a ] 1 G ______ 1, s, a 1, e 1 1, s, a 1 1, e 1 R where ymi denotes annual market income per capita. Stage 4. Work but no further schooling: miy, s, a, e ymiy, s, a, e sry miy, s, a 1 G ______ 1, s, a 1 1, e 1 R HUMAN CAPITAL AND ECONOMIC GROWTH IN CHINA 115 Stage 5. Retirement--no school or work: miy, s, a, e 0 Estimation is conducted in a backward recursive fashion, from those age 75, 74, 73, and so forth to those age 0. Expectations about future relative wage rates, enrollment, annual market income, and survival come from data on cohorts of older individuals alive in the year the estimates are constructed. Per capita estimates are multiplied by population estimates to derive total market human capital for each year. Divisia indexes are constructed using nominal human capital as weights and population growth rates to create estimates of real human capital. Expected Lifetime Earnings of Individuals To measure lifetime earnings of all individuals in the population, future incomes are projected, discounted back to the present,5 and weighted for each individual by the age- and gender-specific probability of survival. This is done in two steps. First, imputed earnings equation parameters are used to estimate earnings for all individuals in a given year by applying the Mincer (1974) equation to micro-survey data.6 Mincer's approach has been widely adopted in empirical research on earnings determination for numerous countries and time periods: in(inc) e exp exp2 u where in(inc) is the logarithm of earnings; e is years of schooling; exp and exp2 are, respectively, years of work experience and experience squared; and u is a random error. The coefficient is an estimate of the return to an extra year of schooling, and and measure the return to investment in on-the-job training. To ensure that income estimates are as accurate as possible, the parameters are estimated separately for the rural and urban populations by gender and year, using survey data in selected years. These are used to impute values for missing years over the period 1985­2007. Second, earnings are derived for future years until retirement by assuming that real earnings grow at the same average annual rates of growth as labor productivity. Growth in labor productivity for the period 1978 to 2007 was 4.1 percent and 6.0 percent per year in the rural and urban sectors, respectively. It is assumed that labor productivities (and, hence, the real income) will continue to grow annually at these average rates in the future. 116 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS Annex 6.2: Recasting the Data to be Consistent with World Bank Methodology The work by Li et al. (2009) was recalculated to make it more consistent with the World Bank database in two ways. First, results are reported here in constant 2005 U.S. dollars, while Li et al. carried out their analysis in 1985 yuan. Some of the trends over time may differ depending on the currency used for analysis. For example, Li et al.'s analysis in constant yuan found much higher growth in human capital than did the same analysis carried out in 2005 U.S. dollars. More important, a social discount rate was derived using the same method- ology used for the World Bank wealth accounts; this rate is considerably higher than the one used in the original report by Li et al. (2009). That study used a very low discount rate of 3.14 percent, based on the average real return on long-term government bonds from 1996 to 2007. However, there is little reason to think that the return on bonds reflects the real social discount rate, because financial markets are subject to control. A low discount rate leads to very high human capital estimates. The discount rate used in World Bank calculations was derived from the Ramsey formula (see appendix A). Under the Ramsey formula, r, the discount rate, equals the pure rate of time preference, , plus the elasticity of utility with respect to consumption. The pure rate of time preference is assumed to be 1.5 percent, while the elasticity of utility with respect to consumption is assumed to be 1. The annual growth of real per capita consumption in China from 1970 to 2008 has been 6.76 percent. This results in a social discount rate for China of 8.26 percent. A high discount rate substantially lowers the present value of future earnings, resulting in much lower estimates of human capital. HUMAN CAPITAL AND ECONOMIC GROWTH IN CHINA 117 Notes 1 See, for example, Cai and Wang (1999), Hu Angang (2002), Zhou Ya (2004), Hou and Cao (2000), and Hu Yongyuan (2005). Zhang (2000) and Qian and Liu (2007) calculated China's human capital stock based on total investment (cost side); Zhu and Xu (2007) and Wang and Xiang (2006) estimated human capital from the income side. 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Human Capital: How What You Know Shapes Your Life. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Li, Haizheng, Barbara M. Fraumeni, Zhiqiang Liu, and Xiaojun Wang. 2009. "Human Capital in China." NBER Working Paper 15500, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. Mincer, Jacob. 1974. Schooling, Experience, and Earnings. New York: Columbia University Press. Qian Xuya and Liu Jie. 2007. "Empirical Study of Human Capital in China." Statistic Research (in Chinese) 3: 39­45. Stroombergen, Adolph, Dennis Rose, and Ganesh Nana. 2002. "Review of the Statistical Measurement of Human Capital." Statistics New Zealand, Wellington. Wang Dejin and Xiang Rongmei. 2006. "Estimates of Human Capital Stock in China." Statistics and Decision (in Chinese) 5: 100­102. Yu Shujing. 2008. "Comprehensive Evaluation and Dynamic Analysis on China's Provincial- Level Regional Human Capital." Modern Management Science (in Chinese) 4: 36­37. Zhang Fan. 2000. "Estimates of Physical Capital and Human Capital in China." Economic Research (in Chinese) 8: 66­71. Zhou Delu. 2005. "Population-Based Indicators of Human Capital Accounting Theory and Empirical Study." Chinese Journal of Population Science (in Chinese) 3: 56­62. Zhou Ya. 2004. "Study on the Distribution Differences of China's Human Capital." Education & Economics (in Chinese) 2: 17­20. Zhu Pingfang and Xu Dafeng. 2007. "Estimation of Human Capital in Chinese Cities." Economic Research (in Chinese) 8: 84­95. C H A P T E R 7 Linking Governance to Economic Consequences in Resource-Rich Economies: EITI and Wealth Accounting NATURAL CAPITAL CONSTITUTES A MAJOR COMPONENT OF wealth and is a principal source of income for many developing countries. At first glance, resource-rich economies appear to have an economic advantage over less-well-endowed countries because natural resources, especially oil, gas, and minerals (referred to hereafter as extractives), can provide funds to finance rapid development and poverty reduction. But the large incomes and foreign exchange generated by these exports must be carefully managed in order to avoid the "resource curse"--the paradox that such riches do not always lead to long-term, inclusive, and equitable prosperity and can even undermine development outcomes. It has been argued that the resource curse is caused by several factors, some related to macroeconomic management, and others to political economy and governance.1 The major problems include (a) currency appreciation that can reduce the competitiveness of nonextractive exports, (b) more difficult macroeconomic management due to volatile commodity prices, (c) ineffi- cient management of the extractive sector, (d) corruption and serious political conflicts over rent capture and management of revenues generated by the extractive sector, and (e) dissipation of rents on current consumption rather than investment. Evidence has shown that the economic performance of less- developed countries is often inversely related to their natural resource wealth. 119 120 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS However, this relationship is not deterministic: some countries such as Chile and Botswana have done well with their natural capital. Having the right policy matters, and wealth accounting can enrich our understanding of the context and thereby improve policy making. The overarching development challenge for resource-rich economies is to transform nonrenewable natural capital into other forms of productive wealth, so that once the extractive wealth is exhausted there are other income-generating assets to take its place. Mining is not sustainable, but the revenue from extrac- tive sectors can be invested in other forms of wealth, such as infrastructure, human capital, renewable natural capital, and institutions (social capital), to build economies that are sustainable. To achieve this transformation requires effective policy in three areas: Policies to promote efficient resource extraction in order to maximize resource rent generated by the extractive sector A system of taxes and royalties that allows government to recover equitable and proportionate shares of rent A clear policy for investment of resource rent in productive assets This last point is especially important: the analysis of wealth accounts in earlier chapters shows that to achieve sustainable economic development, income from nonrenewable resources must be invested, not used to fund consumption. Getting policy right in all three areas presents a considerable challenge, cutting across a broad swath of the economic and political landscape. There are areas where the best policy is relatively well understood but implementa- tion is difficult. Regarding recovery of resource rent, for example, Hilson and Maconachie (2009) and Campbell (2003) show that African governments receive negligible shares of mining revenues compared to the shares of the (usually foreign) mining companies. For example, just 1.7 percent of the value of gold that companies mined in Ghana from 1990 to 2002 went to the Ghanaian trea- sury via royalties and corporate income taxes (Campbell 2003). This implies that policy makers should be just as concerned with ensuring that states receive a fair share of revenues as they are with setting macroeconomic policy.2 Regarding policies on investment of rents, the best path may depend on a variety of factors, and more analytical work is needed. For example, in a very poor country, should all rent be invested, or should some of it be used for current consumption to alleviate extreme poverty? Should the rent be managed entirely by a dedicated government investment fund, as in Norway, or should part of the rent be redistributed directly to citizens in order to promote private invest- ment, as is done with oil revenues in the U.S. state of Alaska? If the revenues are managed by government, how should government balance investment in public infrastructure, support for domestic private sector development, and investment for the highest return even if that means investing abroad? LINKING GOVERNANCE TO ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES IN RESOURCE-RICH ECONOMIES 121 The political economy in each country plays an important role, and the best action in one country may not be appropriate in another (see Brahmbhatt, Canuto, and Vostroknutova 2010). Governance, Accountability, and Transparency along the Extractives Value Chain Governance and accountability are central elements in achieving these policies and overcoming the resource curse (Eifert, Gelb, and Tallroth 2002; Bannon and Collier 2003). However, ways of building accountability and good govern- ance in resource-rich countries are not well understood. Transparency is widely recognized as an important element in this effort (see, for example, Le Billon 2001; Collier and Venables 2009; Collier 2008). Transparency alone does not guarantee accountability and good governance, but it is the first step, reflecting the adage, "What you do not measure, you cannot manage."3 Information and evidence have been referred to as the "currency of account- ability" (Dye and Stapenhurst 1998), implying that transparency is the minting process in this analogy.4 Transparency allows the generation of information, which can then be communicated and used to place pressure on decision makers or hold them to account. However, the process by which information goes from minting into circulation is not straightforward. Strong institutions are of fundamental importance: on the whole, countries with strong institutions and good policies do better than those with weak institutions and weak policies. And those that start off with weak institutions may find that the process of resource exploitation weakens them further. Parliaments, political parties, civil society organizations, think tanks, universities, and the media--which collectively we can term the "public sphere"--can use information to build accountability, while institutional context, such as free speech laws and courts, provides the framework in which this takes place.5 In simple terms, accountability can be built through transparency and equitable participation in the governance process. By quantifying natural resources as a dwindling and depreciable source of income, wealth accounting provides the basis for an important conceptual shift in how people think of natural resources. In this way, wealth accounting can help people hold policy makers to account, leading to better policy making. This in turn can improve governance and help build stronger institutions. Accountability and transparency are needed along the entire extractives "value chain," that is, the full range of extractives-related activities and processes.6 Figure 7.1 depicts the extractive industries value chain, encompassing the key decision points from the award of licenses and contracts through regulation and moni- toring of operations, collection of taxes and royalties, distribution of revenues, and use of those revenues to support sustainable development policies and projects. 122 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS FIGURE 7.1 The Extractive Industries Value Chain Award of Regulation Collection Revenue Implementation contracts and of taxes management of projects and monitoring and and and policies licences of operations royalties allocation Source: Adapted from Alba 2009. Given the complexity of the extractive industries sector, it is helpful to consider any one intervention in the context of the whole system. Wealth accounting provides critical information at different points along the value chain and links management of extractives to the macro economy. This provides an added dimension of transpar- ency to the management of extractives, revealing the extent to which nonrenewable resources are being used to build wealth and sustainable development. The concept of a value chain for the sector promotes understanding of the individual links in the extractive industries development and management process and the need for a systemwide approach. Hence, a well-functioning revenue distribution system is of limited value if the contract is not balanced and does not allow the government to capture sufficient taxes and royalties, or if the revenue collection system is weak. Alternatively, a country might skillfully negotiate a petroleum or mining deal but then lack capacity at other points along the chain to turn that deal into concrete investments for current and future prosperity. A number of local and international initiatives to improve accountability have been introduced. Prominent among them is an international multi-stake- holder initiative known as the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI), launched in 2002 at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg. This international exercise promotes accountability by requiring transparency of revenue flows and validation of both data and process by civil society organizations. The EITI represents a novel use of multi-stakeholder part- nerships between governments, the private sector, and civil society organizations. But ensuring the transparency and validation of these revenues is just the first step in making sure that wealth is harnessed for sustainable development. The World Bank Group has developed an approach called the EITI++, which is an internal guiding framework for improved, structured engagement with client countries receiving significant resource revenues.7 EITI and EITI emphasize monitoring processes in the value chain that are expected to promote sustainable development in resource-rich economies. The EITI approach describes the processes along the value chain needed to generate, capture, and invest rents, going as far as "implementation of projects LINKING GOVERNANCE TO ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES IN RESOURCE-RICH ECONOMIES 123 and policies." But EITI is not designed to monitor long-term wealth creation and the transformation of extractive wealth into other forms of wealth, a condi- tion necessary for sustainable development. Long-term accountability can only be monitored using the comprehensive wealth approach that reveals whether a government is using nonrenewable natural capital to build long-term, sustainable development. Comprehensive wealth accounts extend the principle of transparency and accountability beyond EITI to monitor whether the loss of natural capital through depletion is being offset by investments in manufactured capital and human capital. Together, EITI and wealth accounting provide a way to monitor whether the extractive sector does, in fact, contribute to long-term development. EITI and EITI introduce transparency and foster accountability for extractives-related processes, and wealth accounts provide a tool to monitor the economic consequences, that is, wealth creation and the transformation of natural capital into other forms of wealth. The rest of this chapter describes the EITI and EITI approaches and suggests ways in which wealth accounting can be linked to them to strengthen monitoring and accountability in resource-rich economies. EITI and Transparency As already noted, for many countries natural resources offer the most immediate path to development, but for countries that rely on exports of nonrenewables, the revenue stream represents a one-time opportunity. The challenge is to develop effective, contextualized governance processes and increase informed decision making along the value chain. The EITI process is built around a multi-stakeholder model that brings together governments, extractive companies, and civil society in each country. It is voluntary: countries must apply for candidate status and meet certain precon- ditions. To retain membership there is a process of validation, which reviews EITI implementation with domestic stakeholders to ensure that EITI standards are upheld. Three countries have been formally validated as EITI-compliant: Azerbaijan, Liberia, and Timor-Leste. Another 29 have candidacy status and are working toward validation.8 EITI : Extending Good Governance along the Value Chain Disclosure of revenues does not in itself reveal whether a country is receiving a fair share of rents, nor does it indicate whether government is investing the revenues for development outcomes. Every step in managing extractive industry resources is important. Committed governments should receive support to help them implement good policy and practice along the entire value chain through greater transparency and accountability. 124 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS EITI extends the EITI principle of transparency along the length of the chain. These emphasize the need for appropriate policy frameworks, institutional capacity to implement policies effectively, and accountability mechanisms. The EITI initiative focuses on resource-rich countries in Sub-Saharan Africa that account for about 70 percent of Africa's gross domestic product (GDP). It seeks to develop national capability to handle natural resource management and channel the growing revenue streams into fighting poverty, hunger, malnutri- tion, illiteracy, and disease. Wealth Accounts: Extending Transparency to Macroeconomic Performance Accountability depends in part on the availability of transparent, easy-to-under- stand information. Wealth accounts were developed to address the three policy issues raised at the beginning of this chapter: maximizing resource rents, recov- ering a fair share of rents, and investing rents in productive assets. The accounts provide indicators that can be used to monitor the economic performance of resource-rich economies. In particular, wealth accounting implemented at the country level provides indicators for tracking recovery of resource rent through taxes and royalties, as well as management of those revenues, and extends the monitoring of the value chain to include the impact on national wealth. Wealth accounts show whether natural capital is being used to build and transform the wealth of a nation, and they provide information about various steps in the process where management success or failure may be occurring. The use of wealth accounting in Botswana is a case in point. Botswana is well known for sound management of its mineral wealth, as well as for transparency and good governance. Botswana does not participate in EITI, as it already has appropriate institutions in place and carries out the recommended processes. The government reports mineral revenues annually in publicly available documents, and there is open discussion of how to make best use of these revenues. In the 1990s the Ministry of Finance and Development Planning introduced the Sustainable Budget Index to monitor the extent to which mineral revenues were used for investment in the government budget. The Department of Environmental Affairs piloted wealth accounting, extending the principle of wealth building for sustainable development to the macroeconomy (Botswana 2007). Wealth accounts were constructed for produced capital, natural capital, and net foreign financial assets; data were insufficient to construct human capital accounts. The wealth accounts were used to monitor recovery of resource rent and investment of rents, the second and third areas of policy necessary for transforming mineral wealth into other forms of capital. The wealth accounts show that the government of Botswana LINKING GOVERNANCE TO ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES IN RESOURCE-RICH ECONOMIES 125 FIGURE 7.2 Recovery of Resource Rent from Mining in Botswana, 1980­2005 20,000 18,000 16,000 14,000 pula (millions) 12,000 10,000 8,000 6,000 4,000 2,000 0 04 00 05 02 20 3 8 4 0 20 1 2 5 6 9 8 4 0 3 1995 6 2 20 9 198 7 1993 7 198 1 199 1 0 0 198 199 198 198 199 198 198 198 199 198 198 199 199 199 199 20 20 20 rent taxes on rent Source: Botswana 2007; Lange 2004. Estimates for 1998 to 2005 are from unpublished updates of the Botswana wealth accounts by Lange. has consistently recovered a large share of the rents generated by mining (figure 7.2). Analysis of government's capital and development budget in the 1980s and 1990s showed that all mining revenues were invested until the late 1990s; since then, some of the revenues have been used for government consumption, but most is still invested (Lange and Wright 2004). As a result of its sound management of mineral revenues, Botswana has seen rapid growth in its real wealth and GDP per capita (figure 7.3; wealth does not include human capital). By contrast, the results of a similar analysis for neigh- boring Namibia show less success in using mineral assets to build national wealth. Summing Up Many countries have made a commitment to sustainable development but lag behind in implementing the necessary policies to achieve this goal. The key long-term development challenge for resource-rich economies is to transform natural capital, particularly nonrenewable capital, into other forms of wealth. For these countries, avoiding pitfalls associated with extractive wealth is a pressing challenge that should be at the forefront of country development planning and 126 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS FIGURE 7.3 Growth of Real Per Capita Wealth and GDP in Botswana and Namibia, 1980­2005 4.0 3.5 growth in per capita wealth/GDP (1980 = 1.0) 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0 0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8 0 02 4 199 198 199 198 199 199 198 199 0 198 0 198 20 20 20 Botswana real per capita wealth Botswana real per capita GDP Namibia real per capita wealth Namibia real per capita GDP Source: Botswana 2007; Lange 2004. Estimates for 1998 to 2005 are from unpublished updates of the Botswana wealth accounts by Lange. Note: Wealth does not include human capital. poverty reduction strategies. There are now a number of initiatives that have been launched to improve accountability and governance in resource-rich countries, including local efforts in specific countries, initiatives by bilateral and multilateral agencies, and international efforts such as EITI. EITI is a more comprehensive initiative to promote accountability and good governance through transparency in national processes to generate, capture, and invest rents. But it does not show whether investment of rents is sufficient to compensate for depletion of natural capital. Comprehensive wealth accounting adds a new and conceptually important dimension to the accountability fostered by EITI and EITI . It provides a simple tool to monitor wealth creation and, LINKING GOVERNANCE TO ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES IN RESOURCE-RICH ECONOMIES 127 specifically, to reveal whether natural capital is being transformed into other forms of wealth. This constitutes a fundamental shift in how natural resources are conceived of and thus how public and private actors might be held to account. Without transparency in wealth transformation and creation--the conditions for long-term sustainable development--accountability in resource-rich countries may not be considered complete. Notes 1 For reviews of the resource curse literature, see, for example, Auty (1993), Barma, Kaiser, and Le (2010); Frankel (2010); and Humphreys, Sachs, and Stiglitz (2007). 2 A "fair" share of rents is not always easy to establish. The rent generated by a commodity, such as gold, can vary enormously across countries because of the nature of the reserves, local conditions that affect the cost of mining (including perceived risk due to domestic conditions), and volatility in world market commodity prices. In some countries a high- risk premium is legitimately included in the cost of mining. Rents from oil and gas are almost always positive and large. 3 Transparency leads to good governance through active participation of a well-informed society using transparency of information to hold decision makers to account. This process from transparency to good governance requires a well-functioning civil society. 4 Although Dye and Stapenhurst (1998) focused their attention on supply-side accounta- bility--for example, through audit offices and structures of accountability--this chapter stresses the importance of both supply-side and demand-side (or bottom-up) account- ability processes. 5 The role of the public sphere in ensuring accountability is complex. The public sphere is not a single, unified area in which information is disseminated and discussed; multiple, fractured public spheres often exist. Furthermore, in many countries participation is limited by restrictions on free speech or by lack of knowledge and engagement. 6 For a comprehensive introduction to the value chain approach, see Alba (2009). 7 The EITI++ is not a formalized independent initiative in the mold of EITI; rather, it complements EITI's focus on transparency in reporting revenues by offering a slate of coordinated options for improved management of resource wealth. 8 For a full list of member countries and their status, see the EITI website at http://www.eiti.org. References Alba, Eleodoro Mayorga. 2009. "Extractive Industries Value Chain: A Comprehensive Integrated Approach to Developing Extractive Industries." Extractive Industries for Development Series 3/Africa Region Working Paper 125, World Bank, Washington, DC. Auty, Richard M. 1993. Sustaining Development in Mineral Economies: The Resource Curse Thesis. New York: Routledge. Bannon, Ian, and Paul Collier, eds. 2003. Natural Resources and Violent Conflict: Options and Actions. Washington, DC: World Bank. Barma, N., K. Kaiser, and T. M. Le. 2010. "Rents to Riches? The Political Economy of Natural Resources Led Development." World Bank, Washington, DC. 128 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS Botswana. 2007. "Towards Mineral Accounts for Botswana." Department of Environmental Affairs and Centre for Applied Research, Gaborone. Brahmbhatt, M., O. Canuto, and E. Vostroknutova. 2010. "Natural Resources and Development Strategy after the Crisis." In The Day After Tomorrow: The Future of Economic Policy in the Developing World, ed. Otaviano Canuto and Marcelo Giugale, 101­18. Washington, DC: World Bank. Campbell, Bonnie. 2003. "Factoring in Governance Is Not Enough: Mining Codes in Africa, Policy Reform and Corporate Responsibility." Minerals and Energy 18 (3): 2­13. Collier, Paul. 2008. The Bottom Billion: Why the Poorest Countries Are Failing and What Can Be Done about It. New York: Oxford University Press. Collier, Paul, and Anthony J. Venables. 2009. "Natural Resources and State Fragility." OxCarre Research Paper 31, Department of Economics, University of Oxford, U.K. Dye, Kenneth, and R. Stapenhurst. 1998. Pillars of Integrity: Importance of Supreme Audit Institutions in Curbing Corruption. Washington, DC: World Bank Institute. Eifert, Ben, Alan Gelb, and Nils Borje Tallroth. 2002. "The Political Economy of Fiscal Policy and Economic Management in Oil Exporting Countries." Policy Research Working Paper 2899, World Bank, Washington, DC. Frankel, Jeffrey A. 2010. "The Natural Resource Curse: A Survey." NBER Working Paper 15836, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. http://www.nber.org/ papers/w15836. Hilson, G., and R. Maconachie. 2009. ```Good Governance' and the Extractive Industries in Sub-Saharan Africa." Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review 30 (1): 52­100. Humphreys, Macartan, Jeffrey Sachs, and Joseph Stiglitz, eds. 2007. Escaping the Resource Curse. New York: Columbia University Press. Lange, G. 2004. "Wealth, Natural Capital, and Sustainable Development: Contrasting Examples from Botswana and Namibia." Environmental and Resource Economics 29 (3): 257­83. Lange, G., and M. Wright. 2004. "Sustainable Development in Mineral Economies: The Example of Botswana." Environment and Development Economics 9 (4): 485­505. Le Billon, Philippe. 2001. "The Political Ecology of War: Natural Resources and Armed Conflicts." Political Geography 20 (5): 561­84. C H A P T E R 8 Country Experiences with Wealth Accounting IN ADDITION TO ANALYTIC WORK CARRIED OUT BY THE WORLD Bank, other agencies and individual scholars have done a considerable amount of work on wealth accounting over the past two decades. Taken together, these studies have deepened our knowledge of wealth accounting and have clarified issues related to it. Along with the study by Hamilton and Clemens (1999), economists Kenneth Arrow, Partha Dasgupta, and Karl-Göran Mäler have achieved substantial theoretical advances in comprehensive wealth accounting for sustainable development, reporting their findings in a series of publications. The academic community and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have produced a large body of empirical work on natural capital accounting at the national, regional, and local levels. Wealth accounting has also been taken up by national government agen- cies, by international organizations such as the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and Eurostat, and by the United Nations Statistical Commission as part of a comprehensive framework for envi- ronmental accounting. The recent report by Stiglitz, Sen, and Fitoussi (2009) proposed ways to modify and extend conventional national accounts in order to provide a more accurate and useful guide for policy. These authors endorsed the comprehensive wealth approach to development and the compilation of accounts for certain categories of capital. 129 130 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS This chapter reports the progress on wealth accounting by national govern- ment agencies, focusing particularly on natural capital. While the contribution of academics, NGOs, and other researchers is important, the implementa- tion of wealth accounting by national governments is necessary for long-term institutionalization of the accounts. Although the World Bank will continue to compile and improve global wealth accounts, the eventual goal is for coun- tries to implement wealth accounting themselves under standard guidelines. Compared to intergovernmental organizations, countries have much greater resources and access to information that enables them to compile more accurate and comprehensive wealth accounts. Once they are engaged in this task, the role of the World Bank would be to collect this information, as it does data on gross domestic product (GDP) and other national economic indicators, for publication in reports such as World Development Indicators. The country experience with wealth accounting is quite varied. The most comprehensive wealth accounting is done by Norway, which was also the first country to introduce environmental accounting on a regular basis as part of official statistics in the late 1970s. For the most part, however, countries have introduced limited asset accounts for select natural resources, most often only for subsoil assets and, among the subsoil assets, most often for oil and natural gas. An important parallel development has been the compilation of a system for environmental accounting, including wealth accounts, under the aegis of the United Nations Statistical Commission; it is known as the System of Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting, or SEEA (United Nations et al. 2003). The compilation of guidelines for wealth accounting is critical for international acceptance; it establishes consensus on methodology and international compara- bility for work carried out by national statistical agencies and the policy agencies that use the accounts. The concept of national balance sheets and wealth accounting has been part of national accounts for some time and was explicitly identified in the 1993 System of National Accounts. However, as we will see, wealth accounting has not yet been widely implemented. Current Country Practices Table 8.1 provides an overview of current country practices in national wealth accounting. It focuses on the real economy, breaking down data by the types of nonfinancial assets covered. This assessment of country practices provides a conservative picture of the state of wealth accounting because the set of countries included has been restricted in several ways. First, countries are included only when wealth accounting is carried out as part of, or in relation to, an official statistics program under the auspices of a COUNTRY EXPERIENCES WITH WEALTH ACCOUNTING 131 TABLE 8.1 Overview of Country Practices in Wealth Accounting for Nonfinancial Assets Natural Balance Capital Minerals Sheet for Included and Human Other Produced in Balance Country Energy Timber Fish Land Capital Assetsa Assets Sheet Australia Reg Reg Reg P yes yes Austria P P yes no Belgium yes n.a. Botswana S no no Brazil I no no Canada Reg Reg Reg P yes yes Chile yes n.a. Czech Republic Reg Reg yes yes Denmark Reg P P yes no Estonia P no no Finland Reg P no no France Reg P R yes yes Germany Reg P yes no Guatemala I no no Hungary yes n.a. Iceland P yes no India P P no no Indonesia Reg P no no Israel yes n.a. Italy yes n.a. Japan Reg Reg Reg Reg yes yes Korea, Rep. Reg Reg Reg yes yes Mexico Reg Reg I yes no no Namibia S S no no Netherlands Reg P I yes yes no New Zealand P Reg P yes no no Norway Reg Reg Reg P yes otherb no Philippines S S S no no Portugal no no Slovak Reg no no Republic South Africa S no no Sweden S S no no (continued) 132 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS TABLE 8.1 Overview of Country Practices in Wealth Accounting for Nonfinancial Assets (continued) Natural Balance Capital Minerals Sheet for Included and Human Other Produced in Balance Country Energy Timber Fish Land Capital Assetsa Assets Sheet United Reg P yes no Kingdom United States S S P yes no Total 18 19 7 11 7 3 19 6 Of which regular 12 7 2 7 0 0 Source: OECD statistics database (accessed February 23, 2010); United Nations Statistics Division, Searchable Archive of Publications on Environmental-Economic Accounting (http://unstats.un.org/unsd/envaccounting/ceea/archive); results from the Global Assessment of Environment Statistics, Environmental-Economic Accounting and related statistics (http://unstats.un.org/unsd/envaccounting/ceea/assessment.asp); websites of national statistical offices; personal interviews. Note: Reg = accounts published on a regular basis (e.g., annually); I = accounts recently initiated but without results yet; P = accounts compiled as a pilot project that has not yet been taken into regular production; S = accounts compiled regularly in the past but currently suspended; Blank cell = no accounts initiated; n.a. = not applicable. a. For example, other forest asset values, water, and hydroelectric power. b. Norway publishes annual, comprehensive wealth accounts but not as part of official balance sheets. government agency such as a national statistical office, central bank, or relevant ministry. Academic institutions, research organizations, and NGOs have done a large number of pilot studies on wealth and environmental accounting,1 but we consider such studies only when they have involved government agencies as well. Second, countries are included only when they compile complete asset accounts in monetary units, that is, accounts that record opening and closing stocks and changes therein (such as depletion, discoveries, or growth) during the accounting period. This excludes countries that, for example, compile the value of extracted timber but do not estimate the total stock of timber. The table was compiled in three stages. First, we reviewed existing surveys in different wealth accounting areas (subsoil, land, etc.) to draw up a first rough draft. These included surveys by the United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD 2009) and Pasquier, Quirino, and Kesey (2007). Second, we consulted existing country publications as well as the OECD statistics database to get a more precise picture. Third, we visited the websites of national statistical offices and conducted follow- up interviews with country experts and other environmental accounting experts. As of 2010, more than 30 countries have compiled wealth estimates; 16 of them compile at least one type of natual capital stock regularly.2 The great COUNTRY EXPERIENCES WITH WEALTH ACCOUNTING 133 majority of countries use the SEEA as a reference. Country wealth accounting practices are classified as follows: Reg: accounts published on a regular basis (e.g., annually) I: accounts recently initiated but without results yet P: accounts compiled as a pilot project that has not yet been taken into regular production S: accounts compiled regularly in the past but currently suspended The table clearly demonstrates that wealth accounting is being practiced in both developed and developing countries. Several developing countries have strong environmental accounting programs, although some of these programs have been suspended due to lack of resources and/or capacity. Sweden and the United States have had strong wealth accounting programs in the past, but have now stopped. In Sweden, measurement issues and waning policy interest caused the focus of the environmental accounting program to shift from stock accounts to flow accounts (e.g., air emissions) and economic accounts (environmental taxes and subsidies, etc.). Recently, new initiatives by Brazil, China, and India have given impetus to environmental accounting.3 In terms of types of assets covered, timber and subsoil accounts have been tried most often, followed by land accounts. Produced assets are compiled most regularly by countries, followed by subsoil assets. We will now discuss compila- tion practices in more detail by type of resource. Mineral and Energy Accounts Among the natural capital accounts, stock accounts for mineral and energy resources are compiled most regularly. Table 8.2 identifies some characteristics of mineral and energy asset accounts for those countries identified as regular compilers in table 8.1. The net present value (NPV) method is the one used by the World Bank in its wealth accounts and recommended in the SEEA. It is the most widely used, although two developing countries, Mexico and Indonesia, use the net price method or the El-Serafy method, considered easier to implement. Japan uses the Hoskold or sinking-fund method, while the Czech Republic estimates stock values as the residual value of the stock of tangible, nonproduced assets minus the stock of land, both of which are available from statistical surveys (OECD 2008). Country practices differ regarding the assumptions used in application of the NPV method: the chosen discount rates are often around 4 percent, but rates of return vary between 4 and 8 percent. Canada calculates several variants of the NPV method, resulting in upper and lower boundary values. The available time series vary across countries, and some countries do not compile physical 134 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS TABLE 8.2 Country Practices in Mineral and Energy Asset Accounting All Constant Time Country Subsoil Energy Minerals Valuation Method Prices Series Australia yes yes yes NPV yes 15 Canada yes yes yes NPV (variants) no 40 Czech Republic yes -- -- other no 5 Denmark yes yes no NPV no 15 France yes -- -- NPV no 20 Indonesia yes yes -- net price no 10 Japan yes -- -- Hoskold no 40 Korea, Rep. yes yes yes NPV no 5 Mexico yes yes -- net price, El no 10 Serafy Netherlands yes yes yes NPV no 15 Norway yes yes no NPV yes 25 United Kingdom yes yes no NPV no 30 Note: -- = unknown; x = a time series of at least x years was found. stock accounts (volume measures). Australia and Norway appear to be the only countries that also publish stock values in constant prices. One of the main findings of the Global Assessment of Energy Accounts (UNSD 2009) was that in all responding countries, the total stock of reserves that is valued is broader than mere proven reserves, which are considered in the 2008 System of National Accounts (European Commission et al. 2009). Some part of probable and possible reserves may be included. Another finding was that the main difficulty in applying the NPV method is fluctuating resource rents. Some countries therefore use a weighted moving average to smooth the effect of price changes, while others use specific price forecasts. Other Natural Capital Accounts Timber Accounts Although around 20 countries have compiled timber stock accounts, only seven of them have done so regularly. A possible explanation is that forests often provide, in addition to timber production, a broad range of services that are difficult to value because of their nonmarket nature. Many timber-rich countries, rather than pursuing stock accounts, have chosen to compile economic accounts for forestry that provide information about the overall importance of the forestry sector for the economy. COUNTRY EXPERIENCES WITH WEALTH ACCOUNTING 135 Land Accounts There has been increasing interest lately in estimating stock values of land (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2010; Statistics Netherlands 2010). At least 11 countries currently compile estimates for land, but not all of them cover all types of land, and only six of them currently include these estimates in the national balance sheet. Several methods are used, ranging from business surveys and registers to household budget surveys (Kim 2008). Fish Accounts New Zealand, Norway, and Japan appear to be the only countries that regularly compile stock values for various species of fish. The Japanese estimate is based upon the capitalization method. Norway uses the NPV applied to estimated resource rent. New Zealand introduced a system of individually tradable quotas to manage its fisheries, resulting in a large competitive market for fish quota sales and rentals. This system has established a direct market price for the asset value of fisheries, which is used in the New Zealand fisheries accounts. Several countries, such as Namibia and Iceland, have experimented with fish accounts. When no quota valuation is available the NPV method can be difficult to apply in practice. In a number of pilot studies, the resource rent from fisheries is negative. In most instances this is the result of heavy subsidies (World Bank and FAO 2009), but in some cases it may result from strong vertical integration of the fisheries industry (Harkness and Aki 2008). Other Stock Accounts Norway records a stock account for hydropower. New Zealand has experimented in the past with a stock account for water. The Netherlands is currently working on estimating stock values for renewable energy (wind and solar). Mexico has calculated the depletion of groundwater resources based on a calculation of the shadow price of groundwater according to the residual value method in combi- nation with an annual water balance. Human Capital There is an increasing interest in the compilation of human capital accounts, and at least seven countries so far have conducted pilot studies or initiated work in this field. Most countries estimate human capital as the present value of future labor income, using the Jorgenson-Fraumeni method described in chapter 6, although differences exist regarding its precise application and scope (e.g., ages covered, treatment of nonmarket activities). Only three countries have compiled complete stock accounts, and none compile these accounts regularly. The OECD recently established a consortium to develop human capital accounts, and 17 countries have joined. Only Norway has incorporated human capital into its wealth accounts. 136 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS Balance Sheets Although many countries estimate their financial assets and liabilities, only about 20 publish balance sheets for nonfinancial assets (covering at least produced assets).4 Only six countries include estimates for nonproduced assets in their national accounts balance sheets. Norway compiles stocks of produced capital, but these are not included in the balance sheets of the national accounts. Norway has a long tradition of research on wealth accounting and publishes an indicator of national wealth that is disseminated as part of the country's annual report on sustainable develop- ment indicators. Wealth Accounting in Recent Initiatives In response to increasing policy demands, the statistical community agreed in 2006 that it was time to mainstream environmental-economic accounting and related statistics within the national statistical system. To this end, the United Nations Statistical Commission decided to revise the SEEA and elevate it to an international statistical standard. This will put environmental accounting on the same footing as the System of National Accounts. A statistical standard requires a high degree of international agreement on methodology; while such agreement exists for certain aspects of the environmental accounts, there are other aspects on which consensus has not yet been reached. Guidelines for the former will be published in volume 1, the statistical standard, while volume 2 will address issues that are highly relevant to policy but on which no consensus exists at this time (UNSD 2008).The statistical standard will include subsoil assets, timber assets, fisheries, and land. The Joint UNECE/OECD/Eurostat Working Group on Statistics for Sustainable Development was mandated to "articulate a broad conceptual frame- work for sustainable development measurement with the concept of capital at its centre" in order to propose a set of indicators to enhance international comparability (UNECE 2009). At the same time, the working group reviewed existing practices in countries that have adopted policy-based approaches to the measurement of sustainable development in order to look for commonalities between indicator sets. Although members of the working group held diverging opinions regarding the precise interpretation of sustainable development,5 the group's report resulted in a set of 28 indicators that are consistent with both the comprehensive wealth approach and the most commonly used physical indicators (UNECE 2009). The list includes indicators for the value of stocks of financial, produced, human, and COUNTRY EXPERIENCES WITH WEALTH ACCOUNTING 137 natural capital, as well as for flow measures (net investment/depletion) for these assets. These correspond conceptually to the World Bank's wealth accounts and to adjusted net saving. The report notes the difficulty in measuring social capital and underlines the need for additional indicators in order to capture "the well- being effects of capital that cannot or should not be captured in a market-based monetary measure" and the existence of critical capital (UNECE 2009). The Joint UNECE/OECD/Eurostat Task Force on Measuring Sustainable Development, established in 2008 as a successor group, has established a research program to address some of these issues. The Report by the Commission on the Measurement of Economic Performance and Social Progress, also known as the Stiglitz-Sen-Fitoussi report (2009), clearly distinguishes between assessments of current well-being and assessments of sustainability. The report concurs with several of the recommendations in the report by the Joint UNECE/OECD/Eurostat Working Group (UNECE 2009). In principle, Stiglitz, Sen, and Fitoussi endorse the comprehensive wealth approach to measuring sustainability (recommendation 3) while noting that the correct valuation of certain stocks is highly problematic.6 They recommend accounts for stocks of resources that have market prices, such as minerals or timber, but question whether reliable values can be obtained for other natural capital. Summing Up Since our benchmark year of 1979, wealth accounting has become increasingly widespread in the statistical community. The strongest advances have been made in the areas of mineral and energy accounting, while recent years have seen increasing interest in assessing stock values of land and human capital. The valuation of renewable assets (like fish) lags, largely because of measurement difficulties. At the same time, both the Stiglitz-Sen-Fitoussi (2009) report and the Joint UNECE/OECD/Eurostat Working Group report (UNECE 2009) have come out strongly in support of wealth accounting, although they recommend that physical indicators be included with the monetary indicators. The great majority of countries with environmental accounting programs use SEEA guidelines. Wealth accounting is likely to get a further stimulus from the forthcoming elevation of the revised SEEA to a statistical standard, on par with the System of National Accounts. This should provide clear guidelines and recommendations that country statistical offices can use to construct natural capital accounts. 138 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS Notes 1 For example, Mungatana, Hassan, and Lange (forthcoming) report a number of case studies for African countries. 2 That is, they compile at least one of the asset accounts and/or balance sheets regularly. 3 The focus in China has been less on stocks and more on flows (green GDP). 4 There may be additional non-OECD countries that compile balance sheets for produced assets whose practices were outside the scope of this assessment. 5 "One view within the group, referred to as the integrated view, held that the goal of sustainable development is to ensure both the well-being of those currently living and the potential for the well-being of future generations. The second, labelled the future-oriented view, held that the concern of sustainable development is properly limited to just the latter; that is, sustainable development is about ensuring the potential for the well-being of future generations" (UNECE 2009, 3). 6 The explanatory text to recommendation 3 states, "Measures of wealth are central to measuring sustainability. What is carried over into the future necessarily has to be expressed as stocks. . . " (Stiglitz, Sen, and Fitoussi 2009). References Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2010. "Accounting for Natural Resources--Land and Subsoil Assets--in the Australian Bureau of Statistics." Paper prepared for the Conference of European Statisticians/Group of Experts on National Accounts, Tenth Session, Geneva, April 26­29. European Commission, International Monetary Fund, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, United Nations, and World Bank. 2009. System of National Accounts 2008. New York: United Nations. Hamilton, K., and M. Clemens. 1999. "Genuine Savings Rates in Developing Countries." World Bank Economic Review 13 (2): 333­56. Harkness, Jane, and Luke Aki. 2008. "A Numerical Comparison of Fish Quota Values and Standard Resource Rent Calculations Using New Zealand's Commercial Fish Resource." Paper LG/13/6 presented at the 13th Meeting of the London Group on Environmental Accounting, Brussels, September 29­October 3. Kim, Y. 2008. "Estimation of the Stock of Land in OECD Countries." Paper presented at the meeting of the OECD Working Party on National Accounts, Paris, October 14­16. Mungatana, E., R. Hassan, and G. Lange, eds. Forthcoming. Implementing Environmental Accounts: Case Studies from Eastern and Southern Africa. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). 2008. "Results of the Survey on Sub-soil Assets in OECD Countries." STD/CSTAT/WPNA(2008)7. Paper presented at the meeting of the OECD Working Party on National Accounts, Paris, October 14­16. Pasquier, J., G. Quirino, and C. Kesy. 2007. "Environmental Accounts: State of Play of Recent Work." Final report to Eurostat, Luxembourg. COUNTRY EXPERIENCES WITH WEALTH ACCOUNTING 139 Statistics Netherlands. 2010. "Measuring Natural Assets in the Netherlands." Paper prepared for the Conference of European Statisticians/Group of Experts on National Accounts, Tenth Session, Geneva, April 26­29. Stiglitz, Joseph E., Amartya Sen, and Jean-Paul Fitoussi. 2009. Report by the Commission on the Measurement of Economic Performance and Social Progress. Paris: Commission on the Measurement of Economic Performance and Social Progress. UNECE (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe). 2009. Measuring Sustainable Development: Report of the Joint UNECE/OECD/Eurostat Working Group on Statistics for Sustainable Development. Prepared in cooperation with OECD and Eurostat. New York: United Nations. United Nations, European Commission, International Monetary Fund, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, and World Bank. 2003. Handbook of National Accounting: Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting 2003. To be issued as Series F, No. 61, Rev. 1 (ST/ESA/STAT/SER.F/61/Rev.1). New York: United Nations. UNSD (United Nations Statistics Division). 2008. Environmental-Economic Accounting. Brochure. http://unstats.un.org/unsd/envaccounting/EnvAcc_Brochure_FINAL1.pdf. ------. 2009. "Report on the Global Assessment of Energy Accounts." Background docu- ment for the 40th session of the United Nations Statistical Commission, New York, February 24­27. http://unstats.un.org/unsd/envaccounting/ceea/surveyEEA.asp. World Bank and FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2009. The Sunken Billions: The Economic Justification for Fisheries Reform. Washington, DC: World Bank. A P P E N D I X A Building the Wealth Estimates: Methodology This appendix details the construction of wealth, genuine savings, and savings gap estimates. The wealth estimates are composed of the following: Total wealth Produced capital Machinery, equipment, and structures Urban land Natural capital Energy resources (oil, natural gas, hard coal, lignite) Mineral resources (bauxite, copper, gold, iron, lead, nickel, phosphate, silver, tin, zinc) Timber resources Nontimber forest resources Crop land Pasture land Protected areas Net foreign assets Intangible capital is calculated as a residual, that is, as the difference between total wealth and the sum of produced and natural capital and net foreign assets. 141 142 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS Total Wealth Total wealth can be calculated as C(s) e r(s t) Wt ds t where Wt is the total value of wealth, or capital, in year t ; C(s) is consumption in year s; and r is the social rate of return to investment.1 The social rate of return to investment is expressed as r C __ C where is the pure rate of time preference and is the elasticity of utility with respect to consumption. Under the assumption that 1 and that consumption grows at a constant rate, the total wealth can be expressed as Wt C(t) e (s t) ds. (A.1) t The current value of total wealth at time t is a function of the consumption at time t and the pure rate of time preference. Expression (A.1) implicitly assumes that consumption is on a sustainable path, that is, the level of saving is enough to offset the depletion of natural resources. The calculation of total wealth requires that two issues be considered in computing the initial level of consumption: The volatility of consumption. To solve this problem we used the five-year centered average of consumption for each one of the three years: 1995, 2000, and 2005. Negative rates of saving adjusted for depletion of produced and natural capital. When depletion-adjusted saving is negative, countries are consuming natural resources, jeopardizing the prospects for future consumption. A measure of sustainable consumption needs to be derived in this instance. Hence, the following adjustments were made: Wealth calculation for 2005, for example, considered consumption series for 2003­07. For the years in which saving adjusted for depletion of produced and natural capital was negative, this measure of depletion-adjusted saving was subtracted from consumption to obtain sustainable consumption, that is, the consumption level that would have left the capital stock intact. The corrected consumption series were then expressed in constant 2005 U.S. dollars. Deflators are country-specific: they are obtained by dividing gross domestic product (GDP) in current dollars by GDP in constant dollars. This rule was also applied to natural capital and net foreign assets. The average of constant-dollars consumption between 2003 and 2007, for example, was used as the initial level of consumption for wealth calculation of 2005. BUILDING THE WEALTH ESTIMATES: METHODOLOGY 143 For computation purposes, we assumed the pure rate of time preference to be 1.5 percent (Pearce and Ulph 1999), and we limited the time horizon to 25 years. This time horizon roughly corresponds to a generation. We adopted the 25-year truncation throughout the calculation of wealth, in particular, of natural capital. Machinery, Equipment, and Structures For the calculation of physical capital stocks, several estimation procedures can be considered. Some of them, such as the derivation of capital stocks from insurance values or accounting values or from direct surveys, entail enormous expenditures and face problems of limited availability and adequacy of data. Other estimation procedures, such as the accumulation methods and, in particular, the Perpetual Inventory Method (PIM), are cheaper and more easily implemented since they require only investment data and information on the assets' service life and depreciation patterns. These methods derive capital series from the accumulation of investment series and are the most popular. The PIM is, indeed, the method adopted by most OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) countries that estimate capital stocks (Bohm et al. 2002; Mas, Perez, and Uriel 2000; Ward 1976). We also use the PIM in our estimations of capital stocks. The relevant expression for computing Kt, the aggregate capital stock value in period t, is then given by 19 Kt It i (1 ) (A.2) i 0 where I is the value of investment in constant prices and is the depreciation rate. In equation (A.2) we implicitly assume that the accumulation period (or service life) is 20 years.2 The depreciation pattern is geometric, with 5 3 percent assumed to be constant across countries and over time. Finally, note that equation (A.2) implies a "one-hoss-shay" retirement pattern, that is, the value of an asset falls to zero after 20 years. To estimate equation (A.2) we need long investment series or, alternatively, initial capital stock.4 Unfortunately, initial capital stocks are not available for all the countries considered in our estimation, and even in the cases in which published data exist (as for some OECD countries), their use would introduce comparability problems with other countries for which data do not exist. For the countries with incomplete series of gross capital formation data, investment series were estimated if we had data on output, final consumption expenditure (private and public), exports, and imports for the missing years. With this information we can derive investment series from the national accounting identity Y C I G (X M) by subtracting net exports from gross domestic savings. In all cases, the ratios of the investment computed this way and the original investment in the years in which both series are available are 144 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS very close to one. Still, to ensure comparability between both investment series, the investment estimates derived from the accounting identity were used only if the country-specific median of these ratios, for the period 1960­2006, was close to one. For the rest of the countries for which complete investment series are still not available, data on gross fixed capital formation are used for the missing years. Complete investment series for the 19 years preceding 1995, calculated using the three methods listed above, were available for 107 countries, while complete data series for 125 countries were used to calculate produced capital for the years 2000 and 2005. For 20 countries for the year 1995 and two countries for 2000, all still missing complete investment series, produced capital is estimated after adjusting the values obtained using a lifetime assumption of 14­19 years (as the case may be). The adjustment made is that values obtained using less than 20 years are multiplied with the median of the ratio of capital obtained from 20 years to that obtained from less than 20 years (over 1960­2006). For the remaining countries, we tried to overcome the data limitations by using a quite conservative approach. We extended the investment series by regressing the logarithm of the investment output ratio on time, as did Larson et al. (2000). However, we did not extrapolate output, limiting the extension of the investment series to cases in which a corresponding output observation was available. In particular, the 20-year service lifetime assumption was used to estimate capital stocks from investment series predicted from a regression of the ratio of the log of investment to GDP on time. Produced capital estimates for 6, 27, and 34 additional countries were obtained using this method for the years 1995, 2000, and 2005, respectively. Urban Land In the calculation of the value of a country's physical capital stock, the final physical capital estimates include the value of structures, machinery, and equipment, since the value of the stocks is derived (using the Perpetual Inventory Method) from gross capital formation data that account for these elements. In the investment figures, however, only land improvements are captured. Thus, our final capital estimates do not entirely reflect the value of urban land. Drawing on Kunte et al. (1998), we valued urban land as a fixed proportion of the value of physical capital. Ideally, this proportion would be country-specific. In practice, detailed national balance sheet information with which to compute these ratios was not available. Thus, like Kunte et al. (1998), we used a constant proportion equal to 24 percent: 5 Ut 0.24Kt. (A.3) BUILDING THE WEALTH ESTIMATES: METHODOLOGY 145 Energy and Mineral Resources This section describes the methodology used to estimate the value of nonrenewable resources. There are at least three reasons that such calculations may be difficult. First, it is only in the past few decades that the importance of including natural resources in national accounting systems has been widely recognized. Although efforts to broaden the national accounts are underway, they are mostly limited to international organizations such as the United Nations or the World Bank. Second, there are no private markets for subsoil resource deposits to convey information on the value of these stocks. Third, the stock size is defined in economic terms: reserves are "that part of the reserve base which could be economically extracted or produced at the time of determination."6 Stock therefore depends on the prevailing economic conditions, namely technology and prices. Despite these difficulties, we assigned dollar values to the stocks of the main energy resources (oil, gas, and coal7 ) and to the stocks of 10 metals and minerals (bauxite, copper, gold, iron ore, lead, nickel, phosphate rock, silver, tin, and zinc) for all the countries that have production figures. The approach used in our estimation is based on the well-established economic principle that asset values should be measured as the present discounted value of economic profits over the life of the resource. This value, for a particular country and resource, is given by the following expression: t T 1 q _________, i i Vt (A.4) i t (1 r)(i t) where iqi is the economic profit or total rent at time i, ( i denoting unit rent and qi denoting production), r is the social discount rate, and T is the lifetime of the resource. Estimating Future Rents Though well understood and seldom questioned, this approach is rarely used for the practical estimation of natural asset values, since it requires knowledge of actual future rents. Instead, future rents are implicitly predicted using the more restrictive assumptions of constant total rents and optimality in the extraction path. This corresponds to assuming a zero growth rate of rents. The value of the resource stock can then be expressed as 1 1 Vt q 1 i i ( )( __ 1 r _______ . (1 T r) ) (A.5) 146 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS Choice of T To guide the choice of an exhaustion time value, we computed the reserves-to-production ratios for all the countries, years, and resources.8 Where country reserves data are missing, world and regional data are substituted. Table A.1 provides the median of these ratios for the different resources, showing the abundance of energy and mineral resources relative to each other. With the exception of the very abundant coal, bauxite, and iron, the reserves- to-production ratios tend to be around 20­30 years. We chose to cap exhaustion time at 25 years for all the resources and countries.9 From a purely pragmatic point of view, the choice of a longer exhaustion time would require an increase in the time horizon for the predictions of total rents, to feed equation (A.4). On the other hand, rents obtained farther in the future have less weight since they are more heavily discounted. Finally, the level of uncertainty increases as we look toward a more remote future. Under uncertainty, it is unlikely that companies or governments will develop reserves to cover more than 25 years of production. Timber Resources The predominant economic use of forests has been as a source of timber. Timber wealth is calculated as the present discounted value of rents from roundwood TABLE A.1 Median Lifetime in 2005 for Proven Reserves Reserve Median Lifetime (years) Energy Oil 16 Gas 38 Hard coal 63 Soft coal 456 Metals and minerals Bauxite 97 Copper 33 Gold 17 Iron ore 88 Lead 16 Nickel 25 Phosphate 37 Tin 45 Silver 14 Zinc 21 Source: British Petroleum; USGS 2006a, 2006b; USEIA 2006. BUILDING THE WEALTH ESTIMATES: METHODOLOGY 147 production. The estimation then requires data on roundwood production, unit rents, and the time to exhaustion of the forest (if unsustainably managed) in the beginning year. The annual flow of roundwood production is obtained from the FAOSTAT database maintained by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).10 Calculating the rent is more complex. Theoretically, the value of standing timber is equal to the discounted future stumpage price received by the forest owner after taking out the costs of bringing the timber to maturity. In practice, stumpage prices are usually not readily available, and we calculated unit rents as the product of a composite weighted price and a rental rate. The composite weighted price of standing timber is estimated as the average of three different prices, weighted by production: (a) the export unit value of coniferous industrial roundwood, (b) the export unit value of nonconiferous industrial roundwood, and (c) an estimated world average price of fuelwood. Where country-level prices are not available, the regional weighted average is used. Forestry production cost data are not available for all countries. Consequently, regional rental rates ([price cost]/price) were estimated using available studies and consultations with World Bank forestry experts. Since we applied a market value to standing timber, it was necessary to distinguish between forests available and forests not available for wood supply because some standing timber is simply not accessible or economically viable. The area of forest available for wood supply was estimated as forests within 50 kilometers of infrastructure. Data on productive areas were obtained from the FAO's Global Forest Resources Assessments (Global FRA) for 2005 and 2000 (UNFAO 2006, 2001).11 Data for 1995 were imputed from Global FRA 2000 data by using the ratio of productive area to total forest area, which is then multiplied by total forest area in 1995 obtained from State of the World's Forests 1997 (UNFAO 1997). Rents were capitalized assuming a growth rate of zero and using a 4 percent discount rate to arrive at a stock of timber resources. The concept of sustainable use of forest resources is introduced through the choice of the time horizon over which the stream is capitalized. If roundwood harvest is smaller than net annual increments, that is, if the forest is sustainably harvested, the time horizon is 25 years. If roundwood harvest is greater than the net annual increments, then the time to exhaustion is calculated. The time to exhaustion is based on estimates of forest volume divided by the difference between production and increment. The smaller of 25 years and the time to exhaustion is then used as the resource lifetime. Five-year-average values of production and unit export values are used to calculate the revenue from timber production. Data on coniferous and nonconiferous, industrial roundwood, and fuelwood production are obtained 148 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS for the years 1991­2005 from FAOSTAT forestry data online. Fuelwood price data are also from FAOSTAT forestry data online. Roundwood export unit values are calculated from FAO online data. Studies used as a basis for estimating rental rates include those by Fortech (1997); Whiteman (1996); Tay, Healey, and Price (2001); Lopina, Ptichnikov, and Voropayev (2003); Haripriya (1998); Global Witness (2001); and Eurostat (2002). Nontimber Forest Resources Timber revenues are not the only economic contribution of forests. Nontimber forest benefits such as minor forest products, hunting, recreation, and watershed protection are significant but are not usually accounted. This leads to forest resources being undervalued. A review of nontimber forest benefits in developed and developing countries reveals that annual returns from hunting, recreation, and watershed benefits vary from $129 per hectare in developed countries to $27 per hectare in developing countries (based on Lampietti and Dixon [1995] and Merlo and Croitoru [2005], and adjusted to 2005 prices). We assume that only one-tenth of the forest area in each country is accessible for recreation. Thus, the per-hectare value for recreation is multiplied by one-tenth of the forest area in each country to arrive at annual recreation benefits. Estimation of watershed protection values considers deforestation; deforestation rates are from Global FRA 2005 (UNFAO 2006). The annual rate of forest area changes over 1990­2000 is used as the deforestation rate for 1995, while the annual rate of forest area changes over 2000­2005 is used for 2000 and 2005. Nontimber (minor) forest product values for 2005 are also from Global FRA 2005; these values are assumed to be constant over years. Nontimber forest resources under each type of benefit are valued as the net present value of benefits over a time horizon of 25 years. 12 Crop Land Country-level data on agricultural land prices are not widely published. Even if local prices were available, it could be argued that land markets are so distorted that a meaningful comparison across countries would be difficult. We have therefore chosen to estimate land values based on the net present value of land rents, assuming that the products of the land are sold at world prices. The return to land is computed as the product of rental rate and revenues from crop production. A constant rental rate of 30 percent is assumed across all crops considered. Production is yield multiplied by harvested area. Cereals, fruits, nuts, oil crops, pulses, starchy roots, stimulants, sugar crops, and vegetables are the crop categories considered with data from the FAO. Yields and areas are from the FAO's prodSTAT database. Production is calculated based on yield BUILDING THE WEALTH ESTIMATES: METHODOLOGY 149 and harvested area for each single crop; these data are then aggregated into the Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP) 6 Data Base sectors to obtain output for each GTAP sector (Dimaranan 2006). Values of production are then multiplied by world prices. The World Bank's Development Economics Prospects Group is the primary data source for prices in major crop categories such as rice and wheat. For the remaining crops, world median export unit values from the FAO are used. Five-year-average values of yield and unit export values are used to do the estimates (2001­05 for 2005, 1996­2000 for 2000, and 1991­95 for 1995). Harvest areas are the current year value. Annual land return is the summation of returns from all agricultural sectors considered. In order to reflect the sustainability of current cultivation practices, the annual return in year t is projected to the year (t 24) based on growth in production (land areas are assumed to stay constant). The growth rates are 0.97 percent and 1.94 percent in developed and developing countries, respectively (Rosengrant, Agcaoili-Sombilla, and Perez 1995). The net present value of this flow was then calculated using a discount rate of 4 percent over a 25-year time horizon. Pasture Land Pasture land is valued using methods similar to those for crop land. The returns to pasture land are assumed to be a fixed proportion of the value of output. On average, costs of production are 55 percent of revenues, and therefore, returns to pasture land are assumed to be 45 percent of output value. Value of output is based on the production of meat, milk, and wool valued at international prices. Annual pasture land return is calculated as the product of the total revenue from all the commodities and the rental rate for pasture land, which is assumed to be 45 percent. In order to reflect the sustainability of current grazing practices, the annual return in year t is projected to the year (t 24) based on growth in production. The growth rates are 0.89 percent and 2.95 percent in developed and developing countries, respectively (Rosengrant, Agcaoili-Sombilla, and Perez 1995). The net present value of this flow is then calculated using a 4 percent discount rate over a 25-year time horizon. Production and unit export values are from the FAO databases prodSTAT and tradeSTAT, respectively. Five-year-average values of production and unit export values are used to calculate revenues. Missing values for price are filled with the regional average or the world average if the regional average is missing. Protected Areas Protected areas provide a number of benefits that range from existence values to recreational values. They can be a significant source of tourism income. 150 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS These values are revealed by a high willingness to pay for such benefits. The establishment and good maintenance of protected areas preserves an asset for the future, and therefore protected areas form an important part of the natural capital estimates. The willingness to pay to preserve natural regions varies considerably, however, and there is no comprehensive data set on this. Protected areas (International Union for Conservation of Nature categories I­VI) are valued at the lower of per hectare returns to pasture land and crop land--a quasi­opportunity cost. These returns are then capitalized over a 25-year time horizon, using a 4 percent discount rate. Limiting the value of protected areas to the opportunity cost of preservation probably captures the minimum value, but not the complete value, of protected areas. Data on protected areas are taken from the World Database on Protected Areas, which is compiled by United Nations Environment Programme's World Conservation Monitoring Centre. Where the value of a protected area is missing, it was assumed to be zero. Net Foreign Assets Finally, net foreign assets of an economy are subtracted from total wealth net of produced and natural capital to estimate the residual or intangible capital. Net foreign assets are calculated as total assets minus total liabilities. The database used was an updated and extended version of the External Wealth of Nations Mark II database developed by Lane and Milesi-Ferretti (2007). This database contains data on total assets and liabilities in (millions of) current U.S. dollars for the period 1970­2007 and for 178 economies. Total assets are the sum of foreign direct investment (FDI) assets, portfolio equity assets, debt assets, derivatives assets, and foreign exchange reserves. Total liabilities are the sum of FDI liabilities, portfolio equity liabilities, debt liabilities, and derivatives liabilities. Calculating Adjusted Net Saving Adjusted net saving measures the change in value of a specified set of assets, that is, the investment/disinvestment in different types of capital (produced, human, natural). The calculations are not comprehensive, as they do not include some important sources of environmental degradation such as underground water depletion, unsustainable fisheries, and soil degradation. This results from the lack of internationally comparable data rather than from intended omissions. A detailed description of the methodology used to obtain adjusted net saving can be found on the World Bank's Environmental Economics Web site.13 Table A.2 summarizes the definitions, data sources, and formulas used in the calculations. TABLE A.2 Calculating Adjusted Net Saving Component of Savings Definition Formula Sources Technical Notes Observations Gross national Difference between GNS GNI WDI, OECD, savings (GNS) GNI and public and private UN, IMF private consumption consumption International plus net current public Financial transfers. consumption Statistics net current transfers Depreciation Replacement value (data taken UN Where country data were UN data are not available (Depr) of capital used up directly from unavailable, they were after 1999 for most in the process of source or estimated as follows. countries. Missing data are production. estimated) Available data on depre- estimated. ciation as a percentage of GNI was regressed against the log of GNI per capita. This regression was then used to estimate missing depre- ciation data. Regression: Depr/GNI a (b Ln(GNI/ cap)). The regression was estimated on a five-year basis (that is, regression in 1970 was used to estimate depreciation as a percentage of GNI in years 1970­74). Where data were missing for only a couple of years in a country, the same rate of depreciation as a percentage of GNI was applied. 151 (continued) 152 TABLE A.2 (continued) Component of Savings Definition Formula Sources Technical Notes Observations Net national savings Difference between NNS GNS Depr (NNS) gross national savings and the consumption of fixed capital. Education Public current (data taken Current When data are missing, The variable does not expenditure (EE) operating expendi- directly from education estimation is done as include private investment tures in education, source or expenditure follows: (a) for gaps between in education. It only includes including wages and estimated) (public): two data points, missing public expenditures, for salaries and excluding UNESCO information is filled in by which internationally capital investments calculating the average of comparable data are in buildings and the two data points; and available. Current expenditure equipment. (b) for gaps after the last of $1 on education does not data point available, missing necessarily yield exactly information is filled in on the $1 worth of human capital assumption that education (see, for example, Jorgenson expenditure is a constant and Fraumeni 1992). share of GNI. However, an adjustment from standard national accounts is needed. In national accounts, non-fixed- capital expenditures on education are treated strictly as consumption. If a country's human capital is to be regarded as a valuable asset, expenditures on its formation must be seen as an investment. Energy depletion Ratio of present ED PV(rent, Quantities: Energy depletion covers Prices refer to interna- (ED) value (PV) of rents, 4% discount OECD, British crude oil, natural gas, and tional rather than local discounted at 4%, rate, exhaustion Petroleum, IEA, coal (hard and lignite). Unit prices to reflect the social to exhaustion time time)/exhaustion International resource rent is calculated cost of energy depletion. of the resource. time Petroleum as (unit world price This differs from national Rent is calculated rent production Encyclopedia, average cost)/unit world accounts methodologies, as the product of volume unit UN, World price. Marginal cost should which may use local prices unit resource rents resource rent Bank, national be used instead of average to measure energy GDP. and the physical sources. cost in order to calculate This difference explains quantities of energy unit rent [unit Prices: the true opportunity cost eventual discrepancies resources extracted. price unit OECD, British of extraction. Marginal cost in the values for energy It covers coal, crude cost]/unit price Petroleum, is, however, difficult to depletion and energy GDP. oil, and natural gas. exhaustion national sources compute. time min(25 Costs: IEA, years, reserves/ World Bank, production) national sources. Mineral depletion Ratio of present value MD PV(rent, Quantities: Mineral depletion covers tin, Prices refer to interna- (MD) of rents, discounted 4% discount rate, USGS Minerals gold, lead, zinc, iron, copper, tional rather than local at 4%, to exhaustion exhaustion time)/ Yearbook. nickel, silver, bauxite, and prices to reflect the social time of the resource. exhaustion time Prices: UNCTAD phosphate. cost of mineral depletion. Rent is calculated rent monthly Unit resource rent is This differs from national as the product of production Commodity calculated as (unit price accounts methodologies, unit resource rents volume unit Price Bulletin. average cost)/unit price. which may use local prices and the physical resource rent Marginal cost should be to measure mineral GDP. quantities of mineral Costs: World This difference explains unit rent [unit Bank, national used instead of average extracted. It covers cost in order to calculate eventual discrepancies tin, gold, lead, zinc, price unit sources. in the values for mineral cost]/unit price the true opportunity cost iron, copper, nickel, of extraction. Marginal cost depletion and mineral GDP. silver, bauxite, and exhaustion is, however, difficult to phosphate. time min(25 compute. years, reserves/ production) 153 (continued) 154 TABLE A.2 (continued) Component of Savings Definition Formula Sources Technical Notes Observations Net forest depletion Product of unit NFD Roundwood In a country where increment Net forest depletion is (NFD) resource rents (roundwood production: exceeded wood extraction, not the monetary value of and the excess of production FAOSTAT no adjustment to net deforestation. Roundwood roundwood harvest increment) forestry adjusted savings was made, and fuelwood production over natural growth. average price database. no matter the absolute are different from defor- rental rate Increments: volume or value of wood estation, which represents World Bank, extracted. a permanent change in FAO, UNECE, Increment per hectare on land use and, thus, is not WRI, national productive forest land is comparable. sources. adjusted to allow for country- Areas logged out but Rental rates: specific characteristics of the intended for regeneration various sources. timber industry. are not included in defor- estation figures (see WDI definition of deforestation); rather, they are counted as producing timber depletion. Net forest depletion includes only timber values and does not include the loss of nontimber forest benefits and nonuse benefits. CO2 damages (CO2D) A conservative figure CO2D emissions Data on carbon Data lag by 2­3 years, so the CO2 damages include the of $20 marginal (tons) $20 emissions can data for missing years are social cost of permanent global damages per be obtained estimated. This is done by damages caused by CO2 ton of carbon emitted from WDI. taking the ratio of average emissions. This may was taken from emissions from the last three differ (sometimes in large Fankhauser (1994). years of available data to measure) from the market the average of the last three value of CO2 emissions years' GDP in constant local reductions traded in currency unit. This ratio is emissions markets. then applied to the missing years' GDP to estimate carbon dioxide emissions. The atomic weight of carbon is 12 and of carbon dioxide 44, and carbon is only (12/44) of the emissions. Damages are estimated per ton but the emissions data are per kilo ton. The CO2 emissions data have therefore been multiplied with 20 (12/44) 1,000. PM damages (PMD) Willingness to pay PMD disability (WTP) to avoid adjusted life mortality and years (DALYs) morbidity attrib- lost due to PM utable to particulate emissions WTP emissions. (continued) 155 156 TABLE A.2 (continued) Component of Savings Definition Formula Sources Technical Notes Observations Adjusted net saving Net national savings plus ANS NNS EE (ANS) education expenditure ED MD NFD and minus energy CO2D PMD depletion, mineral depletion, net forest depletion, carbon dioxide damage, and particulate emissions damage. Source: Authors. Note: ANS adjusted net saving; CO2 carbon dioxide; CO2D CO2 damages; Depr depreciation; ED energy depletion; EE education expenditure; FAO Food and Agriculture Organization; FAOSTAT Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations database; GDP gross domestic product; GNI gross national income; GNS gross national savings; IEA International Energy Agency; IMF International Monetary Fund; MD mineral depletion; NFD net forest depletion; NNS net national savings; OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development; PM particulate matter; PMD particulate matter damages; PV present value; UN United Nations; UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development; UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe; UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization; USGS U.S. Geological Survey; WDI World Development Indicators Database; WRI World Resources Institute; WTP willingness to pay. BUILDING THE WEALTH ESTIMATES: METHODOLOGY 157 Calculating the Adjusted Net Saving Gap Population growth is a problem in most developing nations, since it exerts pressure on the physical and natural resources of an economy. Hence, we look at two country-specific measures: change in wealth per capita and the adjusted net saving gap. Change in wealth per capita is genuine savings per capita net of the impact of population growth on per capita wealth. The adjusted net saving gap as a share of gross national income (GNI) is a measure of how much extra saving effort would be required in order for a country to break even with zero change in wealth per capita. Under the assumption of an exogenous growth rate of population g, change in wealth per capita is expressed as W ( __ ) P W ____ P W g __ P W W __ ____ P (W ) g, (A.6) where total wealth is denoted by W and population by P, and W can be interpreted as genuine savings. Hence, "total wealth per capita will rise or fall depending on whether the growth rate of total wealth ( W/W ) is higher or lower than the population growth rate" (World Bank 2006, 62). Adjustments are made to the adjusted net saving and per capita wealth measures in order to focus on stocks and flows that are mostly rival in nature. The measure of tangible wealth excludes intangible capital. Adjusted net saving is calculated by adding education expenditures to gross national savings and subtracting depletion of physical and natural resources (energy, minerals, and forests). Finally, the adjusted net saving gap is calculated by identifying those countries with negative changes in wealth per capita and then dividing this by GNI per capita. Notes 1 A proof that the current value of wealth is equal to the net present value of consumption can be found in Hamilton and Hartwick (2005). 2 The choice of a service life of 20 years is intended to reflect the mix of relatively long-lived structures and short-lived machinery and equipment in the aggregate capital stock and investment series. In a study that derives cross-country capital estimates for 62 countries, Larson et al. (2000) also use a mean service life of 20 years for aggregate investment. 3 Again, by choosing a 5 percent depreciation rate we try to capture the diversity of assets included in the aggregate investment series. t 4 That is, Kt It i (1 )i k0 for t < 20. i 0 5 Kunte et al. (1998) based their estimation of urban land value on Canada's detailed national balance sheet information. Urban land is estimated to be 33 percent of the value of structures, which in turn is estimated to be 72 percent of the total value of physical capital. 6 The U.S. Geological Survey definition. It is clear that an increase in, say, the price of oil, or a reduction in its extraction costs, would increase the amount of "economically extractable" 158 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS oil and thereby increase the reserves. Indeed, U.S. oil production has surpassed several times the proven reserves in 1950. 7 Coal is subdivided into two groups: hard coal (anthracite and bituminous) and soft coal (lignite and subbituminous). 8 British Petroleum maintains data on proven reserves of oil and gas for 48 and 50 coun- tries, respectively, and production data for 48 and 47 countries, respectively. International Energy Annual 2006 provided data on hard and soft coal reserves in 60 and 51 coun- tries/regions and production data for 66 and 41 countries/regions, respectively (USEIA 2006, tables 8.2 and 5.1). Far fewer countries had data on reserves for the 10 metals and minerals considered; limited information came from the U.S. Geological Survey's 2006 Minerals Yearbook and Mineral Commodity Summaries (USGS 2006a, 2006b). Reserves data on bauxite, copper, lead, nickel, phosphate, tin, zinc, gold, silver, and iron ore were available for 12, 12, 10, 16, 15, 10, 7, 8, 7, and 15 countries, respectively. 9 The World Bank (1997) chose T 20 in its study on indicators of environmentally sustainable development. 10 When data are missing, and if a country's forest area is less than 50 square kilometers, the value of production is assumed to be zero. 11 In Global FRA 2005, see the table titled "Designated Functions of Forest--Primary Function 2005," http://www.fao.org/forestry/32035/en/. In Global FRA 2000, see table 15, "Forest in Protected Areas/Available for Wood Supply." 12 When data are missing, and if country's forest area is less than 50 square kilometers, the value of nontimber forest benefits is assumed to be zero. 13 http://www.worldbank.org/environmentaleconomics. References Bohm, B., A. Gleiss, M. Wagner, and D. Ziegler. 2002. "Disaggregated Capital Stock Estimation for Austria--Methods, Concepts and Results." Applied Economics 34 (1): 23­37. Dimaranan, Betina V., ed. 2006. Global Trade, Assistance, and Production: The GTAP 6 Data Base. West Lafayette, IN: Center for Global Trade Analysis, Purdue University. Eurostat. 2002. Natural Resource Accounts for Forests. Luxembourg: Office of the European Communities. Fankhauser, S. 1994. "The Social Costs of Greenhouse Gas Emissions: An Expected Value Approach." Energy Journal 15 (2): 157­84. Fortech (Forestry Technical Services). 1997. "Marketing of PNG Forest Products: Milestone 2 Report: Logging and Processing Costs in Papua New Guinea." Fortech, Canberra. Global Witness. 2001. Taylor-Made: The Pivotal Role of Liberia's Forests and Flag of Convenience in Regional Conflict. London: Global Witness. Hamilton, K., and J. M. Hartwick. 2005. "Investing Exhaustible Resource Rents and the Path of Consumption." Canadian Journal of Economics 38 (2): 615­21. Haripriya, G. S. 1998. "Forest Resource Accounting: Preliminary Estimates for the State of Maharashtra." Development Policy Review 16: 131­51. BUILDING THE WEALTH ESTIMATES: METHODOLOGY 159 Jorgenson, Dale W., and Barbara M. Fraumeni. 1992. "The Output of the Education Sector." In Output Measurement in the Service Sectors, ed. Z. Griliches, 303­41. NBER Studies in Income and Wealth, vol. 56. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Kunte, A., K. Hamilton, J. Dixon, and M. Clemens. 1998. "Estimating National Wealth: Methodology and Results." Environment Department Paper 57, World Bank, Washington, DC. Lampietti, J., and J. Dixon. 1995. "To See the Forest for the Trees: A Guide to Non-Timber Forest Benefits." Environment Department Paper 13, World Bank, Washington, DC. Lane, Philip R., and Gian Maria Milesi-Ferretti. 2007. "The External Wealth of Nations Mark II: Revised and Extended Estimates of Foreign Assets and Liabilities, 1970­2004." Journal of International Economics 73 (2): 223­50. Larson, Donald F., Rita Butzer, Yair Mundlak, and Al Crego. 2000. "A Cross-Country Database for Sector Investment and Capital." World Bank Economic Review 14 (2): 371­91. Lopina, Olga, Andrei Ptichnikov, and Alexander Voropayev. 2003. Illegal Logging in Northwestern Russia and Exports of Russian Forest Products to Sweden. Moscow: World Wildlife Fund Russia. Mas, Matilde, Francisco Perez, and Ezequiel Uriel. 2000. "Estimation of the Stock of Capital in Spain." Review of Income and Wealth 46 (1): 103­16. Merlo, M., and L. Croitoru, eds. 2005. Valuing Mediterranean Forests: Towards Total Economic Value. Wallingford, UK: CABI Publishing. Pearce, D. W., and D. Ulph. 1999. "A Social Discount Rate for the United Kingdom." In Environmental Economics: Essays in Ecological Economics and Sustainable Development, ed. D. W. Pearce, 268­85. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar. Rosengrant, M. W., M. Agcaoili-Sombilla, and N. D. Perez. 1995. "Global Food Projections to 2020: Implications for Investment." Food, Agriculture, and the Environment Discussion Paper 5, International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC. Tay, John, John Healey, and Colin Price. 2001. "Financial Assessment of Reduced Impact Logging Techniques in Sabah, Malaysia." In Applying Reduced Impact Logging to Advance Sustainable Forest Management. Bangkok: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. UNFAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 1997. State of the World's Forests 1997. Rome: UNFAO. ------. 2001. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000: Main Report. FAO Forestry Paper 140. Rome: UNFAO. ------. 2006. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005. FAO Forestry Paper 147. Rome: UNFAO. USEIA (U.S. Energy Information Administration). 2006. International Energy Annual 2006. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy. USGS (U.S. Geological Survey). 2006a. 2006 Minerals Yearbook. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior. ------. 2006b. Mineral Commodity Summaries. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior. 160 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS Ward, M. 1976. The Measurement of Capital: The Methodology of Capital Stock Estimates in OECD Countries. Paris: OECD. Whiteman, Adrian. 1996. "Economic Rent and the Appropriate Level of Forest Products Royalties in 1996." Jakarta: Indonesia-UK Tropical Forest Management Programme. World Bank. 1997. Expanding the Measure of Wealth: Indicators of Environmentally Sustainable Development. Environmentally Sustainable Development Studies and Monographs Series No. 17. Washington, DC: World Bank. ------. 2006. Where Is the Wealth of Nations? Measuring Capital for the 21st Century. Washington, DC: World Bank. A P P E N D I X B Total Wealth, Population, and Per Capita Wealth in 1995, 2000, and 2005 The following table shows estimates of total wealth and wealth per capita by economy for 1995, 2000, and 2005. Estimates are in 2005 U.S. dollars. The data in this table are summarized by grouping economies by geographic region and income group. The data in table B.2, summarized in chapters 1 and 2, are for the set of countries for which wealth accounts are available from 1995 to 2005. 161 162 TABLE B.1 Wealth and Wealth Per Capita by Economy Total Wealth (2005 US$ billions) Population Wealth Per Capita (2005 US$) Economy/Group 1995 2000 2005 1995 2000 2005 1995 2000 2005 Albania -- 106 166 -- 3,061,775 3,129,678 -- 34,462 53,096 Algeria 1,019 1,049 994 28,270,780 30,463,134 32,853,798 36,029 34,443 30,249 Angola -- -- 220 -- -- 15,941,392 -- -- 13,804 Argentina 2,610 2,707 2,761 34,834,902 36,895,712 38,747,148 74,917 73,373 71,252 Armenia -- 58 88 -- 3,082,000 3,016,312 -- 18,677 29,190 Australia 7,525 9,155 10,547 18,072,000 19,153,000 20,329,000 416,394 478,012 518,805 Austria 3,944 4,353 4,698 7,953,067 8,011,561 8,233,300 495,873 543,344 570,654 Azerbaijan -- 89 128 -- 8,048,535 8,388,000 -- 11,035 15,298 Bahrain 126 144 147 584,187 672,008 726,617 215,898 214,672 201,841 Bangladesh 642 787 1,008 116,454,619 128,915,876 141,822,276 5,517 6,104 7,109 Belarus -- 346 467 -- 10,005,000 9,775,591 -- 34,576 47,788 Belgium 4,757 5,345 5,893 10,136,800 10,252,000 10,478,650 469,275 521,329 562,363 Belize 11 15 19 216,500 249,800 291,800 50,116 59,956 64,527 Benin 54 69 80 6,200,647 7,196,955 8,438,853 8,680 9,647 9,524 Bhutan 5 8 10 507,032 558,565 637,013 10,473 14,159 16,423 Bolivia 122 143 138 7,481,694 8,316,648 9,182,015 16,334 17,175 15,068 Botswana 70 84 104 1,615,528 1,754,002 1,764,926 43,453 47,984 58,895 Brazil 11,669 13,264 14,752 161,375,961 173,857,672 186,404,913 72,307 76,293 79,142 Brunei Darussalam 105 103 87 294,975 333,463 373,819 356,457 308,598 232,275 Bulgaria -- 378 495 -- 8,060,000 7,740,000 -- 46,892 63,993 Burkina Faso 56 81 115 9,831,857 11,291,615 13,227,835 5,662 7,207 8,661 Burundi 16 14 17 6,159,060 6,486,071 7,547,515 2,519 2,152 2,191 Cameroon 191 232 281 13,302,275 14,856,343 16,321,863 14,334 15,604 17,238 Canada 13,329 15,451 17,399 29,354,000 30,769,700 32,299,000 454,068 502,141 538,697 Cape Verde -- -- 21 -- -- 506,807 -- -- 41,418 Central African Republic 23 27 27 3,414,404 3,777,405 4,037,747 6,844 7,175 6,706 Chad 50 62 49 7,033,631 8,215,517 9,748,931 7,177 7,503 4,994 Chile 1,195 1,526 1,660 14,394,935 15,411,830 16,295,102 82,990 99,004 101,901 China 11,861 18,069 25,091 1,204,855,000 1,262,645,000 1,304,500,000 9,845 14,310 19,234 Colombia 1,906 2,112 2,454 38,258,569 41,682,594 44,945,790 49,807 50,673 54,594 Comoros 7 7 9 486,193 540,327 600,490 13,541 13,721 14,530 Congo, Dem. Rep. 120 110 132 44,998,561 50,052,102 57,548,744 2,659 2,194 2,294 Congo, Rep. 25 22 24 2,915,594 3,437,797 3,998,904 8,553 6,456 6,017 Costa Rica 226 271 340 3,474,897 3,928,797 4,327,228 65,129 68,975 78,604 Côte d'Ivoire 224 251 263 14,755,305 16,734,951 18,153,867 15,213 15,005 14,463 Croatia -- 620 740 -- 4,502,500 4,443,350 -- 137,597 166,497 Cyprus 197 241 -- 650,850 694,000 -- 303,431 347,611 -- Czech Republic -- 1,571 1,851 -- 10,273,300 10,234,092 -- 152,942 180,820 Denmark 3,321 3,672 4,024 5,228,000 5,337,344 5,415,978 635,290 687,959 742,954 Dominica 5 5 5 73,000 71,326 72,000 62,790 71,186 76,084 Dominican Republic 371 499 638 8,013,383 8,743,983 9,469,601 46,317 57,059 67,354 163 Ecuador 443 482 577 11,396,394 12,305,544 13,228,423 38,888 39,179 43,634 (continued) 164 TABLE B.1 (continued) Total Wealth (2005 US$ billions) Population Wealth Per Capita (2005 US$) Economy/Group 1995 2000 2005 1995 2000 2005 1995 2000 2005 Egypt, Arab Rep. 1,051 1,340 1,579 61,224,735 67,285,498 74,032,884 17,167 19,916 21,328 El Salvador 257 307 364 5,668,606 6,280,482 6,880,951 45,399 48,843 52,947 Ethiopia 139 171 245 56,530,000 64,298,000 71,256,000 2,451 2,656 3,439 Fiji 38 39 36 767,936 810,736 847,706 49,055 47,646 43,003 Finland 2,128 2,494 2,992 5,108,000 5,176,198 5,246,100 416,680 481,870 570,256 France 28,649 31,897 35,699 57,844,000 58,895,517 60,873,000 495,275 541,594 586,448 Gabon 73 87 81 1,118,736 1,272,094 1,383,841 65,472 68,546 58,504 Gambia, The 6 7 9 1,115,216 1,315,884 1,517,079 5,346 5,210 5,831 Georgia -- 84 119 -- 4,720,061 4,474,404 -- 17,860 26,607 Germany 39,320 43,269 45,127 81,642,000 82,210,000 82,469,400 481,616 526,329 547,201 Ghana 128 162 210 17,725,205 19,866,984 22,112,805 7,220 8,157 9,475 Greece 3,208 3,732 4,362 10,634,000 10,917,500 11,104,000 301,632 341,860 392,815 Grenada 6 8 8 98,000 101,400 106,500 60,691 74,250 78,030 Guatemala 364 445 548 9,970,367 11,166,376 12,599,059 36,526 39,839 43,483 Guinea 39 49 56 7,323,222 8,202,628 9,002,656 5,280 5,996 6,271 Guinea-Bissau 7 6 6 1,189,331 1,365,650 1,586,344 6,005 4,753 3,740 Guyana 11 13 14 732,321 743,683 751,218 15,110 17,899 19,210 Haiti 81 82 90 7,391,265 7,938,791 8,527,777 11,019 10,340 10,512 Honduras 102 133 183 5,624,954 6,424,340 7,204,723 18,202 20,755 25,387 Hong Kong SAR, China 1,828 2,031 2,507 6,156,100 6,665,000 6,943,600 296,985 304,752 360,981 Hungary 1,206 1,373 1,745 10,328,965 10,210,971 10,087,050 116,792 134,456 173,007 Iceland 176 221 268 268,000 281,000 296,750 656,647 787,113 902,960 India 6,894 9,170 11,536 932,180,000 1,015,923,000 1,094,583,000 7,396 9,026 10,539 Indonesia 3,110 3,462 4,360 192,750,000 206,265,000 220,558,000 16,132 16,782 19,769 Iran, Islamic Rep. 1,548 1,461 2,282 58,954,000 63,664,000 68,251,085 26,255 22,950 33,437 Ireland 1,456 1,948 2,492 3,608,850 3,805,400 4,159,100 403,463 511,867 599,115 Israel 1,659 1,951 2,267 5,545,000 6,289,000 6,923,600 299,106 310,266 327,471 Italy 24,542 27,236 29,203 56,846,100 56,948,600 58,607,050 431,728 478,252 498,277 Jamaica 170 183 212 2,480,000 2,589,389 2,654,500 68,533 70,647 79,763 Japan 59,056 64,591 70,116 125,439,000 126,870,000 127,774,000 470,797 509,112 548,751 Jordan 151 197 278 4,195,000 4,797,500 5,411,500 35,959 41,103 51,454 Kenya 246 311 366 27,225,891 30,689,332 34,255,722 9,039 10,131 10,684 Korea, Rep. 7,169 9,188 11,986 45,093,000 47,008,111 48,294,143 158,985 195,448 248,180 Kuwait 739 832 827 1,802,000 2,190,000 2,535,446 410,166 379,842 326,320 Kyrgyz Republic -- 36 54 -- 4,915,300 5,143,500 -- 7,254 10,563 Lao PDR -- -- 46 -- -- 5,663,910 -- -- 8,068 Latvia -- 179 279 -- 2,372,000 2,300,500 -- 75,566 121,274 Lesotho 29 31 37 1,692,269 1,787,504 1,794,769 16,958 17,613 20,426 Liberia -- 11 11 -- 3,065,441 3,283,267 -- 3,431 3,368 Lithuania -- 327 454 -- 3,499,527 3,414,300 -- 93,437 132,915 Luxembourg 286 363 419 409,500 438,000 456,710 698,702 827,661 917,530 Macao SAR, China 63 72 87 412,832 443,537 460,162 151,472 163,005 189,948 165 (continued) 166 TABLE B.1 (continued) Total Wealth (2005 US$ billions) Population Wealth Per Capita (2005 US$) Economy/Group 1995 2000 2005 1995 2000 2005 1995 2000 2005 Macedonia, FYR -- 101 118 -- 2,009,514 2,034,060 -- 50,330 57,797 Madagascar 73 82 65 13,945,501 16,195,064 18,605,921 5,248 5,080 3,489 Malawi 42 50 45 10,110,516 11,512,454 12,883,935 4,148 4,343 3,471 Malaysia 1,059 1,209 1,642 20,362,330 22,997,185 25,347,368 52,026 52,557 64,767 Maldives -- 6 9 -- 290,209 329,198 -- 22,087 26,573 Mali 58 75 93 10,146,967 11,646,917 13,518,416 5,716 6,456 6,916 Malta 77 95 104 378,000 390,000 403,500 203,560 244,702 257,968 Mauritania 24 30 34 2,300,013 2,644,513 3,068,742 10,472 11,315 11,000 Mauritius 63 80 105 1,122,457 1,186,873 1,243,253 56,069 67,157 84,193 Mexico 10,130 12,323 13,544 91,145,000 97,966,000 103,089,133 111,142 125,788 131,385 Moldova -- 46 68 -- 4,145,437 3,876,661 -- 11,053 17,421 Mongolia 22 32 34 2,275,000 2,398,000 2,554,000 9,604 13,456 13,381 Morocco 710 774 955 26,434,672 28,465,720 30,142,709 26,869 27,185 31,677 Mozambique 56 79 108 15,853,741 17,910,521 19,792,295 3,511 4,395 5,476 Namibia 87 102 121 1,651,547 1,894,436 2,031,252 52,596 53,759 59,557 Nepal 99 122 152 21,682,060 24,430,617 27,132,629 4,543 5,012 5,584 Netherlands 7,444 8,857 9,687 15,460,000 15,925,431 16,319,850 481,476 556,176 593,547 New Zealand 1,238 1,445 1,697 3,673,400 3,857,800 4,098,900 337,137 374,676 414,113 Nicaragua 56 81 101 4,476,892 4,920,285 5,149,311 12,528 16,542 19,593 Niger 44 53 63 9,929,356 11,782,384 13,956,977 4,425 4,469 4,532 Nigeria 1,403 1,288 1,552 109,010,060 124,772,607 141,356,083 12,866 10,326 10,982 Norway 3,338 3,739 3,984 4,360,000 4,491,000 4,623,300 765,604 832,478 861,797 Oman 322 362 379 2,177,264 2,442,000 2,566,981 147,664 148,359 147,560 Pakistan 1,283 1,484 1,900 122,374,953 138,080,000 155,772,000 10,482 10,748 12,198 Panama 146 194 243 2,670,412 2,949,948 3,231,502 54,639 65,763 75,287 Papua New Guinea 65 64 53 4,687,236 5,298,867 5,887,138 13,928 12,123 8,989 Peru 910 1,076 1,256 23,836,863 25,952,191 27,968,244 38,179 41,443 44,912 Philippines 1,171 1,361 1,636 68,395,835 75,766,144 83,054,478 17,114 17,966 19,698 Poland -- 4,359 5,188 -- 38,453,800 38,165,450 -- 113,350 135,941 Portugal 2,541 3,004 3,226 10,027,000 10,225,803 10,549,450 253,372 293,743 305,832 Romania -- 1,383 1,750 -- 22,443,000 21,634,350 -- 61,643 80,906 Russian Federation -- 7,638 10,471 -- 146,303,000 143,113,650 -- 52,207 73,166 Rwanda 27 36 48 5,439,079 8,024,511 9,037,690 4,923 4,522 5,326 Saudi Arabia 2,938 3,241 3,378 18,508,698 20,660,703 23,118,994 158,730 156,886 146,105 Senegal 110 129 159 9,119,513 10,342,831 11,658,172 12,091 12,502 13,654 Seychelles 11 15 14 75,304 81,131 84,494 152,307 182,002 163,767 Sierra Leone 16 15 22 4,136,745 4,508,987 5,525,478 3,749 3,327 4,025 Singapore 770 1,051 1,307 3,526,000 4,017,700 4,341,800 218,461 261,663 300,975 Slovak Republic -- 606 767 -- 5,388,741 5,387,000 -- 112,471 142,373 South Africa 2,974 3,363 4,042 39,120,000 44,000,000 46,888,200 76,032 76,427 86,199 Spain 12,791 15,108 17,723 39,387,000 40,263,200 43,398,150 324,739 375,243 408,385 Sri Lanka 273 333 425 18,136,000 19,359,000 19,625,384 15,068 17,226 21,640 167 (continued) TABLE B.1 (continued) 168 Total Wealth (2005 US$ billions) Population Wealth Per Capita (2005 US$) Economy/Group 1995 2000 2005 1995 2000 2005 1995 2000 2005 St. Kitts and Nevis 5 6 6 41,000 44,286 48,000 111,618 130,608 132,194 St. Lucia 11 13 15 145,437 155,996 164,791 78,845 82,660 92,122 St. Vincent and the Grenadines 6 6 7 112,978 115,949 119,051 49,027 54,275 59,553 Sudan 284 348 440 29,352,022 32,902,415 36,232,945 9,671 10,570 12,148 Swaziland 36 42 46 900,000 1,045,000 1,131,000 39,692 40,460 40,393 Sweden 4,368 4,996 5,667 8,831,000 8,869,000 9,024,040 494,629 563,351 627,950 Switzerland 4,720 5,141 5,480 7,041,000 7,184,222 7,437,100 670,303 715,610 736,795 Syrian Arab Republic 302 345 388 14,754,705 16,812,824 19,043,382 20,441 20,536 20,369 Tajikistan -- 27 44 -- 6,172,835 6,550,213 -- 4,388 6,687 Thailand 1,649 1,817 2,426 58,335,951 61,438,314 64,232,758 28,272 29,571 37,765 Togo 29 36 41 4,512,159 5,363,751 6,145,004 6,459 6,758 6,616 Tonga 4 5 6 96,865 100,190 102,311 45,555 49,432 55,876 Trinidad and Tobago 111 143 152 1,259,324 1,284,700 1,305,236 87,752 111,208 116,119 Tunisia 293 369 475 8,957,500 9,563,500 10,029,000 32,660 38,621 47,389 Turkey -- 6,248 8,275 -- 67,420,000 72,065,000 -- 92,677 114,830 Uganda 89 124 172 20,892,272 24,308,745 28,816,229 4,272 5,106 5,957 Ukraine -- 968 1,380 -- 49,175,848 47,075,295 -- 19,693 29,322 United Arab Emirates 979 1,285 1,585 2,411,000 3,247,000 4,533,145 406,126 395,660 349,698 United Kingdom 29,265 34,411 39,908 58,250,000 59,742,980 60,226,500 502,395 575,979 662,624 United States 155,865 188,420 217,623 266,278,000 282,224,000 296,410,404 585,347 667,626 734,195 Uruguay 270 291 287 3,218,193 3,300,847 3,305,723 83,832 88,219 86,684 Uzbekistan -- 152 139 -- 24,650,000 26,167,369 -- 6,161 5,316 Vanuatu -- 6 6 -- 191,457 211,367 -- 33,371 28,900 Venezuela, RB 1,765 1,800 1,855 22,043,000 24,311,000 26,577,000 80,069 74,033 69,795 Vietnam -- -- 779 -- -- 83,104,900 -- -- 9,374 Zambia 91 102 113 9,559,420 10,702,114 11,668,457 9,539 9,533 9,678 Zimbabwe 76 81 65 11,819,622 12,595,084 13,009,534 6,435 6,467 4,988 World 504,745 615,707 707,726 4,884,435,862 5,679,671,767 6,128,328,330 103,337 108,405 115,484 Low income 2,447 3,187 4,670 462,526,066 560,925,206 715,963,412 5,290 5,681 6,523 Middle income 70,744 108,760 134,909 3,496,930,885 4,140,184,571 4,399,856,652 20,230 26,269 30,662 Lower middle income 33,950 45,490 60,228 2,996,609,737 3,297,080,219 3,519,642,686 11,330 13,797 17,112 Upper middle income 36,794 63,270 74,681 500,321,148 843,104,352 880,213,965 73,540 75,044 84,844 Low and middle income 73,191 111,947 139,579 3,959,456,950 4,701,109,778 5,115,820,063 18,485 23,813 27,284 East Asia and the Pacific 18,979 26,064 36,115 1,552,526,153 1,637,910,893 1,796,063,936 12,225 15,913 20,108 Europe and Central Asia -- 22,525 29,684 -- 408,537,632 408,064,333 -- 55,135 72,744 Latin America and the Caribbean 32,848 37,985 42,079 459,175,523 496,424,869 531,341,503 71,536 76,517 79,194 Middle East and North Africa 5,073 5,536 6,951 202,791,392 221,052,176 239,764,358 25,015 25,044 28,992 South Asia 9,197 11,911 15,040 1,211,334,664 1,327,557,267 1,439,901,500 7,592 8,972 10,445 Sub-Saharan Africa 7,094 7,926 9,709 533,629,219 609,626,940 700,684,434 13,295 13,002 13,857 (continued) 169 170 TABLE B.1 (continued) Total Wealth (2005 US$ billions) Population Wealth Per Capita (2005 US$) Country/Group 1995 2000 2005 1995 2000 2005 1995 2000 2005 High income 431,554 503,760 568,147 924,978,912 978,561,990 1,012,508,266 466,556 514,796 561,129 High income non-OECD 9,914 12,172 13,566 43,706,230 53,831,611 58,676,250 226,822 226,121 231,203 High income OECD 421,641 491,587 554,581 881,272,682 924,730,378 953,832,017 478,445 531,601 581,424 Source: Authors. Note: -- not available. TABLE B.2 Regional and Income Group Aggregates Using a Balanced Sample of 124 Countries Total Wealth (2005 US$ billions) Population Wealth Per Capita (2005 US$) Group 1995 2000 2005 1995 2000 2005 1995 2000 2005 World 504,548 590,121 673,593 4,883,785,012 5,246,728,488 5,591,158,713 103,311 112,474 120,475 Low income 2,447 2,962 3,597 462,526,066 522,121,630 586,050,253 5,290 5,672 6,138 Middle income 70,744 86,437 105,206 3,496,930,885 3,766,903,408 4,012,664,636 20,230 22,947 26,218 Lower middle income 33,950 44,127 58,023 2,996,609,737 3,224,364,897 3,432,693,572 11,330 13,686 16,903 Upper middle income 36,794 42,310 47,183 500,321,148 542,538,511 579,971,064 73,540 77,986 81,354 Low and middle income 73,191 89,399 108,803 3,959,456,950 4,289,025,039 4,598,714,889 18,485 20,844 23,659 East Asia and the Pacific 18,979 26,057 35,284 1,552,526,153 1,637,719,436 1,707,083,759 12,225 15,911 20,669 Europe and Central Asia -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Latin America and the 32,848 37,985 42,079 459,175,523 496,424,869 531,341,503 71,536 76,517 79,194 Caribbean Middle East and North Africa 5,073 5,536 6,951 202,791,392 221,052,176 239,764,358 25,015 25,044 28,992 South Asia 9,197 11,905 15,031 1,211,334,664 1,327,267,058 1,439,572,302 7,592 8,970 10,441 Sub-Saharan Africa 7,094 7,916 9,457 533,629,219 606,561,499 680,952,968 13,295 13,050 13,888 High income 431,357 500,722 564,790 924,328,062 957,703,449 992,443,824 466,671 522,836 569,090 High income non-OECD 9,716 11,312 12,826 43,055,380 48,635,111 54,232,900 225,664 232,583 236,504 High income OECD 421,641 489,410 551,964 881,272,682 909,068,338 938,210,925 478,445 538,364 588,315 171 Source: Authors. Note: -- not available. A P P E N D I X C Wealth Estimates in 2005 The following table shows estimates of total wealth and its subcomponents by economy for the year 2005. Estimates are in 2005 U.S. dollars per capita. The data in this table are summarized by grouping economies by geographic region and income category. 173 174 TABLE C.1 Wealth Estimates for 2005 Nontimber Produced Subsoil Forest Protected Crop Pasture Natural Capital Net Foreign Intangible Total Economy/Group Population Assets Timber Resources Areas Land Land Capital Urban Land Assets Capital Wealth Albania 3,129,678 1 62 626 574 1,444 2,360 5,068 6,975 386 41,439 53,096 Algeria 32,853,798 13,293 188 25 384 903 1,022 15,815 11,046 1,135 2,254 30,249 Angola 15,941,392 11,052 392 872 80 632 279 13,307 2,897 1,013 1,387 13,804 Argentina 38,747,148 2,727 266 197 320 4,996 1,760 10,267 10,815 211 50,381 71,252 Armenia 3,016,312 116 9 20 373 1,580 1,041 3,139 4,185 489 22,356 29,190 Australia 20,329,000 20,328 804 3,590 2,932 6,138 6,186 39,979 111,671 19,225 386,381 518,805 Austria 8,233,300 566 1,201 211 3,272 1,810 2,005 9,065 112,799 8,033 456,824 570,654 Azerbaijan 8,388,000 9,194 1 27 212 1,345 904 11,684 4,535 1,115 195 15,298 Bahrain 726,617 82,923 0 0 182 195 361 83,662 43,365 15,553 59,261 201,841 Bangladesh 141,822,276 190 28 24 16 640 495 1,394 1,007 131 4,838 7,109 Belarus 9,775,591 773 106 243 560 2,890 1,400 5,972 9,812 415 32,420 47,788 Belgium 10,478,650 .. 248 29 222 2,480 1,954 4,933 98,822 11,095 447,515 562,363 Belize 291,800 0 2,027 1,356 6,468 13,618 257 23,726 9,258 4,374 35,916 64,527 Benin 8,438,853 0 206 54 562 1,686 117 2,625 1,051 194 6,042 9,524 Bhutan 637,013 0 8,431 1,234 2,407 1,129 805 14,005 6,319 93 3,808 16,423 Bolivia 9,182,015 2,191 951 1,466 443 2,563 691 8,305 2,000 855 5,618 15,068 Botswana 1,764,926 982 414 1,487 888 357 1,294 5,420 20,988 4,541 27,947 58,895 Brazil 186,404,913 2,321 2,927 599 1,042 6,830 1,260 14,978 11,330 1,735 54,569 79,142 Brunei Darussalam 373,819 172,958 991 323 8,337 181 227 183,018 73,831 121,649 146,222 232,275 Bulgaria 7,740,000 556 133 127 938 1,834 1,971 5,560 10,079 1,652 50,006 63,993 Burkina Faso 13,227,835 0 87 120 211 620 301 1,339 879 112 6,554 8,661 Burundi 7,547,515 2 1,054 3 13 1,541 84 2,697 166 145 527 2,191 Cameroon 16,321,863 910 580 286 1,165 1,718 539 5,198 2,343 412 10,110 17,238 Canada 32,299,000 12,644 3,980 4,302 11,293 2,603 2,103 36,924 89,811 2,977 414,938 538,697 Cape Verde 506,807 0 0 41 17 451 409 919 5,797 1,509 36,212 41,418 Central African Republic 4,037,747 .. 724 1,337 2,007 1,151 642 5,861 515 236 566 6,706 Chad 9,748,931 2,231 678 275 140 785 528 4,637 1,308 494 457 4,994 Chile 16,295,102 9,563 3,628 245 1,793 2,554 1,086 18,870 19,268 2,007 65,770 101,901 China 1,304,500,000 804 231 45 107 2,501 325 4,013 6,017 284 8,921 19,234 Colombia 44,945,790 1,488 837 321 993 2,942 1,033 7,614 7,127 853 40,706 54,594 Comoros 600,490 0 24 11 330 1,278 122 1,765 1,301 251 11,714 14,530 Congo, Dem. Rep. 57,548,744 77 443 546 19 500 14 1,599 200 183 678 2,294 Congo, Rep. 3,998,904 11,816 713 1,333 10 785 21 14,679 4,639 2,032 11,269 6,017 Costa Rica 4,327,228 .. 2 133 1,026 6,903 1,371 9,437 10,703 1,552 60,016 78,604 Côte d'Ivoire 18,153,867 464 584 138 39 2,668 93 3,987 1,473 594 9,598 14,463 Croatia 4,443,350 1,923 351 119 445 1,580 1,141 5,559 25,231 5,447 141,154 166,497 Czech Republic 10,234,092 332 513 433 924 1,542 852 4,595 44,254 3,341 135,312 180,820 Denmark 5,415,978 8,536 217 587 2,463 2,808 5,005 19,616 130,827 1,288 591,224 742,954 Dominica 72,000 0 0 145 5,206 4,531 510 10,393 14,414 4,312 55,588 76,084 Dominican Republic 9,469,601 418 217 35 1,028 1,997 1,055 4,750 8,041 1,268 55,831 67,354 175 (continued) 176 TABLE C.1 (continued) Nontimber Produced Net Subsoil Forest Protected Crop Pasture Natural Capital Foreign Intangible Total Economy/Group Population Assets Timber Resources Areas Land Land Capital Urban Land Assets Capital Wealth Ecuador 13,228,423 6,442 291 170 9,723 3,505 2,322 22,454 7,601 1,843 15,422 43,634 Egypt, Arab Rep. 74,032,884 1,989 13 .. 0 2,206 462 4,670 2,860 63 13,860 21,328 El Salvador 6,880,951 0 40 9 18 1,780 2,094 3,941 5,201 1,156 44,961 52,947 Ethiopia 71,256,000 2 8 48 261 522 281 1,123 324 97 2,089 3,439 Fiji 847,706 384 1,131 282 333 8,302 1,183 11,616 8,693 1,666 24,360 43,003 Finland 5,246,100 132 8,947 2,393 3,659 1,262 2,827 19,220 96,566 5,642 460,111 570,256 France 60,873,000 71 251 125 2,646 2,995 2,522 8,609 93,619 2,561 481,658 586,448 Gabon 1,383,841 34,610 2,086 3,766 49 1,503 50 42,065 23,418 12 6,991 58,504 Gambia, The 1,517,079 0 525 77 10 536 82 1,230 758 554 4,396 5,831 Georgia 4,474,404 87 43 148 242 1,267 1,547 3,334 5,128 930 19,076 26,607 Germany 82,469,400 535 205 97 1,935 1,391 1,552 5,716 98,285 6,219 436,981 547,201 Ghana 22,112,805 5 496 51 18 2,047 41 2,658 1,237 257 5,838 9,475 Greece 11,104,000 405 205 157 458 4,319 2,435 7,980 74,237 16,001 326,599 392,815 Grenada 106,500 0 0 9 66 1,915 94 2,083 23,375 6,137 58,709 78,030 Guatemala 12,599,059 330 11,245 67 463 4,250 336 16,691 5,370 370 21,792 43,483 Guinea 9,002,656 226 47 171 27 1,287 182 1,939 777 357 3,911 6,271 Guinea-Bissau 1,586,344 0 304 299 85 1,164 226 2,078 604 600 1,658 3,740 Guyana 751,218 649 5,854 4,813 160 10,000 406 21,882 4,106 2,008 4,770 19,210 Haiti 8,527,777 0 86 3 4 922 244 1,258 1,761 165 7,657 10,512 Honduras 7,204,723 48 4,614 129 1,965 2,985 2,270 12,012 4,140 590 9,825 25,387 Hong Kong SAR, China 6,943,600 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 77,653 63,268 220,051 360,981 Hungary 10,087,050 803 176 50 740 3,263 943 5,974 35,162 9,425 141,296 173,007 Iceland 296,750 0 0 103 8,382 81 3,797 12,363 137,470 45,995 799,123 902,960 India 1,094,583,000 353 195 17 145 1,391 602 2,704 1,980 107 5,961 10,539 Indonesia 220,558,000 1,473 1,264 81 411 1,597 99 4,926 3,968 523 11,398 19,769 Iran, Islamic Rep. 68,251,085 13,987 27 39 267 2,571 1,042 17,933 10,516 928 4,059 33,437 Ireland 4,159,100 290 380 80 304 1,123 9,013 11,189 112,374 10,428 485,980 599,115 Israel 6,923,600 253 3 12 1,300 1,671 1,603 4,843 47,232 3,495 278,892 327,471 Italy 58,607,050 525 323 81 2,158 3,012 1,403 7,502 89,860 4,533 405,448 498,277 Jamaica 2,654,500 979 559 30 426 3,110 268 5,372 14,450 2,840 62,781 79,763 Japan 127,774,000 47 135 92 128 652 1,041 2,094 135,866 11,920 398,870 548,751 Jordan 5,411,500 74 0 4 759 1,275 579 2,690 6,550 3,750 45,963 51,454 Kenya 34,255,722 2 0 24 557 1,070 1,087 2,739 1,298 83 6,729 10,684 Korea, Rep. 48,294,143 26 54 58 322 1,082 1,099 2,642 58,636 3,252 190,155 248,180 Kuwait 2,535,446 212,013 0 1 222 369 507 213,112 58,115 62,476 7,383 326,320 Kyrgyz Republic 5,143,500 69 18 42 96 1,514 1,254 2,992 1,210 335 6,696 10,563 Lao PDR 5,663,910 .. 1,370 653 554 1,739 128 4,444 1,208 516 2,931 8,068 Latvia 2,300,500 0 0 317 3,444 1,560 2,025 7,346 23,260 3,990 94,658 121,274 177 (continued) 178 TABLE C.1 (continued) Nontimber Produced Net Subsoil Forest Protected Crop Pasture Natural Capital Foreign Intangible Total Economy/Group Population Assets Timber Resources Areas Land Land Capital Urban Land Assets Capital Wealth Lesotho 1,794,769 0 8 1 1 137 178 325 4,705 1,295 16,691 20,426 Liberia 3,283,267 .. 2,012 198 16 955 20 3,201 217 1,709 1,659 3,368 Lithuania 3,414,300 347 499 168 958 2,080 1,962 6,014 21,265 3,129 108,764 132,915 Luxembourg 456,710 0 255 85 1,413 718 3,621 6,092 213,425 99,449 598,563 917,530 Macao SAR, China 460,162 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 51,849 .. 138,099 189,948 Macedonia, FYR 2,034,060 0 111 107 235 2,380 809 3,642 8,018 1,266 47,404 57,797 Madagascar 18,605,921 0 486 161 41 693 537 1,918 551 164 1,185 3,489 Malawi 12,883,935 0 279 58 60 716 57 1,170 528 245 2,018 3,471 Malaysia 25,347,368 10,102 571 186 879 982 30 12,750 16,824 750 35,943 64,767 Maldives 329,198 0 0 1 0 989 0 990 7,402 726 18,907 26,573 Mali 13,518,416 0 84 208 64 704 846 1,907 990 242 4,261 6,916 Malta 403,500 0 0 0 37 597 3,649 4,283 45,063 3,392 205,230 257,968 Mauritania 3,068,742 1,332 433 16 89 143 2,002 4,015 1,701 1,241 6,525 11,000 Mauritius 1,243,253 0 8 343 288 8,592 148 9,379 14,841 419 59,555 84,193 Mexico 103,089,133 3,525 1 149 316 1,360 1,290 6,641 21,320 3,085 106,508 131,385 Moldova 3,876,661 3 5 21 56 2,853 1,211 4,148 3,794 439 9,919 17,421 Mongolia 2,554,000 1,186 154 897 443 168 2,629 5,477 3,675 546 4,775 13,381 Morocco 30,142,709 71 81 35 18 1,559 683 2,448 5,984 381 23,626 31,677 Mozambique 19,792,295 118 298 227 12 520 72 1,248 708 309 3,830 5,476 Namibia 2,031,252 231 0 835 826 783 2,515 5,191 8,280 847 45,238 59,557 Nepal 27,132,629 0 351 28 433 1,117 534 2,463 828 32 2,325 5,584 Netherlands 16,319,850 7,061 24 25 1,082 2,116 2,885 13,193 109,658 1,676 472,371 593,547 New Zealand 4,098,900 3,675 1,707 988 19,395 2,210 25,005 52,979 76,281 21,271 306,124 414,113 Nicaragua 5,149,311 21 738 216 549 2,307 898 4,730 3,127 759 12,494 19,593 Niger 13,956,977 .. 53 26 160 720 472 1,430 386 144 2,859 4,532 Nigeria 141,356,083 3,940 95 14 17 1,859 116 6,042 1,698 50 3,292 10,982 Norway 4,623,300 99,706 669 1,417 4,788 505 3,078 110,162 183,078 36,436 532,121 861,797 Oman 2,566,981 71,631 0 16 3,456 872 1,159 77,134 22,987 2,396 45,043 147,560 Pakistan 155,772,000 467 78 6 286 1,194 1,325 3,355 1,449 205 7,600 12,198 Panama 3,231,502 0 1,424 315 2,611 2,338 1,255 7,944 11,672 4,245 59,916 75,287 Papua New 1,584 8,989 Guinea 5,887,138 2,618 1,361 1,146 319 3,112 13 8,569 2,547 543 Peru 27,968,244 1,047 1,028 583 603 1,988 568 5,818 7,160 1,235 33,169 44,912 Philippines 83,054,478 139 355 17 302 2,582 72 3,468 2,745 592 14,076 19,698 Poland 38,165,450 1,126 375 68 2,306 2,388 2,631 8,894 20,526 3,414 109,935 135,941 Portugal 10,549,450 37 469 170 655 1,866 1,007 4,204 59,939 12,359 254,047 305,832 Romania 21,634,350 2,353 486 70 297 2,444 3,408 9,058 14,292 1,403 58,959 80,906 Russian Federation 143,113,650 24,238 326 1,353 2,380 1,665 1,356 31,317 17,712 227 24,364 73,166 Rwanda 9,037,690 .. 525 26 114 2,050 232 2,947 488 112 2,003 5,326 Saudi Arabia 23,118,994 86,620 0 54 9,090 686 562 97,012 33,000 11,185 4,908 146,105 (continued) 179 180 TABLE C.1 (continued) Nontimber Produced Net Subsoil Forest Protected Crop Pasture Natural Capital Foreign Intangible Total Economy/Group Population Assets Timber Resources Areas Land Land Capital Urban Land Assets Capital Wealth Senegal 11,658,172 6 496 175 102 584 258 1,621 1,520 311 10,825 13,654 Seychelles 84,494 0 0 113 1,357 348 36 1,854 33,767 12,804 140,950 163,767 Sierra Leone 5,525,478 0 201 112 8 991 51 1,363 251 306 2,717 4,025 Singapore 4,341,800 0 0 .. 2 .. 0 2 81,405 54,719 164,849 300,975 Slovak Republic 5,387,000 102 146 121 2,190 1,491 929 4,979 31,954 4,824 110,263 142,373 South Africa 46,888,200 2,595 89 47 93 1,915 985 5,723 11,087 768 70,157 86,199 Spain 43,398,150 58 116 315 1,095 4,004 1,883 7,471 82,194 11,999 330,718 408,385 Sri Lanka 19,625,384 .. 58 21 640 1,185 170 2,075 3,371 476 16,670 21,640 St. Kitts and Nevis 48,000 0 0 25 0 4,370 0 4,395 48,800 17,047 96,045 132,194 St. Lucia 164,791 0 0 25 0 0 0 25 16,781 6,176 81,493 92,122 St. Vincent and the Grenadines 119,051 0 0 24 599 2,298 144 3,065 12,183 5,847 50,152 59,553 Sudan 36,232,945 1,554 381 722 295 1,082 2,878 6,911 1,495 890 4,632 12,148 Swaziland 1,131,000 0 379 124 17 9,714 346 10,580 5,885 865 23,063 40,393 Sweden 9,024,040 366 3,508 1,728 7,284 1,109 1,679 15,673 92,488 8,333 528,122 627,950 Switzerland 7,437,100 0 299 155 3,521 845 4,590 9,411 165,561 55,211 506,613 736,795 Syrian Arab Republic 19,043,382 4,657 5 7 63 1,709 1,468 7,909 3,709 625 8,126 20,369 Tajikistan 6,550,213 27 0 15 434 764 522 1,762 1,093 219 4,052 6,687 Thailand 64,232,758 638 92 52 2,813 4,014 201 7,810 9,711 905 21,150 37,765 Togo 6,145,004 5 200 11 39 796 60 1,110 794 339 5,050 6,616 Tonga 102,311 0 .. 9 28,471 4,322 113 32,916 5,440 1,184 18,704 55,876 Trinidad and Tobago 1,305,236 44,486 64 77 238 332 81 45,278 24,826 4,731 50,746 116,119 Tunisia 10,029,000 1,051 184 222 51 1,900 1,004 4,413 8,420 2,912 37,467 47,389 Turkey 72,065,000 208 262 35 310 3,190 1,351 5,356 13,895 2,414 97,993 114,830 Uganda 28,816,229 0 6 25 558 2,485 299 3,372 585 165 2,165 5,957 Ukraine 47,075,295 1,970 58 49 266 2,699 1,856 6,899 7,250 311 15,485 29,322 United Arab Emirates 4,533,145 118,111 0 31 600 1,846 401 120,989 72,873 46,914 108,922 349,698 United Kingdom 60,226,500 3,085 159 49 815 823 1,332 6,263 84,861 7,290 578,791 662,624 United States 296,410,404 3,478 831 462 3,625 2,598 2,827 13,822 100,075 6,947 627,246 734,195 Uruguay 3,305,723 0 2,193 123 19 2,372 3,581 8,288 9,743 869 69,522 86,684 Uzbekistan 26,167,369 5,365 .. 32 101 1,082 1,073 7,652 1,543 8 3,887 5,316 Vanuatu 211,367 0 143 498 251 5,516 543 6,951 5,267 853 17,535 28,900 Venezuela, RB 26,577,000 24,090 551 408 3,136 1,514 867 30,567 15,863 1,231 22,134 69,795 Vietnam 83,104,900 884 408 101 152 2,030 55 3,630 1,851 303 4,196 9,374 Zambia 11,668,457 374 486 799 100 286 96 2,142 1,482 907 6,961 9,678 Zimbabwe 13,009,534 75 247 280 79 1,049 235 1,965 827 341 2,537 4,988 World 6,128,328,330 2,779 444 189 752 2,067 888 7,119 20,329 325 88,361 115,484 181 (continued) 182 TABLE C.1 (continued) Nontimber Produced Net Subsoil Forest Protected Crop Pasture Natural Capital Foreign Intangible Total Economy/Group Population Assets Timber Resources Areas Land Land Capital Urban Land Assets Capital Wealth Low income 715,963,412 393 231 133 166 1,031 362 2,316 945 207 3,469 6,523 Middle income 4,399,856,652 2,388 444 138 422 2,232 684 6,307 6,166 310 18,498 30,662 Lower middle income 3,519,642,686 1,207 318 57 254 1,998 523 4,357 4,130 50 8,675 17,112 Upper middle income 880,213,965 7,107 949 461 1,094 3,166 1,327 14,104 14,309 1,347 57,777 84,844 Low and middle income 5,115,820,063 2,108 414 137 386 2,064 639 5,749 5,436 295 16,395 27,284 East Asia and the Pacific 1,796,063,936 988 379 60 268 2,404 267 4,365 5,677 52 10,013 20,108 Europe and Central Asia 408,064,333 9,563 239 519 1,241 2,146 1,624 15,330 13,357 1,083 45,140 72,744 Latin America and the Caribbean 531,341,503 3,597 1,711 386 1,120 4,025 1,225 12,063 12,261 1,555 56,425 79,194 Middle East and North Africa 239,764,358 6,842 56 29 155 1,977 837 9,895 6,937 196 11,964 28,992 South Asia 1,439,901,500 337 170 18 161 1,288 663 2,637 1,828 123 6,104 10,445 Sub-Saharan Africa 700,684,434 1,530 248 207 179 1,280 457 3,901 1,929 294 8,322 13,857 High income 1,012,508,266 6,167 593 452 2,597 2,086 2,147 14,043 95,580 473 451,978 561,129 High income non-OECD 58,676,250 58,843 36 39 4,037 799 634 64,386 47,122 22,433 97,262 231,203 High income OECD 953,832,017 2,927 628 477 2,508 2,166 2,240 10,946 98,561 1,882 473,799 581,424 Source: Authors. Note: .. negligible. 183 A P P E N D I X D Calculating Adjusted Net Saving as a Percentage of Gross National Income, 2008 The following table shows the national accounting flows used to estimate adjusted net saving by economy for the year 2008. Adjusted net saving is equal to gross savings minus consumption of fixed capital, plus education expenditure, minus energy depletion, mineral depletion, net forest depletion, carbon dioxide damages, and particulate matter (PM)damages. Estimates are expressed as a percentage of GNI. Refer to World Development Indicators 2010 for the calculation of adjusted net saving by geographic region and income category. 185 186 TABLE D.1 National Saving Flows for 2008 Economy/Group Gross Consumption Net Adjusted National of Fixed National Education Energy Mineral Net Forest CO2 PM Net Savings Capital Savings Expenditure Depletion Depletion Depletion Damage Damage Savings Afghanistan -- 7.0 -- -- 0 0 3.4 0.1 0.2 -- Albania 18.0 10.1 7.9 2.8 1.7 0 0 0.3 0.2 8.5 Algeria 58.8 10.9 47.9 4.5 29.9 0.2 0.1 0.6 0.2 21.4 Andorra -- -- -- 2.2 -- -- -- -- -- -- Angola 24.1 12.9 11.2 2.3 54.6 0 0 0.2 1.3 42.6 Antigua and Barbuda 47.8 13.1 34.7 1.6 0 0 -- 0.3 -- -- Argentina 25.5 11.8 13.8 4.5 8.6 0.4 0 0.5 1.1 7.7 Armenia 28.1 10.0 18.1 2.2 0 0.8 0 0.3 1.2 18.1 Aruba -- -- -- 4.3 -- -- -- -- -- -- Australia 32.9 14.7 18.1 5.1 4.1 3.8 0 0.3 .. 15.0 Austria 27.2 14.3 12.9 5.3 0.2 .. .. 0.1 0.1 17.6 Azerbaijan 63.0 12.3 50.7 2.0 51.4 0 .. 1.2 0.3 0.1 Bahamas, The -- -- -- 3.8 -- -- -- -- -- -- Bahrain 45.4 6.7 38.7 4.4 26.4 0 0 0.8 0.2 15.6 Bangladesh 33.9 6.8 27.1 2.0 4.0 0 0.6 0.4 0.4 23.7 Barbados -- -- -- 6.4 -- -- -- -- .. -- Belarus 28.4 11.2 17.2 4.9 1.3 0 0 1.1 0 19.8 Belgium -- 13.9 -- 5.8 0 0 .. 0.2 0.1 -- Belize 15.7 11.9 3.8 5.6 0 0 0 0.5 0 8.8 Benin -- 8.1 -- 3.3 0 0 1.0 0.3 0.3 -- Bermuda -- -- -- 2.0 -- -- -- -- -- -- Bhutan 60.7 9.2 51.5 3.4 0 0 4.1 0.3 0.1 50.4 Bolivia 29.9 9.5 20.4 4.7 27.6 0.8 0 0.5 0.9 4.7 Bosnia and Herzegovina 41.0 10.4 30.6 -- 2.0 0 -- 1.2 0.1 -- Botswana 46.3 11.5 34.8 6.6 0.5 3.2 0 0.3 0.2 37.2 Brazil 17.5 11.8 5.8 4.8 2.7 2.3 0 0.2 0.1 5.2 Brunei -- -- -- 3.6 -- -- -- -- 0.1 -- Bulgaria 14.1 11.6 2.5 4.1 1.1 0.8 0 0.9 0.9 2.9 Burkina Faso -- 7.5 -- 3.3 0 0 1.2 0.1 0.6 -- Burundi -- 5.6 -- 5.1 0 0.6 10.9 0.1 0.1 -- Cambodia -- 8.3 -- 1.7 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.3 -- Cameroon -- 8.8 -- 2.6 7.8 .. 0 0.1 0.4 -- Canada 23.4 14.0 9.4 4.8 5.5 0.6 0 0.3 0.1 7.6 Cape Verde 26.0 10.5 15.5 5.0 0 0 0 0.2 -- -- Central African Republic 1.8 7.4 5.6 1.3 0 0 0 0.1 0.2 4.6 Chad 3.7 10.0 6.4 1.2 43.7 0 0 .. 1.0 49.9 Chile 24.2 12.9 11.4 3.6 0.3 14.3 0 0.3 0.4 0.4 China 53.9 10.1 43.8 1.8 6.7 1.7 0 1.3 0.8 35.1 Colombia 20.2 11.4 8.8 3.6 10.0 0.6 0 0.2 0.1 1.5 Comoros 11.2 8.1 3.1 4.2 0 0 0.1 0.1 .. 7.0 Congo, Dem. Rep. 9.4 6.7 2.7 0.9 3.1 2.3 0 0.2 0.6 2.5 187 Congo, Rep. 26.7 14.1 12.6 2.3 71.2 .. 0 0.2 0.6 57.1 (continued) 188 TABLE D.1 (continued) Gross Consumption Net Adjusted National of Fixed National Education Energy Mineral Net Forest CO2 PM Net Economy/Group Savings Capital Savings Expenditure Depletion Depletion Depletion Damage Damage Savings Costa Rica 15.9 11.5 4.5 5.0 0 .. 0.1 0.2 0.1 9.1 Côte d'Ivoire 12.7 9.0 3.8 4.7 6.2 0 0 0.2 0.3 1.7 Croatia 21.8 12.9 8.9 4.3 1.3 0 0.2 0.3 0.2 11.3 Cuba -- -- -- 13.2 -- -- -- -- 0.1 -- Cyprus 5.6 14.4 8.8 6.5 0 0 0 0.3 0.3 2.8 Czech Republic 24.2 13.8 10.4 4.4 0.7 0 .. 0.5 .. 13.4 Denmark 23.6 14.2 9.4 7.4 3.0 0 .. 0.1 .. 13.7 Djibouti -- 7.8 -- 3.6 0 0 0 0.4 1.2 -- Dominica 4.2 11.3 7.1 3.9 0 0 .. 0.3 -- -- Dominican Republic 9.0 11.1 2.1 3.5 0 1.3 0 0.4 .. 0.3 Ecuador 31.8 10.8 21.0 1.4 21.1 0.4 0 0.5 0.1 0.4 Egypt, Arab Rep. 23.5 9.3 14.2 4.4 14.5 0.5 0.2 0.9 0.5 2.1 El Salvador 7.9 10.5 2.6 3.3 0 0 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 Equatorial Guinea 55.8 20.7 35.1 1.1 74.2 0 0 0.4 0 38.4 Eritrea -- 6.9 -- 1.9 0 0 0.8 0.3 0.3 -- Estonia 20.1 13.5 6.6 4.6 1.5 0 0 0.7 0 9.0 Ethiopia 17.3 6.7 10.6 3.7 0 0.3 4.7 0.2 0.2 8.9 Fiji 1.2 10.6 11.8 6.0 0 0.9 0 0.3 0.1 7.1 Finland 24.8 14.1 10.7 5.6 0 0.1 0 0.2 .. 16.0 France 18.7 13.9 4.9 5.1 .. .. 0 0.1 .. 9.8 Gabon 48.8 13.9 34.9 3.1 34.3 .. 0 0.1 0 3.6 Gambia, The 11.1 7.9 3.2 2.0 0 0 0.6 0.4 0.4 3.9 Georgia 8.3 10.1 1.8 2.8 0.2 0 0 0.3 0.7 0.3 Germany -- 13.8 -- 4.3 0.3 .. 0 0.2 .. -- Ghana 7.3 8.8 1.5 4.7 0 6.5 2.8 0.5 0.1 6.5 Greece 7.4 13.9 6.5 2.8 0.3 0.1 0 0.2 0.3 4.8 Grenada 13.3 11.7 25.0 5.1 0 0 -- 0.3 -- -- Guatemala 14.4 10.1 4.3 2.9 0.8 0 0.7 0.3 0.1 5.3 Guinea 2.9 7.7 4.8 2.0 0 5.2 2.6 0.3 0.5 11.3 Guinea-Bissau 22.4 6.7 15.7 2.3 0 0 0 0.5 0.8 16.6 Guyana 33.2 9.1 24.0 5.7 0 14.1 0 1.1 0.2 14.4 Haiti -- -- -- 1.5 -- -- -- -- 0.4 -- Honduras 21.2 9.5 11.7 3.5 0 1.4 0 0.5 0.2 13.1 Hong Kong SAR, China 29.7 13.4 16.3 3.0 0 0 0 0.2 -- -- Hungary 15.9 15.1 0.8 5.3 0.8 .. 0 0.3 .. 5.0 Iceland -- 20.7 -- 7.3 0 0 0 0.2 0 -- India 38.2 8.5 29.7 3.2 4.9 1.4 0.8 1.2 0.5 24.2 Indonesia 22.2 10.7 11.6 1.1 12.6 1.4 0 0.6 0.5 2.4 Iran, Islamic Rep. -- -- -- 4.2 -- -- -- -- 0.4 -- Ireland 19.7 17.1 2.5 5.2 .. .. 0 0.1 0 7.5 Israel 19.8 13.5 6.3 5.9 0.2 0.3 0 0.3 0.1 11.3 189 (continued) 190 TABLE D.1 (continued) Gross Consumption Net Adjusted Economy/Group National of Fixed National Education Energy Mineral Net Forest CO2 PM Net Savings Capital Savings Expenditure Depletion Depletion Depletion Damage Damage Savings Italy 18.5 14.0 4.5 4.5 0.2 .. 0 0.2 0.1 8.5 Jamaica -- 11.4 -- 5.3 0 1.3 0 0.6 0.2 -- Japan 25.9 13.3 12.6 3.2 .. .. 0 0.2 0.3 15.3 Jordan 13.7 9.8 3.8 5.6 0.2 4.5 .. 0.8 0.2 3.6 Kazakhstan 46.2 13.5 32.8 4.4 31.3 1.8 0 1.4 0.1 2.5 Kenya 13.1 8.0 5.0 6.6 0 0.1 1.0 0.3 0.1 10.2 Kiribati -- 6.0 -- -- 0 0 -- 0.1 -- -- Korea, Rep. 30.5 12.6 17.9 3.9 .. .. 0 0.4 0.3 21.1 Kuwait 58.7 13.3 45.3 3.0 38.0 0 0 0.4 0.3 9.7 Kyrgyz Republic 14.9 8.5 6.4 5.8 0.7 0 0 1.0 0.2 10.4 Lao PDR 25.2 8.6 16.6 1.2 0 0 0 0.2 0.5 17.1 Latvia 22.3 12.6 9.6 5.6 0 0 0.2 0.2 .. 14.8 Lebanon 10.2 11.3 1.1 1.8 0 0 0 0.5 0.1 0.1 Lesotho 17.8 6.4 11.4 9.4 0 0 1.3 0 0.1 19.4 Liberia 2.7 7.8 10.5 -- 0 .. 7.7 0.9 0.3 -- Libya 66.8 12.3 54.5 -- 38.8 0 .. 0.5 1.0 -- Lithuania 15.2 12.7 2.5 4.6 0.1 0 0.1 0.3 0.1 6.6 Luxembourg -- 18.7 -- 3.7 0 0 0 0.2 0 -- Macao SAR, China -- -- -- 2.2 -- -- -- -- -- -- Macedonia, FYR 16.1 10.8 5.3 4.9 0 0 0.1 1.0 0.1 9.0 Madagascar 14.7 7.4 7.2 2.6 0 0 2.5 0.3 0.1 7.0 Malawi 29.3 6.5 22.8 3.5 0 0 0.9 0.2 0.1 25.1 Malaysia -- 11.9 -- 4.0 13.1 0.1 .. 0.7 .. -- Maldives -- 11.1 -- 6.5 0 0 0 0.6 0.1 -- Mali -- 8.1 -- 3.6 0 0 0 0.1 1.1 -- Malta -- -- -- 4.6 -- -- -- -- -- -- Marshall Islands -- 8.0 -- 6.6 0 0 -- 0.3 -- -- Mauritania -- -- -- 2.8 -- -- -- -- 0.5 -- Mauritius 16.5 11.1 5.4 3.4 0 0 .. 0.3 .. 8.5 Mexico 25.3 12.0 13.3 4.8 8.2 0.3 0 0.3 0.3 9.0 Micronesia, Fed. Sts. -- 9.1 -- -- 0 0 -- 0 -- -- Moldova 20.8 8.3 12.5 6.5 .. 0 0.1 1.0 0.5 17.3 Mongolia 26.5 9.7 16.8 4.6 5.9 9.2 0 1.7 1.6 3.0 Morocco 31.4 10.1 21.3 5.2 .. 6.1 0 0.4 0.1 19.8 Mozambique 7.4 7.9 0.5 3.8 7.0 .. 0.5 0.2 0.1 4.6 Myanmar -- -- -- 0.8 -- -- -- -- 0.4 -- Namibia 17.1 12.1 5.0 7.3 0 2.1 0 0.3 .. 9.9 Nepal 37.5 7.1 30.4 3.4 0 0 3.1 0.2 .. 30.5 Netherlands 10.3 13.9 3.6 4.8 2.0 0 0 0.2 0.2 1.2 New Zealand -- 14.5 -- 6.6 2.3 0.2 0 0.2 .. -- Nicaragua -- 8.9 -- 3.0 0 0.6 .. 0.6 .. -- 191 (continued) 192 TABLE D.1 (continued) Gross Consumption Net Adjusted National of Fixed National Education Energy Mineral Net Forest CO2 PM Net Economy/Group Savings Capital Savings Expenditure Depletion Depletion Depletion Damage Damage Savings Niger -- 2.6 -- 2.6 0 0 2.3 0.2 1.1 -- Nigeria -- 1.2 -- 0.9 23.8 .. 0.2 0.5 0.5 -- Norway 41.2 15.0 26.2 6.0 15.9 .. 0 0.1 .. 16.2 Oman -- -- -- 3.9 -- -- 0 -- .. -- Pakistan 19.3 8.2 11.1 2.1 4.9 .. 0.7 0.7 0.8 6.1 Palau -- 11.5 -- -- 0 0 -- 0.5 -- -- Panama 25.9 11.1 14.8 4.4 0 0 0 0.3 0.1 18.8 Papua New Guinea 30.8 9.4 21.4 6.3 0 24.1 0 0.5 .. 3.1 Paraguay 16.1 9.9 6.2 3.9 0 0 0 0.2 0.8 9.0 Peru 24.1 11.4 12.7 2.5 1.4 6.2 0 0.3 0.3 7.0 Philippines 30.3 8.4 21.9 2.2 0.5 0.8 0.1 0.3 0.1 22.3 Poland 19.1 12.7 6.4 5.4 1.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.2 9.2 Portugal 12.6 13.6 1.0 5.3 0 0.1 0 0.2 .. 4.1 Romania 25.0 11.7 13.3 3.4 2.4 0.1 0 0.4 .. 13.7 Russian Federation 32.8 12.4 20.4 3.5 20.5 1.0 0 0.9 0.1 1.5 Rwanda 25.4 6.7 18.7 4.6 0 .. 3.0 0.2 0.1 20.1 Samoa -- 10.3 -- 4.0 0 0 0.3 0.2 -- -- São Tomé and Principe -- 8.4 -- -- 0 0 0 0.5 0.2 -- Saudi Arabia 48.3 12.5 35.9 7.2 43.5 0 0 0.6 0.7 1.8 Senegal 18.0 8.6 9.4 4.5 .. 0.9 0 0.3 0.5 12.2 Seychelles 3.0 12.8 9.8 5.8 0 0 0 0.8 -- -- Sierra Leone 5.5 7.0 1.6 3.9 0 0.5 1.5 0.4 0.8 1.0 Singapore 47.0 14.1 32.9 2.7 0 0 0 0.3 0.6 34.7 Slovak Republic -- 13.1 -- 3.7 0.1 0 0.4 0.4 .. -- Slovenia 27.0 13.6 13.4 5.3 0.1 0 0.2 0.2 0.1 18.1 Solomon Islands 81.2 10.4 70.8 3.8 0 0 19.4 0.4 0.1 54.7 South Africa 16.1 13.9 2.2 5.1 6.4 2.6 0.5 1.3 0.1 3.4 Spain 20.6 14.0 6.6 3.9 .. .. 0 0.2 0.2 10.1 Sri Lanka 18.4 9.7 8.8 2.6 0 .. 0.4 0.3 0.2 10.4 St. Kitts and Nevis 11.9 12.7 0.7 4.1 0 0 -- 0.2 -- -- St. Lucia 5.7 12.0 17.7 5.5 0 0 -- 0.3 .. -- St. Vincent and the Grenadines 13.6 11.5 2.1 5.8 0 0 0 0.3 0.1 7.6 Sudan 15.9 9.9 6.0 0.9 19.1 0.1 0 0.2 0.5 13.1 Suriname -- 12.2 -- 3.4 0 1.5 0 0.7 0.2 -- Swaziland 10.7 9.6 1.1 6.4 0 0 .. 0.3 .. 7.1 Sweden 27.1 12.5 14.6 6.4 0 0.4 0 0.1 0 20.5 Switzerland -- 13.3 -- 4.7 0 0 0 0.1 0.1 -- Syrian Arab Republic 12.6 10.1 2.6 2.6 17.6 1.1 0 1.1 0.7 15.2 Taiwan, China -- 12.2 -- -- 0 0 -- 0.5 -- -- Tajikistan 25.5 8.2 17.3 3.2 0.4 0 0 1.1 0.3 18.8 193 (continued) 194 TABLE D.1 (continued) Gross Consumption Net Adjusted National of Fixed National Education Energy Mineral Net Forest CO2 PM Net Economy/Group Savings Capital Savings Expenditure Depletion Depletion Depletion Damage Damage Savings Tanzania -- 7.6 -- 2.4 0.7 5.0 0 0.2 0.1 -- Thailand 30.7 10.9 19.8 4.8 5.3 .. 0.2 0.8 0.2 18.0 Timor-Leste -- 1.2 -- 0.9 0 0 -- 0.1 -- -- Togo -- 7.3 -- 3.7 0 5.2 2.5 0.4 0.1 -- Tonga 1.5 9.5 8.1 3.8 0 0 .. 0.3 -- -- Trinidad and Tobago 41.8 13.1 28.7 4.0 50.5 0 0 1.2 0.2 19.2 Tunisia 22.6 11.1 11.5 6.7 5.8 4.7 0.1 0.5 0.1 7.0 Turkey 17.7 11.8 5.9 3.7 0.3 0.1 0 0.3 0.6 8.3 Turkmenistan 32.1 10.9 21.2 -- 133.3 0 -- 3.1 0.6 -- Uganda 12.6 7.4 5.2 3.3 0 0 5.1 0.1 0 3.3 Ukraine 20.2 10.5 9.7 5.9 5.3 0 0 1.6 0.2 8.5 United Kingdom 14.8 13.7 1.2 5.1 2.1 0 0 0.2 .. 3.9 United States 12.6 14.0 1.4 4.8 1.9 0.1 0 0.3 0.1 0.9 Uruguay 18.2 11.9 6.3 2.6 0 0 0.4 0.2 1.1 7.2 Uzbekistan 40.5 8.5 32.0 9.4 51.1 0 0 4.0 0.4 14.1 Vanuatu -- -- -- 5.9 -- -- -- -- .. -- Venezuela, RB 34.6 11.9 22.7 3.5 18.6 0.6 0 0.5 0 6.5 Vietnam 30.4 8.8 21.6 2.8 12.9 0.3 0.2 1.0 0.3 9.7 Yemen, Rep. -- 9.4 -- -- 22.3 0 0 0.7 -- -- Zambia 21.4 9.5 11.9 1.3 0.1 13.4 0 0.2 0.3 0.7 Zimbabwe -- -- -- 6.9 -- -- -- -- 0.1 -- World 20.9 13.0 7.9 4.2 3.9 0.5 .. 0.4 0.2 7.2 Low income 25.9 7.9 18.0 3.4 7.8 1.0 1.0 0.7 0.3 10.7 Middle income 31.6 10.9 20.7 3.3 8.8 1.3 0.1 0.8 0.4 12.6 Lower middle income 41.1 9.6 31.4 2.3 8.1 1.4 0.2 1.1 0.6 22.4 Upper middle income 23.8 12.1 11.8 4.2 9.4 1.3 .. 0.5 0.2 4.6 Low and middle income 31.4 10.8 20.6 3.3 8.7 1.3 0.1 0.8 0.4 12.5 East Asia and the Pacific 47.3 10.1 37.1 2.0 7.2 1.5 .. 1.1 0.7 28.6 Europe and Central Asia 24.8 12.1 12.7 4.1 12.1 0.6 .. 0.8 0.2 3.2 Latin America and the Caribbean 22.4 11.8 10.6 4.4 6.3 1.8 .. 0.3 0.3 6.3 Middle East and North Africa -- 10.5 -- 4.4 18.6 1.5 0.1 0.7 0.4 -- South Asia 35.3 8.4 26.9 3.0 4.6 1.1 0.8 1.0 0.5 21.8 Sub-Saharan Africa 16.5 9.0 7.6 3.3 14.2 1.3 0.6 0.6 0.4 6.2 High income 18.5 13.8 4.7 4.6 2.0 0.2 .. 0.2 0.1 6.8 High income: non-OECD -- 12.9 -- 5.0 16.0 .. .. 0.4 0.5 -- High income: OECD 18.0 13.8 4.1 4.6 1.4 0.2 .. 0.2 0.1 6.8 Source: Authors. Note: -- not available; .. negligible. 195 A P P E N D I X E Effect of Population Growth on Savings and Changes in Wealth Per Capita, 2005 The following table shows how population growth affects measures of savings and changes in wealth per capita. The first column shows GNI per capita. This is used just for reference. The second column shows the rate of population growth. The third and fourth columns show two alternative measures of capital accumulation that take into account population: adjusted net saving per capita and change in wealth per capita. The difference between the two columns is driven by the "Malthusian term" referred to in chapter 2. The fifth column shows how much extra savings (as a percentage of GNI) would be needed to obtain a zero change in wealth per capita. Data are for 2005. 197 198 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS TABLE E.1 Effect of Population Growth on Savings and Changes in Wealth Per Capita, 2005 Adjusted Change in Adjusted Net Population Net Saving Wealth Saving GNI Per Growth Per Capita Per Capita Gap Economy Capita (US$) Rate (%) (US$) (US$) (% GNI) Albania 2,729 0.6 158 91 n.a. Algeria 2,960 1.5 361 69 2.3 Angola 1,669 2.9 553 996 59.7 Argentina 4,557 1.0 164 40 0.9 Armenia 1,669 0.3 262 284 n.a. Australia 31,962 1.2 2,217 655 n.a. Austria 36,676 0.7 3,100 2,284 n.a. Azerbaijan 1,382 1.0 111 260 18.8 Bahamas, The 19,745 1.3 2,091 2,061 n.a. Bahrain 17,956 1.5 1,193 957 5.3 Bangladesh 447 1.9 86 43 n.a. Belarus 3,091 0.5 567 643 n.a. Belgium 36,037 0.6 2,917 2,283 n.a. Belize 3,429 3.3 211 1,142 33.3 Benin 505 3.2 8 104 20.5 Bhutan 1,184 2.2 343 110 9.3 Bolivia 1,196 1.9 39 142 11.9 Botswana 5,476 0.2 2,269 2,342 n.a. Brazil 4,616 1.4 170 163 3.5 Brunei Darussalam 25,497 2.2 2,419 10,836 42.5 Bulgaria 3,523 0.5 17 90 n.a. Burkina Faso 409 3.2 1 67 16.5 Burundi 103 3.6 13 112 108.7 Cambodia 429 2.0 30 19 4.4 Cameroon 988 1.8 29 98 9.9 Canada 34,505 1.0 2,081 881 n.a. Cape Verde 1,905 2.3 388 266 n.a. Central African Republic 334 1.3 15 95 28.4 Chad 455 3.2 169 343 75.4 Chile 6,615 1.1 255 129 1.9 China 1,722 0.6 636 570 n.a. Colombia 3,095 1.4 17 214 6.9 Comoros 640 2.1 12 72 11.3 (continued) EFFECT OF POPULATION GROWTH ON SAVINGS AND CHANGES 199 TABLE E.1 (continued) Adjusted Change in Adjusted Net Population Net Saving Wealth Saving GNI Per Growth Per Capita Per Capita Gap Economy Capita (US$) Rate (%) (US$) (US$) (% GNI) Congo, Dem. Rep. 117 3.0 4 53 45.4 Congo, Rep. 1,010 3.0 611 1,128 111.7 Costa Rica 4,431 1.7 460 136 n.a. Côte d'Ivoire 862 1.6 23 100 11.6 Croatia 9,727 0 738 735 n.a. Cyprus 21,497 2.4 1,780 128 n.a. Czech Republic 11,624 0.3 703 582 n.a. Denmark 48,330 0.3 2,891 2,475 n.a. Djibouti 978 1.8 180 166 n.a. Dominica 3,754 0.7 297 449 12.0 Dominican Republic 3,390 1.6 75 104 3.1 Ecuador 2,664 1.4 15 423 15.9 Egypt, Arab Rep. 1,209 1.9 12 155 12.9 El Salvador 2,398 1.8 27 113 4.7 Equatorial Guinea 8,288 2.3 6,263 8,195 98.9 Eritrea 262 4.0 9 27 10.5 Estonia 9,821 0.2 1,152 1,187 n.a. Ethiopia 172 1.9 1 24 13.8 Fiji 3,546 0.8 12 165 4.6 Finland 37,503 0.3 3,586 3,207 n.a. France 35,491 0.6 2,083 1,473 n.a. Gabon 5,570 1.6 393 641 11.5 Gambia, The 275 2.7 7 31 11.4 Georgia 1,447 1.0 187 260 n.a. Germany 34,156 0.1 2,808 2,871 n.a. Ghana 479 2.1 48 27 5.7 Greece 21,798 0.4 217 35 0.2 Guatemala 2,133 2.5 98 439 20.6 Guinea 296 1.9 19 26 8.9 Guinea-Bissau 183 3.0 36 27 15.0 Guyana 1,071 0.1 32 1 n.a. Honduras 1,278 2.2 242 104 8.1 (continued) 200 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS TABLE E.1 (continued) Adjusted Change in Adjusted Net Population Net Saving Wealth Saving GNI Per Growth Per Capita Per Capita Gap Economy Capita (US$) Rate (%) (US$) (US$) (% GNI) Hong Kong SAR, China 25,633 0.9 4,806 3,557 n.a. Hungary 10,345 0.2 329 392 n.a. Iceland 52,951 1.6 1,091 2,745 5.2 India 735 1.4 147 84 n.a. Indonesia 1,143 1.4 0 114 10.0 Iran, Islamic Rep. 2,762 1.4 31 440 15.9 Ireland 41,123 2.2 6,847 4,327 n.a. Israel 19,190 1.8 1,763 905 n.a. Italy 30,214 0.7 1,241 552 n.a. Jamaica 3,946 0.5 221 141 n.a. Japan 36,468 0 2,265 2,252 n.a. Jordan 2,409 2.3 156 30 n.a. Kazakhstan 3,395 0.9 571 785 23.1 Kenya 547 2.4 34 59 10.9 Korea, Rep. 17,478 0.4 3,300 3,045 n.a. Kuwait 34,700 3.1 3,733 6,566 18.9 Kyrgyz Republic 461 1.0 6 33 7.1 Lao PDR 456 1.6 42 42 9.1 Latvia 6,893 0.5 282 423 n.a. Lebanon 5,404 1.2 336 379 7.0 Lesotho 936 0.2 59 65 n.a. Lithuania 7,421 0.6 269 419 n.a. Luxembourg 68,097 0.8 13,885 11,484 n.a. Macedonia, FYR 2,830 0.2 298 280 n.a. Madagascar 267 2.7 12 50 18.9 Malawi 218 2.2 6 37 17.2 Malaysia 5,193 1.8 586 62 n.a. Maldives 2,205 2.5 566 375 n.a. Mali 377 3.0 16 64 16.8 Mauritania 620 3.0 186 319 51.5 Mauritius 5,048 0.8 334 137 n.a. Mexico 8,084 1.0 418 164 n.a. Moldova 863 1.2 103 196 n.a. Mongolia 883 1.6 214 79 n.a. (continued) EFFECT OF POPULATION GROWTH ON SAVINGS AND CHANGES 201 TABLE E.1 (continued) Adjusted Change in Adjusted Net Population Net Saving Wealth Saving GNI Per Growth Per Capita Per Capita Gap Economy Capita (US$) Rate (%) (US$) (US$) (% GNI) Morocco 1,949 1.0 423 341 n.a. Mozambique 314 1.9 14 45 14.3 Namibia 3,520 1.1 545 389 n.a. Nepal 300 2.0 65 1 0.4 Netherlands 39,028 0.2 3,825 3,541 n.a. New Zealand 24,549 0.9 496 501 2.0 Nicaragua 918 0.5 62 25 n.a. Niger 243 3.4 37 19 8.0 Nigeriaa 700 2.4 94 280 40.1 Norway 65,776 0.7 5,504 3,254 n.a. Oman 11,662 1.3 1,656 2,997 25.7 Pakistan 718 2.4 88 24 3.4 Panama 4,438 1.8 587 315 n.a. Papua New Guinea 769 2.0 2 213 27.7 Paraguay 1,269 1.9 124 14 n.a. Peru 2,657 1.5 176 3 n.a. Philippines 1,288 1.8 208 109 n.a. Poland 7,788 0 317 329 n.a. Portugal 17,238 0.5 577 811 4.7 Romania 4,530 0.2 91 142 n.a. Russian Federation 5,209 0.5 13 236 n.a. Rwanda 261 1.7 28 30 11.6 Saudi Arabia 13,904 2.6 54 3,750 27.0 Seychelles 9,985 1.0 1,018 1,250 12.5 Sierra Leone 213 3.5 4 42 19.9 Singapore 26,554 2.4 8,265 5,007 n.a. Slovenia 17,691 0.2 2,264 2,256 n.a. Solomon Islands 617 2.6 171 30 4.9 South Africa 5,073 1.1 63 245 4.8 Spain 25,668 1.7 1,869 584 n.a. Sri Lanka 1,228 0.8 230 189 n.a. St. Vincent and the Grenadines 3,514 0.5 40 90 2.6 Sudan 701 2.0 62 212 30.3 (continued) 202 THE CHANGING WEALTH OF NATIONS TABLE E.1 (continued) Adjusted Change in Adjusted Net Population Net Saving Wealth Saving GNI Per Growth Per Capita Per Capita Gap Economy Capita (US$) Rate (%) (US$) (US$) (% GNI) Suriname 3,881 0.6 90 357 9.2 Swaziland 2,389 1.0 280 108 n.a. Sweden 40,498 0.4 4,540 4,184 n.a. Switzerland 54,782 0.6 8,291 6,811 n.a. Syrian Arab Republic 1,436 2.5 181 485 33.8 Tajikistan 341 1.3 11 45 13.1 Tanzania 364 2.6 14 43 11.8 Thailand 2,612 0.8 363 222 n.a. Togo 337 2.6 4 45 13.3 Tonga 2,080 0.3 48 168 8.1 Trinidad and Tobago 10,977 0.3 61 258 2.3 Tunisia 2,723 1.0 215 118 n.a. Turkey 6,641 1.3 288 71 n.a. Uganda 304 3.6 28 107 35.3 Ukraine 1,809 0.8 154 261 n.a. United Kingdom 38,048 0.7 1,162 613 n.a. United States 41,966 0.9 182 821 2.0 Uruguay 5,101 0.1 345 324 n.a. Uzbekistan 546 1.2 168 276 50.5 Vanuatu 1,626 1.9 54 167 10.3 Venezuela, RB 5,390 1.7 208 613 11.4 Vietnam 623 1.3 99 32 n.a. Zambia 579 1.7 19 26 4.6 Zimbabwe 248 0.6 31 45 18.3 Source: Authors. Note: Countries with savings gap are those with negative change in wealth per capita. n.a. not applicable. a. Nigeria's gross savings data are from the UN System of National Accounts 1993. A P P E N D I X F Decomposition Analysis as a Percentage of Change in Total Wealth, by Economy, 1995­2005 The following table shows the contribution of the change in the value of different assets to changes in total wealth between 1995 and 2005 (for Europe and Central Asia countries the period of analysis is 2000­05). For natural assets, the table also shows the relative contribution of changes in quantities, prices, and depletion time. All contributions are expressed as a percentage of the change in total wealth, shown in the third column of the table. 203 204 TABLE F.1 Decomposition Analysis as a Percentage of Change in Total Wealth, 1995­2005 Change in Wealth Subsoil Subsoil (2005 Net Forest Forest Subsoil Assets Assets US$ Produced Intangible Foreign Natural Land Land Real Forest Real Depletion Assets Real Unit Depletion Economy Period billions) Capital Capital Assets Capital Production Prices Production Prices Time Production Rents Time Albania 2000­05 61 7 104 .. 11 1 11 1 2 .. .. .. .. Algeria 1995­2005 25 146 1744 349 1149 111 93 4 12 12 494 703 68 Argentina 1995­2005 151 22 62 11 128 37 34 1 8 5 14 52 12 Armenia 2000­05 30 5 99 1 5 7 13 .. .. .. 1 .. 0 Australia 1995­2005 3,022 21 73 4 10 2 2 2 1 0 4 4 .. Austria 1995­2005 755 22 83 4 1 .. 2 .. .. 0 .. .. .. Azerbaijan 2000­05 40 45 72 9 136 15 13 .. .. .. 30 56 48 Bahrain 1995­2005 21 5 47 9 134 .. 2 0 0 0 28 107 0 Bangladesh 1995­2005 366 20 62 1 19 9 3 .. 1 .. 3 3 .. Belarus 2000­05 121 7 127 .. 34 4 37 1 2 .. .. 3 .. Belgium 1995­2005 1,136 16 77 6 1 3 2 .. .. 0 .. .. .. Belize 1995­2005 8 13 74 13 26 14 7 1 6 0 0 0 0 Benin 1995­2005 27 13 93 1 8 24 19 15 4 0 .. 1 .. Bhutan 1995­2005 5 45 55 2 3 1 66 11 57 .. .. .. .. Bolivia 1995­2005 16 25 2 19 93 55 1 16 70 0 46 62 16 Botswana 1995­2005 34 62 24 16 2 .. 6 1 2 0 .. 4 .. Brazil 1995­2005 3,084 7 65 7 35 15 4 1 13 .. 6 4 1 Brunei Darussalam 1995­2005 18 48 285 9 146 .. 7 .. .. 0 48 122 17 Bulgaria 2000­05 117 1 136 4 31 7 19 .. 6 0 .. 1 .. Burkina Faso 1995­2005 59 7 100 1 6 7 11 1 1 3 0 0 0 Burundi 1995­2005 1 35 893 63 1091 45 328 81 268 367 .. 1 0 Cameroon 1995­2005 91 1 70 5 24 16 4 .. 1 0 6 11 1 Canada 1995­2005 4,071 16 73 6 5 2 3 1 1 0 2 5 .. Central African Republic 1995­2005 4 3 119 5 12 46 43 59 45 0 .. .. 0 Chad 1995­2005 2 561 1,238 180 758 239 700 90 84 0 303 606 303 Chile 1995­2005 466 30 41 2 31 5 1 3 7 0 14 4 .. China 1995­2005 13,230 36 48 3 12 12 5 .. 1 0 2 2 .. Colombia 1995­2005 548 11 85 3 7 6 6 1 2 0 3 5 5 Comoros 1995­2005 2 17 109 3 5 7 3 .. .. .. 0 0 0 Congo, Dem. Rep. 1995­2005 12 36 138 38 41 31 53 96 52 0 17 18 1 Congo, Rep. 1995­2005 1 157 2,660 588 1,815 168 329 93 656 0 1,043 1,415 81 Costa Rica 1995­2005 114 15 85 3 3 7 .. .. .. 4 .. .. .. Côte d'Ivoire 1995­2005 38 9 3 20 86 80 20 1 4 0 16 5 .. Croatia 2000­05 120 31 96 12 14 3 9 .. 5 .. .. 2 .. Cyprus 1995­2000 44 8 94 6 4 .. 4 .. .. 0 .. .. 0 Czech Republic 2000­05 279 19 101 9 12 1 9 1 3 .. .. 1 .. Denmark 1995 2005 703 21 67 9 3 .. 1 .. .. .. 3 3 1 Dominica 1995­2005 1 17 90 12 5 3 2 0 .. 0 0 0 0 Dominican Republic 1995­2005 267 10 91 1 .. .. 1 .. .. 0 1 .. .. 205 (continued) TABLE F.1 (continued) 206 Change in Wealth Subsoil Subsoil (2005 Net Forest Forest Subsoil Assets Assets US$ Produced Intangible Foreign Natural Land Land Real Forest Real Depletion Assets Real Unit Depletion Economy Period billions) Capital Capital Assets Capital Production Prices Production Prices Time Production Rents Time Ecuador 1995­2005 134 20 11 2 93 57 19 2 2 12 12 15 1 Egypt, Arab Rep. 1995­2005 528 8 62 3 27 12 2 .. .. .. 3 11 2 El Salvador 1995­2005 107 8 97 5 .. 2 1 .. .. 3 0 0 0 Ethiopia 1995­2005 106 8 103 .. 12 13 11 1 4 19 .. .. 0 Fiji 1995­2005 1 118 142 66 295 156 95 19 23 0 .. 1 0 Finland 1995­2005 863 5 91 3 1 .. 1 1 .. 0 .. .. .. France 1995­2005 7,050 12 85 3 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Gabon 1995­2005 8 9 266 76 299 2 14 32 42 0 157 238 244 Gambia, The 1995­2005 3 12 74 21 35 9 3 5 6 18 0 0 0 Georgia 2000­05 35 .. 105 4 1 3 5 .. .. .. .. .. .. Germany 1995­2005 5,807 13 80 7 1 .. .. .. .. .. .. 1 .. Ghana 1995­2005 82 20 60 1 21 21 4 2 18 24 .. .. .. Greece 1995­2005 1,154 13 102 14 1 .. 1 .. .. 0 .. .. .. Grenada 1995­2005 2 47 75 20 2 2 .. 0 .. 0 0 0 0 Guatemala 1995­2005 184 13 33 1 56 10 15 9 71 22 1 .. .. Guinea 1995­2005 18 11 82 8 15 11 20 2 12 24 1 4 0 Guinea-Bissau 1995­2005 1 16 101 12 5 54 46 3 .. 0 0 0 0 Guyana 1995­2005 3 3 44 20 33 5 22 20 86 0 .. 6 0 Haiti 1995­2005 8 48 115 5 58 11 56 1 1 6 0 0 0 Honduras 1995­2005 81 14 2 3 81 31 11 1 38 .. .. .. 0 Hong Kong SAR, China 1995­2005 678 24 26 50 .. 0 0 .. .. 0 0 0 0 Hungary 1995­2005 539 7 107 10 5 .. 5 .. .. 0 1 1 .. Iceland 1995­2005 92 12 98 9 1 .. 1 .. .. .. 0 0 0 India 1995­2005 4,642 23 81 .. 4 10 21 .. 2 .. 2 2 .. Indonesia 1995­2005 1,251 19 45 2 35 4 2 5 20 0 2 14 1 Iran, Islamic Rep. 1995­2005 734 38 24 10 75 13 8 .. .. 0 18 53 0 Ireland 1995­2005 1,036 24 79 2 2 .. 1 .. .. 0 .. .. .. Israel 1995­2005 609 15 85 1 1 .. .. .. .. 0 .. .. 0 Italy 1995­2005 4,660 13 91 3 1 1 2 .. .. 0 .. .. .. Jamaica 1995­2005 42 28 106 4 30 4 12 1 2 3 2 12 0 Japan 1995­2005 11,060 12 81 8 1 .. 1 .. .. 0 .. .. .. Jordan 1995­2005 128 5 103 11 2 2 1 .. .. .. .. .. .. Kenya 1995­2005 120 4 102 6 12 13 25 .. 1 .. .. .. 0 Korea, Rep. 1995­2005 4,817 24 78 3 .. .. .. .. .. 0 .. .. .. Kuwait 1995­2005 88 32 330 71 327 2 1 .. .. 0 174 153 0 Kyrgyz Republic 2000­05 19 1 106 5 11 13 24 .. .. .. .. 1 .. Latvia 2000­05 100 7 104 6 5 .. .. 1 2 1 0 0 0 Lesotho 1995­2005 8 30 105 20 15 4 12 .. .. .. 0 0 0 Liberia 2000­05 1 57 408 28 479 24 147 322 324 0 11 23 11 207 (continued) TABLE F.1 (continued) 208 Change in Wealth Subsoil Subsoil (2005 Net Forest Forest Subsoil Assets Assets US$ Produced Intangible Foreign Natural Land Land Real Forest Real Depletion Assets Real Unit Depletion Economy Period billions) Capital Capital Assets Capital Production Prices Production Prices Time Production Rents Time Lithuania 2000­05 127 5 108 3 9 1 8 .. 1 .. .. .. .. Luxembourg 1995­2005 133 28 42 32 2 .. 1 .. .. 0 0 0 0 Macao SAR, China 1995­2005 25 9 91 .. .. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Macedonia, FYR 2000­05 16 10 118 5 22 1 17 .. 3 0 0 0 0 Madagascar 1995­2005 8 49 57 18 110 29 119 8 30 0 .. .. .. Malawi 1995­2005 3 27 488 6 421 159 583 2 2 0 0 0 0 Malaysia 1995­2005 582 26 40 5 29 .. 1 2 .. 0 10 20 .. Maldives 2000­05 2 30 73 4 2 1 1 0 .. 0 0 0 0 Mali 1995­2005 35 15 87 1 1 24 21 1 2 8 0 0 0 Malta 1995­2005 27 13 83 1 3 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 Mauritania 1995­2005 10 12 36 16 68 12 15 1 6 3 13 19 0 Mauritius 1995­2005 42 16 84 2 3 1 2 1 1 .. 0 0 0 Mexico 1995­2005 3,414 16 95 .. 10 2 6 .. .. 1 2 4 7 Moldova 2000­05 22 12 139 3 30 5 25 .. .. 0 .. .. .. Mongolia 1995­2005 12 14 239 8 117 9 131 1 1 0 5 2 .. Morocco 1995­2005 245 24 65 4 7 8 1 2 1 0 .. .. .. Mozambique 1995­2005 53 14 97 2 13 8 12 2 3 19 4 .. 0 Namibia 1995­2005 34 20 77 3 .. 5 2 3 .. 0 .. .. 0 Nepal 1995­2005 53 18 45 1 35 33 4 1 15 10 0 0 0 Netherlands 1995­2005 2,243 18 81 1 .. .. 2 .. .. .. .. 3 1 New Zealand 1995­2005 459 15 83 1 3 11 8 1 1 .. 1 .. .. Nicaragua 1995­2005 45 12 80 14 6 18 10 .. 14 0 .. .. 0 Niger 1995­2005 19 4 94 .. 2 10 7 1 1 .. .. .. 0 Nigeria 1995­2005 150 52 94 54 100 41 211 3 37 24 86 43 0 Norway 1995­2005 646 21 17 25 38 .. 3 .. 1 .. 22 24 3 Oman 1995­2005 57 29 136 13 194 4 3 .. .. .. 68 104 21 Pakistan 1995­2005 617 11 81 1 7 18 22 .. 1 1 3 5 0 Panama 1995­2005 97 12 97 6 2 2 6 .. 2 0 0 0 0 Papua New Guinea 1995­2005 12 27 215 3 90 21 17 22 40 0 34 75 7 Peru 1995­2005 346 7 75 1 19 9 1 1 4 0 1 3 1 Philippines 1995­2005 465 6 75 4 22 8 9 1 3 0 2 1 .. Poland 2000­05 830 12 108 5 14 3 14 .. 1 .. .. 3 .. Portugal 1995­2005 686 21 97 16 2 .. 3 .. .. 0 .. .. .. Romania 2000­05 367 3 114 4 13 4 15 .. 2 0 2 4 3 Russian Federation 2000­05 2,833 7 111 4 .. 2 43 .. 8 0 15 37 3 Rwanda 1995­2005 21 5 21 2 75 35 20 5 12 3 .. .. 0 Saudi Arabia 1995­2005 440 8 111 38 165 2 2 .. .. 0 26 139 0 Senegal 1995­2005 49 15 92 1 8 2 14 1 3 .. .. .. .. Seychelles 1995­2005 2 38 92 30 .. .. .. .. .. 0 0 0 0 209 Sierra Leone 1995­2005 7 5 94 10 21 44 10 8 1 17 1 2 1 (continued) TABLE F.1 (continued) 210 Change in Wealth Subsoil Subsoil (2005 Net Forest Forest Subsoil Assets Assets US$ Produced Intangible Foreign Natural Land Land Real Forest Real Depletion Assets Real Unit Depletion Economy Period billions) Capital Capital Assets Capital Production Prices Production Prices Time Production Rents Time Singapore 1995­2005 536 20 46 34 .. .. .. .. .. 0 0 0 0 Slovak Republic 2000­05 161 10 113 12 12 .. 9 .. 1 1 .. .. .. South Africa 1995­2005 1,067 1 124 1 25 3 32 .. .. 1 3 3 .. Spain 1995­2005 4,933 24 83 8 1 1 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Sri Lanka 1995­2005 151 16 98 1 12 2 10 .. .. .. .. .. 0 St. Kitts and Nevis 1995­2005 2 55 93 31 18 13 5 .. .. 0 0 0 0 St. Lucia 1995­2005 4 26 84 11 .. 0 0 .. .. 0 0 0 0 St. Vincent and the Grenadines 1995­2005 2 33 102 33 2 5 3 0 .. 0 0 0 0 Sudan 1995­2005 156 16 116 .. 32 62 120 10 20 .. 9 18 9 Swaziland 1995­2005 10 13 106 7 26 34 59 2 2 3 .. .. .. Sweden 1995­2005 1,299 6 93 2 .. 1 1 1 1 0 .. .. .. Switzerland 1995­2005 760 6 78 20 4 1 5 .. .. .. .. .. .. Syrian Arab Republic 1995­2005 86 18 .. 37 45 22 30 .. .. 0 5 28 21 Tajikistan 2000­05 17 10 107 2 1 20 19 .. .. 0 .. .. .. Thailand 1995­2005 776 23 50 2 25 10 11 .. 1 1 2 3 1 Togo 1995­2005 12 4 124 4 24 4 14 .. 7 22 .. .. .. Tonga 1995­2005 1 4 156 5 55 2 53 .. .. .. 0 0 0 Trinidad and Tobago 1995­2005 41 15 10 5 89 5 5 .. 1 0 63 48 11 Tunisia 1995­2005 183 14 82 5 9 5 1 1 .. .. 1 3 2 Turkey 2000­05 2,027 8 102 1 9 .. 9 .. .. .. .. .. .. Uganda 1995­2005 82 13 44 3 46 20 43 .. 5 13 0 0 0 Ukraine 2000­05 412 11 116 3 8 5 23 .. 1 .. 1 10 .. United Arab Emirates 1995 2005 606 16 43 6 36 2 1 .. .. 0 8 27 0 United Kingdom 1995­2005 10,643 9 95 4 .. .. 1 .. .. .. .. 1 .. United States 1995­2005 61,758 13 89 2 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 1 .. Uruguay 1995­2005 17 15 21 1 63 29 18 .. 15 0 0 0 0 Uzbekistan 2000­05 13 28 1092 21 942 75 90 2 2 .. 49 714 11 Vanuatu 2000­05 .. 8 283 61 452 171 257 4 29 0 0 0 0 Venezuela, RB 1995­2005 90 66 120 38 116 11 48 4 4 0 59 95 .. Zambia 1995­2005 22 19 114 6 39 8 37 12 .. 5 2 2 0 Zimbabwe 1995­2005 11 3 141 19 57 15 42 18 30 24 43 30 10 Source: Authors. Note: Values for Europe and Central Asia, Liberia, Maldives, and Vanuatu show change between 2000 and 2005; values for Cyprus show change between 1995 and 2000. .. negligible value. 211 I N D E X Boxes, figures, notes, and tables are indicated with b, f, n, and t following the page numbers. A B Accountability for extractives value chain, Bacon, Robert W., 61 121­23, 122f Balance sheets, 136 Adjusted net savings (ANS) Barrett, Scott, 89n2 methodology, 150, 151­56t Barro, Robert J., 97 missing capital and, 38b Bhattacharya, Soma, 61 as percentage of GNI, 186­95t Biodiversity, 23 population growth and, 41­42, 42f Black carbon, 76 wealth changes and, 18­20b, 37­40 Border taxes on imports, 89n9 Adult survival rates, 97 Botswana Aesthetic amenity services, 17, 23, 49n3 adjusted net saving in, 39 Agricultural land resources extractive industry management in, 124­25, adjusted net saving and, 38b 125­26f climate change and, 77 natural capital management in, 15, 120, 124 in decomposition analysis, 12, 56 per capita wealth changes in, 9 future research needs for, 17 wealth changes in, 33 pasture land, 56, 59, 149 Brazil per capita wealth changes and, 9 land and subsoil assets in, 59 valuation methodology, 148­49 timber resources in, 12 wealth changes and, 35, 37 wealth accounting in, 133 Algeria British Petroleum, 158n8 adjusted net saving gap in, 41 Burkina Faso land and subsoil assets in, 58, 60 per capita wealth changes in, 9 Angola, adjusted net saving in, 39, 41 wealth changes in, 33 ANS. See Adjusted net savings Arab Republic of Egypt, land and subsoil C assets in, 58 CAIT. See Climate Analysis Indicators Tool Arrow, Kenneth, 16, 129 Campbell, Bonnie, 120 Asheim, Geir B., 24n1 Canada Atkinson, Giles, 89n9 carbon stocks and flows in, 81, 82 Australia energy resource accounting in, 133 adjusted net national income in, 20b human capital in, 105, 107 carbon stocks and flows in, 82 intangible capital in, 93, 93t energy resource accounting in, 134 Carbon dioxide (CO2), 75­76, 77, 86. See also human capital in, 105 Carbon stocks and flows natural capital in, 15 Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Azerbaijan (CDIAC), 87 carbon stocks and flows in, 83 Carbon stocks and flows, valuation of, 80­84, EITI compliance of, 123 81f, 82­83t, 87­88 213 214 INDEX Caselli, Francesco, 97 initiatives in, 136­37 Cement manufacturing, 80 land accounts, 135 Chile, natural capital management in, 15, 120 mineral accounts, 133­34, 134t China renewable energy accounts, 135 adjusted net saving in, 39 timber accounts, 134 carbon stocks and flows in, 80, 81, 81f, 82, water accounts, 135 83 Crop land resources, 61, 148­49. See also human capital in, 14, 105­18 Agricultural land resources demographic changes and, 108­9, 109f Crop prices, 55, 57, 58 educational attainment and, 14, 106, Cultural services, 22 107­9, 110f, 111­12 Currency appreciation, 119 gender differences for, 14, 109­12, 111t, Currency of accountability, 121 113 Czech Republic, energy resource accounting methodology for estimating, 114­15 in, 133 rural vs. urban areas, 14, 109­12, 111t, 113 stocks of, 107­9, 108t D World Bank estimates of, 112­13, 116 Dasgupta, Partha, 16, 24n1, 129 natural capital in, 11 Decomposition of natural wealth changes, 12, per capita wealth in, 31, 43 51­71 wealth accounting in, 5, 133 by country, 204­11t China Health and Nutrition Survey, 117n6 by income group and region, 55­59, 55­56f, Clemens, M., 15, 24n1, 129 63­66t Climate Analysis Indicators Tool (CAIT), 13, methodology, 52­53, 61­62 77­78, 87 Deforestation rates, 148 Climate change, 75­91 Demand-side accountability, 127n4 development and, 76­77 Democratic Republic of Congo, wealth economics of, 77­80, 78t, 80f changes in, 33 equity issues for, 84­85 Demographic changes. See Population growth estimated values of carbon stocks and flows, Denmark, human capital in, 105 80­84, 81f, 82­83t, 87­88 Department of Commerce (U.S.), 87 legal issues for, 84­85 Department of Energy (U.S.), 87 science of, 76­77 Department of Energy and Climate Change CO2. See Carbon dioxide (UK), 85 Coal, 158n7 Department of Environmental Affairs Commercial fishing, 21 (Botswana), 124 Commercial land, 17 Developing countries Commodity price volatility, 119 carbon stocks and flows in, 81 Congo, Democratic Republic of, wealth human capital in, 13, 106 changes in, 33 intangible capital in, 51, 101, 102 Congo, Republic of, adjusted net saving gap land and subsoil assets in, 53 in, 41 wealth changes in, 5, 33­37, 34­35f, 36t Contract enforcement, 98 Development Corrective justice, 84 climate change and, 76­77 Corruption, 119 intangible capital and, 99­102, 100­101t Country experiences with wealth accounting, natural capital and, 9­11, 10f 129­39 wealth changes with, 5­9, 7t, 8f balance sheets, 136 Development Economics Prospects current practices, 130­33, 131­32t Group, 149 energy accounts, 133­34, 134t, 135 DICE 2007 model (Dynamic Integrated Model fisheries accounts, 135 of Climate and the Economy), 88, groundwater accounts, 135 89n4 human capital, 135 Drinking water, 21 hydropower accounts, 135 Dye, Kenneth, 127n4 INDEX 215 Dynamic Integrated Model of Climate and Eurostat, 105, 129, 148 the Economy (DICE) 2007 model, Exhaustion time, 53 88, 89n4 Expected lifetime earnings of individuals, 115 External Wealth of Nations Mark II database, E 150 Earth System Research Laboratory, 87 Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative East Asia and Pacific. See also specific countries (EITI), 15, 122, 123. adjusted net saving in, 39 See also EITI++ agricultural land resources in, 9, 12 land and subsoil assets in, 55­56f, 58­59 F produced capital investments in, 51 Fankhauser, Samuel, 78 Economic performance measures, 18­20b FDI (foreign direct investment), 150 Economics of climate change, 77­80, 78t, 80f Ferreira, S., 24n1 Economics of Climate Change (Stern), 75 Fisher, Irving, 93 Ecosystem services Fisheries future research needs for, 17 country experiences with accounting for, natural capital and, 8 135 valuation of, 22­23, 49n3 future research needs for, 16 wetlands, 22 resources missing from accounts, 21 Educational attainment Fitoussi, Jean-Paul, 16, 20b, 23, 129, 137 adjusted net saving and, 19b Fixed effects model, 99 in China, 14, 106, 107­9, 110f, 111­12 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), in intangible capital accounting, 13, 98, 98t 147, 149 urban-rural gap in, 110, 110f Foreign direct investment (FDI), 150 wealth changes and, 6 Forest resources Egalitarianism, 84 in decomposition analysis, 12, 57 Egypt, land and subsoil assets in, 58 valuation methodology, 146­48 EITI. See Extractive Industries Transparency wealth changes and, 35 Initiative Fortech (Forestry Technical Services), 148 EITI++, 122, 123­24, 126, 127n7 Fossil fuel combustion, 80 El-Serafy method, 133 France, human capital in, 105 Energy resources Fraumeni, Barbara M., 114. See also Jorgenson- country experiences with accounting for, Fraumeni lifetime income approach 133­34, 134t, 135 Free rider problem, 89n2 valuation methodology, 145­46 Fuelwood prices, 148 Environmental debt, 84 Equipment valuation methodology, 143­44 G Equity issues for climate change accounting, Gabon, adjusted net saving gap in, 41 84­85 GDP (gross domestic product), 4 Etheridge, D. M., 87 Gender differences in human capital, 14, Ethiopia 109­12, 111t, 113 per capita wealth changes in, 9 Genuine savings. See Adjusted net savings wealth changes in, 33 (ANS) Europe and Central Asia. See also specific Germany, carbon stocks and flows in, 81 countries Ghana carbon stocks and flows in, 13, 83, 83t, 85 natural capital management in, 120 intangible capital in, 51 per capita wealth changes in, 9 land and subsoil assets in, 9, 35, 53, wealth changes in, 33 55­56f, 57 Global Assessment of Energy Accounts, 134 wealth changes in, 33, 34f, 35 Global Forest Resources Assessments (FAO), 147 European Union, carbon stocks and flows for, Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP), 149 79, 80, 81f Global Witness, 148 216 INDEX GNI. See Gross national income I Governance Iceland, fisheries accounting in, 21, 135 EITI++ and, 123­24 Imports, border taxes on, 89n9 for extractives value chain, 121­23, 122f India in resource-rich countries, 119­28 carbon stocks and flows in, 80, 81, 81f, transparency and, 127n3 82, 83 wealth changes and, 6 per capita wealth in, 43 Greenhouse gas emissions, 12­13. See also wealth accounting in, 133 Carbon stocks and flows Indonesia, energy resource accounting in, 133 Gross domestic product (GDP), 4 Infrastructure valuation methodology, 143­44 Gross national income (GNI) Institutional capacity, 6, 98, 102, 121 adjusted net savings as percentage of, 37, Intangible capital, 93­104 186­95t in China, 105­18 carbon stocks and flows and, 80, 81f defined, 4­5 Groundwater in developing countries, 51 country experiences with accounting development role of, 99­102, 100­101t for, 135 explanations for variances in, 96­99, 98t in ecosystem services, 22 theoretical considerations for, 94­96 future research needs for, 17 wealth changes and, 6, 27, 29, 29f, 30t GTAP (Global Trade Analysis Project), 149 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 75, 76 H International Labour Organization, 105­6 Hamilton, Kirk, 15, 24n1, 94, 95, 129, Islamic Republic of Iran, land and subsoil 157n1 assets in, 58, 60 Hard coal, 158n7 Italy, human capital in, 105 Haripriya, G. S., 148 Hartwick, John M., 94, 95, 157n1 J Hartwick rule, 9­10, 24n6 Japan Hassan, R., 138n1 carbon stocks and flows in, 82 Healey, John, 148 energy resource accounting in, 133 Health status, 97 fisheries accounting in, 135 High-carbon growth, 77 human capital in, 105 High-income countries Joint UNECE/OECD/Eurostat Working carbon stocks and flows in, 81, 82, 85 Group on Statistics for Sustainable composition of wealth changes in, 29f, Development, 136, 137 30t, 31 Jorgenson, Dale W., 114 intangible capital in, 102 Jorgenson-Fraumeni lifetime income land and subsoil assets in, 58 approach, 107, 112, 114­15, 135 per capita wealth in, 31, 32f, 32t wealth changes in, 5, 27, 28t K Hilson, G., 120 Kaufmann, Daniel, 98, 103n4 Horizontal equity, 85 Kazakhstan, carbon stocks and flows in, 83 Hoskold method, 133 Hotelling rule, 89n10 Kesy, C., 132 Human capital Klenow, Peter J., 97 accounting for, 13­14 Korea, Republic of, human capital in, 105 in China, 14, 105­18 Kraay, Aart, 98, 103n4 country experiences with accounting Kunte, A., 144, 157n5 for, 135 Hydropower L country experiences with accounting Labor market participation, 107 for, 135 Land resources. See also Agricultural land future research needs for, 16 resources INDEX 217 commercial land, 17 Mauna Loa time series, 87 country experiences with accounting Methane, 76 for, 135 Methodology, 141­60 future research needs for, 17 adjusted net savings calculation, 150, in natural capital, 53­59, 54­55f 151­56t public land, 17 agricultural land resources, 148­49 residential, 17, 22 decomposition analysis, 52­53, 61­62 in urban areas, 24n4, 144, 157n5 energy resources, 145­46 Lane, Philip R., 150 machinery, equipment, and structures, Lange, G., 138n1 143­44 Lao People's Democratic Republic, mineral resources, 145­46 hydropower accounting in, 21­22 net foreign assets, 150 Larson, Donald F., 144, 157n2 protected areas, 149­50 Latin America and Caribbean. See also specific savings gap calculation, 157 countries timber resources, 146­48 agricultural land resources in, 9, 12 total wealth estimates, 142­43 forest resources in, 9, 12, 35 urban land estimates, 144 land and subsoil assets in, 55­56f, 58­59, 60 Mexico wealth changes in, 33, 34f adjusted net national income in, 20b Lee, Jong-Wha, 97 energy resource accounting in, 133 Legal issues for climate change accounting, groundwater resources accounting in, 135 84­85 human capital in, 105 Li, Haizheng, 106­7, 112, 116 mineral resource accounting in, 133 Liberia, EITI compliance of, 123 natural capital, 10 Logarithmic mean Divisia index (LMDI), Middle East and North Africa. See also 61­62 specific countries London Group on Environmental land and subsoil assets in, 53, 55­56f, 58, Accounting, 16 60, 67­70t Lopina, Olga, 148 produced capital investments in, 51 Lower-middle-income countries subsoil assets in, 9, 35 composition of wealth changes in, 29­31, wealth changes in, 34, 34f 29f, 30t, 33f Middle-income countries decomposition analysis for, 60 carbon stocks and flows in, 85 per capita wealth in, 31, 32f, 32t composition of wealth changes in, 29­31, wealth changes in, 5, 6, 28, 28t 29f, 30t, 33f Low-income countries decomposition analysis for, 60 climate change and, 77 land and subsoil assets in, 53 composition of wealth changes in, 29­31, per capita wealth in, 31, 32f, 32t 29f, 30t wealth changes in, 5, 6, 28, 28t land and subsoil assets in, 53 Migration of human capital, 110 natural capital in, 6 Milesi-Ferretti, Gian Maria, 150 wealth changes in, 5, 27, 28t Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 22 Mincer, Jacob, 97, 115 M Mineral resources Machinery valuation methodology, 143­44 country experiences with accounting for, Maconachie, R., 120 133­34, 134t Malaysia, natural capital in, 10­11 estimation methodology, 145­46 Mäler, Karl-Göran, 16, 24n1, 129 resources missing from accounts, 21 Malthusian term, 41, 197 valuation methodology, 145­46 Mandatory retirement age, 112 Ministry of Finance and Development Marginal utility of consumption, 96 Planning (Botswana), 124 Market justice, 85 Moldova, carbon stocks and flows in, 83 Mastruzzi, Massimo, 98, 103n4 Mozambique 218 INDEX per capita wealth changes in, 9 natural capital management in, 120 wealth changes in, 33 wealth accounting by, 130 Mungatana, E., 138n1 NPV (net present value), 133 N O Namibia OECD countries economic growth in, 126f composition of wealth changes in, 29f, fisheries accounting in, 21, 135 30t, 31 National Oceanic and Atmospheric human capital in, 13­14 Administration (NOAA, U.S.), 87 intangible capital in, 51, 101 National statistical offices, 16 machinery, equipment, and structures Natural capital, 51­71 valuation in, 143­44 in decomposition analysis, 61 per capita wealth in, 31, 32f, 32t defined, 4 wealth changes in, 5, 28, 28t development and, 9­11, 10f Oil land values in, 53­59, 54­55f prices, 57 resources missing from accounts, 21­22 reserves, 158n8 subsoil assets in, 54f, 56f One-child policy, 106 wealth changes and, 6, 29, 29f, 30t, 37 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Natural gas Development (OECD). See also prices, 57 OECD countries reserves, 158n8 consortium to develop human capital Natural pollinators, 17, 22 accounts, 105­6, 135 Net foreign assets valuation methodology, 150 wealth accounting initiatives of, 129 Netherlands human capital in, 105 P renewable energy accounting in, 135 Pareto compensation, 85 Net national income (NNI), 20b Pasquier, J., 132 Net present value (NPV), 133 Pasture land resources, 56, 59, 149 Net price method, 133 Patrinos, H., 97 New Zealand Perpetual Inventory Method (PIM), 143 adjusted net saving gap in, 41, 43 Persistence of CO2, 77­78 fisheries accounting in, 21, 135 Peru, natural capital in, 10 human capital in, 105 Poland water resources accounting in, 135 carbon stocks and flows in, 82, 83 Nigeria human capital in, 105 land and subsoil assets in, 55, 57 Population dilution effect, 31 per capita wealth in, 9, 43 Population growth wealth changes in, 33, 35 adjusted net saving gap and, 41­42, 42f Nitrous oxide, 76 in China, 107­9, 109f NNI (net national income), 20b wealth changes and, 41­42, 42f, 198­202t Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), 16, Positive economics, 76 129, 132 Poverty reduction, 126 Nordhaus, William, 88, 89n4 PPP (purchasing power parity), 24n5 Norway Preindustrial levels of CO2, 79, 87 adjusted net national income in, 20b Price, Colin, 148 balance sheet use in, 136 Price effect, 12, 59­60 energy resource accounting in, 134 Produced capital fisheries accounting in, 135 defined, 4 human capital in, 105, 112, 135 intangible capital and, 94 hydropower accounting in, 21, 135 investments in, 51 natural capital in, 15 wealth changes and, 29, 29f, 30t INDEX 219 Production quantity, 53 SEEA. See System of Integrated Environmental Property rights and Economic Accounting carbon emissions accounting and, 85 Sen, Amartya, 16, 20b, 23, 129, 137 in rule of law index, 98 Shastry, Gauri K., 97 Protected areas valuation methodology, Sinking-fund method, 133 149­50 Small-scale fishing, 21 Provisioning services, 22 SNA. See System of National Accounts Psacharopoulos, G., 97 Social capital, 13­14, 94 Ptichnikov, Andrei, 148 Social cost of carbon, 75, 76, 78­79, 78t, 85 Public goods, 23, 89n2 Social discount rate, 116 Public land, 17 Social welfare, 4, 18, 24n1, 31 Purchasing power parity (PPP), 24n5 Soft coal, 158n7 Soil quality, 38b Q South Africa Quantity effect, 12 carbon stocks and flows in, 82, 83 Quirino, G., 132 land and subsoil assets in, 55 per capita wealth changes in, 9 wealth changes in, 33­34 R South Asia. See also specific countries Ramsey formula, 95, 116 adjusted net saving in, 39 Recreational value, 22 agricultural land resources in, 12 Regulating services, 22 intangible capital in, 51 Remittances, 103n6 land and subsoil assets in, 53 Renewable energy, 135 natural capital in, 9, 37 República Bolivariana de Venezuela, adjusted produced capital investments in, 51 net saving gap in, 41 wealth changes in, 33, 34, 34f Republic of Congo, adjusted net saving gap Spain, human capital in, 105 in, 41 Stapenhurst, R., 127n4 Republic of Korea, human capital in, 105 State of the World's Forests (FAO), 147 Reserves-to-production ratio, 146 Stern Review on Economics of Climate Change Residential land, 17, 22 (Stern), 75 Resource curse, 15, 24n9, 119 Stiglitz, Joseph E., 16, 20b, 23, 129, 137 Resource-rich countries Strict liability, 84 adjusted net saving in, 39, 39f Structures valuation methodology, 143­44 governance in, 119­28 Sub-Saharan Africa. See also specific countries growth and development capital in, 15 adjusted net national income in, 20b Rodríguez-Clare, Andrés, 97 adjusted net saving in, 19b, 39 Romania, human capital in, 105 agricultural land resources in, 9, 12 Roundwood production, 147 EITI++ and, 123 Rule of law, 13, 98, 98t, 99 intangible capital in, 51 Rural areas, human capital in, 14, 109­12, land and subsoil assets in, 53, 60, 67­70t 111t, 113 land values in, 55­57 Russian Federation natural capital in, 9, 37 carbon stocks and flows in, 80, 81f, 82, 83 per capita wealth in, 8­9, 43 human capital in, 105 subsoil assets in, 55­57, 55­56f wealth changes in, 33, 34, 34f Subsistence fishing, 21 S Subsoil assets Samuelson, Paul, 76 in decomposition analysis, 12 Savings gap in natural capital, 54f, 56f by country, 198­202t wealth changes and, 35 valuation methodology, 157 Substitutability of capital types, 23 wealth changes and, 37­40, 38­40f, 38b Supply-side accountability, 127n4 220 INDEX Supporting services, 22 UN Committee of Experts on Environmental Sustainable Budget Index, 124 Accounting, 16 Sweden United Kingdom human capital in, 105 carbon emissions accounting and, 85 wealth accounting in, 133 carbon stocks and flows in, 81 Syrian Arab Republic, land and subsoil assets human capital in, 105 in, 58 United Nations Environment Programme, 150 System of Integrated Environmental and United Nations Framework Convention on Economic Accounting (SEEA), 16, Climate Change, 13, 77 130, 133, 136, 137 United Nations Statistical Commission, 16, System of National Accounts (SNA), 4, 16, 129, 130, 132, 136 24n2, 94, 103n2, 130, 134 United States adjusted net saving gap in, 41, 43 T carbon stocks and flows in, 80, 81, 81f, 82 Tans, Pieter, 87 human capital in, 105 Taxes on imports, 89n9 wealth accounting in, 133 Tay, John, 148 Urban areas Technical progress, 99 human capital in, 14, 107, 109­12, 111t, 113 Timber resources land value in, 24n4, 144, 157n5 country experiences with accounting Urban Household Survey (China), 117n6 for, 134 U.S. Geological Survey, 157n6, 158n8 in decomposition analysis, 12, 57, 59 Uzbekistan estimation methodology, 146­48 adjusted net saving in, 39 valuation methodology, 146­48 carbon stocks and flows in, 83 Time coefficient, 99 Timor-Leste, EITI compliance of, 123 V Tol, Richard, 78 Venezuela, adjusted net saving gap in, 41 Tort law, 84 Vertical equity, 85 Total wealth Vincent, J., 24n1 by country, 162­71t Voropayev, Alexander, 148 defined, 4 methodology, 142­43 W Tourism income, 149 Wage rates, 107 Transition economies, carbon stocks and Water resources flows in, 13, 83 agricultural use of, 22 Transparency country experiences with accounting economic impact of, 124­25 for, 135 EITI and, 123 drinking water, 21 for extractives value chain, 121­23, 122f future research needs for, 16 governance and, 127n3 groundwater, 17, 22, 135 Trinidad and Tobago, natural capital in, resources missing from accounts, 21­22 9­10 Watershed protection, 148 Turkmenistan, carbon stocks and flows Wealth changes, 27­49 in, 83 composition of, 29­31, 29f, 30t, 33f countries excluded from analysis, 44, 44b U in developing countries, 33­37, 34­35f, 36t Uganda global, 27­28, 28t adjusted net saving gap in, 41 per capita, 31­33, 32f, 32t, 45­48t, 162­71t per capita wealth changes in, 9 population growth and, 41­42, 42f, 198­202t wealth changes in, 33 savings and, 37­40, 38­40f, 38b, 198­202t Ukraine, carbon stocks and flows in, 82, 83 total wealth, 162­71t INDEX 221 Weil, David N., 97 World Development Indicators (World Bank), Weisbach, David, 84 96, 97, 130 Weitzman, Martin L., 24n1 World Development Report 2010 (World Bank), Wetland ecosystem services, 22 13, 75, 77 Where Is the Wealth of Nations? (World Bank), World Summit on Sustainable Development 4, 9, 13, 94, 96­97 (2002), 122 Whiteman, Adrian, 148 World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 150 Z World Database on Protected Areas, 150 Zimbabwe, wealth changes in, 33 ECO-AUDIT Environmental Benefits Statement The World Bank is committed to Saved: preserving endangered forests and natural · 11 trees resources. The Office of the Publisher · 4 million Btu of has chosen to print The Changing total energy Wealth of Nations on recycled paper · 1,079 lb. of net with 50 percent postconsumer fiber greenhouse gases in accordance with the recommended · 5,198 gal. of waste standards for paper usage set by the water Green Press Initiative, a nonprofit · 316 lb. of solid program supporting publishers in using waste fiber that is not sourced from endangered forests. For more information, visit www .greenpressinitiative.org. "This volume makes a convincing case that, in economic development as in other human pursuits, you get what you measure. It presents the first-ever direct estimates of changes in comprehensive national wealth, which can help identify policies for achieving sustained improvements in human well-being. Though topical, with coverage of such issues as the contribution of human capital to China's explosive economic growth, greenhouse gas accounting, and the role of governance in avoiding a resource curse, it will become more valuable with time as researchers explore the landmark data it has painstakingly compiled." Jeffrey Vincent Clarence F. Korstian Professor of Forest Economics and Management Nicholas School, Division of Environmental Sciences and Policy Duke University "The World Bank has conducted path-breaking research on wealth and sustaina- bility: its Where Is the Wealth of Nations? Measuring Capital for the 21st Century was a revelation and an inspiration. Now they have extended and updated this work. If you are interested in national wealth, sustainability or even economic development in general, you MUST read this book." Geoffrey Heal Garrett Professor of Public Policy & Corporate Responsibility Columbia Business School Columbia University ISBN 978-0-8213-8488-6 SKU 18488