EXPECTATIONS AND ASPIRATIONS A New Framework for Education in the Middle East and North Africa Safaa El Tayeb El-Kogali and Caroline Krafft Editors Expectations and Aspirations A New Framework for Education in the Middle East and North Africa Safaa El Tayeb El-Kogali and Caroline Krafft Editors © 2020 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000; Internet: www.worldbank.org Some rights reserved 1 2 3 4 22 21 20 19 This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. 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The design consists of three words in Arabic: “Knowledge, education, learning.” Background image by Kjpargeter/Freepik​ .com. Used with permission; further permission required for reuse. Interior image credits: The following images are by individual artists from thenounproject.com: Figure O.1/Figure 2.1: “Rope” by Pedro Baños Cancer. Figure O.2/Figure 2.2: “Diploma” by Ben Davis; “Brain” by Max Hancock. Figure O.7/Figure 4.1: “Handshake” by Gregor Cresnar; “Climbing” by IYIKON; “Man Pushing Big Ball” by Gan Khoon Lay; “Pull” by Pavel, N. Figure O.17/Figure 4.2: “Brain” by Max Hancock. Figure O.21/Figure 4.4: “Handshake” by Gregor Cresnar; “People” by Anastasia Latysheva; “Idea” by Ben Markoch. Figure 3.1: “Immigration” by Yosef. Figure 3.4: “Manual Barrier” by ProSymbols, US; “Teacher” by Arif Fajar Yulianto; “Resilience” by Attilio Baghino; “Student” by Doub.co. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data has been requested. Contents Editors’ Note. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii Acknowledgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv About the Editors and Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii Abbreviations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Safaa El Tayeb El-Kogali Education has large untapped potential for the Middle East and North Africa. . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Much has changed in MENA—and the world—but education in MENA remains stuck . . . . 2 Four tensions are holding back education in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 A new framework is needed to realize education’s potential in MENA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Push for learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Pull for skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Recognize that context matters for learning and skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 A new education pact. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Unleashing the potential of education is attainable. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 1. A New Lens on Education in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Igor Kheyfets, Elisabeth Sedmik, Mohammed Audah, Laura Gregory, and Caroline Krafft MENA’s economic and social challenges require a renewed focus on human capital development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Learning and skills are essential to build human capital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 iii i v    C o n t e n t s 2. Behaviors, Norms, and the Political Economy of Education in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Safaa El Tayeb El-Kogali Education is an inherently political and social process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Four tensions are holding back education in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Recognizing and addressing these constraints are critical for education in MENA. . . . . . . . 93 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 3. Securing Learning for Children in Conflict and Crisis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97 Noah Yarrow and Maja Capek Remove barriers to education access. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Improve the learning experience of displaced children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Strengthen resilience at the systems level. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Rethink external funding mechanisms for education sectors in crisis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 4. Adopting a New Framework for Education in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Safaa El Tayeb El-Kogali and Caroline Krafft Push for learning: Focus on learning, not just on schooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Pull for skills: Complementary reforms are needed for education to achieve its potential. . . . 122 A new education pact: Create a unified vision for education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Note. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 5. Establishing a Foundation for Lifelong Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Igor Kheyfets and Samira Nikaein Towfighian Intervene early for biggest impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Universalize preschool education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Build strong foundational skills in the early years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 6. Ensuring Inclusive and Equitable Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Laura Gregory and May Bend Remove barriers to access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Recognize and address learning gaps by supporting the lowest-performing students and schools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Improve the quality of boys’ education and address MENA’s gender paradox . . . . . . . . . . 148 Increase resources for special needs to reduce inequality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Spotlight 1: Choosing a Language of Instruction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 May Bend and Laura Gregory Modern standard Arabic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Multiple local languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Instruction in a foreign language. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 C o n t e n t s   v Begin in the child’s mother tongue. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Increase research into Arabic-language learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Improve foreign language instruction at all levels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 7. Modernizing Curricula, Instruction, and Assessment to Improve Learning. . . . . . 161 Laura Gregory and May Bend Modernize curricula to meet students’ needs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Encourage instructional practices that maximize children’s potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Provide classroom environments conducive to learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Use assessment methods to adapt instruction and promote higher-order skills. . . . . . . . . . . 176 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Spotlight 2: Measuring Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Laura Gregory and Elisabeth Sedmik National and international large-scale student assessments monitor education system progress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Public examinations can catalyze reform but also can create perverse incentives . . . . . . . . 186 Noncognitive and socioemotional skills should be assessed alongside cognitive skills . . . . . 190 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 8. Leveraging Education Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Mariam Nusrat Adil, Venkatesh Sundararaman, and May Bend Digital technology is altering all facets of life in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 Innovations in EdTech are disrupting the education sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Providing access to technology is not enough . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Blended learning approaches have yielded promising results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Online courses have grown rapidly in popularity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Technology-based “nudges” can promote behavioral change in education . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Online textbooks can facilitate access to information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Smart classrooms are the classrooms of the future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Navigating the technological landscape can be tricky. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 9. Empowering Teachers to Lead the Way to Better Student Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Lianqin Wang, Bob Prouty, Manal Bakur N Quota, and Angela Demas Recruit the best and prepare them to be effective teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Strengthen continuous professional support to teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Use teacher assessment to strengthen support and accountability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Provide meaningful incentives to motivate and reward teachers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 10. Developing Effective School Leadership. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Lianqin Wang, Angela Demas, Manal Bakur N Quota, and Bob Prouty Transform the role of the school principal from administrator to instructional leader. . . . . 225 v i    C o n t e n t s Modernize criteria and processes to select new school leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Empower school leaders with professional development and rewarding career pathways. . . . 229 Provide school leaders with more authority to support teaching and learning . . . . . . . . . . . 231 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 11. Prioritizing Investments to Promote Learning and Skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Igor Kheyfets and Mohammed Audah Invest sufficient public resources in education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Allocate resources toward learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Manage the teacher workforce efficiently . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Spotlight 3: Linking Budget Management to Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Igor Kheyfets Link budgets to strategic national and education priorities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Budget for education with an explicit focus on learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Improve budget execution rates to smooth service delivery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 12. Strengthening Skills by Linking Education to the Labor Market. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 Almedina Music and Caroline Krafft Workplace training can provide students with job-relevant skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 Companies in MENA report difficulties in finding an adequately skilled workforce. . . . . . 258 Improving labor market information flows can help both students and employers. . . . . . . . 259 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 13. Rethinking Tertiary Education: High-Level Skills and Research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Jamil Salmi Tertiary education needs to confer skills relevant to the labor market and to focus on high-quality research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Attracting the best, investing adequate resources, and operating under enabling governance systems are key determinants of university performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Rethinking tertiary education: The way forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 14. Strengthening Accountability for Better Learning Outcomes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 Lianqin Wang, Manal Bakur N Quota, Angela Demas, and Bob Prouty Establish accountability mechanisms within education systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 Involve communities and parents in accountability systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Use media and technology to support accountability systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 C o n t e n t s   v ii 15. Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Safaa El Tayeb El-Kogali and Caroline Krafft Offering lessons for effective education reform. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Unleashing the potential of education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 Appendix: Overview of MENA Policy Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 Boxes O.1 Conflict has taken a large toll on education in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 O.2 World Development Report 2018: Learning to Realize Education’s Promise. . . . . . . 13 O.3 Prioritizing early childhood education in the United Arab Emirates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 O.4 Attracting the best students to teaching depends on the right policies and programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 O.5 School principals also must act as instructional leaders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 O.6 Teaching at the right level benefits students. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 O.7 Improving foreign language instruction is important . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 O.8 Conflict in MENA is depriving many children of education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 O.9 MENA’s gender paradox presents a dual challenge for human capital. . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 O.10 EdTech offers opportunities to leapfrog learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 O.11 Signaling in education is communicating about skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 O.12 Reforming vocational education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 O.13 Finland and the Republic of Korea rely on different successful education models . . . . 43 O.14 In Rwanda, education has played a role in building peace. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 O.15 Peru has found success in aligning interests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 O.16 Egypt’s education sector uses technology to ensure accountability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 1.1 Migration affects education systems in MENA through three key channels. . . . . . . . . 71 1.2 Technological change is driving the shift in labor market demand for skills. . . . . . . . . 72 1.3 Income mobility lags behind educational mobility in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 3.1 Displaced within their countries’ borders: IDPs’ struggle to access education. . . . . . . 100 3.2 Informing the global response to forced displacement: The need for better data . . . . 101 3.3 Great expectations, limited impact: EdTech for refugees. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 3.4 Learning from international experience: The European Qualifications Passport for Refugees. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 3.5 Sharing responsibility for the forcibly displaced: The Global Compact on Refugees. . . . 110 4.1 Signaling in education is communicating about skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 4.2 Peru has found success in aligning interests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 5.1 Universalizing access to preprimary education in Argentina and Algeria. . . . . . . . . . 135 5.2 Prioritizing early childhood education in the United Arab Emirates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 5.3 Combatting inequality through ECE: An example from Boston. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 5.4 Unifying ECE curriculum in the national core curriculum of New Zealand and Finland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 5.5 Screening for literacy and numeracy development in England. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 6.1 Early grade literacy and numeracy interventions in Jordan have had different impacts on girls and boys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 v i i i    C o n t e n t s 6.2 Negative attitudes toward disability and special education exist in MENA. . . . . . . . 152 7.1 Competency-based learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 7.2 Balancing repetition and high-level problem solving. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 7.3 Relevance in vocational education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 7.4 Moving from poor to fair: The role of scripted lessons in structured pedagogy . . . . . 172 7.5  Using peer instruction to assess, challenge, and engage in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics lessons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 S2.1 Malaysia faced various challenges in introducing task-based assessment. . . . . . . . . . 189 8.1 Introducing disruptive technology in the classroom: From the blackboard to ICTs. . . .194 9.1 Selection of initial teacher education candidates in Finland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 9.2 Teacher licensing in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 9.3 Teaching-research groups in Shanghai. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 9.4 Professional development experiences in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 10.1 Distributed and collaborative school leadership in Singapore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 10.2 Training school principals to become effective instructional leaders in New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 10.3 School principals’ career ladders in Shanghai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 11.1 Public spending and expansion of access to education in Saudi Arabia. . . . . . . . . . . . 236 11.2 Growing public investment in early learning: The cases of Finland and Sweden. . . . . 241 11.3 Capital budgeting in education: The use of national infrastructure plans. . . . . . . . . . 242 11.4 Class size policies across the OECD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 13.1 The MENA University Governance Screening Card. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 14.1 Systems Approach for Better Education Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 14.2 Jordan’s education reform: Evidence-supported accountability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 14.3 Boston Public Schools’ support systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 14.4 Social and behavior change communications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 14.5 Using school report cards to promote transparency and accountability . . . . . . . . . . . 280 14.6 Using technology in Egypt’s education sector to ensure accountability. . . . . . . . . . . . 282 15.1 Finland and the Republic of Korea rely on different successful education models . . . 288 Figures O.1 Four tensions are holding back education in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 O.2 MENA is stuck in a credentialist equilibrium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 O.3 MENA students are more likely to be asked to memorize. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 O.4 Obedience plays a central role in children’s education in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 O.5 Teachers in MENA have less autonomy than teachers in OECD countries. . . . . . . . . . 10 O.6 Substantial time is devoted to religious education in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 O.7 “Push, pull, and pact” offers a new framework for education in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . 12 O.8 What matters for growth is skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 O.9 When adjusted for learning, the number of years of effective schooling in MENA drops substantially . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 O.10 Preprimary enrollments are lower in MENA than in many other regions. . . . . . . . . . . . 17 O.11 Large differences in preprimary enrollment ratios are found across MENA. . . . . . . . . . 17 O.12 The required working hours for teachers in MENA are well below those in top-performing countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 O.13 Teacher absenteeism is prevalent throughout MENA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 O.14 MENA has the biggest gaps in student achievement between top and bottom performers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 O.15 MENA has the largest gender gaps in test scores. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 C o n t e n t s   i x O.16 Computers are available in MENA’s schools, although coverage varies considerably . . . 35 O.17 MENA needs a skills equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 O.18 A personal connection is critical to securing work in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 O.19 School principals in MENA have less authority than those in OECD countries. . . . . . 40 O.20 Tolerance is associated with education, but intolerance is high even among the educated in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 O.21 Learning is a collective responsibility, and everyone is accountable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 BO.16.1 Technology can shape accountability relationships. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 1.1 Youth unemployment rates are higher than overall unemployment rates across MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 1.2 Youth unemployment is highest among the most educated in many MENA economies. . . . 69 1.3 Rates of return to education are lower in MENA than in other regions. . . . . . . . . . . . 71 1.4 Rates of return to education in MENA are below the global average. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 1.5 Rapid population growth in MENA has been accompanied by large increases in school enrollment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 1.6 What matters for growth is skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 1.7 When adjusted for learning, the number of years of effective schooling in MENA drops substantially . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 1.8 MENA countries have some of the lowest results on international student assessments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 1.9 Achievement gaps in MENA tend to be greater for primary school than for secondary school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 1.10 Many children in MENA have not reached basic proficiency by age 15. . . . . . . . . . . . 81 2.1 Four tensions are holding back education in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 2.2 MENA is stuck in a credentialist equilibrium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 2.3 MENA students are more likely to be asked to memorize. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 2.4 Obedience plays a central role in children’s education in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 3.1 A large share of the world’s IDPs and refugees live in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 3.2 Syrian refugees’ enrollment in education differs across MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 3.3 Refugees’ enrollment drops with age. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 3.4 Policy approaches to deliver on displaced children’s right to education. . . . . . . . . . . . 112 4.1 “Push, pull, and pact” offers a new framework for education in MENA. . . . . . . . . . 122 4.2 MENA needs a skills equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 4.3 A personal connection is critical to securing work in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 4.4 Learning is a collective responsibility, and everyone is accountable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 5.1 Before they start school, many children are not developmentally on track. . . . . . . . . 133 5.2 Preprimary enrollments are lower in MENA than in many other regions. . . . . . . . . . 134 5.3 Large differences in preprimary enrollment ratios are found across MENA . . . . . . . 134 5.4 In West Bank and Gaza, opportunities for early childhood education are more likely for those from advantaged backgrounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 B5.3.1 Low-income children benefit relatively more than do middle- and high-income children from early childhood education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 5.5 Many children in MENA cannot read a single word after two or three years of schooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 6.1 In MENA, household wealth disparities translate into large enrollment gaps . . . . . . 144 6.2 In MENA, socioeconomic differences translate into persistent learning gaps . . . . . . 146 6.3 MENA has the biggest gaps in student achievement between top and bottom performers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 6.4 Gender gaps in MENA start early. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 6.5 MENA has the largest gender gaps in test scores. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 x    C o n t e n t s 6.6 Female labor force participation is low in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 7.1 Learning is a complex process that involves multiple actors and factors. . . . . . . . . . . . 162 7.2 MENA students are more likely to be asked to memorize. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 7.3 Several MENA countries do not consistently challenge students beyond the instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 7.4 Substantial time is devoted to religious education in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 7.5 Rote memorization and teacher-centered practices prevail in most MENA countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 7.6 Some MENA countries rely heavily on textbooks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 7.7 Inadequacy of mathematics or science materials affects instruction for many students across MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 8.1 Computers are available in MENA schools, although coverage varies considerably . . . 197 8.2 Students in MENA rarely use computers in math or science classes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 8.3 Public support for EdTech reform is strong in MENA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 8.4 Most people in MENA approve of ICT use in the classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 9.1 Some MENA countries provide insufficient professional development opportunities for teachers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 9.2 In MENA, the number of teachers with appropriate subject knowledge may be insufficient. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 9.3 Teachers in MENA often employ traditional teaching methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 9.4 Teachers in MENA have less autonomy than teachers in OECD countries. . . . . . . . . 220 10.1 Schools in MENA that emphasize academic success have better student learning. . . 226 10.2 On average, school principals in MENA have lower education levels than principals elsewhere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 10.3 School principals in MENA have less authority than those in OECD countries. . . . . 232 B11.1.1 Saudi Arabia rapidly expanded school enrollments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 11.1 Public spending on education in MENA grew steadily to 2000, then declined. . . . . . 237 11.2 Large variations exist in public spending on education across MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . 238 11.3 High private spending on education is common in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 11.4 Public investments in education in MENA disproportionately focus on tertiary education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 11.5 Large differences in preprimary enrollment ratios are found across MENA. . . . . . . . 240 11.6 Large capital budgets reflect the demographic needs of many MENA economies. . . . 241 11.7 A wage bill’s high share can crowd out other important education spending in MENA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 11.8 Class size varies across MENA, with the Arab Republic of Egypt and Morocco having among the largest classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 11.9 Student-teacher ratios vary widely across MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 11.10 Students across MENA face shortages of qualified mathematics and science teachers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 11.11 The required working hours for teachers in MENA are well below those in top-performing countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 11.12 Teacher absenteeism is prevalent throughout MENA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 12.1 Only a quarter of workers in Egypt and Tunisia acquired their technical skills through regular schooling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 12.2 Firms in MENA vary in whether they face an inadequately educated workforce. . . . 258 12.3 Firms in MENA have below-average rates of formal training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 13.1 Four steps can be taken toward successful tertiary education reform in MENA . . . . 265 14.1 Many MENA countries have developed school monitoring mechanisms. . . . . . . . . . 273 14.2 Few children in MENA benefit from sufficient literacy activities at home . . . . . . . . . 282 C o n t e n t s   x i Tables O.1 MENA countries have some of the lowest results on international student assessments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 O.2 Participation in national and international student assessments has surged in MENA since 2007. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 O.3 MENA’s student achievement gaps have both narrowed and widened . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 1.1 Among regions, MENA has the lowest share of human capital as a percentage of total wealth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 1.2 Most MENA economies have shares of human capital that are below the world average. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 1.3 MENA countries have some of the lowest results on international student assessments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 3.1 Total population, IDPs, and refugees in the world and in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 6.1 MENA’s student achievement gaps have both narrowed and widened . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 S2.1 Participation in national and international student assessments has surged in MENA since 2007. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 9.1 MENA countries are implementing a variety of collaborative approaches in teacher professional development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 9.2 Many MENA economies have systems in place to monitor teacher performance. . . . . 218 11.1 Teacher absenteeism affects teaching time in Morocco. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 11.2 A lack of key educational inputs affects many students in Morocco. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 S3.1 United Arab Emirates Vision 2021 lays out national key performance indicators for the education sector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 14.1 Most decisions on education policy and inputs are made at the central level in MENA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 A.1 Overview of MENA policy recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 Editors’ Note For decades, the Middle East and North vastly and been updated as well, particularly Africa (MENA) region has made large regarding what works to ensure learning— investments in education and achieved not simply schooling. This new base of impressive growth in enrollment rates and knowledge provides MENA countries with an gender parity at almost all education levels. opportunity to learn from each other’s experi- Despite these investments, the quality of ences and other global examples. education across the region has remained To answer these questions, the research low. This begs a series of questions: Why has team studied the current socioeconomic con- MENA not been able to realize the potential text of the region and analyzed numerous of education? How has the region, whose data sets at the country and regional levels. educational excellence over five centuries In addition to the usual economic and techni- drove innovation in science and social devel- cal analysis, we introduced a political econ- opment, become one of the worst performers omy lens that defined a set of tensions that in educational outcomes today? And why are holding back the potential of education in has the region not been able to improve MENA. Using regional and international despite substantial investments and reforms experience and examples, the study proposes over the last five decades? These questions a new framework to unleash this potential. guided our research. Beyond the diagnosis of The research was conducted alongside the MENA’s challenges, we focused on looking World Development Report 2018: Learning for solutions to emerge from this impasse to Realize Education’s Promise (World Bank and how MENA countries can unleash the 2018). Our regional findings and recommen- potential of their human capital to create dations are aligned with the global report: prosperous and peaceful societies. calling for a concerted push for learning (not The last such in-depth study of education just schooling), a stronger pull for skills in MENA was undertaken in 2008 (World (from the labor market), and a new pact for Bank 2008). The region has experienced sub- education where actors align their interests to stantial economic and political challenges make the education system work for since then and created new opportunities for learners. education to transform. The global research Government officials are the primary audi- on what works in education has expanded ence for this book because they have to make xiii x i v   E d i t o r s ’ Note challenging decisions about how best to invest working in MENA and on education issues in to ensure effective, lifelong learning. These the region and elsewhere in the world. officials are not only in the education sector Researchers can use the framework to dig but also in other, related sectors, such as deeper into the various tensions holding back finance and social protection. We hope that education and apply it to other regional con- this book also will serve as a helpful reference texts to understand the political economy for all development practitioners who are dimensions of education. —Safaa El Tayeb El-Kogali and Caroline Krafft, editors References World Bank. 2008. The Road Not Traveled: ———. 2018. World Development Report 2018: Education Reform in the Middle East and Learning to Realize Education’s Promise . North Africa. Washington, DC: World Bank. Washington, DC: World Bank. Acknowledgments ­ ritten The book is a compilation of chapters w Ayesha Vawda, and Mohamed Yassine. We also by us and a team of experts composed of appreciate the contributions from St. Catherine Mariam Nusrat Adil, Mohammed Audah, University research assistants Kapono May Bend, Maja Capek, Angela Demas, Asuncion, Zea Branson, Taylor Flak, Lyndsay Laura Gregory, Igor Kheyfets, Almedina Kast, Caitlyn Keo, and Johanna Tatlow. Music, Samira Nikaein Towfighian, Bob Various drafts benefited from excellent Prouty, Manal Bakur N Quota, Jamil Salmi, comments and suggestions by Ragui Assaad, Elisabeth Sedmik, Venkatesh Sundararaman, Benu Bidan, Kamel Braham, Michael Lianqin Wang, and Noah Yarrow. We appre- Crawford, Luis Crouch, Amit Dar, Sameh ciate the guidance provided by World Bank El-Saharty, Mourad Ezzine, Tazeen Fasih, management: Ferid Belhaj (regional vice pres- Deon Filmer, Poonam Gupta, Amer Hasan, ident); Hafez Ghanem (regional vice presi- Raja Bentaouet Kattan, Xiaoyan Liang, Lili dent); Shantayanan Devarajan (former senior Mottaghi, Halsey Rogers, and Sajjad Shah. director); Jaime Saavedra (global director); We are also grateful for the comments from Rabah Arezki (chief economist); Daniel t h e Wo r l d B a n k M E N A R e g i o n a l Lederman (deputy chief economist); Luis Management Team. Benveniste (regional director); Keiko Miwa The analysis and framework benefited (regional director); and Andreas Blom (educa- greatly from feedback received during tion global practice manager). regional and in-country consultations. We We also acknowledge the contributions would like to thank H. E. Dr. Omar Razzaz made by World Bank colleagues and consul- (prime minister and former minister of educa- tants, including Husein Abdul-Hamid, Fadila tion of Jordan); H. E. Dr. Tarek Shawki Caillaud, Michael Drabble, Jiayue Fan, Kasra (­ minister of education of the Arab Republic Farivari, Katherina Hruskovec Gonzalez, of Egypt); and H. E. Fadi Yarak (secretary Samira Halabi, Yue-Yi Hwa, Pierre Kamano, general, Ministry of Education, Lebanon); as Thomas Michael Kaye, Amira Kazem, Lisa well as representatives from governments, Lahalih, Jee Yoon Lee, Juan Manuel Moreno, academia, nongovernmental organizations, Harriet Nannyonjo, Shahram Paksima, Karine civil society organizations, and international Pezzani, Samia Sekkarie, Sylvia Solf, Jee development organizations from across Peng Tan, Johanna Tatlow, Simon Thacker, MENA for their valuable feedback. xv x v i    A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s Our special thanks go to everyone who Isabelle Poupaert, and William Stebbins pro- supported the preparation, publication, dis- vided guidance and support on communica- semination, and communication efforts. tions and dissemination. Elisabeth They include Elizabeth Forsyth, who edited Mekonnen provided overall administrative the report, and Aziz Gokdemir, Jewel support. McFadden, and Stephen Pazdan, who coor- The chapters draw on literature and docu- dinated the publication process in collabora- ments by researchers and specialists from tion with Maja Capek, Emma Etori, and across the world and on the authors’ own Elisabeth Sedmik from the MENA Education experiences and interactions with many dedi- Unit. Aya Krisht developed the cover design. cated educators, administrators, policy Maha Abdelilah Mahmoud El-Swais, makers, and students in MENA. ­ About the Editors and Authors Editors Safaa El Tayeb El-Kogali is the Education Caroline Krafft is an Assistant Professor Manager for Eastern and Southern Africa at the of Economics at St. Catherine University, World Bank. Ms. El-Kogali was the Education St. Paul, Minnesota. Her research examines Manager for the Middle East and North Africa issues in development economics, primarily between 2015 and 2019. She is a leading inter- labor, education, health, and inequality in national development expert with more than 20 the Middle East and North Africa. Current years of experience in public policy, strategic projects include work on refugees, labor leadership, management, and research. In addi- market dynamics, life course transitions, tion to holding numerous senior positions at the human capital accumulation, and fertility. World Bank, she also served as regional director She received her MA in public policy from of the Population Council. Ms. El-Kogali has the University of Minnesota’s Humphrey published and presented widely on human School of Public Affairs and her PhD from development, education, and poverty. She has the Department of Applied Economics at the an MPhil in development studies from the University of Minnesota. University of Sussex and a BA in economics from the University of Pennsylvania. Authors Mariam Nusrat Adil, Education Specialist, World Bank Mohammed Audah, Economist, World Bank May Bend, Consultant, World Bank Maja Capek, Analyst, World Bank Angela Demas, Senior Education Specialist, World Bank Safaa El Tayeb El-Kogali, Education Manager, Eastern and Southern Africa, World Bank Laura Gregory, Senior Education Specialist, World Bank Igor Kheyfets, Senior Economist, World Bank Caroline Krafft, Assistant Professor of Economics, St. Catherine University, St. Paul, MN Almedina Music, Economist, World Bank Samira Nikaein Towfighian, Education Specialist, World Bank Bob Prouty, Consultant Lead Education Specialist, World Bank Manal Bakur N Quota, Education Specialist, World Bank Jamil Salmi, Professor of Higher Education Policy, Diego Portales University, Santiago, Chile Elisabeth Sedmik, Analyst, World Bank Venkatesh Sundararaman, Lead Economist, World Bank Lianqin Wang, Lead Education Specialist, World Bank Noah Yarrow, Senior Education Specialist, World Bank xvii Abbreviations ALMP active labor market policy ALP accelerated learning program CAL computer-assisted learning CCT conditional cash transfer CLA+ Collegiate Learning Assessment COCs conventional online courses CRRF Comprehensive Refugee Response Framework DSAC district and school assistance center E4C Education for Competitiveness ECCE early childhood care and education ECD early childhood development ECE early childhood education EdTech education technology EDUCO Community Managed Schools Program (El Salvador) EGMA Early Grade Mathematics Assessment EGRA Early Grade Reading Assessment EMIS education management information system ESCS economic, social, and cultural status ESP education sector plan GCC Gulf Cooperation Council GDP gross domestic product GER gross enrollment ratio HEART Healing and Education through the Arts for Children HLO harmonized learning outcome xix x x    A b b r e v i a t i o n s IAEP International Assessment of Educational Progress ICT information and communication technology IDA International Development Association IDP internally displaced person IGM intergenerational mobility ILO International Labour Organization ISCED International Standard Classification of Education KPI key performance indicator LaNA Literacy and Numeracy Assessment LOI language of instruction M&E monitoring and evaluation MCL multiclassroom leader MELQO Measuring Early Learning Quality and Outcomes MENA Middle East and North Africa MICS Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey MOE Ministry of Education MOOC massive open online course MSA modern standard Arabic NCHRD National Center for Human Resources Development NDP national development plan NEAs national education accounts NGO nongovernmental organization NIP national infrastructure plan OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development PADILEIA Partnership for Digital Learning and Increased Access PBB performance-based budgeting PIRLS Progress in International Reading Literacy Study PISA Programme for International Student Assessment pre-K prekindergarten SABER Systems Approach for Better Education Results SAR special administrative region SBCC social and behavior change communications SDG Sustainable Development Goal SMART specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound SMC school management committee STEM science, technology, engineering, and mathematics STR student-teacher ratio TALIS Teaching and Learning International Survey TIMSS Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study A b b r e v i a t i o n s   x xi TVET technical and vocational education and training UGSC University Governance Screening Card UIS UNESCO Institute for Statistics UN United Nations UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund UNRWA United Nations Relief and Works Agency USAID U.S. Agency for International Development Overview Safaa El Tayeb El-Kogali ‫ان رصيد أي امة متقدمة هو أبناؤها المتعلمون وان تقدم الشعوب واألمم انما يقاس بمستوى التعليم وانتشاره – شيخ زايد ال نهيان‬ The credit of any developed nation is its educated children, and the advancement of people and nations is measured by the status and reach of their education.   —Shaykh Zayed Alnahyan Education has large untapped returns to education in the labor market are potential for the Middle East and among the lowest in the world (Patrinos 2016). Beyond the labor market, education North Africa in MENA is only weakly associated with Young people in the Middle East and North social outcomes such as civic engagement Africa region (MENA) 1 today have more and participation in community issues, educational opportunities and have attained unlike in other regions (Diwan 2016). higher educational levels than their parents. MENA also has the lowest share of human Among the world’s regions, MENA ranks capital in total wealth globally (Lange, highest in terms of absolute intergenera- Wodon, and Carey 2018). The contribution tional education mobility (Narayan of education to human capital, economic et al. 2018). However, its high levels of growth, and social outcomes is well docu- educational attainment have not translated ­ mented (Becker 1962; Lochner and Moretti into greater income opportunities. 2004; Milligan, Moretti, and Oreopoulos Intergenerational income mobility in MENA 2004; Mincer 1974; OECD 2014; Sala-​ is low. Educational attainment and income i-Martin, Doppelhofer, and Miller 2004). mobility are strongly correlated in most Education has a large, untapped potential to other regions and within the world’s high- contribute to the human capital, well-being, income countries, but not in MENA and wealth of MENA (Lange, Wodon, and (Narayan et al. 2018). Families and individ- Carey 2018). It has been at the heart of the uals invest in education in the hopes of ben- region’s history and civilizations for centuries. efiting from good work opportunities in the In the 20th century, education was central labor market, but in MENA the private to countries’ struggles for independence, 1 2   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations to building modern states and economies, and over the last five decades? More important, to defining national identities. what can MENA countries do to emerge from MENA has made large investments in edu- this impasse and retake their position as lead- cation over the last 50 years and has ers in education and innovation? How can achieved impressive growth in enrollment they unleash the potential of their human rates and gender parity at almost all educa- capital to create prosperous and peaceful tion levels. And yet all MENA ­ countries— societies? regardless of their geography, demography, MENA countries have an opportunity to economy, or society—have not been able to realize the untapped potential of education reap the full personal, social, and economic and fulfill the expectations and aspirations of benefits of education. During these same their young citizens and future generations. 50 years, the Republic of Korea also invested But some hurdles must be overcome. This in its human capital and succeeded in moving report identifies four sets of tensions that are from a low-income country in the early holding back MENA’s education potential: 1960s to one of the top 20 economies in the (1) credentials and skills; (2) discipline and world today. Korea established a world-class inquiry; (3) control and autonomy; and education system, and its students consis- (4) tradition and modernity. These tensions tently rank among the top in international are found within countries, societies, commu- learning assessments. By contrast, MENA nities, and households and are manifested students have consistently ranked among the and reinforced in schools and classrooms. lowest on such assessments. Unless they are addressed, no amount of When asked in a 2017 World Bank MENA investment in education can reap the full ben- Facebook poll whether they thought educa- efits. The report proposes a new framework tion improves their chances in the job market that calls for a concerted push for learning, in their country, 92 percent of respondents a stronger pull for skills, and a new pact for said “No,” and one respondent said, “A thou- education. Despite challenging regional geo- sand ‘no’s.”2 “What is taught in schools and politics, socioeconomic pressures, and global universities has no relationship with work life trends, MENA has the capacity and resources or reality—time wasted in a failed system,” to create education systems that will build its wrote one respondent. “Education in our human capital. country is just to get a credential, and one ends up on a couch or in cafes with no work and a lost future for all students,” wrote Much has changed in MENA— another. Thousands more expressed similar and the world—but education in dissatisfaction with education in their coun- tries. The frustration expressed by the MENA remains stuck Facebook poll respondents is not merely a Today, the 443 million residents of MENA perception; it is the reality facing millions of are enduring a period of pronounced hard- young people in MENA today. This can and ship. Ongoing threats to peace and economic should change. stability are contributing to challenges across Why has MENA not been able to realize many sectors. Economic growth has the potential of education? How did the remained persistently low in the aftermath of region whose educational excellence over five the Arab Spring (World Bank 2015b); youth centuries drove innovation in science and unemployment rates have risen; and the qual- social development and the region that cata- ity of public services has deteriorated (Brixi, lyzed the European Renaissance and scientific Lust, and Woolcock 2015; World Bank revolution (Overbye 2001) become one of the 2013a). Even in relatively stable countries, worst performers in educational outcomes labor market outcomes for the educated today? And why has the region not been able have worsened (El-Araby 2013; Krafft 2017; to improve despite substantial investments Rizk 2016; Salehi-Isfahani, Tunali, and O v e r v i e w   3 Assaad 2009; Tzannatos, Diwan, and Ahad how the education sector interacts with other 2016). Exacerbating these challenges is the sectors, broader socioeconomic and political substantial downturn in the global oil mar- trends, and the behavioral norms and inter- ket, which has placed more pressure on ests of various groups. resource-rich countries (IMF 2017) and has In the 10 years since The Road Not created an even more urgent need to push for Traveled, much has changed in the region and human capital development across MENA. the world, but MENA’s education systems Although MENA countries vary substan- remain stuck, “engineering” to meet the high tially in their economic development, as well demand of a large and growing school-age as in the nature of the social and political population with the same delivery mecha- issues they face, they share many characteris- nisms of previous decades. During this tics and challenges. The Arab countries that decade, MENA countries have spent an aver- form the larger part of MENA share a com- age of 4.5 percent of their national income on mon language and much of their history and education, and more than 15 million addi- culture. Many countries in the region have tional boys and girls have enrolled in school- parallel education histories, which include ing at all levels. 3 At the same time, the some of the earliest universities in the world political economy landscape has changed and substantial historical contributions to drastically. From the 2011 Arab Spring arose human knowledge and development (Abi- a public outcry for better basic services and Mershed 2010; Rugh 2002). More recently, equal opportunities that changed long-­ as a result of similar postindependence trajec- standing dictatorships in the Arab Republic tories, there has been a substantial overlap in of Egypt, Libya, and Tunisia; amended consti- pedagogical methods and labor market issues. tutions in Jordan and Morocco; and altered And throughout the region, education quality the status quo in almost every county in the and learning outcomes have faced many of region. The Syrian Arab Republic and the the same challenges. Republic of Yemen continue to struggle with A decade ago, the World Bank addressed civil war (see box O.1), which has generated the crisis in education quality in MENA in one of the worst refugee crises of all time. It The Road Not Traveled: Education Reform has inflicted great suffering on millions of ref- in the Middle East and North Africa (World ugees across the region and the world and Bank 2008). It noted that MENA countries imposed serious constraints on host commu- had succeeded in engineering an education nities (Brussels Conference 2019; UNHCR system focused mainly on inputs, such as 2019a). building schools, but they had done little to The past 10 years have also been marked change the incentives and behavior of educa- by remarkable technological advances. At the tors. The report proposed a new road toward time of The Road Not Traveled report, the education systems built on improving incen- iPhone was one year old, Twitter was just tak- tives and public accountability, on the one ing off, and Facebook users numbered around hand, and achieving an equilibrium in the 145 million globally (Guardian 2014). By labor market between the supply of educated 2016, there were 107 mobile subscriptions per individuals and labor demand, on the other. 100 persons in MENA countries,4 and by MENA countries have indeed embarked on 2017 there were almost 100 million active numerous reforms in their education sectors, social media users (Radcliffe and Lam 2018). but with little or no success. In some instances, Of the 2.1 billion current Facebook users, the reforms have been piecemeal or uncoordi- more than 100 million are in MENA. The nated or have failed to tackle the fundamental social network WhatsApp, which was issues. In others, they have not been suffi- launched in 2009, has 1.5 billion users glob- ciently funded or communicated to stake- ally. Today, more than two-thirds of young holders. Meanwhile, too often education Arabs use Facebook and WhatsApp. reforms have paid insufficient attention to Furthermore, YouTube, which was three years 4   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations Box O.1  Conflict has taken a large toll on education in MENA MENA has been rattled by violent conflict and pro- receiving countries may not be able to verify the tracted crises for years, forcing millions of people to authenticity of their documents (ESU 2017). leave their homes in search of safety and security. At the tertiary level, only about 5 percent of Although MENA is home to just 6 percent of the Syrian refugees ages 18–24 in host countries across world’s population, it hosts more than a third of the MENA are enrolled in higher education (European world’s refugees and about a quarter of the world’s Commission 2018). Because tertiary education is conflict-related internally displaced persons (IDPs).a not a priority in emergency assistance programs, This situation has put great pressure on the host coun- funding remains a major roadblock (European tries’ education systems. For example, in 2018–19 Commission 2017; Nakweya 2017). Lebanon absorbed almost 213,000 non-Lebanese stu- The education infrastructure and services in dents in public schools, the majority of whom were conflict countries have been heavily affected. For accommodated by opening second shifts in 346 pub- example, in the 16 cities that suffered heavy fight- lic schools across the country (Ministry of Education ing during the war in Iraq, only 38 percent of the and Higher Education, Lebanon 2019). Jordan also total school infrastructure remains intact, and operates 209 public ­double-shift schools and provides 18 percent (190 facilities) was destroyed (World nonformal education services run jointly by interna- Bank 2018b). Two-thirds of schools in the Republic tional organizations and the Ministry of Education of Yemen need repairs (UNICEF 2018). In Syria, (Government of Jordan 2018). In addition to schools, about one-third of school buildings have been dam- host countries face other challenges in providing suit- aged or destroyed, are occupied by parties to the able education services for IDPs. For example, host conflict, or are being used to shelter IDPs (Brussels countries often lack information about the education Conference 2017). systems in refugees’ countries of origin. Refugees also a. See IDMC (2019); UNHCR (2019a, 2019b); UNRWA (2019); World Bank, World may not have the requisite documentation, or the Development Indicators database. old in 2008, currently has 1.5 billion users certain, but its role as a delivery catalyst is an globally, and Saudi Arabia is its biggest mar- opportunity that needs to be leveraged. That ket in per capita consumption. Young Saudi will require investment in human capital, edu- Arabians ages 15–24 spend on average cation, and new skill sets in MENA. 72 minutes a day watching online videos Although much has changed politically, (Radcliffe and Lam 2018). At the same time, economically, and socially in MENA over the the world and the region have seen a sharp last decade, their education systems to a large increase in EdTech—information and com- extent have remained the same. Education munication technology (ICT) applications has the potential to fuel important economic aimed at improving education—­ investments, and social contributions, but its power to cre- which reached a record US$9.5 billion in 2017 ate change depends not only on its quality but (Shulman 2018). Khan Academy, which also on complementary economic and social opened its doors in 2008, uses YouTube to environments and the ability to leverage tech- provide lessons to millions. nology smartly. Meanwhile, technological advances, auto- mation, and innovation are increasingly shap- ing new jobs and changing the nature of work. Four tensions are holding back Although manual manufacturing jobs are being automated, technology has the potential education in MENA to create new jobs and increase productivity The education process consists of a complex (World Bank 2019). The role of technology as set of factors and actors at multiple levels. a demand shaper for the future of work is Factors outside the education system—political, O v e r v i e w   5 economic, and social—formally and infor- FIGURE O.1  Four tensions are holding back education in MENA mally interact with the education system and shape its outcomes. Behavioral norms and Tradition ideological polarization among govern- Credentials Discipline ments, interest groups, and citizens can hold countries back from delivering public goods (World Bank 2016b). In MENA, education has been held back by these complex interac- Classroom School Society Control Education Autonomy tions, behavioral norms, and ideological polarization, which can be captured in four sets of tensions: credentials and skills, disci- pline and inquiry, control and autonomy, Inquiry Skills and tradition and modernity (see ­ figure O.1). These tensions are deeply embedded in the Modernity region’s history, culture, and political econ- Source: World Bank. omy. They are reflected to varying degrees in all countries in the region, and to a large extent they define social and political and modernity. Third, the tensions are nei- ­ relations. They have informed and shaped ther unique to MENA nor time-specific. education policy in MENA countries since Throughout history, countries across the independence, and they are at the heart of world have struggled with these tensions in current national discourses on education defining their goals and policies. Fourth, no reforms. These tensions have held back edu- one position applies to every country or cation systems from evolving and delivering region. Each country, based on its national the skills that prepare students for their development goals and vision, needs to future. Schools and classrooms are the plat- decide where it wants to place its education forms where these tensions are exercised system within these tensions. through curricula, pedagogy, and the norms that define interactions among principals, Credentials and skills teachers, parents, and students. These ten- sions ultimately shape the education out- The tension between credentials and skills comes of young people in MENA and affect has been a source of debate for almost their lives, as well as the economies and soci- 50 years. Since the 1970s, economists and eties in which they live. In an increasingly sociologists have argued about the links connected world, the effects of these tensions between education, skills, and the labor mar- can reach beyond the region’s borders. Unless ket, using numerous theories and models, these tensions are addressed, MENA will not such as Becker’s human capital theory be able to reap the full benefits of education, (Becker 1962), Collins’s credentialist theory no matter how much money is invested. (Collins 1979), and Spence’s signaling model Four features of these tensions are note- (Spence 1973). A credential in the form of a worthy. First, they are not mutually exclu- degree, diploma, or certificate is usually sive, and they coexist along a continuum. associated with the acquisition of a specific The challenge for countries is to determine set of skills or knowledge. In the labor mar- where they want to be on the continuum and ket, credentials signal productivity, based on what balance would be optimal to deliver the assumption that more years of education the desired outcomes. Second, the four ten- are associated with higher productivity (Page sions overlap in some areas and can rein- 2010). Credentials also bestow a certain sta- force each other. For example, notions of tus in society, where a higher degree is asso- control and autonomy could also be associ- ciated with higher status and figures in ated with d ­ iscipline and inquiry or tradition matters such as marriage. 6   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations The history of education as a tool to gener- more generous benefits, and a better work ate bureaucrats for the public sector shaped environment, particularly for women the current structure of the education system (Barsoum 2015). Expectations of the public and labor market in MENA. Public sector sector are also high because employment employment was typically guaranteed for opportunities are often treated as a right, fur- anyone who had a sufficient education cre- ther disconnecting these opportunities from dential—diploma or degree. The requirement education. Several regional constitutions was more for the credential—the diploma or include the “right to work,” engendering a certificate—than for the skills. As a result, common attitude that employment should be MENA countries have become societies in provided by the government and not by the which there is little or no link between educa- private sector (Barsoum 2015). That attitude tion credentials and skills (Assaad, Krafft, is a legacy of the government employment and Salehi-Isfahani 2018). In the meantime, guarantees that were part of the region’s little pressure has been placed on education social contract (Assaad 1997, 2014). The institutions to ensure that credentials mean high wages and outsized role of government that the graduate possesses the relevant skills. employment in MENA crowd out the private Although the size of the public sector as an sector (Behar and Mok 2013; Nabli 2007), employer has declined in many MENA coun- and government strategies to increase high- tries, its legacy continues in the form of a quality private sector employment have “credentialist equilibrium” (Salehi-Isfahani largely failed, resulting in poor or limited 2012). In such an equilibrium, public sector opportunities for new graduates (Dahi 2012; employers communicate a strong demand for Salehi-Isfahani 2012; Springborg 2011) and credentials, and the private sector’s signals for reducing the demand for skills. skills are weak. Responding to market sig- The notion of reducing public sector nals, students and families focus more on the employment, a key aspect of a new Arab credential (degree or diploma) and less on the social contract, has gained little traction in skills and competencies that these credentials the region (Devarajan and Ianchovichina would ideally represent (see figure O.2). 2018). Since the Arab Spring, calls for a new The credentialist equilibrium in MENA social contract have not yielded meaningful countries has been created in part by imbal- change in the role of the public sector. In fact, ances in the labor market, where the large Egypt, Jordan, and Tunisia have all raised public sector is the preferred employer public salaries to stem further protests (Barsoum 2015; World Bank 2013a). In addi- (Capital Economics 2017). While placating tion to higher wages, the desire for public social discontent and temporarily supporting employment is motivated by greater prestige, the economy, this approach also reinforces the notion that public sector employment is the only path to high salaries, career growth, FIGURE O.2  MENA is stuck in a credentialist equilibrium and status within society—and so it will keep the region stuck in a credentialist Education equilibrium. system Strong supply of credentials Strong demand for credentials Discipline and inquiry Private The terms discipline and inquiry have mul- Weak demand for skills employers tiple meanings and uses. Here, discipline is defined as “the practice of training people to Youths and Strong demand Public obey rules or a code of behavior” (Oxford) families employers or “training that corrects, molds, or perfects for credentials the mental faculties or moral character” Source: Adapted from Assaad, Krafft, and Salehi-Isfahani 2018. (Merriam-Webster’s). Inquiry is defined as O v e r v i e w   7 “an examination into facts or principles” FIGURE O.3  MENA students are more likely to be asked to memorize ( Merriam-Webster’s ). In societies with Percentage of grade 8 students asked to memorize science facts and principles for every lesson or almost every lesson, 2015 strong social norms, discipline is a key fac- tor in ensuring adherence to norms. 70 Although discipline in respect and self- 60 58 57 57 60 restraint is important, too much restraint 53 53 49 48 may constrict students’ ability to learn, 50 45 44 42 think, explore ideas, or question concepts. 40 Percent Inquiry, by contrast, allows students to understand their surroundings or contextu- 30 alize concepts through questions and 20 experimentation. Some degree of discipline is important and 10 necessary, but violent discipline5 negatively 0 affects children’s physical, psychological, and p. n a an an p. ain co it s r ta te bi no wa Re Re oc social development and hampers their learn- rd Om Qa ira hr ra ba Ku Jo or b ic iA Ba Em ra Le am M ud ing and school performance, ultimately reduc- t, A ab Isl Sa yp Ar n, ing human capital development (El-Kogali Eg Ira d ite Un and Krafft 2015; UNICEF 2010). Violent child discipline is widespread in MENA. In a International average study of 50 countries, UNICEF (2013) found Source: Martin et al. 2016. that MENA has the highest percentage of children ages 2–14 years who are violently Singapore. Because of the emphasis on memo- disciplined, ranging from 79 to 95 percent rizing rules, procedures, facts, and principles, in Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, Morocco, Syria (pre- students are unable to show a basic under- conflict), Tunisia, West Bank and Gaza, standing of everyday ­ applications. In the 2015 and the Republic of Yemen (El-Kogali and Trends in International Mathematics and Krafft 2015). Science Study (TIMSS), fewer than half of Concepts of discipline and inquiry are Morocco’s grade 4 students could read a basic closely linked to pedagogy and curricula, as graph. And only about 55 percent of Egypt’s well as to the day-to-day interactions of and Saudi Arabia’s grade 8 students could ­ students with teachers; the emphasis on disci- ­ interpret a basic pictogram (Mullis et al. 2016). pline leads to passive learning and memoriza- The overemphasis on memorization of tion. Across MENA, curricula focus heavily on facts, principles, rules, and procedures does rote memorization, leaving little time for the not negate the fact that some knowledge development of critical thinking skills. needs to be retained. Rather, it is a question of According to teachers, the share of grade 8 stu- the degree of emphasis and the overall experi- dents required to memorize mathematics and ence of the child in the classroom. Cognitive science rules, procedures, and facts for all or science provides information that allows a most lessons in many MENA countries is more nuanced understanding of the balance almost twice the international average (see fig- between rote memorization and higher-level ure O.3). The share exceeds 50 percent in processes such as discovery learning. The Egypt, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Jordan, capacity to solve problems and to think criti- Lebanon, Oman, and Saudi Arabia, which is cally about new material depends on back- far above that in many high-performing coun- ground knowledge retained in one’s memory tries. For example, only 10 percent of grade 8 (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006). students in Canada and New Zealand are Repeated reflective practice is fundamental to required to memorize during most mathemat- building flexible knowledge and skills. In ics lessons, 11 percent in Sweden and the addition, students need guidance from teach- United States, and 14 percent in Ireland and ers to develop the knowledge and skills that 8   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations can facilitate independent, complex cognitive over practice; they tend to have outdated cur- work. Therefore, ideally there is a balance ricula focused on theory and memorization, between rote memorization and high-level as opposed to practical knowledge and ana- problem-solving, and, depending on the task lytical reasoning (El Hassan 2013). and level, it is a matter of striking the appro- The tension between discipline and inquiry priate balance. also applies to relationships such as those The tension between discipline and inquiry between teachers and principals and between also reverberates in higher education, where it parents and their children. In many MENA may hamper the push for solution-focused, countries, obedience is viewed as an especially multidisciplinary, high-impact research important quality that children should be (World Bank 2017a). Effective postsecondary encouraged to learn at home. Inquiry-driven education programs emphasize practical qualities, such as imagination and self-­ training instead of theoretical knowledge. expression, are emphasized less often (see fig- Mounting evidence provided by the cognitive ure O.4). Moreover, the tension between and learning sciences indicates that interactive discipline and inquiry is also found in societies approaches facilitate an effective learning with strong social norms for class, gender, or experience (Barkley, Cross, and Major 2005; hierarchy. For example, a recent comprehen- Prince 2004). This combination allows future sive household survey of men and women ages graduates to broaden their perspectives and 18–59 revealed that 90 percent of men and equips them with the skills to enter the labor 58 percent of women in Egypt agree with the market. But postsecondary education pro- statement “A man should have the final word grams in MENA are skewed toward theory about decisions in the home” (UN Women FIGURE O.4  Obedience plays a central role in children’s education in MENA Percentage of survey respondents who mentioned obedience, imagination, or self-expression as especially important qualities that children can be encouraged to learn at home 70 60 50 40 Percent 30 20 10 0 . q ya ait an ria za r p. sia co n ep ta o Ira Re Ga Lib oc rd ge w an ni Qa ,R Ku Tu Jo or b Al b d en ra Le an M m ,A k Ye pt an y tB Eg es W Obedience Imagination Self-expression Source: World Values Survey, Wave 6 (2010–14), from Inglehart et al. 2014. Note: These results are drawn from the following question: “Here is a list of qualities that children can be encouraged to learn at home. Which, if any, do you con- sider to be especially important? Please choose up to five.” Potential answers included independence, hard work, feeling of responsibility, imagination, tolerance and respect for other people, thrift/saving money and things, determination/perseverance, religious faith, unselfishness, obedience, and self-expression. O v e r v i e w   9 and Promundo 2017). Results were similar in There is no magic formula for balancing West Bank and Gaza (80 percent of men and centralized control and autonomy in edu- 48 percent of women) and Morocco (71 per- cation. It must be determined within the cent of men and 47 percent of women). These country context, with size, geography, and social norms may negatively affect the atti- population distribution playing important tudes of girls and women toward inquiry and roles in the decision. What is important is their right to ask questions both at home finding the balance in defining the roles and and in other settings such as school, university, responsibilities of institutional actors (for or work. example, the central government, local government, and communities) and defin- ing the locus of control of the education Control and autonomy processes and mechanisms used to steer the The tension between control and autonomy is system (World Bank 2005). In other words, usually associated with the debate on decen- the balance between central control and tralization of services and the balance of autonomy should reflect the roles and power between central ministries, regional responsibilities of central versus local gov- offices, and schools. The goal of decentraliza- ernance and political versus professional tion is typically to improve governance by power and accountability. fostering autonomy, accountability, and Limited autonomy at the school and class- responsiveness to local conditions and needs. room levels can constrain efforts by princi- These attributes can improve student learn- pals and teachers to be proactive in the ing. Over the last few decades, several MENA learning process and prevent them from tak- countries experimented with some aspects of ing responsibility for student learning out- decentralization, deconcentration, and devo- comes if they consider themselves as merely lution of authority from the central to the implementing a centralized approach regional and school levels, but their education (Karami Akkary 2014). Teachers in MENA systems remain highly centralized. The suc- have far less decision-­ making responsibility cess of attempted decentralization has varied. than those in member countries of the In some instances, the decision-making power Organisation for Economic Co-operation was authorized but was not supported by and Development (OECD) (see figure O.5). the resources needed to implement decisions. Studies in the Islamic Republic of Iran, For example, decentralization in Egypt in Jordan, and Kuwait have found that central 2002–07 was not supported by sufficient authorities maintain strict control of curricu- financial resources (Ginsburg et al. 2010). lar content and teaching practices, leaving Decentralization in Saudi Arabia in the 2000s little autonomy for teachers (Afshar and appears to have been adequately funded, but Doosti 2016; Al-Yaseen and Al-Musaileem the tasks and duties transferred to the local 2015; Namaghi 2009; World Bank 2015a). level were more administrative than geared Limited autonomy among teachers com- toward the development of local schools promises job satisfaction and the develop- (Almannie 2015). In other instances, a decen- ment of student skills, in part because it tralized model was rolled out in a policy impedes the ability of teachers to teach to the without putting in place the capacity to carry right level for their students, a critical element out the decentralized functions at the regional of effective teaching (Evans and Popova or school level. For example, Morocco’s 2015). Limited autonomy at the regional, regional academies for education and training provincial, and school levels for the hiring (académies régionales d’éducation et de for- and deployment of teachers also limits the mation) were only granted autonomy to man- ability to match teacher characteristics better age some logistical and financial decisions with teaching needs. based on guidelines provided by the central Greater autonomy in higher education government (World Bank 2015d). institutions tends to be associated with better 1 0   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations FIGURE O.5  Teachers in MENA have less autonomy than teachers accountability mechanisms. When autonomy in OECD countries and accountability are combined well, they Percentage of 15-year-old students attending schools in which teachers have tend to be associated with better student per- considerable responsibility for instructional decisions, PISA 2015 formance (OECD 2011b). Schools with more 90 autonomy over teaching content, student 80 assessment, and resource allocation tend to 70 perform better than those with less autonomy. 60 Ultimately, MENA school systems must find Percent 50 the balance between control and autonomy 40 that will best support learning and provide 30 schools with the resources and flexibility to 20 10 establish and achieve ambitious goals for stu- 0 dent learning. Tunisia Jordan Algeria Qatar United Lebanon OECD Arab Emirates Tradition and modernity Student disciplinary policies Student assessment policies According to some scholars, the greatest Course content Textbooks challenge MENA countries face is aligning Source: OECD 2016a. the development needs of a modern world Note: OECD = Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development; PISA = Programme for International Student Assessment. and the moral imperatives of a religious soci- ety, resulting in tension between modernity and tradition (Cook 2000). The focus on tra- performance (Aghion et al. 2009; World Bank dition versus modernity, or the forces of 2011). However, most universities in MENA change, can result in conflicts within educa- have very limited autonomy over academic, tion processes (Massialas and Jarrar 1987). staffing, and financial matters. In 2012 the This tension can be captured in the definition World Bank benchmarked the governance and purpose of education. In Arabic, ­taaleem practices of 100 universities in Algeria, Egypt, (education) comes from the root word ilm Iraq, Lebanon, Morocco, Tunisia, and West (knowledge). The plural of ilm is uloom, Bank and Gaza (World Bank 2013c). which also means science or sciences. Institutional autonomy was very low among Taaleem encompasses both learning and public universities, with the local or central teaching—the acquisition and provision of government making decisions about matters knowledge or science. Education in Arabic is such as the academic program, hiring teach- also tarbiya, which refers to education in the ing faculty, and fundraising. Private universi- sense of growing or rearing. Its root word, ties, by contrast, enjoyed much greater rabba, means raising or bringing up. Taaleem autonomy across all seven MENA economies and tarbiya have meanings similar to those surveyed (World Bank 2013c). In a follow-up of the Latin words educere—to lead forth survey in 2016, autonomy did not seem to and to train—and educare—to rear and to have changed much for both public and pri- educate (Bass and Good 2004; Cook 1999). vate universities (World Bank 2017b). 6 At the center of the debate on tradition A comparison of self-assessment and actual and modernity is the extent to which educa- scores revealed that public institutions per- tion should focus on the acquisition of knowl- ceive their autonomy to be higher than the edge or science ( taaleem ) versus the autonomy score in the external evaluation, acquisition of values (tarbiya). This question whereas private universities have a more is reflected in the evolution of the names given accurate perception of their autonomy (World to ministries of education in MENA coun- Bank 2017b). tries. Names have shifted between ministries Greater autonomy at a decentralized of tarbiya and ministries of taaleem, with level requires capacity, resources, and some countries settling on both names as O v e r v i e w   1 1 ministries of tarbiya and taaleem.7 When edu- These fears led to the release of the Imperial cation ministries were established in the mid- Rescript of Education in 1890, emphasizing dle of the 20th century after independence in Japanese values and Confucian virtues. Since most MENA countries, they were called min- then, Japanese education policy has main- istries of maarif—plural of maarifa (knowl- tained a balance between retaining ­ traditional edge) . Egypt, for example, began with Japanese values while adapting aspects of the the Ministry of Maarif and then shifted to world’s best education systems (OECD the Ministry of Taaleem. Currently, it is the 2011a). Ernst Friedrich Schumacher, a British Ministry of Tarbiya and Taaleem. The change economist in the 1970s, argued that the pur- was a deliberate decision made during the pose of education is to transmit the values tenure of President Jamal Abdel Nasser, who “through which we look at, interpret, and regarded education as the process required to experience the world” and that science “can- form the complete person and to shape the not produce ideas by which we could live . . . Egyptian identity (Ahramonline 2015). and is completely inapplicable to the conduct The values and principles reflected in edu- of our lives or the interpretation of the cation in MENA are shaped by national dis- world” (Schumacher 1973). He believed that courses usually dominated by elites and education was of no value if it did not trans- powerful groups. Classrooms and curricula mit fundamental convictions. In other words, become the platforms on which the struggle the purpose of education could be better between modernity and tradition are played understood not as taaleem but essentially as out. The tension between tradition and tarbiya. modernity in defining the purpose of educa- The traditional values and fundamental tion is prevalent not only in MENA. convictions of MENA countries were estab- Throughout history, countries worldwide lished in Islam, which represents the founda- have struggled to modernize while maintain- tion of national identity.8 These values and ing their cultural norms, values, and tradi- convictions are at the heart of education. The tions, with education as the mechanism. In proportion of instructional time devoted to Japan, when the Meiji government (1868– religious education in most MENA countries 1912) implemented reforms based on is well above the average time that OECD Western models of education, Japanese countries spend on religious, ethics, and moral feared their identity and values would be lost. education (see figure O.6). For example, FIGURE O.6  Substantial time is devoted to religious education in MENA Percentage of instructional time allocated to religious education in grade 1 of primary school 30 28 25 20 18 15 Percent 15 15 15 13 12 10 10 9 7 6 5 5 0 Yemen, Saudi Morocco Oman Iraq Kuwait Bahrain United Egypt, Djibouti Algeria Tunisia Rep. Arabia Arab Arab Rep. Emirates OECD average Sources: OECD 2017a for OECD average (refers to all grades of primary school); UNESCO 2011 for Algeria (2004), Bahrain (2004), Djibouti (2008), Iraq (2011), Kuwait (2004), Oman (2004), Tunisia (2008), and the Republic of Yemen (2004); World Bank calculations using various online sources for the Arab Republic of Egypt (2014), Morocco (2016), Saudi Arabia (2017), and the United Arab Emirates (2016). Note: OECD = Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. 1 2   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations based on the most recent comparable infor- A new framework is needed to mation available, grade 1 students in Bahrain, Iraq, Kuwait, Morocco, Oman, Saudi Arabia, realize education’s potential the United Arab Emirates, and the Republic in MENA of Yemen spend more than double the OECD To realize the potential of education, MENA average of 5 percent. Religious education also countries need to tackle the four tensions and reflects traditional teaching practices that establish an education system that prepares focus on memorization. The foundations of all students for a productive and successful rote learning in MENA can be linked to the future. Such a system would be modern and oral tradition among Arabs that predates flexible and would nurture a culture of excel- Islam, which has also been used to preserve lence and creativity in learning. It also would and spread Islamic teachings. leverage disruptive technologies and adopt It it is up to countries to determine the val- modern approaches so it can offer young peo- ues they want to bestow on their citizens. ple the skills they need to define their trajecto- However, it is important to recognize the ries in life and adapt to local, national, and trade-offs in terms of the time distribution global changes. Finally, it would be based on between subjects; more time on religious a shared national vision and would connect studies reduces the time allocated to other with the overall development goals of the subjects such as math and science. It is also country. All of society would be responsible important to recognize the impact of tradi- for ensuring its success. To establish such a tional modes of teaching on learning. In many system, MENA countries need to adopt a new countries, attempts to reform the education framework for education—one that includes system have been opposed as an attempt to a concerted push for learning, a wide-­ reaching change the national character. In Jordan, for pull for skills, and a new pact for education example, the introduction of curriculum (see figure O.7). The remainder of this chapter reforms sparked public outrage, mainly by describes the actions needed to implement conservative religious groups whose members this framework. characterized the reforms as an attempt to Related to this effort, the World Bank’s undermine the kingdom’s Islamic values and World Development Report 2018 highlights character (Kirdar 2017). Similarly, in Kuwait the global learning crisis (World Bank 2018e). various groups have protested ongoing cur- It sheds light on the dimensions of the crisis riculum reforms as the imposition of imported and proposes a way forward that is well concepts. aligned with the push, pull, and pact frame- Modernity does not mean importing a spe- work described here. It further reinforces the cific model. In many MENA countries, importance of all stakeholders working modernity is associated with foreign models together to promote a focus on learning and and approaches and is used by both the skills (see box O.2). p roponents and opponents of change. ­ Modernization is a process by which social FIGURE O.7  “Push, pull, and pact” offers a new norms evolve and are renewed; modernity can framework for education in MENA take multiple forms. The issue is not replacing tradition with one form of modernity. Rather, A stronger pull for skills it is allowing review of the traditional prac- tices and norms that are holding back the A new pact potential of education and engaging in a pro- for education cess of renewal. Modernity is inevitable as the world changes. MENA countries need to pre- pare their students with the knowledge, skills, A stronger push for learning and values to engage with, adapt to, and suc- ceed in a changing world. Source: World Bank. O v e r v i e w   1 3 Box O.2  World Development Report 2018: Learning to Realize Education’s Promise There is nothing inevitable about low learning in which the elements cohere and everything aligns low- and middle-income countries. When improv- with learning. The payoff to these efforts is edu- ing learning is a priority, great progress is possible, cation that delivers for growth and development. as evidenced by success stories such as Korea. To do Countries have already made a start by getting so better, a nation must (1) assess learning, to make it many children and youths into school. Now is the a serious goal; (2) act on evidence, to make schools time to realize education’s promise by accelerating work for all learners; and (3) align actors, to make learning for all. the whole system work for learning. Together, these three policy actions can deliver a system in Source: World Bank 2018e. Push for learning increased across MENA, with several coun- tries reaching an average that is close to a full Focus on learning, not just on schooling cycle of primary and secondary education. The potential of education is achieved only However, when the number of actual years of when it confers the skills and knowledge that schooling is adjusted for learning, the number constitute human capital. In fact, the skills of effective years of schooling in MENA is on conferred through learning—not the years of average 2.9 less than the number of actual schooling—are what determine education’s years of schooling. In other words, the poor contribution to economic growth (see quality of education in MENA is equivalent figure O.8) (Barro and Lee 2013; Hanushek ­ to approximately three lost years of educa- and Woessmann 2008; World Bank 2018e). tion. For example, in 2010 young adults in MENA has succeeded in providing school- Jordan had on average 11 years of schooling, ing; now it needs to achieve learning. The the same as Kazakhstan and New Zealand number of actual years of schooling has (see figure O.9). After adjusting for learning, FIGURE O.8  What matters for growth is skills Annual average per capita growth in GDP, 1970–2015, conditional on test scores, years of schooling completed, and initial GDP per capita, selected countries a. Test scores and growth b. Years of schooling and growth (conditional on initial GDP per capita and years of schooling) (conditional on initial GDP per capita and test scores) Annual GDP per capita growth (percent) Annual GDP per capita growth (percent) 3 3 y = 0.00 + 0.07 x t = 0.82 2 2 R2 = 0.02 1 1 0 0 –1 y = 0.00 + 1.59 x –2 t = 7.39 –1 R2 = 0.55 –3 –2 –1.5 –1.0 –0.5 0 0.5 1.0 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 Test scores Years of schooling Source: World Bank 2018e, fig. 1.5. 1 4   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations FIGURE O.9  When adjusted for learning, the number of years of effective schooling in MENA drops substantially Actual years and learning-adjusted years of schooling of young people, ages 25–29 a. Actual years of schooling 16 14 15 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 14 14 14 12 12 12 12 13 11 11 11 12 12 12 10 10 10 11 11 11 11 Number of years 9 10 10 8 8 9 8 6 6 6 4 2 0 ain So No ana ve a Bo aila . h A ay w ord a Ka Zea an Lit hst d hu an Fe C ia r e ed a en ala ly Ire nia ng d Isr ry ite Mal l d Ja ta ng n SA Sta a Ko gap ina hr t Ira t, A es Isl ab ia Th Re . a, e Ku cco Sin , Ch es p. tsw nd str n ab Tu tar Ko nit Can om Eg Sau mir key ic p p ae Ba wai Slo ysi Ne J fric Sw ali ng ed ad de hil re or Ki pa za lan Hu lan Au atio M Ita an n, Ar rab am Re Re a yp di at R t ut rw a d o E r Q or k M ian Ar ng U Un d ss ite Ru Un Ho b. Learning-adjusted years of schooling 16 14 14 14 13 13 12 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 11 11 11 9 10 10 10 Number of years 10 9 9 9 8 8 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 4 4 2 0 tsw ain t, A Tu na ve a ga ep. Sa K cco ra t So Q bia r Ba frica Ira rab Jo ep. Isl i an ail p. w orw e y ala d Ka ithu sia kh ia n ian S stra y Fe we lia ra n M n a ng el d rel ry ng d St da Ko R, C an Sin a, R a re ic es d b y ni Ca om SA Ja es h A ta i A ai Ze a l ra rke Slo alt ni re hin Ne N Chil sta de de tio M alan Ki an an Au Ita za an Hu Isra Th Re ite I a po am rat at a n, Em rd p te na ud uw L y ut a Bo hr R d o or d M ng yp U A Un Ko Eg ss d ite Ru ng Un Ho Sources: World Bank 2018e, based on 2010 data from Barro and Lee 2013 and TIMSS 2015 (Mullis et al. 2016). Note: For the purposes of this illustration, years of schooling are adjusted using the grade 8 mathematics results from the 2015 Trends in International Math- ematics and Science Study (TIMSS). Results are compared with those of Singapore (highest-scoring economy). The figure highlights, as an example, that Jordan has actual years of schooling similar to those of Kazakhstan and New Zealand (around 11 years in each country), but students in Jordan attain 2 to 3 fewer years of learning in these 11 years than students in the two other countries. Jordan had two to three years less learning table O.1. Only 42 percent of grade 8 stu- than New Zealand and Kazakhstan. dents in Egypt had a basic understanding of MENA’s learning crisis is apparent across ­ science (Martin et al. 2016). In Morocco, primary and secondary grades and across only 36 percent of grade 4 students reached different subject areas. No MENA country minimum levels of reading literacy. came close to the international medians According to the results of the 2015 for the percentage of students reaching Programme for International Student the low international benchmarks of the Assessment (PISA), students age 15 in recent TIMSS and Progress in International Algeria, Jordan, Lebanon, Qatar, Tunisia, Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS)—see and the United Arab Emirates are on average O v e r v i e w   1 5 TABLE O.1  MENA countries have some of the lowest results on international student assessments Percentage of students reaching low international benchmarks of performance on TIMSS 2011 and 2015 and PIRLS 2011 and 2016 Mathematics (TIMSS) Grade 4 Grade 8 Country 2011 2015 Country 2011 2015 International median 90 93 International median 75 84 Bahraina 67 72 Bahraina 53 75 United Arab Emiratesa 64 68 United Arab Emirates 73 73 Iran, Islamic Rep. 64 65 Lebanon 73 71 Qatara 55 65 Iran, Islamic Rep.a 55 63 Omana 46 60 Qatara 54 63 Saudi Arabiab 55 43 Omana 39 52 Moroccoa 26 41 Egypt, Arab Rep. n.a. 47 Kuwaitb 30 23 Jordanb 55 45 Moroccoa 36 41 Kuwait n.a. 37 Saudi Arabiab 47 34 Science (TIMSS) Grade 4 Grade 8 Country 2011 2015 Country 2011 2015 International median 92 95 International median 79 84 Bahrain 70 72 United Arab Emirates 75 76 United Arab Emiratesa 61 67 Bahraina 70 73 Qatara 50 64 Iran, Islamic Rep.b 79 73 Iran, Islamic Rep.b 72 61 Omana 59 72 Omana 45 61 Qatara 58 70 Saudi Arabiab 63 48 Jordanb 72 63 Moroccoa 16 35 Lebanon 54 50 Kuwaitb 37 25 Kuwait n.a. 49 Saudi Arabiab 68 49 Moroccoa 39 47 Egypt, Arab Rep. n.a. 42 Reading (PIRLS) Grade 4 Country 2011 2016 International median 95 96 United Arab Emiratesa 64 68 Qatara 60 66 Iran, Islamic Rep.b 76 65 Saudi Arabia 65 63 Omana 47 59 Moroccoa 21 36 Sources: Mullis et al. 2016, 2017. Note: The international medians for 2011 and 2016 cannot be compared because the set of countries in each year is not the same. PIRLS = Progress in International Reading Literacy Study; TIMSS = Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study; n.a. = not applicable (the Arab Republic of Egypt and Kuwait did not participate in TIMSS for grade 8 in 2011). a. Statistically significant increase between 2011 and 2015/2016. b. Statistically significant decrease between 2011 and 2015/2016. 1 6   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations two to four years of schooling behind the Prioritize the early years to build the member countries of the OECD in applying foundations for learning their knowledge and competencies in read- Start from early childhood ing, mathematics, and science to real-world The period from before birth to approxi- situations. Algeria and Lebanon, both par- mately 6 years of age, when the brain under- ticipating in PISA for the first time in 2015, goes its greatest development, is critical to found that more than two-thirds of their stu- children’s development (Berlinski and Schady dents did not meet a basic proficiency level 2015; Heckman 2006; Leseman 2002). in science, reading, and mathematics. In these years, more than 1 million new neu- Low learning outcomes in MENA coun- ral connections are formed every second. It is tries call for a push across several aspects of also during this period that the building the educational process. To undertake a push blocks of the brain are formed and the child’s for learning, countries need to focus on seven environment stimulates brain development key areas: (Center on the Developing Child 2009; 1. Building the foundational skills—from Shonkoff and Garner 2012). Children’s early early childhood development through the environments and experiences, particularly early grades of school—needed for future the parenting they experience, are major learning and success. contributors to their early cognitive develop- 2. Ensuring that teachers and school leaders, ment (Paxson and Schady 2007). Parenting who are the most important inputs to the and developmental interventions, especially learning process, are qualified, well selected, those targeting disadvantaged children, can effectively utilized, and incentivized to con- have large (arguably the largest) impacts on tinue to develop professionally. human capital (Hamadani et al. 2006; 3. Modernizing pedagogy and instructional Heckman 2006; Temple and Reynolds practices to promote inquiry, creativity, 2007). Early childhood development (ECD) and innovation. programs—including in-home programs, 4. Addressing the language of instruction centers, and preprimary (kindergarten) challenge given the gap between spoken education—can play an important role in ­ Arabic and modern standard Arabic. The human capital accumulation prior to pri- close connection among language, reli- mary school. However, the impact of ECD gion, and national identity makes it diffi- programs depends on their quality and may cult to make a regional recommendation. be greater for disadvantaged children Even though this phenomenon is a regional (Berlinski, Galiani, and Gertler 2009; one, it manifests itself in many different Berlinski, Galiani, and Manacorda 2008; ways in different countries. Hence, it needs Bouguen et al. 2013; Hazarika and Viren to be addressed with a very specific for- 2013; Jung and Hasan 2014; Temple and mula in each country. Reynolds 2007; Vegas and Santibáñez 2010). 5. Applying learning assessments that regu- Because of the importance of early devel- larly monitor student progress to ensure opment, the largest and most cost-effective that students are learning. impacts of public investment in education 6. Giving all children, regardless of back- can be realized in the early stages of life. ground or ability, an opportunity to Investments made during the early years yield learn—a requirement for raising learning the highest return in terms of future produc- outcomes at the national level. tivity by laying the foundation for cognitive 7. Leveraging technology to enhance the and socioemotional skills (World Bank delivery of education and promote learn- 2018a). By contrast, if developmental growth ing among students and educators and is not supported from an early age, children preparing students for an increasingly may arrive at school well behind their peers. digital world. The opportunity costs of making up lost O v e r v i e w   1 7 ground in later years through remedial edu- MENA has not invested sufficiently in cation can be high. To take full advantage of ECD. As a result, most children begin school the high returns to ECD, governments need unprepared to learn. Gross enrollment ratios to expand access to high-quality ECD pro- percent, in preprimary education are just 31 ­ grams, which include prenatal and neonatal lower than in many other regions and with nutrition, health, and parenting interven- wide differences between countries (see fig- tions as well as socioemotional and cognitive ures O.10 and O.11). Moreover, MENA also stimulation in the early years. has the lowest public provision of FIGURE O.10  Preprimary enrollments are lower in MENA than in many other regions Preprimary gross enrollment ratios, 1976, 1996, and 2016 100 80 79 73 74 60 59 60 Percent 50 49 40 31 33 28 30 22 20 18 13 15 14 15 14 11 9 9 0 East Asia and Latin America MENA Sub-Saharan Europe and South Asia World Paci c and Caribbean Africa Central Asia 1976 1996 2016 Source: World Bank EdStats database (http://datatopics.worldbank.org/education/), based on data from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics. FIGURE O.11  Large differences in preprimary enrollment ratios are found across MENA Preprimary gross enrollment ratio 100 86 82 79 80 68 60 57 60 55 54 51 50 Percent 44 40 35 31 30 25 20 7 6 2 0 ) ) 1) ) ) 6) 6) 6) 5) sia 6) 6) yp MEN 17) 6) ) ou 16) 7) ep 3) 6) ira 016 16 Qa 016 Om 016 16 01 1 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 1 01 20 0 20 0 0 20 (2 (2 (2 2 (2 2 am za (2 (2 2 (2 (2 . (2 2 (2 . (2 s( r( ( ( ( a( c( on ria it an k a ain p. co an A ti p ta te i bi wa l Re Re Ga b oc rd ge an ni hr ,R ra pu jib Ku Tu Jo or ic b iA Al b Ba d en Em Re ra Le D n M ud m t, A ab b Isl Ye Sa ra an Ar n, nA tB Eg Ira d te ria es i W Un Sy Sources: For all except Jordan, World Bank EdStats database (http://datatopics.worldbank.org/education/), based on data from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics. For Jordan, Queen Rania Center at the Jordan Ministry of Education, provided in August 2018. Note: Data are for the latest available year between 2011 and 2017. 1 8   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations preprimary education, with only 29 percent piloting and scaling up of early learning of preprimary enrollment in public p ­ rograms, programs. compared with 71 percent in ­ private pre- The expansion of compulsory preprimary schools and nurseries (El-Kogali and Krafft education in Argentina in the 1990s is a good 2015). example of how a country can successfully Expanding ECD coverage is not enough; raise student learning outcomes in the early quality matters. High-quality ECD programs years (by grade 3). A study revealed that add- can boost children’s intellectual and social ing one year of preprimary school in Argentina development, preparing them to enter pri- increased the average grade 3 test scores by mary school ready to learn (Heckman 2006). 8 percent of the mean (Berlinski, Galiani, and Ample evidence shows that quality preschool Gertler 2009). Examples of excellence in education programs geared especially toward expanding quality ECE provision can also be disadvantaged children have a positive impact found in MENA countries. For example, in on beneficiaries’ earnings and even reduce the United Arab Emirates universalization of crime (Elango et al. 2015; Schweinhart et al. preschool education is among the top key per- 2005). These programs are also more cost- formance indicators of its ambitious Vision effective than other education interventions, 2021 national agenda. The country is on pace such as reductions in class size, and help to to reach a goal of enrolling 95 percent of its close performance gaps in socioeconomic sta- children in preschool by 2021, an increase of tus, ethnicity, and geographic origin (Glewwe more than 30 percentage points since the 2013; Heckman 2006). 1990s (see box O.3). MENA countries should accelerate the Children also develop their socioemotional expansion of access to high-quality prepri- skills and behaviors during the early pre- mary education. Because few data are avail- school years. Their attitudes are shaped by able on early childhood education (ECE) their environment at home and school and programs implemented in MENA countries, by their interactions with parents, siblings, it is difficult to determine whether the existing and teachers. Children develop cognitively, services are of high quality. Governments socially, and emotionally by engaging in should focus on measuring child development development activities with their families. outcomes and early learning environments to Reading, playing, looking at picture books, identify drivers of ECE quality in their respec- singing songs, and other activities all help tive contexts. Building on rigorous evidence, children grow and learn and have been shown they can make informed decisions on the to have a positive link to cognitive test scores Box O.3  Prioritizing early childhood education in the United Arab Emirates Embedded in its national goal of developing a first- ratio in the United Arab Emirates was at 82 percent. rate education system, the United Arab Emirates is The United Arab Emirates is therefore at the top of expanding access to preschool so that all children MENA in terms of preschool enrollment and shows receive a solid foundation for learning from an early a vast improvement from enrollment rates of less age. As part of its ambitious Vision 2021 national than 30 percent in the 1970s and 60 percent in the agenda, the country has set a target for 2021 of 1990s. 95 percent enrollment in preschools for the coun- Sources: United Arab Emirates National Agenda and Vision 2021, presentation, try’s children, and it is well on track to reach that http://www.rwadubai.com/media/2578/uae-national-agenda.pdf; World Bank, arget. As of 2016, the gross preprimary enrollment t­ Education Statistics (EdStats) database. O v e r v i e w   1 9 in young children and to promote school single word of connected text after more than readiness (El-Kogali and Krafft 2015). two full years of school (USAID 2018). In Various interventions have proven to be effec- Kuwait, Morocco, and Saudi Arabia, less tive and scalable in helping parents to engage than 50 percent of grade 4 students in 2015 with their children and promote their devel- had basic mathematical knowledge as mea- opment. Jordan’s Better Parenting project sured by TIMSS, while across all participating engaged parents and communities—including countries 93 percent of grade 4 students had imams—to raise awareness of better parent- mastered these basic mathematical skills ing. In Turkey, a program targeting mothers (Martin et al. 2016; Mullis et al. 2016, 2017). addressed parent-child interactions and pro- Early grade reading interventions can vided lessons on positive discipline. In Brazil, make a substantial difference. A review of 18 workshops involving mothers and home visits early grade reading programs found that showed positive results. Outreach through almost all were effective, and many were different media—such as radio, television, highly cost-effective (Graham and Kelly and print—to communicate about ECD can 2018). Several countries in MENA have made help to reduce violent discipline and promote concerted efforts to address literacy during children’s development (Eickmann et al. the early grades. Piloting early childhood and 2003; Kagitcibasi, Sunar, and Bekman 2001; early grade interventions to identify which Naudeau et al. 2011, cited in El-Kogali and successfully boost children’s foundational Krafft 2015). skills is an effective strategy to maximize the use of scarce resources. Measuring early Build foundational skills in the first three childhood development outcomes using early grades of school grade literacy and numeracy assessments can Because many children in MENA have a shed further light on the key drivers of early poor start to their formal education by not learning and help to identify gaps in the devel- being developmentally on track in preread- opment of key foundational skills from a ing skills, it is vital that the early grades of young age. school emphasize these important founda- To enhance children’s readiness to learn, tional skills. Basic reading, writing, numer- education policies in MENA could aim to acy, and socioemotional skills lay the align preprimary schooling with primary edu- foundation for learning throughout a child’s cation to ensure a smooth transition for life and into adulthood. Children lacking young children. Entering primary classrooms these skills are at risk of falling behind, where a different educational philosophy (or becoming disengaged from school, and not language of instruction) is practiced can be a acquiring the more advanced skills increas- difficult transition for young children. Moving ingly demanded in today’s labor market. from play-based, collaborative, child-centered Ultimately, if children lack the foundational learning—often conducted in a child’s mother skills that should be developed in the early tongue—to traditional teacher-centered grades of school, they cannot take advantage instruction—often in modern standard of the benefits that their education could Arabic (MSA)—can undermine the positive provide. impacts of even the most successful ECE pro- Many children in MENA remain illiterate grams. Therefore, aligning preschool and pri- and innumerate after two or three years of mary grade instructional styles is important, schooling. The Early Grade Reading with both focusing on developmentally Assessment (EGRA) revealed that more than appropriate teaching and learning techniques. one in three grade 2 children in Iraq, For example, the United Arab Emirates is in Morocco, and the Republic of Yemen could the process of aligning grades 1 and 2 of pri- not read a single word of connected text. By mary school with preprimary education, grade 3, this proportion had dropped, but still which consists of two years of kindergarten, more than one in six children could not read a to create a holistic ECE cycle covering all 2 0   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations children from ages 0 to 8. Finland, New school leadership is second only to class- Zealand, and various other OECD countries room teaching in its impact on student have undertaken similar efforts to align early l earning (Jensen, Downing, and Clark ­ childhood education with learning in the 2017a; Leithwood, Harris, and Hopkins early grades (OECD 2012b, 2017c). 2008; Leithwood and Mascall 2008). Select and support the best teachers and Select, prepare, support, empower, and school leaders motivate effective teachers and school It is paramount that education systems leaders recruit, train, and support those men and Effective teachers and school leaders have a women who have the greatest potential to be profound impact on students’ learning and effective teachers and school leaders. These their educational and career aspirations. systems must also provide for ongoing career Effective teachers are those who are knowl- development and upskilling to ensure that edgeable in both pedagogy and their subject the best teachers remain in the classrooms areas, who adapt and innovate their teaching and that classrooms and schools are provid- practices to facilitate students’ critical think- ing the most up-to-date and effective teach- ing, and who support learning for students ing practices and learning environments. with different learning styles (Hightower Attracting and selecting highly qualified et al. 2011; Metzler and Woessmann 2012; candidates to enter initial teacher education OECD 2012a). School leaders have an indi- programs are the first step in the long-term rect but powerful effect on student achieve- process of building an effective teaching force ment through their interactions with teachers (see box O.4). International experience points and their role in shaping school culture to the importance of establishing high stan- (Pont, Nusche, and Moorman 2008; dards to ensure that the best candidates are Witziers, Bosker, and Kruger 2003). Evidence selected for initial teacher education programs shows that teacher effectiveness is the most and that these candidates have a reasonable important school-related factor influencing opportunity to be hired after graduation student achievement (Darling-Hammond (Barber and Mourshed 2007; Bruns and 2000; Hanushek 2005; Mourshed, Chijioke, Luque 2015). In most MENA countries, the and Barber 2010), and among school factors screening process for initial teacher education Box O.4  Attracting the best students to teaching depends on the right policies and programs Attracting and retaining the best students into the in salaries over time is relatively modest. After teaching profession depends on policies and pro- 15 years, teachers can expect to earn only between grams such as scholarships and tuition support, 1.2 and 1.5 times their initial salaries (World Bank opportunities to progress and grow in the teach- 2015e). Such compressed salary scales within the ing career, competitive salaries, and other benefits teaching career in MENA may negatively affect such as housing assistance (World Bank 2013d). how appealing the teaching profession is to talented Moreover, it is critical to attract the candidates who candidates. In such instances, policies that address want to make teaching a profession rather than use it wage compression could be fundamental to improv- as a ticket for a public sector job. ing the quality of teaching. Recognizing this link, In some MENA countries, teachers are offered Jordan has embarked on a reform to decompress the competitive starting packages, but the increase salary scales for teachers (World Bank 2016a). O v e r v i e w   2 1 is dependent on test scores from secondary teaching qualifications. In Lebanon, leadership school graduation examinations (World Bank training programs are the main preparation 2015c). However, the scores needed to accept route to becoming a principal. Principals must students in the education field are lower than pass an interview and a yearlong training pro- those in other fields. In Egypt, for example, gram in leadership and supervision. Egypt has the required secondary school passing grade rigorous professional requirements: all school on the national examination for admission principals must have a minimum of 15 years of into education and literature majors is 75–85, teaching experience and a minimum of five whereas it is 80–88 for science and mathe- years of administrative experience. Candidates matics majors and 96–98 for medical school for the position of principal must hold a ter- (World Bank 2010). Although test scores are tiary education degree and are required to com- necessary, they are not a sufficient basis for plete specific training. They also must pass a selection. Other criteria—­ such as creativity, written test, successfully complete a supervised engagement with education issues, and ability internship, and participate in an induction and to work well with others—are important mentoring program (Mullis et al. 2016). traits to consider. Where credentials do not appropriately Many MENA countries are raising the capture skills—one of the four tensions in qualifications to enter the teaching profession MENA—the risk of not selecting the most by requiring a bachelor’s degree, with some qualified teachers and school leaders is high. raising the required level to a master’s degree. This disconnect could jeopardize student However, most MENA countries do not learning. In many developed education sys- apply hiring criteria and processes that look tems, rigorous processes are in place for beyond academic degrees to assess candi- selecting the best-performing graduates of dates’ subject knowledge and pedagogical initial teacher education programs for teach- ­ and other skills. A teaching credential should ing positions, often requiring them to hold signify strong knowledge of subject-matter certificates or licenses. Some of the oldest and content and the teaching skills to deliver this most established licensing systems are in the content effectively while addressing specific United States, where state teaching licenses learning challenges (Loughran, Berry, and ensure a consistent set of standards with a Mulhall 2012; Shulman and Shulman 2004; certain level of teaching proficiency recog- Thames and Ball 2010). Only 4 of the 10 nized by all schools. Several MENA countries MENA countries that participated in TIMSS are beginning to explore the introduction of 2015 required teacher candidates to pass licensing and certification requirements for qualifying examinations for selection to teachers as a mechanism to raise and main- teaching posts (Mullis et al. 2016). tain standards. Developing effective school leadership starts Because technology, research, and labor with the selection and preparation of skilled, market needs are changing rapidly, teachers well-equipped new principals. Most MENA and school leaders must be able to update countries employ a variety of criteria for select- their knowledge and skills regularly. Intensive, ing principals, and, as in teacher selection, a content-focused professional development strong emphasis is often placed on academic programs can improve teachers’ subject mat- qualifications and teaching experience (Mullis ter knowledge and their ability to use this et al. 2016).9 In Oman, for example, school knowledge in their teaching (NCEE 2016). principals are chosen according to seniority Professional development programs for teach- and experience in teaching and classroom ers should focus on content and on improving management. Potential school principals in teaching skills so that teachers can effectively Bahrain are required to have experience as a deliver content to all types of students teacher, adviser, or education specialist. Some (Loughran, Berry, and Mulhall 2012; principals in Oman and Saudi Arabia have Shulman and Shulman 2004; Thames and degrees in educational leadership in addition to Ball 2010). Training programs that teach 2 2   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations Box O.5  School principals also must act as instructional leaders School principals also serve as instructional leaders degree and importance of skills transfers between who can lead, guide, and monitor instructional prac- principals and teachers, investing in the transfor- tices related to pedagogy and curriculum (Jensen, mation of all principals into instructional leaders is Downing, and Clark 2017a; OECD 2016a, 2016b). one of the most effective steps a country can take Instructional leadership fosters a school environment to improve student learning. In MENA countries, that focuses more on academic success, which in such a change for school principals could improve turn enhances student learning. For example, higher teaching practice and student learning. Successful average mathematics achievement is associated with change depends on how principals are appropriately principals’ reports of a greater school emphasis on selected, supported, and given the needed blend of academic success (Mullis et al. 2016). Because of the autonomy and accountability to perform. pedagogy specific to subject areas—such as Professional development is equally impor- how to teach a mathematics class effectively, tant for principals who have been in the posi- with follow-up visits in which trainers observe tion for a long time because a principal’s role and support teachers in the classroom—are and the demands of schooling change over highly effective (Darling-Hammond et al. time (Jensen, Downing, and Clark 2017a; 2009). Some MENA countries have put in OECD 2012a). Although professional devel- place promising professional development opment for principals needs to be tailored to programs for teachers. the local context and needs, a few core ele- Professional development is most effective ments are shared by many high-performing in changing classroom practice when teachers systems (Jensen, Downing, and Clark 2017a; work collaboratively (Brown, Smith, and World Bank 2018e). These elements include Stein 1995; Darling-Hammond et al. 2017; structuring leadership development around a Evans and Popova 2015; Yoon et al. 2007). vision for the school, whereby the school Collaboration allows teachers to benefit from leader manages and oversees implementation one another’s knowledge and skills and cre- of this vision. Other elements include linking ates opportunities for best practice sharing leadership development to practical problems and mentoring (Angrist and Lavy 2001; by means of action learning in a real school Borko 2004; Darling-Hammond et al. 2017). environment that is supported by mentors. High-performing countries in East Asia and Furthermore, school leadership programs elsewhere have practiced collaborative should develop leaders’ resilience, critical approaches in professional development for thinking skills, and ability to adapt practices decades, with positive results (Evans and to new situations. In high-performing sys- Popova 2015; World Bank 2018a; Yoon et al. tems, principals are often instructional leaders 2007). Technology and social media can be (see box O.5). Finally, leadership develop- powerful tools in promoting peer-to-peer ment programs should continue over the learning and collaboration between teachers. course of a leader’s career through a system- Many teachers in MENA are using groups on atic and comprehensive approach that is Facebook or WhatsApp to exchange informa- career-long and systemwide. tion. Moreover, lessons on platforms such as Nafham, the Arabic version of the Khan Assign the best teachers to where they are Academy, not only help students to learn but most needed can also help teachers to learn how to con- Decisions on teacher recruitment in most duct a lesson effectively. high-performing systems are made at the O v e r v i e w   2 3 school level (Barber and Mourshed 2007; establish and achieve ambitious goals for Bruns and Luque 2015), which allows a bet- student learning. ter match between teacher characteristics Having an adequate number of qualified and teaching needs, as identified by the teachers in the classroom is a basic prerequi- school. In MENA countries, however, site for learning. However, students in some teacher hiring and assignment in the public MENA countries are in classes so large that system generally take place at the central effective instruction can be difficult. Egypt, level and usually by a civil service ministry. Jordan, and Morocco have some of the larg- This arrangement has been a key challenge est classes among TIMSS participants, while in enhancing performance because schools class sizes in Gulf Cooperation Council do not have the autonomy to hire good (GCC) countries are generally in line with the teachers or fire poorly performing ones. international average of TIMSS participants Managing performance then becomes a long and those found in East Asia—though still bureaucratic process, which ultimately limits higher than in countries such as Australia and student learning as well as teacher motiva- Sweden (Mullis et al. 2016). tion. As noted earlier, decentralized decision Even in countries in which teachers are making requires capacity, resources, and recruited and assigned in adequate num- accountability mechanisms. Ultimately, bers, they are often not used efficiently. In MENA school systems must find the balance MENA, low teacher working hours are between autonomy and accountability that common (see figure O.12). Only half of the will best support learning and provide MENA economies in 2010 required work- schools with the resources and flexibility to ing hours for teachers that were comparable FIGURE O.12  The required working hours for teachers in MENA are well below those in top-performing countries Statutory teaching and working time required for teachers in primary education in selected MENA (2010) and OECD (2007) economies 2,500 100 93 100 83 2,000 80 67 67 Number of hours per year 1,500 57 60 54 53 52 Percent 39 1,000 40 500 20 0 0 n d p. sia . an ti n . za ep ep pa o lan ou Re Ga rd an ni ,R ,R Ja ib a Tu Jo b b nd ea en Ze Dj ra Le r m ka t, A w Ko Ye Ne an yp tB Eg es W Teaching time Other working hours Teaching time (percentage of total working hours) Source: World Bank 2015c. Note: OECD = Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. 2 4   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations to those of the top-performing countries Encourage instructional practices that (World Bank 2015c). Egypt and Tunisia maximize children’s potential were within the range of top-performing countries such as Japan, Korea, and New Teaching and learning are multifaceted and Zealand. Others—such as Djibouti, Jordan, complex. Children arrive at school with West Bank and Gaza, and the Republic of diverse backgrounds, life experiences, and Yemen—were all well below the threshold individual characteristics. Teachers interact of 1,200 working hours a year for teachers with children in a multitude of ways in primary education. In Lebanon, the because they have a variety of backgrounds, working hours required of primary and sec- life experiences, and teaching styles. The ondary education teachers were less than experience of students in the classroom half of those observed in top-performing rests on decisions teachers make about countries. delivering the curriculum. How teachers Teacher absenteeism is a chronic problem prepare and engage with students of various plaguing MENA school systems. Among abilities has an impact on their students’ MENA countries participating in TIMSS learning. Teaching at the right level, or 2015, an average of 16 percent of students adaptive instruction, is important to sup- in grade 8 were enrolled in schools whose port student learning (Evans and Popova principals reported teacher absenteeism to 2015)—see box O.6. Between 2013 and be a “serious problem” (see ­ figure O.13). 2015, at least six systematic meta-analyses The problem is most acute in Morocco examined interventions that improve learn- (affecting 28 percent of students), followed ing outcomes in low- and middle-income by Saudi Arabia, Oman, and Egypt. By com- ­ countries (Conn 2014; Glewwe et al. 2013; parison, only 4 percent of grade 8 students Kremer, Brannen, and Glennerster 2013; in OECD member countries were enrolled in Krishnaratne, White, and Carpenter schools with serious problems with teacher 2013; McEwan 2015; Murnane and absenteeism. Similarly, low levels were Ganimian 2014). Across the reviews, peda- observed in the Islamic Republic of Iran gogical interventions (including computer- (2 percent) and the United Arab Emirates assisted learning) that tailor teaching to (7 percent). student skill levels ranked among the most FIGURE O.13  Teacher absenteeism is prevalent throughout MENA Percentage of grade 8 students attending schools whose principal reports that teacher absenteeism is a “serious problem,” TIMSS 2015 30 28 25 23 22 20 20 16 16 Percent 15 15 14 13 12 10 9 7 5 4 2 0 p. A CD o a r ain n an s it p. an CD ta te bi cc no wa EN Re Re rd Om Qa ira OE OE hr ra o ba M Ku Jo or ab ic iA Ba Em n- Le am M Ar ud No b Isl t, Sa ra yp n, dA Eg Ira ite Un Source: IEA Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study—TIMSS 2015. Note: OECD = Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development; TIMSS = Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study. O v e r v i e w   2 5 Box O.6  Teaching at the right level benefits students Various models for instruction take into account the instruction, such as grade repetition and between- different abilities of students, ranging from group- class ability grouping. Grade repetition, which is ing students by ability in the classroom for part practiced in some MENA countries, requires stu- of the school day or after school (Banerjee 2012) dents who do not pass the year-end examinations to giving screening tests to students at the begin- to repeat the prior school year rather than moving ning of the school year to identify student abilities into the next grade with their peers (OECD 2016a). and target support accordingly (OECD 2011c). In Between-class ability grouping entails grouping Canada and Finland, extensive personalized sup- students in the same grade into classes based on port is available to any student who is struggling prior achievement, so that classes are homogeneous with the expected levels of learning, especially dur- in learning levels. A meta-­ a nalysis of 100 years ing the formative years of primary school (World of research on ability grouping found that such Bank 2018e). Evidence suggests that such tar- between-class grouping did not, in fact, benefit geted interventions and remedial lessons are more students (Steenbergen-Hu, Makel, and Olszewski- effective than other models of level-appropriate Kubilius 2016). effective means of improving student learn- ing in low- and middle-income countries. Address the language of instruction Where the instructional capacity of teach- challenge ers is low, structured pedagogy programs can A key area that affects learning is the lan- be effective. Such programs typically include guage of instruction (LOI). The LOI is nor- training courses for teachers and learning mally shaped by culture, history, and current resources for both teachers and students. In economic and political trends. For decades, addition to improving instructional quality on choosing the language to use for instruction a topic, structured pedagogy programs can has posed a major challenge for MENA, with change existing classroom practice because tension between tradition and modernity aris- they incorporate learning activities and peda- ing in several ways. The first tension is the gogical training. A review of 420 scholarly question of whether to use modern standard analyses of educational interventions in low- Arabic—also referred to as classical Arabic— and middle-income countries found that as the language of instruction. MSA differs structured pedagogy interventions had the from the language spoken daily in all Arabic- largest and most consistently positive effects speaking MENA countries. Because MSA is on student learning outcomes. Although none the language by which the Quran was of the structured pedagogy interventions revealed and written, it has been kept sacred reviewed had taken place in MENA coun- and has not changed with time, whereas the tries, some of the interventions were in coun- day-to-day language of societies has evolved, tries performing at similar levels on TIMSS creating a large gap between everyday lan- and PISA, such as Chile, Costa Rica, and guage and MSA. As a result, when children South Africa (Snilstveit et al. 2015). A variety start school and encounter classical Arabic, of scripted lessons and teacher coaching they must learn it almost as a new language. can help to overcome deficits in teacher They then struggle to acquire basic literacy skills in low-performing education systems skills and may feel substantial linguistic inse- (Mourshed, Chijioke, and Barber 2010). This curity because of their lack of familiarity with can be an important short- to medium-term MSA (Maamouri 1998). Research has shown intervention until teachers’ professional skills that students in MENA may be considered at are further developed. a linguistic disadvantage because they learn 2 6   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations MSA as if it were a second language (Bouhlila The second tension in the LOI relates to 2011; Ibrahim and Aharon-Peretz 2005; the multiple languages used in some MENA Salmi 1987). countries. For example, in Algeria and Before students can learn in a language of Morocco a substantial proportion of the pop- instruction, they need to have learned enough ulation speaks Tamazight; in Iraq and Syria of it. In every language, a vocabulary thresh- there are Kurdish communities; and in old must be met to understand simple text. Djibouti some communities speak Afar and For example, to understand English text, stu- Somali. Which language to use often becomes dents must know at least 5,000 words in a political issue more than a technical one English. Typically, children come to school because language is closely associated with knowing 4,000–6,000 words in their mother people’s culture and identity. Because many of tongue. On average, children can learn four the MENA countries identify with Islam, they vocabulary words per hour of second-­ support the use of classical Arabic—the lan- language instruction. Thus 1,000 or more guage of the Quran—as the language of schooling hours are needed to build enough instruction, even where large minorities are vocabulary to begin learning in a second lan- non-Arabic speakers, such as in Algeria, Iraq, guage (van Ginkel 2014). If students fail to and Morocco. However, there is substantial achieve both oral and written comprehension pressure from non-Arabic-speaking commu- of MSA in early primary school, their future nities to use their language as the mode of studies will be limited to memorizing and instruction for their children. regurgitating information without achieving a The third tension occurs when opportuni- synthesis of the information. Where teachers ties for social and economic advancement are are themselves not comfortable operating in higher in a language that is not a student’s MSA, the problem is likely to be exacerbated. mother tongue. Using a foreign language for Some MENA countries have addressed the instruction has been a topic of debate in MSA/dual-language challenge by designing MENA countries, with major implications for curricular materials and providing additional learning (see box O.7). Equity implications support in the early grades. For example, a are a factor as well. In the 1980s, the move- program introduced by the U.S. Agency for ment of Algerian and Tunisian public educa- International Development (USAID) and the tion away from instruction in French and Ministry of Education in Egypt showed toward MSA resulted in greater inequality in promise and is being scaled up. The program education (elites pulled their children into pri- included eight days of teacher training in vate French-speaking schools) instead of the addition to curriculum inputs. Grade 2 intended increase in classical Arabic skills. ­ students who received six months of interven- Furthermore, students who did not learn tion improved their performance by an French were at a disadvantage in seeking entire grade level (Gove, Brombacher, and future economic opportunities because Ward-Brent 2017). In Jordan, the interven- higher-income positions continued to require tion included allotting daily time for low-­ French fluency (Benrabah 2007; Lefevre performing students to practice foundational 2015). Addressing the language of instruction skills in reading and mathematics. Beyond an challenge is critical given the gap between enhanced curricular emphasis on founda- spoken Arabic and modern standard Arabic. tional skills, the intervention provided teach- The close connection among language, reli- ers with 10 days of training and additional gion, and national identity makes it difficult in-school coaching on how to target remedial to make a regional recommendation. Even support where needed. As a result, not only though this phenomenon is a regional one, it did the number of low-performing students manifests itself in many different ways in dif- decrease, but schools also noted an increase in ferent countries. Hence, it needs to be high-performing students (Gove, Brombacher, addressed with a very specific formula in each and Ward-Brent 2017). country. O v e r v i e w   2 7 Box O.7  Improving foreign language instruction is important In Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia, science and erated resistance (MacLeod and Abou-El-Kheir mathematics are taught in French at the secondary 2016). Tunisia’s system continues to embrace two level. However, only 30 percent of Tunisians, most languages, with Arabic used for all social sci- of whom live near the capital, are fluent in written ences and French used for STEM (science, tech- and spoken French. In Algeria, urban populations nology, engineering, and mathematics) studies. are fluent in French, but only 55 percent of rural Recently, the Ministry of Higher Education in the populations are fluent. A similar dynamic occurs in Kurdistan Region of Iraq commissioned a study Morocco. Students in areas without French fluency of its 13 state universities to assess the impact of have less access to education and less achievement E nglish-medium instruction. The study found that ­ (Lefevre 2015). In TIMSS 2007 and 2015, students 63 ­p ercent of instructors were satisfied with their being tested in their mother tongue performed bet- own level of English, and, despite English being the ter than those being tested in a language not used at official language of instruction, only 30 percent home. If mathematics (or any other subject) is to be spoke English all the time or almost all the time taught in a second language, adequate support for in lectures. ­E nglish was used for written materi- learning this language must be incorporated. als and homework, but instructors widely stated The language of instruction (LOI) has also been that their students’ language level was insufficient contentious and problematic at the tertiary educa- for English-medium studies, despite their 12 years tion level, pointing to the need for improvement of English-language instruction during their ear- in foreign language instruction at all levels. Most lier schooling (Borg 2015). At any education level, Arab countries use either English or French as the employing an LOI that is not the students’ mother LOI for mathematics, engineering, the medical sci- tongue requires training teachers, providing ade- ences, and other sciences. Qatar’s rapid expansion quate curriculum and classroom resources, and of higher education institutions in English gen- ensuring increased support for students. Use assessments for learning, not and student levels. However, if used inappro- credentials priately, they can reinforce shallow forms of Large-scale national and international learning, and classroom assessments can con- assessments can catalyze education reform at sume valuable lesson time without enhancing the policy level. They are often used to mea- student learning. In many MENA countries, sure and monitor student learning by track- students receive one of the only measures ing within-country trends in student of their learning through high-stakes year- learning, measuring what they have learned end examinations. These examinations are against learning targets, and providing then typically used to determine whether stu- points of comparison with other countries. dents move to the next level. More regular MENA countries are increasingly participat- feedback on their learning progress could be ing in international large-scale student helpful to students and teachers. In addition, assessments (see table O.2). In addition, high-stakes assessments often lead to perverse these countries are also conducting more incentives that negatively affect the behavior national assessments, which have the benefit of teachers, students, and parents and limit of being able to capture learning progress learning outcomes. directly related to aspects of national educa- Meanwhile, in MENA high-stakes exami- tion goals, the national curriculum, and nations reinforce the focus on acquiring cre- national education policies (see table O.2). dentials rather than skills. As the sole Public examinations can generate powerful determinant of whether a student moves incentives for change at the school, teacher, on to higher education, passing high-stakes 2 8   E x p e c t a t i o n s TABLE O.2  Participation in national and international student assessments has surged in MENA since 2007 MENA economies undertaking national and international student assessments, 1995–2019 Economy 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 and Aspir ations Algeria ◦• ◽ Bahrain • • ◊ ◊ ◦•◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◦• ▴ ◦• Djibouti × + Egypt, Arab Rep. • ◊ •◊ ◊ ×◊ ◊ × × × • ▴ ◦◊ Iran, Islamic Rep. ◦• • ▴ ◦• ▴ ◦• ♦ ◦•▴ ◦• ▴ ◦• Iraq ×+ ◊ Jordan • • ◽ • ◽ • ◽×+ ×+ ◦•◽ ◽ •◊ Kuwait ◦• ▴ ▴ ◦• ◦ ◦• ▴ ◦• Lebanon • • ♦ • •◽♦ × ◊ ×◽ • Libya Morocco • ▴ ◦• ▴ ◦• ◊ ◦ • ▴× + ◦• ▴◊ ◽ ◦• Oman ◊ • ◦•▴ ◦• ▴ ◦• Qatar ◽▴ ◦• ◽ ◦•▴ ◽ ◦•◽ ▴ ◽ ◦• Saudi Arabia • • ◦•▴ ◦•◊ ▴◊ ◽◊ ◦•×◊ Syrian Arab Republic • • Tunisia • ◦•◽ ◽ ◦• ◽ ◦• ◽ ◽ United Arab Emirates ◽a ◦•▴ ◽ ◦•◽ ▴ ◽ ◦• West Bank and Gaza • ◊ • • × × Yemen, Rep. ◊ ◦ ◊ ◦ ◦× +  ×  EGMA     ◊  National or other assessment     ▴  EGRA     ◽  PIRLS grade 4     ◦  PISA     •  TIMSS grade 4     ♦  TIMSS Advancedb TIMSS grade 8     Source: Compiled by the World Bank, based on information from country task teams and international assessment organizations. Note: Includes participating countries for which results were not reported because of sampling or other issues. EGMA = Early Grade Mathematics Assessment; EGRA = Early Grade Reading Assessment; PIRLS = Progress in ­International Reading Literacy Study; PISA = Programme for International Student Assessment; TIMSS = Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study. a. The 2009 PISA scores pertain to the PISA 2009+ reported score for the United Arab Emirates (Dubai participated in 2009, and the remaining emirates participated in 2010). b. TIMSS Advanced assesses the advanced mathematics and physics knowledge and skills of students in their final year of secondary school who have taken courses in advanced mathematics and physics. TIMSS Advanced was administered in 1995, 2008, and 2015. O v e r v i e w   2 9 examinations is the object of learning, espe- Recently, East Asian countries with histori- cially in the last years of secondary education, cally high scores on the PISA and TIMSS rather than acquiring broader skills and assessments have tried to reduce high-stakes ­ learning to learn. Moreover, secondary-level testing at the upper-secondary level by intro- high-stakes examinations usually emphasize ducing more process-oriented and student- straightforward recall and procedural applica- centered assessment measures. For example, tions, leading to cramming, private tutoring, in an effort to eliminate teaching to the test and rote memorization. In Egypt, 53 percent and support curricular reforms aimed at of students resort to private tutoring, and a learning to learn, in 2014 Japan proposed the further 10 percent join paid study groups Prospective University Entrant Scholastic (Assaad and Krafft 2015). Abilities Evaluation Test, which is an alterna- Even in the lower grades, year-end school tive examination to be implemented from examinations affect opportunities for children 2019 onward. The examination will deem- to progress through grades, which can nega- phasize rote memorization while giving prior- tively influence teaching practices. Lebanon’s ity to students’ thinking ability, expression, students are tested monthly in class, take two and reasoning skills. The new test format examinations a year, and sit for national includes a written questionnaire (Kimura and examinations at the end of grades 9 and 12. Tatsuno 2017). In the Islamic Republic of Iran and Jordan, In a similar effort to promote student students may pass on to the next level pro- learning, Korea implemented an exam-free vided they do not fail more than three ­subjects semester nationwide in 2016 after pilot test- in their year-end examinations. These exami- ing it for two years (Cheng 2017). So that nations, or summative assessments, are lower-secondary school students can discover intended to measure whether students have their dreams and talents free from the pres- mastered the necessary content. They also sure of midterm and final exams, Korea channel students into educational tracks. allows teachers to make flexible use of the However, their high-stakes nature often curriculum for one semester. This arrange- results in teachers emphasizing memorization ment encourages student participation for examinations over problem-solving skills through discussion and practice and enables (Akar 2016; Shuayb 2012). Morocco’s system various activities such as career exploration. of examinations at each level is intended There is compelling evidence that forma- to channel students into educational and tive classroom assessments—the types of vocational tracks, and so it poses the risk of assessment procedures teachers use during teachers using didactic rather than dialogic the learning process to modify their activities teaching methods (Akar 2016; IEA 2015; and approaches in response to student Shuayb 2012). learning—can raise learning outcomes by ­ Recognizing the inherent risks, several giving students timely feedback on how to ­ MENA countries have reduced the emphasis improve (Black and Wiliam 2010; Hattie and on high-stakes examinations, especially in the Timperley 2007; Roediger, Putnam, and lower grades. Jordan, Kuwait, and Lebanon Smith 2011). Classroom assessment tech- have abolished high-stakes examinations that niques can include verbal questioning and ration progression between grades 1 and 3. feedback, written quizzes, students holding Kuwait’s education officials noted that this up response cards or miniature whiteboards change represented a substantial reduction to give the teacher a real-time snapshot of in the dependence on examinations. Their classwide understanding, or activities requir- example may guide further reforms aimed at ing students to retrieve and apply newly ensuring that high-stakes examinations are acquired knowledge. rationed, do not create perverse incentives for Although teachers in MENA regularly teachers and students, and test higher-order assess students, these classroom assessments thinking skills in other MENA countries. are rarely aligned with student learning 3 0   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations outcomes or used to adapt instruction to stu- 5.2 ­ m illion of primary school age, and dents’ learning needs. Over 70 percent of stu- 5.3 million of preprimary age (UNICEF dents in MENA who participated in TIMSS n.d.). A wide range of factors are associated 2015 had teachers who reported placing a with educational exclusion in MENA. These major emphasis on monitoring students’ include disability, child labor, low maternal progress in mathematics through students’ education, exposure to conflict (see box O.8), ongoing work or classroom tests (Mullis et al. child marriage, migrant status, living in a 2016). Yet across MENA countries, classroom rural or isolated area, and belonging to a assessments are rarely used to adapt instruction nomadic group or a group that prevents chil- or provide students with meaningful feedback. dren from attending school for cultural or For example, only one in four teachers in religious reasons (UIS and UNICEF 2014). Jordan reported using classroom assessments Policies of inclusion mean that students to inform lesson planning (Rabie et al. 2017). with physical disabilities, learning difficulties, Failure to do so limits the potential of class- and other special educational needs are room assessments to improve student learning. increasingly in school alongside their peers. An estimated 53 million persons with disabili- ties live in MENA, yet most countries in the Give all children a fair chance to learn region still have a limited supply of special Countries reap the benefits of education education services (Alkhateeb and Hadidi when all children learn and develop their 2015). This shortfall arises from limited fund- human capital. MENA countries have made ing, inadequate facilities, unqualified teachers, impressive efforts to expand education, but or negative attitudes toward disability and millions of children are still out of school. special education. Several MENA countries, In the 2014–15 academic year, 14 million such as Jordan, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, children across the region were not in school. and the United Arab Emirates, have developed Among the unenrolled, 3.5 million were regulations and policies to create barrier-free ­ c hildren of lower-secondary school age, accessible environments for students with Box O.8  Conflict in MENA is depriving many children of education MENA is host to about a quarter of the world’s Syrian refugee children, 46 percent are out of school internally displaced persons (IDPs). As of May 2018, (formal and nonformal) in Lebanon, 36 percent in about 2 million people were internally displaced in Jordan, and 37 percent in Turkey (Brussels Conference the Republic of Yemen, 2 million in Iraq, and 0.2 mil- 2019). lion in Libya (IOM 2018; UNHCR 2018; UN OCHA Beyond finding a political solution to the conflicts 2018). Although there are few reliable data on school in Syria and the Republic of Yemen, more needs enrollment rates for this group, IDPs typically face to be done to ensure that the generation of young high hurdles to access education services. Rough esti- refugees and displaced children is not left behind in mates place IDPs’ school enrollment at just 28 per- education. This includes international support for cent in the Republic of Yemen and about 52 percent countries that are hosting refugees, countries that in Iraq (Ministry of Education, Republic of Yemen are in conflict, and postconflict countries to help 2017; UNICEF 2017). Enrollment rates are often not expand school infrastructure and provide the nec- disaggregated by level of education, but enrollment in essary inputs for teaching and learning. It is also upper-secondary and tertiary education is expected important to help create safe learning environments to be much lower than in basic education, similar to and provide financial relief to displaced and refugee the enrollment patterns of refugees. In Syria and host families. At the tertiary level, it is important to offer countries, 7.7 million school-age Syrian children face ­ programs that enable refugee students to access great obstacles in accessing education services. Among higher education. O v e r v i e w   3 1 disabilities. However, inadequate school facili- the learning gaps are substantial between stu- ties and shortages of support personnel such dents by socioeconomic level (OECD 2016a). as school psychologists, sign-language inter- Among 15-year-olds, the economic, social, preters, speech and language pathologists, and and cultural status of their household correl- physical and occupational therapists are a ates with substantial differences in student challenge (Alkhateeb and Hadidi 2015). performance, as shown by the PISA 2015 results. In Lebanon, the gap is equivalent to a Mind the learning gaps and support the difference of more than two full years of lowest performers schooling. Moreover, all nine MENA coun- Although the average levels of student per- tries that participated in the 2015 grade 4 formance on international assessments have TIMSS mathematics assessment were among been low in MENA, there is a wide range of the 13 countries with the widest gaps between student performance within each country. the top and bottom quartiles of performance Unlike in many advanced countries—such as (see ­figure O.14). Improving performance Canada, Estonia, Finland, and Japan—where among those at the bottom would provide the the link between test scores and socio- most rapid improvement in overall levels of economic status is generally weak, in MENA learning. FIGURE O.14  MENA has the biggest gaps in student achievement between top and bottom performers Difference in scale score between the 75th and 25th percentiles of grade 4 mathematics achievement, TIMSS 2015 500 653 613 596 450 582 575 576 600 569 562 Di erence in score between 75th and 25th percentiles 540 565 527 400 512 506 504 496 499 500 517 465 350 492 492 485 446 445 462 462 426 438 450 300 400 393 372 377 TIMSS scale score 250 367 356 338 321 320 300 311 200 281 161 145 145 150 150 126 134 134 137 140 200 125 111 113 119 96 100 102 100 88 90 77 100 50 0 0 s . Fe and Ca n s da ite nce Au es Ba a iA n a Ira Mo r am co p. an n te b E ait Em es s ep ta Ko and te ali bi tio i da te Re Sa hra at c Om na , U d Ar Kuw t Qa ira R ra ro Ar mira ira str Un ra l r ra St ian Fin Jo l a, ic er Em F de re d th ud ab Ne ab Isl a Ar n, ss d d te ha nite Ru ni ni i, U uD U bi ba Du Ab 75th percentile 25th percentile TIMSS scale center point Source: Mullis et al. 2016. Note: Includes all participating MENA countries (blue) and a selection of other countries. The diamonds represent the 75th percentile scores, and the circles represent the 25th percentile scores in the selected comparison countries. The horizontal blue line represents the TIMSS scale centerpoint, which is the mean of the overall achievement distribution in 1995 (kept constant over the years). TIMSS = Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study. 3 2   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations TABLE O.3  MENA’s student achievement gaps have both narrowed and widened Change in grade 8 TIMSS average achievement, 10th and 90th percentiles, 2011 and 2015 Average score Change in Country 2011 2015 Average score 10th percentile 90th percentile Mathematics Bahrain 409 454 45 72 19 Oman 366 403 37 54 22 Qatar 410 437 27 40 20 Iran, Islamic Rep. 415 436 21 20 23 Morocco 371 384 13 20 8 United Arab Emirates 456 465 9 −4 23 Lebanon 449 442 −7 −7 −7 Jordan 406 386 −20 −8 −22 Saudi Arabia 394 368 −26 −13 −35 Science Qatar 419 457 38 52 19 Oman 420 455 35 54 19 Morocco 376 393 17 18 16 Bahrain 452 466 14 12 18 United Arab Emirates 465 477 12 −3 22 Lebanon 406 398 −8 −13 −2 Iran, Islamic Rep. 474 456 −18 −16 −19 Jordan 449 426 −23 −15 −21 Saudi Arabia 436 396 −40 −59 −20 Source: Mullis et al. 2016, 72. Note: TIMSS = Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study. FIGURE O.15  MENA has the largest gender gaps in test scores Some MENA countries are closing the Highest score point difference in science (girls − boys), TIMSS grade 4, 2015 achievement gap between their best and poor- est performers, while others appear to have a 90 79 widening gap (see table O.3). A notable case 80 among all participating TIMSS countries is 70 the United Arab Emirates, where the top stu- Score point difference 60 dents are performing better than in previous years, but the poorer performers are faring 50 39 worse. Increasing retention through targeted 40 32 30 programs can help bottom performers at risk 30 24 of dropping out to stay in school. 20 14 12 11 10 10 8 8 5 Pay attention to the boys because they are falling far behind girls in learning 0 outcomes a ain an co ia za n n s it Em r M p. am d te ta bi e sta wa ar lan MENA has the largest gender disparities in oc Re Om ed hr Qa ira ra lg kh Ku or Sw Ba n ic iA Bu Fi student achievement, and they are consistently ud Ka ab Isl Sa Ar n, in favor of girls. Eight out of the 10 countries d Ira ite Un with the largest gender gaps in TIMSS are in Source: Martin et al. 2016. MENA. Saudi Arabia has the largest gap, with Note: The difference between girls and boys in the Islamic Republic of Iran is not statistically ­significant. TIMSS = Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study. boys significantly underperforming compared with girls (see figure O.15). Because the O v e r v i e w   3 3 Box O.9  MENA’s gender paradox presents a dual challenge for human capital The underperformance of MENA’s boys is a phe- older participate in the labor force (World Bank, nomenon on a scale not seen elsewhere in the World Development Indicators database). world. Education systems in MENA are clearly The inefficiencies and costs associated with the not meeting the learning needs of boys. And yet loss of learning among boys are substantial, eco- although girls are outperforming boys in educa- nomically and socially. Moreover, the underrepre- tion, MENA has the lowest female labor force sentation of women in the labor market, despite the participation rates among all regions in the world, fact that women considerably outperform men in according to the World Bank’s World Development learning from the early years all the way to adult- Indicators database. On average, across all MENA hood, represents a substantial underutilization of countries only 20 percent of women ages 15 and human capital. learning outcomes for all MENA students are Child 2009). By age 3, the vocabulary of a low, the pervasive gender gap amounts to a child whose parents have a college degree can learning crisis for boys in the region. Gender be as much as three times larger than the gaps in learning appear early; by the second vocabulary of a child whose parents have not grade, girls are outperforming boys in reading. completed high school (Center on the For example, in West Bank and Gaza there Developing Child 2009). was a 10 percentage point gap between girls Access to early childhood education in (17 percent) and boys (27 percent) who could MENA is highly unequal within countries. For not read a single word of connected text. example, in Djibouti and Egypt a child Across the 18 countries that participated in the from the wealthiest quintile of households is EGRA between 2010 and 2015, the gender six times more likely to attend an early child- gap is the most pronounced for MENA coun- hood care and education (ECCE) program as a tries (USAID 2018). The early manifestation of child from the poorest quintile (El-Kogali and gender gaps in foundational skills such as lit- Krafft 2015). In Iraq, Libya, and Tunisia, chil- eracy and numeracy points to the need to dren from the most advantaged backgrounds address the specific learning needs of boys in are more than 17 times more likely to attend the early grades. Indeed, interventions that are an ECCE program than children from the least not targeting boys and students in need of advantaged backgrounds. What are the short- additional support may exacerbate the gender and long-term implications of inequalities in gap (see box O.9). early childhood development, care, and educa- tion? When children start primary school, they Dedicate more resources to children from are already set on different trajectories. Some the poorest households children will have all they need for success in Inequality of opportunity10 starts early in life. school and in adult life. Others will start their Therefore, efforts to address it must also start school life at a disadvantage, which will have early. Children born into circumstances not subsequent effects throughout their years of conducive to their well-being are likely to schooling and beyond. fall behind in their health, nutrition, and phys- Finally, large enrollment gaps exist in ical, cognitive, social, and emotional develop- MENA, particularly between the richest ment—all precursors to success in school. For and the poorest children. For example, in example, at just 18 months of age, a child’s Morocco more than half of lower-secondary vocabulary reflects the socioeconomic status school-age children in the poorest quintile of of his or her parents (Center on the Developing households are out of school, compared with 3 4   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations 6 percent in the richest quintile. Gaps in rates Several conditions in MENA today support of out-of-school children also occur by gender greater adoption of EdTech, including a and location (urban versus rural). young, dynamic, and tech-savvy population; an education market valued at about US$100 ­ billion (Al Masah Capital 2012); and Leverage technology toward a stronger a region in which countries on average allo- push for learning cate about a fifth of their budget to education The rapid penetration of technology and the (Trade Arabia News Service 2013; World myriad opportunities it presents entice citi- Bank 2008). All of this points to an environ- zens and policy makers to invest in digital ment conducive to EdTech and its growth. technologies. Across MENA, three underlying Many online platforms in MENA are pro- factors will keep access to technology at the viding Arabic learning content. Some of the forefront: (1) governments’ desire to diversify English-language content from Khan away from an oil-dependent economy; Academy and others has been translated into (2) efforts by businesses to remain globally Arabic. MENA-based content providers such competitive by extending their reach on digi- as Nafham have followed the Khan Academy tal technologies; and (3) the opportunity format with original content that uses curri- offered by digital technology to support learn- cula from several countries in the region, ing for all. A technology-­ driven future will along with crowdsourcing to upload lessons. require children to be technologically savvy, Others—such as Bibliotheca Alexandrina and education systems must support them in in Egypt, the Education Media Company becoming so. Although many other sectors in Morocco, and Talal Abu-Ghazaleh have already borne the brunt of technological International University in Lebanon—have disruption, the education sector has not created digital content in different languages. changed substantially in its principal mode of Some initiatives allow qualified refugees to delivery over the last 150 years—globally and access online courses. For example, the in MENA. Technology offers a unique oppor- German distance-learning university tunity to deliver high-­quality education in a Fernuniversität Hagen allows qualified refu- more efficient and effective manner. If lever- gees to access all online courses and provides aged smartly, technology can help MENA language training. Kiron University has part- countries to advance their education systems nered with massive open online course and support learning. (MOOC) providers in the United States to organize a two-year online course for EdTech solutions hold promise to boost refugees, with the possibility of completing ­ learning their studies at a host university in Germany EdTech—information and communication (Unangst 2017). In the United Kingdom, the technology (ICT) applications aimed at Department for International Development’s improving education—have been growing Partnership for Digital Learning and fast globally. In 2017 revenue from the global Increased Access (PADILEIA) aims to address EdTech market was estimated at US$17.7 bil- the higher education needs of young people lion (Business Wire 2018).11 Several factors displaced in Jordan and Lebanon by the have fueled this growth: recognition of the Syrian crisis through blended academic pro- importance of education to economic growth; grams, including MOOCs, targeted online a flattening or even decline in public financing learning, and classroom-based learning for of education, thereby creating space for displaced students (SPHEIR 2017). private sector participation; and—perhaps ­ most important—efforts to disrupt this sec- Leverage the strong public support for tor through technology in the hope of increas- education technology in MENA ing student learning and moving rapidly Families, students, and the broader community ahead in international education rankings. in MENA countries strongly support further O v e r v i e w   3 5 integration of digital technology in classrooms have made substantial investments in school to change the nature of education and training ICT infrastructure (Lightfoot 2011). ICT is systems. In a survey on social media and available in most MENA schools, averaging ­ education reform across 13 MENA countries, about 2.7 computers for every 10 grade 8 stu- most respondents supported ICT in the dents (see fi ­ gure O.16). However, the interna- ­ classroom (ASMR 2013). Of those surveyed, tional average is 4 computers for every 10 84 percent felt universal Internet access should grade 8 students. Cross-country variability is be a norm and that children in schools should quite wide, with 10.5 computers for every be able to access the Internet on personal 10 students in Qatar, and only 1.0 computer devices. More than three-quarters felt that for every 50 students in the Islamic Republic of social media should be part of the school cur- Iran (Mullis et al. 2016). riculum; indeed, 61 percent believed students should be allowed to use social networking EdTech is necessary but not sufficient to media in class. Responding to a question on improve student learning outcomes whether students should be allowed to engage The evidence is mixed on the impact of tech- in a range of computer-related activities, nology on education. A recent study by the almost 80 percent noted they would be happy Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s to have their children use “collaborative web Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab tools” in classwork. Nevertheless, those sur- (J-PAL) evaluated more than 100 EdTech veyed also recognized that some aspects of interventions and reveals important insights access to technology could have detrimental on the use of technology in education (Escueta effects on student learning. et al. 2017). The study notes that online con- nectivity is a necessary but not sufficient con- Expand ICT infrastructure for wider reach dition for improving student learning of EdTech solutions outcomes aided by EdTech’s most promising Accessing EdTech solutions and platforms solutions. Teachers must be capable of guid- requires ICT infrastructure. MENA countries ing students on how to search online resources FIGURE O.16  Computers are available in MENA’s schools, although coverage varies considerably Number of computers (including tablets) available for student use in school for every 10 grade 8 students, 2015 12 10.5 Number of computers/tablets per 10 students 10 8 7.0 6 4 3.3 1.9 1.7 2 1.6 1.4 1.0 0.9 0.3 0.2 0 Qatar Bahrain Kuwait Oman Lebanon United Saudi Jordan Egypt, Morocco Iran, Arab Arabia Arab Rep. Islamic Emirates Rep. Source: Mullis et al. 2016. 3 6   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations Box O.10  EdTech offers opportunities to leapfrog learning Computer-assisted learning (CAL) programs pair childhood development programs or review early ­ face-to-face classroom learning with online curricu- their children’s secondary report card, or alerting lum components. These programs work well when university students that it is time to submit student delivered to students through structured online and loan materials (Economist 2017; Escueta et al. 2017; in-class settings in which teachers are trained to facili- Pugatch and Wilson 2018). tate this interaction. CAL occurs any time a student Digital textbooks are interactive and allow learns through a combination of supervised school unique learning experiences for students. At one experiences away from home and online content end of the spectrum in MENA are mobile apps delivery, with some element of student control over that provide online interactive libraries, such as time, place, path, or pace (Horn and Staker 2011). Rawy Kids in Egypt or the Kitabi Book Reader With blended learning, classroom and online experi- in Lebanon. At the other end are those that use ences are tailored to reinforce one another (Horn and entertainment and games to encourage learning, Staker 2012). such as Sho’lah and Loujee, a “smart” Arabic toy Technology-based behavioral interventions aimed at learning-through-play (Arab News 2016). (nudging) draw on insights from behavioral eco- Recently, two smartphone app–based games were nomics. These interventions are proving effective in shown to improve early grade reading in conflict- a wide variety of education settings (Escueta et al. ridden Syria: Antura and the Letters and Feed the 2017). Nudging presents beneficiaries with choices Monster, both of which showed positive learn- without changing the costs of these choices in any ing results on initial impact evaluations and won real way. Typically, nudges reach users by text mes- awards at the 2017 EduApp4Syria competition sage, reminding parents to register children for (Comings 2018). and supporting the growth of critical thinkers condition for improving student learning out- who can organize, prioritize, and synthesize comes aided by EdTech solutions. along the way. The study also offers some To ensure learning for all, special attention options that could be applied in MENA coun- should be paid to digital literacy skills. In tries (see box O.10). many countries, youths from both advan- A recent analysis of PISA results for MENA taged and disadvantaged backgrounds spend countries confirms these findings. Access to roughly the same time online each week. technology alone cannot solve problems However, there are important differences in related to student outcomes (McKinsey 2017). the way they use the Internet. Even in high- The association with adding one more com- income countries, where access to the Internet puter to a classroom is small, whereas supply- is almost equal for children from different ing teachers with computers has a larger socioeconomic backgrounds, students from positive association; adding a computer for the disadvantaged backgrounds are more likely teacher in each classroom is associated with a to chat or play video games than their richer sixfold increase in student PISA scores versus peers, who use the Internet more to search for giving a student a computer. 12 Although information or read the news (World increasing access to computers and the Internet Economic Forum 2016). To turn “opportuni- may not on its own measurably improve aca- ties into real opportunities” (OECD 2016d, 3) demic achievement, it has been successful in for everyone and reduce (digital) inequalities, increasing the ease of technology use and the schools must teach literacy skills while time spent learning to use digital devices. In actively promoting technology as a means of this sense, online connectivity in the classroom improving skills and knowledge, including could be a necessary but not sufficient learning about potential job markets. O v e r v i e w   3 7 Pull for skills FIGURE O.17  MENA needs a skills equilibrium Complementary reforms are needed for Education Strong supply education to achieve its potential Strong demand system of skills for skills For education to reach its full potential, it must provide students with skills that satisfy the economic and social needs of each coun- Private try. A push for learning would move educa- employers Strong demand tion closer to fulfilling its potential, but it for skills Youths and would be a second-best approach that would families Public leave most of that potential untapped employers (Rodrik 2008). Source: Adapted from Assaad, Krafft, and Salehi-Isfahani 2018. A first-best approach involves multisys- tem reforms that align a push for learning The education system needs to then respond with a pull for skills. It includes economic by supplying the set of skills needed and reforms to match the skills required in the signaling the skills acquired (see figure labor market with those conferred by educa- O.17). tion and sought by parents and students. However, employers in MENA are not Multisystem reform would seek to address effectively communicating (signaling) to the distortions in the education sector and education system or students and parents beyond. For example, it would address sig- what skills they need. This weak signaling is nals and incentives from the labor market as exacerbated by the fact that in most coun- well as implement reforms within the educa- tries, private sector firms are disproportion- tion sector. Without a realignment of the ately microenterprises, and these businesses labor market that increases the demand for lack the ability to send signals effectively to skills, the education sector’s contribution to the region’s education systems (Assaad, goals such as economic diversification will Krafft, and Salehi-Isfahani 2018). Nor are not be fully realized. Moreover, without civil these firms well positioned to receive signals service reforms that support hiring, motivat- from the education system. Currently, the sig- ing, and empowering the best teachers, the nals are essentially for credentials (see teaching profession would remain underval- box O.11). ued and learning would be compromised. It is therefore important to understand how the education sector interacts with the eco- Address rigid labor policies nomic, social, and political environment to MENA’s rigid labor policies also constrain achieve expected outcomes and to imple- the pull for skills. For example, labor laws ment policies that address both the educa- make it extremely difficult for employers to tion system and labor market challenges. fire employees (World Bank 2013a). This factor creates a disincentive for the private Improve signaling for skills sector, and employers are therefore less likely Distortions in the labor market in MENA to hire on a trial basis to learn about a candi- countries have led to an emphasis on cre- date’s skills, as is common practice in other dentials rather than skills. To break out of parts of the world. That disincentive, cou- the current credentialist equilibrium in pled with the absence of information on the MENA and move toward a skills equilib- quality or productivity of graduates, means rium, employers need to send youths and that firms tend to hire based on social families strong signals of the kinds of skills networks. needed. For their part, these youths and Personal connections, not skills, drive families need to in turn demand the relevant labor market outcomes in MENA, further skills from the education system. dampening the demand for skills. A Gallup 3 8   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations Box O.11  Signaling in education is communicating about skills Countries across MENA are not in a skills equilibrium. Most high school graduates have fewer ways in The Gulf Cooperation Council is experiencing gaps which to signal their abilities, although the financial between nationals and immigrant workers in terms of returns to ability increase steeply with experience skills, labor prices, and labor mobility. There, policy (Arcidiacono, Bayer, and Hizmo 2010). makers are discussing the need for a fundamental In MENA, test scores do not currently appear reform of the skills system. For example, of the 23,000 to provide adequate information about ability annual new job seekers in Kuwait, some 10,000 (Assaad, Krafft, and Salehi-Isfahani 2018). In addi- would be unable to find suitable jobs. Placements for tion to making test scores more meaningful (by these job seekers would require the demand for labor measuring skills more effectively), changes in labor to increase (employers wanting more of the kinds of policy could provide employers with the informa- workers currently produced by the education system) tion and flexibility they need by, for example, or education reforms to match skills more closely with encouraging trial periods of employment prior the labor market (Sleiman-Haidar 2016). to long-term contracts. Together, these practices Signaling is the process through which one party would send employers a more accurate signal of reveals some information about itself to another. graduates’ skills. For example, in the labor market employers do Signals from employers to students and educa- not immediately know the productive capabilities tional institutions are important as well. National of their new hires. One prominent way in which employer surveys, with widely publicized reports applicants signal their abilities is through educa- and results, could be one route to signaling the tion (Arcidiacono, Bayer, and Hizmo 2010; Spence skills that employers need. Career academies or 1973). In the United States, the résumés of college other models of employer-school partnerships can graduates include information on grades, majors, give students information on the jobs available and test scores. This information acts as a signal and the skills required. Partnerships that facilitate of ability and increases the likelihood that college internships, mentoring, and other informational graduates will be paid in line with their ­ abilities. experiences may be effective (Lerman 2013). Poll conducted in 16 MENA economies employment and assigned a job from which found that, on average, 70 percent of respon- their employer was unable to terminate their dents agreed that a personal connection is appointment, with wages determined by critical to securing a job (see f ­igure O.18). seniority and education level (Meng, Shen, Families and students also lack incentives to and Xue 2013). In the late 1970s, China suc- focus on skills; in the labor market, measur- cessfully implemented multiple economic able skills from education are rewarded much reforms, including giving more wage flexibil- less than, if at all, social background or cre- ity to firms and introducing a labor contract- dentials (Assaad, Krafft, and Salehi-Isfahani ing system that moved away from lifetime 2018; Krafft and Assaad 2016; Krishnan tenure and gave state-owned enterprises the et al. 2016). right to lay off workers. Following China’s Effective reforms, such as those in China, first national work conference in 1980, enter- address both rigid labor policies and the prises were granted more autonomy in hiring, education-specific challenges that contribute ­ and job seekers were given more autonomy to to low skills and poor signals. Previously in find jobs, including in the private sector China, strict regulations, a lack of competi- (Brooks and Tao 2003).Wage flexibility, tion, and an inability to fire unproductive including instituting bonuses, has been gradu- workers resulted in low productivity ally increased, and the share of bonuses in (Morrison 2011). Within the command econ- total wages for all enterprises increased omy, workers were guaranteed lifetime from 2 percent of the wage bill in 1978 O v e r v i e w   3 9 FIGURE O.18  A personal connection (wasta) is critical to securing work in MENA Percentage responding to the statement that a personal connection is critical to securing work 100 10 90 12 20 18 19 20 21 23 26 80 19 29 22 30 28 70 19 24 60 Percent 50 90 85 40 79 79 79 78 76 75 73 72 67 66 64 63 62 30 58 20 10 0 n an ain it co . sia p. ria s za a q ic ya r ep ta te bi no Ira wa bl Re Ga Lib oc rd ge ni Qa ira hr ,R ra pu ba Ku Tu Jo or b iA Al Ba nd en Em Re ra Le M ud m ka t, A ab b Ye Sa ra an yp Ar nA tB Eg d ite ria es W Un Sy Agree Disagree Source: Gallup Poll 2013. Note: Percentages do not add up to 100 because respondents could also select “Don’t Know” or refused to reply. to 16 ­p ercent in 1997, effectively giving professional incentives have even greater employees the incentive to perform well potential. Changes to career ladders and other (Brooks and Tao 2003). Since 1997, earnings forms of recognition for teachers have had have almost doubled (Meng, Shen, and Xue substantial motivational effects in several 2013). Meanwhile, the reforms have led to high-­performing countries. These systems use higher returns to schooling (Zhang et al. appraisal processes to identify talent and 2005). Students have greater incentives to accomplishment (Darling-Hammond et al. learn skills that will allow them to earn higher 2017; Liang, Kidwai, and Zhang 2016). wages based on their skill set and productivity In most MENA countries, teachers’ career instead of their education credentials. advancement pathways depend mainly on years of service, not performance (World Reform civil service to attract the best Bank 2012). Greater efforts are needed to educators reform teacher incentive systems to promote A pull for skills requires civil service reforms good teaching and learning and to provide to recruit, retain, and empower the best edu- rewarding career pathways. These types of cators. No education system will be successful initiatives may require reforming civil service unless it provides meaningful incentives rules and regulations to support incentive (financial or professional) for teacher effort and accountability systems. For example, in (World Bank 2018e). Although the evidence Shanghai teachers can advance profession- is mixed on the effects of financial incentives ally through a five-level ranking system on teachers, professional incentives appear to (Liang, Kidwai, and Zhang 2016; World hold the potential for better student learning Bank 2018a). Australia, Canada, and outcomes. Merit pay systems may be Singapore have similar career ladders or ­ warranted in some contexts, but the interna- pathways that reward teachers’ knowledge, tional evidence is clear that well-chosen skills, and contributions (NCEE 2016). 4 0   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations Useful examples of rewarding and flexible in MENA’s public schools do not have the pathways for school principals can be found authority to select teachers for their around the world. For example, in Flemish schools or to fire underperforming or Belgium a former principal can serve as chronically absent teachers. By contrast, director of a community of schools that col- many OECD countries (Denmark, laborates on issues such as career guidance Ireland, the Netherlands, New Zealand, for students, course provision, and special Slovenia, Switzerland, the United needs education (Pont, Nusche, and Kingdom, and the United States) give the Moorman 2008). England has created a school principal a substantial role in hiring Leadership Development Framework that and firing teachers (see figure O.19). Of provides a pathway of programs and stan- the six MENA countries participating in dards that extend across a school leader’s PISA 2015, the three with the highest career, including opportunities for experi- mathematics scores (Lebanon, Qatar, and enced school leaders to support other princi- the United Arab Emirates) grant a level of pals (Pont, Nusche, and Moorman 2008). In responsibility to principals for school gov- Shanghai, the career ladder of school princi- ernance that is similar to that in OECD pals has four levels that are aligned with job countries, although more studies are performance (Jensen, Downing, and Clark needed to demonstrate whether the corre- 2017b; Liang, Kidwai, and Zhang 2016; lation between school governance and stu- NCEE 2016). dent performance is causal. In MENA, a school principal’s authority Efforts are under way to improve school to determine resource needs, budgeting, leadership in some MENA countries, and personnel management is relatively although it has been a slow process. low (World Bank 2015c). Most principals Tunisia’s primary school directors have FIGURE O.19  School principals in MENA have less authority than those in OECD countries Percentage of students in schools in which the principal has considerable responsibility for ... Making budget allocations within the school Approving student admission Setting student disciplinary policies Hiring teachers Deciding which courses to o er Setting student assessment policies Firing teachers Forming the school budget Choosing textbooks Choosing course content Setting teachers’ salary increases Setting teachers’ starting salaries 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Percent OECD average MENA average Source: OECD 2016a. Note: OECD = Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. O v e r v i e w   4 1 little access to financial resources. Although students are able to do with their learning— they are explicitly required by law to pro- that is, the skills students have acquired as a vide guidance to teachers on curriculum result of the education process. and teaching-related tasks, in practice these Curricula in education systems across tasks are often left to pedagogical counsel- MENA reflect the belief that education ors and inspectors who make periodic vis- should provide academic content, workforce its. Tunisia’s school directors also do not preparation, and social and civic develop- have the authority to select or remove ment. Recent reforms over the last few teachers in their schools. Likewise, they do decades have added, for example, life skills, not have the authority to reward strong foreign languages, problem-solving performance. Recognizing these governance approaches, and more science, mathematics, issues in primary education, Tunisia has and information technology to curricula designed a project aimed at empowering (Alayan, Rohde, and Dhouib 2012). The leg- school leaders and strengthening school islative rhetoric in MENA countries on what management that will be implemented in skills students should acquire in school the coming years (World Bank 2018c). aligns with 21st-century skills. Most empha- size mastery of Arabic and foreign languages, awareness of human rights, desire for inter- Align curricula with the skills national cooperation, awareness of environ- demanded mental and conservation issues, critical Official curricula determine what education thinking, and research skills. For example, systems intend their students to learn. Saudi Arabia’s education legislation states Ideally, those curricula should reflect the that students should have the skills and skills that prepare students for social and knowledge to contribute to society economi- economic life, and any reforms should be cally and culturally and to build up their aimed at ensuring that what students learn communities. The United Arab Emirates’ aligns with the skills they need. In fact, cur- curriculum document states that its educa- ricula are the nexus where the multiple tion system trains students for physical, spheres of society, the labor market, and the intellectual, and emotional development and education system should meet. The shift prepares them for their future. Morocco’s from a credentialist equilibrium to a skills goals focus on language acquisition, devel- equilibrium can be observed through curri- oping appropriate social skills, understand- cula. Systems are aligned when official cur- ing civic matters, and preparing students for ricula reflect the skills demanded by society future careers (UNESCO 2011). and the labor market. Conversely, when Yet even though the legislative rhetoric official curricula are outdated and discon- may reflect a modern approach to education, nected from practical, real-life content, the the material studied, and the pedagogical result is a mismatch between what students approaches used, many MENA classrooms acquire and what society and employers remain traditional and disconnected from require. students’ everyday lives (Bouhlila 2011). Across the world, curricular reforms are Material is presented as a set of facts and moving toward expressing outcomes in terms processes to be memorized and in a manner of skills and away from defining curricular that does not encourage independent learn- content only as subject material to be taught ing and investigation. Connections between (UNESCO 2017b). This shift represents a theory and practice are left unexplored, as greater pull for skills as the focus moves from are links between past and present (Alrebh the acquisition of facts and toward what and Al-Mabuk 2016). In addition to the 4 2   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations Box O.12  Reforming vocational education In some MENA countries, the vocational education (Oxford Business Group 2017), and there is inter- tracks are growing and include religious, technical, est in other countries across the region in making industrial, agricultural, and commercial education. vocational education work better for students and Algeria has recently seen increased enrollment in for the labor market. vocational education. The nation has partnered with Vocational education works best when schools public and private companies to create programs in collaborate with employers. In Egypt, vocational construction, public works, electricity, agriculture, schools lack appropriate facilities and hands-on and tourism (Oxford Business Group 2015). Bahrain learning opportunities (Krafft 2017). Vocational began to introduce apprenticeships in 2007–08. education has also failed to adapt appropriately After the 2011 revolution, the Tunisian Ministry of to the available jobs, and it may be too rigid in its Education began to develop a reform plan that will structure, failing to provide students with a broad include restructuring its vocational education tracks enough foundation for employment. poor learning that results, a lack of relevance A few MENA economies have recently to real life makes students less interested and begun to explore competency-based learning. less prepared for the world beyond school. Through its Integrated Education Reform Relevance is particularly important in pro- Program, Kuwait is transforming its curricula grams that are intended to relate closely to and instructional and assessment methods. the workplace (see box O.12). This approach focuses on the student, empha- Internationally, economies take a variety of sizes applied knowledge, and caters to differ- approaches to creating and implementing ent learning abilities. A national curriculum skills- or competency-based curricula. In U.S. framework has been developed by local edu- public schools, competency-based systems use cation professionals, along with curricular state learning standards to determine academic standards for all subjects and grades. expectations and define “proficiency” in a Competency-based textbooks are being devel- given course, subject area, or grade level oped in line with the new standards, as well (although other sets of standards may also be as a national assessment to gauge progress at used, including standards developed by dis- the national, school, and student levels. tricts and schools or by subject-area organiza- tions). Several high-scoring East Asian education systems (Hong Kong SAR, China; Recognize that context matters Japan; Korea; and Singapore) have begun to legislate and implement competency-based for learning and skills century curricula to help students develop 21st-­ Implementing education reforms in MENA skills by reducing the relative weight of through a push for learning and a pull for s ubject-centered education. Among these ­ skills will not achieve the same results across ­ economies, some, such as Korea, prefer greater all contexts. There are multiple models for control and prescribe the curriculum. Others, transforming education. Finland and Korea such as Japan, set general guidelines and grant were both top scorers in PISA 2015, a signal greater autonomy to schools and teachers to of strong learning. Yet the two education develop their curricula (Asia Society and systems producing this learning are quite dif- OECD 2018; Cheng 2017; Moon 2007). ferent (see box O.13). O v e r v i e w   4 3 Box O.13  Finland and the Republic of Korea rely on different successful education models Both Finland and Korea have successful, high-­ country (Morgan 2016). Finnish schools offer wel- performing education systems, and yet these sys- fare services and free early academic support for tems differ greatly. Korea is known for its rigorous, students who have needs in reading, writing, or test-driven system, whereas Finland has a more math (Morgan 2014, 2016), which helps to diminish accommodating, flexible system with no mandated preexisting inequalities among students, enabling standardized tests, except for college entrance exams them to learn. (Darling-Hammond, Wei, and Andree 2010). A high In addition, both countries invest in and develop school student in Korea spends on average 10 hours a accomplished teachers. In Finland, teaching is a highly day at school and is under immense pressure from his respected profession that is often perceived to be more or her family to do well (Ellinger and Beckham 1997). important than medicine or law. Finland admits only By contrast, Finland allows students to take courses the top 10 percent of students to the teacher education at their own pace in their final years of schooling, program. Teachers come out of the five-year intensive enabling them to learn the material better with less program well prepared, allowing them to have more stress and on their own time (Morgan 2014). There autonomy to teach the way they feel is most effective is no clearly “right” education system—both of these (Morgan 2014). The program involves a wide variety high-­performing systems promote learning. of training, including observing teachers in the class- And yet despite their different environments, room, practicing teaching lessons with students, as these systems have a few distinct similarities. Both well as preparing students to become researchers and countries are committed to providing students with practitioners. In Korea, teachers are required to take equal learning opportunities. In Korea, teachers 90 hours of professional development courses every rotate to different schools every five to seven years, three years to enhance their teaching. One Korean creating more chances for exceptional teachers professional development program offers an advanced to interact with disadvantaged students (Morgan certificate, which often leads to an increase in salary 2016). PISA revealed that the opportunities to learn and sometimes to a promotion (Darling-Hammond, in Finland are essentially the same throughout the Wei, and Andree 2010). MENA countries need to roll out reform education system can emphasize the develop- efforts based on what is feasible in education, ment of more targeted job skills because edu- economic, or social reform. Successful cators will know what skills employers need. reforms will depend on understanding the Conditions that enable or hinder program existing constraints (Rodrik 2008). For exam- success are a crucial aspect of successful ple, countries such as Jordan and Lebanon reforms. face a large influx of refugees from the civil How reforms are designed, introduced, war in Syria, so any reforms of their educa- approved, and implemented within a specific tion systems must consider the need to accom- country also determines their success. For modate refugee children in the system and the example, in Mexico reforms were introduced associated constraints. Another example is after substantial negotiations with teachers’ when coordination between the education unions, which resulted in their successful sector and labor market is not feasible, and implementation. In Tunisia, the reform pro- the information needed to provide specific in- cess became confrontational and was ulti- demand job skills is not available. In this case, mately blocked (Grindle 2004; Kingdon et al. the education system could, in the interim, 2014; World Bank 2018c). focus on important foundational skills in The effectiveness of different policy options schools. When coordination between the edu- often depends on whether complementary cation sector and labor market is feasible, the conditions are in place. For example, 4 4   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations school-based decision making can be effective in the social norm for driving safety. in improving learning outcomes, but it may be However, it is not enough just to enact less effective in disadvantaged contexts in laws; they must be strictly implemented which parents are less able to participate ­ and encouraged. Meanwhile, a behavioral (Carr-Hill, Rolleston, and Schendel 2016). response to incentives in the short run can Meanwhile, early childhood development pro- lead to longer-term shifts in behavior and grams have enormous potential to improve social norms (World Bank 2015e). An learning outcomes, but they are ineffective example is nudging via text message to when program quality is low (Bouguen et al. encourage parents to register their children 2013; Jung and Hasan 2014; Temple and for ECD programs (Escueta et al. 2017; Reynolds 2007) or when they are not available Pugatch and Wilson 2018). for the highest-risk populations (Karoly 2017). Another approach to influencing norms is Sufficient resources and a sustained to identify champions or norm entrepreneurs approach that stays the course to the end within social groups who could lead or while continuously monitoring results are ­ demonstrate the change, thereby leveraging also important. In Morocco, a lack of ade- social influence to change behavior (World quate funding was a big obstacle to achiev- Bank 2015e). A good example is the Teachers ing the goals of education reform between First initiative in Egypt, which has developed 2005 and 2009 (European Commission a professional development program build- 2010). High turnover among the top leader- ing on the UNESCO Competency Framework ship of ministries of education and senior for Teachers. As of 2018, it had enrolled administrators also stalls reform efforts. 10,000 teachers across eight governorates Between 2010 and 2017, Jordan had six (Teachers First 2018). It trains school-based ministers of higher education, Egypt had innovation teams to support teachers in seven, and Lebanon had four—all of whom adopting modern pedagogy in the classroom. were in office for less than three years. 13 Teachers First also aims to transform the Recent high turnover in ministers of educa- teacher assessment system to capture changes tion has also been noted in Kuwait, in behavior over time, with the learner Morocco, and Saudi Arabia. becoming more active in learning and assess- ment processes (Teachers First 2018). Tackle social norms that hold back education Promote tolerance through education To make any substantial changes in educa- The prospects for peace and stability in tion, countries must tackle the inefficient MENA will be shaped by its citizens’ ability social norms that inhibit reform. Changing to coexist with people of different nation- social norms is not easy, but it can be done. alities, ethnicities, and religions. Education Raising awareness about the costs or inef- is one of the principal means of building a ficiencies of certain norms or the benefits culture of peace (UNESCO 1999). It can that would accrue to society from reforms help to promote tolerance by enhancing can influence a shift in the social mind-set. knowledge and reasoning skills and reduc- However, such an effort would have to be ing prejudices (Coenders and Scheepers based on credible evidence not connected 2003). to any ideological or political rhetoric and In MENA, higher levels of education are would have to focus on real, substantial generally associated with higher levels of reforms and not minor changes in policies t olerance for people with different back- ­ (Khemani 2017). Changing laws can also grounds (see figure O.20). In Algeria, Iraq, lead to a shift in norms. For example, laws Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Tunisia, and on wearing seat belts in cars led to a shift West Bank and Gaza, higher levels of O v e r v i e w   4 5 FIGURE O.20  Tolerance is associated with education, but intolerance is high even among the educated in MENA Percentage of respondents who would not like to have “people of a different religion” as neighbors, by highest education level attained 70 60 50 40 Percent 30 20 10 0 Algeria Bahrain Iraq Jordan Lebanon Libya Morocco Qatar Tunisia West Bank and Gaza No formal education Primary completed Secondary completed University degree Source: Inglehart et al. 2014. education correspond to more tolerance for experiences, and labor market dynamics. people of a different religion. However, the Modern curricula that promote noncognitive association between level of education and or “soft skills” (as well as cognitive skills) social values in MENA is weaker than in the and instructional practices that promote rest of the world (Diwan 2016). inquiry, discussion, reasoning, and team- Even the most educated in MENA have work can promote greater tolerance. levels of intolerance at or above the rates of Conversely, traditional curricula that are other regions in the world. For example, heavy in outdated content and narrowly 34 percent of MENA respondents to the 2014 defined concepts and emphasize knowledge World Values Survey said they disliked having recall, control, and discipline can lead to neighbors who were immigrants or foreign closed minds. In Rwanda, education has workers (Inglehart et al. 2014). This rate of been an important part of a holistic, systemic dislike is three times higher than that observed approach to bringing about changes in atti- in high-income countries (12 percent). tudes leading to more tolerance and less vio- Furthermore, 32 percent of respondents in the lence (see box O.14). region disliked having neighbors of a different In view of the conflicts MENA has been religion. This rate is the highest across all facing for almost a decade, there is an impor- regions and almost eight times higher than tant role for education in the promotion of that of high-income countries. peace and social stability. However, educa- Thus, although education may contribute tion cannot do it alone. Improving political to greater tolerance, its effect may largely and economic conditions is also critical for depend on what is taught and how it is the peace and stability of the region. This taught in the classroom, as well as political effort requires multisystem alignment as well orientation, social interactions, historical as a wider social and political commitment. 4 6   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations Box O.14  In Rwanda, education has played a role in building peace Education can be a crucial entry point for address- values, girls’ access to education, and attention ing the drivers of conflict. In Rwanda, education to children with special needs. To improve their was recognized as the “vehicle for positive social impact, education leaders sought support from transformation to reduce the likelihood of returning complementary health and social programs that to violence.” Schools became the common ground enhanced the educational experience for children. where parents could meet, rebuild trust, and seek In short, the implementation of these agreements a common goal. To develop education policies that required communal ownership, trust, and time to explicitly addressed social cohesion and to contrib- develop. Greater authority over implementation at ute to national reconciliation, curricula were modi- the school and district levels was granted, accom- fied to emphasize “a culture of peace” and promote panied by greater accountability and operational positive national values, justice, tolerance, respect, ­ efficiency, more responsive and efficient manage- solidarity, and democracy. Curricular reform and ment, and ­continued capacity building. the removal of social barriers took patience and time because they required agreements on l ­anguage, Source: World Bank 2013b. A new education pact aligned through a powerful alliance. This effort would require strong leadership and Stakeholders’ goals for education reflect the shared accountability. It also would require myriad roles that education can play in an bringing investments and resources in line with economy and society. Many stakeholders the vision’s priorities. High-performing educa- have a shared sense of purpose around basic tion systems—such as those of Japan, Korea, goals such as literacy; however, beyond these and Singapore—are champions of strong goals, groups have different views of the pur- ­ education pacts that underscore the role of a pose of education. The dissonance across unified vision for education across stakehold- ­ stakeholders’ goals for education is a sub- ers. That vision includes consistent and coher- stantial obstacle. Education becomes a ent reforms to achieve human ­ capital–driven “­battlefield” (Purpel and Shapiro 1995, 60) ­ economic growth (Wong 2017). where the different stakeholders fight in pur- suit of ideological hegemony. National leaders must lead the change In all countries, education is the subject of an ongoing national dialogue. In MENA, this Political will and leadership are critical to national dialogue needs to be channeled rallying MENA around a new pact for edu- toward a unified vision that takes into cation. Political leadership can initiate shifts account the four tensions holding back educa- in behavioral norms to push for education tion, the social norms that define them, and reform (Acemoglu and Jackson 2015). The the local context. A shared vision also needs national leaders of Japan, Korea, and to take into account countries’ development Singapore, in championing education priorities, their economic opportunities, and reforms, made education a national priority their realities and resources so that the goals with a vision and clear goals and cultivated a set are realistic and attainable. consensus among stakeholders (World Bank To realize this unified vision, political will 2018e). Policies were built on the realization is critical. Moreover, the interests of a wide that the full potential of education can be variety of stakeholders—including teachers, achieved only through cross-sectoral policy principals, inspectors, politicians, communi- alignment. The leaders succeeded in promot- ties, employers, and students—need to be ing a shared vision for education to which O v e r v i e w   4 7 parents can aspire for their children’s future norms and expectations of a group such as (World Bank 2018e) and a shared responsi- a teachers’ union (Khemani 2017; World bility among all stakeholders for assuming Bank 2015e). their role in educational outcomes (Wong Experience has shown that reforms can 2017). succeed if there is strong political will to MENA has produced many great leaders implement them. This means that politicians whose charisma and vision have led to and interest groups would have to refrain remarkable progress. For example, Egyptian from using education as a tool to support educator Taha Hussein, who became blind their political views. An important step as a young child, went on to become one of toward aligning political will and stakehold- the preeminent thinkers of his time, leaving ers’ interests in education reform would be to his mark on an entire nation (Cachia 2014). reduce the number of policy makers who Serving as minister of education in the have the power to veto policy reforms for early 1950s, he worked to massively expand political interests and bring them in line with public education and to abolish school other stakeholders through a narrative of fees. Considering education essential to shared values (Acosta and Haddad 2014)— human existence, Hussein famously said, see box O.15 for an example of a successful “Education is like water and air” (Cook use of this approach in Peru. and El-Refaee 2017). To rally support for education reform in 2008, Australia’s deputy prime minister devel- oped clear outreach strategies that engaged the Reconcile interests in a unified vision news media. She personally briefed the media for education on new proposals in advance, using stories A new pact and shared vision require align- about schools and students to humanize the ing political will and multiple interests in narrative around reform. She also communi- society. Perverse behavioral norms and ide- cated with the business community through ological polarization can hold countries “boardroom lunches,” highlighting the busi- back from delivering public goods (World ness case for reforms (Bruns and Schneider Bank 2016b). Moreover, human sociality, 2016). The minister of education of Ontario, whereby people associate and behave as Canada, regularly visited schools and school members of a group and establish norms boards across the province when he was and patterns of cooperation, can also block shadow minister, meeting with about 6,000 reforms (Khemani 2017; World Bank people in an effort to spend time with t ­ eachers, 2015e). Some groups impede reforms that students, and parents to engage them in policy they perceive would reduce their power or dialogue and establish trust (OECD 2011c). ability to extract benefits (Khemani 2017; Recently, the president of Egypt has also Kingdon et al. 2014). One example might been using the media and conferences to build be the teachers who are benefiting from the support for education reforms. He has been industry of private tutoring. This group advocating and supporting major reforms could try to obstruct any reforms in assess- overhauling the education system, shifting ment systems that would jeopardize the from the traditional rote learning, high-stakes additional income they receive for holding examination system that focuses on credentials private classes for students preparing for to a modern system that focuses on learning national examinations. This could also be and skills. He held several youth and education true of teachers’ unions that do not want to conferences to rally public support for the see reforms that would require teachers to reforms, reassuring parents and students about work additional hours or to change their the benefits of these reforms for them individu- practice substantially. Resistance to reform ally and for society and the economy as a may be driven not only by self-interest but whole. He announced that 2019 would be the also by peer pressure to comply with the year of education (Egyptian Gazette 2018). 4 8   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations Box O.15  Peru has found success in aligning interests Through political will and alignment of stake- to the government’s fight against poverty. During holders’ interests, Peru succeeded in reducing the the 2006 presidential campaign, all candidates rate of stunted growth among children under age pledged to reduce malnutrition by 5 percentage 5 in only six years. This was achieved by reduc- points for children under 5 years of age within ing the number of policy makers with veto power. 5 years (5×5×5). Once elected, the president of These “veto players” were brought in line with Peru renewed his public commitment and set a tar- other stakeholders through a shared set of values. get reduction of 9 percentage points and secured Stakeholders were unified under a common policy support from the prime minister, the minister for platform and advocacy coalition, the Children’s women and social development, and regional gov- Malnutrition Initiative. This coalition was estab- ernors. Between 2005 and 2011, Peru reduced lished to convene both government and non- stunting by 10 percentage points. government stakeholders to consolidate a single objective of making children’s malnutrition central Source: Acosta and Haddad 2014. Share accountability to deliver results greater accountability means that all stake- Accountability is critical to improving learn- holders work collectively within a common ing. However, identifying who is accountable vision for education and share responsibility for learning outcomes is extremely difficult for learning. These stakeholders (policy because different actors within and outside makers, school leaders, teachers, parents, the education system interact to produce employers, and students) must first hold learning outcomes. Usually, educators, espe- themselves accountable to ensure learning cially teachers, are the focus of accountabil- while demanding accountability from ity for student outcomes. Although teachers others. For MENA countries to reap the full play a crucial role in student learning benefits of education, responsibility and because they interact directly with students accountability have to be shared collectively in the learning process, policy makers, school (see figure O.21). leaders, and parents, among others, also For accountability systems to be effective, have an important role in shaping education the roles and responsibilities of the various outcomes. Therefore, accountability in edu- stakeholders have to be clearly defined and cation cannot be limited to any one individ- understood. For example, a lack of under- ual or group (UNESCO 2017a; World Bank standing of the new roles for school admin- 2004). istrators in Sweden resulted in varying In a new education pact for MENA, approaches and structures, which made it accountability needs to go beyond the educa- difficult to evaluate and compare learning tion system. There would be multiple across municipalities (Burns, Köster, and accountability mechanisms, whereby citizens Fuster 2016). Moreover, when accountabil- hold governments accountable, policy mak- ity lines are not clear, blame could be shifted ers hold schools accountable, and principals among service providers, and citizens would hold teachers accountable. However, if the not be able to determine who is responsible system as a whole is not aligned, conflicts (UNESCO 2017a). Without clearly defined and distortions will arise between the stake- roles and responsibilities, even well-designed holders at various levels (Burns, Köster, and accountability mechanisms can fail. On the Fuster 2016). System alignment toward one hand, parental monitoring in school can O v e r v i e w   4 9 FIGURE O.21  Learning is a collective responsibility, and everyone is accountable Policy makers Parents • Accountable for providing vision, leadership, • Accountable for children going to and strategy for the education system to and completing school promote learning and skills • Responsible for providing enabling • Responsible for providing curricula, standards, and Employers learning environments at home, engaging assessments development and effective • Responsible for sending the right in school activities, and seeking out feedback and efficient management of resources signals to the education system and on student learning (physical, financial, human, and information parents on skills required • Responsible for holding policy makers, sharing) • Accountable for rewarding skills schools, and teachers accountable for learning not credentials by demanding qualified teachers, relevant School leaders curricula, and safe school environments • Accountable for creating a school environment conducive to learning Civil society Labor market • Responsible for demanding transparent (safe, well-equipped, well connected) • Responsible for monitoring, supporting, communication of education inputs and and empowering teachers to deliver learning outcomes and hold them accountable Teachers Government and Parents and civil • Accountable for student learning education providers society progress in their classroom • Responsible for monitoring student progress • Responsible for undertaking Learning continuous professional development and holding policy makers and Media school leaders accountable • Accountable for reporting factual Students Media information and for correcting false claims • Responsible for sharing information on student progress with parents • Responsible for offering a platform for Students policy makers and other stakeholders to • Responsible for being active and curious learners share information and promote greater • Responsible for demanding accountability and skills from transparency on education policies and schools, teachers, and policy makers other educational information • Responsible for using technology and social media to exchange • Responsible for delivering news knowledge and learning and organize in a constructive manner responsibly based on evidence and data Source: World Bank. be counterproductive if parental involve- education policies, developing curricula and ment becomes too invasive and schools do standards, introducing national informa- not grant the teacher sufficient autonomy tion systems that effectively monitor learn- (World Bank 2008). On the other hand, if ing, and allocating resources at the national schools do not understand and recognize and regional levels (human, physical, and parents’ role in the education system, they financial). may be unresponsive to legitimate parental Parents are responsible for their children’s initiatives and suggestions. education and for creating a supportive At the level of the education provider, home environment. They are also responsi- teachers are responsible for monitoring and ble for engaging in school activities and assessing their students’ progress and for monitoring their children’s learning individ- giving parents regular feedback. Teachers ually and collectively through parents’ asso- also should pursue ongoing professional ciations. Parents should also hold the development. School leaders are responsible education system (policy makers, schools, for creating a school environment condu- and teachers) accountable for their children’s cive to learning and ensuring that teachers learning and demand qualified teachers, rel- are delivering on learning by monitoring evant curricula, and safe learning environ- and empowering them. Policy makers have ments. Employers also have a responsibility the overall responsibility for providing in the learning process. They need to signal vision and strategy and developing, leading, to parents, students, and the education and supporting the implementation of s ystem what skills are needed in the ­ 5 0   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations Box O.16  Egypt’s education sector uses technology to ensure accountability The Arab Republic of Egypt has embarked on • Enhancing transparency around student assess- ­ ambitious accountability reforms in the education ments and citizens’ trust of assessment results s ector using modern technology. It is enhancing ­ • Strengthening accountability across key stake- accountability through the following channels: holders, giving the community and parents a greater voice in policy making • Increasing the amount of data and information • Creating a better compact between the Minis- available to policy makers and the public, thereby try of Education and Technical Education and improving accountability for resource allocation schools by improving district-level management. and service delivery FIGURE BO.16.1  Technology can shape accountability relationships Policy makers Voice Compact • Public con dence in a fair • Education data dashboard and better secondary graduation system • Quality assurance systems • Education data dashboard Accountability relationships Providers • Frontline providers Management Citizens (teachers, principals) • Education data dashboard • Organizations • Teacher professional development (ministries, schools) and induction systems Client power • Public con dence in a fair and better secondary graduation system • Education data dashboard Source: World Bank 2018d. labor market. Finally, students are also The media play an important role in hold- responsible for their learning; they must not ing stakeholders accountable and in explain- be passive recipients. With their growing ing complex issues. Social media are a access to social media, students have access growing major source of information in the to massive amounts of learning resources. In world and in MENA countries, especially for many instances, they may have more access youths, and they can serve as a platform for to information than their parents on global policy makers wishing to share information skills and knowledge and can demand these and promote greater transparency on educa- skills from the education system. Students tion policy reforms. Social media also provide can also organize themselves to support their citizens with a mechanism to hold policy schools and hold service providers and edu- makers and educators accountable. And yet cators to account. social media can also be exploited by interest O v e r v i e w   5 1 groups to block important reforms and education budgets on staff salaries—often spread misinformation. In MENA countries more than 90 percent of all recurrent educa- such as Egypt, Jordan, and Kuwait, oppo- tion spending. In doing so, they crowd out nents of education reforms have launched investment in other important inputs that strong social media campaigns against those contribute to learning, such as teaching and reforms. Open channels for communication learning materials, professional development, and debate are important to creating a pact and school rehabilitation and maintenance. around learning. Policy makers should engage Countries everywhere are facing trade-offs with stakeholders through various channels when deciding whether to spend scarce to address concerns, correct information resources on hiring additional teachers or using evidence, and rally collective support financing other educational inputs. Investing for education reforms. in the professional development, working con- Beyond social media, technology can also ditions, and salaries of current and future be leveraged to establish accountability sys- teachers often proves to be more effective for tems. Several countries are implementing increasing student learning than employing education dashboards to facilitate open data more teachers. The same is true for greater and a move toward evidence-based policy investment in technology or the use of teaching making. The government of Egypt has effec- assistants in the classroom (OECD 2017b). tively leveraged modern technology to pro- Investments in hiring additional teachers to mote accountability (see box O.16). reduce class sizes may have an impact on For its part, civil society is responsible for learning, but teachers should be targeted to demanding transparent communication of areas in which class sizes are particularly large education inputs and outcomes. and act as a constraint on ­ learning. A synthe- sis of more than 800 meta-analyses related to student achievement concluded that the value Prioritize investments to promote for money in raising performance is better learning and skills achieved through interventions other than A new pact for education must include reducing class size (Hattie 2009). This conclu- agreement on how and where resources are sion is supported by research that finds that used. For decades, MENA countries have increasing teacher effectiveness has a greater spent substantial shares of their income on value for money than reducing class sizes and education to meet the demand of growing suggests assigning the most effective teachers populations over the last half-century. In to the largest classes to maximize the potential fact, most MENA countries allocate far benefit (Hanushek 2011; Rivkin, Hanushek, more to education than many wealthy and Kain 2005). countries. For example, Tunisia spends Sufficient investment in early childhood 20.6 percent of its national budget on educa- education and in the early grades of schooling tion, which is nearly twice the OECD coun- is also needed to ensure that students build try average of 11.3 percent. Although the foundational skills that enable them to learn share of spending on education in MENA is effectively in the later stages of education. relatively high, it has been declining since its However, ECE has been the level that has peak at the turn of the century, from a received the least investment in MENA coun- median level of 20.6 percent in 2000 (and tries, resulting in enrollment rates that are 5.9 percent of GDP) to 13 percent in 2016 closer to those in Sub-Saharan Africa and (4 percent of GDP). 14 Spending adequate low-income countries, as indicated by the lit- amounts on education is necessary but not tle international data available. No MENA sufficient for success. How resources are country spends more than 0.4 percent of its used is just as, if not more, important. GDP on ECE from the public budget. Most Spending needs to align with learning. spend far less (well below 0.2 percent). By MENA countries spend large shares of their comparison, the average OECD country 5 2   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations invests 0.7–0.8 percent of its GDP on ECE, pact for education. Specifically, MENA will and some countries—such as Sweden—invest realize the potential of education when (1) it as much as 1.3 percent of GDP. Because the gives priority to learning; (2) it focuses on region’s young and growing populations con- the early years of schooling and opportuni- sistently exhibit low levels of foundational ties are equally distributed, including for skills, public investment in high-quality early those affected by conflict; (3) curricula are learning programs for all children should be a modernized and educators are empowered; policy priority. (4) employers demand skills and communi- Even though MENA countries have been cate them; (5) all stakeholders agree on a spending large shares of their national budgets common vision for education and jointly on education, it is important that spending on take responsibility for its outcomes and are education be sustained and in some countries held accountable for their roles, which are increased. Equally important, the spending clearly defined; and (6) resources are aligned must target learning. This requires concentrat- with priorities. These changes will require a ing on outcomes and not just inputs and out- joint effort to address the four tensions puts. Results-based or performance-based holding education back in the MENA budgeting (PBB) seeks to introduce explicit countries. measures of performance or results directly Improving education is not the responsibil- into the budgeting process with specific indi- ity of educators alone; it also involves all mem- cators that can be used to measure the effec- bers of society—politicians, businesspeople, tiveness of budget implementation. Ministries and community and religious leaders, as well of education that receive budgets under a as parents, teachers, school principals, and stu- results-based budgeting system would receive dents themselves. By far the most difficult task allocations to achieve certain sectoral outputs is dealing with varying and often opposing (for example, increasing preprimary enroll- views, strongly held convictions, and divergent ment) rather than to finance certain amounts interests. But it is not impossible. Countries of inputs (such as salaries or capital costs). with high-performing education systems have In Jordan, Morocco, and Tunisia, the min- succeeded in rallying support around a com- istries of education have been early adopters mon vision and shared responsibility. of those countries’ performance-based bud- The role of technology as a demand shaper geting systems (Beschel and Ahern 2012). In in the future of work is certain, but its role as Western Europe and other member countries a delivery catalyst holds great potential that of the OECD, PBB approaches have been the region has not yet tapped. Indeed, tech- employed for some time. The Netherlands, nology is changing how today’s students are for example, introduced proto-PBB prepared to enter the future workforce—that approaches as far back as the 1970s and is, it is influencing not only the ends of educa- moved its entire public sector to program tion but also the means. Technology presents and performance budgeting in 1999. Such a a unique opportunity to help to deliver high- move shifts the focus of ministries so that quality education in a more efficient and their activities coalesce around the achieve- effective manner. If leveraged smartly, tech- ment of their strategic sectoral policy nology can offer an opportunity for MENA agendas. countries to advance their education systems quickly and to support learning. MENA has the history, culture, and Unleashing the potential of resources to leap into a future founded on a learned society and a knowledge economy. education is attainable The region has great expectations and aspira- MENA countries can enjoy the full benefits tions. Unleashing the potential of education is of education only when a push for learning attainable, but it will take a new pact to ele- is coupled with a pull for skills and a social vate education not only as a national priority O v e r v i e w   5 3 but also as a national emergency. The question ­ducation systems took part in the survey), e is: Are its leaders ready and do they have the making it difficult to assess trends over time. will and grit to see through the implementa- 7. Seven economies use tarbiya in the official tion of policy reforms? name of their ministry of education (Algeria, Iraq, Kuwait, Lebanon, Syria, Tunisia, West Bank and Gaza); three use taaleem (Libya, Qatar, and Saudi Arabia); and seven use both Notes tarbiya and taaleem (Bahrain, Egypt, Jordan, 1. The World Bank defines MENA as ­ including Morocco, Oman, the United Arab Emirates, these countries and economies: Algeria, and the Republic of Yemen). Bahrain, Djibouti, Arab Republic of Egypt, 8. Malta is the exception; it is classified as part Islamic Republic of Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, of the Middle East and North Africa in the Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Morocco, Oman, World Bank’s regional classifications. Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syrian Arab Republic, 9. The information in this paragraph is extracted Tunisia, the United Arab Emirates, West Bank from TIMSS 2015 Curriculum Questionnaire and Gaza, and the Republic of Yemen. This Exhibits. report excludes Malta from the analysis as it 10. Inequality of opportunity exists where une- has little in common with the rest of the region. qual outcomes are attributable to factors 2. The World Bank’s Facebook poll (in both beyond an individual’s control. Arabic and English) asked residents of MENA 11. Estimates of global EdTech revenues vary about the state of education in their country. considerably, depending on the source of this The question received 42,235 responses. information. 3. World Bank, Education Statistics (EdStats) 12. The analysis also found that computers have database. Based on authors’ calculations a greater association with scores in countries using data for 2007 (or closest) and 2016 in which ICT penetration is low. Providing a (or latest). teacher with a computer in the North African 4. World Bank, World Development Indicators countries that participate in PISA (Algeria database. and Tunisia) was associated with higher PISA 5. The definition of violent child discipline as scores by 24.5 points. Doing the same in the used in the UNICEF Multiple Indicator Cluster two GCC countries (Qatar and the United Survey (MICS) is based on discipline by anyone Arab Emirates), where classroom technol- in the household within the last month, and ogy is more common, was associated with an includes psychological aggression (shouted, increase of just 1.1 PISA point. yelled, or screamed at the child; called the child 13. These tenures for ministers of education were dumb, lazy, or another name like that); phys- ­ compiled from a variety of online sources, ical punishment (shook the child; spanked, including the official websites of the Ministries hit, or slapped the child on the bottom with of Education, news media, and World Bank a bare hand; hit the child on the bottom or events pages. elsewhere on the body with something like a 14. World Bank, Education Statistics (EdStats) belt, hairbrush, stick, or other hard object; hit database. MENA’s regional median is com- or slapped the child on the hand, arm, or leg); puted as the median of all national data and severe physical punishment (hit or slapped points available in a given year using the the child on the face, head, or ears; beat the EdStats database. child with an implement—hit over and over as hard as one could). 6. 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Xiaoqing Song. 2005. “Economic Returns to World Economic Forum. 2016. “Rich and Poor Schooling in Urban China, 1988 to 2001.” Teenagers Use the Web Differently—Here’s Journal of Comparative Economics 33 (4): What This Is Doing to Inequality.” July 27. 730–52. A New Lens on Education in MENA 1 Igor Kheyfets, Elisabeth Sedmik, Mohammed Audah, Laura Gregory, and Caroline Krafft* E ducation has large untapped potential among the lowest in the world, as measured to contribute to human capital, well- by international student ­assessments.1 being, and growth in the Middle East Education systems in MENA have histori- and North Africa (MENA) ­ region. Realizing cally focused on conferring credentials rather the potential of education can unleash its con- than ­ s kills. As a result, young people in tributions to economic and social ­development. MENA lack foundational and other skills Investing in education as a form of human ­ relevant for the ­workplace. In order to fulfill capital is important for countries’ economic education’s potential for economic and social growth (Becker 1962; Mincer 1974; Sala-i- development, MENA countries will need to Martin, Doppelhofer, and Miller 2004). commit to developing education systems that However, returns on investment in education emphasize learning and s ­ kills. Only then can are achieved only when education promotes MENA countries achieve their full potential learning and skills (Hanushek and Woessmann in developing human capital and meet the 2008). The World Development Report 2018 expectations and aspirations of its ­ people. finds a strong relationship between growth and learning outcomes (World Bank 2018). However, education’s potential remains largely MENA’s economic and social untapped in MENA. challenges require a renewed Despite large investments in education focus on human capital over the last 50 years, impressive growth in development enrollment rates, and gender parity at almost Countries in the region face a broad array of all levels of education, MENA has not been social and economic ­ challenges. While some able to reap the full social and economic ben- countries are stable and high income, others efits of ­e ducation. MENA has the lowest are struggling economically or are beset by share of human capital in total wealth glob- ­ conflict. Iraq, Libya, the Syrian Arab Republic, ally (Lange, Wodon, and Carey 2018), and and the Republic of Yemen are directly the learning outcomes of MENA students are affected by c neighbors—such as ­ onflict. Their ­ This chapter includes a summary section on higher education (p. 81), based on chapter 13, “Rethinking * Tertiary Education: High-Level Skills and Research,” by Jamil Salmi. 67 6 8   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations Jordan and Lebanon—are experiencing the unemployment rate of the general population spillover effects of these conflicts, which within MENA countries (see figure 1.1). include hosting substantial numbers of Unemployment is primarily a structural, ­ refugees. Even countries in the MENA region rather than a business cycle–driven, ­ problem. that are stable and not hosting large refugee Demographics, including population growth populations face major economic and social and the large proportion of youth, contribute ­ c hallenges. Some of these, like the Arab to high youth u ­ nemployment. By 2050, Republic of Egypt and Tunisia, are suffering the MENA region will have to produce from slow growth due to the economic down- 300 ­ million new jobs just to absorb the large turns that followed the Arab Spring turmoil youth population entering the labor market and a series of terrorist attacks (World Bank (Arezki et a­ l. 2018). Additionally, unemploy- 2015). The high-income economies of the Gulf ment is highest among youth with more edu- Cooperation Council (GCC) are experiencing cation and those from better-off backgrounds moderate growth but also substantial fiscal who often defer accepting employment that is challenges, primarily due to a decrease in oil readily available in the expectation of attain- levels. prices from historically high ­ ing higher-quality jobs (Krafft and Assaad 2014). Figure 1.2 presents youth unemployment Unemployment is highest among rates by level of education for select educated youth in MENA countries. For male youths in Egypt, unem- ­ Over the last decade, MENA economies did ployment rates rise with education, from not create enough jobs to absorb all new percent for those with basic education to 7 ­ labor market ­entrants. The result is a high 15 ­percent for those with advanced (higher) rate of youth unemployment across the ­ education. For female youths in Egypt, the region—23 ­ percent—more than double the rates of unemployment range from 6 ­ percent FIGURE 1.1  Youth unemployment rates are higher than overall unemployment rates across MENA Overall (ages 15+) and youth (ages 15–24) unemployment rates, 2018 50 47 45 42 40 37 35 35 33 30 30 30 Percent 26 25 23 24 21 22 20 20 17 17 17 15 14 16 15 12 13 11 11 10 9 8 10 8 8 8 5 6 6 5 2 3 3 1 0.6 0.1 0 p. . ia n on ya co a ep A ain q an sia s za i it r ic t te a bi ta Re Ira er EN ou wa bl Lib rd Ga oc an Om ,R ni ra ira Qa hr g pu b M ib Jo or Ku Tu Al en iA b Ba nd m ra Dj Le Re M m ud ,A E ka ab Ye b t Sa yp ra an Ar nA Eg tB d ite es ria W Un Sy Youth unemployment (ages 15–24) Overall unemployment (ages 15+) Source: International Labour Organization (ILO) ILOSTAT database, ILO modeled estimates for 2018. Note: MENA average is the unweighted average of all economies presented in the figure. A N e w L e n s o n E d u ca t i o n   i n   MEN A    69 FIGURE 1.2  Youth unemployment is highest among the most educated in many MENA economies Youth (ages 15–24) unemployment rates, by gender and level of education, latest available year 90 80 80 77 70 68 64 61 60 57 50 47 Percent 42 40 39 39 40 37 32 31 31 31 30 27 27 28 23 23 22 19 19 20 18 16 15 16 13 12 10 11 11 10 7 7 9 6 4 5 5 2.6 3 3 2 0.5 1 0.3 0 7) 7) 2) ) ) 2) ) 8) 4) 2) ) ) 2) ) 8) 4) 13 14 17 13 14 17 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 20 20 20 20 20 20 (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 . (2 (2 (2 (2 . (2 r( a( s( r( a( s( p. p. q sia za q sia za ep ta ep te bi ta Ira te bi Ira Re Re Ga Ga ni Qa ira ,R ra ni Qa ira ,R ra Tu b b Tu iA nd en iA Em nd en Em ra ra ud m ud ka t, A t, A m ka ab ab Ye Sa Ye Sa an an yp yp Ar Ar tB tB Eg Eg d d ite es ite es W Un W Un Female Male Basic Intermediate Advanced Source: International Labour Organization (ILO) ILOSTAT database. Note: Basic education comprises primary education or lower-secondary education; intermediate education comprises upper-secondary or postsecondary nontertiary education; advanced education comprises short-cycle tertiary education, a bachelor’s degree or equivalent education level, a master’s degree or equivalent education level, or a doctoral degree or equivalent education level; all according to the 2011 International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED). No unemployment data were available for 15- to 24-year-old females with an intermediate level of education in the Arab Republic of Egypt for 2017 (the respective rate in 2014 was 32.9 ­percent). percent for those with basic education to 31 ­ view government employment as the only for those with advanced (higher) ­education. solution to unemployment (Barsoum 2015). In West Bank and Gaza, youth unemploy- Many people in the region believe that gov- ment rates range from 39 to 47 ­ percent for ernment, not the private sector, should pro- male youths and 61 to 80 ­percent for female vide employment opportunities, in part due ­youths. to the higher quality of jobs in the public ­sector. 2 Protests around jobs were a critical element of the Jasmine Revolution in Tunisia Expectations of public sector jobs during 2010–11, and such protests continue remain deeply entrenched in MENA to the present d ­ ay. These attitudes are a leg- societies acy of the government employment guaran- High rates of youth unemployment place sub- tees that were part of the social contract in stantial pressures on countries to generate the region during the 20th century (Assaad jobs. Some national constitutions in the ­ 1997, 2014). region guarantee the “right to work”; thus T he private sector’s job-generating individuals expect the state to ensure that capacity remains underdeveloped in many employed. Some youths even citizens will be ­ MENA ­ countries. The public sector is still 7 0   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations a large and preferred employer (Barsoum Returns to education are lower in MENA 2015; G at t i e t ­ a l. 2013). I n E g y pt , than in other regions of the world 30 ­p ercent of employment is in the public Skills mismatches are a persistent problem in sector (Assaad and Krafft 2015). The situa- MENA, with workers’ skills misaligned with tion is even more pronounced in most GCC what the labor market is ­ demanding. There c ountries. For example, in Saudi Arabia, ­ are symptoms of mismatch on both the sup- 68 ­p ercent of employment is in the public ply and the demand sides of the labor ­ market. sector, according to the ILOSTAT database The high unemployment rates of the educated (2014 ­ d ata). The outsized role of govern- show that the supply of highly educated ment employment in some MENA coun- workers exceeds the ­ demand. This may indi- tries, as well as the high wages in the public cate a low quality of learning in the skill sector, crowd out private sector employ- areas demanded by the labor market, as ment (Behar and Mok 2013; Nabli 2007). employers note that university and vocational Government strategies to increase high- graduates lack the hard and soft skills quality private sector employment have required for their jobs (Gatti et a ­ l. 2013). generally had little success thus far, result- This skills mismatch contributes to the low ing in limited or poor opportunities for levels of private returns to education in the new graduates (Dahi 2012; Salehi-Isfahani labor ­market. 2012; Springborg 2011). An investment in one additional year of Since at least the middle of the 20th cen- schooling can be expected, on average, to tury, the social contract in many MENA yield a stream of higher earnings in cou nt ries i ncluded a tacit ag reement adulthood—leading to higher returns to ­ between the state and its citizens whereby completing additional education the citizens accepted limited political free- (Psacharopoulos and Patrinos 2018). The rate dom in return for free public services and of return to education is typically calculated subsidized goods, along with high levels of as the ­p ercentage increase in earnings for public employment (Assaad 2014). This each additional year of s ­ chooling. Figure 1.3 model, although unsustainable in the long shows the latest estimates for rates of return run and altered by subsequent structural to an additional year of schooling by region reforms, lef t a lasting imprint on the (Psacharopoulos and Patrinos 2018). At region’s education systems, economies, and percent, the MENA region has the lowest 5.7 ­ labor ­ m arkets. Namely, the emphasis on average returns to ­education. public employment led to an education Both labor supply and demand may play s ystem that is stuck in a “credentialist ­ a key role in these low r­ eturns. On the labor equilibrium,” with credentials—such as supply side, the human capital conferred by degrees or diplomas—being valued above the education system tends to be of low actual ­skills. quality, in terms of inadequate learning, At the same time, companies in the pri- which further contributes to low ­ returns. vate sector often report difficulty finding The demand for workers with higher educa- adequately skilled ­workers. This is especially tion credentials in the current education and the case for enterprises that are highly pro- economic system is also ­ low. Rates of return ductive or in fast-changing ­ i ndustries. to education vary across countries and levels According to recent studies, one out of three of education, depending in part on the sup- firms surveyed in Iraq, Morocco, and Tunisia ply of and the demand for educated labor as reported that the lack of an adequately edu- well as the quality of education (Montenegro cated workforce is a major or severe con- and Patrinos 2014). To generate higher straint for their business (see chapter 12). In returns to investment in education, it is addition, migration also affects the educa- important to build human capital through tion and labor market decisions of youths in the development of key foundational and MENA (see ­ box 1.1). A N e w L e n s o n E d u ca t i o n   i n   MEN A    71 Box 1.1  Migration affects education systems in MENA through three key channels International migration flows—in the form of both Yemen (World Bank n ­ .d.). Household remittance forced displacement and labor migration—affect edu- receipts can increase the educational attainment of cation systems in MENA in several important w ­ ays. the children in those households (Ben Mim and Ben While this topic is discussed at length in the previous Ali 2012), while also contributing to the growth of MENA education flagship report (World Bank 2008), educational inequality between households sending recent events have put migration at the center of many and those not sending ­ m igrants. Finally, the focus policy discussions throughout the ­ region. Despite the of large numbers of MENA students on entering the importance of migration to MENA economies, the European labor market has the potential to distort issue falls outside the scope of this r ­ eport. However, their educational aspirations and influence their deci- migration affects MENA education systems through sions about how much and what type of education to three key channels, which are highlighted ­ here. pursue (Ramos 2017). First, the migration of teachers from across Migration presents challenges, but can also lead to MENA to countries of the GCC—and other parts an economic “win-win” arrangement for both send- of the world—has a potentially destabilizing impact ing and receiving ­countries. Policies around migrant on education systems in sending countries, many flows in both sets of countries matter a great deal in of which experience shortages of qualified teach- determining the net impact of migration on popula- ers in certain subjects (such as mathematics and tions and education systems (World Bank 2008). s cience). Second, migrant remittances are important ­ Much more study of the topic is needed to identify the for financing private education expenses in ­ M ENA. precise conditions under which effective migration, Total remittance transfers to MENA exceeded US$54 education, and labor policies can work in unison to billion in 2017, accounting for at least 5 ­ p ercent maximize the benefits for individuals and societies of gross domestic ­ p roduct (GDP) in seven MENA from the movement of people. e conomies—Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, ­ Tunisia, West Bank and Gaza, and the Republic of Sources: Ben Mim and Ben Ali 2012; Ramos 2017; World Bank 2008, ­n.d. 21st-century skills that are likely to be in FIGURE 1.3  Rates of return to education are lower in MENA demand in the years and decades to come than in other regions (see box ­­ 1.2) as well as to address the cur- Rate of return to education, by region, latest estimate rent constraints limiting the demand for educated l ­ abor. Latin America and Caribbean 11.0 Rates of return to education have been Sub-Saharan Africa 10.5 generally decreasing over ­ time. The returns Global average 8.8 to another year of schooling tend to decline as the average number of years of schooling East Asia and Paci c 8.7 rises in an economy (Montenegro and South Asia 8.1 Patrinos 2014). The MENA region has seen Europe and Central Asia 7.3 tremendous increases in educational attain- ment over the past ­ decades. The decline in MENA 5.7 returns suggests that the growth in the 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 labor supply of educated individuals has Percent generally outpaced the growth in labor demand for educated individuals Source: Psacharopoulos and Patrinos 2018. Note: Each number represents the private rate of return, as a percentage increase in earnings, to an ( M o n t e n e g r o a n d P a t r i n o s 2 0 14) . additional year of schooling. 7 2   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations Box 1.2  Technological change is driving the shift in labor market demand for skills Technological change is among the main factors returns to education than other parts of the world, in driving the shift in demand for skills in labor mar- part because educational credentials correlate imper- kets throughout the ­ world. The World Development fectly with the skills they are supposed to ­ confer. The Report 2019: The Changing Nature of Work lists adoption of digital technology in MENA can poten- several ways in which technological change is tially help to boost the returns to education in the affecting the demand for skills (World Bank 2019). 21st century but also can increase income inequal- Among them are (1) the decline in manufacturing ity between the tech-savvy workers employed in the employment; (2) the change in the relative wage booming sectors of the “new economy” and the less premia of the skills that are rewarded in the labor technologically inclined (older and poorer) ones in the market; (3) the disruption of production processes traditional ­industries. that is challenging the traditional boundaries of In the medium term, the demand for skills in MENA firms, expanding global value chains, and chang- countries is likely to shift in the direction of those abili- ing the geography of jobs; and (4) the change in how ties that are commonly found in the “new e ­ conomy.” people work—for example, through the rise of the High-order cognitive skills (requiring at least a basic “gig economy,” where organizations contract with level of literacy and numeracy) and socioemotional independent workers for short-term e ­ ngagements. skills (built on foundations that are developed in the Particularly important is the observation that relative early years) will be increasingly complemented by wage premia are growing for skills that cannot be digital competencies and the ability to interact with replaced by t ­ echnology—namely, high-level cognitive modern ­ technologies. By accelerating technological skills, such as critical thinking, and socioemotional adoption and aligning education systems with the needs skills, such as managing and recognizing emotions of the labor market, MENA countries would be better that enhance t ­ eamwork. positioned to meet the demands of their citizens and In MENA, however, the picture of which skills are economies for future p ­ rosperity. associated with higher rewards in the labor market clear. On average, MENA countries see lower is less ­ Source: World Bank 2019. For example, in Egypt, as the number of Kuwait, and West Bank and Gaza, all of people with a vocational education has these economies experience lower rates of doubled, the return has halved (Krafft ­ verage return to education than the global a 2017); the supply of vocationally educated (see figure 1.4). individuals is greater than the demand for Although an in-depth analysis of labor l abor. Also, having more education their ­ market demand is beyond the scope of this than is needed for a job generates lower report, the imperative of MENA education returns than having education that matches systems to improve the labor market out- the job requirements (Hartog 2000). comes of future workers lies at the core of Having credentials that do not confer the challenges facing the r ­ egion. This labor market–relevant skills contributes to report, therefore, focuses on the specific low returns to education across the MENA policy areas within education that will region. From the limited recent data that are require special attention from policy mak- available, it is evident that returns to educa- ers and concerted efforts from all actors in tion vary across the MENA ­ region. While society to ensure that the skills being rates of return to education in Jordan and imparted today serve the needs of future Tunisia are higher than those in Egypt, ­generations. A N e w L e n s o n E d u ca t i o n   i n   MEN A    73 Human capital accounts for a smaller FIGURE 1.4  Rates of return to education in MENA are below the share of overall national wealth in MENA global average Rate of return to education, by economy, latest estimate Across the world, intangible wealth—­ embodied in people as human capital—­ Global average (latest) 8.8 constitutes the greatest share of total wealth, especially for high-income countries Tunisia (2014) 8.1 (Lange, Wodon, and Carey 2018). However, Jordan (2010) 7.7 in MENA the share of human capital as p ercentage of total wealth per capita is a ­ West Bank and Gaza (2011) 5.1 the lowest of all regions of the world (see Kuwait (2010) 4.8 table 1.1). The degree to which human capital con- Egypt, Arab Rep. (2012) 4.6 tributes to total wealth varies by country; 0 2 4 6 8 10 however, all MENA countries have levels of human capital as a share of total wealth Percent below the world average, with the exception Sources: Latest estimates of returns to education for an additional year of schooling are from of Lebanon (see table 1.2). On average, Psacharopoulos and Patrinos 2018 for global average, Kuwait, and West Bank and Gaza, and from Krafft, Branson, and Flak 2019 for the Arab Republic of Egypt, Jordan, and Tunisia. human capital as a share of total wealth in Note: Year of data used in the estimates is in parentheses. Most recent estimates since 2000 are reported. MENA (35 ­ percent) is only about half the world average (64 ­ percent). In Morocco, for example, total wealth per capita grew percent), substantial efforts are needed (64 ­ 45 ­p ercent from 2005 to 2014. Produced to ensure that large expansions of schooling (physical) capital grew proportionately and skills. translate into learning and ­ natural capital more than doubled; however, human capital grew only 22 ­ p ercent over Learning and skills are essential the 10-year period (Lange, Wodon, and to build human capital Carey 2018). These estimates show that there is large, With substantial investments in quality edu- untapped potential for MENA countries to cation that emphasizes learning and skills boost economic prosperity through improve- development and complementary reforms ments in their human capital e ­ ndowments. in the economy, MENA countries will be To bring the region’s share of human capital able to use their human capital endowments as a ­p ercentage of total wealth (currently to create faster economic growth and 35 ­p ercent) toward the global average ­prosperity. TABLE 1.1  Among regions, MENA has the lowest share of human capital as a percentage of total wealth Human capital as a percentage of total wealth per capita, by region, 1995–2014 Region 1995 2000 2005 2010 2014 Annual growth North America 80 80 78 76 77 1.1 Europe and Central Asia 63 64 63 62 62 1.4 East Asia and Pacific 72 69 63 61 60 2.3 Latin America and Caribbean 62 64 61 60 60 1.1 South Asia 48 53 55 51 51 4.0 Sub-Saharan Africa 36 40 38 45 50 1.6 MENA 39 41 39 35 35 2.3 Source: Summary of table 6.2 from Lange, Wodon, and Carey 2018, based on World Bank estimates. Note: Figures are in constant 2014 U.S. dollars at market exchange rates. 7 4   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations TABLE 1.2  Most MENA economies have shares of human capital that are below the world average Total wealth and human capital per capita and human capital as a share of total wealth, 2014 Total wealth Human capital Human capital as share Economy per capita (US$) per capita (US$) of total wealth (%) Lebanon 65,148 42,153 65 Egypt, Arab Rep. 38,470 22,591 59 Bahrain 270,311 157,679 58 Jordan 49,287 27,312 55 Tunisia 45,150 24,796 55 Djibouti 22,914 12,097 53 West Bank and Gaza 30,567 14,778 48 Oman 277,574 125,278 45 Morocco 40,488 16,490 41 Yemen, Rep. 22,909 9,002 39 United Arab Emirates 738,270 278,205 38 Qatar 1,597,125 562,650 35 Saudi Arabia 512,869 156,869 31 Kuwait 1,123,144 271,628 24 Iraq 101,705 15,473 15 MENA 158,892 54,871 35 World average 168,580 108,654 64 Source: Data on select countries in appendix B of Lange, Wodon, and Carey 2018, based on World Bank estimates. Note: Figures are in constant 2014 U.S. dollars at market exchange rates. Investments in education over the past the GER more than doubled, from 31 ­ percent five decades have achieved impressive percent over the same ­ to 79 ­ period. expansion of access to school Most MENA countries have achieved uni- Although MENA countries face a common versal enrollment in primary e­ ducation. They challenge in needing to improve learning, have also achieved gender parity at almost all they also share a common achievement in education levels: full parity in primary and rapidly expanding access to e ­ ducation. Most tertiary education and 9 females to every countries have expanded access to education 10 males in s­ econdary.4 Despite substantial at a faster rate than the increase in their progress over the past decade, enrollment school-age population (see ­ figure 1.5), which rates have stalled recently in some econo- has led to large increases in enrollment r ­ ates. mies: in Jordan and Lebanon due to the Between 1974 and 2016, the primary and influx of large numbers of Syrian refugees; secondary school-age population in MENA and in Syria, West Bank and Gaza, and the doubled, from 45 million to 90 million Republic of Yemen due to ongoing ­ conflict. ­ children. At the same time, school enrollment In addition, secondary school enrollment more than tripled, from 25 million to 83 mil- ­ levels are well below those of other middle- ­ tudents. The MENA region experienced lion s income countries around the ­ world. While one of the fastest increases in school enroll- several countries—like Bahrain, Oman, and ment rates of any region in the w ­ orld. Saudi Arabia—have secondary GERs above Between 1974 and 2016, the average primary 100 ­p ercent, others—like Djibouti, Syria, education gross enrollment rate (GER) in and the Republic of Yemen—are only around M ENA increased from 77 ­ p ercent to 50 ­percent. Even some ­middle-income coun- 105 ­percent. 3 The increase was even more tries—like Lebanon and Morocco—have pronounced for secondary education, where secondary GERs below 70 ­ percent. A N e w L e n s o n E d u ca t i o n   i n   MEN A    75 FIGURE 1.5  Rapid population growth in MENA has been accompanied by large increases in school enrollment Primary and secondary school-age population growth and enrollment growth, 1974–2016 a. Primary b. Secondary United Arab Emirates Oman Oman United Arab Emirates Djibouti Djibouti Qatar Qatar Saudi Arabia Algeria Iraq Saudi Arabia Morocco Morocco Jordan Libya Egypt, Arab Rep. Jordan Kuwait Bahrain Bahrain Tunisia MENA MENA Iran, Islamic Rep. Iraq Algeria Egypt, Arab Rep. Yemen, Rep. Syrian Arab Republic West Bank and Gaza Kuwait Libya Iran, Islamic Rep. Syrian Arab Republic Lebanon Tunisia West Bank and Gaza Lebanon Yemen, Rep. 0 300 600 900 1,200 1,500 0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 1974 = 100 1974 = 100 Enrollment School-age population Source: World Bank EdStats database (http://datatopics.worldbank.org/education/). Note: Base year for school enrollment is 1974 for all economies except Lebanon (1978 for primary enrollment and 1973 for secondary enrollment), Saudi Arabia (1979), West Bank and Gaza (1995), and the Republic of Yemen (1999). Latest year for school enrollment is 2016 for all economies except Algeria (2011 for secondary enrollment), the Islamic Republic of Iran (2015), Iraq (2007), Jordan (2014 for secondary enrollment), Kuwait (2015 for secondary enrollment), Libya (2006), Morocco (2012 for secondary enrollment), Saudi Arabia (2014 for secondary enrollment), the Syrian Arab Republic (2013), and the MENA regional average (2014). Last year of population data is 2016 for all economies except Iraq (2015), Jordan (2009 for primary school- age population), Libya (2015), and MENA (2014). Access to postsecondary education has 38 ­percent, placing MENA on par with East increased substantially over the past Asia and the Pacific and above the world 50 years as w­ ell. In the early 1970s, only ­average.5 one country in the region had a tertiary GE R above 10 ­ p ercent— L ebanon, at For countries to develop their human percent. Today, only one country is below 21 ­ capital, learning must take place 10 ­ p ercent— Djibouti, at 5 ­ p ercent—​ according to the latest available ­ ­ d ata. In l earning. Schooling is not the same as ­ 2014, the regional average tertiary GER was MENA has not been able to benefit fully 7 6   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations from its investments in education because with other regions in the world, it also has the potential of education is achieved only low intergenerational income ­m obility. when education confers the relevant skills In most other regions, educational mobility that constitute human ­ c apital. Expanding and income mobility are well correlated; this education systems by increasing enrollment is not the case in MENA (Narayan et ­ a l. potential. is not sufficient to deliver on that ­ box 1.3). 2018) (see ­ The skills conferred by education are what In MENA, the substantial investments in determine education’s contribution to eco- schooling have not led to corresponding nomic growth, not just the years of school- improvements in student learning and the ing completed (Barro and L ee 2013; acquisition of ­skills. When the actual years of Hanushek and Woessmann 2008; World schooling are adjusted for learning that takes Bank 2018). As fi ­ gure 1.6 shows, the rela- place in schools, the result is a picture in tionship between learning outcomes, mea- which a school year is worth more in one sured by test scores, and economic growth is country than in ­ another. For example, while much stronger than the relationship between Jordan has actual years of schooling similar years of schooling completed and e ­ conomic to those of Kazakhstan and New Zealand growth. (around 11 years in each country), students in In part due to education not living up to its Jordan attain two to three fewer years of potential, greater access to education has not learning in these 11 years than students translated into intergenerational economic in the two other ­ c ountries. The learning mobility (see ­ box 1.3). While the region’s adjustment brings the number of years of young people have attained higher education schooling down to 10 for Kazakhstan, 9 for levels than their parents, they are often not New Zealand, and 7 for J ­ ordan. Put another able to translate their educational attainment w ay, s t u d e n t s i n K a z a k h s t a n a n d into higher incomes (Narayan et ­ al. 2018). New Zealand receive 30 to 40 ­ percent more While MENA has the highest absolute inter- effective years of schooling than students in generational education mobility compared ­ gure 1.7).6 Jordan (see fi FIGURE 1.6  What matters for growth is skills Annual average per capita growth in GDP, 1970–2015, conditional on test scores, years of schooling completed, and initial GDP per capita, selected countries a. Test scores and growth b. Years of schooling and growth (conditional on initial GDP per capita and years of schooling) (conditional on initial GDP per capita and test scores) 3 3 2 Annual GDP per capita growth (%) Annual GDP per capita growth (%) 2 1 1 0 0 –1 y = 0.00 + 1.59x –1 y = 0.00 + 0.07x –2 t = 7.39 t = 0.82 R2 = 0.55 R2 = 0.02 –3 –2 –1.5 –1.0 –0.5 0 0.5 1.0 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 Test scores Years of schooling Source: World Bank 2018. A N e w L e n s o n E d u ca t i o n   i n   MEN A    77 Box 1.3  Income mobility lags behind educational mobility in MENA Economic mobility across generations, also known with only 35 ­ p ercent of the same generation in the as intergenerational mobility (IGM), is a key ele- average economy of ­ A frica. ment of human and economic ­ p rogress. Most par- However, educational attainment of parents is still ents would like to see their children earn a higher a strong predictor of children’s education in ­ M ENA. income, and with it a better life, than they have had The extent to which the educational attainment of an ­ t hemselves. At the same time, higher incomes and individual is independent of the education of his or her economic activity contribute to economic ­ g rowth. parents (“relative IGM in education”) is relatively low Education is a key dimension of human progress in MENA compared with other developing r ­ egions. and economic ­ mobility. Narayan et ­a l. (2018) mea- The achievements in absolute educational mobil- sure the extent of IGM in education and how it has ity in MENA do not translate into the labor m ­ arket. evolved across generations by comparing educational Education and income mobility are highly correlated attainment of different generations and analyzing in most of East Asia, Eastern Europe and Central the improvements (mobility) in education from one Asia, Latin America, and South Asia and in the to the ­ next. high-income ­ countries. However, income mobility in MENA has the highest level of absolute mobility MENA lags behind educational m ­ obility. Low income in education compared with any other region or with mobility may also be associated with low labor force high-income ­ countries. This means that the improve- participation rates, which are common in MENA ments in educational attainment (“absolute IGM (especially among ­ w omen). Personal connections in education”) between two generation cohorts are (wasta) and a focus on credentials over skills may also larger in MENA than in other regions or high-income be associated with the disconnect between education c ountries. In the average MENA country, roughly ­ and income m ­ obility. 60 ­percent of people born in the 1980s exhibit higher educational attainment than their parents, compared Source: Narayan et ­al. 2018. Data from the Trends in International TIMSS and the Progress in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) Reading Literacy Study ( ­ PIRLS).7 A common 2015 reveal that in MENA countries, on finding across these assessments is that average, the effective years of schooling are ­ students in MENA countries are not reaching 2.9 years less than the actual years of the expected levels of subject ­knowledge. In s chooling—the low learning equates to ­ fact, the average scores of MENA countries approximately three lost years of ­education. rank among the lowest of all countries par- This ranges from a difference of 2.2 years in ticipating in TIMSS and PIRLS (although Bahrain and Morocco to 3.9 years in Saudi mainly high- and middle-income countries Arabia and 4.2 years in J­ ordan. have participated in these ­ a ssessments). For example, ­ figure 1.8 shows that the aver- age TIMSS 2015 scores for grade 8 mathe- International assessments help MENA matics are lower in MENA countries than in countries to understand their most other participating ­ countries. learning gaps How well students grasp the important Young people in MENA need to develop aspects of countries’ official curricula can be their foundational skills seen in international student a ­ ssessments. Several MENA countries have participated in International benchmarks of performance on international student assessments such as TIMSS and PIRLS provide an indication of 7 8   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations FIGURE 1.7  When adjusted for learning, the number of years of effective schooling in MENA drops substantially Actual years and learning-adjusted years of schooling among young people, ages 25–29 a. Actual years of schooling 16 14 15 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 14 14 14 12 12 12 12 13 11 11 11 12 12 12 10 10 10 11 11 11 11 Number of years 9 10 10 8 8 9 8 6 6 6 4 2 0 ain So No ana ve a Bo aila . h A ay w ord a Ka Zea an Lit hst d hu an Fe C ia r e ed a en ala ly Ire nia ng d Isr ry ite Mal l d Ja ta ng n SA Sta a Ko gap ina Ku cco hr t Ira t, A es Isl ab ia Th Re . a, e Sin , Ch es p. tsw nd str n ab Tu tar Ko nit Can om Eg Sau mir key ic p p ae Ba wai Slo ysi Ne J fric Sw ali ng ed ad de hil re or Ki pa za lan Hu lan Au atio M Ita an n, Ar rab am Re Re a yp di at R t ut rw a d o E r Q or k M ian Ar ng U Un d ss ite Ru Un Ho b. Learning-adjusted years of schooling 16 14 14 14 13 13 12 11 11 11 11 Number of years 10 10 10 11 11 11 10 9 9 10 10 10 8 9 9 8 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 4 4 2 0 tsw ain t, A Tu na ve a ga ep. Sa K cco ra t So Q bia r Ba frica Ira rab Jo ep. Isl i an ail p. w orw e y ala d Ka ithu sia kh ia n ian S stra y Fe we lia ra n M n a ng el d rel ry ng d St da Ko R, C an Sin a, R a re ic es d b y ni Ca om SA Ja es h A ta i A ai Ze a l ra rke Slo alt ni re hin Ne N Chil sta de de tio M alan Ki an an Au Ita za an Hu Isra Th Re ite I a po am rat at a n, Em rd p te na ud uw L y ut a Bo hr R d o or d M ng yp U A Un Ko Eg ss d ite Ru ng Un Ho Sources: World Bank 2018, based on 2010 data from Barro and Lee 2013 and TIMSS 2015 (Mullis et al. 2016). Note: For the purposes of this illustration, years of schooling are adjusted using the grade 8 mathematics results from the 2015 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). Results are compared with those of Singapore (highest-scoring economy). The figure highlights, for example, that while Jordan has actual years of schooling similar to those of Kazakhstan and New Zealand (around 11 years in each country), students in Jordan attain two to three fewer years of learning in these 11 years than students in the two other countries (10 years for Kazakhstan and 9 years for New Zealand). what schoolchildren can ­ do. The “low” inter- geometric shapes, and measurement; solve national benchmark indicates a basic mastery simple word problems; and read or complete level. For exam- of each subject at each grade ­ ­ l. 2016). simple graphs and tables (Mullis et a ple, reaching the low international bench- In Kuwait, Morocco, and Saudi Arabia, less mark for grade 4 mathematics means that than 50 ­percent of grade 4 students in 2015 students have some basic mathematical had this basic mathematical knowledge— knowledge—they can add and subtract whole only 33 ­ percent, and 43 ­ percent, 41 ­ percent, numbers; show some understanding of one- ­ respectively. By comparison, across all par- digit multiplication, simple fractions, ticipating countries, 93 ­p ercent of grade 4 A N e w L e n s o n E d u ca t i o n   i n   MEN A    79 FIGURE 1.8  MENA countries have some of the lowest results on international student assessments Average scale scores, by region, TIMSS 2015 grade 8 mathematics 650 600 550 Average scale score 500 450 400 350 300 en b t i A co ca Fe aila a En ates Un Ir da No ary Sw ania Tu aly Ko in a, R e Slo land ba n yp K man Ca tan ic ar Jo ep. So otsw ia hA a SA aip . Ze lia d nd ng a hu y Ar Ge rkey Em rgia Ba tes Ne Aus pan M land Isl Q on O p. Sa Mor an Ka era d Ja a kh n Ch ) ng a (T ep ra ai R, ei ian Th ysi Lit rwa ut an Hu eni ng , Ch re or in Le rai d n za tio B rab Re am at fri w tra ud oc na ed t, A uw d n ite ela It ira R Ho an Ko gap s ala h ab o r St v g a Sin n, Eg Ira d ss ite Ru iw Un Ta a n ric ra Af aha East Asia and Paci c Europe and Central Asia and North America MENA S b- Su TIMSS scale center point Source: Mullis et al. 2016. Note: TIMSS = Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study. students had mastered these basic mathemat- the global average decreased between grades 4 ical ­skills. and 8 ­(see figure 1.9).8 This may indicate some MENA’s learning crisis is apparent across catching up between grades 4 and 8. However, primary and secondary grades as well as across the potential for catch-up also highlights that different subject ­areas. No MENA country a fundamental challenge for MENA countries comes close to the international medians of is the deficit in early learning, which occurs ­ percentage of students reaching the low inter- before grade 4. national benchmarks, as shown in table 1.3. The Programme for International Student In Egypt, only 42 ­percent of grade 8 students Assessment (PISA) measures what children at have a basic understanding of s ­ cience. In the age of 15 can do—that is, whether they Morocco, just 36 ­ percent of grade 4 students can apply their knowledge and competencies reach a minimum level of reading literacy. in reading, mathematics, and science to real- The gaps between MENA countries and world situations (Greaney and Kellaghan international averages tend to be greater at the 2008).9 Algeria, Jordan, Lebanon, Qatar, primary than at the secondary school l ­evel. Tunisia, and the United Arab Emirates For countries that participated in TIMSS 2011 ­ participated in the PISA 2015. Their 15-year- and 2015, it is possible to examine the same old students averaged two to four years of cohort of students who were in grade 4 in schooling behind those of Organisation for 2011 and grade 8 in 2015. In Bahrain, the Economic Co-operation and Development Islamic Republic of Iran, Morocco, Oman, (OECD) ­ c ountries. Algeria and Lebanon, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates, the gap both joining PISA for the first time in 2015, between the average score for the country and found that more than two-thirds of their 8 0   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations TABLE 1.3  MENA countries have some of the lowest results on international student assessments Percentage of students reaching low international benchmarks of performance on TIMSS 2011 and 2015 and PIRLS 2011 and 2016 Mathematics (TIMSS) Grade 4 Grade 8 Country 2011 2015 Country 2011 2015 International median 90 93 International median 75 84 Bahraina 67 72 Bahraina 53 75 United Arab Emiratesa 64 68 United Arab Emirates 73 73 Iran, Islamic Rep. 64 65 Lebanon 73 71 Qatara 55 65 Iran, Islamic Rep.a 55 63 Omana 46 60 Qatara 54 63 Saudi Arabiab 55 43 Omana 39 52 Moroccoa 26 41 Egypt, Arab Rep. n.a. 47 Kuwaitb 30 23 Jordanb 55 45 Moroccoa 36 41 Kuwait n.a. 37 Saudi Arabiab 47 34 Science (TIMSS) Grade 4 Grade 8 Country 2011 2015 Country 2011 2015 International median 92 95 International median 79 84 Bahrain 70 72 United Arab Emirates 75 76 United Arab Emiratesa 61 67 Bahraina 70 73 Qatara 50 64 Iran, Islamic Rep.b 79 73 Iran, Islamic Rep.b 72 61 Omana 59 72 Omana 45 61 Qatara 58 70 Saudi Arabiab 63 48 Jordanb 72 63 Moroccoa 16 35 Lebanon 54 50 Kuwaitb 37 25 Kuwait n.a. 49 Saudi Arabiab 68 49 Moroccoa 39 47 Egypt, Arab Rep. n.a. 42 Reading (PIRLS) Grade 4 Country 2011 2016 International median 95 96 United Arab Emiratesa 64 68 Qatara 60 66 Iran, Islamic Rep.b 76 65 Saudi Arabia 65 63 Omana 47 59 Moroccoa 21 36 Sources: Mullis et al. 2016, 2017. Note: The international medians for 2011 and 2016 cannot be compared because the set of countries in each year is not the same. PIRLS = Progress in International Reading Literacy Study; TIMSS = Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study; n.a. = not applicable (the Arab Republic of Egypt and Kuwait did not participate in TIMSS for grade 8 in 2011). a. Statistically significant increase between 2011 and 2015/2016. b. Statistically significant decrease between 2011 and 2015/2016. A N e w L e n s o n E d u ca t i o n   i n   MEN A    81 ­ tudents did not meet a basic proficiency level s FIGURE 1.9  Achievement gaps in MENA tend to be greater for in science, reading, and mathematics (see primary school than for secondary school figure 1.10). Test scores of 2011 grade 4 cohort as grade 8 students in 2015, difference from TIMSS scale center point Results vary for those MENA countries that have participated in PISA over multiple United Arab Iran, Saudi ­ y ears. In Tunisia and the United Arab Bahrain Emirates Islamic Rep. Qatar Arabia Oman Morocco Emirates, PISA scores have deteriorated over 0 Di erence from TIMSS scale center point (500) ­t ime.10 In Tunisia, proficiency levels in all –20 three subjects have declined over the last –40 d ecade. PISA scores for Jordan remained ­ –60 stable over the four assessments from 2006 to 2015, and Qatar’s results improved from –80 2012 to 2015 across all three subjects, –100 although half of Qatar’s students did not –120 achieve basic ­proficiency. –140 –160 MENA’s postsecondary education is not –180 contributing to scientific knowledge and innovation Grade 4 in 2011 Grade 8 in 2015 Source: Based on data from Mullis et al. 2016. The overall quality of postsecondary educa- Note: TIMSS = Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study. tion in MENA, as measured by international university rankings, is l ­ow. Challenges FIGURE 1.10  Many children in MENA have not reached basic in earlier schooling as well as challenges proficiency by age 15 within postsecondary education contribute Percentage of 15-year-old students reaching basic proficiency, PISA 2015 to low q ­ uality. Few MENA universities, 100 for example, reached the top 500 of the Shanghai-based Academic Ranking of World 80 80 77 79 Universities (see chapter 13). In most MENA 60 58 countries, scientific productivity and tech- 60 50 54 Percent 48 50 51 nology transfer is low, although a few coun- 41 40 37 tries demonstrate strong capacit y for 40 34 30 32 29 25 28 ­i nnovation.11 The Islamic Republic of Iran 21 20 19 is an outlier in this respect, performing strongly across all measures, especially in its 0 sizable production of domestic patents and Algeria Tunisia Lebanon Qatar Jordan United OECD its scientific and technical journal articles Arab average Emirates relative to national ­GDP. The rate of technology transfer in some Mathematics Reading Science MENA countries deteriorated between 2012 Source: OECD 2016. and 2015: in the Republic of Yemen, from Note: OECD = Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development; PISA = Programme for International Student Assessment. 46 patents to 7 patents, likely due to conflict, and in the Islamic Republic of Iran, from 5,227 patents to 2,880 ­ patents. In Algeria, Notes the number of patent grants fluctuated from 1. World Bank EdStats ­ database. 41 in 2012 to a high of 537 in 2014, declin- 2. According to the 2019 Arab Youth Survey ing to 74 in 2015. Overall, although progress (ASDA’A BCW 2019), 78 percent of youths is being made in places, MENA countries lag ages 18 to 24 surveyed across the Arab world the world’s leading economies in innovative believe that it should be the government’s capacity (Salmi 2017). responsibility to provide ­jobs. This belief 8 2   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations varies from 71 percent in the Levant to 10. In the United Arab Emirates, an increase in 82 ­ GCC. percent in the ­ participation (from 83 ­ percent of 15-year- 3. The GER is the number of students enrolled olds in 2012 to 91 ­percent in 2015) may have in a specific level of education, regardless contributed to the declining ­score. of age, as a percentage of the population in 11. Technology transfer refers to how research the official age group corresponding to that flows across national borders or from aca- level of e ­ducation. The GER can exceed demia to the public and private sectors, using 100 ­ percent because it includes students who ­ roxy. patent grants as a p are younger or older than the official age range for a particular level of e ­ ducation. 4. World Bank EdStats d ­ atabase. References 5. World Bank EdStats d ­ atabase. Arezki, Rabah, Lili Mottaghi, Andrea Barone, 6. These figures are calculated following the Rachel Yuting Fan, A mani Abou Harb, methodology presented in the World Omer ­ M . Karasapan, Hideki Matsunaga, Ha Development Report 2018 (World Bank Nguyen, and Francois de ­ S oyres. 2018. 2018), which adjusts the actual years of “Middle East and North Africa Economic schooling, based on census data, with learn- Monitor, October 2018: A New Economy ing levels, based on the Trends in International for Middle East and North A ­ frica.” World Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) B a n k , Wa s h i n g t o n , ­ DC. ­ https:// 2015 ­ scores. A different but comparative op en k nowle d ge ​ . worldba n k .or g / h a nd le​ method is employed as part of the Human /10986/30436. Capital Index, introduced in the World ASDA’A B ­ CW. 2019. “A Call for Reform: 2019 Development Report 2019 (World Bank Arab Youth ­ Survey.” ASDA’A, ­ Dubai. h ­ ttp:// 2019). 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Washington, DC: World Earnings: Where Are We, Where Should ­B ank. ­https://openknowledge.worldbank.org​ We Go?” Economics of Education Review /­handle/10986/28428. 19 (2): 131–47. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation ILO (International Labour ­ Organization). Various and ­ Development). 2016. PISA 2015 Results: ­ y ears. ILOSTAT d ­ atabase. Geneva: I ­LO. Excellence and Equity in E ­ ducation. ­ Vol. 1. https://ilostat.ilo.org/. Paris: O ­ ECD. Krafft, ­Caroline. 2017. “Is School the Best Route Psacharopoulos, George, and Harry Anthony to Skills? Returns to Vocational School and ­ Patrinos. 2018. “Returns to Investment in Vocational Skills in ­ E gypt.” Journal of Education: A Decennial Review of the Global Development Studies 54 (7): 1–21. L iterature.” Policy Research Working Paper ­ Krafft, Caroline, and Ragui ­ Assaad. 2014. “Why 8402, World Bank, Washington, D ­ C. ­ https:// the Unemployment Rate Is a Misleading op e n k nowle d ge .worldba n k .or g / h a nd le​ Indicator of Labor Market Health in E ­ gypt.” /10986/29672. Policy Perspective 14, Economic Research Ramos, ­ R aul. 2017. “Migration Aspirations Forum, ­Cairo. among NEETs in Selected MENA C ­ ountries.” Krafft, Caroline, Zea Branson, and Taylor ­ Flak. IZA Discussion Paper 11146, Institute of 2019. “What’s the Value of a Degree? Evidence Labor Economics, ­ B onn. ­ http://ftp.iza.org​ from Egypt, Jordan, and T ­ unisia.” Compare: /­dp11146­.pdf. A Journal of Comparative and International Sala-i-Martin, Xavier, Gernot Doppelhofer, and ­E ducation . doi:10.1080/03057925.2019​ Ronald ­ M iller. 2004. “Determinants of I. ­ .1590801. Long-Term Growth: A Bayesian Averaging of Lange, Glenn-Marie, Quentin Wodon, and Kevin Classical Estimates (BACE) ­ A pproach.” C ­ arey. 2018. The Changing Wealth of Nations American Economic Review 94 (4): 813–35. 8 4   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations Salehi-Isfahani, ­ Dhavad. 2012. “Education, Jobs, World B ­ ank. 2008. The Road Not Traveled: and Equity in the Middle East and North Education Reform in the Middle East and ­A frica.” Comparative Economic Studies North ­Africa. Washington, DC: World B ­ ank. 54 (4): 843–61. ———. 2015. Inequality, Uprisings, and Conflict Salmi, J ­ amil. 2017. “Building the Research Capacity in the Arab W ­ orld. MENA Economic M ­ onitor. of MENA ­ Universities.” Background paper for Washington, DC: World ­ Bank. this report, World Bank, Washington, ­ DC. ———. 2018. World Development Report 2018: Springborg, ­ R obert. 2011. “The Precarious Learning to Realize Education’s P ­ romise. Economics of Arab ­ Springs.” Survival 53 (6): Washington, DC: World ­ Bank. ­ 85–104. doi:10.1080/00396338.2011.636271. ———. 2019. World Development Report 2019: UIS (UNESCO Institute for ­ S tatistics). 2018. The Changing Nature of W ­ ork. Washington, UIS. Stat database on education ­ i ndicators. DC: World ­ Bank. ­ United Nations Educational, Scientific, and ———. No d ­ ata. “Remittances D ­ ata.” Global Cultural Organization (UNESCO), P ­ aris. Knowledge Partnership on Migration and ­ ttp://data​.uis.unesco.org/. h Development (KNOM AD), World Bank, UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, Washington, ­D C. ­https://www.knomad.org​ and Cultural O ­ r g a n i z a t i o n ) . 2 0 11 . /data/remittances. International Standard Classification of ———. Various ­ y ears. Education Statistics Education (ISCED) ­ database. Paris: ­ U NESCO. (EdStats) ­ d atabase. Washington, DC: World ­http://uis.unesco.org/en/topic/international​ ­B a n k. ­h t t p: //d at atopic s.worldba n k.org​ -standard-classification-education-isced. /education/. Behaviors, Norms, and the Political Economy of 2 Education in MENA Safaa El Tayeb El-Kogali E Education is an inherently ducation does not occur in a vacuum; it is embedded in the complex interac- political and social process levels. For tion of factors at multiple ­ decades, the countries in the Middle East and Education is a political and social process as North Africa (MENA) have spent large pro- much as an individual ­ journey. Governments portions of their national income on educa- have commonly used education to shape the tion and have undertaken all kinds of reforms identity of nations, to develop economies, to fix the system and address the quantity and to define social structures and cultural and quality of ­ e ducation. Yet no MENA ­ norms. Education has been at the heart of the countries have managed to improve their region’s history and ­civilizations. In the past learning outcomes to an international level of century, it has been central to the struggle for s ­ uccess. Why? Much of the research on edu- independence, to building the modern state cation reform points to factors that are out- and economy, and to defining its national side the MENA education system, including identity. Governments as well as different ­ the political, economic, and social institu- interest groups use education to spread their tions that formally and informally interact vision and shape the minds of each genera- with the education system and shape its tion. As such, education is a battlefield of dif- o ­ utcomes. ferent, often competing, visions and purposes This chapter examines the political econ- (Purpel and Shapiro 1995). omy of education within MENA and how The previous World Bank flagship report these various forces interplay in a complex on education in MENA, The Road Not process. The chapter examines why reforms ­ Traveled, demonstrated that, beyond the engi- have not succeeded in bringing about positive neering of the education system, incentives outcomes, what key factors are holding back and accountability mechanisms are weak in reforms, and what MENA countries can do MENA countries, which helps to explain the to break out of this ­ impasse. low learning outcomes (World Bank 2008). 85 8 6   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations Poor accountability relationships in the politi- should be doing the same (Khemani 2017; cal and administrative spheres weaken the World Bank 2015­ d). incentives toward performance and policy The education process consists of a com- implementation (World Bank 2015­ c). A rigor- plex set of factors and actors at multiple ous review of the political economy of educa- levels. Factors outside the education system— ­ tion systems in low- and middle-income political, economic, and social—formally countries further showed that, beyond capac- and informally interact with the education ity constraints, weak delivery systems, and system and shape its ­ outcomes. Behavioral poor administration and governance, vested norms and ideological polarization among interests, power relations, and lack of political governments, interest groups, and citizens will have influenced countries’ education poli- can hold countries back from delivering pub- cies and outcomes (Kingdon et ­ al. 2014). lic goods (World Bank 2016). Recent research on the development pro- cess and political economy adds a new dimension that focuses on behavior, social Four tensions are holding back norms, and preferences, whereby beliefs education in MENA about the nature of the problem and its solu- In MENA, education has been held back by tion shape the attitudes toward policies and these complex interactions, behavioral reforms (Khemani 2017; World Bank 2015­ d). norms, and ideological polarization, which That is, “human sociality,” whereby people can be captured in four sets of tensions: cre- associate and behave as members of a group dentials and skills, discipline and inquiry, and establish norms and patterns of coopera- control and autonomy, and tradition and tion, can influence education and impede ­ gure 2.1). modernity (see fi reforms that they perceive would reduce their These tensions are deeply embedded in power or ability to extract benefits (Khemani the region’s history, culture, and political 2017; Kingdon et ­ a l. 2014; World Bank e conomy. They are reflected to varying ­ 2015d). While it is not unusual for individu- degrees in all countries in the region, and, to als or groups to resist a change that may jeop- a large extent, they define social and politi- ardize their interests or cause them to lose cal r­elations. They have informed and their position, they also may resist reforms shaped education policy in MENA countries because they believe that others are pursuing since independence, and they are at the their own self-interest and that they therefore heart of current national discourses on edu- cation ­ r eforms. These tensions have held education systems back from evolving and ­FIGURE 2.1  Four tensions are holding back education in MENA delivering the skills that prepare students for future. Schools and classrooms are the their ­ Tradition platforms where these tensions are exercised through curricula, pedagogy, and the norms Credentials Discipline that define interactions among principals, teachers, parents, and s ­ tudents. These ten- sions ultimately shape the education out- Classroom School Society comes of young people in MENA and affect Control Education Autonomy their lives as well as the economies and soci- eties in which they l ­ive. In an increasingly connected world, the effects of these ten- sions can reach beyond the region’s ­ borders. Inquiry Skills Unless these tensions are addressed, MENA Modernity will not be able to reap the full benefits of education, no matter how much money is Source: World ­Bank. ­invested. B e h a v i o r s , N o r m s , a n d t h e P o l i t i ca l Ec o n o m y o f E d u ca t i o n i n MEN A    87 Four features of these tensions are notewor- T he re qu i re m e nt wa s more for t he thy. First, they are not mutually exclusive, and credential—the diploma or certificate—than ­ they coexist along a c­ ontinuum. The challenge for the s­ kills. As a result, MENA countries for countries is to determine where they want have become societies in which there is little to be on the continuum and what balance or no link between education credentials and would be optimal to deliver the desired skills (Assaad, Krafft, and Salehi-Isfahani ­ outcomes. Second, the four tensions overlap in 2018). In the meantime, little pressure has some areas and can reinforce each ­ other. For been placed on education institutions to example, notions of control and autonomy ensure that credentials mean that the gradu- could also be associated with discipline and ate possesses the relevant skills. inquiry or tradition and m ­ odernity. Third, the Although the size of the public sector as tensions are neither unique to MENA nor time an employer has declined in many MENA specific. Throughout history, countries across ­ countries, its legacy continues in the form of the world have struggled with these tensions in a “credentialist equilibrium” (Salehi- defining their goals and ­ policies. Fourth, no Isfahani 2012). In such an equilibrium, pub- one position applies to every country or lic sector employers communicate a strong region. Each country, based on its national ­ demand for credentials, and the private sec- development goals and vision, needs to decide tor’s signals for skills are ­ weak. Responding where it wants to place its education system to market signals, students and families within these ­ tensions. focus more on the credential (degree or diploma) and less on the skills and compe- tencies that these credentials would ideally Credentials and skills represent (see ­ figure 2.2). The tension between credentials and skills The credentialist equilibrium in MENA has been a source of debate for almost countries has been created in part by imbal- 50 ­years. Since the 1970s, economists and ances in the labor market, where the large sociologists have argued about the links public sector is the preferred employer between education, skills, and the labor mar- (Barsoum 2015; World Bank 2013­ a). In addi- ket, using numerous theories and models, tion to higher wages, the desire for public such as Becker’s human capital theory employment is motivated by greater prestige, (Becker 1962), Collins’s credentialist theory more generous benefits, and a better work (Collins 1979), and Spence’s signaling model environment, particularly for women (Spence 1973). A credential in the form of a (Barsoum 2015). Expectations of the public degree, diploma, or certificate is usually asso- sector are also high because employment ciated with the acquisition of a specific set of opportunities are often treated as a right, knowledge. In the labor market, cre- skills or ­ dentials signal productivity, based on the assumption that more years of education are FIGURE 2.2  MENA is stuck in a credentialist equilibrium associated with higher productivity (Page 2010). Credentials also bestow a certain sta- Education system Strong supply tus in society, where a higher degree is associ- of credentials Strong demand ated with higher status and figures in matters for credentials such as ­marriage. The history of education as a tool to gen- Private Weak demand erate bureaucrats for the public sector for skills employers shaped the current structure of the educa- tion system and labor market in ­ M ENA. Youths and Strong demand Public Public sector employment was typically families employers for credentials guaranteed for anyone who had a sufficient education ­ c redential—diploma or ­ degree. Source: Adapted from Assaad, Krafft, and Salehi-Isfahani 2018. 8 8   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations further disconnecting these opportunities discipline may constrict students’ ability to from ­ education. Several regional constitu- learn, think, explore ideas, or question tions include the “right to work,” engender- concepts. Inquiry, by contrast, allows stu- ­ ing a common attitude that employment dents to understand their surroundings or should be provided by the government and contextualize concepts through questions not by the private sector (Barsoum 2015). and ­experimentation. That attitude is a legacy of the government Some degree of discipline is important employment guarantees that were part of the and necessary, but violent discipline nega- region’s social contract (Assaad 1997, 2014). tively affects children’s physical, psychologi- The high wages and outsized role of govern- cal, and social development and hampers ment employment in MENA crowd out the their learning and school performance, ulti- private sector (Behar and Mok 2013; Nabli mately reducing human capital development 2007), and government strategies to increase (El-Kogali and Krafft 2015; UNICEF 2010). high-quality private sector employment have Violent child discipline is widespread in largely failed, resulting in poor or limited ­ M ENA. In a study of 50 countries or econo- opportunities for new graduates (Dahi 2012; mies, UNICEF (2013) found that MENA Salehi-Isfahani 2012; Springborg 2011) and has the highest ­ percentage of children ages reducing the demand for ­ skills. 2–14 years who are violently disciplined, The notion of reducing public sector ranging from 79 to 95 percent in Algeria, employment, a key aspect of a new Arab Egypt, Iraq, Morocco, the Syrian Arab social contract, has gained little traction in Republic (preconflict), Tunisia, West Bank the region (Devarajan and Ianchovichina and Gaza, and the Republic of Yemen 2018). Since the Arab Spring, calls for a new (El-Kogali and Krafft 2015). social contract have not yielded meaningful Concepts of discipline and inquiry are change in the role of the public ­ sector. In fact, closely linked to pedagogy and curricula, as the Arab Republic of Egypt, Jordan, and well as to the day-to-day interactions of Tunisia have all raised public salaries to stem s tudents with teachers; the emphasis on ­ further protests (Capital Economics 2017). ­ d iscipline leads to passive learning and While placating social discontent and tempo- m emorization. Across MENA, curricula ­ rarily supporting the economy, this approach focus heavily on rote memorization, leaving also reinforces the notion that public sector little time for the development of critical employment is the only path to high salaries, thinking ­ skills. According to teachers, the career growth, and status within society— share of grade 8 students required to memo- and so it will keep the region stuck in a cre- rize mathematics and science rules, proce- dentialist ­equilibrium. dures, and facts for all or most lessons in many MENA countries is almost twice the international average (see ­ f igure 2.3). The Discipline and inquiry share exceeds 50 ­ percent in Egypt, the Islamic The terms discipline and inquiry have multi- Republic of Iran, Jordan, Lebanon, Oman, ple meanings and u ­ ses. Here, discipline is and Saudi Arabia, which is far above that in defined as “the practice of training people to many high-performing ­ countries. For exam- obey rules or a code of behavior” (Oxford) or ple, only 10 ­ percent of grade 8 students in “training that corrects, molds, or perfects the Canada and New Zealand are required to mental faculties or moral character” memorize during most mathematics lessons, ­ Merriam-Webster’s). Inquiry is defined as ( 11 ­percent in Sweden and the United States, “an examination into facts or principles” and 14 ­ p ercent in Ireland and S ­ ingapore. ­(Merriam-Webster’s). In societies with strong Because of the emphasis on memorizing rules, social norms, discipline is a key factor in procedures, facts, and principles, students are ensuring adherence to ­ norms. Although disci- unable to show a basic understanding of pline is important, too much emphasis on everyday ­ applications. In the 2015 Trends in B e h a v i o r s , N o r m s , a n d t h e P o l i t i ca l Ec o n o m y o f E d u ca t i o n i n MEN A    89 International Mathematics and Science Study ­FIGURE 2.3  MENA students are more likely to be asked to memorize (TIMSS), fewer than half of Morocco’s grade Percentage of grade 8 students asked to memorize science facts and principles for every lesson or almost every lesson, 2015 4 students could read a basic ­ graph. And only about 55 ­ p ercent of Egypt’s and Saudi 70 Arabia’s grade 8 students could interpret a 60 58 57 57 60 basic pictogram (Mullis et ­ al. 2016). 53 53 49 48 The overemphasis on memorization of 50 45 44 42 facts, principles, rules, and procedures does 40 Percent not negate the fact that some knowledge needs to be ­ retained. Rather, it is a question 30 of the degree of emphasis and the overall 20 experience of the child in the c ­ lassroom. Cognitive science provides information that 10 allows a more nuanced understanding of the 0 balance between rote memorization and p. n a an an p. ain co it s r ta te bi no wa Re Re oc higher-level processes such as discovery rd Om Qa ira hr ra ba Ku Jo or b ic iA Ba Em ra Le am M ud learning. The capacity to solve problems and ­ t, A ab Isl Sa yp Ar n, to think critically about new material Eg Ira d ite Un depends on background knowledge retained in one’s memory (Kirschner, Sweller, and International average Clark 2006). Repeated reflective practice is Source: Martin et ­al. 2016. fundamental to building flexible knowledge and s­ kills. In addition, students need guid- The tension between discipline and ance from teachers to develop the knowledge inquiry also applies to relationships such as and skills that can facilitate independent, those between teachers and principals and complex cognitive ­ work. Therefore, ideally between parents and their ­ children. In many there is a balance between rote memorization MENA countries, obedience is viewed as an and high-level problem solving, and, depend- especially important quality that children ing on the task and level, it is a matter of should be encouraged to learn at h ­ ome. striking the appropriate ­ balance. Inquiry-driven qualities, such as imagina- The tension between discipline and inquiry expression, are emphasized less tion and self-­ also reverberates in higher education, where it figure 2.4). Moreover, the tension often (see ­ may hamper the push for solution-focused, between discipline and inquiry is also found multidisciplinary, high-impact research in societies with strong social norms for (World Bank 2017­ a). Effective postsecondary class, gender, or ­h ierarchy. For example, a education programs emphasize practical recent comprehensive household survey of training instead of theoretical ­ k nowledge. men and women ages 18–59 revealed that Mounting evidence provided by the cognitive 90 ­percent of men and 58 ­ percent of women and learning sciences indicates that interac- in Egypt agree with the statement, “A man tive approaches facilitate an effective learning should have the final word about decisions experience (Barkley, Cross, and Major 2005; in the home” (UN Women and Promundo Prince 2004). This combination allows future 2017). Results were similar in West Bank graduates to broaden their perspectives and and Gaza (80 ­ percent of men and 48 ­percent equips them with the skills to enter the labor of women) and Morocco (71 ­ percent of men market. But postsecondary education pro- ­ and 47 ­ p ercent of ­ women). These social grams in MENA are skewed toward theory norms may negatively affect the attitudes of over practice; they tend to have outdated girls and women toward inquiry and their curricula focused on theory and memoriza- ­ right to ask questions both at home and tion, as opposed to practical knowledge and in other settings such as school, university, analytical reasoning (El Hassan 2013). or ­work. 9 0   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations FIGURE 2.4  Obedience plays a central role in children’s education in MENA Percentage of survey respondents who mentioned obedience, imagination, or self-expression as especially important qualities that children can be encouraged to learn at home 70 60 50 40 Percent 30 20 10 0 . q ya it an ria za r p. sia co n ep ta no Ira wa Re Ga Lib oc rd ge ni Qa ,R ba Ku Tu Jo or b Al nd en ra Le M m ka t, A Ye an yp tB Eg es W Obedience Imagination Self-expression Source: World Values Survey, Wave 6 (2010–14), from Inglehart et a­ l. 2014. ­ ome. Which, if any, do you Note: These results are drawn from the following question: “Here is a list of qualities that children can be encouraged to learn at h consider to be especially important? Please choose up to fi ­ ve.” Potential answers included independence, hard work, feeling of responsibility, imagination, tolerance and respect for other people, thrift/saving money and things, determination/perseverance, religious faith, unselfishness, obedience, and ­self-expression. Control and autonomy supported by the resources needed to imple- ment ­ decisions. For example, decentraliza- The tension between control and autonomy is tion in Egypt in 2002–07 was not supported usually associated with the debate on decen- by sufficient financial resources (Ginsburg tralization of services and the balance of ­ l. 2010). Decentralization in Saudi Arabia et a power between central ministries, regional in the 2000s appears to have been adequately ­ chools. The goal of decentraliza- offices, and s funded, but the tasks and duties transferred tion is typically to improve governance by to the local level were more administrative fostering autonomy, accountability, and than geared toward the development of local responsiveness to local conditions and ­ needs. schools (Almannie 2015). In other instances, These attributes of decentralization in turn a decentralized model was rolled out in a pol- can improve student ­ learning. icy without putting in place the capacity to Over the past few decades, several MENA carry out the decentralized functions at the countries experimented with some aspects of regional or school ­ l evel. For example, decentralization, deconcentration, and devo- Morocco’s regional academies for education lution of authority from the central to the a nd t ra i n i n g (ac ad é m ie s ré g ion a le s regional and school levels, but their educa- d’éducation et de formation) were only tion systems remain highly ­ centralized. The granted autonomy to manage some logistical success of attempted decentralization has and financial decisions based on guidelines varied. In some instances, the decision-­ ­ provided by the central government (World making power was authorized but was not Bank 2015b). B e h a v i o r s , N o r m s , a n d t h e P o l i t i ca l Ec o n o m y o f E d u ca t i o n i n MEN A    91 There is no magic formula for balancing performance (Aghion et ­ a l. 2009; World centralized control and autonomy in Bank 2011). However, most universities in education. It must be determined within the ­ MENA have very limited autonomy over aca- country context, with size, geography, and demic, staffing, and financial m ­ atters. In population distribution playing important 2012 the World Bank benchmarked the gov- roles in the ­ decision. What is important is ernance practices of 100 universities in finding the balance in defining the roles and Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Morocco, responsibilities of institutional actors (for Tunisia, and West Bank and Gaza (World example, the central government, local gov- Bank 2013­ b). Institutional autonomy was ernment, and communities) and defining the very low among public universities, with the locus of control of the education processes local or central government making decisions and mechanisms used to steer the system about matters such as the academic program, (World Bank 2005). In other words, the hiring of teaching faculty, and ­ f undraising. balance between central control and auton- ­ Private universities, by contrast, enjoyed omy should reflect the roles and responsi- much greater autonomy across all seven bilities of central versus local governance MENA economies surveyed (World Bank and political versus professional power and 2013­ b). In a follow-up survey in 2016, auton- ­accountability. omy did not seem to have changed much Limited autonomy at the school and for either public or private universities classroom levels can constrain efforts by (World Bank 2017­ b). A comparison of self-­ principals and teachers to be proactive in assessment and actual scores revealed that the learning process and prevent them from public institutions perceive their autonomy to taking responsibility for student learning be higher than the autonomy score in the outcomes if they consider themselves as external evaluation, whereas private universi- merely implementing a centralized approach ties have a more accurate perception of their (Akkary 2014). Teachers in MENA have autonomy (World Bank 2017­ b). far less decision-making responsibility than those in member countries of the Tradition and modernity Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( ­OECD). Studies in the According to some scholars, the greatest Islamic Republic of Iran, Jordan, and challenge MENA countries face is aligning Kuwait have found that central authorities the development needs of a modern world maintain strict control of curricular content and the moral imperatives of a religious soci- and teaching practices, leaving little auton- ety, resulting in tension between modernity omy for teachers (A fshar and Doosti and tradition (Cook 2000). The focus on tra- 2016; Al-Yaseen and Al-Musaileem 2015; dition versus modernity, or the forces of Namaghi 2009; World Bank 2015a). change, can result in conflicts within educa- Limited autonomy among teachers com- tion processes (Massialas and Jarrar 1987). promises job satisfaction and the develop- This tension can be captured in the definition ment of student skills, in part because it and purpose of ­ education. In Arabic, taaleem impedes the ability of teachers to teach to the (education) comes from the root word ilm right level for their students, a critical ele- ­ ( knowledge). The plural of ilm is uloom ment of effective teaching (Evans and Popova ­(science). Taaleem encompasses both learn- 2015). Limited autonomy at the regional, ing and teaching—the acquisition and provi- provincial, and school levels for the hiring sion of knowledge or ­ science. Education in and deployment of teachers also limits the Arabic is also tarbiya, which refers to educa- ability to better match teacher characteristics tion in the sense of growing or r ­ earing. Its with teaching ­ needs. root word, rabba, means raising or bringing Greater autonomy in higher education ­up. Taaleem and tarbiya have meanings simi- institutions tends to be associated with better lar to that of the Latin words educere —to 9 2   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations lead forth and train—and educare —to rear Japanese values while adapting aspects of the and educate (Bass and Good 2004; Cook world’s best education systems (OECD 2010). 1999). Ernst Friedrich Schumacher, a British econo- At the center of the debate on tradition mist in the 1970s, argued that the purpose of and modernity is the extent to which educa- education is to transmit the values “through tion should focus on the acquisition of which we look at, interpret, and experience knowledge or science (taaleem) versus the the world” and that science “cannot produce acquisition of values ­(tarbiya). This question ideas by which we could live . . . and is com- is reflected in the evolution of the names pletely inapplicable to the conduct of our given to ministries of education in MENA lives or the interpretation of the world” ­ countries. Names have shifted between min- (Schumacher 1973). He believed that educa- istries of tarbiya and ministries of taaleem, tion was of no value if it did not transmit fun- with some countries settling on both names damental ­ convictions. In other words, the as ministries of tarbiya and ­ taaleem.1 When purpose of education could be better under- education ministries were established in the stood not as taaleem but essentially as middle of the 20th century after indepen- tarbiya. ­ dence in most MENA countries, they were The traditional values and fundamental called ministries of maarif—plural of maar- convictions of MENA countries were estab- ifa ­(knowledge). Egypt, for example, began lished in Islam, which represents the founda- with the Ministry of Maarif and then shifted tion of national ­ identity. 2 These values and to the Ministry of Taaleem, and currently, it convictions are at the heart of e ­ ducation. The is the Ministry of Tarbiya and ­ Taaleem. The proportion of instructional time devoted to change was a deliberate decision made dur- religious education in most MENA countries ing the tenure of President Jamal Abdel is well above the average time that OECD Nasser, who regarded education as the pro- countries spend on religious, ethics, and cess required to form the complete person moral education (see chapter 7). Religious a nd to sh ap e t he E g y pt i a n ident it y education also reflects traditional teaching (Ahramonline 2015). practices that focus on ­ memorization. The The values and principles reflected in edu- foundations of rote learning in MENA can be cation in the MENA region are shaped by a linked to the oral tradition among Arabs that national discourse usually dominated by predates Islam, which has also been used to elites and powerful g ­ roups. Classrooms and preserve and spread Islamic ­ teachings. curricula become the platforms on which the It is up to countries to determine the val- struggle between modernity and tradition are ues they want to bestow on their citizens and played o ­ ut. The tension between tradition how much time they want to dedicate to t ­ hat. and modernity in defining the purpose of However, it is important that they recognize education is prevalent not only in MENA the trade-offs—in terms of limiting other ­ c ountries. Throughout history, countries learning—that are created by the time worldwide have struggled to modernize while devoted to teaching r ­ eligion. Countries can maintaining their cultural norms, values, and consider different approaches, such as intro- traditions, with education as the m ­ echanism. ducing important values to students through In Japan, when the Meiji government (1868– activities such as art, sports, and debate, 1912) implemented reforms based on Western among o ­ thers. It is also important to recog- models of education, Japanese feared their nize the impact of traditional modes of teach- identity and values would be l ­ost. These fears ing on ­ learning. In many countries, attempts led to the release of the Imperial Rescript of to reform the education system have been Education in 1890 emphasizing Japanese opposed as an attempt to change national ­ values and Confucian v ­ irtues. Since then, ­ character. In Jordan, for example, the intro- Japanese education policy has maintained a duction of curriculum reforms sparked public balance between retaining traditional outrage, mainly by conservative religious B e h a v i o r s , N o r m s , a n d t h e P o l i t i ca l Ec o n o m y o f E d u ca t i o n i n MEN A    93 groups who characterized the reforms as an 2. Malta is the exception; it is classified as part attempt to undermine the kingdom’s Islamic of MENA in the World Bank’s regional values and character (Kirdar 2017). Similarly, ­classifications. in Kuwait various groups have protested ongoing curriculum reforms as the imposi- References tion of imported ­ concepts. Afshar, Hassan Soodmand, and Mehdi D ­ oosti. Modernizing does not mean importing a 2016 . “A n I nve st igat ion i nto Fac tor s specific m ­ odel. In many MENA countries, Contributing to Iranian Secondary School modernity is associated with foreign models English Teachers’ Job Satisfaction and and approaches and is used by both the pro- ­Dissatisfaction.” Research Papers in Education p o n e nt s a nd opp o n e nt s of ­ change. 31 (3): 274–98. Modernization is a process by which social Aghion, Philippe, Mathias Dewatripont, Caroline norms evolve and are renewed; modernity M . Hoxby, Andreu Mas-Colell, and André ­ can be in multiple f ­orms. The issue is not S a p i r. 2 0 0 9. “ T h e G o v e r n a n c e a n d ­ replacing tradition with one form of Performance of Research Universities: Evidence from Europe and the U ­ .S.” NBER Working modernity. Rather, it is allowing review of ­ Paper 14851, National Bureau of Economic the traditional practices and norms that are Research, Cambridge, ­ M A. holding back the potential of education and Ahramonline. 2015. ­ A hramonline. h ­ ttp://www​ engaging in a process of r ­ enewal. Modernity .ahram.org.eg/News/131704/4/448902­/‫اياضق‬- is inevitable as the world ­changes. Countries ‫ءاراو‬/‫ةفسلف‬-‫ةيناجم‬-‫ميلعتلا‬-‫ىف‬-‫دهع‬-‫دبع‬-‫رصانلا‬.aspx. need to prepare their students with the Akkary, Rima K ­ . 2014. “Facing the Challenges of knowledge, skills, and values to engage with, Educational Reform in the Arab W ­ orld.” Journal adapt to, and succeed in a changing w ­ orld. of Educational Change 15 (2): 179–202. Almannie, Mohamed ­ A. 2015. “Leadership Role of School Superintendents in Saudi A ­ rabia.” Recognizing and addressing International Journal of Social Science Studies these constraints are critical for 3 (3): 169–75. education in MENA Al-Yaseen, Wafaa Salem, and Mohammad Yousef A l-Musaileem. 2015. “Teacher Empowerment ­ MENA countries are struggling with the four a s a n I mp o r t a nt C o mp o n e nt of J ob tensions—credentials and skills, discipline Satisfaction: A Comparative Study of Teachers’ and inquiry, control and autonomy, and tra- Perspectives in A l-Far waniya District, dition and modernity—as diverging interests ­K uwait.” Jour n al of C omparative an d pull in different ­ d irections. 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Masculinities: Results from the International Namaghi, Seyyed Ali O ­ stovar. 2009. “A Data- Men and Gender Equality Survey Driven Conceptualization of Language (IMAGES)—Middle East and North A ­ frica. Teacher Identity in the Context of Public High Men and Women for G ender E qualit y Schools in ­ Iran.” Teacher Education Quarterly Programme, UN Women Regional Office 36 (2): 111–24. for A rab ­ S tates. Paris: U N Women and OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation ­Promundo. and ­ Development). 2010. “Japan: A Story of World ­ B ank. 2005. Expanding Opportunities Sustained ­ E xcellence.” In Strong Performers and Building Competencies for Young People: and Successful Reformers in Education: A New Agenda for Secondary ­ E ducation. Lessons from PISA for the United States , Washington, DC: World ­ Bank. 137–76. Paris: ­ OECD. ———. 2008. The Road Not Traveled: Education ———. 2017. Education at a Glance 2017: OECD Reform in the Middle ­ E ast and North Africa. ­Indicators. Paris: OECD ­ P ublishing. ­https:// Washington, DC: World ­ Bank. doi.org/10.1787/eag-2017­-en. ———. 2011. The Road to Academic Excellence: Page, ­ M. ­E . 2010. “Signaling in the Labor The M aking of World - C l a ss Research ­Market.” In Economics of Education, edited ­Universities. Washington, DC: World ­ Bank. by Dominic ­ J. Brewer and Patrick ­ J. McEwan, ———. 2013­a. Jobs for Shared Prosperity: Time 33–36. Oxford, U.K.: ­ Elsevier. for Action in the Middle East and North Prince, ­ M ichael. 2004. “Does Active Learning ­Africa. Washington, DC: World ­ Bank. Work? A Review of the R ­ esearch.” Journal of ———. 2013­b. Universities through the Looking Engineering Education 93 (3): 223–31. Glass: Benchmarking University Governance Purpel, David ­ Shapiro. 1995. Beyond E ., and Svi ­ to Enable Higher Education Modernization in Liberation and Excellence: Reconstructing the ­M ENA. Washington, DC: World ­ Bank. Public Discourse on ­ Education. Westport, CT: ———. 2015a. “Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan Bergin and ­ Garvey. School Autonomy and Accountability: SABER Salehi-Isfahani, ­ Djavad. 2012. “Education, Jobs, and Country Report 2015.” Systems Approach for Equity in the Middle East and North A ­ frica.” Better Education Results (SABER), World Comparative Economic Studies 54 (4): 843–61. Bank, Washington, DC. Schumacher, ­ E. ­ F. 1973. Small Is Beautiful: ———. 2015b. “Morocco School Autonomy and A Study of Economics as If People M ­ attered. Accountability: SABER Country Report 2015.” London: Blond and ­ Briggs. Systems Approach for Better Education Results Spence, ­ Michael. 1973. “Job Market ­ Signaling.” (SABER), World Bank, Washington, ­ DC. Quarterly Journal of Economics 87 (3): 355–74. ———. 2015c. Trust, Voice, and Incentives: Springborg, ­ R obert. 2011. “The Precarious Learning from Local Success Stories in Service Economics of Arab ­ Springs.” Survival 53 (6): Delivery in the Middle East and North ­ Africa. 85–104. doi:10.1080/00396338.2011.636271. Washington, DC: World ­ Bank. UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, ———. 2015d. World Development Report 2015: and Cultural O ­ rganization). 2011. World Data Mind, Society, and ­ B ehavior. Washington, on Education: Seventh Edition 2010–11. Paris: DC: World ­ Bank. UNESCO International Bureau of ­ Education. ——— . 2016. Making Politics Work for UNICEF (United Nations Children’s F ­ und). 2010. Development: Harnessing Transparency and C hild Disciplin ar y Practices at Home: Citizen ­E ngagement. Washington, DC: Evidence from a Range of Low- and Middle- World ­Bank. Income ­Countries. New York: ­ U NICEF. ———. 2017­ a. “Building the Research Capacity of ———. 2013. “Percentage of Children Aged 2–14 MENA U ­ niversities.” Policy Note, World Who Experience Any Form of Violent Discipline Bank, Washington, ­ DC. (Physical Punishment and/or Psychological ———. 2017­ b. “6th MENA Tertiary Education ­A ggression).” UNICEF, ­Paris. ­http://www​ Conference — C M I Headquar ters —June .childinfo.org/discipline​_countrydata.php. 2017.” World Bank, Washington, ­ DC. Securing Learning for Children in Conflict and Crisis 3 Noah Yarrow and Maja Capek T he Middle East and North Africa One of the largest barriers to access that (MENA) region has experienced peri- refugee and internally displaced children face ods of violent conflict and protracted ­ ducation. For older children, is the cost of e crises, forcing millions of people to leave their this cost goes beyond school fees and homes to seek safety, with major implications expenses for learning materials, as they face for education ­systems. Refugees and internally the opportunity cost of attending school displaced persons (IDPs)1 place substantial instead of working to s ­amilies. ­ upport their f pressure on institutions and government Other barriers to access include the lack of ­ services. Success or failure to provide educa- safe transportation to ­school. Safe transpor- tion services for these groups will have large tation is particularly problematic for inter- impacts on MENA’s economies and societies nally displaced children living close to active for generations to ­ come. Countries across conflict zones and refugee children threat- MENA initially responded to the recent influx ened by bullying and v ­ iolence. Another of refugees from neighboring countries with important barrier is lack of adequate infor- the assumption that the crises would be mation about educational opportunities, temporary. In practice, displacements and the ­ keeping children from taking advantage of conflicts that drive them have lasted many nearby formal and nonformal education years. Both displaced children and host com- ­services. munities would benefit from longer-term pol- Even when children have access to edu- icy approaches that support the resilience of cation, trauma and challenges in adapting individuals, schools, and education systems to a different curriculum or language of and contribute to the region’s human ­ capital. instruction often negatively affect ­ learning. To ensure that all children in host, r­ efugee, Host countries can improve children’s and IDP communities can benefit from qual- learning through remedial education and ity education to enhance their knowledge and enhance their well-being through psycho- skills, host countries in MENA can adopt social support s­ ervices. policies to (1) increase access to education; Long-term financial commitments of (2) improve the learning experience for donors and integrated, sustainable policies ­ displaced children; and (3) strengthen resil- across education, health, and social protec- ience of their education ­systems. tion can strengthen the resilience of ­systems. 97 9 8   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations A coordinated push for quality education Across the region, the enrollment rates of for the forcibly displaced and vulnerable refugees and IDPs decrease as children get children in MENA’s host communities is older, while refugee girls tend to be enrolled needed to unlock opportunities for a better at slightly higher rates than boys across age future. life in the ­ groups (Brussels Conference 2019; UN OCHA 2018a; see ­ figure 3.3). Older children Remove barriers to education are often expected to work in order to sup- access port the family or, particularly in the case of girls, get married and stop attending school Refugees and IDPs make up a large share of (U N HCR, U N ICEF, and W F P 2018). the region’s population, with MENA hosting Reports from teachers in refugee contexts more than a third of all refugees and about a around the world also suggest that older chil- quarter of all conflict-related IDPs worldwide dren who may have spent a year or more in figure 3.1; ­ (see ­ table 3.1). The Syrian conflict transition are reluctant to learn with younger is the largest source of refugees and IDPs in children who are in the same or a lower grade ­M ENA. Among them are around 2.6 million as they were when their studies were inter- displaced children inside the Syrian Arab rupted (Save the Children 2018). The decline Republic and 2.1 million school-age Syrian in enrollment for older children can also be refugees in other MENA countries who face linked to increased barriers to attendance great obstacles in accessing education ser- (see box 3.1). For example, travel to second- vices (Brussels Conference 2019; UN OCHA ary schools may be longer and more expen- 2019). Only about 55 ­ percent of school-age sive, adding to the safety concerns of parents Syrian refugee children in the region are and children related to physical and enrolled in formal education (Brussels verbal violence at or on their way to school ­ Conference 2019; see ­ figure 3.2). FIGURE 3.1  A large share of the world’s IDPs and refugees live in MENA Total number of IDPs and refugees, 2018 a. IDPsa b. Refugeesb Syrian Jordan, Arab at least Republic, 2.9 million 6.1 million Yemen, Rep., West Bank 2.3 million and Gaza, 2.2 million Out of 41.3 million Iraq, MENA is host to Lebanon, con ict-related 2.0 million 9.1 million of at least IDPs worldwide, 25.6 million 1.5 million 11 million live refugees in MENA. Libya, globally. 0.2 million Other, 2.5 million Sources: IDMC 2019; UNHCR 2019c; UNRWA 2019; World B ­ ank. Note: This ­figure highlights the MENA economies hosting the largest populations of internally displaced persons (IDPs) and refugees, ­respectively. Other MENA countries hosting large refugee populations include the Islamic Republic of Iran (1 million), the Syrian Arab Republic (0.6 million), Iraq (0.3 million), the Republic of Yemen (0.3 million), the Arab Republic of Egypt (0.2 million), Algeria (0.2 million), and Djibouti (0.02 million). a. Total IDPs include conflict-related IDPs, but not displacements caused by natural disasters. b. Total refugees globally are calculated as the sum of refugees registered with the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA). Not all refugees are registered with UNHCR; thus the numbers presented are likely underestimates. S e c u r i n g L e a r n i n g f o r C h i l d r e n i n C o n f l i c t a n d C r i s i s   99 TABLE 3.1  Total population, IDPs, and refugees in the world and in MENA Total population and number of IDPs and refugees (millions), 2018 UNHCR-registered UNRWA-registered Country Population Total IDPsa Total refugeesb refugees refugees World 7,632.8 41.3 25.6 20.2 5.4 MENA 442.7 11.0 9.1 3.7 5.4 Iraq 39.3 2.0 0.3 0.3 — Jordan 9.9 — 2.9 0.7 c 2.2 Lebanon 6.1 < 1.5 1.0c 0.5 Syrian Arab Republic 18.3 6.1 0.6 < 0.6 Yemen, ­Rep. 28.9 2.3 0.3 0.3 — Sources: IDMC 2019; UN 2017; UNHCR 2019c; UNRWA 2019. Note: — = not ­available; < = number of people in the category is below 20,000. a. Total IDPs (internally displaced persons) include conflict-related IDPs, but not displacements caused by natural disasters. b. Total refugees are calculated as the sum of refugees registered with the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA). c. Not all refugees are registered with UNHCR in Jordan and Lebanon. The Government of Jordan estimates that more than 1.3 million Syrian refugees live in Jordan (Government of Jordan and UN 2018), while the Government of Lebanon estimates that Lebanon hosts 1.5 million Syrian refugees (Government of Lebanon and UN 2019). (Save the Children 2018; UNHCR, UNICEF, FIGURE 3.2  Syrian refugees’ enrollment in education differs across and WFP 2018; UNICEF 2017­ a). MENA Percentage of school-age Syrian refugees enrolled in formal or nonformal Evidence to guide policy makers on how to education, 2018–19 provide education services to refugees and IDPs is limited (see box 3.2). Education pro- 100 grams for these vulnerable populations often 37 36 31 operate under extremely difficult conditions 80 46 with limited ­ resources. Although impact eval- 60 2 7 uations are costly and challenging to imple- 25 Percent ment in these environments, for informed 10 40 decision making at the policy level, it is crucial 61 57 to generate more data on the effectiveness of 44 44 20 different approaches to delivering education services. While many interventions focus on ­ 0 increasing the access of displaced children to Turkey Jordan Lebanon Iraq education, attention to the quality dimension Out of education Nonformal education Formal education is essential to ensure that children are actually Source: Brussels Conference 2019. learning. So far, only a few isolated efforts ­ Note: School age is defined as Syrian refugees between ages 5 and 17 years (except for Lebanon, ­ lan). where children and youths ages 3 to 18 are included, in line with the country’s crisis response p have been made to assess the learning out- Enrollment in nonformal education reflects only Syrian refugees who are not enrolled in formal comes of children who are displaced and chil- education programs at the same ­time. dren who are from host communities (Assaad, Ginn, and Saleh 2018; Chemonics and DfID education (Save the Children, UNHCR, and 2018; Comings 2018; IRC 2017; Tumen 2018). Pearson 2017). The education policies dis- These efforts to evaluate the impacts of differ- cussed in the following sections cover these ent arrangements for education service deliv- domains and consider mechanisms to ery on student learning are essential to find level. strengthen resilience at the systems ­ out how best to support these communities and advocate for better ­ quality. Expand school infrastructure and the While evidence is scarce, host countries teaching workforce across the region face similar challenges, and promising practices have emerged to remove At least 840,000 Syrian refugee children and barriers to access and improve the quality of youths under age 18 currently live in Jordan 1 0 0   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations FIGURE 3.3  Refugees’ enrollment drops with age and Lebanon (UNHCR 2019­ b).2 To accom- Gross enrollment rate of refugees in Lebanese public schools, 2017–18 modate this large influx of children, govern- 70 ments need to respond to a massive shortage 58 60 of classrooms, learning materials, and quali- 60 teachers. Jordan and Lebanon have made fied ­ 50 different choices about how to expand their 40 education services, based on their current Percent 30 24 23 pol it ic a l contex t a nd recent h istor y 20 (Government of Jordan and U N 2018; 9 Government of Lebanon and UN 2018). 10 5 To accom modate ref ugee children, 0 Preschool Basic education Secondary Lebanon almost doubled the size of its (grades 1–9) education national public education system in five years, (grades 10–12) something no country has ever done b ­ efore. Boys Girls In the 2018–19 school year, non-Lebanese Sources: World Bank estimates based on MEHE Lebanon 2017, 2019a. students made up an estimated 43 percent of Box 3.1  Displaced within their countries’ borders: IDPs’ struggle to access education At first glance, internally displaced and refugee chil- The reduced and often irregularly paid teacher dren in MENA appear to face similar obstacles to workforce in conflict-affected countries is another accessing quality education: overcrowded classrooms, key challenge to education ­ quality. After eight years financial and administrative barriers, and a lack of of crisis, more than a third of preconflict public school capacity in the education system to meet students’ teachers have left Syria’s formal education system needs for psychosocial support or provide catch-up (World Bank 2019). In the Republic of Yemen, half of classes for those who missed out on years of s ­ chooling. the public school teachers in the 11 governorates most The negative coping mechanisms are similar across heavily affected by the conflict have not been paid their IDP and refugee contexts as well, with an increasing salaries since October 2016, forcing some to aban- number of boys dropping out of school to work or don their profession to secure their livelihoods (UN girls dropping out to get ­married. However, a closer OCHA 2018­ b). In certain conflict-affected locations look reveals how violent conflict has severely eroded in Iraq, about a third of teachers are IDPs themselves, education systems in war-torn MENA c ­ ountries. with very long commutes to school, which reduces the School infrastructure has been heavily d ­ amaged. time they spend teaching because they arrive at school In Syria, more than a third of schools are damaged, later and leave earlier than teachers living closer (UN destroyed, or being used for other purposes such OCHA 2018­a). as IDP shelters or military operations (UN OCHA At their peaks, the conflicts in Iraq and Syria 2019). The Yemeni education system has been hit extended into the classroom as part of the contest even harder, with two-thirds of schools requir- for l­egitimacy. Depending on the spheres of influ- ing major repairs (UNICEF 2018­ c). While violent ence, education services were provided by the gov- conflict has subsided in Iraq, half of the schools in ernment, opposition groups, the Islamic State, or former conflict-affected areas still need to be reha- nongovernmental and international ­ organizations. bilitated (UN OCHA 2018­ a). In Syrian areas controlled by the government, box continues next page S e c u r i n g L e a r n i n g f o r C h i l d r e n i n C o n f l i c t a n d C r i s i s    101 Box 3.1  Displaced within their countries’ borders: IDPs’ struggle to access education (continued) students would follow the prewar curriculum, while As the dynamics and intensity of the conflicts facilities overseen by opposition groups implemented in MENA change, so do migration ­ fl ows. In Iraq revised versions of the Syrian curriculum (UNICEF and Libya, returnees a already far outnumber 2015). With the Iraqi government having regained IDPs, with more than twice as many returnees control over territories occupied by the Islamic State as IDPs in each country (IOM 2019; UN OCHA and the Syrian government in control of most Syrian 2018­a). IDPs and refugees are likely to consider provinces (Markusen 2018; Yee and Saad 2019), similar factors as they decide whether to move the patchwork of curricula and certification systems back to their home towns, including the level of has been ­ consolidated. peace, security, economic opportunities, access to A vulnerable population that is sometimes over- basic services, and likelihood of asset restitution looked in the current conflict is the approximately (World Bank 2019). This mobility calculus will 445,000 refugees from West Bank and Gaza remain- continue to affect shifts in demand for and supply ing in ­ Syria. About 60 percent of them have been of education services in many locations across the displaced inside Syria, sometimes cut off from essen- region for years to c ­ ome. tial support provided by the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA), which still operates Sources: Brussels Conference 2019; IOM 2019; Markusen 2018; UNICEF 2015; UN OCHA 2018a, 2019; UNRWA 2019; World Bank 2019; Yee and Saad 2019. 104 schools in Syria and provides 48,000 children a. Returnees are former refugees or IDPs who have returned to live in their with education (UN OCHA 2019; UNRWA 2019). country or locality of origin. Box 3.2  Informing the global response to forced displacement: The need for better data Little timely, high-quality data are available to and IDPs have been collected without harmonized inform evidence-based policy making in frag- terminology, methodology, and coordination ­ ontexts. Without good data on refugees and ile c (Suzuki and Sergeant 2018). IDPs, it is difficult to design effective policies and The International Recommendations on Refugee programs, analyze the impact over time, and reach Statistics and the Technical Report on Statistics of the most vulnerable with targeted ­ i nterventions. Internally Displaced Persons constitute an impor- Many fragile countries lack the financial resources tant milestone to improve the availability and qual- and technical capacity to run functional statistics d isplacement. Adopted by the ity of data on forced ­ bureaus in a challenging environment (OECD United Nations (UN) Statistical Commission in 2018b). Active conflict zones make parts of the March 2018, these reports take stock of existing country i ­naccessible. Large and rapid population data sources and collection practices, provide defi- movements further complicate the collection of nitions of relevant terminology for statistical pur- reliable ­d ata. To address these challenges, one- poses, set guidelines for measurement, and include third of global funding for statistical development recommendations to strengthen national and inter- and capacity building between 2013 and 2015 national systems (EU and UN 2018a, 2018­ b). was given to fragile countries (OECD 2018­ b). a In Recognizing the need for better microdata the absence of global standards, data on refugees on forced displacement, the World Bank and the box continues next page 1 0 2   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations Box 3.2  Informing the global response to forced displacement: The need for better data (continued) United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees way toward more open ­ d ata. These ambitions, (UNHCR) have joined forces to set up a joint data however, must carefully address data privacy and center that will collect, analyze, and disseminate c oncerns. Strong safeguards are neces- security ­ population and socioeconomic data (U N HCR sary to ensure that data cannot be misused by and World Bank 2018). To spur more independent any party to a ­ identify c onflict—for example, to ­ research, ensuring open access to data on fragile and locate political adversaries (EU and U N states is a key objective of the joint data ­ c enter. 2018­b). Operational data on program beneficiaries col- Sources: EU and UN 2018a, 2018b; Juran and Snow 2016; OECD 2018b; lected by multilateral and nongovernmental orga- Suzuki and Sergeant 2018; UNHCR and World Bank 2018­. nizations (NGOs) could provide new insights into a. In this context, “fragile countries” are countries listed in the fragility framework of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development what works in fragile ­ c ontexts. Rigorous anony- ­(OECD). While there is some overlap, the list differs from the World Bank’s mization protocols and safeguards could pave the Harmonized List of Fragile S ­ ituations. the total number of students enrolled in pub- time in both shifts and leave fewer opportu- Lebanon.3 To accomplish this lic education in ­ nities for school-based extracurricular activi- massive, rapid expansion, Lebanon operated ties (Culbertson et ­al. 2016). Social cohesion second shifts in 346 public schools, with is also a concern, as host community children Lebanese-certified teachers as instructors and refugee children are often segregated by (MEHE Lebanon 2019b). As part of this morning and afternoon shifts (Culbertson effort, the public system also provided free al. 2016). The Government of Jordan also et ­ textbooks for all public school students and serves refugee children in camps4 and pro- funds for schools to compensate for the aboli- vides nonformal education services run tion of enrollment fees (Government of jointly by international organizations and the Lebanon and UN 2018). This inclusive Ministry of Education (Government of approach, where all benefits for refugee stu- Jordan and UN 2018). Nonformal education dents were also made available to host-­ services do not lead to official certification; country students, was intended to reduce they are intended as a pathway to formal exclusion and the risk of social ­ c onflict. education and the reintegration of children These results came at a financial cost, a por- who have missed out on years of schooling tion of which has been supported by interna- (UNICEF 2015). Children who lag three tional ­donors. The results, which include years or more behind their regular grade are 212,905 non-Lebanese children enrolled in not eligible to enroll in formal public schools, public education in the 2018–19 school year and nonformal education is their only lifeline (MEHE Lebanon 2019), are extraordinary, to education (Salemi, Bowman, and Compton ­nsufficient. More than half of the but still i 2018). Syrian refugee children in Lebanon do not Nonformal education includes catch-up ­ gure 3.2). attend school (see fi courses, basic literacy programs, and learning Jordan expanded its formal education sys- support services such as the ones offered in tem by operating 209 double-shift public t he Un ited Nations Ch ild ren’s Fu nd schools. While alleviating overcrowding and ­ (UNICEF) Makani Centers (UNICEF 2017b). allowing more children to access education, In the 2017–18 school year, these services double-shift schools reduce instructional alone reached more than 29,000 children, S e c u r i n g L e a r n i n g f o r C h i l d r e n i n C o n f l i c t a n d C r i s i s    103 accounting for 13 percent of Jordan’s school- education is beneficial, children should ulti- age refugees (Brussels Conference 2018). Due mately be channeled to the formal education to a shortfall in funding, this number dropped system, which provides diplomas recognized sharply to 17,600 children in 2018 (Brussels by potential employers and higher education C on ference 2019). W h i le non for mal institutions (see box 3.3). Box 3.3  Great expectations, limited impact: EdTech for refugees Internet penetration in the Middle East is above the that blended learning designs that combine online world average (Internet World Stats 2019), and digi- and offline learning as well as mentoring and peer tal access extends to refugee populations through- support are among the most promising approaches out the region (UNHCR 2016­ a). Mobile phones are (UNESCO 2018­ b). Emerging evidence on the impact considered a basic survival tool and the main way in of smartphone learning games on literacy and well- which the displaced can remain connected to their being provides weak but modestly positive results families and home communities (Wall, Campbell, (Comings 2018). and Jabek 2015). In the Za’atari Refugee Camp in Digital content providers include Naf ham, Jordan, for example, a survey conducted in 2015 Tahrir Academy, and the UNICEF-UNRWA Joint found that 86 percent of youths own mobile hand- Education Program, among others (Lewis and sets and 83 percent own SIM cards (Maitland and Thacker 2016). Some of the English-language con- Xu 2015). Most of the mobile handsets in Za’atari tent from Khan Academy and other platforms has are ­ smartphones. In other words, a relatively exten- been translated into A ­ rabic. MENA-based content sive digital infrastructure is in place that could be providers such as Nafham have followed the Khan used to support e ­ ducation. With tablets also avail- format with original content, while others such as able at relatively low cost and already used in emer- the Talal Abu-Ghazaleh International University, gencies to support remote learning, governments the Education Media Company in Morocco, and and development partners have a variety of educa- Bibliotheca Alexandrina in the Arab Republic of tional technology (EdTech) options at their disposal Egypt have created materials in Arabic, English, and (GIZ 2016). However, this important opportunity French (Lewis and Thacker 2016). Most of the con- has yet to demonstrate improvements in student tent on these platforms is for general use and was learning ­outcomes. not developed specifically for educating refugees M ENA governments, NGOs, international (Lewis and Thacker 2016). Even when developed donors, and the private sector are investing large specifically for refugees, free digital content “is often sums in EdTech, some of it directed at refugee popu- scattered and unaligned with education systems in lations (Tauson and Stannard 2018). These invest- which it is used” (UNESCO 2018b, 6). The current ments consist of (1) developing digital learning rush to leverage technology for refugee education content; (2) delivering the content; (3) training and has frequently led to the development of applications mentoring teachers on the use of software and con- and platforms that do not address a clearly identified tent; (4) maintaining and troubleshooting both the problem (Rutkin 2016). Further, distance-learning devices and the software; and (5) sharing learning initiatives often fail to be adapted properly to the results and data to improve the management of edu- complex realities of refugees and IDPs (Tauson and cation ­information. Few organizations, institutions, Stannard 2018). These shortcomings suggest that or companies are able to provide all of these services, the intended impact of EdTech is in many instances which is part of why the evidence base for EdTech likely much greater than the actual impact on met- continues to be ­ weak. A comprehensive mapping of rics that matter: student attendance, student persis- the EdTech literature found that the vast majority tence, and student ­ learning. of publications are observational studies (Muyoya, Sources: Comings 2018; GIZ 2016; Lewis and Thacker 2016; Maitland and Xu 2015; Brugha, and Hollow 2016). Findings on techno- Rutkin 2016; Tauson and Stannard 2018; UNESCO 2018b; UNHCR 2016a; Wall, logical innovations for refugee education suggest Campbell, and Jabek 2015. 1 0 4   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations Provide financial relief and a safe to e­ ducation. For example, the International learning environment Organization for Migration has been imple- menting a school bus system in parts of For many displaced families, the financial Jordan, Lebanon, and southeastern Turkey cost of educating their children is too ­ high. that operates throughout the summer, when In a representative survey of Syrian refugees Syrian refugee children attend catch-up and in Lebanon, 40 percent of respondents language classes (IOM 2018). named the cost of transportation or educa- Attending school not only incurs direct tional materials as the main reason why costs, but also has high opportunity costs for t hei r ch i ld ren c a n not at tend s chool ­ youths. Teenage boys often do not enroll in (U N HCR , U N ICEF, and W F P 2018). school or eventually drop out to work and Similarly, a survey conducted in the four support their ­ families. In 2017, almost one- governorates that host 80 percent of Syrian fifth of Syrian refugee households in the four refugees in Jordan revealed that across six Jordanian governorates hosting the largest survey waves conducted between 2016 and refugee populations reported that their child 2018, the cost associated with schooling dropped out of school to provide for the fam- consistently featured among the top two ily (UNICEF 2018­ a). In Lebanon, a quarter re a son s for d roppi ng out of s cho ol of Syrian refugee children ages 15 to 17 indi- (UNICEF 2018­ a). The data also suggest cated that they were not attending school in that financial pressures have different order to work (UNHCR, UNICEF, and WFP impacts on the school attendance of Syrian 2018). Teenage girls are increasingly likely to boys and ­ g irls. For boys, the need to work drop out of school to get married (UNICEF and contribute to family income is an 2017­ a). While about 13 percent of Syrian impor tant barrier for regular school girls under age 18 got married in prewar ­ attendance. For girls, the cost associated Syria, today more than one-third of Syrian with safe transportation to school is a key refugee girls in Lebanon marry before the age barrier, particularly in the winter when it of 18 (Bartels et ­ al. 2018). A study in Lebanon gets dark earlier (UNICEF 2017­ a). found that opinions about child marriage Financial relief comes in many forms, among Syrian refugees differ substantially by including cash transfers, free transporta- gender. Men are likely to report that child ­ tion to school, and free school ­ supplies. The marriage is driven by financial ­ h ardship. evidence on the impact of cash transfers on Women, however, are more likely to think of the education of refugee children in MENA child marriage as a measure to ensure that remains ­ m ixed. A review of UNHCR and girls do not become victims of sexual and UNICEF cash transfers in Jordan could not gender-based violence and harassment find substantial effects on school enroll- (Bartels et a­ l. 2018). These different motiva- ment (ODI 2017). 5 However, families tions have important implications for the whose children were already enrolled in design of programs aiming to prevent child school spent more money on education ­marriage. when receiving cash assistance (ODI 2017). Along with financial barriers, safety and In Lebanon, a winter cash assistance pro- security concerns are the most important rea- gram for Syrian refugees and vulnerable sons preventing Syrian refugee children from Lebanese households caused school enroll- attending ­ school. Half of the respondents in a ment to be 6 percentage points higher in the 2018 survey of refugees in Lebanon said they t reat ment g roup t ha n i n t he cont rol do not feel welcome in the country (GTS, group (IRC 2014). 6 Since transportation OECD, and DfID 2018).7 In a more recent is the main cost of schooling for survey of refugee families in Jordan, many ­ f amilies, several programs have 17 ­ percent named safety and security con- been launched to facilitate physical access cerns, including bullying from children and S e c u r i n g L e a r n i n g f o r C h i l d r e n i n C o n f l i c t a n d C r i s i s    105 teachers, as the main reason why their chil- less than half the Pakistani national rate of dren do not attend school (UNICEF 2018­ a). 71 ­percent (UNESCO 2018­ a). Bullying of Syrian refugee children is also Parents may hesitate to send their children widespread in other host countries, including to school because they underestimate the Lebanon and Turkey (Carlier 2018; Sirin and returns to e ­ ducation. This concern is not Rogers-Sirin 2015). Social and c ­ ultural dif- unfounded: refugees in MENA are likely to ferences can lead to tensions that negatively earn less from investments in education than learning. Observational evi- affect children’s ­ their host-country p­ eers. For example, Jordan dence suggests that curricula and pedagogy and Lebanon restrict refugee participation in focused on the active participation of all stu- the labor market, which has a negative dents, including minorities and girls, can con- impact on the expected returns to education tribute to mitigating these tensions (Burde for this population (Verme et ­ a l. 2016). In al. 2015). et ­ Jordan, work permits for refugees allow employment only in specific sectors, includ- ing agriculture, construction, and manufac- Inform parents and children about turing (Krafft et ­al. 2018). Highly restrictive educational opportunities labor market policies suggest that returns to Displaced families sometimes lack essential education will be lower for refugees than for information about educational opportunities host-country students, regardless of g ­ ender. for their children, enrollment procedures, Potential market saturation of low-skill labor and the cost of s­ chooling. In a 2018 survey of also needs to be taken into account when Syrian refugees in Lebanon, respondents estimating returns to investment in e ­ ducation. explicitly mentioned educational opportuni- However, on the macroeconomic level, the ties as a topic about which they would like to long-term opportunity cost to the economy receive more information (GTS, OECD, and and society of not investing in human capital DfID 2018). About 70 percent of respondents should be c­ onsidered. would like to receive face-to-face informa- tion, while 52 percent would like to receive Reduce administrative requirements for text messages over the ­ phone.8 Informational admission to tertiary education barriers can be overcome with comprehensive c ampaigns. For example, in 2017, the ­ While ambitions in the tertiary education Ministry of Education along with UN agen- sector are high, the actual number of enrolled cies and nongovernmental partners reached refugee students from MENA countries is about 50,000 Syrian refugee households in very small, and there is no reliable data on Lebanon with a “Back-to-School” campaign, IDPs’ enrollment. In Lebanon, about 7,300 which involved community outreach and a Syrian refugees were enrolled in universities social media campaign (UNICEF 2017­ c). In in the academic year 2017–18, accounting for addition to information about enrollment 5 percent of all university students (AUB procedures, the campaign provided school Policy Institute 2019). This is in stark con- bags, stationery, and learning materials trast to lower levels of education, where (UNICEF 2017­c). Syrian children make up around 50 percent The current focus on increasing refugee of the student body (MEHE n.d.).9 In Jordan, enrollment in education is well ­ placed. If not participation of refugees in higher education addressed early on, the enrollment rates of is similarly low. Rough estimates place gross refugee children may remain low even decades enrollment at 8 percent, less than half of the after their arrival in the host ­ country. For 20 percent enrollment rate in pre-war Syria example, nearly 40 years after Afghan refu- (Particip 2018). Financial barriers and lack of gees arrived in Pakistan, their net enrollment access to education credentials obtained in in primary education stands at 29 ­ percent, Syria are key obstacles that prevent refugees 1 0 6   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations from en rolling in ter tiar y education education needs of young people displaced by (UNESCO 2018c; see box 3.4). To address the Syrian crisis through blended academic these challenges, some local universities have programs, including MOOCs, targeted online started applying more flexible admission learning, and ­ c lassroom-based learning requirements (AUB Policy Institute 2019). (SPHEIR 2019). MENA governments and international part- However, the proliferation of options and ners have also worked together to implement the lack of widely recognized certifications a variety of scholarship programs, but the for completion limit the benefits for youth needs are still far greater than the available ­ tudies. seeking to start or continue their s funding (UNHCR 2019d). While still at an early stage, the potential Many civil society organizations have of blockchain technology is being discussed developed EdTech programs to help refugees as a way to secure refugees’ access to their overcome obstacles to enrolling in higher credentials from previous educational education. For example, Kiron Open Higher ­ a chievements in the future (Grech and ­ Education, a Berlin-based social startup, has Camilleri 2017). The applicability of block- partnered with established massive open chain technology in a refugee context is online course (MOOC) providers such as edX already being tested by the World Food and Coursera to offer online courses for refu- Programme, which runs its cash-for-food aid gees (Kiron 2018). DfID’s Partnership for operation in Za’atari in Jordan through an Digital Learning and Increased Access identification system based on blockchain (PADILEIA) also aims to address the higher (Juskalian 2018). Box 3.4  Learning from international experience: The European Qualifications Passport for Refugees Piloted in Greece, Italy, Norway, and the United documentation” (Council of Europe 2017c, 2), Kingdom in 2017, the European Qualifications it does provide refugees with a standardized Passport is an initiative that aims to provide refu- document indicative of their credentials and gees with a standardized document certifying their s kills. It explicitly does not guarantee admis- ­ qualifications (Council of Europe 2017­ a). The sion to higher education institutions or recog- Qualifications Passport includes information on nition by potential e ­ mployers. So far, refugees educational achievements, language proficiency, from Afghanistan, the Islamic Republic of Iran, work experience, and membership in professional Iraq, Syria, and West Bank and Gaza have par- ­ organizations. The assessment of applicants takes ticipated in the assessment process (Council of about 1.5 m ­ onths. Applicants have to submit a Europe 2017­ b). Since the European Qualifications questionnaire before being invited to an in-person Passport is still in its trial phase and had only i nterview. Upon successful completion, applicants ­ been issued to 249 individuals by the end of 2018 obtain the Qualifications Passport, which is valid (Government of Norway 2019), it remains to be for five years (Council of Europe 2017­ a). Their seen whether it can contribute effectively and information is stored electronically in a common cost-efficiently to facilitating access to higher edu- European ­database. cation institutions and ­ jobs. While the European Qualifications Passport is not “a substitute for identification or educational Sources: Council of Europe 2017a, 2017b, 2017c; Government of Norway 2019. S e c u r i n g L e a r n i n g f o r C h i l d r e n i n C o n f l i c t a n d C r i s i s    107 Improve the learning experience for second-shift students, who are predomi- of displaced children nantly ­Syrian. However, as many teachers are trained and accustomed to teaching in Provide remedial education and English or French, and the math and science address language of instruction textbooks are in English or French, the abil- challenges ity of the system to implement this approach Remedial and catch-up classes can be a life- ­imited. To realize the full potential of this is l line for displaced children, many of whom approach, Arabic-language textbooks for have missed out on years of ­ schooling. It is subjects normally taught in a foreign lan- important that these classes be closely aligned guage need to be developed, along with with relevant c­ urricula. If accelerated learn- instructional support for ­ teachers. ing programs temporarily replace education In Djibouti, the increase in refugee arrivals in the formal system, it is imperative that from the Republic of Yemen and the pro- there be a clear path toward ­ reintegration. tracted nature of conflicts in Eritrea, A positive example from Lebanon is the Ethiopia, and Somalia have led to several Accelerated Learning Program, which con- policy ­c hanges. Djibouti has long been a denses the national curriculum and delivers it place of emigration, immigration, and transit in Arabic for refugee children who have been for the region. In 2018, Djibouti was host to out of school so that they can enter the for- more than 29,000 refugees and asylum seek- mal Lebanese system (Government of ers, of which almost 5,000 were Yemeni refu- Lebanon and UN 2018). This approach was gees (U N HCR 2019­ a ). In past years, developed by the Center for Educational education services were provided primarily in Research and Development with support English in camps, using a variety of curricula from ­U NICEF. (UNHCR 2016­ b). Ministry of Education Remedial education plays a particularly policy is that French is used exclusively in important role in contexts where children regular Djiboutian classrooms, while many struggle with an unfamiliar language of refugees prefer to receive instruction in i nstruction. An analysis of Programme for ­ English because many intend to seek employ- International Student Assessment (PISA) ment or envision future lives in Kenya, results revealed that the lower test scores of Somalia, or other places where English is immigrant children as compared to host likely to be more u ­ seful (IGAD 2018). In the community students can be attributed largely Djibouti Declaration on Refugee Education,11 to the fact that they speak a different lan- the Government of Djibouti calls for progres- guage at home than in school (OECD 2018­ a). sive local integ ration of ref ugees These students are also much less likely to (I ntergovern mental Authorit y on feel “a sense of belonging” at school (OECD Development 2017), mandating that the 2018a, 33). Djiboutian curriculum be used, but allowing For Syrian refugees in Lebanon, the lan- instruction to take place in ­ English. guage of instruction in school is often differ- ent from the language spoken at h ­ ome. The Enhance children’s well-being through curriculum prescribes English and French as psychosocial support languages of instruction for mathematics and science, while many refugee children are Displaced children and youths are at high unfamiliar with these languages and lack risk of suffering from post-traumatic stress support at home for acquiring them (UNICEF disorder, with different studies suggesting 2015).10 The Ministry of Education and that between 50 and 90 percent of them Higher Education of Lebanon does allow for may be affected (World Bank 2017­ b). Even some flexibility in the language of instruction after escaping conflict zones, internally 1 0 8   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations displaced and refugee children continue to before-and-after test scores suggests that be exposed to severe a ­ dversity. Feeling around 88 percent of regularly attending stu- accepted at school is strongly associated dents show some degree of academic with better health, academic performance, improvement and general well-being after and motivation (OECD 2018­ a ). Focus three months of exposure to the program group discussions indicate that bullying and (MECI 2016). Further building on the power violence experienced on their way to school of arts and creativity, the Healing and have a severe impact on Syrian children’s Education through the Arts for Children mental health in Jordan (International (HEART) program by Save the Children Medical Corps 2017). Some studies on has been implemented in Syria and refugee-­ c onflict-affected populations suggest that ­ hosting countries (Save the Children 2017). “daily stressors in the host environment Through HEART, trained teachers and [are] actually more predictive of developing facilitators engage children in dancing, draw- ­ mental health problems than [is] past ing, sculpting, singing, poetry, and other trauma” (World Bank 2017­ b, 11). activities, building on local customs and tra- Exposure to violence and war, neglect, ditions to promote children’s self-expression maltreatment, and bullying fundamentally and develop their socioemotional s ­ kills. affect children’s ability to l ­earn. Chronic While these and other promising NGO- stress is linked to cognitive effects, includ- led programs are a step forward, there con- ing trouble with attention, concentration, tinues to be a massive shortage of teachers memory, and creativity (Bremner 2006). and school counselors who are trained to Mental health support has been shown to provide psychosocial support services within be more effective when embedded in com- host countries’ public education ­ s ystems. munity and education programs (World Only a large-scale, coordinated effort to Bank 2017­ b). A resilience study in Lebanon provide psychosocial support programs at found that refugee children who have con- the systems level can meet the enormous crete wishes concerning their future educa- need and improve the well-being of trauma- tional pathway display lower levels of tized children (Save the Children 2017). post-traumatic stress and fewer emotional problems than those who do not (Giordano et ­a l. 2014). Recreational and structured Strengthen resilience at the activities for psychosocial support are often systems level a key component of nonformal education The resilience discourse in education goes ser v ices such as t he ones of fered i n beyond individuals, schools, and communi- U N ICEF ’s Makani Centers in Jordan ties to encompass the education system as a (UNICEF 2017­b). whole (World Bank 2013). Resilience can be Neuroscience research and experience defined as “the capacity of individuals, com- from trauma centers point to the healing munities, and systems to survive, adapt, and effect of innovative treatments involving play, grow in the face of stress and shocks” mindfulness techniques, theater, and move- (Rockefeller Foundation 2017, ­ n.p.). To build ment (van der Kolk 2015). Several govern- resilience, people, communities, and systems ments and NGOs around the world are need to be “better prepared to withstand cat- applying this research in education programs a st roph ic event s — b ot h n at u ra l a nd with encouraging ­ results. For example, arts, ­ manmade—and able to bounce back more life skills, and team sports are an integral quickly and emerge stronger from these part of the Middle East Children’s Institute, shocks and stresses” (Rockefeller Foundation which supports out-of-school Syrian refugees 2017, ­n.p.). In other words, a system’s resil- and disadvantaged Jordanian ­ youth. While ience can be assessed on the degree of its the program has not been evaluated through adaptive capacity in the face of shocks an experimental study, an analysis of (Aschke and Zoch-Özel 2019). S e c u r i n g L e a r n i n g f o r C h i l d r e n i n C o n f l i c t a n d C r i s i s    109 MENA education systems have demon- long-standing legal constraints on the hir- strated resilience in many ways, even if ing of civil servants had led to the hiring of resilience is often not an explicit part of the temporary, contractual teachers with lower policy ­ d iscourse. Examples of resilient levels of qualifications and benefits (World adaptation in MENA include expanding Bank 2017­ a). This mechanism was repur- existing services (for example, double shifts posed to hire additional teachers rapidly or in schools), introducing coordinating and expand the hours of existing teachers to decision-making bodies between ministries instruct refugee students, particularly in and donor partners, and innovating new the second ­ shift. While low efficiency levels services (for example, psychosocial support and existing policy mechanisms increased training for teachers and other school the resilience of the Lebanese public educa- ­professionals). tion system, these policy prescriptions are In the Republic of Yemen, local commu- not likely to be helpful in other contexts nities and teachers have demonstrated resil- given the uniqueness of the Lebanese ience in the education sector since the ­experience. beginning of the conflict in 2015. Although The initial question of whether to inte- most public school teachers have not grate refugee students or to set up a paral- received their salaries for two years or lel educ at ion system for t hem is a n more, many teachers have continued work- important one, with long-term impacts for ing in the face of adversity (U N ICEF both the host country and the refugee 2018­ ­ b). To alleviate their financial hardship p o p u l a t i o n . T h e s e l e c t e d ap p r o a c h ­ and keep the education system from col- depends on many variables, including the lapsing, UNICEF started paying incentives political concerns of the host country, the to almost 100,000 teachers and school- financing available domestically and inter- based staff in 2019, thus reaching approxi- nationally, the capacity and resilience of mately 50 percent of basic education the education system, and particularly the teachers (U NICEF 2019). Local school expected length of refugee students’ s ­ tay. committees added to the resilience of the As a short-term approach, a policy of education ­ s ystem. Parents’ involvement in establishing separate education service school management had already been provision in camps may appear attractive established in select governorates in the to both host and refugee communities, Republic of Yemen prior to the conflict especially if large amounts of external (World Bank 2015). financing are ­ available. In Lebanon, the education system was However, most ref uge e cr ise s a re able to absorb the large influx of Syrian protracted, with refugees staying in host ­ refugees and almost doubled the number of countries for many years (Devictor and Do children enrolled in its public school system 2016). Ensuring sufficient funding for a par- years. What attributes of Lebanon’s in five ­ allel education system for refugees can be public education system contributed to this difficult, as the case of UNRWA has shown: high degree of resilience and made it possi- UNRWA has suffered from chronic funding ble to increase enrollment rapidly? Prior to shortfalls for several years (UNRWA 2018). the Syrian crisis, Lebanon had excess An intermediate approach—similar to that capacity in schools, with low student- taken by both Jordan and Lebanon, which teacher ratios (World Bank 2017­ a). After provide education services in the same the crisis began, many teachers were hired schools with the same teachers (or similarly to expand access for refugees, but the num- trained teachers) predominantly as part of a ber of teachers hired was lower than would second shift—is a promising compromise as otherwise be the case because of the preex- long as learning standards are maintained isting ­i nefficiency. In another instance of for both shifts and teachers are adequately “serendipitous resilience” in Lebanon, ­supported. 1 1 0   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations Integrating refugee children into public shift, while the vast majority of Jordanians schools can increase system coherence and attend the first s ­ hift. However, a study in the ­ sustainability. It can also trigger community Netherlands found that even with a high con- pushback, as host community parents are centration of recent immigrant children in concerned about potentially lowering the the classroom, Dutch children’s learning out- quality of the learning environment for their comes were not affected in math and only children. While it is difficult to estimate the ­ marginally and temporarily affected in lan- impact of integrating refugee children in the guage (Bossavie 2018). In Turkey, high school public school system on education outcomes enrollment rates for Turkish youths increased of the host population, evidence suggests that in refugee-receiving regions, likely due to host populations are not adversely ­ affected. increased competition for low-skill jobs For example, there is no evidence that Syrian (Tumen 2018). refugees in Jordan have affected the educa- In the long run, integrating refugee chil- tion outcomes of Jordanian youth in terms of dren in the education system could facilitate school entry, progression through basic and their eventual integration in the labor mar- secondary schooling, or entry into tertiary ket, and the country may benefit from an education (Assaad, Ginn, and Saleh 2018). expanded ­ w orkforce. The new Global The absence of a significant impact may be Compact on Refugees suggests an emerging attributed to the dual-shift system in schools, consensus that integration is the more with Syrians mostly attending the second effective approach (see box 3.5), although ­ Box 3.5  Sharing responsibility for the forcibly displaced: The Global Compact on Refugees Following an extensive consultation process over large-scale or complex refugee movements where the almost two years, on December 17, 2018, the UN host needs major s ­ upport. On education, the Global General Assembly adopted the Global Compact on Compact’s ambition is to ensure that refugee children Refugees (UN 2018­ b). This new framework aims can access education services within three months to share responsibility for refugees more equitably, after their arrival in the host countries (UN 2018­a). support host countries better, promote policies that While not legally binding, the Global Compact strengthen refugees’ self-reliance, and address root on Refugees sets the global stage and has the poten- causes of conflict in the countries of origin (UN tial to promote change in international ­ n orms. 2018­a). It addresses gaps in the 1951 Geneva Convention Jointly developed by UN member states, humani- and its 1967 Protocol, which acknowledged the tarian and development organizations, and civil international community’s responsibility for refu- society, the Global Compact on Refugees relies on gees but failed to include explicit mechanisms for two main pillars: (1) the Comprehensive Refugee burden sharing (Türk and Dowden 2014). Having Response Framework (CRRF) and (2) a Program of been adopted by an overwhelming majority of coun- Action. The CRRF puts refugees’ inclusion in host ­ tries despite a challenging political environment, communities’ education systems and labor markets the widespread support for the Global Compact on at the heart of the agenda (UNHCR 2018). It is cur- Refugees gives reason for hope that it will prove an rently being piloted in 15 countries mostly in Central effective tool to galvanize international support for America and Sub-Saharan ­ A frica. The Program of refugees and host ­ countries. Action lays out various high-level fora for pledging and coordinating financial and technical ­ support. Sources: Türk and Dowden 2014; UN 2018a, 2018b; UNHCR 2018. Note: The Global Compact on Refugees was adopted by 181 ­countries. Hungary This includes a biannual Global Refugee Forum as and the United States voted against the resolution; three countries abstained (the well as ad hoc support platforms to be established for Dominican Republic, Eritrea, and ­Libya). S e c u r i n g L e a r n i n g f o r C h i l d r e n i n C o n f l i c t a n d C r i s i s    111 negative host community feelings are impor- genders or levels of e ­ ducation. Relatedly, tant to acknowledge and address and can long-term financing commitments of more implications. have important political ­ than three years can allow ministries to plan, rather than simply obligating financing in one year and hoping that financing will be Rethink external funding made available in future y ­ ears. This is par- mechanisms for education ticularly important for education services, sectors in crisis since there is much greater benefit to educat- Unpredictable amounts of external funding ing a student throughout the academic cycle, make education sector planning in pro- rather than just for one fiscal year, which is a tracted crises exceedingly ­ difficult. As min- common unit of time for donor financial istries of education of countries in the ­commitments. region have limited capacity to pay for and To increase the availability of multiyear deliver quality education services to their funding for low-income, refugee-hosting own populations, international partners countries, the World Bank Group set up a often provide financial, technical, and U S $2  ­ b i l l io n s ubw i ndow u nd e r t h e implementation assistance in crises involv- International Development Association ing refugees and ­ I DPs. Financing may flow (IDA) in 2017. Funding under the subwin- from a donor into the national budget to dow is provided on favorable terms and pay for education services or may come i nclude s a g ra nt element to suppor t from a donor to an agency such as UNICEF medium-term solutions that take a more and be spent directly by UNICEF for edu- developmental approach in protracted ref- cation ­services. This makes financial flows ugee ­ c rises. Fou r teen cou nt ries were and beneficiary counts for multinational deemed eligible for financing under the crises such as the Syrian conflict difficult to subwindow, collectively hosting at least track. Inconsistent and delayed reporting of ­ 6 .4 m ­ i l l io n r e f u g e e s ( I DA 2 019). 1 2 funding by donors further complicates edu- S i m i l a rly, t h e G lob a l C o n c e s s io n a l cation sector planning (HRW 2017). For Financing Facilit y was piloted by the example, conflicting data on external edu- Islamic Development Bank, the UN, and cation funding for Jordan suggest that the the World Bank in 2016 to provide long- actual amount of financial resources term financing to refugee-hosting middle- received in 2016 may be anywhere between i ncome cou nt r ie s , wh ich so fa r h a s U S$179 m illion a nd U S$37 7 m illion unlocked US$2.5 billion in concessional (HRW 2017). funds (GCFF 2018). Education sector funding in emergencies External funding can be an important should be adequate, timely, predictable, and catalyst for policy ­ change. In many coun- not earmarked (Ayoub and Mahdi 2018). tries, refugees struggle to become self-­ reliant The absolute amount of money to finance due to unfavorable policies regulating access education services is important, as are the to basic services and the labor market time frame of availability and commitment as (Charles et ­ al. 2018). The provision of exter- well as how the money can be ­ spent. For nal, multiyear funding opens opportunities example, it is much easier to hire and pay to engage in intensive policy ­ dialogue. teachers and write contracts at the beginning The different paths taken by countries in of the academ ic year than to do so the region to provide education services for retroactively. Similarly, funds that can be ­ refugees and IDPs demonstrate how political, used across nonformal education, formal capacity, and financial variables interact as education, technical and vocational educa- part of a dynamic ­ system. The conflicts in tion and training, and transportation to Iraq, Libya, Syria, and the Republic of Yemen school are much more useful than funds that are expected to generate flows of refugees are earmarked for beneficiaries of specific and IDPs for years to ­ come. Although the 1 1 2   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations FIGURE 3.4  Policy approaches to deliver on displaced children’s right to education Remove barriers Improve learning • Reduce or abolish school fees • Match language of instruction to student’s • Provide free and safe transportation to school native language • Provide free textbooks • Train teachers to provide psychosocial • Increase the supply of education services (build support for vulnerable populations schools, hire teachers) • Provide remedial education, catch-up • Increase the demand for education services classes, and accelerated learning programs (community outreach, facilitate transfer from alternative learning to formal education) Strengthen system resilience • Obtain long-term donor and host financial commitments for coherent planning • Integrate policies across systems (health, education, social protection) • Expand the implementation capacity of line ministries • Create information management systems with unique individual identification for education, health, and other services • Create portable certification documents ­ ank. Source: World B evidence base remains limited, the policies Relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 and approaches presented in ­figure 3.4, when Protocol, including Jordan, Lebanon, and the adapted to existing implementation capacity, Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries have shown promise for improving education (UN Treaty Collection 2017a, 2017­ b). No comparable legal framework applies specifi- services to vulnerable populations and host cally to IDPs, who are defined as people who ­ communities. Adaptive policy approaches flee their homes but remain within their nation’s that remove barriers, improve learning, and borders (UN 1998). support resilience can help to ensure that all 2. Data as of April 2019 based on the UNHCR children within a country’s borders have the Syria Regional Refugee Response Operational opportunity to develop their full potential Portal (https://data2.unhcr.org/en/situations​ and contribute to society, economic growth, syria). Since for various reasons not all refu- /­ and ­innovation. gees are registered, this number should be considered an ­ underestimate. Notes 3. This estimate is based on enrollment data for Lebanese public schools from the kindergar- 1. The international community defines “refu- ten level to secondary education for academic gees” as people who are displaced beyond their year 2018-19 (MEHE Lebanon 2018a, nation’s borders due to conflict or persecution 2018b, 2019b). founded on race, religion, nationality, political 4. About one-fifth of Syrian refugees in Jordan opinion, or membership in a particular social live in camps, while the rest live mostly in group (UNHCR 1951). Many MENA coun- urban host communities (Government of tries have not signed the 1951 Convention Jordan and UN 2018). S e c u r i n g L e a r n i n g f o r C h i l d r e n i n C o n f l i c t a n d C r i s i s    113 5. The 2018 Post Distribution Monitoring Report in Brief 7, Kf W Development Research, of UNICEF’s Hajati cash transfer program in F r a n k f u r t , ­M a y. ­ h t t p s : / / w w w. k f w​ Jordan suggests that school enrollment of chil- -entwicklungsbank.de/PDF/Download-Center​ dren ages 6 to 8 and 12 to 16 increased, but it is / PDF-Dokumente​ - Development​ - Research​ not clear whether the relationship between the /2019_05_16­_ EK_Resilienz_EN.pdf. cash assistance and the increase in enrollment is Assaad, Ragui, Thomas Ginn, and Mohamed causal (UNICEF 2018­ d). S aleh. 2018. “Impact of Syrian Refugees in ­ 6. The evaluation compared households living Jordan on Education Outcomes for Jordanian slightly more than 500 meters above sea level ­ Youth.” ERF Working Paper 1214, Economic ­ elow. Due to the evalu- to those living slightly b Research Forum, Giza, S ­ eptember. h ­ ttps://erf​ ation design, the results are representative only .org.eg/publications/impact​-of-syrian​-refugees​ for Syrian refugees living around 500 meters - i n - jord a n - on - e du c at ion - out c om e s -for​ above sea ­ level. The impact on households liv- -jordanian-youth/. ing below that altitude could be larger because AUB Policy Institute. 2019. “Tertiary Education they spend less money on winter ­ goods. For for Syrian Refugees in Lebanon.” Policy Brief households living at higher altitude, the impact #2/2019 (February). https://www.aub.edu.lb​ on school enrollment could be less pronounced /­i f i / D o c u m e n t s / p u b l i c a t i o n s / p o l i c y​ because they spend more on heating fuel and _­br ie f s / 2 018 -2 019 / 2 019 0 4 02 _ t e r t i a r y​ other winter goods (Lehmann and Masterson _­education_syrian_refugees_lebanon.pdf. 2014). Ayoub, Bachir, and Dima ­ Mahdi. 2018. “Making 7. Interviews were conducted with 895 refugees Aid Work in ­ L ebanon.” Joint Agency Briefing (mostly Syrians, but also refugees from West Paper, Lebanese Center for Policy Studies, ­ ebanon. Bank and Gaza) in all eight districts of L Beirut; Oxfam, O ­ xford, U.K. ­ https://www​ Respondents had to have received aid within -cdn​.oxfam.org/s3fs-public/file_attachments​ year. Means of each sample size were the last ­ / ­b p ​ - making-aid-work-lebanon-050418 ­- en​ weighted according to the share of the popula- .pdf. tion covered (GTS, OECD, and DfID 2018). Bartels, Susan Andrea, Saja Michael, Sophie 8. Percentages do not add up to 100 percent Roupetz, Stephanie Garbern, Lama Kilzar, because respondents were allowed to choose Harveen Bergquist, Nour Bakhache, Colleen multiple o­ ptions. Davison, and Annie B ­ untig. 2018. “Making 9. This estimate includes Syrian refugees enrolled Sense of Child, Early, and Forced Marriage in both public and private formal education ser- among Syrian Refugee Girls: A M ixed vices. As mentioned previously in this chapter, Methods Study in L ­ ebanon.” BMJ Global in public education institutions from kindergar- Health 3 (1): e000509. ten to secondary level, Syrian refugees make up B ossavie, ­ L au rent. 2018. “T he Ef fec t of an estimated 43 percent of all children. Immigrant Concentration at Schools on 10. The Jordanian curriculum includes English as Natives’ Achievement: Does Length of Stay in a foreign language, but, unlike Lebanon, the Host Country Matter?” Policy Research English is not used as a language of instruc- Wo r k i n g P a p e r 8 4 9 2 , Wo r l d B a n k , tion (UNICEF 2015). Washington, ­DC. ­ http://documents​.worldbank​ 11. 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Adopting a New Framework for Education in MENA 4 Safaa El Tayeb El-Kogali and Caroline Krafft T o realize the potential of education, schooling—are what determine education’s countries in the Middle East and North contribution to economic growth (Barro and Africa (MENA) need to establish an Lee 2013; Hanushek and Woessmann 2008; education system that prepares all students for World Bank 2018)—see chapter 1. a productive and successful ­future. Such a sys- MENA’s learning crisis is apparent across tem would be responsive and flexible in order primary and secondary grades and across dif- to nurture a culture of excellence and creativ- ­ reas. No MENA country came ferent subject a ity in l­earning. It also would adopt new close to the international medians for the approaches—for instance, it would leverage percentage of students reaching the low inter- ­ disruptive technologies—so that it can offer national benchmarks of the recent Trends in young people the skills they need to define International Mathematics and Science Study their trajectories in life and adapt to local, (TIMSS) and Progress in International national, and global ­changes. Finally, it would Reading Literacy Study (PI R L S) — see be based on a shared national vision and chapter 1. Only 42 ­ ­ percent of grade 8 students would connect with the overall development in the Arab Republic of Egypt had a basic country. All of society would be goals of the ­ understanding of science (Martin et ­ al. 2016). responsible for ensuring its s­ uccess. To estab- In Morocco, only 36 percent of grade 4 stu- lish such a system, MENA countries need to dents reached minimum levels of reading adopt a new framework for e ­ ducation—one literacy. According to the results of the 2015 ­ that includes a concerted push for learning, a Programme for International Student wide-reaching pull for skills, and a new pact Assessment (PISA), students age 15 in Algeria, for education (see figure 4.1).1 Jordan, Lebanon, Qatar, Tunisia, and the United Arab Emirates are on average two to four years of schooling behind 15-year-old Push for learning: Focus on students in the member countries of the learning, not just on schooling Organisation for Economic Co-operation and The potential of education is achieved only Development (OECD) in applying their when it confers the skills and knowledge that knowledge and competencies in reading, constitute human ­ capital. In fact, the skills mathematics, and science to real-world conferred through learning—not the years of ­ s ituations. Algeria and Lebanon, both 121 1 2 2   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations FIGURE 4.1  “Push, pull, and pact” offers a new 7. Leveraging technology to enhance the framework for education in MENA delivery of education and promote learning among students and educa- A stronger pull for skills tors, preparing students for an increas- ingly digital world. A new pact for education The chapters and spotlights that follow address each of these a ­ reas. A stronger push for learning Pull for skills: Complementary Source: World ­Bank. reforms are needed for education to achieve its potential For education to reach its full potential, it participating in PISA for the first time in 2015, must provide students with skills that satisfy found that more than two-thirds of their stu- the economic and social needs of each dents did not meet a basic proficiency level in ­ country. A push for learning would move science, reading, and ­mathematics. education closer to fulfilling its potential, but Low learning outcomes in MENA coun- it would be a second-best approach that tries call for a push across several aspects of would leave most of that potential untapped the educational p ­ rocess. To undertake a push (Rodrik 2008). for learning, countries need to focus on seven A first-best approach involves multisys- key areas: tem reforms that align a push for learning 1. Building the foundational skills—from with a pull for s­ kills. It includes economic early childhood development through reforms to match the skills required in the the early grades of school—needed for labor market with those conferred by edu- future learning and success cation and sought by parents and s ­ tudents. 2. Ensuring that teachers and school lead- Multisystem reform would seek to address ers, who are the most important inputs distortions in the education sector and to the learning process, are qualified, ­ beyond. For example, it would address sig- well selected, effectively utilized, and nals and incentives from the labor market incentivized to continue to develop as well as implement reforms within the professionally education ­ sector. Without a realignment of 3. Updating pedagogy and instructional the labor market that increases the demand practices to promote inquiry, creativity, for skills, the education sector’s contribu- and innovation tion to goals such as economic diversifica- 4. Addressing the language of instruc- tion will not be fully r ­ ealized. Moreover, tion challenge, given the gap between without civil service reforms that support spoken Arabic and modern standard hiring, motivating, and empowering the Arabic best teachers, the teaching profession 5. Applying learning assessments that would remain undervalued and learning regularly monitor student progress to would be ­ compromised. ensure that students are learning It is therefore important to understand 6. Giving all children, regardless of back- how the education sector interacts with ground or ability, an opportunity to the economic, social, and political envi- learn—a requirement for raising learn- ronments to achieve expected outcomes ing outcomes at the national level and to implement policies that address A d o p t i n g a N e w F r a m e w o r k f o r E d u ca t i o n i n MEN A    123 both the education system and labor mar- FIGURE 4.2  MENA needs a skills equilibrium ket ­challenges. Education system Strong supply Strong demand of skills Signaling for skills for skills Distortions in the labor market in MENA countries have led to an emphasis on creden- Private tials rather than skills (one of the tensions employers Strong demand holding back education in MENA)—see Youths and for skills chapter 2. To break out of the current creden- Public families tialist equilibrium in MENA and move employers toward a skills equilibrium, employers need Source: Adapted from Assaad, Krafft, and Salehi-Isfahani 2018. to send youths and families strong signals of the kinds of skills ­ needed. For their part, these youths and families need to demand the graduates, means that firms tend to hire relevant skills from the education s ­ ystem. based on social ­ networks. The education system needs to respond by Personal connections, not skills, drive supplying the set of skills needed and signal- labor market outcomes in MENA, further ing the skills acquired (see figure 4.2). dampening the demand for ­ skills. A Gallup However, employers in MENA are not Poll conducted in 16 MENA economies effectively communicating to (signaling) the found that, on average, 70 percent of respon- education system or students and parents dents agreed that a personal connection is what skills they ­need. This weak signaling is critical to securing a job (see figure 4.3). exacerbated by the fact that, in most coun- Families and students also lack incentives to tries, private sector firms are disproportion- focus on skills; in the labor market, measur- ately microenterprises, and these businesses able skills from education are rewarded much lack the ability to send signals effectively to less, if at all, than social background or cre- the region’s education systems (Assaad, dentials (Assaad, Krafft, and Salehi-Isfahani Krafft, and Salehi-Isfahani 2018). Moreover, 2018; Krafft and Assaad 2016; Krishnan these firms are not well positioned to receive et ­ al. 2016). sig n a l s f rom t he e du c at ion ­ system. Effective reforms, such as those in Currently, the signals are essentially for cre- China, address both rigid labor policies dentials (see box 4.1). and the education-specific challenges that contribute to low skills and poor ­ signals. Previously in China, strict regulations, a Rigid labor policies lack of competition, and an inability to fire MENA’s rigid labor policies also constrain unproductive workers resulted in low pro- the pull for s­ kills. For example, labor laws ductivity (Morrison 2011). Within the make it extremely difficult for employers to command economy, workers were guaran- fire employees (World Bank 2013). This fac- teed lifetime employment and assigned a tor creates a disincentive for the private sec- job from which their employer was unable tor to take risks when h ­ iring. Employers are to terminate their appointment, with wages therefore less likely to hire on a trial basis to determined by seniority and education learn about a candidate’s skills, as is common level (Meng, Shen, and Xue 2013). In the practice in other parts of the ­ world. That dis- late 1970s, China successfully imple- incentive, coupled with the absence of infor- mented multiple economic reforms, includ- mation on the quality or productivity of ing giving more wage flexibility to firms 1 2 4   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations Box 4.1  Signaling in education is communicating about skills Countries across MENA are not in a skills college graduates will be paid in line with equilibrium. The Gulf Cooperation Council ­ their ­abilities. Most high school graduates states are experiencing gaps bet ween have fewer ways in which to signal their nationals and immigrant workers in terms abilities, although the financial returns of skills, labor prices, and labor m­ obility. to ability increase steeply with experience There, policy makers are discussing the (Arcidiacono, Bayer, and Hizmo 2010). need for a fundamental reform of the skills In MENA, test scores do not currently ­ system. For example, of the 23,000 annual appear to provide adequate information new job seekers in Kuwait, some 10,000 about ability (Assaad, Krafft, and Salehi- would be unable to find suitable ­ j obs. Isfahani 2018). In addition to making test Placements for these job seekers would scores more meaningful (by measuring skills require the demand for labor to increase more effectively), changes in labor policy (employers wanting more of the kinds of could provide employers with the informa- workers currently produced by the educa- tion and flexibility they need by, for example, tion system) or education reforms to match encouraging trial periods of employment skills more closely with the labor market prior to long-term c ­ ontracts. Together, these (Hertog 2016). practices would send employers a more accu- Signaling is the process through which rate signal of graduates’ ­ skills. one party reveals some information about Signals from employers to students itself to a ­ nother. For example, in the labor and education institutions are important market employers do not immediately ­ ell. National employer surveys, with as w know the productive capabilities of their widely publicized reports and results, could new ­ h ires. One prominent way in which be one route to signaling the skills that applicants signal their abilities is through employers ­ need. Career academies or other education (Arcidiacono, Bayer, and Hizmo models of employer-school partnerships can 2010; Spence 1973). In the United States, give students information on the jobs avail- the résumés of college graduates include able and the skills r ­ equired. Partnerships information on grades, majors, and test that facilitate internships, mentoring, and s cores. This information acts as a signal ­ other informational experiences may be of ability and increases the likelihood that effective (Lerman 2013). and introducing a labor contracting system increased from 2 percent of the wage bill in that moved away from lifetime tenure and 1978 to 16 percent in 1997, effectively giv- gave state-owned enterprises the right to ing employees the incentive to perform well lay off ­w orkers. Following China’s first (Brooks and Tao 2003). Since 1997, earn- national work conference in 1980, enter- ings have almost doubled (Meng, Shen, prises were granted more autonomy in hir- and Xue 2013). Meanwhile, the reforms ing, and job seekers were given more have led to higher returns to schooling autonomy to find jobs, including in the pri- (Zhang et ­a l. 2005). Students have greater vate sector (Brooks and Tao 2003). Wage incentives to learn skills that will allow flexibility, including instituting bonuses, them to earn higher wages based on their has been gradually increased, and the share skill set and productivity instead of their of bonuses in total wages for all enterprises education ­credentials. A d o p t i n g a N e w F r a m e w o r k f o r E d u ca t i o n i n MEN A    125 FIGURE 4.3  A personal connection (wasta) is critical to securing work in MENA Percentage agreeing or disagreeing with the statement that a personal connection is critical to securing work 100 10 90 12 20 18 19 20 21 23 26 80 19 29 22 30 28 70 19 24 60 Percent 50 90 85 40 79 79 79 78 76 75 73 72 67 66 64 63 62 30 58 20 10 0 n an ain it co . sia p. ria s za a q ic ya r ep ta te bi no Ira wa bl Re Ga Lib oc rd ge ni Qa ira hr ,R ra pu ba Ku Tu Jo or b iA Al Ba nd en Em Re ra Le M ud m ka t, A ab b Ye Sa ra an yp Ar nA tB Eg d ite ria es W Un Sy Agree Disagree Source: Gallup Poll 2013. A new education pact: Create a education systems—such as those of Japan, unified vision for education the Republic of Korea, and Singapore—are champions of strong education pacts that In all countries, education is the subject of an underscore the role of a unified vision for ongoing national ­ d ialogue. In MENA, this education across s­ takeholders. That vision national dialogue needs to be channeled includes consistent and coherent reforms to toward a unified vision that takes into achieve human capital–driven economic account the four tensions holding back edu- growth (Wong 2017). cation, the social norms that define them, and the local ­ context. A shared vision also needs to take into account countries’ develop- A critical role for national leaders ment priorities, their economic opportunities, and their realities and resources so that the Political will and leadership are critical to goals set are realistic and ­ attainable. rallying MENA around a new pact for To realize this unified vision, political will ­ education. Political leadership can initiate is ­ critical. Moreover, the interests of a wide shifts in behavioral norms to push for edu- variety of stakeholders—including teachers, cation reform (Acemoglu and Jackson principals, inspectors, politicians, communi- 2015). The national leaders of Japan, ties, employers, and students—need to be Korea, and Singapore, in championing aligned through a powerful ­ a lliance. This education reforms, made education a effort would require strong leadership and national priority with a vision and clear shared ­ accountability. It also would require goals and cultivated a consensus among bringing investments and resources in line stakeholders (World Bank 2018). Policies with the vision’s ­priorities. High-performing were built on the realization that the full 1 2 6   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations potential of education can be achieved “boardroom lunches,” highlighting the busi- only th roug h cross-sectoral policy ness case for reforms (Bruns and Schneider a lignment. The leaders succeeded in pro- ­ 2016). The minister of education of Ontario, moting a shared vision for education to Canada, regularly visited schools and school which parents can aspire for their chil- boards across the province when he was dren’s future (World Bank 2018) and a shadow minister, meeting with about 6,000 shared responsibility among all stakehold- people in an effort to spend time with teach- ers for assuming their role in educational ers, students, and parents to engage them in outcomes (Wong 2017). policy dialogue and establish trust (OECD MENA has produced many great leaders 2011). whose charisma and vision have led to Recently, the president of Egypt has also remarkable ­progress. For example, Egyptian been using the media and conferences to educator Taha Hussein, who became blind as build support for education r ­ eforms. He has a young child, went on to become one of the been advocating and supporting major preeminent thinkers of his time, leaving his reforms overhauling the education system, mark on an entire nation (Cachia 2014). shifting from the traditional rote-learning, Serving as minister of education in the early high-stakes examination system that focuses 1950s, he worked to massively expand public on credentials to a new system that focuses education and to abolish school ­ f ees. on learning and s­ kills. He held several youth Considering education essential to human and education conferences to rally public sup- existence, Hussein famously said, “Education port around the reforms, reassuring parents is like water and air” (Cook and El-Refaee and students about the benefits of these 2017). reforms for them individually and for society and the economy as a w ­ hole. He announced that 2019 would be the year of education A unified vision for education (Egyptian Gazette 2018). A new pact and shared vision require aligning political will and multiple interests in s­ ociety. Accountability to deliver results Experience has shown that reforms can suc- ceed if there is strong political will to imple- Accountability is critical to improving ment ­ them. This means that politicians and ­ l earning. However, identifying who is interest groups have to refrain from using edu- accountable for learning outcomes is views. cation as a tool to support their political ­ extremely difficult because different actors An important step toward aligning political within and outside the education system will and stakeholders’ interests in education interact to produce learning ­ o utcomes. reform is to reduce the number of policy mak- Usually, educators, especially teachers, are ers who have the power to veto policy reforms the focus of accountability for student for political interests and to bring them in line ­ outcomes. Although teachers play a crucial with other stakeholders through a narrative of role in student learning because they interact shared values (Acosta and Haddad 2014)—see directly with students in the learning process, box 4.2 for an example of a successful use of policy makers, school leaders, and parents, this approach in Peru. among others, also have an important role in To rally support for education reform in shaping education o ­ utcomes. Therefore, 2008, Australia’s deputy prime minister devel- accountability in education cannot be limited oped clear outreach strategies that engaged the to any one individual or group (UNESCO news ­media. She personally briefed the media 2017; World Bank 2004). on new proposals in advance, using stories In a new education pact for MENA, about schools and students to humanize the accountability needs to go beyond the edu- narrative around r ­ eform. She also communi- cation ­ s ystem. There would be multiple cated with the business community through accou nt abi l it y mecha n isms , whereby A d o p t i n g a N e w F r a m e w o r k f o r E d u ca t i o n i n MEN A    127 Box 4.2  Peru has found success in aligning interests Through political will and alignment of to the government’s fight against ­poverty. stakeholders’ interests, Peru succeeded in During the 2006 presidential campaign, all reducing the rate of stunted growth among candidates pledged to reduce malnutrition children under age 5 in only six ­ y ears. by 5 percentage points for children under This was achieved by reducing the number 5 years of age within 5 years (5×5×5). Once of policy makers with veto ­ p ower. These elected, the president of Peru renewed his “veto players” were brought in line with public commitment and set a target reduc- other stakeholders through a shared set of tion of 9 percentage points and secured values. Stakeholders were unified under ­ support from the prime minister, the min- a common policy platform and advocacy ister for women and social development, coalition, the Children’s Malnutrition and regional g­ overnors. Between 2005 and I nitiative. This coalition was established to ­ 2011, Peru reduced stunting by 10 percent- convene both government and nongovern- age ­points. ment stakeholders around a single objective of making children’s malnutrition central Source: Acosta and Haddad 2014. citizens hold governments accountable, municipalities (Burns, Köster, and Fuster policy makers hold schools accountable, and ­ 2016). Moreover, when accountability lines principals hold teachers ­ a ccountable. are not clear, blame could be shifted among However, if the system as a whole is not service providers, and citizens would not be aligned, conflicts and distortions will arise able to determine who is responsible between the stakeholders at various levels (UNESCO 2017). Without clearly defined (Burns, Köster, and Fuster 2016). System roles and responsibilities, even well-designed alignment toward greater accountability accountability mechanisms can ­ f ail. For means that all stakeholders work collectively example, on the one hand, parental monitor- within a common vision for education and ing in school can be counterproductive if par- share responsibility for ­ l earning. These ents’ involvement becomes too invasive and stakeholders (policy makers, school leaders, teachers are granted insufficient autonomy teachers, parents, employers, and students) (World Bank 2008). On the other hand, if must first hold themselves accountable to schools do not understand and recognize par- ensure learning while demanding account- ents’ role in the education system, they may ability from ­others. For MENA countries to not be responsive to legitimate parental ini- reap the full benefits of education, responsi- suggestions. tiatives and ­ bility and accountability have to be shared At the level of the education provider, collectively (see figure 4.4). teachers are responsible for monitoring and For accountability systems to be effective, assessing their students’ progress and for giv- the roles and responsibilities of the various ing parents regular ­feedback. Teachers also stakeholders have to be clearly defined and shou ld pu r sue ongoi ng profe s sion a l ­ u nderstood. For example, a lack of under- development. School leaders are responsible ­ standing of the new roles for school adminis- for creating a school environment conducive trators in Sweden resulted in varying to learning and for ensuring that teachers are approaches, which made it difficult to delivering on learning by monitoring and ­ e valuate and compare learning across empowering ­them. 1 2 8   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations FIGURE 4.4  Learning is a collective responsibility, and everyone is accountable Policy makers Parents • Accountable for providing vision, leadership, • Accountable for children going to and strategy for the education system to and completing school promote learning and skills • Responsible for providing enabling • Responsible for providing curricula, standards, and Employers learning environments at home, engaging assessments development and effective • Responsible for sending the right in school activities, and seeking out feedback and efficient management of resources signals to the education system and on student learning (physical, financial, human, and information parents on skills required • Responsible for holding policy makers, sharing) • Accountable for rewarding skills schools, and teachers accountable for learning not credentials by demanding qualified teachers, relevant School leaders curricula, and safe school environments • Accountable for creating a school environment conducive to learning Civil society Labor market • Responsible for demanding transparent (safe, well-equipped, well connected) • Responsible for monitoring, supporting, communication of education inputs and and empowering teachers to deliver learning outcomes and hold them accountable Teachers Government and Parents and civil • Accountable for student learning education providers society progress in their classroom • Responsible for monitoring student progress • Responsible for undertaking Learning continuous professional development and holding policy makers and Media school leaders accountable • Accountable for reporting factual Students Media information and for correcting false claims • Responsible for sharing information on student progress with parents • Responsible for offering a platform for Students policy makers and other stakeholders to • Responsible for being active and curious learners share information and promote greater • Responsible for demanding accountability and skills from transparency on education policies and schools, teachers, and policy makers other educational information • Responsible for using technology and social media to exchange • Responsible for delivering news knowledge and learning and organize in a constructive manner responsibly based on evidence and data Source: World Bank. Policy makers have the overall responsibil- Employers also have a responsibility in the ity for providing vision and strategy and learning p­ rocess. They need to signal to par- developing, leading, and supporting the ents, students, and the education system what implementation of education policies, devel- ­ arket. skills are needed in the labor m oping curricula and standards, introducing Finally, students are responsible for their national information systems that effectively recipients. learning; they must not be passive ­ monitor learning, and allocating resources at With their growing access to social media, the national and regional levels (human, students have access to massive amounts of physical, and ­financial). learning ­ resources. In many instances, they Parents are responsible for their children’s may have more access to information than education and for creating a supportive home their parents on global skills and knowl- ­ environment. They are also responsible for edge and can demand these skills from the engaging in school activities and monitoring education s ­ ystem. Students can organize their children’s learning individually and col- themselves to support their schools and lectively through parents’ a ­ ssociations. hold service providers and educators to Parents should also hold the education sys- ­account. tem (policy makers, schools, and teachers) The media play an important role in hold- accountable for their children’s learning and ing stakeholders accountable and in explain- demand qualified teachers, relevant curri- ing complex ­ i ssues. Social media are a cula, and safe learning ­environments. growing major source of information in the A d o p t i n g a N e w F r a m e w o r k f o r E d u ca t i o n i n MEN A    129 world and in MENA countries, especially for Assaad, Ragui, Caroline Krafft, and Djavad youths, and they can serve as a platform for ­ S alehi-Isfahani. 2018. “Does the Type of policy makers wishing to share information Higher Education Affect Labor Market and promote greater transparency on educa- Outcomes? A Comparison of Egypt and ­Jordan.” Higher Education 75 (6): 945–95. tion policy ­ reforms. Social media also pro- Barro, Robert ­ J ., and Jong Wha ­ L ee. 2013. vide citizens with a mechanism to hold policy “A New Data Set of Educational Attainment in makers and educators a ­ ccountable. And yet t h e Wo rl d , 1 950 – 2 010 .” Jo u r n a l o f social media can also be exploited by interest Development Economics 104: 184–98. groups to block important reforms and Brooks, Ray, and Ran T ­ ao. 2003. “China’s Labor spread ­misinformation. In MENA countries Market Performance and ­ C hallenges.” IMF such as Egypt, Jordan, and Kuwait, oppo- Working Paper WP/03/210, International nents of education reforms have launched Monetary Fund, Washington, ­ D C. ­https:// strong social media campaigns against those w w w.imf.org /ex ternal /pubs /f t /w p/20 03​ reforms. Open channels for communication ­ /­wp03210­.pdf. and debate are important to creating a pact Bruns, Barbara, and Ben Ross S ­ chneider. 2016. “Managing the Politics of Quality Reforms in around ­ l earning. Policy makers should Education: Policy Lessons from Global engage with stakeholders through various ­ E xperience.” Paper commissioned for the channels to address concerns, correct infor- International Commission on Financing mation using evidence, and rally collective Educational Opportunity, New ­ York. support for education ­ reforms. Burns, Tracey, Florian Köster, and Marc ­ Fuster. Beyond social media, technology can also 2016. Education Governance in Action: be leveraged to establish accountability Lessons from Case S ­ tudies. Paris: ­OECD. systems. Several countries are implementing ­ Cachia, P ­ ierre. 2014. “ ­ Introduction.” In The education dashboards to facilitate open data Days: His Autobiography in Three Parts, by and a move toward evidence-based policy Ta ha Hu ssei n , 2 – 6 . C a i ro: A mer ic a n ­making. University in Cairo ­ Press. Cook, Bradley, and Engy ­ E l-Refaee. 2017. “Eg ypt: A Perpetual Reform ­ A genda.” Note In  Education in the Arab World, edited by Serra Kirdar, 285–305. London: Bloomsbury 1. The World Bank’s World Development ­Academic. Report 2018 highlights the global learning Egyptian ­Gazette. 2018. “Sisi Declares 2019 Year crisis (World Bank 2018). It sheds light on the of ­E ducation.” ­http://www.egyptiangazette​ dimensions of the crisis and proposes a way .net.eg/egypt-news/7407-sisi-declares-2019​ forward that is well aligned with the push, ­-year-of-education.html. pull, and pact framework described ­ here. Gallup ­ Poll. 2013. Gallup World Poll Survey 2013. Washington, ­ DC. Hanushek, Eric ­ A ., and Ludger ­ Woessmann. References 2008. “The Role of Cognitive Skills in Acemoglu, Daron, and Matthew O ­ ackson. ­ . J Economic ­Development.” Journal of Economic 2015. “History, Expectations, and Leadership Literature 46 (3): 607–68. Norms.” Review of in the Evolution of Social ­ Hertog, ­ Steffen. 2016. “The Political Economy of Economic Studies 82 (1): 1–34. Labour Markets and Migration in the Gulf: Acosta, Andrés Mejía, and Lawrence H ­ addad. Workshop Proceedings,” edited by Ribale 2014. “The Politics of Success in the Fight Sleiman-Haidar. London School of Economics ­ against Malnutrition in P ­ eru.” Food Policy and Political Science, LSE Kuwait Programme, 44: 26–35. ­London. Arcidiacono, Peter, Patrick Bayer, and Aurel Krafft, Caroline, and Ragui ­ A ssaad. 2016. Hizmo. 2010. “Beyond Signaling and Human ­ “Inequality of Opportunity in the Labor Capital: Education and the Revelation of Market for Higher Education Graduates in ­A bilit y.” A meric an Economic Journ al: Egypt and J ­ordan.” In The Middle East Applied Economics 2 (4): 76–104. Economies in Times of Transition, edited by 1 3 0   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations Ishac Diwan and Ahmed ­ G alal. New York: Spence, ­ M ichael. 1973. “Job Market ­ Signaling.” Palgrave ­Macmillan. Quarterly Journal of Economics 87 (3): Krishnan, Nandini, Gabriel Lara Ibarra, Ambar 355–74. N a r ay a n , S a i l e s h T i w a r i , a n d Ta r a UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, ­V ishwanath. 2016. Uneven Odds, Unequal and Cultural O ­ rganization). 2017. Global Outcomes: Inequality of Opportunity in the Education Monitoring Report— Middle East and North A ­ frica. Directions in Accountability in Education: Meeting Our ­ Development. Washington, DC: World ­ Bank. ­Commitments. Paris: ­U NESCO. Lerman, Robert ­ I . 2013. “Are Employability Wong, ­ A nny. 2017. “Insights from East Asia’s Skills Learned in ­ U.S. Youth Education and H ig h - Pe r for m i n g E du c at ion Sy s t e m s: Training Programs?” IZA Journal of Labor Leadership, Pragmatism, and Continuous Policy 2 (1): 6. I mprovement.” Background paper prepared ­ Martin, ­ M. ­ O., I­. ­ V. ­ S . Mullis, ­ P. Foy, and for Growing Smarter: Learning and Equitable M. ­ ­ Hooper. 2016. “TIMSS 2015 International Development in East Asia and Pacific, World Results in ­ S cience.” T I MSS and PIR LS Bank, Washington, ­ DC. International Study Center, Boston College, World ­ Bank. 2004. World Development Report Chestnut Hill, M ­ A. ­ http://timssandpirls​ .bc​ 2004: Making Services Work for Poor ­ People. .edu/timss2015­/international-results/. Washington, DC: World ­ Bank. Meng, Xin, Kailing Shen, and Sen ­ Xue. 2013. —— —. 2008. The Road Not Traveled: Education “Economic Reform, Education Expansion, Reform in the Middle East and North ­ Africa. and Earnings Inequality for Urban Males in Washington, DC: World B http://web​ ­ ank. ­ China, 1988–2009.” Journal of Comparative .worldbank.org/archive/website01033­/ WEB​ Economics 41 (1): 227–44. /­I MAGES/EDU_FLAG.PDF. Morrison, Wayne M ­ . 2011. “China’s Economic —— —. 2013. Jobs for Shared Prosperity: Time for ­ Conditions.” Congressional Research Service, Action in the Middle East and North A ­ frica. Washington, D ­ C. Washington, DC: World ­ Bank. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation ———. 2018. World Development Report 2018: and ­Development). 2011. Strong Performers Learning to Realize Education’s P ­ romise. and Successful Reformers in Education: Washington, DC: World ­ Bank. Lessons from PISA for the United S ­ tates. Zhang, Junsen, Yaohui Zhao, Albert Park, and Paris: ­O ECD. ­h ttp://w w w.oecd.org /pisa​ Xiaoqing ­ Song. 2005. “Economic Returns to /46623978­.pdf. Schooling in Urban China, 1988 to 2001.” Rodrik, ­ Dani. 2008. “Second-Best ­ I nstitutions.” Journal of Comparative Economics 33 (4): American Economic Review 98 (2): 100–04. 730–52. Establishing a Foundation for Lifelong Learning 5 Igor Kheyfets and Samira Nikaein Towfighian T Intervene early for biggest he early years of a child’s life are the most crucial for learning. During this impact period, the brain undergoes its greatest development. Investments in learning during The period from in utero to age 6 is critical the early years and the early grades of school for children’s development (Berlinski and are, therefore, critical for laying the founda- Schady 2015; Heckman 2006; Leseman tion of the cognitive and socioemotional skills 2002). In these years, the brain undergoes its that will be required to succeed in life and greatest development and the building blocks work. Investments made in the early years can of the brain are formed (Center on the yield higher returns than investments targeted Developing Child 2009; Shonkoff and at older populations (Heckman 2006). Yet Garner 2012). Due to the rapid development access to early childhood education (ECE) of cognitive capacities during a child’s early remains low and unequal across the Middle years, giving children a strong start is crucial East and North Africa (MENA). On average, to ensuring that they are ready to learn and only 31 percent of preschool-age children (ages succeed in life. 3 to 5 years) are enrolled in ECE.1 Before starting primary school, many children are Investments in the early years not developmentally on track in key founda- have high returns tional skills—such as literacy and numeracy— and they begin their formal education at a Investments in the early years can yield the disadvantage. A push for investments in early highest returns in terms of future productiv- learning through wide access to high-quality ity by laying the foundation of cognitive and ECE is, therefore, a sound strategic direction socioemotional skills (World Bank 2018). for education systems throughout MENA. By In contrast, if developmental growth in chil- ensuring that children come to school ready to dren is not supported from an early age—due learn and are off to a strong start in the early to poor nutrition, a less nurturing home envi- grades, education systems can maximize their ronment, or underinvestment in the develop- contribution to their countries’ social and eco- ment of cognitive skills—then children may nomic development. arrive at school well behind their peers. 131 1 3 2   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations To take full advantage of the high potential they are not developmentally on track in returns to early learning, governments need to terms of early literacy and numeracy. Except make adequate investments in expanding for Qatar, MENA countries that have under- access to high-quality early childhood devel- taken the United Nations Children’s Fund opment (ECD) programs. Such programs (UNICEF) Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey include prenatal and neonatal parenting, (MICS) have found low rates of 3- to 5-year- nutrition, and health interventions as well as olds being developmentally on track in liter- socioemotional and cognitive stimulation in acy and numeracy (see figure 5.1). 2 For the early years. However, by itself, expanded example, only 18 percent of children in Iraq ECD coverage is not enough. Increasing access and West Bank and Gaza are deemed to be to low-quality programs does not produce the developmentally on track in early literacy and expected results in efficiency and equity numeracy development. Only around 30 to (Britto, Boller, and Yoshikawa 2011). In con- 40 percent of children in Algeria, Oman, and trast, high-quality ECD programs can boost Tunisia are found to be developmentally on children’s intellectual and social development track. While Qatar’s proportion is higher, it and help them to enter primary school ready is still below that of other high-income coun- to learn (Heckman 2006). Quality preschool tries for which MICS data are available education programs geared especially toward (Nikaein and Adams 2017). disadvantaged children can have a lifelong Positive early experiences can push children impact on beneficiaries’ earnings and can even onto a path for further learning in many ways, reduce crime (Elango et al. 2015; Schweinhart including having adequate nutrition in the et al. 2005). These programs are also more early years (which contributes to physical cost-effective than other education interven- health and cognitive development), early stim- tions, such as reductions in class size, and help ulation and positive interpersonal interactions to close performance gaps by socioeconomic (which contribute to children’s social and emo- status, ethnicity, and geographic origin tional development), and access to play-based (Glewwe 2013; Heckman 2006). learning opportunities within and outside the home. Conversely, early negative experiences—such as the lack of formal early ­ Children must arrive at school learning opportunities or lack of effective cog- ready to learn nitive or socioemotional stimulation in the When children start formal education, they home—can hold children back from realizing need to be ready to learn. According to the their potential. Development outcomes can Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), spe- also interact; children who suffer from poor cifically SDG 4.2, ensuring that all girls and physical health will be at a disadvantage in boys have access to quality early childhood their capacity for early learning and cognitive development, care, and preprimary education development. The various indicators and so that they are ready for primary education outcomes in early childhood interact and ­ is critically important for ensuring inclusive accumulate throughout early life, and the and equitable lifelong learning opportunities developmental experiences and outcomes for all (United Nations n.d.). Being ready for that children a ­ ccumulate in early childhood school requires that children develop a wide shape their subsequent learning, schooling, range of cognitive, social, emotional, and health, employment, social engagement, and, physical abilities early in life. Failing to do so in general, life opportunities (El-Kogali and can set children back—especially those from Krafft 2015). disadvantaged backgrounds—reducing their educational and economic opportunities later in life (El-Kogali and Krafft 2015). Universalize preschool education However, in MENA there is evidence to The importance of early childhood develop- suggest that, before children start school, ment is becoming increasingly recognized E s t a b l i s h i n g a F o u n d a t i o n f o r L i f e l o n g L e a r n i n g    133 FIGURE 5.1  Before they start school, many children are not developmentally on track Percentage of 3- to 5-year-olds developmentally on track in literacy and numeracy 70 63 63 60 49 47 50 46 45 43 40 37 Percent 40 31 30 29 30 27 24 18 18 20 10 0 2) 2) ) 2) ) ) ) ) 4) 1) 2) 3) ) 1) 1) 0) 13 11 12 11 12 11 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 20 20 20 20 20 20 (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 y( e( e( R( a( ( r d us an sia va ria ca m q za ta ua in liz in FY an Ira na Ga Ri lar do Om ge ni Qa nt ra Be ug ail ia, et Tu sta Be ol Uk Al ge nd Th Ur Vi on M Co Ar ka ed an ac tB M es W Source: UNICEF Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (http://mics.unicef.org/). Note: According to the survey, if a child can do at least two of the following, he or she is considered developmentally on track: identify or name at least 10 letters of the alphabet; read at least four simple, popular words; name and recognize the symbols of all numbers from 1 to 10. across the region. As noted, SDG 4.2 has a tar- To improve early learning, countries with get to ensure, by 2030, that all girls and boys high ECE enrollment ratios can focus on have access to quality early childhood develop- improving the quality of education provided ment, care, and preprimary education so that and raising children’s key foundational they are ready for primary education. Early skills. The expansion of compulsory prepri- childhood development is a key pillar of mary education in Argentina in the 1990s, the regional Education for Competitiveness which successfully raised students’ learning (E4C) initiative—launched by the Islamic outcomes, can serve as an example. Among Development Bank Group and the World Bank MENA countries, Algeria’s introduction of Group in 2014 and endorsed by MENA coun- a preprimary curriculum and the corre- tries at the Meeting of Arab Ministers of sponding expansion of enrollment that fol- Education in Amman in 2016 with the support lowed is another important success story of local, regional, and international partners. (see box 5.1). Although access to preprimary education Meanwhile countries with low ECE enroll- has increased in MENA, and several countries ment ratios can focus on the dual task of initi- have recently made substantial investments in ating high-quality ECE programs and scaling increasing access to education for 4- and them up to reach all children. This effort can 5-year-olds, coverage is still lagging and be particularly challenging in countries in remains a challenge for many MENA coun- which ECE-enabling policies are not well tries. On average, MENA’s gross enrollment developed. The World Bank Systems Approach ratio (GER) for preprimary-age children (3- to for Better Education Results (SABER) frame- 5-year-olds) is just 31 percent—below every work assessed ECD policies in Iraq (World other region of the world except South Asia Bank 2014), Tunisia (World Bank 2015), and (see figure 5.2). However, coverage varies the Republic of Yemen (World Bank 2013) and widely across the region. Some countries— found that key ECD policy areas or programs such as Algeria, Lebanon, and the United were either latent or emerging. Examples of Arab Emirates—are on their way to universal excellence in expanding the provision of qual- coverage, with GERs around 80 percent, ity ECE exist in MENA countries. The United while others have preprimary enrollment lan- Arab Emirates, for example, set the universal- guishing in the single digits (see figure 5.3). ization of preschool education among the top 1 3 4   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations FIGURE 5.2  Preprimary enrollments are lower in MENA than in many other regions Preprimary gross enrollment ratio, 1976, 1996, and 2016 100 80 79 73 74 60 59 60 Percent 50 49 40 31 33 28 30 22 20 18 13 15 14 15 14 11 9 9 0 East Asia and Latin America MENA Sub-Saharan Europe and South Asia World Pacific and Caribbean Africa Central Asia 1976 1996 2016 Source: World Bank EdStats database (http://datatopics.worldbank.org/education/), based on data from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics. FIGURE 5.3  Large differences in preprimary enrollment ratios are found across MENA Preprimary gross enrollment ratio 100 86 82 79 80 68 60 57 55 60 54 51 50 Percent 44 40 35 31 30 25 20 7 6 2 0 ) ) 1) 6) ) 6) 6) 6) 5) 6) ) 7) 6) 6) ou 16) 7) ep 3) 6) 16 16 16 16 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 1 01 20 20 20 0 0 20 (2 (2 (2 2 (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 2 2 (2 . (2 n( s( r( ( ( ( c( ria it an k a ain za p. co sia an t, A NA p. a ti ta te i bi no wa l Re Re Ga b oc Om rd ge ni Qa ira E hr ,R ra pu ba n A Djib M Ku Tu Jo or ic b iA Al Ba d en Em Re ra Le am n M ud m ab b Isl Ye Sa ra an yp Ar n, tB Eg Ira d te ria es i W Un Sy Sources: For all except Jordan, World Bank EdStats database (http://datatopics.worldbank.org/education/), based on data from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics. For Jordan, Queen Rania Center at the Jordan Ministry of Education, provided in August 2018. Note: Data are for the latest available year between 2011 and 2017. targets in its ambitious Vision 2021 national circumstances (starting in utero) are likely to agenda (United Arab Emirates, Prime fall behind in their health, nutrition, cognitive, Minister’s Office n.d.). The country is on pace social, and emotional development—all pre- to enroll 95 percent of its children in preschool cursors to success in school. For example, at by 2021, an increase of more than 30 percent- just 18 months of age, children’s vocabulary age points since the 1990s (see box 5.2). differs by socioeconomic status of the parents (Center on the Developing Child 2009). By age 3, the vocabulary of a child whose parents Target the most disadvantaged children have a college degree can be as much as three Inequalities of opportunity arise from the very times larger than the vocabulary of a child beginning of life. Children born into difficult whose parents have not completed high school E s t a b l i s h i n g a F o u n d a t i o n f o r L i f e l o n g L e a r n i n g    135 Box 5.1  Universalizing access to preprimary education in Argentina and Algeria In 1993, a new Federal Education Law in Argentina At present, the public school system in Argentina expanded compulsory education to include the last comprises three years of preprimary education year of preprimary school. A massive public school ­ c overing ages 3 to 5, although only the last two construction program began. Between 1993 and 1999, years are compulsory. The gross enrollment ratio in the government financed the construction of 3,531 preprimary education was 73 percent in 2014, up new classrooms, creating approximately 176,550 new from 48 percent in 1994. preschool places and building more classrooms in Meanwhile, Algeria’s expansion of preprimary provinces with the lowest preprimary enrollment. enrollment is one of MENA’s own success stories. The expansion aimed to achieve two goals: In 1999, Algeria had a preprimary gross enrollment ratio of just 2 percent. By 2011, this had risen to • Build on the developmental progress of chil- 79 percent. How did Algeria expand early childhood dren achieved at home and develop new education so quickly? In 2004, a preprimary curric- ­ ge-appropriate competencies a ulum was introduced along with a goal to increase • Provide early access to knowledge and skills to gross enrollment to 80 percent by 2010. Algeria improve performance in the first years of pri- rapidly expanded government provision of prepri- mary education. mary services. As of 2014, it had the highest share To achieve these goals, a specially designed cur- of government provision in the region: 86 percent of riculum was developed to build children’s commu- preprimary education places were provided through nication skills, personal autonomy and behavioral the public sector. Expansion in private provision of skills, social skills, logical and mathematical skills, preprimary education was also encouraged, with and emotional skills. A subsequent impact evaluation ongoing oversight of the curriculum in both public found that one year of preprimary school increased and private facilities. average grade 3 test scores by 8 percent (equivalent to Algeria’s experience shows that it is possible for 0.23 standard deviations). The evaluation also con- MENA countries to expand early childhood educa- cluded that preprimary school attendance positively tion rapidly. affected students’ self-control in grade 3 by improving Sources: Berlinski, Galiani, and Gertler 2009; El-Kogali and Krafft 2015; World attention, effort, class participation, and discipline. Bank Edstats database. Box 5.2  Prioritizing early childhood education in the United Arab Emirates As part of its ambitious Vision 2021 national The gradual expansion of ECE enrollment in the agenda, the United Arab Emirates has set a target United Arab Emirates has been driven by the sub- of reaching 95 percent enrollment in preschool for stantial growth in private provision of ECE services. the country’s children by 2021. Embedded in its More than four out of five preprimary students in the national goal of developing a first-rate education country are now enrolled in private institutions, up system, the expansion of access to preschool aims from half in the 1970s. The growth in private pro- to provide all children with a solid foundation vision has been made possible by the country’s con- for learning from an early age. The United Arab ducive policy framework, which creates an enabling Emirates is well on track to reach the 95 percent environment for private education providers. Dubai, target. one of the country’s seven emirates, has led the way As of 2016, the country’s preprimary gross in expanding private education through a system enrollment ratio was at 82 percent. The United Arab of accountability and incentives at the preschool as Emirates is, therefore, among the top performers of well as the primary and secondary school levels. As MENA in terms of preschool enrollment and has of 2016–17, more than 94 percent of Dubai’s prepri- achieved a vast improvement from enrollment ratios mary students were enrolled in private institutions. of less than 30 percent in the 1970s and 60 percent Sources: Thacker and Cuadra 2014; United Arab Emirates, Prime Minister’s in the 1990s. Office n.d.; World Bank Edstats database. 1 3 6   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations (Center on the Developing Child 2009). in access to iodized salt, needed for healthy Inequality of opportunity exists where brain development, are high throughout unequal outcomes are caused by factors MENA, with the exception of West Bank beyond an individual’s control. and Gaza. Moreover, the greatest inequalities Inequalities in early childhood develop- are found in access to early childhood care ment, care, and education have short- and and education. long-term implications. When children reach Within overall low levels of ECE access in the start of primary school, they are already MENA, the most advantaged children are set on different trajectories. Some children much more likely than the least advantaged to will have all they need for success in school have access to early childhood care and edu- and in adult life. Others will start their school cation (El-Kogali and Krafft 2015). In many life at a disadvantage, which will have knock- cases, the least advantaged have almost no on effects throughout their schooling and access.3 For example, in West Bank and Gaza, beyond. Without intervention, the least the 2014 MICS finds that children 3 to 5 years advantaged children will gain less from pri- old from households in the wealthiest quintile mary school enrollment than the most advan- are almost twice as likely to attend an orga- taged children. nized ECE program as those from the poorest A recent study examines the extent of quintile; those whose mother is highly edu- inequality of opportunity in early childhood cated are almost twice as likely as those in MENA and finds substantial differences whose mother has only a basic education (see appearing at the very start of life (El-Kogali figure 5.4). Other countries in the region have and Krafft 2015). For example, there are even higher inequalities in access to early variations between the prenatal and skilled childhood education. For example, in Djibouti delivery care provided to the most and least and Egypt, a most advantaged child is six advantaged in the Arab Republic of Egypt, times more likely to attend ECE than a least Iraq, and Morocco. Stunting is found to be advantaged child (El-Kogali and Krafft 2015). much more common among the least (com- In Iraq, Libya, and Tunisia, most advantaged pared to the most) advantaged in Egypt, Iraq, children are 17 times more likely to attend Jordan, Morocco, the Syrian Arab Republic ECE than least advantaged children. (preconflict), West Bank and Gaza, and the Inequities may also exist in the quality of Republic of Yemen (preconflict). Inequalities ECE. The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2015 results find FIGURE 5.4  In West Bank and Gaza, opportunities for early that in MENA 15-year-olds who attended childhood education are more likely for those from advantaged ECE perform better in science than those backgrounds who did not attend. However, this analysis Percentage of 3- to 5-year-olds attending an organized early childhood education also finds that the difference in science scores program, by wealth quintile and by mother’s education level, 2014 is smaller for children from households with 50 lower socioeconomic status (Dorn et al. 2017). This raises questions about equity in 40 38 36 the quality of ECE provision. If the ECE 30 29 available to those from poorer households is 26 Percent 23 25 21 19 not as high quality as that available to those 20 from the wealthiest households, then this 10 result could be expected. Combined with the 0 finding that starting ECE too early (at age 2 2 3 4 or before) is negatively correlated with PISA st t sic ry er ies re da gh Ba scores, the analysis concludes that the MENA lth o n Hi Po co ea Se region should focus on ensuring the provision W Wealth quintile Mother’s education level of quality universal ECE for children ages Source: UNICEF Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (http://mics.unicef.org/). 4 to 5. E s t a b l i s h i n g a F o u n d a t i o n f o r L i f e l o n g L e a r n i n g    137 Early childhood interventions can throughout MENA. For example, countries combat inequality may need to allocate more public funding for early childhood education either by increas- Providing access to quality ECE for all chil- ing their public education budgets or reallo- dren and targeting interventions at the most cating resources from upper levels of disadvantaged and at-risk children from birth education (such as higher education) toward would give millions of children in the MENA the preprimary level. Constructing additional region opportunities to develop the cognitive ECE facilities—or refurbishing existing pri- and socioemotional skills to thrive, thereby mary schools to accommodate younger leveling the playing field. Box 5.3 provides an children—may be needed as well as provid- ­ example of combatting inequality through ing training (or retraining) for sufficient num- early childhood education in the United bers of early childhood educators. Finding States. innovative ways to partner with private edu- Accelerating the expansion of access to cation providers, while ensuring equitable high-quality preprimary education to reach access to children from all backgrounds, may all children may require a change in policies be worthwhile in contexts where expanding Box 5.3  Combatting inequality through ECE: An example from Boston The Boston public prekindergarten (pre-K) program relatively more, especially in the domains of numeracy in the state of Massachusetts (United States) illustrates and executive function (see figure B5.3.1). that children from a lower socioeconomic background To achieve a strong, positive impact on children’s benefit the most from high-quality center-based ECE. development, the quality of ECE service delivery is A quasi-experimental study analyzed the effect of one key. The success of the Boston public pre-K pro- year of free full-day pre-K on 4-year-old children. gram is mostly credited to (1) a strong system of While the results reveal significant positive impacts teacher recruitment and professional support and on the mathematics, literacy, and language skills of all (2) the use of a research-based curriculum. children, children from lower-income families benefit To promote pedagogical excellence, the Boston public pre-K program sets high educational require- ments for its teaching workforce. Pre-K teachers FIGURE B5.3.1  Low-income children benefit need to be state-certified and obtain a master’s relatively more than do middle- and high-income degree, the same standards that K to 12 teachers children from early childhood education must meet (Weiland 2016). Boston’s public pre-K Treatment effects of a Boston public prekindergarten program across selected domains, by children’s socioeconomic status, 2008/09 teachers are also paid on the same scale as K to 12 teachers. In addition, the pre-K staff benefit from 0.7 0.7 on-the-job coaching with biweekly visits from ECD 0.6 experts. Finally, classrooms are supported by para- 0.5 professionals, resulting in a maximum adult-to-child 0.5 ratio of 1:11. E ect size 0.4 0.3 0.3 Children’s cognitive development is ­ f urther sup- 0.3 ported through a research-based curriculum that 0.2 enhances early literacy and ­ numeracy skills. To 0.1 0.0 ensure that the curriculum is ­ implemented correctly, 0.0 0 the state has developed concrete guidance for teach- Numeracy Inhibitory Attention ers and provided p ­ ublic pre-K facilities with all control shifting necessary learning materials. ­ Low-income Middle- and high-income Source: Weiland and Yoshikawa 2013. Sources: Center on the Developing Child 2009; Weiland 2016; Weiland and Note: Effect sizes are expressed in standard deviations. Yoshikawa 2013. 1 3 8   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations access through the public sector alone proves preprimary education, which consists of two challenging. These policy changes require a years of kindergarten, to create a holistic concerted push by governments and other ECE cycle covering all children from ages 0 stakeholders to place early learning at the top to 8. The objective of the reform is to ease the of national strategic development agendas. transition of children from kindergarten into primary education and to strengthen the development of key cognitive and socioemo- Build strong foundational skills tional foundational skills. Similar efforts to in the early years align ECE with learning in the early grades Many children in the MENA region begin have been undertaken across various their formal education by not being develop- Organisation for Economic Co-operation mentally on track in terms of prereading and Development (OECD) countries, such as skills (see, for example, figure 5.1). It is, New Zealand and Finland (see box 5.4). therefore, vital that the early grades of school focus on building these important founda- After two or three years of schooling, tional skills, especially reading, in all chil- many students still cannot read dren. Basic reading, writing, numeracy, and socioemotional skills set the foundation for T h e U. S . A g e n c y for I nt e r n at ion a l learning throughout a child’s life and into Development (USAID) Early Grade Reading adulthood. Children need to have a good Assessments (EGRAs), several of which have grasp of these foundational skills in the early been conducted in countries of the MENA grades of school—without which, they are at region, provide information on the develop- risk of falling behind, becoming disengaged, ment of reading skills in the early grades of and not acquiring the increasingly more school.4 These surveys show that reading is advanced skills demanded by today’s fast- delayed for many children in the region. For changing labor markets. example, more than one in three grade 2 chil- dren in Iraq, Morocco, and the Republic of Yemen cannot read a single word of con- Ensure alignment between preprimary nected text (see figure 5.5). By grade 3, this education and the early grades of proportion drops, but still more than one in school six children cannot read a single word of con- Effective ECE programs can help children to nected text after more than two full years of arrive at school with the prerequisite skills to school. These results indicate that the initial be able to learn. However, entering primary grades of schooling are not as effective as school classrooms, where a different educa- they could be and that many students in the tional philosophy is practiced, can be a diffi- region start their early school life at a disad- cult transition for young children. Going from vantage, which is likely to affect their prog- play-based collaborative and child-­ centered ress th roug hout subsequent years of learning to traditional teacher-centered schooling. instruction could undermine the positive impacts of even the most successful ECE pro- Early screening and intervention can grams. Instead, an alignment of instructional boost foundational skills styles between preschool and primary grades is needed, with a focus on developmentally Breaking down the skills and competen- appropriate teaching and learning techniques cies, such as learning to read, into steps and for children in the early grades (OECD 2017). being clear about the standards that should Efforts are under way to align preprimary be achieved at each grade or level is impor- and primary grades in some MENA coun- tant in helping teachers to assess their stu- tries. For example, authorities in the United dents and take the necessary actions. While Arab Emirates are in the process of aligning new curricular reforms in the MENA region grades 1 and 2 of primary school with are beginning to focus on this level of detail, E s t a b l i s h i n g a F o u n d a t i o n f o r L i f e l o n g L e a r n i n g    139 Box 5.4  Unifying ECE curriculum in the national core curriculum of New Zealand and Finland New Zealand’s Te Whariki curriculum education is a part, and basic education New Zealand developed its ECE curriculum, form an entity that proceeds consistently in Te Whariki, for children from birth to school entry. terms of the child’s growth and learning. … The curriculum is based on four principles (strands): The goal is that each child’s learning path (1) well-being, (2) belonging, (3) contributions of from early childhood education and care to children, and (4) communications and explora- preprimary education and further on to tion. To ensure that the contents of one curriculum basic education is a f lexible continuum framework are age-appropriate, the contents were founded on the needs of the child. … The developed for each age group within ECE: infants transitions from home or early childhood (0 to 18 months), toddlers (1.5 to 3 years), and education and care attended by the child young c­ hildren (3 years to school entry age). before his/her start in preprimary education, The ECE curriculum also is linked to the primary and from preprimary education to school, school curriculum. To smooth the transition from are impor t ant pha ses for childre n . preschool to primary school, each strand of the ECE A successful transition promotes a sense of curriculum is linked to the learning areas and skills securit y and well-being in children and in the primary school curriculum. Conversely, the supports their prerequisites for growth and principles in the primary school curriculum are inte- learning. grated in Te Whariki. The revised core curriculum includes similar goals to ensure that ECE, preprimary school, and Finland’s Act on Basic Education primary school staff have common objectives for Finland’s Act on Basic Education aims to smooth the start of primary school and transitions between children’s path to school. With respect to ECE, the ­different settings. new core curricula for preprimary and basic (pri- In 2015, preprimary education for 6-year-olds mary) education include specific goals for transition became compulsory in Finland, and the curricu- between the two levels. lum for ECE underwent further changes. A revised The revised National Core Curriculum for version of the ECE curriculum was launched in Preprimary Education (2014) states: October 2016. I t i s i m p o r t a n t t ha t e a rl y c h i l d ho o d education and care, of which preprimary Sources: OECD 2012, 2017. a systematic review of research on teaching directly to reading and reproducing full texts and learning finds no national standards for (Boyle, Al Ajjawi, and Xiang 2014). reading (in Arabic) in Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, The good news is that early grade reading Morocco, or the Republic of Yemen (Boyle, interventions can make a substantial differ- Al Ajjawi, and Xiang 2014). A close examina- ence. A review of the evidence from 18 early tion of the curricula in Egypt and Jordan notes grade reading programs finds that almost all that they do not guide students on the vocabu- are effective and several are highly cost-­ lary differences between colloquial Arabic effective (Graham and Kelly 2018). Several and literary Arabic (Gove, Brombacher, countries in the region have made concerted and Ward-Brent 2017). Across the coun- efforts to address literacy in the early grades. tries studied, whole-word recognition (tariqa The most successful parts of Egypt’s early ­hijaiyah) is employed, whereas phonics (tariqa grade reading program include the following ­sawtiya) is frequently neglected. In addition, elements: model lessons focused on student- textbooks have few exercises in which stu- centered learning, classroom management, dents can manipulate letters and sounds to library use and management, and effective create words. Instead, the curriculum jumps supervision and coaching. These elements are 1 4 0   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations in addition to the core components of the pro- who consistently check their students’ under- gram, which include a review of phonics and standing (both through oral questioning and the introduction of new phonetic aspects, checking of written work) (USAID 2014a). In vocabulary development, and reading compre- Morocco, however, a lack of specialized hension (Gove, Brombacher, and Ward-Brent teacher training in reading instruction and 2017). In Jordan, the most successful schools assessment of students’ reading skills, com- implementing a reading intervention have bined with a lack of supplementary reading supervisors who visit frequently and teachers materials, leaves teachers ill-equipped to sup- port children’s reading development in the early grades (USAID 2014b). FIGURE 5.5  Many children in MENA cannot read a single word A recent study shows that early literacy after two or three years of schooling interventions can positively affect cognitive Percentage of grade 2 and grade 3 students who cannot read a single word of connected text and socioemotional development, even in fragile, violent, and conflict-affected parts 50 42 of the region. Two digital early literacy apps, 40 34 (1) Antura and the Letters and (2) Feed the 33 27 Monster, recently entered in the EduApp4Syria 30 Percent 22 22 competition, providing encouraging evi- 17 18 20 dence that smartphone learning games may 11 10 4 build basic Arabic literacy skills and improve 0 the psychosocial well-being of Syrian refugee children (Comings 2018). 1) 3) 2) 1) 4) 4) 01 01 01 01 01 01 A focused effort to build foundational skills . (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 p. q co za an ep Ira Re Ga oc rd for learning in England (see box 5.5) high- ,R Jo or b nd en ra M m ka t, A lights the importance of assessing and moni- Ye an yp tB toring students’ early skills acquisition to Eg es W Grade 2 Grade 3 identify weaknesses and progression so that teachers can determine the best strategies for Source: USAID Early Grade Reading Barometer (http://www.earlygradereadingbarometer.org/). Note: Data for the Arab Republic of Egypt and for West Bank and Gaza are available for their students, particularly those requiring one grade only. additional support. Box 5.5  Screening for literacy and numeracy development in England In 2012, England introduced a regular phonics screen- the Department for Education announced that some ing check of all 6-year-olds. This simple screening tool, schools started piloting a multiplication table check designed to ascertain if children are on track to become of their 8- to 9-year-old students. The test, which fluent readers, is credited with helping to improve read- is on-screen and takes 5 minutes, helps teachers to ing instruction and outcomes for children learning to monitor the progress of their students in remember- read. The Department for Education estimates that ing multiplication tables up to 12 × 12. Although the number of 6-year-olds on track to become fluent results will be published at the school level, the test readers increased by 154,000 between 2012 and 2018. is designed to give minimal stress to students and England’s increasing scores in grade 4 reading literacy teachers. The initiative aims to reduce the burden of between the 2011 and 2016 Progress in International testing on children and teachers and provide a more Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) assessments may accurate measure of student progress. The initiative reflect this close individual monitoring of early grade was planned to roll out in June 2019 and be manda- reading development over that time period. tory in June 2020. Attention is now turning to numeracy and, in particular, multiplication tables. In February 2018, Source: Department for Education and the Rt Hon Nick Gibb MP 2018. E s t a b l i s h i n g a F o u n d a t i o n f o r L i f e l o n g L e a r n i n g    141 To improve readiness to learn in the early 15: Data for Education Programming in Asia years, education policies in MENA should and Middle East, U.S. Agency for International focus on aligning preprimary schooling with Development, Washington, DC. primary grades to achieve a smoother transi- Britto, Pia Rebello, K imberly Boller, and Hirokazu Yoshikawa. 2011. “Quality of Early tion for young children. Piloting early child- Childhood Development Programs in Global hood and early grade interventions to identify C o nt e x t s : R at io n a l e fo r I nve s t m e nt , which ones successfully boost children’s Conceptual Framework, and Implications for foundational skills is an effective strategy to Equity.” Social Policy Report 25 (2): 1–31. maximize the use of scarce resources. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED519240. Measuring ECD outcomes through early Center on the Developing Child. 2009. “Five grade literacy and numeracy assessments can Numbers to Remember about Early Childhood shed further light on the key drivers of early Development.” Center on the Developing learning and monitor whether children are Child, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA. able to build the key foundational skills from https://developingchild.harvard.edu/resources​ a young age. Improving learning in the early /five-nu mbers-to -remember-about- early​ -childhood-development/. years can provide a critical push to propel Comings, John P. 2018. “Assessing the Impact of subsequent learning. Literacy Learning Games for Syrian Refugee Children: An Executive Overview of Antura and the Letters and Feed the Monster Impact Notes Evaluations.” World Vision, Washington, DC; 1. World Bank EdStats database. Foundation for Information Technology 2. According to the MICS, a child is considered Education and Development, Quezon City, developmentally on track if he or she can do Philippines. at least two of the following: identify or Department for Education and the Rt Hon Nick name at least 10 letters of the alphabet; read Gibb MP. 2018. “Multiplication Tables Check at least four simple, popular words; name Trials to Begin in Schools.” Department for and recognize the symbols of all numbers Education, London, February 14. https://www​ from 1 to 10. .gov.uk​/government/news/multiplication-tables​ 3. Following El-Kogali and Krafft (2015), this -check​-trials​-to-begin-in-schools. analysis defines a “most advantaged” child as Dorn, Emma, Marc Krawitz, Chadi Moujaes, “a child who has parents with secondary or Mona Mourshed, Stephen Hall, and Dirk higher education and is from the richest Schmautzer. 2017. “Drivers of Student 20 percent of households,” while a “least Performance: Insights from the Middle East and advantaged” child is “a child who lives in the North Africa.” McKinsey and Company, New poorest 20 percent of households and with York. https://www.mckinsey.com/industries​ uneducated parents.” /social-sector/our-insights/drivers-of-student​ 4. USAID Early Grade Reading Barometer. -performance-insights-from-the-middle-east​ -and-north-africa. Elango, Sneha, Jorge Luis Garcia, James Heckman, and Andrés Hojman. 2015. “Early References Childhood Education.” NBER Working Paper Berlinski, Samuel, Sebastian Galiani, and Paul 21766 , Nat iona l Bu reau of E conom ic Gertler. 2009. “The Effect of Pre-Primary Research, Cambridge, MA. http://www.nber​ Education on Primary School Performance.” .org/papers/w21766. Journal of Public Economics 93 (1–2): El-Kogali, Safaa, and Caroline Krafft. 2015. 219–34. Expanding Opportunities for the Next Berlinski, Samuel, and Norbert Schady, eds. 2015. Generation. Washington, DC: World Bank. The Early Years: Child Well-Being and the Glew we, Paul. 2013. Education Policy in Role of Public Policy. Washington, DC: Inter- Developing Countries. Chicago: University of American Development Bank. Chicago Press. Boyle, Helen N., Samah Al Ajjawi, and Yuanyuan Gove, Amber, Aarnout Brombacher, and Michelle Xiang. 2014. “Topical Analysis of Early Grade Ward-Brent. 2017. “Sparking a Reading Reading Instruction.” EdData II: Task Order Revolut ion: Resu lt s of E a rly L iterac y 1 4 2   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations Interventions in Egypt and Jordan.” New /en/national-agenda-2021/list/card/enrollment​ Directions for Child Adolescent Development -rate-in-preschools-(public-and-private). 155 (Spring): 97–115. Un it e d Nat ion s . No d at e . “ S u s t a i n able Graham, Jimmy, and Sean Kelly. 2018. “How Development Goal 4.” Sustainable Development Ef fec tive A re E a rly Grade Read ing G o a l s K n ow l e d g e P l a t f o r m . h t t p s : // Interventions? A Review of the Evidence.” sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg4. Policy Research Working Paper 8292, World U S A I D ( U . S . A g e n c y for I nt e r n at ion a l Bank, Washington, DC. http://documents​ Development). 2014a. “Education Data for .w o r l d b a n k . o r g / c u r a t e d / e n / 2 8 9 3 41 5​ Decision Making (EdData II): National Early 14995676575/How-effective-are ​ - early-grade​ Grade Literacy and Numeracy Survey— -​reading-interventions-a-review-of-the-evidence. Jordan.” Intervention Impact Analysis Report, Heckman, James J. 2006. “Skill Formation and USAID, Washington, DC . http://pdf.usaid.gov​ the Economics of Investing in Disadvantaged /pdf_docs/PA00KH3M.pdf. Children.” Science 312: 1900–02. —— —. 2014b. “Research on Reading in Morocco: Leseman, Paul. 2002. “Early Childhood Education Analysis of Initial Teacher Training.” Final and Care for Children from Low-Income or Report: Component 2, USAID, Washington, DC. Minority Backgrounds.” A paper for discussion ———. Various years. Early Grade Reading at the OECD Oslo Workshop, June 6–7. Barometer. Washington, DC: USAID. http:// Nikaein, Samira, and Lindsay Sarah Adams. 2017. www.earlygradereadingbarometer.org/. “Early Childhood Development in Qatar: Status Weiland, Christina. 2016. “Launching Preschool and Opportunities for the Future.” Working 2.0: A Road Map to High-Quality Public paper, World Bank, Washington, DC. Programs at Scale.” Behavioral Science and OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-​ operation Policy 2 (1): 37–46. and Development). 2012. Starting Strong III: Weiland, Christina, and Hirokazu Yoshikawa. A Quality Toolbox for Early Childhood 2013. “Impacts of a Prekindergarten Program Education and Care. Paris: OECD. http:// on Children’s Mathematics, Language, dx.doi.org/10.1787/97892​64123564-en. Executive Function, and Emotional Skills.” ———. 2017. Starting Strong V: Transitions from Child Development 84 (6): 2112–30. Early Childhood Education and Care to World Bank. 2013. “Yemen Early Childhood Primary Education. Paris: OECD. http:// Development: SABER Country Report 2013.” dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264276253-en. Systems Approach for Better Education Results Schweinhart, Lawrence J., Jeanne Montie, (SABER) Country Report, World Bank, Zongping Xiang, W. Steven Bernett, Clive R. Washington, DC. https://openknowledge​ Belfield, and Milagros Nores. 2005. Lifetime .worldbank.org/handle/10986/20151. Effects: The High/Scope Perry Preschool ———. 2014. “Iraq Early Childhood Development: Study through Age 40. Ypsilanti, MI: High/ SABER Country Report 2014.” Systems Scope Press. Approach for Better Education Results Shonkoff, Jack P., and Andrew S. Garner. 2012. (SABER) Country Report, World Bank, “The Lifelong Effects of Early Childhood Washington, DC. https://openknowledge​ Adversity and Toxic Stress.” Pediatrics 129 .worldbank.org/handle/10986/29522. (1): 232–46. ——— . 2015. “Tu n isia E a rly C h i ld hood Thacker, Simon, and Ernesto Cuadra. 2014. The Development: SABER Country Report 2015.” Road Traveled: Dubai’s Journey towards Systems Approach for Better Education Results Improving Private Education—A World Bank (SABER) Country Report, World Bank, R e v i e w. M E NA Development Repor t. Washington, DC. http://documents.worldbank​ Washington, DC: World Bank. https:// .org/curated/en/986461492508159495/Rapport​ op en k nowle d ge .worldba n k .or g / h a nd le​ -du-pays-de-d%C3%A9veloppement-de-la​ /​10986/23963. -petite-enfance-SABER-Tunisie-2015. UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund). ———. 2018. World Development Report 2018: Various years. Multiple Indicator Cluster Learning to Realize Education’s Promise. Surveys (MICS). New York: UNICEF. http:// Washington, DC: World Bank. mics.unicef.org/. — ——. Various years. World Bank Education United Arab Emirates, Prime Minister’s Office. Statistics (EdStats) database. Washington, DC: No date. Vision 2021. Abu Dhabi: Prime World Bank. http://datatopics.worldbank.org​ Minister’s Office. https://www.vision2021.ae​ /education/. Ensuring Inclusive and Equitable Learning 6 Laura Gregory and May Bend U nequal opportunities to learn and through targeted resources and interven- progress in school have effects at both tions, particularly for the most vulnerable the individual and national levels.1 At populations, can help to reduce the inequali- the individual level, access to education is a ties found in the region. Raising the learning basic human right recognized in the Universal outcomes of all children will require system- Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and the atic monitoring of the gap between top and United Nations Convention on the Rights of bottom performers and innovative solutions the Child (1989). With education, individuals to improve learning experiences for all can improve their length of life, earnings, children. health, and prospects. At the national level, inequalities in learning lower the average level of human capital, thereby affecting eco- Remove barriers to access nomic growth (Klasen 2002). A quality edu- While impressive efforts have been made cation for all is a sound and strategic across the Middle East and North Africa government investment decision because it (MENA) to provide educational opportuni- contributes to economic prosperity, poverty ties, millions of children are still out of reduction, and social inclusion. Without the school—around 14 million in 2017. This skills that education develops, governments number includes around 2.9 million chil- bear greater social and economic costs in dren of primary-school age, 3.1 million of relation to health, welfare, and social security lower-secondary-school age, and 7.6 million (OECD 2018). of upper-secondary-school age. 2 In the Ensuring universal access to high-quality MENA region, barriers to access can include early childhood education is a clear way to unequal distribution of education resources level the playing field, as shown in chapter 5. and high out-of-pocket costs. In addition, Removing barriers that prevent children where children are living in violent contexts from completing a full course of primary ridden with conflict, these fragile conditions and secondary schooling is also paramount, pose a barrier to education, negatively because well-being and earnings rise with affecting learning, along with the develop- educational attainment. Recognizing dispar- ment of cognitive and socioemotional skills ities where they exist and addressing them (see chapter 3). 143 1 4 4   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations Focus more resources on children from have well-educated parents or to benefit from the poorest households because they preprimary education (both important posi- are the most likely to be excluded tive predictors of school enrollment). Large enrollment gaps exist in MENA, par- Although child marriage has declined over ticularly between the richest and the poorest time, it continues to be one of the most prom- children (see figure 6.1). For example, in inent barriers to schooling (Nguyen and Morocco, more than half of all children of Wodon 2015). The earlier a girl marries, the primary-school age in the poorest quintile of more likely she is to drop out of school, households are out of school compared with resulting in lower levels of educational attain- 6 percent of children in the richest quintile. ment. For example, in the Arab Republic of Gaps in the rates of out-of-school children also Egypt, 28 percent of dropouts from second- occur by gender and location (urban vs. rural). ary and vocational education and training Poverty is an important factor in equality are reportedly due to child marriage (Wodon, of access because it affects exclusion in both Nguyen, et al. 2017). Legal protections direct and indirect ways (UIS and UNICEF against child marriage tend to be weaker in 2014). Direct effects of poverty limit chil- MENA, where 73 percent of girls who are dren’s access to education through financial married between the ages of 10 and 17 are constraints facing their families, which leave not legally safeguarded (Wodon, Tavares, them unable to afford school fees or other et al. 2017). Potential policies to protect girls education-related expenses. But poverty’s from child marriage include (1) establish a indirect effects are equally important. legal marriage age, (2) require parental con- Children from poor families tend to live in sent, and (3) require judicial consent. rural or remote areas, where school infra- However, the enforcement of these regula- structure is often scarce; they are more likely tions continues to be a challenge in rural and than their more advantaged peers to be isolated areas, where the practice is most affected by child labor or child marriage widely spread, depriving these girls of an edu- (both important causes of dropout in their cation and the opportunity to reach their full own right); and they are also less likely to potential. FIGURE 6.1  In MENA, household wealth disparities translate into large enrollment gaps Percentage of children of primary school age who are not in school 60 55 49 50 45 42 40 Percent 30 26 20 16 16 11 11 9 10 6 4 1 2 2 3 0 co q . ic sia p. an za ep Ira bl Re Ga oc rd ni ,R pu Tu Jo or b d en Re ra an M m t, A b k Ye a an yp Ar tB Eg n ria es W Sy Richest quintile Poorest quintile Source: WID.World World Inequality Database on Education (https://wid.world/). Note: Data are for the following years: Arab Republic of Egypt (2014); Iraq (2011); Jordan (2012); Morocco (2003); Syrian Arab Republic (2006); Tunisia (2011); West Bank and Gaza (2014); Republic of Yemen (2006). E n s u r i n g I n c l u s i v e a n d E q u i t a b l e L e a r n i n g    145 Reduce or offset out-of-pocket inequalities in educational access with regard education expenses because they to income appear to be relatively small, but reinforce inequality of opportunity household expenditure on education varies Private spending on education is substantial enormously (the richest households spend in the MENA region and tends to be regres- more than 80 times more on education than sive. Poorer households typically spend a the poorest households—approximately larger share of their income on education- US$800 versus US$10 per year, respectively) related expenses than wealthier households. (World Bank 2007). In Djibouti, parents Based on available data covering six MENA spend up to 12 percent of their monthly countries from 2002 to 2015, World Bank income on school fees and other education- estimates suggest that private spending on related costs (World Bank 2006). education in MENA is substantially above In countries for which participation in the average for Organisation for Economic basic education requires out-of-pocket expen- Co-operation and Development (OECD) ditures (whether direct or indirect), children countries (discussed in more detail in from households that can afford to make the ­chapter  11). 3 Not surprisingly, household necessary payments often enjoy a greater spending on education is large in countries degree of access and opportunity. In con- where government expenditure on education trast, children whose families cannot afford as a share of gross domestic product (GDP) is to pay for school—either through formal below international benchmarks. In addition, school fees or through informal payments for public spending that is geared toward richer expenses such as materials, uniforms, and households can exacerbate inequality of transportation—can be shut out from enjoy- ­ opportunity. ing the full benefits of schooling. This is of Moreover, public spending on education particular concern in countries in which pub- can be regressive in some countries where lic schools either do not reach all of the popu- children from wealthier households are more lation or provide an inferior education to likely to enroll in (public) school than chil- what students receive in schools with paid dren from poorer households. For example, attendance. in Djibouti, public expenditure per child MENA governments can remove barriers enrolled in primary education is 1.5 times to education access by focusing more higher for the richest income quartile than resources on children from the poorest house- for the poorest. At the secondary level, the holds, who are the most likely to be excluded. disparity factor increases to 11 (World Bank One effective means of removing barriers 2006). In education systems where fewer is through conditional cash transfer (CCT) children from poorer households are able to programs. CCTs target resources to disad- access public education, public spending vantaged groups and have proven to be tends to benefit wealthier households dispro- an effective means of preventing dropout portionately. The poor-rich disparity in ben- in countries around the world. Bolsa Família efiting from government expenditure on in Brazil and Oportunidades in Mexico are education is usually greatest at the tertiary two of the longest-running and most widely education level, which few students from dis- researched CCT programs in the world. Both advantaged backgrounds reach in many show positive impacts on the education tra- countries. This situation can further exacer- jectories of participants. bate inequality of opportunity (Krafft and While well-designed and carefully imple- Alawode 2018; UIS et al. 2018). mented CCTs often prove to be an effective High levels of private spending in low- and policy response to offset the economic barri- middle-income countries raise serious con- ers to education, they are relatively uncom- cerns about the regressive nature of private mon in the MENA region. Morocco’s Tayssir pay ment s. I n West B a n k a nd G a za, program is one of the few examples from the 1 4 6   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations region, and it has been proven to raise school with those from low-ESCS households. attendance (Benhassine et al. 2015). This Fig u re 6. 2 shows Prog ram me for program, which began in 2009, conditions International Student Assessment (PISA) financial support for the most vulnerable scores for students from the top quarter of households on school enrollment of primary- ESCS households in each country compared school-age children. The Government of with those in the bottom quarter. Based on Morocco has expanded the program, and it these data, Lebanon has the greatest gap in now reaches almost 700,000 students (see socioeconomic performance, equal to a dif- World Bank n.d.). ference of more than two full years of schooling. Recognize and address learning gaps by supporting the lowest- Focus more resources on the bottom performing students and schools performers to reduce achievement gaps Inequality exists not only in access to educa- While average levels of student performance tion but also in its quality, leading to substan- on international assessments in key subjects tial learning gaps between students of have been low, student performance varies different socioeconomic levels and exacerbat- widely within each country. In fact, MENA ing intergenerational inequities. As is often countries have some of the widest disparities seen in countries across the world, academic in student performance on international performance is positively correlated with the assessments. In many high-income countries, economic, social, and cultural status (ESCS) such as Canada, Estonia, Finland, and Japan, of the student’s household. This can result in high levels of academic performance exist substantial disparities in performance for stu- alongside low levels of academic inequality; dents from high-ESCS households compared in these countries, the link between test FIGURE 6.2  In MENA, socioeconomic differences translate into persistent learning gaps Average score of 15-year-old students on the PISA science literacy scale, by national quarters of the PISA index of economic, social, and cultural status (ESCS), 2015 500 460 450 442 436 428 418 Average score 401 400 392 381 375 369 366 356 350 300 Algeria Tunisia Lebanon Qatar Jordan United Arab Emirates Bottom quarter Top quarter Source: OECD 2016. Note: PISA = Programme for International Student Assessment. E n s u r i n g I n c l u s i v e a n d E q u i t a b l e L e a r n i n g    147 scores and socioeconomic status is generally Gaps in performance are narrowing in weak. In contrast, MENA countries exhibit some countries and increasing in others some of the widest disparities in student per- The inequality map is changing within formance on international assessments (see MENA: some countries are closing the figure 6.3). All nine of the MENA countries achievement gap between their best and poor- that participated in the 2015 grade 4 Trends est performers, while the gap in others appears in International Mathematics and Science to be widening. Table 6.1 shows the MENA Study (TIMSS) mathematics assessment were countries that participated in the grade 8 among the 13 countries with the widest gaps TIMSS 2015 assessment ordered by the between the top and bottom quarters of per- amount of increase in their average scores formance. Improving performance among from 2011 to 2015 in mathematics and those at the bottom would provide the most science. In Bahrain, the Islamic Republic of ­ rapid improvement in overall levels of I ra n , Moro c c o , O m a n , a nd Q at a r, learning. FIGURE 6.3  MENA has the biggest gaps in student achievement between top and bottom performers Difference in scale score between the 75th and 25th percentiles of grade 4 mathematics achievement, TIMSS 2015 500 653 613 596 450 582 575 576 600 569 562 Di erence in score between 75th and 25th percentiles 540 565 527 400 512 506 504 496 499 500 517 465 350 492 492 485 446 445 462 462 426 438 450 300 400 TIMSS scale score 393 372 367 356 377 250 338 321 320 300 311 200 281 161 145 145 150 150 126 134 134 137 140 200 125 111 113 119 96 100 102 100 88 90 77 100 50 0 0 s . Fe and Ca n s da ite nce Au es Ba a iA n a Ira Mo r am co p. an n te b E ait Em es s ep ta Ko and te ali bi tio i da te Re Sa hra at c Om na , U d Ar Kuw t Qa ira R ra ro Ar mira ira str Un ra l r ra St ian Fin Jo l a, ic er Em F de re d th ud ab Ne ab Isl a Ar n, ss d d te ha nite Ru ni ni i, U uD U bi ba Du Ab 75th percentile 25th percentile TIMSS scale center point Source: Mullis et al. 2016. Note: Includes all participating MENA countries (blue) and a selection of other countries. The diamonds represent the 75th percentile scores, and the circles represent the 25th percentile scores in the selected comparison countries. The blue horizontal line represents the TIMSS scale center point, which is the mean of the overall achievement distribution in 1995 (kept constant over the years). TIMSS = Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study. 1 4 8   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations TABLE 6.1  MENA’s student achievement gaps have both narrowed and widened Change in grade 8 TIMSS average achievement, 10th and 90th percentiles, 2011 and 2015 Average score Change in Country 2011 2015 Average score 10th percentile 90th percentile Mathematics Bahrain 409 454 45 72 19 Oman 366 403 37 54 22 Qatar 410 437 27 40 20 Iran, Islamic Rep. 415 436 21 20 23 Morocco 371 384 13 20 8 United Arab Emirates 456 465 9 −4 23 Lebanon 449 442 −7 −7 −7 Jordan 406 386 −20 −8 −22 Saudi Arabia 394 368 −26 −13 −35 Science Qatar 419 457 38 52 19 Oman 420 455 35 54 19 Morocco 376 393 17 18 16 Bahrain 452 466 14 12 18 United Arab Emirates 465 477 12 −3 22 Lebanon 406 398 −8 −13 −2 Iran, Islamic Rep. 474 456 −18 −16 −19 Jordan 449 426 −23 −15 −21 Saudi Arabia 436 396 −40 −59 −20 Source: Mullis et al. 2016, 72. Note: TIMSS = Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study. mathematics scores increased at both ends of occur across geographic locations and are the distribution—the low performers at the often linked to socioeconomic circumstances. 10th percentile and the top performers at the Students from urban areas tend to be signifi- 90th percentile. For mathematics, Bahrain, cantly more advantaged in countries such as Oman, and Qatar made substantial advances Morocco and Saudi Arabia.4 There is less of a among the lowest-scoring students; for sci- difference in countries such as Lebanon and ence, this improvement occurred in Oman and Oman. Differences in urban and rural learn- Qatar. The United Arab Emirates is a notable ing outcomes are common in MENA, but case in this regard, with gains at the top of the whether it is urban or rural students who tend spectrum and declines at the bottom, meaning to have higher achievement differs by country. that the top students are performing better, Accordingly, for MENA countries to tackle but the lowest performers are faring worse. inequalities in educational achievement, each country needs to have a geographic lens for targeting resources to the specific urban or Target resources to in-need geographic rural areas that are falling behind. regions Geography plays a role in learning opportuni- ties across MENA. While some countries pro- Improve the quality of boys’ vide better education services in urban areas, education and address MENA’s this is not always the case and depends on the gender paradox local context. Inequalities in education provi- With regard to gender equality, MENA has a sion lead to varying learning outcomes that unique paradox. Gender parity in access to E n s u r i n g I n c l u s i v e a n d E q u i t a b l e L e a r n i n g    149 education has been achieved in most coun- FIGURE 6.4  Gender gaps in MENA start early tries. However, in some countries, access to Difference (girls – boys) in oral reading fluency (percentage unable to read a single word of connected text), EGRA grade 2 secondary school for girls still needs to improve. However, MENA’s gender paradox Liberia (2013) 10 lies in the advantage of females in learning Jigawa, Nigeria (2014) 6 outcomes and their disadvantage in labor Madang, Papua New Guinea (2011) 6 market participation. MENA has some of the Nepal (2014) 4 largest learning gaps in favor of girls, yet the lowest female labor force participation rates Malawi (2012) 2 in the world. That is, while the push to learn Zambia (2015) 1 exists, there is no corresponding pull from Mali (2015) –2 the labor market. This amounts to a loss of Ghana (2013) –2 talent or missed opportunity across the Uganda (2015) –4 region—for men, due to their under- Tanzania (2013) –6 performance in learning, and for women, due ­ Iraq (2012) –6 to their inability to reap economic benefits Cebuano, Philippines (2015) –6 from the human capital investments they Morocco (2011) –7 have accrued. Yemen, Rep. (2011) –7 Jordan (2012) –8 Gender gaps in learning appear early Jordan (2014) –9 and persist throughout the educational Vanuatu (2010) –10 levels West Bank (2014) –10 Gender gaps in learning manifest early. By –15 –10 –5 0 5 10 15 grade 2, girls outperform boys in MENA Percentage point di erence (girls – boys) countries in reading (see figure 6.4). The Source: USAID Early Grade Reading Barometer (https://earlygradereadingbarometer.org/). Early Grade Reading Assessments (EGRA) in Note: EGRA = Early Grade Reading Assessment. West Bank, for example, show that the differ- ence between girls and boys in the percentage FIGURE 6.5  MENA has the largest gender gaps in test scores who cannot read a single word of connected Score point difference in science (girls – boys), countries with the highest score point text is 10 percentage points—27 percent of difference, TIMSS grade 4, 2015 boys cannot read a single word compared 90 with 17 percent of girls. Across all countries 79 80 taking the EGRA (in 2010–15), the gap is the most pronounced for MENA countries. 70 Score point di erence 60 MENA has the largest gender disparities 50 39 in student achievement, with boys 40 32 30 consistently scoring lower than girls 30 24 Not only are learning outcomes in MENA 20 14 12 11 10 strikingly low, they are also among the most 10 8 8 5 gender unequal in the world. Figure 6.5 0 shows the countries in the 2015 TIMSS a in an it Em r s am d p. co ia za n n ab ata te bi e sta n wa ar Re ra oc Om ed a ira ra grade 4 science assessment with the highest lg l h Q kh Ku Fin or ic iA Sw Ba Bu M ud Ka point differences in favor of girls. The MENA Isl Sa Ar n, Ira d region has 8 out of the 10 countries with the ite Un largest gaps, with Saudi Arabian girls outper- Source: Martin et al. 2016. forming boys by almost a standard deviation Note: The difference between girls and boys in the Islamic Republic of Iran is not statistically in test scores. Given that learning outcomes significant. TIMSS = Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study. 1 5 0   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations for all MENA students are low, the pervasive (Martin et al. 2016; Mullis et al. 2016). gender gap amounts to a learning crisis for Likewise, at age 15, large gender differences in boys in the region. In short, the underperfor- favor of girls were found in all MENA coun- mance of MENA’s boys, a phenomenon on a tries that participated in the PISA 2015 read- scale not seen elsewhere in the world, requires ing assessment and in most MENA countries a push for education systems to address the in science and mathematics (OECD 2016). quality of boys’ education. Jordan, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates had some of the biggest gender gaps, equiva- lent to girls having approximately one addi- Education systems in the MENA region tional year of schooling in science and two need to meet the learning needs of boys additional years in reading. The early manifestation of gender gaps in The message from these assessments of foundational skills such as literacy and student achievement could not be clearer. numeracy points to the need to address the Education systems in the MENA region are specific learning needs of boys in the early not meeting the learning needs of boys. The grades. Indeed, interventions that are not tar- inefficiencies and costs associated with this geted to boys and to students in need of addi- loss of learning are substantial, spanning tional support may exacerbate the gender gap from economic to social. The results of stu- (see box 6.1). dent assessments clearly indicate that systems The gender gap in learning lingers on are currently not working for boys. Further through primary and into secondary school. examining the reasons for poor learning At grade 4 and grade 8, most countries partici- among boys and identifying policies to pating in the TIMSS 2015 with gender gaps in address them could be a helpful first step favor of girls were from the MENA region (see, for example, Ridge 2014). Box 6.1  Early grade literacy and numeracy interventions in Jordan have had different impacts on girls and boys Early grade literacy and numeracy interventions The intervention was successful for girls—girls need to be gender targeted, specifically in single- made significant gains on all EGRA and EGMA sex school environments. The 2014 U.S. Agency subtasks. However, boys did not benefit from the for International Development (USAID) report intervention; in fact, there were no significant gains on the Jordan National Early Grade Literacy and on any of the EGRA or EGMA subtasks. Numeracy Survey found that boys did not ben- Students in all-girl schools performed better efit from an early grade reading intervention to the than students in mixed schools, who in turn per- extent that girls benefited (USAID 2014). formed better than students in all-boy schools (all Jordan’s 2012 Early Grade Reading Assessment differences were statistically significant). In MENA (EGRA) and Early Grade Mathematics Assessment countries, where single-sex schools are common and (EGMA) found that children in the early grades were where gender gaps in favor of girls are pronounced, not reading with comprehension or understanding it will be important to increase learning levels by mathematics as expected. A one-year pilot interven- paying attention to gender-specific elements of tion was conducted, in which teachers spent the first teaching and learning. 15 minutes of each reading and mathematics class revisiting and reinforcing foundational skills. Source: USAID 2014. E n s u r i n g I n c l u s i v e a n d E q u i t a b l e L e a r n i n g    151 MENA’s gender paradox undermines to increase access to learning opportunities. human capital development For example, the innovative Ishraq program in Egypt, targeted at girls who have dropped The large gender gap in learning has impor- out of school, has improved girls’ literacy tant implications for females, particularly skills and self-confidence and led to greater in the labor market, where women are mobility and participation of girls in the local underrepresented. Female labor force par- community. Launched in 2001, Ishraq is a ticipation in the MENA region is the lowest multidimensional program for girls ages 12 in the world (World Bank 2017). On aver- to 15 that combines literacy, life skills, and age across all M ENA countries, only nutrition with sports and financial education. 20 percent of women ages 15 or older par- Classes are held at youth centers and focus ticipate in the labor force (see figure 6.6). on mobilizing communities around issues The percentage point difference in labor important for girls through partnerships. The force participation for men and women ages program has directly reached 3,321 girls and 15 or older is most pronounced in Algeria, 1,775 boys in 54 villages, as well as more than Iraq, Jordan, Saudi A rabia, and West 5,000 parents and community leaders across Bank and Gaza. In short, there is not a suf- five of the most disadvantaged governorates in ficient pull for women to enter MENA’s Upper Egypt (Selim et al. 2013). workforce. This paradox—whereby girls outperform boys in learning from the early years all the way to adulthood but women are not equally Increase resources for special represented in the labor ­ m arket—reflects needs to reduce inequality substantial underutilization of human Across the world, more attention is being paid capital. to the education of children with physical dis- An important means of combating MENA’s abilities, learning difficulties, and other special gender paradox is to use targeted interventions educational needs. While policies vary by the FIGURE 6.6  Female labor force participation is low in MENA Labor force participation rates for men and women ages 15 and older, 2016 (ILO modeled estimates) 100 90 80 70 60 Percent 50 40 30 20 10 0 r it s in ti an ya co . sia n p. ia za ria q an ep ta te no Ira wa ou ab Re ra Ga Lib oc Om rd ge ni Qa ira ,R h ba ib Ar Ku Tu Jo or b Al Ba nd en Em Dj ra Le M i ud m ka t, A ab Ye Sa an yp Ar tB Eg d ite es W Un Men Women Source: World Bank 2017. Note: ILO = International Labour Organization. 1 5 2   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations education setting—including special schools, funding, and (4) negative attitudes toward special classes in integrated schools, or inclu- disability and special education (Alkhateeb sive classrooms—there is broad agreement and Hadidi 2015). that inclusive classrooms, where children learn Although several MENA countries (for alongside their peers, are desirable (UNESCO example, Jordan, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi 2001). In addition, there is a better under- Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates) have standing across the world of how children developed regulations and policies to create learn and the appropriate developmental mile- barrier-free accessible environments for stu- stones. Learning difficulties are being picked dents with disabilities, physical inaccessibil- up at earlier stages. Promising efforts are tak- ity and inadequate school facilities remain a ing place internationally to recognize the challenge. There is also a serious shortage needs of these students and to personalize of support personnel such as school psy- their schooling experiences so that their needs chologists, sign-language interpreters, are met (Deng and Harris 2008). speech and language pathologists, and Some MENA countries have established physical and occupational t herapists policies to protect the rights of children and (Alkhateeb and Hadidi 2015). Similarly, youths with disabilities, including the right to training programs for special education receive appropriate education. For example, teachers lack adequate standards and prac- Tunisia adopted measures to integrate chil- tical activities in the classroom. Curricula dren with minor disabilities into regular for special education programs are almost schools, and both Jordan and Tunisia declared nonexistent in most M ENA countries their commitment to providing educational (Alkhateeb and Hadidi 2015). These factors services for children with special needs, pose a challenge to the implementation of among others (Save the Children 2008). inclusive models in countries of the MENA However, negative attitudes toward disability region and ultimately to the integration of and special education exist in MENA, and students with special needs in the main- awareness needs to be increased (see box 6.2). stream education system. Although estimates suggest that nearly Major sources of special education 53 million persons with disabilities live in funding in MENA countries include govern- ­ MENA, most countries of the region still ments, international development agencies, have a limited supply of special education parents, and NGOs (Alkhateeb and Hadidi services. Reasons may include (1) inadequate ­ 2015). Existing public special education insti- facilities, (2) unqualified teacher workforce tutions and programs face financial con- and inappropriate curricula, (3) lack of straints that prevent them from investing in Box 6.2  Negative attitudes toward disability and special education exist in MENA Abuse and mistreatment of disabled people, particu- Negative attitudes toward persons with disabilities larly girls and women, still occur in some countries and special education hamper efforts by govern- of the region. In fact, women and girls with dis- ments, the private sector, and nongovernmental abilities are more likely to suffer gender violence and organizations (NGOs) to expand inclusive education abuse at home. Furthermore, studies conducted in services so that special needs children and youths MENA countries have shown a lack of awareness of can enjoy fulfilling lives and develop successfully in disability issues and the rights of students with spe- society. cial needs among schoolteachers, senior-level admin- istrators, the public, and health care providers. Source: Al Thani 2007. E n s u r i n g I n c l u s i v e a n d E q u i t a b l e L e a r n i n g    153 facility improvement, capacity strengthening targeted interventions aimed at ensuring that of special education teachers, and tailored students stay in school and develop skills they curriculum development. Similarly, most pri- will need for the rest of their lives. vate special education schools and centers in MENA countries also deal with fund-raising difficulties. In both rich and poor MENA Notes countries, lack of funding for public and pri- vate institutions and initiatives reflects the 1. Inequality of opportunity exists where lack of awareness in the region about the unequal outcomes are caused by factors beyond an individual’s control. importance of inclusive education and high- 2. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and quality education services for students with Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Institute special needs. for Statistics (UIS) data retrieved from the Increasing retention through targeted pro- World Bank EdStats database. grams can help students with learning chal- 3. Limited data are available on household lenges to stay in school. Morocco’s Urgency spending for education in MENA countries, program, implemented between 2009 and and what little are available tend to be out of 2012, expanded support units in schools to date. This information should not be consid- identify children and youths who are at risk of ered comprehensive. dropping out and provided pedagogical sup- 4. UIS World Inequality Database on Education. port to enhance their chances of remaining in school. These units included the head teacher, teachers, local associations, and parents. References These support units exist in more than 1,000 Alkhateeb, Jamal, and Muna Hadidi. 2015. schools and provide support for 38,000 “Special Education in Arab Countries: Current st udents and remedial lessons for ­ Challenges.” Inte r n ation al Jour n al of 450,000 ­ students. Targeted programs can Disability Development and Education 62 (5): also help students at risk of dropping out to 518–30. stay in school. Tunisia has established Al Thani, Hissa. 2007. “Disability in the Arab national programs to prevent early school Region: Current Situation and Prospects.” leaving in primary and lower secondary, Journal of Adult Education and Development including the Social Action Program (UIS and 68: n.p. UNICEF 2014). This initiative tasked social Benhassine, Najy, Florencia Devoto, Esther D u f lo , Pa s c a l i n e D up a s , a n d V i c t o r units in schools with identifying students’ dif- Pouliquen. 2015. “Turning a Shove into a ficulties and social-adjustment problems. Nudge? A ‘Labeled Cash Transfer’ for Social units were composed of social workers, Education.” American Economic Journal: psychologists, doctors, and school directors Economic Policy 7 (3): 86–125. https://www​ to provide targeted support to struggling .povertyactionlab.org​/evaluation/cash-­transfers​ children. The program reached nearly 2,300 ­ -education​-morocco. students between 2006 and 2007 and covered Deng, Meng, and Kymberly Harris. 2008. nearly 40 percent of schools. “Meeti ng t he Needs of St udents w it h Across MENA, a push is needed to create a Disabilities in General Education Classrooms more inclusive and equitable learning ­ system. in China.” Teacher Education and Special By expanding access to high-quality early Education 31 (3): 195–207. Klasen, Stephan. 2002. “Low Schooling for Girls, childhood development programs, removing Slower Grow th for A ll?” World Bank barriers to access, and identifying and address- Economic Review 16 (3): 343–73. ing disparities where they exist, MENA gov- Krafft, Caroline and Halimat Alawode. 2018 ernments can design, target, and scale up “Inequality of Opportunity in Higher Education innovative efforts to address inequalities in in the Middle East and North Africa.” education access and learning. Indeed, in sev- Int e r n ation al Jour n al of E duc ation al eral countries vulnerable groups are receiving Development 62: 234–44. 1 5 4   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations Martin, Michael O., Ina V. S. Mullis, Pierre Foy, Understanding and Responding to and M . Hooper. 2016. “T I M S S 2015 Children’s Needs in Inclusive Classrooms. International Results in Science.” TIMSS and Paris: UNESCO. PIRLS International Study Center, Boston U S A I D ( U . S . A g e n c y fo r I nt e r n at io n a l College, Chestnut Hill, MA. http://timssandpirls​ Development). 2014. “Education Data for .bc.edu/timss2015/international-results/. Decision Making (EdData II): National Early Mullis, Ina V. S., Michael O. Martin, Pierre Foy, Grade Literacy and Numeracy Survey— and M . Hooper. 2016. “T I M S S 2015 Jordan.” Intervention Impact Analysis Report, International Results in Mathematics.” TIMSS USAID, Washington, DC . http://pdf.usaid.gov​ and PIRLS International Study Center, Boston /pdf_docs/PA00KH3M.pdf. College, Chestnut Hill, MA. http://timssandpirls​ ———. Various years. Early Grade Reading .bc.edu/timss2015/international-results/. Barometer. Washington, DC: USAID. http:// Nguyen, Minh Cong, and Quentin Wodon. 2015. www.earlygradereadingbarometer.org/. “Global and Regional Trends in Child Wodon, Quenton, Minh Cibg Nguyen, Ali Marriage.” Review of Faith and International Yedan, and J. Edmeades. 2017. Economic Affairs 13 (3): 23–31. Impacts of Child Marriage: Educational OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation Attainment. Washington, DC: World Bank. and Development). 2016. PISA 2015 Results: h t t p : / / w w w. r i g h t - t o - e d u c a t i o n . o r g​ Excellence and Equity in Education. Vol. 1. /resource/economic-impacts-child-marriage​ Paris: OECD. -educational-attainment. ———. 2018. “Ten Steps to Equity in Education.” Wodon, Quenton, Paula Tavares, Oliver Fiala, Policy Brief, OECD, Paris. http://oecd.org​ Alexis Le Nestour, and Lisa Wise. 2017. /education/school/39989494.pdf. Ending Child Marriage: Child Marriage Laws Ridge, Natasha. 2014. Education and the Reverse and Their Limitations. Washington, DC: Gender Divide in the Gulf States. New York: World Bank. Teachers College Press. World Bank. 2006. “Republic of Djibouti Public Save the Children. 2008. Child Rights Situation E x p e n d it u r e R e v i e w : M a k i n g P u b l i c Analysis for Middle East and North Africa Finances Work for Growth and Poverty Region. Stockholm: Save the Children. Reduction.” World Bank, Washington, DC. Selim, Mona, Nahla Abdel-Tawab, Khaled http:// ​ d ocuments.worldbank.org /curated​ Elsayed, Asmaa El Badawy, and Heba El /en/458211468245383445/Djibouti-Public​ Kalaawy. 2013. “The Ishraq Program for Out- -Expenditure-Review-PER-making-public​ of-School Girls: From Pilot to Scale-Up.” -finances-work-for-g row th-and-pover t y​ Population Council, Cairo. -reduction. UIS (UNESCO Institute for Statistics). Various ———. 2007. “West Bank and Gaza Public ye a r s . World I nequ a l it y Dat abas e on Expenditure Review: From Crisis to Greater Education. Paris: UIS. https://www.education​ Fiscal Independence.” Vol. 2, World Bank, -inequalities.org/. Washington, DC. https://openknowledge​ UIS, FHI 360, Oxford Policy Management, and .worldbank.org/handle/10986/7807. REAL (Research for Equitable Access and ———. 2017. World Development Indicators Learning) Centre, University of Cambridge. 2017. Washington, DC: World Bank. https:// 2018. Handbook on Measuring Equity in op e n k nowle d ge .worldba n k .or g / h a nd le​ Education. Montreal: UIS. http://uis.unesco​ /10986/26447. .org/en/news/new-report-how-measure-equity​ ———. No date. “Morocco: Can Cash Transfers -education. Help a Country Reach Universal Primary School UIS and UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Education?” World Bank, Washington, DC. Fund). 2014. Regional Report on Out-of- https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/sief​ School Children. All in School: Middle East and -trust-fund/brief/morocco-can-cash-transfers​ North Africa Out-of-School Children Initiative -make-a-difference-in-childrens-schooling. (OOSCI). Paris: UIS and UNICEF, October. ———. Various years. Education Statistics http://www.oosci-mena.org/regional​-overview. (E d S t at s) d at abas e. Wash i ng ton , D C : U N E S C O ( Un it e d N at ion s E du c at ion a l , World Bank. http://datatopics.worldbank.org​ Scientific, and Cultural Organization). 2001. /education/. SPOTLIGHT 1 Choosing a Language of Instruction May Bend and Laura Gregory T he complex linguistic situation common for future economic opportunities, as higher- to countries in the Middle East and income positions continued to require French North Africa (MENA) adds educa- fluency (Benrabah 2007; Lefevre 2015). tional difficulties for students. The choice of a Learning in a new language is a complex language of instruction (LOI) is especially task. Finding a balance between adequate complicated—shaped by culture, history, and learning time in children’s mother tongue, the current economic and political trends—when tradition of MSA, and the economic and social opportunities for social and economic importance of learning foreign languages poses advancement are higher in a language that is an important challenge for MENA countries. not a student’s mother tongue. For decades, tensions between modernity and tradition have affected the LOI in MENA countries, and Modern standard Arabic changing the LOI has been one of the key edu- A unique challenge for Arabic-instruction edu- cation reforms in several MENA countries. cation systems is the required mastery of MSA First, MENA faces the challenge of using (Abadzi 2014). From a purely pedagogical modern standard Arabic (MSA)—also known viewpoint, the use of classical Arabic as the as classical Arabic—in the classroom, which LOI is challenging for large segments of the amounts to a new language that ­ children must population because of the linguistic distance learn when they start school. Second, some between the living form of Arabic spoken at MENA countries have populations with mul- home and the traditional, erudite language used tiple first languages, leading to difficult politi- as the official language in most MENA nations. cal decisions regarding the choice of LOI. Classical Arabic originated from pre- Third, as globalization increases, the need for Islamic central Arabian tribes and acquired a MENA’s students to learn a second, or even a privileged, sacred status as the language of third, language is growing. The use of a for- the Quran. While it was codified after centu- eign language for instruction has been a topic ries of written tradition and has remained of debate in MENA countries, with major more or less unaltered for the last thousand implications for learning. years, the versions of the Arabic language Changes in the LOI have sometimes led to spoken in the various countries of the region unintended consequences. For example, the evolved over the centuries. The spoken Arabic 1980s movement of Algerian and Tunisian languages—their phonetics, vocabulary, public education away from instruction in morphology, grammar, and structure—have French and toward MSA increased educa- changed considerably (Al-Huri 2015). tional inequality, as elites put their children As an LOI, MSA is difficult to learn. into French-speaking schools, instead of lead- For example, the absence of vowels makes it ing to the intended increase in classical necessary to understand what the words Arabic skills. Furthermore, students who mean before being able to read them, which did not learn French were at a disadvantage is not always straightforward. Consequently, 155 1 5 6   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations students may struggle to acquire basic liter- level (Gove, Brombacher, and Ward-Brent acy skills and may feel substantial linguistic 2017). A phonics-based program in Egypt, the insecurity due to their lack of identification USAID’s Girls’ Improved Learning Outcomes and familiarity with MSA (Maamouri 1998). project, has also yielded promising outcomes Indeed, research has shown that all students (Abadzi 2012). in the MENA region may be at a linguistic disadvantage because students learn MSA as if it were a second language (Abadzi 2014; Multiple local languages Bouhlila 2011; Ibrahim and Aharon-Peretz MENA countries often have communities 2005; Salmi 1987). Features of the language speaking languages other than Arabic, for mean that it is more difficult to identify let- example, Amazigh and Tamazight in the ters in Arabic than in Roman script (taking three Northern African MENA countries experienced readers about three times lon- or Kurdish in Iraq and the Syrian Arab ger), and the deletion of vowels at grades 3–4 Republic. These linguistic groups represent creates visual crowding, slowing down read- a substantial share of the total population ing and requiring a reliance on context and (35 percent in Morocco, 15–30 percent in memorization (Abadzi 2014). If students fail Algeria, 18 percent in Iraq, 12 percent in to achieve both oral and written comprehen- Syria, and 4 percent in Libya), but they have sion of MSA in early primary school, their not historically been schooled in their future studies are limited to memorizing and mother tongue (Absi 2008; Suleiman 1999). regurgitating information without synthesiz- The consensus among educational experts ing the information. Where teachers are is that learning takes place more effectively themselves not comfortable operating in when young children are taught to write MSA, the problem is exacerbated (Salmi and read in their own language (Benson 1987). 2005; Carter 2003; Salmi 1987). As several Some MENA countries have addressed the nations consider moving to instruction in MSA/dual-language challenge by designing local languages to improve learning, poli- curricular materials and providing additional cies must be put in place to ensure its suc- support in the early grades. For example, inter- cessful implementation. ventions funded by the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) and implemented in conjunction with the minis- Instruction in a foreign language tries of education in the Arab Republic of Mastery of students’ mother tongue does not Egypt and Jordan have shown promise and are guarantee economic opportunity, and fami- being scaled up. In Jordan the intervention lies recognize this fact. For example, in included implementing daily time for low-­ Algeria, parents who speak Tamazight at performing students to practice foundational home have reported being reluctant to edu- skills in reading and mathematics. Beyond cate their children in Tamazight schools for enhanced curricular emphasis on foundational fear of limiting their future career opportuni- skills, the intervention provided teachers with ties (Hayat Chaif 2015). University graduates 10 days of training and additional in-school in Egypt who studied in English earn more coaching on how to target remedial support to after graduation than those studying in students who need it. As a result, not only did Arabic (Assaad, Krafft, and Salehi-Isfahani the number of low-performing students 2018). As they move through the education decrease, but the number of high-performing system, MENA students need to receive students increased. In Egypt the program training in languages that provide access to included eight days of teacher training in addi- economic advancement in increasingly glo- tion to curriculum inputs. Grade 2 students balized labor markets. who received six months of intervention Before students can learn in an LOI, they improved their performance by an entire grade need to have learned enough of the LOI. C h o o s i n g a La n g u a g e o f I n s t r u c t i o n    157 This is because every language has a vocabu- the Barcelona Age Factor project (Muñoz lary threshold required to understand simple 2006). Muñoz and her team capitalized on text. For example, in order to understand the fact that the government changed, in English texts, students must understand at rapid succession, the age at which English least 5,000 words in English. Typically, chil- was introduced in the classroom, creating a dren come to school knowing 4,000 to 6,000 natural experiment whereby they were able words in their mother tongue. On average, to compare second language learners who children can learn four vocabulary words per started at 8, 11, 14, and more than 18 years hour of second language instruction. Thus it of age. The team of researchers was able to takes 1,000 or more schooling hours to build follow a large number of these learners over a sufficient vocabulary to begin learning in a long period of time (learners were tested after second language (van Ginkel 2014). 200, 416, and 726 hours of instruction). If teaching in a second language is needed, They then compared the students’ learning when should it become the primary LOI? The on a wide range of measures by testing speak- critical period hypothesis claims that children ing, listening, writing, and reading skills. are born with an innate language faculty that They found that, with the same amount of diminishes with age, and therefore it is instruction, late starters were consistently important to tap into these innate mecha- faster and more efficient learners on all mea- nisms before the critical age when they disap- sures. Nevertheless, several other studies pear (Johnson and Newport 1989; Krashen have shown that younger children are more 1975). Assuming that this is true, is younger enthusiastic second language learners than really better when learning a foreign lan- older children (Cable et al. 2010; Myles guage in the classroom? It depends on what is 2017). In short, evidence is mixed on whether meant by “better.” If “better” means faster second languages are best learned earlier, vocabulary acquisition, the research shows when cognitive plasticity is greater, or later, that older children outperform younger chil- when maturity and study habits ideally are dren because their greater cognitive maturity better developed. helps them to make the best of second lan- guage instruction (Muñoz 2006; Myles 2017). Indeed, studies indicate that efficiency Begin in the child’s mother in formal language learning increases with tongue age, so older students (those over the age of Among education experts, consensus exists 12) appear to have an advantage over younger that learning during the early grades takes learners (Singleton and Lengyel 1995; place most effectively when young children Thompson and Gaddes 2005). are taught to write and read in their mother A recent study in England compared how tongue (Salmi 1987). Accordingly, students children ages 5, 7, and 11 learn French in the should be given adequate instructional time classroom. All children were complete begin- in their mother tongue to ensure fluency ners at the start of the project and received before being exposed to a foreign LOI. two hours a week of similar instruction from Language capital—the ability to commu- the same teacher over 19 weeks. This study nicate in the mother tongue—is generally found that the older children learn faster, acquired at home and strengthened at school. as they are better able to use a range of cogni- However, when early schooling, or a substan- tive strategies to aid their learning and that tial portion of early schooling, takes place in they are able to use their more advanced lit- a second language, development of language eracy skills to support foreign language learn- fluency is interrupted. Poor language skills ing (Myles 2017). can result in time spent memorizing terminol- Perhaps the most ambitious piece of ogy in the LOI rather than understanding research investigating the role of age in early concepts. Essentially, students’ ability to foreign language learning in the classroom is develop higher conceptual functioning is 1 5 8   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations limited by their lack of first language vocabu- place in both Arabic and English, beginning lary for information digested in a foreign lan- in grade 1. Science and mathematics in all guage (Salmi 1987; Yip, Tsang, and Cheung grades are taught in English, while Arabic 2003), which, in turn, has a detrimental language, social studies, and geography are impact on their ability to learn classroom taught in Arabic (Ofori-Attah 2008). Thus material and to perform on examinations in students have to master a second language to the LOI (Marsh, Hau, and Kong 2002; Yip, succeed in mathematics. Tsang, and Cheung 2003). Poor language While the goal of training students for skills result in lower numeracy skills, which global business is admirable, this structure show up in international tests based on word places students without sufficient language problems (Toll and Van Luit 2014; Yore, support at a disadvantage, often privileging Pimm, and Tuan 2007). those in urban or higher-wealth families. For these reasons, research suggests that In Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia, science children should be taught primarily in their and mathematics are taught in French at mother tongue during the early years, with the secondary level. However, only 30 per- limited hours of instruction in a second lan- cent of Tunisians, most of whom live near guage (to capitalize on the enthusiasm of the capital, are fluent in written and spoken young language learners). The use of second French. In Algeria, urban populations are or third languages for instruction should take fluent in French, but only 55 percent of place in later years of schooling, after stu- rural populations are. A similar dynamic dents have had sufficient time to build fluency occurs in Morocco. Students in areas with- in their mother tongue and to acquire the out French fluency suffer in education necessary base of vocabulary to engage with access and achievement (Lefevre 2015). On subject material upon introduction of a for- the Trends in International Mathematics eign LOI. The quality of language acquisition and Science Study (TIMSS) tests in 2007 during the earlier grades has important impli- and 2015, students being tested in their cations for learning later in life. mother tongue performed better than those being tested in a language they did not speak at home (Mullis et al. 2016). If math- Increase research into Arabic- ematics (or any other subject) is to be language learning taught in a second language, then adequate The challenges of MSA are well known, but support for learning this language must be there are few proven interventions to help incorporated. overcome them. Cognitive science holds LOI has also been contentious and prob- potential to improve understanding of the lematic at the tertiary education level, point- complexities and point to ways to improve ing to a need for improved foreign language the learning of Arabic (Abadzi 2014). Where instruction at all levels. Most Arab countries research suggests potential solutions, a vari- use either English or French as the LOI for ety of interventions should be designed, mathematics, engineering, medical sciences, implemented, and evaluated in schools so and other sciences. Qatar’s rapid expansion that the benefits, if any, can be measured. of higher education institutions using English as the LOI generated resistance (MacL eod and Abou-El-K heir 2016). Improve foreign language Tunisia’s system remains in two languages, instruction at all levels with Arabic used for all social sciences Across MENA, lack of mastery of foreign and French used for science, technology, languages by many secondary school gradu- e ngineering, and mathematics studies ­ ates adds a degree of difficulty for those who (Battenburg 1997; Stevens 1983). Recently, pursue university education in English or the Ministry of Higher Education in the French. In Dubai, public school studies take Kurdistan Region of Iraq commissioned a C h o o s i n g a La n g u a g e o f I n s t r u c t i o n    159 study of its 13 state universities to examine Benrabah, Mohamed. 2007. “The Language the impact of English-medium instruction. 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Trowbridge, of Hong Kong Secondary Students: Performance U.K.: Cromwell Press. on the Science Achievement Test.” Bilingual Myles, Florence. 2017. “Learning Foreign Research Journal 27 (2): 295–331. doi.org/10.1 Languages in Primary Schools: Is Younger 080/15235882.2003.10162808. Better?” Policy Paper, Multilingualism: Yore, Larry D., David Pimm, and Hsiao-Lin Empowering I ndividuals, Transforming Tuan. 2007. “The Literacy Component of Societies (MEITS), Cambridge, U.K. Mathematical and S cientific Literacy.” Ofori-Attah, Kwabena. 2008. Going to School in International Journal of Science and Math the Middle East and North Africa (Global E d u c a t i o n 5 (4): 559 – 89. ht t p s: //doi​ School Room). Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood. .org/10.1007/s10763-007-9089-4. Modernizing Curricula, Instruction, and Assessment 7 to Improve Learning Laura Gregory and May Bend T eaching and learning are multifaceted through having teachers move from instruc- and complex processes. Children tional practices that involve students as pas- arrive at school with diverse back- sive listeners and watchers to those that grounds, life experiences, and individual engage students in lessons and that adapt les- characteristics. Teachers interact with chil- sons to students’ needs, readiness, and back- dren in a multitude of ways, themselves hav- ground. Good-quality resources, both human ing a variety of backgrounds, experiences, and physical, and a nurturing school and teaching styles. Curricula, instructional ­ environment—for girls and boys—are essen- practices, and school and classroom environ- tial. Finally, by modernizing assessment sys- ments shape the student experience. It is not tems, countries can help to move from a surprising, then, that there is no easy fix to focus on rote memorization and credentials improve learning. Nevertheless, the low (as commonly seen in the high-stakes exit learning outcomes in the Middle East and examinations in the region) to the use of North Africa (MENA) region call for a push assessments for deeper forms of learning and across many aspects of the educational regular classroom assessments for timely p rocess—from curricula (what is being ­ feedback to students and teachers. taught), to instruction (how it is being taught), to assessment (how learning is determined). Modernize curricula to meet Modernizing curricula means moving students’ needs from an expectation that students will mem- Learning is a complex process that combines orize facts, rules, and procedures to an multiple interacting factors. Official curricula expectation that they will develop a broader determine the content that education systems range of higher-order skills to solve problems intend their students to learn. The official and think creatively. These types of skills curriculum, instructional practices, school align better with students’ lifelong needs and and classroom environment (including infra- to the communities and economies in which structure, learning materials, and leadership), they live. Modern instructional practices not and student assessment combine to produce only promote these higher-order skills but the learning that happens in schools (see also can maximize each student’s potential figure 7.1). This process is embedded within ­ 161 1 6 2   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations FIGURE 7.1  Learning is a complex process that involves multiple the political, economic, social, and cultural actors and factors contexts in which the child and the school A framework for learning: How learning opportunities are shaped are situated. What is intended to be Across the world, many curriculum learned? reforms are moving toward expressing out- Official curriculum comes in terms of competencies and skills and away from defining curriculum content only in terms of the subject material taught How can teachers support What enabling factors can learning? support learning? (UNESCO 2017). This shift represents a School and classroom greater push for learning, as the focus moves Instructional practices Learning environment from the acquisition of facts to what students are able to do with their learning—that is, the skills and competencies students have acquired as a result of the education process Student assessment (see box 7.1). In this respect, competency- How do we know students based learning is student centered. are learning, and how can However, across MENA, curricula by and we support learning goals? large continue to focus heavily on factual recall Source: World Bank. Box 7.1  Competency-based learning Competency-based learning refers to systems of legislate and implement competency-based curri- instruction and assessment based on students dem- cula to help students to develop 21st-century skills. onstrating that they have acquired the knowledge These education systems have reduced the relative and skills (competencies) they are expected to learn weight of subject-centered education and introduced as they progress through education. The goal of a c ompetency-based learning through the applica- ­ competency-based curriculum is therefore to pro- tion of new theories of intelligence, with the aim vide schools and teachers with learning standards of developing student capabilities along with well- that support student acquisition of the knowledge being. Among these countries, some (like Korea) and skills that society deems to be essential for suc- prescribe the curriculum, and others (like Japan) set cess in school, work, and adult life. According to the general guidelines, leaving the specifics up to schools United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural and teachers (Cheng 2017; Moon 2007). Organization (UNESCO), a competency-based cur- A few MENA countries have recently begun to riculum is one that emphasizes what learners are explore competency-based learning. Through its expected to do rather than what they are expected Integrated Education Reform Program, Kuwait is to know (UNESCO 2017). in the midst of transforming its curricula, instruc- Internationally, countries take a variety of tion, and assessment methods. The government’s approaches to creati ng and i mplementi ng a program is aiming to embed a modern, person- ­ competency-based curriculum. Within U.S. public alized approach to teaching and learning. This schools, competency-based systems use state learn- approach focuses on the student, emphasizes ing standards to determine academic expectations applied knowledge, and caters to different learning and define “proficiency” in a given course, subject abilities. Local education professionals have devel- area, or grade level (although other sets of standards oped a national curriculum framework, along with may also be used, including standards developed curricula standards for all subjects and grades. by districts and schools or by subject-area organi- Competency-based textbooks are being developed zations). Several high-scoring East Asian educa- in line with the new standards as well as a national tion systems (Hong Kong SAR, China; Japan; the assessment to gauge progress at the national, Republic of Korea; and Singapore) have begun to school, and student levels. M o d e r n i z i n g C u r r i c u l a , I n s t r u c t i o n , a n d A s s e s s m e n t t o I m p r o v e L e a r n i n g    163 FIGURE 7.2  MENA students are more likely to be asked to memorize Percentage of grade 8 students asked to memorize science facts and principles for every lesson or almost every lesson, 2015 70 60 58 60 57 57 53 53 49 48 50 45 44 42 40 Percent 30 20 10 0 Egypt, Lebanon Saudi Jordan Oman Iran, Bahrain Morocco Kuwait United Qatar Arab Rep. Arabia Islamic Arab Rep. Emirates International average Source: Based on data from Martin et al. 2016. and rote memorization, leaving little time for challenging exercises. Curricula that focus on development of critical thinking skills. For low-level skills (such as factual recall) instead example, the share of grade 8 students required of critical thinking skills are not meeting the to memorize mathematics and science rules, needs of students in the 21st century. procedures, facts, and principles for all or most The overemphasis on memorization and lessons is almost twice the international average lack of emphasis on critical thinking can in many MENA ­ countries. More than half of stem from the curricula, from teaching prac- grade 8 students in the Arab Republic of Egypt, tices, or from a combination of both. For the Islamic Republic of Iran, Jordan, Lebanon, example, a recent curriculum review for West Oman, and Saudi Arabia are asked to memo- Bank and Gaza revealed an overconcentra- rize science facts and principles every lesson or tion on memorization to the detriment of almost every lesson (see figure 7.2). This share problem- solv i ng sk i l ls (G I Z 2013a). is far above that of many high-­ performing However, in examining civics education prac- countries. For example, only 2–3 percent of tices in Lebanese schools, Akar (2016) noted grade 8 students in New Zealand and Norway that teachers do not feel that their students and less than 10 percent in Australia, Sweden, can learn what they need to know through the United Kingdom, and the United States are the dialogic practices (learning through dia- required to memorize during most science logue) prescribed in the curriculum. Instead, lessons. teachers use didactic methods, with the Students in some MENA countries are teacher as the expert and students as the given very few opportunities to challenge receiver of knowledge, usually in lecture their thinking and engage in high-level style. In this way, the experience of students thought processes. For example, in Morocco in MENA’s classrooms is markedly different and Saudi Arabia, around 20 percent of grade from that of students in other parts of the 8 students are never asked by their teacher to world and may explain the region’s low complete challenging science exercises that results in international student assessments. would require them to go beyond the instruc- Religious education, which forms a sub- tion (see figure 7.3). This share is far higher stantial part of curricula in the MENA than the international average of 5 percent of region, uses predominantly memorization students never being asked to complete strategies. In fact, the foundations of rote 1 6 4   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations FIGURE 7.3  Several MENA countries do not consistently challenge students beyond the instruction Percentage of grade 8 students who are never asked to complete challenging science exercises that require them to go beyond the instruction, 2015 25 21 20 18 15 13 Percent 12 10 6 6 5 4 2 2 1 1 0 Saudi Morocco Egypt, Kuwait Jordan Lebanon Iran, Qatar Bahrain United Oman Arabia Arab Rep. Islamic Arab Rep. Emirates International average Source: Based on data from Martin et al. 2016. learning in the MENA region can be linked and Saudi Arabia could interpret a basic pic- to an oral tradition predating Islam that togram (Mullis et al. 2016). Curricula that encourages memorization to preserve and encourage application and critical thinking spread Islamic teachings. The proportion of instead of memorization are likely to meet instructional time devoted to religious educa- the future needs of students. tion in most MENA countries is well above The overemphasis on memorization of facts, the average time that Organisation for principles, rules, and procedures does not Economic Co-operation and Development negate the fact that some knowledge needs to (OECD) countries spend on religious, ethics, be retained; instead, it is a question of the or moral education (see figure 7.4). For exam- degree of emphasis and overall experience of ple, based on the most recent comparable the child in the classroom. Cognitive science information available, grade 1 students in provides information that allows a more Bahrain, Iraq, Kuwait, Morocco, Oman, nuanced understanding of the balance between Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and rote memorization and higher-level processes the Republic of Yemen spend more than dou- such as discovery learning (see box 7.2). The ble the OECD average of 5 percent. The capacity to solve problems and think critically emphasis on memorization in religious edu- about new material depends on the background cation further contributes to memorization as knowledge retained in one’s memory a large part of MENA children’s school day. (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006). Repeated As a result of memorizing texts, rules, pro- reflective practice is fundamental to building cedures, facts, and principles, students are flexible knowledge and skills. In addition, stu- often unable to show basic understanding in dents need guidance from teachers in order to everyday applications. For example, in the develop the knowledge and skills that can facili- 2015 Trends in International Mathematics tate independent, complex cognitive work. and Science Study (TIMSS) assessment, less Therefore, a balance needs to be struck between than half of Morocco’s grade 4 students rote memorization and high-level problem solv- could read a basic graph. Likewise, only ing, and the appropriate emphasis depends on about 55 percent of grade 8 students in Egypt the task and skill level. M o d e r n i z i n g C u r r i c u l a , I n s t r u c t i o n , a n d A s s e s s m e n t t o I m p r o v e L e a r n i n g    165 FIGURE 7.4  Substantial time is devoted to religious education in MENA Percentage of instructional time allocated to religious education in grade 1 of primary school 30 28 25 20 18 15 15 15 Percent 15 13 12 10 10 9 7 6 5 5 0 Yemen, Saudi Morocco Oman Iraq Kuwait Bahrain United Egypt, Djibouti Algeria Tunisia Rep. Arabia Arab Arab Rep. Emirates OECD average Sources: OECD 2017a for OECD average (refers to all grades of primary school); UNESCO 2011 for Algeria (2004), Bahrain (2004), Djibouti (2008), Iraq (2011), Kuwait (2004), Oman (2004), Tunisia (2008), and the Republic of Yemen (2004); World Bank calculations using various online sources for the Arab Republic of Egypt (2014), Morocco (2016), Saudi Arabia (2017), and the United Arab Emirates (2016). Note: OECD = Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.  Box 7.2  Balancing repetition and high-level problem solving To develop high-level knowledge and skills, stu- 2012; Schneider and Stern 2010; Stigler and Hiebert dents need opportunities to grapple with cognitive 2009). challenges in the classroom (Stigler and Hiebert Research on classroom learning suggests that 2009). Such practice must happen repeatedly before problem-solving and meta-cognitive strategies real mastery can be attained (Dunlosky et al. should be taught explicitly, but within the context 2013; Ericsson, Krampe, and Tesch-Römer 1993; of a particular subject area (Abrami et al. 2008; Willingham 2010). As novice learners, students ini- Pellegrino and Hilton 2012). While novice learn- tially attain inflexible, shallow knowledge; they can ers must engage actively with new material, they develop the deeper knowledge of structures, relation- also require expert guidance in order to structure ships, and principles that facilitate expert problem both the topical content and the learning process. solving through repeated engagement (Willingham Without adequate guidance, learners can become 2010). Empirical evidence suggests that the human frustrated and lose motivation, or they can draw brain cannot develop high-level problem-solving factually erroneous conclusions (Kirschner, Sweller, skills that can be applied effectively across all top- and Clark 2006). To provide such guidance effec- ics or domains. However, when students internal- tively, teachers need training in how students learn, ize extensive knowledge of a domain and learn to including an understanding of how the brain works recognize connections within that body of knowl- as well as familiarity with how knowledge is struc- edge, they can then use this deep knowledge to think tured in specific subject areas (Kirschner, Sweller, critically about new domains (Pellegrino and Hilton and Clark 2006; Willingham 2010). 1 6 6   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations An alternative to “discipline-based” or example, Saudi Arabia’s education legislation “subject-based” curricula, in which subject states that students should have the skills and content is taught separately with distinct cur- knowledge to contribute to society economi- ricula and methods, is an interdisciplinary cally and culturally and to build up their curriculum approach. This type of curricu- communities. The curriculum document of lum approach has become more common the United Arab Emirates states that the edu- around the world (Jacobs 1989), particularly cation system trains students for physical, at the primary school level. An interdisciplin- intellectual, and emotional development and ary curriculum allows for multiple skills and prepares them for their future. Morocco’s competencies to be gained in a subject area goals focus on acquiring language, develop- that may previously have been taught in iso- ing the appropriate social skills and civic lation. The issue of curriculum reform and understanding, and preparing students for the predominance of memorization is a com- future careers (UNESCO 2011). plex and contentious one in the region, and However, the material studied and peda- approaches will be nation specific. However, gogical approaches used in many MENA education systems can consider several prac- classrooms are not linked to students’ every- tical options to broaden the skill sets and day lives. Material covered in the curricula raise the learning levels of students, including is decontextualized from students’ day-to- through integrating subjects with an inter­ day life, is presented as a set of facts and disciplinary approach (Thobani 2007). For processes to be memorized, and is presented example, several East Asian countries are in a manner that does not encourage inde- reducing their primary and secondary curri- pendent learning and investigation (Bouhlila cula with a focus on the integrated develop- 2011). This decontextualization is likely to ment of 21st-century skills. Hong Kong SAR, contribute to poor absorption of the mate- China, has recently reduced its curriculum to rial. Connections between theory and prac- four key learning areas. Japan has eliminated tice are left unexplored, as are links between 30 percent of its formal curriculum, and past and present (Alrebh and Al-Mabuk Singapore has cut one-third of the formal 2016). Not only does decontextualization curriculum (Cheng 2017). lead to poor learning, but lack of relevance to real life makes students less interested in the topic. For example, secondary school Align curricula with children’s lifelong students show low levels of interest in math- skills needs ematics, which could be remedied by mak- Curricula in education systems across MENA ing the content applicable to real-life reflect the belief that education should pro- situations and tying it to other subjects vide academic content, workforce prepara- under study (GIZ 2013b). Relevance is par- tion, and social and civic development. ticularly important in programs that are Reforms over the last few decades have intended to align closely with the workplace added, for example, life skills, foreign lan- (see box 7.3). guages, problem-solving approaches, and The cognitive and learning sciences pro- more science, mathematics, and information vide mounting evidence that interactive technology to the curriculum (Alayan, approaches facilitate an effective learning Rohde, and Dhouib 2012). The legislative experience (Barkley, Cross, and Major rhetoric concerning what schools and teach- 2005; Prince 2004). This combination ers should teach in MENA countries empha- allows future graduates to broaden their si zes master y of A rabic and foreig n perspectives and equips them with the skills languages, awareness of human rights, desire expected in the labor market. However, the for international cooperation, awareness of curriculum of postsecondary education environmental and conservation issues, criti- programs in MENA tends to be outdated, cal thinking, and research skills. For to focus on theory and memorization as M o d e r n i z i n g C u r r i c u l a , I n s t r u c t i o n , a n d A s s e s s m e n t t o I m p r o v e L e a r n i n g    167 Box 7.3  Relevance in vocational education In some MENA countries, vocational tracks that are interested in making vocational education work include religious, technical, industrial, agricultural, better for students and for the labor market. and commercial education are growing. Algeria Issues of relevance in vocational education are has partnered with public and private companies to very important, as vocational education works best increase enrollment in vocational tracks by creat- when schools collaborate with employers. In Egypt, ing suitable programs in construction, public works, vocational schools suffer from a lack of appropri- electricity, agriculture, and tourism (Oxford Business ate facilities and hands-on learning opportuni- Group 2015). Bahrain introduced apprenticeships in ties (Krafft 2017). The tracks have failed to adapt 2007/08 (Al-Mudhahki 2017). Since the 2011 revo- appropriately to available jobs and may be too rigid lution, the Tunisian Ministry of Education has been in their structure, failing to provide students with a developing a reform plan, which includes restructur- broad enough foundation for employment. ing its vocational education tracks (Oxford Business Group 2017), and other countries across the region Sources: Krafft 2017; Oxford Business Group 2015, 2017. opposed to practical knowledge and ana- Arabic-language translation had inadver- lytical reasoning (El Hassan 2013), and to tently resulted in the omission of higher-order be skewed toward theory over practice. thinking lessons and activities (GIZ 2013a). Additionally, higher education institutions provide limited opportunities for leader- Allow time for effective learning ship development through extracurricular ac tivities and cu rricular en rich ment. The amount of time a student is expected to Tunisia has attempted to address this issue be in school varies across countries in the through information technologies and soft region. Some countries, such as Oman and skills certification. However, systemwide Saudi Arabia, have recently moved to increase change is needed. For instance, students instructional time, albeit from a low base. graduating with a business degree lack The TIMSS 2015 provides information from entrepreneurial skills (Oxford Business school principals on the total instructional Group 2017). Meeting students’ needs for hours per year in their school. In grade 4, the employability and life skills will be difficult median number of hours per year ranged without a curriculum more relevant to the from 630 hours in the Islamic Republic of world of work and without a shift from Iran—well below the median of 857 hours textbook-based education to interactive across all participating countries—to 1,050 learning. hours in Qatar.1 In grade 8, the median In some cases, countries have adopted cur- instructional time reported by school princi- ricula from outside the region without taking pals ranged from 900 hours in the Islamic sufficient measures to ensure a good fit with Republic of Iran to 1,404 hours in Morocco, core goals and local needs. For instance, compared with a median of 992 hours across imported curricula in the Gulf Cooperation all participating countries (Mullis et al. Council (GCC) states often have not been 2016). However, the practice of suspending adapted to reflect local cultural knowledge classes during examination times in some or, indeed, the Arabic language, even though MENA countries, combined with high rates these are key education goals (Bashshur of student and teacher absenteeism, means 2010). A review of a curriculum used in that the implemented number of instructional Bahrain and Saudi Arabia found that an hours is likely to be substantially less. 1 6 8   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations Often, the intended curriculum in MENA students are asked to listen to their teacher countries is not implemented or is imple- explain mathematics content in almost every mented only partially. The learning that is lesson in Bahrain, the Islamic Republic of intended by the official curricula cannot be Iran, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, and Saudi met if insufficient time is allocated for mas- Arabia (see figure 7.5). This share compares tery. Additional factors, including inadequate to just 27 percent in New Zealand, 35 per- resources, lack of appropriate training or cent in Norway and Singapore, and around ineffective training of teachers, insufficient 45 percent in Australia, Canada, Germany, time on task, misaligned incentives, or the and Sweden. way curricula were developed, may also con- When not listening to content, students tribute. In West Bank and Gaza, the curricu- are passive watchers. MENA’s grade 4 stu- lum includes more material than teachers can dents are much more likely to be asked to realistically teach during a school year (GIZ watch their teacher conduct an experiment 2013a), and this is likely to be the case in every day—66 percent in Morocco, 64 per- other MENA countries as well. A review of cent in Oman, 59 percent in the Islamic five MENA countries found that 36 to Republic of Iran, 56 percent in Saudi Arabia, 43 percent of the time allocated was not used, 52 percent in Kuwait, and 47 percent in revealing a possible area for improvement Bahrain (Mullis et al. 2016). This share com- through better-engaged classroom hours pares with the international average of (Millot and Lane 2002). 22 percent and less than 5 percent in Denmark, France, Germany, the Netherlands, New Zealand, and Northern Ireland. Encourage instructional practices As illustrated in figure 7.5, of all countries that maximize children’s potential participating in TIMSS, pedagogy in most Beyond curriculum content and time alloca- MENA countries has the highest levels of tion, the experience of students in the class- both rote memorization and teacher-centered room rests on decisions made by teachers as practices. to how they will deliver the curriculum. Active learning is generally defined as any Whether lessons are well planned (with vari- instructional method that engages children ety and in innovative ways to capture the and young people directly in the learning attention of students) or whether they are process. In short, active learning requires given little thought and preparation (with children and young people to engage in methods that do not engage students) makes meaningful learning activities and to think a difference to how well children’s potential about what they are doing. While this defi- can be maximized in the classroom. When nition could include traditional activities children are engaged and motivated, their such as homework, in practice active learn- attention will be captivated and learning will ing refers to activities that are introduced be more likely to occur. into the classroom. For example, active learning includes discussion, practice, review, application, problem solving, and Align instructional practices with group exploration of new concepts. The core learning goals element of active learning is the child’s While curricula in the MENA region are planned involvement and engagement in the based heavily on lower-order skills and mem- learning process. In contrast to traditional orization, pedagogical practices are mainly teacher-directed learning, where children teacher centered, placing students in the role and young people are viewed as passive of passive learners. For example, passive lis- recipients of knowledge provided by the tening is widespread in almost every mathe- teacher, active learning puts children and matics and science lesson in the region. young people firmly at the center of the Around 80 percent or more of grade 4 learning process (Estyn 2017). M o d e r n i z i n g C u r r i c u l a , I n s t r u c t i o n , a n d A s s e s s m e n t t o I m p r o v e L e a r n i n g    169 FIGURE 7.5  Rote memorization and teacher-centered practices prevail in most MENA countries Percentage of students who listen to the teacher explain new mathematics content and are asked to memorize mathematics facts and procedures ­every day or almost every day, grade 4, 2015 80 High rote memorization, High rote memorization, low teacher-centered practices high teacher-centered practices Bulgaria International average Percentage of students who are asked to memorize math rules, procedures, Croatia and facts every lesson or almost every lesson, as reported by teachers 70 Georgia Kazakhstan Oman Morocco 60 Kuwait Serbia Saudi Arabia Bahrain Indonesia Portugal 50 United Arab Emirates Lithuania Qatar Poland 40 Italy Japan Iran, Islamic Rep. International average Ireland 30 Slovenia Korea, Rep. Northern Ireland France Chile Taiwan, China Netherlands England Russian Turkey (Taipei) Federation 20 Spain United States Cyprus Singapore SwedenAustralia Canada Slovak Republic 10 New Zealand Hungary Finland Hong Kong SAR, China Low rote memorization, Norway Germany Belgium (Flemish) Low rote memorization, low teacher-centered practices Czech Repulic Denmark high teacher-centered practices 0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Percentage of students who listen to the teacher explain new mathematics content every lesson or almost every lesson, as reported by teachers MENA economy Other economy Source: Mullis et al. 2016. Note: Teacher-centered practices are considered high if they require a passive student role, such as listening to teacher explanations. As an example, over the last five years, a lesson, they are likely to struggle with the Wales has undertaken substantial education new material. A lack of the prerequisite system reform focused on the curriculum and knowledge or skills in mathematics was associated pedagogy. The reform places active found to be a severe limitation for a third of learning approaches at the center of the curric- grade 8 mathematics students across all par- ulum because “adult-directed” learning leaves ticipating TIMSS 2015 countries, as per- teachers with too little flexibility to react to stu- ceived by their teachers. In MENA, this share dents’ interests and imagination and hinders rises to 51 percent in Jordan, 58 percent in students’ decision making on how and what the Islamic Republic of Iran, and a striking they learn. This approach can lead to students 62 percent in Morocco (Mullis et al. 2016). being less confident in applying their skills and Adhering rigidly to curricula that are learning independently (Estyn 2017). beyond students’ comprehension is counter- productive. Instead, MENA classrooms could implement pedagogical practices that Pay attention to individual learning match teaching to students’ learning—also When students do not have the prerequisite known as teaching at the right level, or adap- knowledge or skills to engage effectively with tive instruction. These practices have been 1 7 0   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations consistently found to improve student learn- however, there are judgments to be made ing around the world (Evans and Popova about when this method is appropriate, since 2015) and can be teacher led or supplemented grouping by ability can have adverse effects, with computer-based applications. and teachers can use other methods to indi- Between 2013 and 2015, at least six sys- vidualize lessons while keeping mixed-ability tematic meta-analyses examined the inter- groups (Mavroudi et al. 2015). ventions that improve learning outcomes in Teacher-led adaptive instruction has been low- and middle-income countries (Conn successful in specific situations. For example, 2014; Glewwe et al. 2014; Kremer, Brannen, in India grouping students into different abil- and Glennerster 2013; Krishnaratne, White, ity groups (for part of their school day) has and Carpenter 2013; McEwan 2015; been found to improve student learning sig- Murnane and Ganimian 2014). Across the nificantly. Successful models include (1) inter- reviews, pedagogical interventions (including ventions that take place on normal school computer-assisted learning) that tailor teach- days, whether taught by regular teachers dur- ing to student skill levels ranked among the ing a designated segment of school hours (in top three most effective means of improving separate groups) or taught by volunteers as student learning in low- and middle-income after-school classes, and (2) intensive countries. The other two were repeated volunteer-taught “learning camps” for sev- ­ teacher training interventions, often linked to eral hours a day over 10 or 20 consecutive another pedagogical intervention, and days. Both configurations include learning improved accountability through contracts or materials and teacher-volunteer training performance incentives (Evans and Popova (Banerjee et al. 2016). 2015). In Singapore, students take screening tests One of these meta-reviews (McEwan at the beginning of grade 1, and those who 2015) examined 77 randomized control trials are behind in reading receive additional daily to determine which learning interventions are support (OECD 2011). In India, Pratham most effective (have the largest effect size) in Foundation trained local volunteers for a improving the learning of primary-level stu- week in reading pedagogy and encouraged dents in low- and middle-income countries. It them to run after-school reading programs. found that the largest average effect sizes are An experimental study of the program found for treatments that incorporate instructional that literacy increased among students in materials (0.08); computers or instructional grades 3 to 4 by 8 percent. Children who technology (0.15); teacher training (0.12); could read a letter at the beginning of the smaller classes, smaller learning groups program were 26 percentage points more within classes, or ability grouping (0.12); likely to read and understand a story by the contract or volunteer teachers (0.10); and stu- end of the program than the control group dent and teacher performance incentives (Banerjee 2012). (0.09). These categories are not exclusive. Another effective configuration, known as Teacher-led adaptive instruction is based differentiated instruction, groups students on diagnostic assessments to gauge students’ within existing classrooms into small groups learning levels. One method is to group stu- based on their prior achievement in the sub- dents according to learning levels for part of ject being taught. This configuration can take their schooling and to use teaching materials place in normal lessons, but it requires skilled matched to their level. While this approach teachers and considerable preparation to dif- may sound intuitive, it diverges considerably ferentiate instruction effectively (Gates from the approach used in many education Foundation n.d.; Tomlinson 2014). systems, including in MENA, where teaching An alternative model of adaptive instruc- is based on age-expected levels of learning tion consists of remedial lessons only for stu- prescribed by the national curriculum. This dents who are falling behind their peers. In a method can be successful in some situations; low-cost experiment in India, young women M o d e r n i z i n g C u r r i c u l a , I n s t r u c t i o n , a n d A s s e s s m e n t t o I m p r o v e L e a r n i n g    171 from the local community were hired to developed or adapted to meet the needs of teach basic literacy and numeracy to groups their audience, their effectiveness may be fur- of 15 to 20 underperforming students. This ther eroded. model led to significant gains in test scores, The development, selection, and use of especially among the lowest-performing chil- textbooks is an important consideration. dren (Banerjee et al. 2007). In Canada and Often, textbooks are chosen without the use Finland, for example, extensive personalized of selection criteria related to how well their support is available to any student who is content and approach promote learning struggling with expected levels of learning, (Jobrack 2012). Instead, more superficial fac- especially during the formative years of pri- tors such as design are often the basis of mary school (World Bank 2018). selection. In addition, it is important for per- Evidence suggests that such targeted inter- sons with experience of what works well in ventions and remedial lessons are more effec- the classroom to be involved in textbook tive than other models of level-appropriate development. Without this element of instruc- instruction, such as grade repetition and tional experience, textbooks are likely to be between-class ability grouping. Grade repeti- less engaging to the intended audience. tion, which is practiced in some MENA In several MENA countries, crammed countries, requires students who do not pass curricula often lead to “teaching to the text- year-end examinations to repeat the prior book” according to a predefined time sched- school year rather than progressing with ule. Such a schedule limits the ability of their peers (OECD 2016). Between-class abil- teachers to use more dynamic teaching meth- ity grouping entails grouping students in the ods, such as introducing an idea and adapt- same grade into classes based on their prior ing lessons based on how well students have achievement, so that classes are homoge- absorbed the material. In this more dynamic neous in learning levels. Although a random- scenario, the textbook is a resource for the ized control trial in Kenyan primary schools lesson rather than the “curriculum” itself. In found that between-class ability grouping more dynamic teaching styles, teachers can improved student achievement (Duflo, use a range of sample lesson plans and sup- Dupas, and Kremer 2011), this result may plemental materials to meet the needs of indi- have been due in part to a research design vidual students. that helped teachers to adapt teaching to stu- An overreliance on factual recall and rote dent levels. A meta-analysis of 100 years of memorization often means an overreliance research on ability grouping found that such on textbook use as well. While activities that between-class grouping did not, in fact, ben- promote discovery learning, problem solving, efit students (Steenbergen-Hu, Makel, and and critical thinking can emanate from text- Olszewski-Kubilius 2016). books, teachers’ guides and lesson plan examples are what can help teachers to pres- ent the material in a more engaging way. In Provide useful teaching resources several MENA countries, including Egypt, For children to learn, teachers need to have the Islamic Republic of Iran, Lebanon, and the right resources and support materials. Saudi Arabia, 50 percent or more of grade 8 Traditionally, the textbook has been central students are asked to read their science text- to schooling in MENA countries and in some books every lesson (see figure 7.6). Not only cases is considered akin to the curriculum. does this leave little time for other learning While textbooks are useful resources for activities, but if the textbooks are not based both students and teachers, their overuse can on sound pedagogical principles or designed mean that students do not experience other by experienced practitioners, the experience types of learning such as discovery, hands-on for students may be less than engaging and experiences, collaborative tasks, and so on. result in limited depth of knowledge and In addition, where textbooks are not well understanding. 1 7 2   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations FIGURE 7.6  Some MENA countries rely heavily on textbooks Percentage of grade 8 students asked to read their science textbook or other material every lesson or almost every lesson, 2015 70 59 60 53 51 50 50 45 44 43 39 37 40 Percent 33 30 20 20 10 0 Lebanon Iran, Saudi Egypt, Qatar Bahrain United Kuwait Oman Morocco Jordan Islamic Arabia Arab Arab Rep. Rep. Emirates International average Sources: Jobrack 2012; Mullis et al. 2016. Box 7.4  Moving from poor to fair: The role of scripted lessons in structured pedagogy Structured pedagogy can be modeled in many practice and reduce variation among classrooms ways, including curriculum supported by work- and schools. sheets, step-by-step lesson plans, or even scripted Successful structured pedagogy programs require lessons. The purpose of scripted lessons—also several interacting elements (Snilstveit et al. 2015). referred to as prescriptive pedagogy—is to provide Teaching and learning materials need to be structured scaffolding and motivation for low-skill teachers and sequenced to fit both the intended content and the and principals (Westbrook et al. 2013). With sup- classroom contexts in question. These materials must portive evidence from five different education sys- be provided to teachers and students in adequate quan- tems, Westbrook et al. (2013) recommend that this tities and at appropriate times. Moreover, teachers method of intervention be used only for systems require high-quality and sustained training in deliver- trying to move from “poor” performance to “fair” ing the structured content and should be able to pro- performance. a Fair performance means that stu- vide feedback to the entities creating the resources. dents have achieved basic literacy and numeracy. Sources: Snilstveit et al. 2015; Westbrook et al. 2013. To meet basic educational needs, scripted lessons a. Chile (2001–05), Madhya Pradesh, India (2006+), Minas Gerais, Brazil (2003+), stabilize systems with standardized instructional Western Cape, South Africa (2003+), and Ghana (2003+). Countries around the world, particularly for the topic concerned, structured pedagogy those with low-skill teachers, have found suc- programs can change existing classroom cess with the use of structured pedagogy pro- practice because they incorporate learning grams (see box 7.4 for a description of these activities and pedagogical training. In a programs). Such programs typically include review of 420 scholarly analyses of educa- training courses for teachers and learning tional interventions in low- and middle- resources for both teachers and students. In income countries, structured pedagogy addition to improving instructional quality interventions had the largest and most M o d e r n i z i n g C u r r i c u l a , I n s t r u c t i o n , a n d A s s e s s m e n t t o I m p r o v e L e a r n i n g    173 consistently positive effects on student learn- School buildings, multiple shifts, and ing outcomes. Although none of the struc- overcrowding are problems tured pedagogy interventions reviewed had Many students in MENA are in schools taken place in MENA, some of the interven- where the principal perceives that instruction tions were in countries performing at similar is severely impeded by shortages or inadequa- levels on TIMSS and the Programme for cies in the school buildings and grounds. International Student Assessment (PISA), Across all countries participating in TIMSS such as Chile, Costa Rica, and South Africa 2015, 18 percent of students are in schools in (Snilstveit et al. 2015). A variety of scripted which shortages or inadequacies in the school lessons and teacher coaching can help to buildings and grounds severely affect instruc- overcome deficits in teacher skills in low-­ tion (Mullis et al. 2016). 2 In stark contrast, performing education systems (Mourshed, all participating MENA countries reported Chijioke, and Barber 2010). This approach even higher proportions (with the exception can be an important short- to medium-term of Lebanon).  intervention until teachers’ professional skills Across MENA, in conflict- and noncon- are developed further. flict-affected countries and in wealthy and Using instructional practices that maxi- poor countries, issues of poor school infra- mize children’s potential could start with structure and overcrowding are apparent. In policies that encourage student-centered Libya, 25 percent of public schools are unable instructional methods linked to clear learn- to provide access to drinking water, and just ing standards in a competency-based curricu- 37 percent of public schools have a waste lum. Faculties of education, where new collection-disposal system (UNICEF 2012). ­ entrants to teaching gain the latest knowl- Saudi Arabia struggles with overcrowded edge and skills of effective pedagogical meth- classrooms, despite having additional schools ods, are the starting point for embedding in rented buildings and multiple-shift school good techniques. For practicing teachers, days where needed. Although Saudi Arabia’s high-profile systemwide in-service teacher education regulations stipulate a maximum training programs can indicate that the top is of 30 students in classes in government school focusing on the need to move toward student- buildings and 20 students in rented build- centered instructional methods. Lessons ings, according to teachers it is now common should be targeted to the students’ skill level. to find more than 40 students in class- The sharing of lesson plans—and scripted rooms. Overcrowding makes it difficult for lessons where teacher capacity is low—can teachers to teach and students to learn, encourage and support teachers in trying because there is not enough time for in-depth something new. discussion of schoolwork in overly full classes (Al-Sughair 2014). Egypt also stands out, with more than 40 percent of students in Provide classroom environments schools in which the principal feels that infra- conducive to learning structure (school buildings and grounds) In addition to modernizing curricula and severely hinders teaching (Mullis et al. 2016). instructional practices to maximize children’s In some areas, severe overcrowding leads potential, the school and classroom environ- to the need for double- or even triple-shift ment must be conducive to, and even pro- schools. In a multiple-shift system, schools mote, learning. This environment includes cater to two or more entirely separate groups the appropriate physical environment as well of students during each school day. The first as the ethos and atmosphere created by group typically attends from early morning school leaders and teachers, all of which until midday, and the second attends from influence the experience of the child while in midday through late afternoon. Each group formal learning settings. uses the same buildings and equipment. 1 7 4   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations In some school systems, the two groups are adequate school infrastructure for single- taught by the same teachers, and in other shift schools with uncrowded classrooms as systems they are taught by different teach- soon as possible. ers. Multiple-shift schooling may create problems. The school day, especially in triple-­ ­ The school experience differs for boys session systems, is often shortened, which and girls implies that quality is being sacrificed for quantity—students are losing time for class- Many schools in MENA are segregated by room learning and extracurricular activities. gender, particularly at the secondary level. In addition, if teachers work in more than In most cases, girls are taught by women, one session, they are likely to be tired, caus- and boys are taught by men. The exceptions ing ­f urther deterioration in quality (Batra are Lebanon and Morocco, where girls and 1998). boys are generally educated together at all Furthermore, multiple-shift systems are levels. In Saudi Arabia, where the gender sometimes accused of causing social prob- difference in student achievement is the lems because children are in school for greatest, girls and boys are educated sepa- shorter periods of time and so have more idle rately beginning in grade 1. In Jordan and time to roam the streets and cause trouble Oman, public schools are coeducational (Batra 1998). Even when schools success- until around grade 4 and then gender segre- fully circumvent these issues, the public often gated. In other GCC countries, the predomi- views multiple-shift schools as being of infe- nance of coeducational private schools rior quality; they are less attractive to teach- means that at least a quarter to half of all ers and parents (see, for example, Batra students are educated in a coeducational 1998). This perception exacerbates inequal- environment (Ripley 2017). ity, with multiple-shift schools relying on The school and classroom environments lower-quality teachers and enrolling predom- differ substantially between all-girls and all- inantly poorer students (Herrán and boys schools, and so the learning experi- Rodríguez 2000; Nhundu 2000).  ences of girls and boys in single-sex schools Embracing multiple-shift schools is a fea- can be vastly different. For example, as sible option in the face of medium-term shown in the following section, MENA resource constraints, but longer-term solu- classrooms manage student behavior using tions must be prioritized. In recent years, outdated and harmful techniques, which MENA has expanded education, and this can be particularly harsh in all-boys schools expansion has contributed to overcrowding (Ridge 2014). and, in some cases, the need for multiple- Given the substantial differences in learn- shift schools (Heyne and Gebel ing outcomes between girls and boys across 2012). While seeing multiple-shift schools as MENA, it is important to examine how the a solution for the medium term may make it learning environment differs between all- seem worth investing time and energy to girls and all-boys schools. In Oman, an inter- improve their effectiveness, little evidence disciplinary project undertaken between exists that this improvement is likely or even 2011 and 2014 studied the gender gap in stu- possible given the shorter school hours and dent performance and its implications—this the social stigma attached to multiple-shift was called “The Male Dilemma.” The proj- schools (Herrán and Rodríguez 2000). Time ect found that, among the many factors con- is of the essence, as this dilemma will come tributing to lower academic performance into sharper focus as MENA countries face among boys, all-girls schools had more learn- increasing pressure from larger numbers of ing materials, student participation, and primary education graduates (Linden 2001). attentiveness in class (Osman et al. 2014). Ultimately, the wisest choice for MENA is to In addition, female teachers provided more invest the resources necessary in providing assistance and feedback to students and M o d e r n i z i n g C u r r i c u l a , I n s t r u c t i o n , a n d A s s e s s m e n t t o I m p r o v e L e a r n i n g    175 allowed more creativity and expression of experience less bullying, and feel more ideas than male teachers in all-boys schools. encouraged to succeed academically than Addressing the differences in learning boys. At age 15, students—both boys and experiences between all-girls and all-boys girls—in Qatar, Tunisia, and the United schools will require taking a closer look at Arab Emirates have some of the highest lev- aspects of the teaching profession as per- els of exposure to bullying among partici- ceived by male and female teachers and the pating PISA 2015 countries, while Tunisia gendered ways in which they may experi- has one of the worst disciplinary climates. ence teacher training. Research reveals I n a n u npubl i she d U. S . A genc y for that men have a poor perception of the International Development study (quoted in teaching profession, which may lead to Ripley 2017), classroom observations in inferior performance among male teachers Jordan revealed a climate in which male in the classroom and low learning out- teachers in all-boys schools are more likely comes for boys (Ridge 2014). Suggestions than female teachers in all-girls schools to for policy actions include public campaigns react to a student’s incorrect answer with highlighting the importance of using male belittling or punishment. In the same study, role models in lessons and identifying and boys are much more likely than girls to com- encouraging top-­ performing male teachers plain about teachers shouting at and beating to raise their voices and allow others to students. In addition to concerns about the learn from them. welfare of children, the time spent on mis- Given the pervasive underperformance of guided methods of managing student behav- boys in the MENA region and the stark dif- ior is time lost from learning. ferences in the schooling experiences of boys Developing a positive learning environ- and girls, it is time to elevate the discussion of ment will require taking another look at stu- boys’ education and the appropriate and con- dent behavior management techniques. Now structive management of student behavior in is the time to elevate the discussion of man- classrooms to create positive learning envi- aging student behavior in classrooms, par- ronments for all. One particularly important ticularly for all-boys schools, and to equip reason to pay attention to the quality of boys’ teachers with methods that will encourage education is that boys may be more affected learning and create positive learning envi- by school quality than girls, be more harmed ronments. Changing the way teachers man- by bad schools, and gain more from strong age their students would benefit from schools (Autor et al. 2016). intensive in-service training and incentives. All-boys schools have particular challenges, and their teachers need to know and under- Schools and classrooms should be stand how to use teaching techniques that positive places of learning work best for t hese sit uations. T h is Classrooms should be positive places of ­ u nderstanding could be taught explicitly in learning. Across the region, high rates of stu- pre­service and in-service teacher training— dent and teacher absenteeism are signs of teacher standards should be clear, and teach- poor school and classroom climates (Ezzine ers should be monitored. An example comes 2009); a positive environment in which stu- from Western Australia, where teachers dents feel a sense of belonging is more condu- complained to their union about poor stu- cive to learning. dent behavior in classrooms. This complaint The learning environment in MENA led to a collaboration between the teachers’ schools is safer and more encouraging in all- union and the state authority for education, girls schools than in all-boys schools. resulting in the rollout of a highly regarded Analysis of the TIMSS 2015 data for this in-service training program for teachers report found that, across the region, girls across the state, follow-up mentoring sup- feel a greater sense of belonging to schools, port from trainers, and teachers feeling 1 7 6   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations better equipped to cope with challenging Use assessment methods to student behavior (Virgona 2012). adapt instruction and promote higher-order skills Adequate teaching and learning materials While large-scale national and international are needed to promote learning assessments can catalyze education reform at Shortages and inadequacies of learning and the policy level, public examinations and for- teaching materials are impeding teaching in mative classroom assessments have the poten- MENA. This problem is more pronounced tial to generate powerful incentives for efforts in MENA countries than in other countries to improve learning for students, teachers, participating in TIMSS 2015. Learning and and schools. However, if used inappropri- teaching materials include books and writ- ately, public examinations can reinforce shal- ing materials, as well as concrete objects or low forms of learning, and classroom materials to help students to understand assessment can consume valuable lesson time concepts, quantities, and procedures. 3 without enhancing student learning. A lack of basic inputs, such as learning and teaching materials, can hinder the imple- Frequent, high-quality classroom mentation of curriculum and therefore stu- assessment can be a powerful tool for dent learning. On average, more than learning 20 percent of MENA students participating in TIMSS 2015 were in schools with inade- There is compelling evidence that formative quate mathematics materials, 4 compared classroom assessments—the types of assess- with only 12 percent across all participating ment procedures that teachers use during the countries. The shortfall is even more pro- learning process so that they can modify nounced in science, where 32 percent of their activities and approaches in response— MENA students are in schools with inade- can raise learning outcomes by providing quate science materials, compared with feedback to students on how to improve their 21 percent, on average, across all participat- performance and understanding (Black and ing countries (see figure 7.7). Wiliam 2010; Hattie and Timperley 2007; FIGURE 7.7  Inadequacy of mathematics or science materials affects instruction for many students across MENA Percentage of grade 8 students whose school’s capacity to provide instruction is affected by a shortage or inadequacy of mathematics or science teaching and learning materials, as reported by school principals, 2015 50 48 42 41 39 40 33 33 31 30 28 26 26 Percent 23 22 21 21 19 19 19 18 20 17 17 14 13 12 10 10 0 Saudi Kuwait Lebanon Qatar Bahrain Iran, Oman Jordan United Morocco Egypt, International Arabia Islamic Arab Arab Rep. average Rep. Emirates Math teaching and learning materials Science teaching and learning materials Source: Mullis et al. 2016. M o d e r n i z i n g C u r r i c u l a , I n s t r u c t i o n , a n d A s s e s s m e n t t o I m p r o v e L e a r n i n g    177 Roediger, Putnam, and Smith 2011). classroom assessments to inform lesson plan- Classroom assessment techniques can include ning (Rabie et al. 2017). Failure to do so lim- verbal questioning and feedback; written its the potential of classroom assessments to quizzes; students holding up response cards improve student learning. or miniature whiteboards to give the teacher a real-time snapshot of classwide understand- High-stakes examinations often ing; or activities requiring students to retrieve overemphasize rote recall and apply newly acquired knowledge. With today’s technology, mobile devices and appli- As shown in spotlight 2 on measuring learn- cations can be used for similar purposes (see ing, public examinations can strongly influ- box 7.5 for one successful model of class- ence teaching and learning. High-stakes room assessment). public examinations in some MENA coun- While teachers in the MENA region regu- tries exacerbate the pull for low-level instead larly assess students, classroom assessments of high-level skills, through their emphasis on are often ineffective. More than 70 percent of factual recall over critical thinking. students in MENA countries participating in Assessments focused on complex tasks TIMSS 2015 have had teachers who reported may generate stronger incentives for higher- placing a major emphasis on monitoring stu- order skills development. Given the global dents’ progress in mathematics through stu- demand for higher-order cognitive skills, dents’ ongoing work or classroom tests growing attention is being paid to assessment (Mullis et al. 2016). Yet, across MENA coun- formats—such as task-based assessments— tries, classroom assessments are rarely used that replace narrow, superficial question-and- to adapt instruction or provide meaningful answer approaches with complex tasks feedback to students. For instance, only one testing deeper forms of learning (Wagner in four teachers in Jordan reported using 2011). Reforms of high-stakes examinations Box 7.5  Using peer instruction to assess, challenge, and engage in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics lessons Peer instruction is a model for science and mathe- student learning in many settings, including in matics instruction that incorporates dialogue, prob- India’s low-cost Avanti Learning Centers, where stu- lem solving, and formative classroom assessment. dents have a 40 percent success rate in a challeng- It follows a sequence: ing tertiary entrance examination, compared with a 1 percent success rate among students with similar 1. The teacher explains a concept. background characteristics who are not in Avanti 2. The teacher poses a problem focused on the con- Learning Centers. cept, which requires deep understanding rather Peer instruction can be adapted to national than straightforward formulaic application. education systems by developing a bank of chal- 3. Students think about the problem and arrive at lenging problems testing students’ understanding an answer individually. of key concepts in the curriculum. When imple- 4. Students discuss the problem with a partner. mented correctly, peer instruction has the potential 5. Students show the teacher their postdiscussion to augment classroom assessments, giving teachers answer. valuable information to inform their pedagogical 6. The teacher explains the correct answer. practice. Although developed for Harvard undergradu- ates studying physics, peer instruction has improved Sources: Mazur 1997; Wagner and Dintersmith 2015. 1 7 8   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations in MENA hold promise for transforming the Despite the inherent challenges, measuring teaching and learning process and creating a the existence of noncognitive skills against pull for skills. other key variables such as educational attainment and employment may be illumi- nating for MENA countries. While some Noncognitive and socioemotional skills measurement efforts have emerged in this are critically important for student area—such as the Big 5 Personality Test, the achievement Grit Scale, and others—the MENA region Noncognitive skills encompass a range of has generally lagged in developing contextu- abilities; for example, conscientiousness, ally appropriate tools for measuring socio- perseverance, and teamwork. These skills emot iona l sk i l ls. However, some are critically important for student achieve- developments are under way in the region. ment, both in and beyond the classroom The Measuring Early Learning Quality and (Heckman 2006; Schanzenbach et al. 2016; Outcomes (MELQO) is an initiative of the Wo r l d E c o n o m i c F o r u m 2 016 ). World Bank, UNESCO, United Nations Noncognitive skills form a critical piece of Ch ild ren’s Fu nd (U N IC E F), a nd t he workers’ skill sets, which are composed of Brookings Institution, which aims to improve cognitive, noncognitive, and job-specific the quality, feasibility, and accessibility of skills. Research at the international, population-based measures of early child- national, and school levels is increasingly hood environments and learning outcomes looking at how education systems affect the associated with readiness for primary educa- development of these skills. Demand for tion around the world. Initiated in 2014, these skills will continue to change as econo- MELQO was designed to generate efficiently mies and labor market needs evolve, with locally relevant data on children’s learning trends such as automation causing funda- and development at the start of school and mental shifts. For many countries, a big preprimary learning environments, with spe- question for the future will be how their cific relevance for informing national early education systems can move to support, childhood development policy and global develop, and assess in-demand noncognitive monitoring (UNESCO et al. 2017). Through skills more effectively. a consultative process designed to draw on Among education policy makers, there is the best experiences in measuring early child- growing interest in personal qualities other hood development to date, MELQO has than cognitive ability that determine success, developed modules for country adaptation, including self-control, grit, growth mind-set, measuring socioemotional and cognitive and many others (Duckworth 2016; Dweck skills among children between four and six 2007; Mischel 2014). However, attempts to years (MODEL) and the quality of children’s measure such qualities for the purposes of learning environments (MELE). educational policy and practice are more recent (see spotlight 2). The measures in use Notes today have both advantages and limitations. In determining which tool to use for measur- 1. As reported by school principals in TIMSS ing noncognitive skills, policy makers would 2015. 2. As reported by the school principals. do well to consider the purpose for which 3. Examples are mathematics tools such as they are assessing these skills. Furthermore, it blocks, counters, and geo-shapes that contrib- may make sense to combine or use a variety ute to improving mathematical skills and con- of measurements or to adapt questions (if a ceptual development (Swan and Marshall questionnaire is used) or tasks to the specific 2010) or science kits that contain equipment pedagogical situation and skill being for student-led experiments (UNESCO 2015). targeted. 4. 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SPOTLIGHT 2 Measuring Learning Laura Gregory and Elisabeth Sedmik L earning is a key goal of education national or international large-scale assess- ­ systems, but without accurate informa- ments monitor educational progress at the col- tion on learning, policy makers cannot lective level and have low stakes for individual make informed decisions. Assessment, there- students, thus allowing for more rigorous fore, is both an important learning tool (for comparison of educational progress over time students) and a key source of data (for teach- (Clarke 2012; Greaney and Kellaghan 2008). ers and education decision makers). There are The distinction between public examinations several ways to monitor and assess student and national and international assessments is learning, each serving different purposes not always straightforward. (Clarke 2012; World Bank 2018). Such examinations can create perverse incentives that have a negative impact on stu- •  A teacher may use formative classroom dent learning environments. This is the case, assessment during a lesson to measure for example, when national assessments have how well students understand the mate- low stakes for students but affect school rial. This is an example of a “low-stakes” funding or teacher promotions. If school assessment, in that the results do not have funding depends on test scores, inequity long-term implications for student place- could increase as schools located in areas ment, but instead inform the teacher and with ample physical and human capital student about the instructional process. resources receive more funding than those •  In contrast, public examinations evaluate located in areas with fewer resources. how well students have mastered a certain Likewise, when teacher promotions depend domain of knowledge and skills, usually solely on student test scores, teachers are at the end of a phase of education. These motivated to teach to the test, and this focus examinations are often “high-stakes” on examination scores can lead to overuse of assessments, in that their results influence rote memorization, factual recall, and even students’ progression through the educa- cheating, as documented in Jordan and tion system. Morocco (Buckner and Hodges 2015), as •  Finally, n ation al and inte r n ation al well as Lebanon (Bacha, Bahous, and large-scale assessments of student learn- Nabhani 2012). Therefore, clarity about the ing provide educators and policy mak- purpose of an assessment program can ers with comparative information that enhance its utility. enables them to take stock of what is working and what needs to improve. Although both public examinations and National and international national and international assessments can large-scale student assessments yield countrywide data on student learning, it monitor education system is important to distinguish between their dif- progress ferent purposes. Public examinations evaluate National and international large-scale student or certify individual students. In contrast, assessments are often used to measure and 183 1 8 4   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations monitor student learning at a collective level. Early Grade Mathematics Assessment These assessments are generally limited to (EGMA) measure within-country trends in ­ certain grades, subject areas, and schooling student learning during the early years. Each years. They often involve a representative sam- assessment takes an average of 15 to 20 min- ple of students; in some countries, all students utes per student, and scoring does not require in a given grade are tested each year.1 knowledge of statistical techniques (Gove These assessments are useful for (1) tracking et al. 2013). Similarly, the PAL Network within-­ country trends in student learning, coordinates volunteer-led, household-based (2) measuring against learning targets, and assessments of basic literacy and numeracy in (3) providing points of comparison with other 14 countries (PAL Network n.d.). The countries. Some countries implement national Organisation for Economic Co-operation assessments of learning, which can focus on and Development (OECD) recently launched national curricula and measure within-­ PISA for Development, an initiative to adapt country education goals tied to national PISA assessment instruments to the needs of education policy. Developing and implement- ­ low- and middle-income countries (OECD ing regular national assessments require 2016). I n addition, the I nternational financial resources and technical capacity. ­ Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement is developing the Literacy and Numeracy Assessment (LaNA). 2 Although Large-scale assessments can inform these assessments are not tied to national policy and drive improvements education policy goals, they do provide a High-profile international and national means of basic assessment and comparative assessments often receive media and public benchmarking of student progress that would attention, leading to demand for reform not otherwise take place. (Grea ney a nd Kel lag ha n 20 08). Unfortunately, in several countries in the More MENA countries are undertaking Middle East and North Africa (MENA), the large-scale assessments public is often unaware of poor assessment results because they are not openly discussed, The number of national and international or, in the case of national assessments, the assessments of student achievement has results are not made publicly available. increased in the region since the mid-1990s. Major international student assessments This expansion provides important pieces of include the Trends in International Mathematics information on what students have learned and Science Study (TIMSS), which is conducted and what they can do. Table S2.1 shows the every four years, and the Progress in various national and international assess- International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS), ments of student achievement undertaken in which is conducted every five years. In addition, MENA countries since 1995, illustrating the the Programme for International Student surge in participation that began in 2007. In Assessment (PISA) studies the performance of 1995, just two countries (the Islamic Republic 15-year-olds in mathematics, science, and read- of Iran and Kuwait) participated in TIMSS, ing every three years. while 11 MENA countries participated in Some international assessments have also 2019. been designed for low- and middle-income countries with limited financial resources and But few countries are using the results technical capacity. These assessments are to inform decisions sometimes used to stand in for national assessments, often adapted to reflect student While MENA countries are increasingly par- progress in the education systems of the ticipating in large-scale international assess- countries in which they are given. The Early ments and many are, or have begun, applying Grade Reading Assessment (EGRA) and national assessments on a regular basis, TABLE S2.1  Participation in national and international student assessments has surged in MENA since 2007 MENA economies undertaking national and international student assessments, 1995–2019 Economy 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 Algeria ◦• ◽ Bahrain • • ◊ ◊ ◦•◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◦• ▴ ◦• Djibouti × + Egypt, Arab Rep. • ◊ •◊ ◊ ×◊ ◊ × × × • ▴ ◦◊ Iran, Islamic Rep. ◦• • ▴ ◦• ▴ ◦• ♦ ◦•▴ ◦• ▴ ◦• Iraq ×+ ◊ Jordan • • ◽ • ◽ • ◽×+ ×+ ◦•◽ ◽ •◊ Kuwait ◦• ▴ ▴ ◦• ◦ ◦• ▴ ◦• Lebanon • • ♦ • •◽♦ × ◊ ×◽ • Libya Morocco • ▴ ◦• ▴ ◦• ◊ ◦ • ▴× + ◦• ▴◊ ◽ ◦• Oman ◊ • ◦•▴ ◦• ▴ ◦• Qatar ◽▴ ◦• ◽ ◦•▴ ◽ ◦•◽ ▴ ◽ ◦• Saudi Arabia • • ◦•▴ ◦•◊ ▴◊ ◽ ◊ ◦ • × ◊ Syrian Arab Republic • • Tunisia • ◦•◽ ◽ ◦• ◽ ◦• ◽ ◽ United Arab Emirates ◽a ◦•▴ ◽ ◦•◽ ▴ ◽ ◦• West Bank and Gaza • ◊ • • × × Yemen, Rep. ◊ ◦ ◊ ◦ ◦× M e a s u r i n g L e a r n i n g    +  ×  EGMA     ◊  National or other assessment     ▴  EGRA     ◽  PIRLS grade 4     ◦  PISA     •  TIMSS grade 4     ♦  TIMSS Advancedb TIMSS grade 8     Source: Compiled by the World Bank, based on information from country task teams and international assessment organizations. Note: Includes participating countries for which results were not reported because of sampling or other issues. EGMA = Early Grade Mathematics Assessment; EGRA = Early Grade Reading Assessment; PIRLS = Progress in International Reading Literacy Study; PISA = Programme for International Student Assessment; TIMSS = Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study. a. The 2009 PISA scores pertain to the PISA 2009+ reported score for the United Arab Emirates (Dubai participated in 2009, and the remaining emirates participated in 2010). b. TIMSS Advanced assesses the advanced mathematics and physics knowledge and skills of students in their final year of secondary school who have taken courses in advanced mathematics and physics. TIMSS Advanced was administered in 1995, 2008, and 2015. 185 1 8 6   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations few are using the results to inform education thus informing improved targeting (to policy and pedagogical practices. Jordan is an regions, resources, or districts, for exam- exception, as it has been sharing the results of ple) of reforms its national assessment with the public, allow- •  How new curricula, teacher training, or ing education stakeholders the opportunity to teaching methods should be developed respond to the status quo and participate in and implemented efforts to make improvements (Obeidat and •  How benchmarks can be set to enable Dawani 2014). Examples from countries in t rack i ng of prog re s s a nd i nc re a s e other regions illustrate how the best use can be accountability. made of these rich sources of information; for example, Chile’s Sistema de Medición de la Calidad de la Educación (Education Quality Public examinations can catalyze Measurement System) has carried out census- reform but also can create based assessments since 1988 and publishes perverse incentives the results at both the national and school While large-sale national and international levels. The Chile example demonstrates that ­ assessments can catalyze education reform at publishing results can nurture a culture of the policy level, public examinations can gen- evaluation that makes all actors accountable erate powerful incentives for change at the (Meckes and Carrasco 2010). school, teacher, and student levels (Kellaghan At the local level, several MENA countries and Greaney 2001; Madaus, Russell, and have used student assessment results to evalu- Higgins 2009). However, if used inappropri- ate and inform education initiatives. For ately, public examinations can reinforce shal- example, EGRA results have been used suc- low forms of learning, and preparation can cessfully to determine effect sizes of small- consume valuable lesson time without scale reading interventions, such as in the enhancing student learning. In many MENA Arab Republic of Egypt and Jordan, which countries, students receive one of the only have informed scaling up of these programs measures of their learning through high- to a national level (USAID 2012, 2014). In stakes year-end examinations. These high- addition, a few years ago, Lebanon finished stakes examinations are typically used to gathering EGRA baseline data in a set of determine grade progression. More regular schools for grades 2 and 3 (2015, 2016) and feedback on students’ learning progress could is currently gathering endline data for both be very helpful to students. In addition, high- grades to assess improvements in reading out- stakes assessments often lead to perverse comes following implementation of a teacher incentives that negatively affect behavior training intervention. among teachers, students, and parents and W hile EGR As and EGM As are not limit learning outcomes. nationally representative, they have the potential to affect national policy positively Public examinations are high stakes by serving as evaluation tools for local educa- and overemphasize rote recall tion initiatives, thus providing data on which programs (or aspects of programs) might be Public examinations can strongly influence scaled successfully to a national level. In teaching and learning, but this influence has cases where EGRA and EGMA assessments mixed effects. While one analysis of cross- have been undertaken at a nationally repre- country PISA data found that exit examina- sentative level, their results can serve to gauge tions have a large positive effect on student how policies are working and can provide achievement (Woessmann et al. 2009), information on the following: another PISA analysis did not find a signifi- cant correlation between standardized testing •  How learning outcomes vary across geo- and achievement (OECD 2016). Some graphic areas and demographic groups, smaller-scale studies have found that teachers M e a s u r i n g L e a r n i n g    187 respond to high-stakes tests with increased and, ultimately, to students who have not diligence and focus (Hamilton 2003; Koretz developed lifelong skills such as critical 20 08). However, teachers have a lso thinking and learning to learn, both of which responded by narrowing lesson content to are increasingly important in today’s world match test coverage, allocating excessive (World Bank 2019). In Egypt, 53 percent of classroom time to test preparation, focusing students utilize private tutoring, and a fur- on students whose performance hovers ther 10 percent utilize paid study groups around grade boundaries, or assigning low- (Assaad and Krafft 2015). performing students to special-needs catego- Regarding equity, students from higher ries that exempt them from testing (Hamilton socioeconomic backgrounds are more likely 2003; Kellaghan and Greaney 1992; Koretz to receive tutoring and therefore to achieve 2008). In some cases, the introduction of higher test scores, exacerbating inequality of high-stakes examinations has resulted in a learning outcomes among students from dif- rise in student test scores on the high-stakes ferent socioeconomic backgrounds. In addi- test without corresponding improvements in tion, widespread private t utoring by low-stakes tests, suggesting that the improve- schoolteachers creates an economic disincen- ments in high-stakes scores did not translate tive to cover material adequately during class, into broader learning gains (Hamilton 2003; further exacerbating inequalities in education Koretz 2008). outcomes (Assaad and Krafft 2015). In MENA, high-stakes examinations rein- Even at lower grades, year-end school force a focus on credentials rather than skills examinations affect opportunities for chil- acquisition (Salehi-Isfahani 2012). In addi- dren to progress through grades, which can tion to the lack of widespread and systematic negatively influence teaching practices. formative assessments, high-stakes examina- Lebanon’s students are tested monthly in tions in MENA are misaligned with goals for class, take two examinations every year, and the acquisition of relevant knowledge and sit national examinations at the end of grades skills. High-stakes examinations in MENA 9 and 12. In the Islamic Republic of Iran and countries at the end of secondary school are Jordan, students may pass on to the next level used to ration progression into further—­ provided they do not fail more than three tertiary—education. As the sole determinant subjects in their year-end examinations. of progression to higher education in many These examinations or summative assess- cases, learning, especially in the last years of ments are intended to measure whether secondary education, emphasizes this high- students have mastered the necessary ­ ­ content. stakes examination rather than the acquisi- They also serve to channel students into edu- tion of broader skills and learning to learn. cation tracks. However, their high-stakes Furthermore, the high-stakes examina- nature often results in teachers emphasizing tions at the end of secondary education in the memori zation for exam inations over MENA region tend to emphasize straightfor- problem-solving skills (Akar 2016; Shuayb ­ ward recall and procedural applications, 2012). Morocco has implemented a system of leading to cramming, private tutoring, and examinations at each level (Mullis and rote memorization (Akar 2016; Shuayb Martin 2013). These examinations are 2012). The Tawjihi in Jordan and West Bank intended to channel students into educational and Gaza or the Thanaweya Amma in Egypt and vocational tracks; as such, they run the are used to determine whether a student can risk that teachers will use didactic rather enroll in a specific university or faculty, than dialogic teaching methods (Akar 2016; which in turn determines his or her future Shuayb 2012). occupational opportunities and social Recognizing the inherent risks, several standing. High-stakes examinations focused ­ MENA countries have reduced the focus on on recall lead to teaching methods that focus high-stakes examinations, especially during on memorization of facts and procedures, the early grades. Jordan, Kuwait, and 1 8 8   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations Lebanon have abolished high-stakes exami- attending schools within the New York nations that ration progression between Performance Standards Consortium are cer- grades 1 and 3. Their example might guide tified for graduation based on portfolios of further reforms in other MENA countries complex tasks in which they apply their aimed at ensuring that high-stakes examina- knowledge and skills across different sub- tions are rationed, do not create perverse jects, such as an argumentative literary analy­ incentives for teachers and students, and test sis or an original scientific experiment higher-order thinking skills. (Guha et al. 2018). In Singapore, preuniver- Recently, East Asian countries with histori- sity students take a stand-alone subject called cally high scores on PISA and TIMSS have Project Work as part of the A-level examina- made efforts to reduce high-stakes testing in tion. In Project Work, groups of four or five upper-secondary school, introducing more students investigate a problem in their local process-oriented and student-centered assess- context, research possible solutions, and ment measures. For example, in an effort to deliver an oral presentation of their findings. eliminate “teaching to the test” and to support Students receive a final grade reflecting both 21st-century skills and curricular reforms i n d i v i du a l a n d g r o up p e r f o r m a n c e focused on learning to learn, in 2014 Japan (Examinations and Assessment Board proposed the Prospective University Entrant Singapore 2017). Scholastic Abilities Evaluation Test, an alter- Besides task-based assessments linked to native examination to be implemented from specific topics or subject areas, another form 2019 for ward. T he examination will of task-based assessment focuses on testing deemphasize rote memorization, while priori- ­ generic higher-order cognitive skills. While tizing students’ thinking ability, expression, these assessments are standardized sit-down and reasoning skills (Kimura and Tatsuno tests, they differ substantially from tradi- 2017). In a similar effort to promote student tional content-oriented exams. One such test, learning, the Republic of Korea has imple- the Collegiate Learning Assessment (CLA+), mented an “exam-free semester.” In order for is a computer-based test of students’ critical lower-secondary students to discover their thinking and written communication capa- dreams and talents free from the pressure of bilities. In addition to multiple-choice ques- midterm and final exams, Korea allows teach- tions testing different types of reasoning and ers to make flexible use of the curriculum for a argumentation, the CLA+ includes a perfor- period of one semester, which encourages stu- mance task, in which students craft practical dent participation through discussion and written responses to a real-world scenario practice and enables various activities such as based on several authentic sources in differ- career exploration. The exam-free semester ent formats, such as newspaper articles, sta- was introduced in 2013, pilot-tested for two tistical reports, and interview transcripts years, and then implemented nationwide in (Council for Aid to Education 2017). Some 2016 (Cheng 2017). U.S. universities use the CLA+ to measure gains in students’ skills over the course of their tertiary education, providing a common Task-based assessments can measure metric of educational value added across dif- higher-order skills ferent academic disciplines (Benjamin 2014; In some education systems, examinations Hardison and Vilamovska 2009). Similar have been replaced with a series of complex assessments of complex generic skills at the tasks that students complete over an extended secondary level include the College and Work period of time in order to demonstrate their Readiness Assessment, developed by the learning (Darling-Hammond 2017). Task- institution behind the CLA+ (Wagner 2010; based assessments can be incorporated into Z a h n e r 2 013), a nd t h e P I S A 2 015 curricular subjects or conducted as a stand- Collaborative Problem Solving test (OECD alone subject. For example, students 2017). M e a s u r i n g L e a r n i n g    189 To promote skills development, MENA the feasibility of using a task-based assess- countries may benefit from exploring task- ment rather than an intelligence quotient based assessments. Task-based assessments test to identify students for gifted educa- are a relatively recent development, and tion programs (Sarouphim 2009, 2015). various forms are being adopted by a grow- In Oman, examination grades incorporate ing number of schools and education sys- scores from written tests as well as class- tems around the world to promote deeper room-based assessment tasks (World Bank learning and complex skills development 2013). However, affecting a systemwide (Darling-Hammond 2017; Guha et al. shift to task-based assessment can be diffi- 2018; Wagner 2010). In MENA, Lebanon cult, as in Malaysia’s experience (see has conducted some small-scale studies on box S2.1). Box S2.1  Malaysia faced various challenges in introducing task-based assessment In 2011, Malaysia’s Ministry of Education launched in complicated physical files and a sluggish online a new task-based assessment system for primary and database. The reporting requirements were later lower-secondary education. This assessment sys- streamlined, but only after triggering widespread tem was part of a push to develop students’ critical disillusionment with the assessment system—and thinking, creativity, and socioemotional skills and after consuming countless hours of teacher effort was introduced under the banner of the Malaysia that would have been better channeled toward Education Blueprint 2013–2025. However, there developing high-quality assessments. The mismatch have been considerable challenges to implementing between routine modes of monitoring and nonrou- this policy program. tine skills development was also evident in assess- Overambitious implementation timelines did not ment, where teachers accustomed to rigid marking adequately prepare teachers and systems to facili- schemes were unsure of how to award credit for tate skills development. Between 1999 and 2011, open-ended questions and did not receive adequate Malaysia charted the largest declines in mathemat- training to do so. ics and science performance among all countries After a fractious start, the revised examination participating in TIMSS. Consequently, the govern- formats are gradually gaining public acceptance. ment was under pressure to raise student outcomes The shift to assessing the depth rather than the rapidly. Major initiatives to develop 21st-century breadth of students’ knowledge requires not only skills were implemented too hastily for adequate new approaches to teaching and learning, but also preparation. A revised lower-secondary examina- a different conception of educational success. It is tion, which replaced multiple-choice items with too early to tell whether meaningful changes have open-ended questions, was announced just months occurred in classroom practice or students’ cogni- before students were tested, leaving both students tive and socioemotional skills, but there appears and teachers unprepared and anxious. Similarly, a to be growing public acceptance of the new assess- new assessment system based on in-class tasks—a ments. While the first few cycles of the new assess- radical departure from the long-established cen- ments met with considerable hostility from students, tralized examinations—was instituted nationwide teachers, and parents who were caught off-guard by before teachers had been briefed on assessment the rapid changes, the 2017 reformatting of the pri- standards. mary school exit assessment—which emphasized Education monitoring systems, which tradition- performance in classroom tasks, co-curricular activ- ally prioritized procedural compliance, were not ities, and physical fitness alongside standardized test adequately adapted for assessing complex skills. scores—received a warmer response (Menon and When the in-class task-based assessment system was Rajaendram 2017; Mior and Atikah 2017). first introduced, it mandated extensive reporting Sources: Hwa 2016; Ministry of Education Malaysia 2013, 2017. 1 9 0   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations Noncognitive and in grades 2, 4, 6, and 8 (basic education) and socioemotional skills should in grades 10 and 11 (second and third years of secondary education) every year. be assessed alongside 2. See https://www.iea.nl/lana. cognitive skills One important means of supporting the devel- opment of noncognitive skills within education References systems is for noncognitive skills assessment to Akar, Bassel. 2016. “Dialogic Pedagogies in be conducted alongside cognitive skills assess- Educational Settings for Active Citizenship, ment. However, there are substantial Social Cohesion, and Peacebuilding in Lebanon.” challenges in determining the extent to which ­ Education, Citizenship, and Social Justice 11 (1): 44–62. doi:10.1177/1746197915626081. students are developing these key skills. Assaad, Ragui, and Caroline Krafft. 2015. “The Confusion over terminology, including the Evolution of Labor Supply and Unemployment descriptor noncognitive, complicates defining in the Egyptian Economy: 1988–2012.” In The the bounds of this broad category of personal Eg y pti an L abor M arke t in an E ra of qualities, obscuring agreement on the specific Revolution, edited by Ragui Assaad and attributes worth measuring. In addition, non- Caroline Krafft, 1–26. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford cognitive skills tend to be process oriented, University Press. while traditional cognitive assessments focus Bacha, Nahla Nola, Rima Bahous, and Mona on outcome measures (“the right answer” Nabhani. 2012. “High Schoolers’ Views on rather than the personal qualities that sup- Academic Integrity.” Research Papers in ported the student in arriving at the answer). 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CWRA+ Standard Setting Pedagogic Practice, and School Management Study Final Report. New York: Council for i n Jord a n .” R ep or t prepa re d by RT I Aid to Education. http://cae.org /images​ International for USAID, Washington, DC. /­uploads/pdf/cwra_ss.pdf. Leveraging Education Technology 8 Mariam Nusrat Adil, Venkatesh Sundararaman, and May Bend O ver the last decade, new technologies Student Assessment (PISA) data notes, have emerged and spread globally, “The reality in our schools lags consider- disrupting the lives of billions and ably behind the promise of technology” changing the nature of w ­ ork. Consequently, (OECD 2015­ ). The available evidence is the kinds of skills needed to succeed in the mixed at best regarding the effectiveness of labor market are changing as well (World the use of technology for improving stu- Bank 2019­ ). The role of technology as a dent performance, specifically, learning shaper of demand in the future of work is outcomes in language, mathematics, and certain, but its role as a catalyst for the deliv- ­ s cience. In fact, the OECD study points to ery of education holds great untapped poten- a rather perverse set of outcomes, one in tial in the ­ r egion. Indeed, technology is which the frequency of classroom com- changing how today’s students are being pre- puter use is associated with significantly pared to enter the future workforce—that is, worse learning outcomes, even after con- it is influencing not only the ends of educa- trolling for a variety of household and tion but also the ­means. Technology presents characteristics. The report concludes social ­ a unique opportunity to deliver high-quality that investing heavily in information and education in a more efficient and effective communication technology (ICT) services ­ anner. m and infrastructure is less likely to prepare The Middle East and North Africa students for life in a digital world than (M ENA) region has the capacity and ensuring that all children meet basic profi- resources to leverage technology to create ciency levels in reading and mathematics education systems that will build its human (OECD 2015­). ­ capital. However, the power of education to Based on a review of more than 100 build human capital and to create change experimental (randomized control trials and depends on its quality, its access to comple- regression discontinuity design) studies on mentary economic and social environments, the impac ts of education tech nolog y and its ability to leverage technology ­ smartly. (EdTech) across the world, Escueta et ­ a l. A 2015 study by the Organisation for (2017) provide a comprehensive analysis of Economic Co-operation and Development the evidence regarding EdTech’s ability to (OECD) using Programme for International improve student learning and summarize 193 1 9 4   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations Box 8.1  Introducing disruptive technology in the classroom: From the blackboard to ICTs The blackboard was invented in the early 19th cen- oriented to a time when students needed to focus tury when colleges and universities were starting to forward to a blackboard and the teacher used the experiment with the lecture approach (Horn 2017, blackboard to share information that students could referring to a speech by David ­ D ockterman). The not access on their o ­ wn. blackboard spread quickly, and efforts to migrate With today’s online devices, students can access this new technology to school classrooms soon information, methods, formulas, and problem-­ began. This process proved to be complicated, given ­ solving techniques, learn to play the piano, watch that the typical classroom at the time had multiple and perform laboratory experiments, or learn how grades, with children of different ages and abilities best to shoot a basketball or hit a tennis ball—all under the tutelage of one ­ teacher. The blackboard from the relative safety of their d ­ esk. was not useful in such a ­setting. Many years would Classrooms as we currently know them could pass before classrooms were reorganized as they are potentially ­ d isappear. How children learn can today, and blackboards finally proved their worth b e f u nd a ment a l ly a ltered a nd d ra m at ic a l ly in single-grade ­ environments. i mproved. For the next EdTech technology revo- ­ Over the past couple of decades, the ­ introduction lution to take place, a fundamental shift in teach- of ICTs into the classroom has followed a simi- ing and classroom organization is necessary, lar ­p ath. ICTs have not fundamentally altered just as it was for successful introduction of the our approach to classroom teaching, thus limiting ­blackboard. their ability to affect student learning p­ ositively. Sources: Horn 2017, citing Mackey 2010, referring to a speech by David The f­ undamental structure of the classroom is still ­Dockterman. Also see Buzbee 2014; Muttappallymyalil et ­al. 2016. their findings across four broad themes: skills will likely need to be part of their (1) access to technology, (2) computer- foundational skill ­ set. assisted learning, (3) behavioral interven- •  The ability of youths to understand, use, courses. They find that tions, and (4) online ­ navigate, modify, and adapt digital tech- the most promising i ­nterventions include nology for a wide variety of applications computer-assisted learning and behavioral ­ uccess. will be critical to their future s interventions, while interventions that Remarkable technological advances have merely provide access to technologies occurred in the past 10 ­ years. A bewildering and online courses are less impactful (see number of new disruptive technologies box  8.1­). appear on the market every day and are hav- ing dramatic effects on how we communi- Digital technology is altering all cate, search for information, read, coordinate, facets of life in MENA socialize, conduct business, and so ­ on. The pace of this change has been ­ exponential.1 At Although we cannot be certain that the use the time of the last World Bank MENA edu- of EdTech will improve learning outcomes cation flagship report in 2008, the iPhone across MENA, we can predict with confi- was one year old, Twitter was just taking off, dence that the following will occur in the and Facebook users numbered around not-so-distant future: 145 million globally (Guardian 2014; World •  MENA’s youths will inherit a world Bank 2008­ ). By 2016, there were 107 mobile dominated by technology, where digital subscriptions per 100 persons in MENA L e v e r a g i n g E d u ca t i o n T e c h n o l o g y    195 countries (World Bank World Development million ­ smartphones. By 2020, it is foreseen Indicators database), and by 2017 there were that approximately half of all MENA resi- almost 100 million active social media users dents will have access to mobile Internet ser- (Radcliffe and Lam 2018­ ). Of the 2.1 billion vices and become consumers of social media, c u r rent Fac eb o ok u s er s , more t h a n e-commerce, financial and social services, 100 ­ M ENA. The social net- m illion are in ­ and a range of entertainment services (GSM work WhatsApp, which was launched in Association 2017­).2 2009, has 1.5 billion users ­ globally. Today, Rapid penetration of technology and the more than two-thirds of young Arabs use myriad opportunities it presents entice citi- Facebook and ­ W hatsApp. Furthermore, zens and policy makers to invest in digital YouTube, which was three years old in 2008, technologies and attempt to leapfrog con- currently has 1.5 billion users globally, and s t ra i nt s i n c u r re nt s er v ic e del iver y Saudi Arabia is its biggest market in per cap- mechanisms. Across the region, three under- ­ ita ­consumption. Young Saudi Arabians ages lying factors will keep access to general tech- 15 to 24 spend on average 72 minutes a day nology on the front burner: (1) governments’ watching online videos (Radcliffe and Lam desire to diversify their economies, (2) efforts 2018­). by businesses to remain globally competitive In MENA, digital technologies have by extending the reach of digital technologies begun to alter all facets of ­life. Countries in in their respective areas, and (3) the opportu- the region are seeking ways to integrate digi- nity offered by digital technology to support tal technologies further into their national learning for all and perhaps contribute to lev- and regional development ­ plans. Initiatives eling the playing field for women in the such as Dubai Plan 2021 and Vision 2030 r egion. A technology-driven future will ­ of Saudi Arabia are expected to result in require children to be technologically savvy far-reaching changes in government social ­ and education systems to support them in contracts with citizens and ­ n oncitizens. becoming s ­ o. Smart cities are expected to mushroom all over the region, with cities like Abu Dhabi, Doha, and Dubai leading the w ­ ay. These Innovations in EdTech are c ities are gearing up for a future where ­ disrupting the education sector highly connected, participatory societies The world and the region have seen a sharp engage with one another and where big increase in EdTech, ICT applications aimed at data, artificial intelligence, machine learn- improving ­ education. Investments in EdTech ing, and deep learning drive service delivery reached a record US$9.5 billion in 2017 (McKinsey 2016­). (Shulman 2018­ ). Khan Academy, which Although MENA’s businesses and public opened its doors in 2008, uses YouTube to sector are looking for ways to expand the use provide lessons to ­millions. In 2017, revenue of digital technologies, citizens have been the from the global EdTech market was estimated ones driving the adoption of technology at US$17.7 billion (Business Wire 2018­ ).3 across the region thus f ­ar. Bahrain, Qatar, Several factors have fueled this growth: and the United Arab Emirates have more recognition of the importance of education than 100 percent smartphone adoption rates, for economic growth; a flattening or even which are higher than in the United States decline of public financing for education, (McKinsey 2016­ ). Mobile broadband con- thereby creating space for private sector par- nections are expected to grow from half of all ticipation; and—perhaps most important— connections to nearly 70 ­ percent by decade’s efforts to disrupt this sector through end, with the number of smartphones technology in hopes of increasing student increasing almost 60 percent (or 167 million learning and leapfrogging ahead in interna- new smartphones) for a total of nearly 463 tional education ­rankings. 1 9 6   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations Leverage technology for a stronger childhood education, poor learning outcomes push for learning during the early years that persist throughout schooling, teaching and assessment systems Although many other sectors have already that do not challenge children and fail to borne the brunt of technological disrup- inculcate a growth mind-set, and a curricu- tion, the education sector has not changed lum that does not fully emphasize 21st-­century substantially in its principal mode of ­skills. delivery over the last 150 years—globally a nd i n M­ E NA . Te ch nolo g y of fer s a u n ique opp or t u n it y to del iver h ig h-­ Expand ICT infrastructure for wider quality education in a more efficient and reach of EdTech solutions effective ­m anner. If leveraged smartly, Accessing EdTech solutions and platforms technology can help MENA countries to requires ICT ­ i nfrastructure. In MENA, advance their education systems and sup- even countries with modest budgets have port ­learning. made substantial investments in school ICT Several conditions in MENA today sup- infrastructure (Lightfoot 2011­ ). ICTs are port greater adoption of EdTech, including available in most MENA schools, averaging a young, dynamic, and tech-savvy popula- about 2.7 computers for every 10 grade 8 tion, an education market valued at about s tudents. This is below the international ­ US$100 billion (Al Masah Capital 2012), average of 4.0 (Mullis et ­ a l. 2016­ ). Cross- and countries that, on average, allocate country variability is quite wide, with about a fifth of their budget to education 10.5 computers for every 10 students in (Trade Arabia News Service 2013; World Qatar and only 1.0 computer for every Bank 2008­ ). All of this points to an envi- 50 students in the Islamic Republic of Iran ronment conducive to the use and growth ). (see figure 8.1­ of ­E dTech. Many online platforms in Across MENA, the staffing needed to MENA provide Arabic learning c ­ ontent. support ICT-based learning is not yet in Some of the English-language content from ­ p lace. Trad itional approaches to t he Khan Academy and others has been trans- ­ teaching-learning process are carried over lated into ­A rabic. MENA-based content classroom. For example, classroom into the ­ providers such as Nafham have followed observations in Bahrain, Jordan, and the the Khan Academy format, producing orig- United Arab Emirates revealed limited inal content that uses curricula from sev- autonomy and lack of clear teacher instruc- eral countries in the region, along with tions in the majority of classrooms where crowdsourcing to upload l ­essons. Others— ICT is being used (Lightfoot 2011­ ). Studies such as Talal Abu-Ghazaleh International also note that investments in ICT infra- University in Lebanon, the Education structure are u ­ nderutilized. For example, Med ia Company in Morocco, and approximately a quarter of all students in Bibliotheca A lexand rina in the A rab Bahrain, Egypt, the Islamic Republic of Republic of Egypt—have created digital Iran, and Jordan use computers only once content in different ­languages. Some initia- or twice a month or do not use them at all tives allow qualified refugees to access ). (see figure 8.2­ online courses (see chapter 3­ ). While MENA’s education sector has wit- Leverage the strong public support for nessed several innovative EdTech solutions, education technology in MENA the core systems continue to face ongoing challenges—poorly prepared teachers, Families, students, and the broader commu- teaching-learning processes that emphasize ­ nity in the region strongly support further rote memorization over critical thinking, rela- integration of digital technology in class- tively low rates of participation in early rooms to change the nature of education and L e v e r a g i n g E d u ca t i o n T e c h n o l o g y    197 FIGURE 8.1  Computers are available in MENA schools, although coverage varies considerably Number of computers (including tablets) available for student use in school for every 10 grade 8 students, 2015 12 10.5 Number of computers/tablets per 10 students 10 8 7.0 6 4 3.3 1.9 1.7 2 1.6 1.4 1.0 0.9 0.3 0.2 0 Qatar Bahrain Kuwait Oman Lebanon United Saudi Jordan Egypt, Morocco Iran, Arab Arabia Arab Rep. Islamic Emirates Rep. Source: Mullis et al. 2016. FIGURE 8.2  Students in MENA rarely use computers in math or science classes Percentage of grade 8 students who never or almost never use school computers to practice mathematics or science skills and ­procedures, as reported by teachers, 2015 45 40 40 35 32 30 28 27 27 25 23 Percent 20 19 18 19 17 17 17 15 14 14 9 9 10 7 7 8 5 5 5 2 0 Egypt, Jordan Bahrain Iran, United Morocco Qatar Saudi Oman Kuwait Lebanon Arab Rep. Islamic Arab Arabia Rep. Emirates Almost never or never use school computers to practice math skills and procedures Almost never or never use school computers to practice science skills and procedures Source: Mullis et al. 2016. 1 9 8   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations FIGURE 8.3  Public support for EdTech reform is strong in MENA training systems in their c ­ ountries. In a Percentage of respondents who agreed with the following statements on Internet ­ survey on social media and education reform access, social media, and education reform, 2013 across 13 of MENA’s countries, a majority of 90 respondents supported ICTs in the classroom 83.5 83.5 80.2 (ASMR 2013­ ). Of those surveyed, 84 percent 80 77.4 felt that universal Internet access should be a 70 norm and that children in schools should be able to access the Internet on individualized 60 personal ­ devices. More than 75 percent felt that social media should be part of the school 50 Percent curriculum (see figure 8.3­). 40 Nevertheless, those surveyed also recog- nized that some aspects of access to technol- 30 ogy could have detrimental effects on student 20 learning. Responding to whether school stu- ­ dents should be allowed to engage in a range 10 of computer-related activities, almost 0 80 ­percent noted that they would be happy to have their kids use “collaborative web tools” Internet access: The government and the private sector should partner to universally provide schools and academic institutions with Internet access in classwork, but less than 40 percent felt that in my country. students should be allowed to use social net- Computers for students: The government and the private sector should partner working media in class (see figure 8.4­). to universally provide students in schools with Internet access devices in my country (such as tablets, personal computers, laptops, and desktops). Educational institutions: Educational institutions in my country should promote Providing access to the use of interactive technologies (such as social media) among teachers technology is not enough and students in classes. Curriculum reforms: On a national level, the ministry of education and higher The mere act of ensuring that students have education institutions and organizations should promote using social media access to technology yields varying results in di erent curricula. (Escueta et a ). A recent analysis of ­ l. 2017­ Source: ASMR 2013. PISA results for MENA countries found that FIGURE 8.4  Most people in MENA approve of ICT use in the classroom Percentage of respondents who agreed that children should be allowed to engage in specific ICT-related activities in school, 2013 90 80 78.7 77.2 70.5 70 61.7 60 54.3 50 Percent 39.2 40 30 20 10 0 Use collaborative Use computers, Use Internet search Use mobiles to send Send or read Use social networking web tools such as laptops, or tablets engines such as and read instant e-mails websites such as blogs and in classes Google and Bing messages for Facebook, Twitter, or Google Docs in classes educational reasons YouTube Source: ASMR 2013. Note: ICT = information and communication technology. L e v e r a g i n g E d u ca t i o n T e c h n o l o g y    199 access to technology alone does not help to leapfrog into the 21st century by teaching solve problems related to student outcomes students how to engage in lifelong learning (McKinsey 2017­ ). The study found that the aided by ­technology. However, even in more association with adding an additional com- advanced economies, such changes are prov- puter to classrooms is small, ranging from ing to be difficult, given their costs and the 0.2 to 1.1 PISA points per device ­added. The need to train teachers in the use of ­ EdTech. same study also found that supplying com- Interest in blended learning programs is puters to teachers has a larger positive asso- beginning to take root in MENA countries ciation; adding a teacher computer per (Forbes Middle East 2013­ ). For example, classroom is associated with six times higher blended learning models are being used in the student PISA scores, than adding a student ­ tertiary sector of the United Arab Emirates computer.4 (Tamim 2017­ ). A review of these models Although increasing access to computers emphasized that a student-centered approach and the Internet may not, on its own, mea- is the most important factor for s ­ uccess. surably improve academic achievement, it Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, the Islamic Republic has been successful in increasing the ease of of Iran, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Morocco, using technology and the time spent learning Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United to use digital ­devices. In this sense, online Arab Emirates also have blended learning connectivity in the classroom is a necessary, programs. While most examples are in the ­ but not sufficient, condition for improving tertiary space, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, student learning outcomes aided by EdTech and the United Arab Emirates have rapidly ­solutions. growing programs at the basic education level (Weber and Hamlaoui 2018­ ). Computer-assisted blended learning inter- Blended learning approaches ventions, particularly in mathematics, have have yielded promising results shown positive learning outcomes on par Programs that pair face-to-face classroom with more traditional interventions, such as learning with online components of the cur- smaller class sizes, longer school days, and riculum work well when delivered to stu- private provision of in-person tutoring dents through structured online and in-class (Escueta et ­ a l. 2017­ ). Blended learning settings, where teachers are trained to facili- courses (or computer-assisted learning) pro- tate this i­nteraction. In essence, blended duce similar outcomes to (and in some cases learning takes place any time a student better outcomes than) in-person ­ courses. An learns through a combination of supervised up-front investment in blended learning, school experiences away from home and paired with the necessary teacher training in online content delivery with some element their use, could improve schooling in ­ MENA. of student control over time, place, path, Blended learning, when appropriately and pace (Horn and Staker 2011­ ). With adapted to context and introduced by teach- blended learning, classroom and online ers trained to facilitate digital learning, offers experiences are tailored to reinforce one a promising avenue for MENA education another (Horn and Staker 2012­ ). policy makers to ­ explore. When paired with adequate teacher train- ing in the use of technology and management of blended curricula, blended learning might Online courses have grown improve the quality of teaching and learning rapidly in popularity in MENA schools and help the region to Distance learning, or correspondence courses, move away from antiquated teaching meth- have a long history in higher education in the ods (Forbes Middle East 2013­ ). With skill- United States, of which conventional online f ully employed blended learning courses (COCs) became a natural online opportunities, MENA countries could ­ ecades. These courses extension over the last d 2 0 0   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations are typically offered as part of a degree pro- in nature and is a product of the Queen gram that consists entirely of online courses Rania Foundation’s work for education and or that includes blended learning c ­ ourses. ­ development. Course content consists of both Experimental research on COCs has com- originally created courses and edX (free pared online and face-to-face courses to eval- online) courses that are translated into Arabic uate whether COCs are a viable substitute for (Pirkle 2014­ ). Both platforms have reached fully in-person ­education. Of the nine courses millions of users from around the region evaluated by Escueta et ­ al. (2017), all were (Jordan Times 2017­ ). consistent with the hypothesis that, without The need to go from teaching and training some degree of face-to-face teaching, learning millions to helping billions learn will require outcomes are likely to ­ suffer. In contrast, access to ubiquitous learning platforms that blended learning approaches have not yet keep learners interested, are adaptive enough been found to underperform purely face-to- to deliver personalized courses matching stu- face courses s ­ignificantly. The Aldarayn dent ability and effort, and are affordable Academy, the Arab E-Learning Academy, and enough to maintain, and ideally improve, the Tahrir Academy are three online program educational equity (particularly in higher academies that existed before massive open education). New methods to certify learning ­ online courses (MOOCs) were introduced to and exploit competency-based curricula and MENA in 2012.5 modularized programs by linking them to MOOCs have taken online courses to the MicroMasters programs and nano creden- next l­evel. They make it possible for learners tials will likely have important impacts in the to take classes from reputable universities coming years (Escueta et a ). Over the ­ l. 2017­ around the world on a wide range of top- past decade, MENA has seen rapid growth in ics and increasingly provide recognized cred- software-driven EdTech initiatives resulting its for courses c ­ ompleted. MOOCs are in the widespread use of locally developed growing rapidly in popularity, even though web-based and mobile-based learning plat- some efficiency issues remain to be ­ addressed. forms that cut across regional b ­ orders. Several MOOC platforms are working in Currently, there are more than 270 EdTech MENA, including homegrown efforts to pro- start-ups in MENA (D’Cunha 2018), bring- duce MOOCs that cater to Arabic-language ing their vast experience from around the s peakers. MOOC platforms popular in ­ world and establishing a strong foothold in MENA include Rwaq, Nafham, and ­ Edraak. the ­region.7 The Rwaq platform offers a wide variety of Experimental research on the learning courses in Arabic for Arab students by Arab impacts of online courses is in the early professors. In 2015, Rwaq catered to more ­ stages. Because fully in-person classes out- ­ than 330,000 individuals, of which about perform completely online courses, online 70 percent were male and between the ages courses are best employed only in areas of 17 and 34 years (Sallam 2017­ ). Nafham is where the alternative is nothing at ­ a ll. a free online K–12 educational Arabic video Nevertheless, COCs do offer a range of platform that crowdsources short videos for other benefits, such as their relatively low students and ­ teachers. After first starting to cost and ability to cater to people who are create education video content for the otherwise fully employed, enabling them Egyptian market, Nafham is now regional, to take and complete courses at their pre- and its content is used in Algeria, Kuwait, ferred pace of ­ study. Furthermore, Internet and Saudi Arabia and is a key tool for chil- access and online courses offer girls and dren displaced by the Syrian c­ onflict.6 Edraak women opportunities to learn, extend offers free online courses for Arabic-speaking their social influence, and grow their own ­ learners. The platform is decidedly regional ­businesses. L e v e r a g i n g E d u ca t i o n T e c h n o l o g y    201 Technology-based “nudges” can early years where it is working to expand promote behavioral change in access to quality early childhood develop- education ment and early learning ­programs. Behavioral EdTech initiatives have proven effective at Drawing on insights from behavioral eco- increasing parental involvement, one of the nomics, behavioral interventions are rela- key factors in early ­ learning. Research on tively new on the education landscape where large-scale behavioral interventions remains they are proving useful in a wide variety of in its i­nfancy. Nevertheless, given the sub- ­ settings. Behavioral interventions are part of stantial results found thus far at the tertiary an increasingly fashionable area of research level, learning more about which approaches referred to as “nudges,” an approach that to mind-set changes are most effective and in presents choices to beneficiaries without which contexts could be important for changing the costs of these choices in any real MENA countries as they work to improve ­way. 8 Typically, nudges reach users in the learning at all ages (Weissmüller 2019­ ). form of text messages reminding parents to register children for early childhood develop- Online textbooks can facilitate ment programs or to review their children’s access to information secondary report card or alerting university students that it is time to submit student loan Until about 30 years ago, the role of the materials (Escueta et ­ al. 2017; Pugatch and teacher was not only to teach course con- Wilson 2018­). tent, but also to direct the student to poten- Many governments in MENA are actively tial resources outside the school ­ premises. thinking about using nudge tactics to The teacher was the conduit for the flow of improve outcomes in education, including information to ­ s tudents. The World Wide governments in Kuwait, Lebanon, Qatar, Web and search engines like Google have Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab ­ Emirates. altered their tasks ­ forever. Today teachers Given that behavioral change would have to need to guide students on how to search for underpin many of the changes envisioned in information, and they need to support the documents, such as Abu Dhabi’s Economic growth of critical thinkers who can discern Vision 2030, the United Arab Emirates’ and discriminate between all of the infor- Vision 2021, and Saudi Arabia’s Vision mation available to them, organizing, pri- 2030, nudge units in these countries are oritizing, and synthesizing vast amounts of identifying ways by which governments can ­data. employ behavioral economics techniques to One generation ago, at the start of the help people to make the right choice, result- school year, students would carefully cover ing in outcomes that have both individual their textbooks in brown paper or even news- and societal ­benefits.9 papers so as not to damage the book through The existing experimental evidence consis- year. Students in many parts of the world the ­ tently shows that technology-enabled behav- today carry their entire set of textbooks ioral interventions can have meaningful, if across several grades on a single electronic modest, impacts on a variety of education- ­ device. The textbooks are now interactive in related outcomes, at extremely low ­ costs. some cases and allow for a much more inter- Notably, they do so effectively at all ages—by esting interaction with the s ­ tudent. These connecting with parents during the early developments are not new to ­ MENA. On one years and by motivating tertiary students, all end of the spectrum are mobile apps that pro- through highly automated and inexpensive vide online interactive libraries like Rawy text messaging ­ systems. MENA needs low- Kids from Egypt or Kitabi Book Reader from cost interventions, particularly during the Lebanon and those that use entertainment 2 0 2   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations and games to encourage learning, such as Smart classrooms are the Sho’lah, which is the first Arabic personal classrooms of the future brain trainer, with more than 3 million downloads, and Loujee, which is a “smart” Countries in MENA, and particularly in the Arabic toy aimed at learning-through-play Gulf Cooperation Council, are beginning to (Arab News 2016­ ). Recently, two smart- make substantial investments in 21st-century phone app-based games had encouraging classrooms—referred to as smart c ­ lassrooms. early reading results in the conflict-­ridden The early versions of smart classrooms sim- Syrian Arab Republic: Antura and the Letters ply put some device—a laptop or a tablet or a and Feed the Monster, both of which showed desktop—in front of the child, without fun- positive learning results on initial impact damentally changing how the classroom was evaluations and won awards at the 2017 organized. Today’s smart classrooms are very ­ EduApp4Syria competition (Comings 2018­ ). different and include multidimensional Combining these kinds of textbooks and learning spaces that can support a blended ­ learning materials with state-of-the art vir- learning style of online and face-to-face tual reality and augmented reality plat- education. These classrooms have efficient ­ forms offers students a means to learn infrastructure, which provides a learning- about various topics in ways hitherto not management system that allows students and experienced in any ­ classroom. Virtual real- teachers to use, design, and develop online ity technology is likely to allow students to digital content, supports behavioral interven- practice laboratory experiments or engage tions, and creates safe and exciting learning in the practical side of training without spaces for children with teachers who are having to bear the substantial recurrent trained to function in such ­ environments. costs of laboratory and practical training Initiatives to bring smart classrooms to consumables. Both virtual and augmented ­ MENA are on the r ­ ise. Major private sector reality resources are growing in MENA tech companies have set up shop in the region schools, allowing teachers to engage with in an effort to support transformation of their students on a wide range of topics and classrooms into 21st-century learning ­ centers. giving children experiences that they might Recognizing that teaching critical 21st-­ not have had otherwise, while at the same century skills in schools will require a cadre time further incentivizing student partici- of teachers well versed in facilitating student pation in schooling ­ activities. learning in such environments, the Smart Continued exploration and use of digital Learning Center in the United Arab Emirates textbooks in MENA could improve the aims to develop and build teacher capacity to delivery of education services by providing a use technology to deliver strong education resource that can be updated easily across content across MENA countries (Deloitte a w ide va riet y of i ncome levels a nd 2017­ ). Such a regional resource is critical to geographies. The movement toward digital ­ ensure that teachers are well trained to teach textbooks comes with a set of challenges in classrooms where student-centered that can only be identified as they are being approaches are adopted and self-paced and rolled out or ­experienced. A necessary con- where student-directed learning shapes the dition is online connectivity and successful teaching-learning process, not one where dissemination of devices loaded with up-to- teachers dominate students through ­ lectures. date digital textbooks, along with continued Such changes in the role of the teacher in the maintenance of ­ d evices. Once this infra- classroom tug at the very foundations of the structure is in place, it could provide sub- education sector and will necessarily uproot a stantial gains in education efficiency and century of schooling, requiring more ­ support course content ­ delivery. for teachers both before (teacher training) and L e v e r a g i n g E d u ca t i o n T e c h n o l o g y    203 during (ongoing professional development, Notes service. both onsite and offsite) ­   1. To put this in perspective, consider the follow- Evidence in the United States and else- ing: the Apple iPhone (2007), Amazon Kindle where on the success of nascent smart class- (2007), Facebook (initiated in late 2006), rooms is mixed at best, showing unreliable Android operating system (2007), the apps rev- impac ts on st udent learning to date olution (2007), Twitter (2007), Airbnb (2008), (Robinson 2017­ ). This is a very newly emerg- and Uber (2009) are p ­ roducts and services that ing and high-cost area of EdTech that MENA have become household names even in remote policy makers could continue to research corners of the world, and every one of them is while putting in place the basic infrastructure only about a decade o ­ ld. for EdTech solutions: online connectivity,   2. Mobile connections vary widely across access to computers and tablets for teachers ­ countries. Kuwait and Qatar lead the way and students, and teacher training on the use in the proportion of mobile broadband con- nections (more than 85 percent), while West of blended learning a­ pproaches. Bank and Gaza has yet to get 3G coverage off the ­ground.  3. However, these figures vary quite con- Navigating the technological siderably depending on the source of this landscape can be tricky ­information.   4. They also found that computers have a greater The bewildering volume of new technological association with scores in countries where ICT resources entering the education market on penetration is ­ low. Adding a teacher computer an almost daily basis challenges education in the North African countries that took PISA administrators and policy makers to identify, (Algeria and Tunisia), for example, was asso- evaluate, and procure the best of these ciated with higher PISA scores by 24.5 ­ points. resources for their ­ schools. Navigating the Doing the same in the two Gulf Cooperation ever-changing terrain of new EdTech options Council countries (Qatar and the United Arab is challenging, and governments are wise to Emirates), where classroom technology is more do so being equipped with the best available common, was associated with an increase of ­ ­ .S. Department of research. To this end, the U just 1.1 PISA p ­ oints. Education recently launched a free online   5. For more information on these academies, see Sallam (2017­). tool—the EdTech Rapid Cycle Evaluation   6. See ­https://www.nafham.com/. Coach—that guides school administrators  7. Although the number of EdTech companies through this minefield and is a test bed that (and the amount being spent) may seem very schools and school districts can use to com- high, it is still a small fraction compared with pare different technologies and s ­ oftware.10 the number in more advanced economies and Newman, Jaciw, and Lazarev (2018) have larger countries like China and ­ India. released a set of guidelines on how to conduct   8. Nudges could include information to increase and report research related to EdTech access to or participation in colleges or impacts in K–12 schools in the United ­ States. to improve outcomes for students already Evaluation platforms could be a useful enrolled and guide them to appropriate tool for MENA’s education administrators resources within such settings, such as tuto- rial classes or guidance c ­ ounselors. and policy ­makers. Given the rapid pace with  9. For example, getting people to eat health- which new EdTech products are entering the fully and exercise has enormous implications market and the growth of cloud computing, in the medium to long term, both for health which permits greater access to big data, outcomes and for public health ­ budgets. their promise to support evaluation of 10. 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Empowering Teachers to Lead the Way to Better Student Learning 9 Lianqin Wang, Bob Prouty, Manal Bakur N Quota, and Angela Demas E ffective teachers have a profound support to the teachers who need it most, impact on students’ learning and their such as teachers in rural areas and those who educational and career aspirations. are new to the profession. Teacher effectiveness is the most important school-related factor influencing student achievement (Darling-Hammond 2000; Recruit the best and prepare Hanushek 2005; Mourshed, Chijioke, and them to be effective teachers Barber 2010). It is paramount that education Since teachers are the single most important systems recruit, train, and support students school-related factor influencing student with the greatest potential to become effective achievement, it is important for education teachers. Effective teachers are knowledgeable systems to recruit those with the greatest in both pedagogy and their subject areas, potential, prepare them to enter the profes- adapt and innovate their teaching practices to sion with confidence and the necessary skills, facilitate students’ critical thinking, and sup- and nurture their careers to ensure sustained port learning for students with different improvements in performance across schools. learning styles (Hightower et al. 2011; Metzler and Woessmann 2012; OECD 2012). Attract and select high-caliber This chapter analyzes challenges in devel- candidates into teacher education oping effective teachers in Middle East and programs North Africa (MENA) countries and recom- mends a series of reforms that include Attracting and selecting highly qualified can- (1) changing recruitment processes to attract didates for initial teacher education programs the best potential teachers and better is the first step in the long-term process of respond to local needs and priorities; building an effective teaching force. (2) equipping teachers (through preservice International experience shows that selectiv- and in-­service training) with up-to-date skills ity standards should be raised to ensure that to strengthen teaching practice; (3) establish- the best candidates are selected into initial ing a more rigorous teacher assessment mech- teacher education programs and that these anism that links performance to career candidates have a reasonable opportunity to advancement; and (4) targeting greater be hired after graduation. In raising these 207 2 0 8   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations standards, a broad view of good teaching 96–98 percent for admission to medical that goes beyond academic skills should be school, but only 80–88 percent for science and applied (Barber and Mourshed 2007; Bruns mathematics and 75–85 percent for education and Luque 2015). In most MENA countries, and literature (World Bank 2010b). While pol- the screening process for initial teacher edu- icies are changing in MENA countries to man- cation is dependent on test scores from date a bachelor’s degree for entering the ­ secondary school graduation examinations teaching profession, several countries still have (World Bank 2015a). As can be seen from the large proportions of teachers in the system Finnish example in box 9.1, this is a neces- with less than this level of education (World sary but insufficient basis for selection. Other Bank SABER database). For example, only criteria, such as teacher creativity, engage- 42 percent of Morocco’s grade 4 teachers have ment with education issues, and ability to a bachelor’s degree or higher, compared with work well with others, should also be 96 percent of Qatar’s teachers and 93 percent considered. of the United Arab Emirates’ teachers (Mullis Although acceptance into initial teacher et al. 2017). education programs is relatively competitive in In addition to raising selectivity standards, countries such as the Arab Republic of Egypt, high-performing education systems also Jordan, Lebanon, and Tunisia, the education design and implement policies to make the sector remains less competitive than many teaching profession attractive for the best high other sectors (World Bank 2015a). In Egypt, school graduates (World Bank 2013). for instance, the required secondary school Incentives to attract and retain talented passing grade on the national examination is candidates into the teaching profession may ­ Box 9.1  Selection of initial teacher education candidates in Finland Finland’s process for selecting teachers for initial Students who perform well in this first phase education programs is considered key to its educa- are invited to the second phase. tion system’s success. This selection process stems • Phase II. An examination is used to test from a reform implemented in the 1970s that candidates’ personality, knowledge, and over- ­ strengthened teacher education programs and made all suitability to become a teacher. It includes a entering teacher education programs highly selec- combination of written questions and aptitude tive. At present, universities with teacher education tests to assess applicants’ skills, motivation, programs admit only about 10 percent of applicants. and commitment, varying slightly depending Applicants to teacher education programs must on the university. Most universities require have passed the Finnish matriculation examination candidates to demonstrate that they can cre- at the end of secondary education or completed a ate ideas, plan, and work well with others and three-year vocational education program. After ultimately invite applicants to individual inter- meeting these minimum requirements, they must views. For the final selection, universities usu- undergo a selection process that involves two stages: ally consider applicants’ results from the first phase of the process (the test), their grades on • Phase I. An examination is used to assess the Finnish matriculation examination, or their applicants’ academic learning skills. It is based performance in vocational education programs entirely on a written test drawn from six wide- as well as their merits in arts, sports, and any ranging academic and professional articles that other activities that the selecting university students review in advance. This test seeks to deems relevant to the teaching profession. identify candidates who engage deeply and intellectually with key concepts in education. Sources: Barber and Mourshed 2007; Crouch 2015; OECD 2015. E m p o w e r i n g T e ac h e r s t o L e a d t h e Wa y t o B e t t e r S t u d e n t L e a r n i n g    209 include scholarships and tuition support, p ­ rograms—officials in charge of these two opportunities to progress and grow in the types of training rarely communicate or work teaching career, competitive salaries, and with one another (USAID 2014). other benefits such as housing assistance. The importance of practical experience for In addition, evidence shows that pay compres- trainee teachers can be expressed by an sion can play a key role in the decline in the ­ analogy with the medical profession—if it is average aptitude of individuals who decide to not acceptable for doctors to practice without enter the teaching profession (Hoxby and a substantial period of guided training, it Leigh 2004). In some MENA countries, should not be acceptable for teachers to work ­ t eachers are offered competitive starting independently immediately after graduation packages, but the evolution of their salaries ­ (McBeath 2006). Most high-performing edu- over time is relatively moderate. After cation systems require teacher entrants to have 15 years, teachers can expect to earn between considerable classroom experience before 1.2 and 1.5 times more than their initial salary becoming independent teachers (Darling- (World Bank 2015a). Such compressed salary Hammond, Wei, and Andree 2010; Ingersoll scales within the teaching career may affect 2007). Initial teacher education programs in how appealing the teaching profession is for New York City that focus on practical experi- talented candidates in MENA. ence were found to be particularly effective for Taken together, these factors highlight first-year teachers (Boyd et al. 2009). By intro- the need for MENA to develop policies to ducing practical experience early, students will attract and select high-caliber teacher candi- develop their pedagogical skills and gain a dates. Without talented and committed realistic understanding of the roles and teacher candidates, MENA’s education sys- responsibilities of a teacher. To strengthen and tems have a weak foundation on which to modernize pedagogical practices in MENA, align the teaching force with the demands of greater emphasis should be placed on the 21st-century schools. Some initiatives are development of generic and subject-oriented under way. Jordan, for example, has pedagogical knowledge and skills. embarked on a reform to decompress teacher Several countries in the MENA region have salary scales to attract motivated candidates initiated efforts to improve the preparation of and provide ongoing opportunities for future teachers. For instance, Kuwait has growth over the course of a teaching career strengthened hands-on practical aspects of (World Bank 2016a). preservice training programs. Kuwait’s College of Basic Education now provides stu- dents with in-school placements during the Strengthen pedagogical skills last year of their program, with the aim of pre- and include classroom practice paring them for their tasks in the classroom in preservice programs (Male and Al-Bazzaz 2015). A follow-up study In MENA, the quality of preservice teacher found that this practice provided many pro- training varies widely. Teacher preser- spective teachers with their first real opportu- vice training programs often do not give ade- nity to evaluate their own aptitude for quate time for hands-on classroom teaching teaching; as a result, some chose not to enter experience. In addition, since graduates from the profession. The study recommended that preservice programs often require further ped- practical training be introduced earlier in the agogical training, increasing the emphasis on program and that a more careful assessment pedagogical theory in preservice training is of teaching aptitude be made upon program also likely to be warranted (Male and entry. Some MENA universities have also Al-Bazzaz 2015). Furthermore, pedagogical begun to place more emphasis on developing theory in preservice training should be clearly practical teaching skills for future teachers. linked with hands-on practice. In Morocco, Oman, for instance, has identified this as an for example, few links exist between class- area of urgent priority (Ministry of Education, room t heor y a nd ha nds- on prac t ice Oman, and World Bank 2012). 2 1 0   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations Revamp teacher hiring schools (see box 9.2). In the absence of such policy and practice standards, graduates’ proficiency varies widely depending on their particular teacher training Different practices exist worldwide for grant- program. ing teaching positions to education ­ graduates. Most MENA countries require new Many advanced education systems have rigor- teacher candidates to have a university performing ous processes for selecting the best-­ degree, but they generally do not apply hiring graduates of initial teacher education pro- criteria and processes that look beyond the grams for teaching positions, often requiring academic degree to assess the candidates’ them to hold certificates or licenses. The oldest subject knowledge and pedagogical and and most established licensing systems are in other skills. Of the 10 MENA countries that the United States, where state teaching licenses participated in the Trends in International ensure a consistent set of standards—namely, Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) that teachers have graduated with a certain 2015, only 4 required teacher candidates to level of teaching proficiency recognized by all pass qualifying examinations for selection to Box 9.2  Teacher licensing in the United States A teacher licensing system establishes a minimum set appropriate Massachusetts Tests for Educator of standards required for teachers to teach, allowing Licensure. education systems to certify a teacher’s competence. • Initi al lic e n se . Requ i rements i nclude a Licensing standards can be tailored to include spe- preliminary license, plus the completion of an ­ cific standards for different grade levels, regions, or approved teacher preparation program. school types. • Professional license. Requirements include The United States mandates that teachers hold an initial license plus the completion of teacher licenses to be able to teach. Licensure an approved master’s degree program, the requirements vary by state, subject, and grade level. ­ completion of an approved alternative program, Requirements can include a minimum education achievement of National Board Certification, level (bachelor’s degree) with a minimum passing or three years of teaching combined with com- grade, student teaching experience, completion of a pletion of a one-year induction program. Once teacher preparation program, a master’s degree, or an educator receives a professional license, he an approved state licensure examination, depending or she must attend workshops or take courses on individual state mandates. This licensure exami- to earn the professional development points nation frequently assesses teachers’ competencies in necessary for the certificate to be renewed. the content areas and grade levels they wish to teach. In addition, in many states, teacher licensure Teachers must also renew their licenses regularly programs also allow alternative pathways to enter to remain in the teaching profession. Requirements the profession for individuals who hold a bach- for renewal may be similar to those for first-time elor’s degree in an area different from teaching. For licenses. example, a chemist can become a chemistry teacher Some states may even require different types of if he or she complies with certain requirements, licenses for teachers to move up in the profession’s which vary from state to state. These requirements career ladder and link them with compensation usually include participating in teacher preparation and benefits. For example, Massachusetts has three programs and passing a state licensure examination, types of licenses, with different requirements: among others. • Preliminary license. Requirements include a Sources: Cavalluzzo 2004; Darling-Hammond 2017; Teacher bachelor’s degree and passing scores on the Certification Center 2018. E m p o w e r i n g T e ac h e r s t o L e a d t h e Wa y t o B e t t e r S t u d e n t L e a r n i n g    211 teaching posts: Lebanon, Morocco, Qatar, Induction programs in MENA should and Saudi Arabia (Mullis et al. 2016). In ­ rovide an opportunity for new teachers to p most high-performing education systems, gain real classroom teaching skills plus offer teachers are hired at the school level (Barber opportunities for collaborative professional and Mourshed 2007; Bruns and Luque 2015), development, including mentoring and coach- which allows the school to identify a better ing by more experienced teachers. Given the match between teacher characteristics and shortage of practical experience currently teaching needs. Such experience could be use- provided in initial teacher education pro- ful for MENA countries if teacher hiring and grams, MENA countries could place greater assignment still take place at the central level. emphasis on using the induction period to strengthen new teachers’ capacity to deliver content knowledge effectively through Support new teachers with a carefully improved pedagogical, classroom manage- designed induction program ment, and other related skills. The first year of teaching is the most challeng- ing for most teachers. Research shows this year to be of vital importance in establishing Strengthen continuous the methods and testing the ideas that will be professional support to teachers the cornerstone of a teaching career (Rivkin, Given the pace of change in technology, Hanushek, and Kain 2005). An induction research, and labor market needs, teachers phase incorporating this first year provides a need to be empowered with opportunities to useful bridge between preservice teacher edu- update their knowledge and skills continuously cation and long-term continuing professional through professional development. While development (Glazerman et al. 2010). Effective advanced education systems use various forms induction programs invest a substantial of professional development—such as mentor- amount of teachers’ time in collaborative pro- ing, tutoring, online or in-person classes, and fessional development activities, with a strong research opportunities—there is no one-size- focus on mentoring and coaching from more fits-all solution. The key is for professional experienced teachers (Darling-Hammond development programs to be structured with as et al. 2017; Liang, Kidwai, and Zhang 2016). much care as the curriculum itself, including Recognizing the importance of induction opportunities that enable teachers to grow and for providing support and guidance to novice improve continually on the job so that they can teachers, several MENA countries offer non- lead the way for better student learning mandatory induction programs (World Bank (Darling-Hammond et al. 2017). Some charac- 2015a). However, the quality of induction teristics shared by high-performing education matters. In 2009, the Omani induction pro- systems provide useful examples for MENA, gram shifted from familiarizing new teachers as described in this chapter. with information on rules and procedures to a more comprehensive program where teachers Expand professional development learn about classroom activities, evaluation, opportunities, particularly for teachers curriculum, new teaching methods, relations who work in rural and remote areas between teachers, students, and administra- tors, student behaviors, examples of good les- While teachers need to strengthen and update sons, and school and teacher roles and their content knowledge and pedagogical responsibilities. The program involves two- skills to improve learning, some MENA week courses delivered in three blocks in countries do not provide sufficient opportu- September, October, and February each year n it ie s for profe ssiona l development. and focuses on teaching practices and policies Compared with many countries in the world, as well as the curriculum (Ministry of countries in MENA allocate fewer days for Education, Oman, and World Bank 2012). professional development. In some countries, 2 1 2   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations fewer than three days annually are devoted to Focus professional development on this purpose. By way of ­ comparison, teachers teachers’ skills in delivery of content in the Republic of Korea, the Netherlands, Teachers’ subject-matter knowledge strongly and Sweden spend more than 14 days in pro- predicts student learning (Glewwe et al. fessional development per year (World Bank 2013; Metzler and Woessmann 2012). 2012, 2013). Some MENA economies—for A teaching credential should sig nif y ­ example, Lebanon, West Bank and Gaza, (1) strong knowledge of subject-matter con- and the Republic of Yemen — do not tent, (2) the teaching skills to deliver this con- require teachers to complete a minimum tent effectively, and (3) the ability to address a mou nt of professional development specific learning challenges (Loughran, (World Bank 2012). Participation in in-­ Berry, and Mulhall 2012; Shulman and service professional development var- Shulman 2004; Thames and Ball 2010). In ies greatly among MENA countries (see many MENA countries, an insufficient num- figure 9.1). Countries need to analyze teach- ­ ber of teachers have appropriate subject ers’ professional development needs and knowledge, indicated by low levels of educa- develop a strategy to help them to benefit tion and shortage of teachers with specializa- from ­professional growth. Requiring a mini- tion in critical areas (see figure 9.2). In 2016 mum amount of participation in quality, tar- Morocco conducted the Service Delivery geted professional development can establish Indicators Survey in Education, which found an expectation for teachers’ continued learn- that the majority of grade 4 teachers do not ing. Due to geographic constraints, teachers have the minimum skills and knowledge to in rural and remote areas often have fewer teach Arabic and French languages. Although opportunities to engage in professional devel- results in mathematics are considerably bet- opment activities and will need additional ter, still about one-third of teachers can- support (World Bank 2015a). not pass the evaluation test with a score of FIGURE 9.1  Some MENA countries provide insufficient professional development opportunities for teachers Percentage of teachers participating in professional development in the past three months, by region 100 85 88 90 83 81 80 74 71 69 70 60 55 51 52 Percent 47 50 44 42 40 40 35 32 31 30 30 25 23 20 10 0 Ki es m da Ge d y ce ay r Le ia n ria Sin an Ko ore p. In an sia il Co ile ia ira rab ta an az no lan Un omb s Re do t an rw Ch rd p na ge ne ni Qa ite Sta s p Br rm Em d A Ja ba te Fin Tu Jo ga ng Fr No a, Ca Al do l re d ite ite Un d Un MENA East Asia and Latin America Europe and Paci c and North America Caribbean OECD average Source: OECD 2016. Note: OECD = Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. E m p o w e r i n g T e ac h e r s t o L e a d t h e Wa y t o B e t t e r S t u d e n t L e a r n i n g    213 FIGURE 9.2  In MENA, the number of teachers with appropriate subject knowledge may be insufficient Percentage of grade 8 students attending schools where instruction is affected by a shortage of teachers with specialization in ­mathematics 100 90 80 70 60 Percent 50 40 30 20 10 0 r s ain n an p. it a an co p. A e s ta te er bi ag no wa EN Re Re oc Om rd Qa rm ira hr ra er ba M Ku Jo or ic b iA Ba Em av rfo ra Le am M ud t, A SS pe ab Isl Sa TIM yp SS Ar n, TIM Eg Ira d ite p Un To Instruction is a ected: A lot Some A little Not at all Source: Mullis et al. 2016. Note: TIMSS = Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study. 80 percent or more (ONDH 2017). In terms Such practices have not yet been widely of pedagogy, MENA teachers often employ introduced in MENA countries. traditional teaching methods that discourage student participation, independent initiative, Improve the effectiveness of and critical thinking (Kirdar and Brock professional development through 2017). This result is also indicated in the collaborative and reflective approaches TIMSS data (see figure 9.3). Intensive, content-focused professional Professional development is most effective in development programs can improve teach- changing classroom practice when teachers ers’ subject-matter knowledge and their abil- work collaboratively. It should be organized ity to use this knowledge in their teaching around team-oriented, school-based class- (Jensen et al. 2016). Professional develop- room instructional improvement and ment programs also need to improve teach- p edagogy-specific subject areas. Teachers ­ ing skills, such as mastering pedagogical should be provided with continuous support processes to deliver content knowledge and follow-up (Brown, Smith, and Stein effectively to all types of students and to 1995; Darling-Hammond et al. 2017; Evans support students’ creative and higher-order and Popova 2015; Yoon et al. 2007). A grow- learning processes (Loughran, Berry, and ing body of evidence shows that such Mulhall 2012; Shulman and Shulman 2004; approaches can improve teacher performance Thames and Ball 2010). Research shows (Barber and Mourshed 2007; Rockoff 2008). that training programs that teach pedagogy Collaboration allows teachers to benefit specific to subject areas, such as how to from each other’s knowledge and skills teach a mathematics class effectively, with and creates opportunities for sharing and follow-up visits in which trainers observe and mentoring (Angrist and Lavy 2001; Borko support teachers in the classroom, are highly 2004; Darling-Hammond et al. 2017). effective (Darling-Hammond et al. 2009). The Organisation for Economic Co-operation 2 1 4   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations FIGURE 9.3  Teachers in MENA often employ traditional teaching methods Percentage of grade 8 students whose teachers report reliance on memorizing in mathematics 100 1 1 1 1 1 3 2 3 2 3 3 7 7 4 15 15 12 17 14 12 90 18 22 30 26 80 29 33 28 27 17 17 22 42 70 22 28 31 24 24 60 22 28 22 Percent 50 30 28 40 29 67 67 65 65 30 61 58 57 56 51 47 46 44 20 36 36 10 24 0 co an n an it ain a p. r s A CD ge CD p. ta te bi no wa EN Re Re oc Om rd ra Qa OE OE ira hr ra ba M Ku ve Jo or b ic iA Ba Em n- ra Le am M la ud No t, A na ab Isl Sa yp io Ar n, at Eg Ira d rn ite te Un In Never Some lessons About half of lessons Every or almost every lesson Source: Mullis et al. 2016. Note: OECD = Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. and Development (OECD) Teaching and dislocation and loss that come with a push for Learning International Survey (TALIS) 2013, education reform (CPRE 2017). conducted in 34 countries, shows that par- The collaborative and reflective approaches ticipating in peer networks is a key element of in high-performing countries such as teacher professionalism and is associated Australia, Canada, China, Finland, and with teacher satisfaction and self-efficacy Singapore include lesson study groups, (OECD 2014). High-performing countries in ­ teaching-research groups, and communities of East Asia and elsewhere have practiced col- practice to perform key professional develop- laborative approaches in professional devel- ment functions, such as the following opment for decades, with positive results (Darling-Hammond et al. 2017): (Evans and Popova 2015; World Bank 2018c; Yoon et al. 2007). •  Curriculum planning and assessment. Changing teachers’ methods and behaviors Teachers collaborate to develop curriculum requires challenging their existing theories of units and lessons at the school level, and learning. Reflecting on preconceptions, being they frequently develop, use, and review challenged by new ideas, and receiving support school-based performance assessments to try different approaches are all part of the to evaluate student learning outcomes. process of change. To make professional devel- This process helps teachers to understand opment effective, it is important to introduce the standards and curriculum goals thor- teachers to the “why,” not just the “what” and oughly and to share their knowledge of “how,” of professional development. This can content and teaching practices. In con- help teachers to understand the demands for junction with mentoring programs, the change and to move past the feelings of approach is particularly valuable in helping E m p o w e r i n g T e ac h e r s t o L e a d t h e Wa y t o B e t t e r S t u d e n t L e a r n i n g    215 new teachers and low-performing teach- Jordan. MENA could benefit from interna- ers to learn from their mentors in the con- tional experiences and its own regional expe- text of their day-to-day work environment rience to mainstream such approaches (Darling-Hammond et al. 2017). gradually and to tailor them to individual •  Research. Teachers gain a solid grounding contexts. It would be important for MENA of research methods in their preparation countries to collect their own data to evaluate programs and are expected to be able to how these approaches affect student learning. conduct their own practical research. In Emphasis can be placed on how new or low- this way, teachers develop their knowl- performing teachers benefit from these pro- edge about student learning and can use fessional development opportunities. To that knowledge to improve their teaching accomplish this, the school day needs to be practice (Darling-Hammond et al. 2017). structured so that teachers have time to par- •  Te a c he r - l ed p rofe ssio n al l e ar n i ng. ticipate in these activities. Teachers take the lead in developing pro- fessional learning offerings that provide Link professional learning to teacher more structured learning by teachers, for career advancement teachers. Teachers lead professional learn- ing not only in school-based contexts, It is important to create incentives to moti- but also in more formal settings outside vate teachers to participate in professional the school. Platforms for teachers to lead development and to apply the new skills in professional learning include professional their teaching practice. In most well-­ networks, professional focus groups, functioning systems, teachers’ career and professional learning communities. advancement is tied to professional learning Teachers’ unions also play an important ( D a r l i n g - H a m m o n d e t a l . 2 0 17 ) . role (Darling-Hammond et al. 2017). Knowledgeable and experienced teachers lead professional learning for newer and less- Shanghai, for example, has practiced a knowledgeable teachers; they become part of collaborative professional development the school leadership team and help to man- approach for decades. Its teaching-research age instructional leadership in the school groups offer some insights on how they nur- and, in some cases, beyond the school. Such ture teachers’ professional growth and sup- incentives will take different forms in differ- port those teachers who need it most, such as ent countries. In Australia, continuing pro- new or low-performing teachers (see box 9.3). fessional development is a prerequisite for Collaborative approaches of this nature maintaining certification and registration. yield a positive impact. The Opportunity China offers incentives for teacher learning Culture program in the United States, for by sponsoring teaching competitions in instance, relies on multiclassroom leaders which teachers conduct lessons in front of a (MCLs), who are excellent teachers, to lead a panel of judges and many observers (who are teaching team and provide guidance and fre- mainly teachers too). Incentives for profes- quent on-the-job coaching while continuing sional learning in Canada’s Ontario Province to teach (Public Impact 2018). Evidence include a salary structure that rewards teach- shows that most students who receive treat- ers for obtaining additional qualifications ment under an MCL model achieve higher that upgrade their knowledge and enhance math scores (Backes and Hansen 2018). their practice (Darling-Hammond et al. Some MENA countries have started 2017). implementing collaborative approaches MENA countries could also consider for their in-service education programs. locally targeted incentive mechanisms, such Table 9.1 shows countries that have already as linking professional development activities i mplemented some of these initiatives; ­ to career advancement or licensing to moti- box 9.4 presents examples in Egypt and vate teachers bot h to pa r t icipate i n 2 1 6   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations Box 9.3  Teaching-research groups in Shanghai Shanghai provides an example of teachers work- This mentoring includes lesson observations ing together in teaching-research groups to improve and critiques. continually. These groups are at the school, district, • Research. The group spends much of its time provincial or municipal, and national levels. The developing hypotheses, collecting evidence, groups normally meet for two to three hours every analyzing the evidence, and developing conclu- week. In every group, major activities include the sions. The goal of the research is to improve following: educational practices for individual teachers as well as the school. To accomplish this goal, the • Professional development. Teachers are orga- group’s members meet weekly. Each research nized in subject groups to focus on lesson group is led by a teacher who is recognized in planning and to bring the curriculum to the the school as high-performing. The leader can appropriate grade level of the student. Teachers be higher on the teaching ladder or a promis- also plan together and observe and assess each ing young teacher. The school principal works other’s lessons. They conduct peer observa- closely with the heads of the research groups, tions in their own school and in other schools. who serve as an informal council or cabinet This openness creates a stronger collective set offering advice. of ideals from which to gauge strong teach- • Performance evaluations. The group is also an ing versus weak teaching. The practice allows important mechanism for evaluating teacher teachers to hold images of “good teaching” in performance. Teachers in the same group often their minds and to maintain the drive toward evaluate each other during group activities. individual improvement by being immersed in The group leader has a responsibility to pro- an overall culture that allows teachers to see vide feedback in annual teacher performance colleagues perform on a regular basis. evaluations. • Coaching and guidance. Senior teachers pro- vide guidance and coaching to junior teach- The group’s collaborative nature helps the entire ers in a wide range of teaching activities, with teaching community to grow. Such groups create regular discussions about examination design a constructive work environment and allow teach- and teaching experience. The groups are ers to create close bonds. The tiered network of especially useful for new teachers, who par- groups at the school, district, and municipal levels ticipate in group activities, receive guidance allows for quick and far-reaching dissemination of from experienced teachers, and gain exper- curricula, best practices, and other ideas on teaching tise on a wide range of teaching topics. The and learning. leader of the group often coaches new teachers. Sources: Liang, Kidwai, and Zhang 2016; NCEE 2016b; World Bank 2018a. TABLE 9.1  MENA countries are implementing a variety of collaborative approaches in teacher professional development Types of collaborative approaches implemented, by country Country Observation visits Teacher networks School networks Teacher research Mentoring or coaching Egypt, Arab Rep. ¸ ¸ Jordan ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ Lebanon ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ Qatar ¸ ¸ Tunisia ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ ¸ Sources: Based on World Bank Systems Approach for Better Education Results (SABER)-Teachers Country Reports: For the Arab Republic of Egypt, World Bank 2010b; for Jordan, World Bank 2010c; for Lebanon, World Bank 2010d; for Qatar, World Bank 2018b; and for Tunisia, World Bank 2011. E m p o w e r i n g T e ac h e r s t o L e a d t h e Wa y t o B e t t e r S t u d e n t L e a r n i n g    217 Box 9.4  Professional development experiences in MENA Egypt’s Teachers First Jordan’s professional development approach Teachers First is a professional development pro- Jordan has made important progress in improving gram that aims to change teachers’ behaviors so its professional development policies. All Jordanian that they can successfully instill 21st-century skills teachers are obliged to complete at least 20 hours in their students and enable them to thrive in a of professional development on a yearly basis pro- technology-driven, highly competitive, and globally vided by several types of institutions, such as the connected world (Teachers First n.d). To this end, it Ministry of Education, local educational authorities, combines formal workshops with ongoing mentor- and schools. In addition, some universities provide ing and an online platform. professional development opportunities for teachers. The Teachers First behavior framework was Professional development includes traditional developed for Egypt by the Open University and training, such as courses, workshops, confer- is based on the United Nations E ducational, ences, and seminars, plus collaborative activities—­ Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) qualification programs, observation visits to other C o m p e t e n c y F r a m e w o r k f o r Te a c h e r s . schools, participation in teacher networks, and men- Participating teachers have access to the three toring, among others. The content of these activi- components of the program: (1) an application ties covers both administrative support and aspects for smartphones and tablets, which approves, related to teaching, such as subject-matter knowl- assesses, and evaluates the continuity of behav- edge, curriculum teaching, alignment of curriculum ioral improvement inside classes and facilitates with standards, classroom management, instruc- communication among teachers; (2) continuous tional practices, and guidance to teach students with support through mentorship and coaching activi- special needs. ties; and (3) communities of practice, which facili- The Queen Rania Teacher Academy draws on tate best-practice sharing. the expertise of its partners, Columbia University The pilot program began in 2015 with 500 par- Teachers College and Columbia University Middle ticipating teachers, and the objective was to reach East Research Center, to develop both long-term and 10,000 teachers, 1,000 schools, and 1,000,000 short-term programs to raise the quality of teaching students within 18 months. By 2019, it had reached in Jordan. Since its establishment in 2009, the acad- almost 500,000 teachers and millions of students emy has supported teacher training and strengthened in more than 14,000 schools (Imagine Education school communities through a variety of approaches. 2019). Sources: Imagine Education 2019; QRTA 2019; World Bank 2016b. continuous learning and to apply the lessons Use teacher assessment to learned to their teaching practice. It is only strengthen support and when the gains from wide-scale professional accountability development programs are used and main- tained that desired changes in education sys- International experiences show that it is cru- tems will occur. For example, Saudi Arabia’s cial to use multiple sources of information to Khebrat program, in which teachers and assess teacher performance, as they comple- other educators experience a one-year inten- ment each other. Assessment instruments sive theoretical and practical training in high- may include, but are not necessarily limited performing countries, is producing a cadre of to, (1) students’ performance in learning teachers with required skills.1 How well these assessments; (2) teacher subject-knowledge skills are harnessed will determine the effec- assessments; (3) pedagogical practices assess- tiveness of this initiative in bringing about ments; (4) classroom observations; (5) teach- change and modernizing teaching practices ing portfolios; and (6) feedback from students across the system. and parents. International experience 2 1 8   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations suggests that none of these approaches sepa- views of peer teachers, parents, and students rately can produce a balanced and objective into teacher assessments. evaluation of teacher performance. As a In high-performing education systems result, a combination of different instruments such as Singapore, Ontario (Canada), and and approaches is most appropriate (World Massachusetts (United States), promotions Bank 2013). are linked to evaluation results, and under- In MENA, most countries have monitor- performing teachers can be dismissed. These ing and evaluation systems in place to oversee systems use the results of teacher assessments ­ teachers (see table 9.2). These systems vary to identify opportunities for improvement from supervising bodies, such as those in and to draft improvement plans that tailor Morocco, to regular teacher evaluations, like collaborative professional development those in Egypt, where teachers are obliged to opportunities to teachers’ needs (World Bank participate in both internal and external eval- 2015b). While MENA countries are develop- uations. Both internal and external evalua- ing their teacher evaluation systems, more tions are informed by the principal’s emphasize could be placed on using evalua- individual assessment and classroom obser- tion results to improve classroom practice vation and consider these criteria: knowledge and to strengthen teacher support and of subject matter, curriculum compliance, accountability mechanisms. teaching processes (including methods used to assess students as well as their classroom participation), lesson planning, use of home- Provide meaningful incentives to work and technological tools in the class- motivate and reward teachers room, and students’ academic achievement No education system will be successful unless (World Bank 2015a). In other countries, like it provides incentives for teacher effort, Tunisia, external evaluations are generally although a system’s overall incentives struc- carried out in the early years of a teacher’s ture will vary by context (World Bank career, and internal evaluations are led exclu- 2018c). Incentives, whether financial or pro- sively by the principal and informed by a fessional, need to be meaningful to make a self-assessment (World Bank 2011). Although ­ difference. criteria are extensive (for example, compli- ance with the curriculum, teaching methods, Pay-for-performance based on student assessment met hods, teacher- st udent test scores has shown mixed results i nteractions, student achievement, and ­ internationally teacher attendance), they are based mainly on the principal’s point of view. MENA International research provides little reason countries could benefit from integrating the to believe that financial incentives should be TABLE 9.2  Many MENA economies have systems in place to monitor teacher performance Teacher evaluation systems, by economy Students’ Teaching Parents’ Students’ Colleagues’ Economy achievement processes feedbacka feedback feedbacka Djibouti ¸ Egypt, Arab Rep. ¸ ¸ Jordan ¸ ¸ Lebanon ¸ Tunisia ¸ ¸ West Bank and Gaza ¸ Yemen, Rep. ¸ ¸ ¸ Sources: Based on World Bank Systems Approach for Better Education Results (SABER)-Teachers Country Reports: for Djibouti, World Bank 2010a; for the Arab Republic of Egypt, World Bank 2010b; for Jordan, World Bank 2010c; for Lebanon, World Bank 2010d; for Tunisia, World Bank 2011; for West Bank and Gaza, World Bank 2010f; and for the Republic of Yemen, World Bank 2010e. a. Parents’ and colleagues’ feedback do not form part of teacher evaluation systems in any of the MENA economies listed in the table. E m p o w e r i n g T e ac h e r s t o L e a d t h e Wa y t o B e t t e r S t u d e n t L e a r n i n g    219 the primary way to motivate teachers to very low levels when they are adequately improve student learning. In New York City, designed and based on behaviors that teach- financial incentives were found to hurt ers can fully control, such as attendance learning outcomes (Fryer 2013). A review of ­ (Ganimian and Murnane 2016). performance-pay programs found the same results, which were ascribed to the unin- Professional incentives for teachers tended consequence of narrowing teaching to have the potential to improve student the elements tested (Neal 2011). Similar learning results were found in a study on the issue of “free riding” associated with performance While merit pay systems may be warranted in pay, by which many teachers received bonuses some contexts, international evidence is clear for results that would have occurred even that well-chosen professional incentives have without the program (Goodman and Turner even greater potential. Changes to career lad- 2012). ders and other forms of recognition for teach- Despite these findings from the United ers have been shown to have more substantial States, financial incentives should not be dis- performing motivational effects in several high-­ missed entirely. The small impact of financial countries (Darling-Hammond et al. 2017; incentives found in the New York City study Liang, Kidwai, and Zhang 2016). These could be attributed to the complexity of the countries create structures within school sys- program design and teachers’ feeling that tems that promote professional learning and they had little control over student learning enable teachers to take on new responsibili- (Fryer 2013). A study in India, in which ties based on their interests and skills. These teachers’ financial incentives were set at systems also use appraisal processes to iden- 3 percent of annual pay, found that students tify talent and accomplishment. Shanghai in incentive schools outperformed those in provides a good model in which teachers are control schools by 0.28 and 0.16 standard evaluated systematically and fairly, with deviation in mathematics and language tests, career advancement mechanisms. Teachers respectively. Students scored significantly have opportunities to advance professionally higher on “conceptual” as well as “mechani- throughout their teaching career through a cal” components of the tests, suggesting that four-level ranking system (Liang, Kidwai, the gains in test scores represented an actual and Zhang 2016; World Bank 2018a). increase in learning outcomes. Incentive Australia, Canada, and Singapore have schools also performed better on subjects for similar career ladders or career pathways that ­ which there were no incentives, suggesting reward teachers’ knowledge, skills, and positive spillovers (Muralidharan and contributions (NCEE 2016a). ­ Sundararaman 2011). Another study found Teachers’ career advancement in most modest positive effects in Kenya, where MENA countries depends mainly on years of teacher bonuses were linked to examination service, which does not reward performance results (Glewwe, Ilias, and Kremer 2010). (World Bank 2012). Indeed, in many MENA A recent World Bank study also found poten- countries, low-performing teachers are rarely tial longer-term benefits, noting that restruc- sanctioned. The lack of sanctions for poor turing teacher pay both to remunerate performance encourages behaviors such as competitively and to provide returns for good teacher absenteeism in the region (IEA 2015). performance may improve the quality of can- The potential of professional incentives may didates entering the teaching profession or also be limited by school leaders’ relative lack the performance of teachers (World Bank of authority over teacher performance, as the 2018c). In addition, a recent review of impact power to hire and fire lies with central govern- evaluations of educational initiatives in 56 ment authorities. Increased efforts need to be countries found that incentives can increase made to reform the incentive systems to pro- teacher effort and student achievement from mote good teaching and learning and to 2 2 0   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations provide rewarding career pathways. These numbers of qualified teachers in remote and types of initiatives may require the reform of unattractive areas (World Bank 2010b, civil service rules and regulations that would 2010c, 2011). support incentive and accountability systems. The lack of incentive systems for placing MENA countries also lack incentive sys- teachers where they are needed most is an tems for placing teachers where they are most impediment to reform, since the most effec- needed. In eight MENA countries examined tive way to improve student learning is to in depth through the World Bank Systems bridge the gap between high- and low-­ Approach for Better Education Results performing schools and between high- and (SABER)-Teachers studies, 2 five received the low-performing teachers (Merilainen and lowest ratings possible (latent and emerging) Pietarinen 2002). MENA countries should for the policy goal of “matching teachers’ look to develop policies that incentivize skills with students’ needs.” Only Egypt, teachers to work where they are needed most Jordan, and Tunisia were found to provide (see, for example, Ministry of Education, some type of incentives for teachers who Oman, and World Bank 2012). teach in hard-to-staff schools, including those serving vulnerable children in rural and isolated areas. Teachers have few incentives The degree of autonomy accorded to to work in the weakest schools, where the need teachers is an important professional for their skills is highest. Iraq is a c ­ ounter- incentive example within the region, registering as one In the MENA countries that participated in of the best performers in this area, with mon- the Programme for International Student etary incentives and improved opportunities Assessment (PISA) 2015, teachers were found for promotion for teachers working in hard- to have far less decision-making responsibil- to-staff areas in the country. Egypt, Jordan, ity than those in OECD countries (see and Tunisia also provide some types of incen- figure 9.4). Studies in the Islamic Republic of ­ tives. However, these incentives are not Iran, Jordan, and Kuwait found that central enough to attract and retain sufficient authorities maintain strict control over cur- ricular content and teaching practices, leav- ing little autonomy for teachers (Afshar and FIGURE 9.4  Teachers in MENA have less autonomy than teachers in OECD countries Doosti 2016; Al-Yaseen and Al-Musaileem Percentage of 15-year-old students attending schools in which teachers have 2015; Namaghi 2009). considerable responsibility for instructional decisions, PISA 2015 Such disempowerment among teachers compromises job satisfaction and the devel- 90 opment of students’ skills, in part because it 80 impedes the ability of teachers to teach to the 70 60 right level of students, a critical element of effective teaching (Evans and Popova 2015). Percent 50 40 Ultimately, MENA school systems need to 30 find the balance between autonomy and 20 accountability that will best support learning 10 and provide schools with the resources and 0 flexibility they need to establish and achieve Tunisia Jordan Algeria Qatar United Lebanon OECD Arab average ambitious goals for student learning. Emirates Student disciplinary policies Student assessment policies Notes Course content Textbooks 1. For news from the Khebrat host countries, Source: OECD 2016. Note: OECD = Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development; PISA = Programme for see Master (2018); University of Leicester International Student Assessment. (2018); University of Queensland (2018). E m p o w e r i n g T e ac h e r s t o L e a d t h e Wa y t o B e t t e r S t u d e n t L e a r n i n g    221 2. SABER provides education systems analy- Cavalluzzo, Linda C . 20 04. “Is National ses, assessments, diagnosis, and opportuni- Board Certification an Effective Signal of ties for dialogue and measures policy Teacher Qu a l it y?”  C NA C or porat ion , dialogue on a four-point scale from latent to Alexandria, VA. advanced.  CPR E (Consortium for Policy Research in Education). 2017. “Robert Evans: Introducing References Teachers to the ‘Why,’ Not Just the ‘What’ and ‘How’ of Professional Development.” Video, Afshar, Hassan Soodmand, and Mehdi Doosti. C PR E K nowledge Hub, Un iversit y of 2016 . “A n I nve st igat ion i nto Fac tor s Pennsylvania Graduate School of Education, Contributing to Iranian Secondary School December 1. http://www.cprehub.org/content​ English Teachers’ Job Satisfaction and /­e merging-insights-effective-professional​ Dissatisfaction.” Research Papers in Education -development?video_id=347. 31 (3): 274–98. 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Preparing Teachers University of Leicester. 2018. “Leicester Plays Part and Developing School Leaders for the 21st in Modernisation of Saudi Education System.” Century: Lessons from around the World. University of Leicester News, May 23. https:// Paris: OECD. www2.le.ac.uk/news​/ ­blog/2018​-archive/may​ ——— . 2 014. TA L I S 2 013 R e s u lt s : A n /leicester-plays-part-in​-modernisation-of-saudi​ International Perspective on Teaching and -education-system. Learning. Paris: OECD. http://www.oecd.org​ University of Queensland. 2018. “Building /­e du /s c ho ol /A lb e r t a%2 0 (C a n ad a)%2 0 Leadership for Change through School National%20TALIS%202013%20report.pdf. Immersion.” Institute of Continuing and ———. 2015. Education Policy Outlook 2015: TESOL Education, University of Queensland, Making Reforms Happen. Paris: OECD. St. Lucia, May 24. https://icte.uq.edu.au​ http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264225442-en. / ­b log/2018/05/building-leadership-change​ ———. 2016. 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Developing Effective School Leadership 10 Lianqin Wang, Angela Demas, Manal Bakur N Quota, and Bob Prouty E ffective schools are characterized by needs of their students and communities. strong school leadership support for Successful change depends on principals who teaching and learning (Barber and are appropriately selected, supported, and Mourshed 2007; World Bank 2018b). Among given the needed blend of autonomy and school factors, research consistently identifies accountability to perform. leadership as second only to classroom teach- ing in its impact on student learning (Jensen, Downing, and Clark 2017b; Leithwood, Transform the role of the school Harris, and Hopkins 2008). School leaders principal from administrator to have an indirect but powerful effect on stu- instructional leader dent achievement through their interactions Improving teaching and learning requires with teachers and their ability to shape school school principals to be instructional leaders culture (Pont, Nusche, and Moorman 2008; who can lead, guide, and monitor instruc- Witziers, Bosker, and Kruger 2003). tional practices related to pedagogy and cur- Recognizing the importance of school lead- riculum (Jensen, Downing, and Clark 2017b; ers and the challenges that many countries in OECD 2016c). Such leadership is a strong the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) predictor of whether and how teachers col- region face in developing effective leadership, laborate and engage in a reflective dialogue this chapter highlights transformational about their teaching practices (OECD reforms that have helped school principals to 2016b). The practice of collaborating and move away from their traditional role as pooling expertise allows instructional staff to administrators and toward becoming instruc- meet students’ needs better and improves the tional leaders. Developing effective school content and pedagogical knowledge of indi- leadership starts with the selection and prepa- vidual teachers. Instructional leadership fos- ration of skilled, well-equipped principals. ters a school environment that focuses more In MENA countries, reshaping the policy and on academic success, which in turn enhances practice of the recruitment and professional student learning. For example, higher average development of principals is warranted, along mathematics achievement is associated with with granting schools more autonomy so that principals’ reports of greater school emphasis school leaders can better address the local on academic success (see figure 10.1). 225 2 2 6   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations FIGURE 10.1  Schools in MENA that emphasize academic success have better student learning TIMSS grade 8 mathematics average scale score, by principal’s emphasis on academic success, 2015 550 500 450 Test score 400 350 300 co a an an p. it r n ain s p. e ta te bi ag no wa Re Re oc rd Om Qa ira hr ra er ba Ku Jo or b ic iA Ba Em av ra Le am M ud t, A SS ab Isl Sa TIM yp Ar n, Eg Ira d ite Un Medium emphasis High emphasis Very high emphasis Source: Mullis, Martin, Foy, et al. 2016. Note: TIMSS = Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study. Instructional leadership can improve Downing, and Clark 2017b; Leithwood and learning through positive changes in the con- Mascall 2008). Known as distributed leader- text in which learning occurs. For example, ship, this approach creates an instructional in Boston, Massachusetts, principals and leadership team with a shared sense of school coaches play a key role in leading ses- ­ p u r p o s e w it h i n t he s cho ol ( Jen s en , sions using assessment data to facilitate joint Downing, and Clark 2017b; OECD 2016b). planning and analysis of teaching practices. For example, in the province of Ontario in Some schools using this approach are built on Canada; Hong Kong SAR, China; Shanghai; an open environment that encourages collab- and Singapore a new principal will already oration among teachers and invites parents have had the opportunity to provide instruc- and members of the community to partici- tional leadership as a teacher through shared pate (Barber and Mourshed 2007). However, responsibility for curriculum improvement or this focus on instructional leadership is rare through participation in professional learn- in M ENA countries. In Lebanon and ing communities and in-school lessons and Morocco, for instance, principals are not research groups. These opportunities for required to provide guidance on teaching or leadership at the teacher level eventually to evaluate teacher performance (World Bank influence the roles and responsibilities of SABER-Teachers database). Primary school principals and leadership teams (Jensen, directors in Tunisia can make few decisions Downing, and Clark 2017a, 2017b, 2017c). to improve teaching and learning and have A study of 85 principals from an educa- weak incentives to improve student achieve- tion district in Kuwait found that an inclusive ment (World Bank 2018a). management style for building a shared Instructional leadership is most effective vision in which all voices are heard is impor- when principals share decision-making pro- tant for teacher motivation and that success- cesses with other stakeholders (Jensen, ful school principals are aware of the limits D e v e l o p i n g E f f e c t i v e Sc h o o l   L e a d e r s h i p    227 of an individual leadership approach and the the transition will need additional support. importance of collaborative work (Alsaeedi Shanghai, for instance, uses an approach that and Male 2013). Distributed leadership centers on flexible and temporary transfer or occurs when decision-making authority is rotation of high-performing school leaders to shared with others, and it is correlated with low-performing schools and provides incen- improvements in student learning (Hallinger tives for career advancement. At the same and Heck 2011). The transformational time, some of the less effective principals are approach adopted by principals in Singapore assigned to shadow high-performing princi- provides insights into the process of fostering pals for a few months so that they can learn distributed leadership (see box 10.1). quickly and effectively (Liang, Kidwai, and Professional development can help to Zhang 2016). shift the role of school principals toward In some MENA countries, instructional i n s t r u c t io n a l l e ad e r s h ip. T h e 2 013 leadership tends to be considered the Organisation for Economic Co-operation responsibility of district-level supervisors, and Development (OECD) Teaching and but evidence suggests that supervisors do Learning International Survey (TALIS) found not play this role effectively in all coun- that principals who attend instructional lead- tries. In Tunisia, for example, primary ership programs are more frequently engaged education inspectors conduct regular class- in instructional leadership activities in their room visits and give feedback to individual schools and more likely to create opportuni- teachers, but the approach is seldom effec- ties for collaborative learning in school tive in promoting and supporting school- (OECD 2016c). This indicates the positive level professiona l i nterac t ion a mong impact of training in transforming school teachers. The observation methods used by principals into instructional leaders. inspectors are outdated, and observations New Zealand is one of the countries happen at most twice a year; for improve- investing heavily in such training programs ­ ment to occur, teachers need to receive (see box 10.2). feedback much more often. Inspectors are Many challenges are inherent in the also responsible for delivering professional reskilling process for existing school princi- development, but the style of this delivery pals. Principals who have difficulty making is a traditional lecture-based approach, Box 10.1  Distributed and collaborative school leadership in Singapore Singapore has one of the world’s leading education When they identify areas for improvement in teacher systems, which was established quickly—within a instruction, principals strategically gain teachers’ few decades—partly due to strong leadership. trust, making them more receptive to suggested To reduce workload and create a sense of changes. ­ c ollaboration, principals adopt a distributed and The transformational leadership approach allows transformational leadership approach, in which school principals to monitor, assess, and provide they train and use their middle managers to sup- feedback to teachers efficiently and thoroughly. The port instructional leadership. In doing so, princi- approach fosters a sense of community and collabo- pals leverage the subject-matter expertise of middle ration, allowing principals to delegate monitoring managers to provide subject-specific instructional tasks and provide effective instructional leadership. feedback. Principals evaluate teachers and provide mentoring and feedback to them during the process. Sources: Ng et al. 2015; Nguyen, Ng, and Yap 2017. 2 2 8   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations Box 10.2  Training school principals to become effective instructional leaders in New Zealand New Zealand’s Ministry of Education (MOE) pro- more experienced, including online tools for assess- vides new principals with extensive support and ment, best practices in teaching, and learning tool- training. Principals receive training in three domains: kits. Beginning in 2017, the system was improved to instructional leadership, critical thinking and inter- (1) build greater equity and excellence in a small num- personal skills, and management abilities. Training ber of national priority areas, including mathemat- is provided through small groups as well as person- ics, science, reading and writing, and digital fluency; alized mentorship on demand. Principals also have (2) enhance schools’ capacity for evaluation; (3) tailor access to a regional management support group training better to the needs and contexts of individual composed of trainers, principals, and regional MOE schools; and (4) support leadership and professional officials. Additionally, interactive informational education networks as a potential source of profes- resources for new principals are posted on the MOE sional learning and development. website. The MOE continues to provide instructional Sources: “Communities of Learning” and “Information for Aspiring Principals” leadership support for principals as they become (Ministry of Education New Zealand n.d). which does not lead to changes in teacher Modernize criteria and processes practices (World Bank 2018b). In addition to select new school leaders to upgrading teachers’ skills, inspectors or supervisors will need to provide sup- The selection and preparation of talented new por t for schools and liaison bet ween principals are important steps in developing schools and MOEs, while giving princi- effective school leadership. Most MENA pals the mandate to provide instructional countries employ multiple criteria for screen- leadership and the training necessary to ing and selecting school principals but place support them in their new role (OECD the heaviest weight on academic qualifications 2016b, 2016c). In MENA countries where and teaching experience (Mullis, Martin, principals provide instructional leader- Goh, et al. 2016). In Oman, for example, ship, such as Jordan, there is a lack of school principals are chosen according to prog ra m s to suppor t t he cont i nuous seniority and experience in teaching and class- ­ d evelopment of these leadership skills room management. Some school principals (World Bank 2010). have a degree in educational leadership in G iven t he de g re e a nd i mp or t a nc e addition to teaching qualifications. Potential of transference between principal and school principals in Bahrain are required to teacher, transforming all principals into have teaching experience, to have been pro- instructional leaders is one of the most moted from teacher to senior teacher and then effective investments a country can make to assistant principal, or to have experience as to improve student learning. MENA coun- an adviser or education specialist. Some prin- tries could benefit from investments to help cipals in Saudi Arabia have a degree in educa- school principals to improve teaching prac- tional leadership in addition to teaching tices and student learning. Successful qualifications. In Lebanon, leadership training change depends on how principals are programs are the main route for preparing to selected, supported, and given the neces- become a principal, and principals must pass sary blend of autonomy and accountability an interview and a year-long training program to perform. in leadership and supervision. The Arab D e v e l o p i n g E f f e c t i v e Sc h o o l   L e a d e r s h i p    229 Republic of Egypt has rigorous professional educator evaluation system to cultivate a pool requirements: all school principals must have a of strong candidates and shape its selection minimum of 15 years of teaching experience decisions. These data also inform leadership and a minimum of 5 years of administrative development programs, which can be highly experience. Candidates for the position of responsive to individual participants’ needs principal must hold a tertiary education degree (Jensen, Downing, and Clark 2017b). Most and are required to complete specific training. systems in the world do not have Singapore’s They also must pass a written test, success- talent management system. Instead, teacher fully complete a supervised internship, and leaders apply for and finance their own quali- participate in an induction and mentoring pro- fication training ­program and then wait for a gram (Mullis, Martin, Goh, et al. 2016). position to open. This is known as the “aspi- On average, school principals in MENA ration” approach. In Hong Kong SAR, have less formal education than principals in China, for instance, aspiring principals self- other regions (see figure 10.2). In some nominate to undertake the Certification for MENA countries, good candidates have few Principalship (Jensen, Downing, and Clark incentives to apply for leadership positions, 2017a). as principals are not paid more than teachers The Jiading District in Shanghai takes a with equivalent years of service (World Bank similar but somewhat more stringent SABER database). approach. Candidates are required to have a Internationally, the process for selecting, school principal eligibility certificate prior to preparing, and recruiting school principals becoming a candidate for a principalship. varies. For example, Singapore selects poten- The requirements for the certificate include a tial school leaders through a talent manage- written test, appropriate academic creden- ment process that identifies and develops tials, and a minimum number of years of ser- talent. Singapore’s MOE uses data from its vice in teaching and school management. Prior to becoming a principal, candidates FIGURE 10.2  On average, school principals in MENA receive regular training in the necessary lead- have lower education levels than principals ership and management skills. If there is an elsewhere opening for a school principal position, the Percentage of grade 4 students, by principal’s formal level of district office will select from the pool of can- education didates who have met these requirements 100 (Liang, Kidwai, and Zhang 2016). 90 MENA countries could consider putting 80 in place transparent, merit-based mecha- 70 nisms to identify potential candidates for 60 school principals and provide the right pro- fessional and financial incentives so that the Percent 50 best potential candidates will apply. 40 Academic qualifications and good teaching 30 abilities are important, but not sufficient; 20 leadership qualities are also essential (Bush, 10 Kiggundu, and Moorosi 2011; Van der 0 MENA average PIRLS average Top PIRLS Westhuizen, Mosoge, and Van Vuuren 2004). performers average Did not complete bachelor’s degree Empower school leaders with Completed bachelor’s degree or equivalent professional development and but not a postgraduate degree Completed postgraduate university degree rewarding career pathways Source: Mullis et al. 2017. Once new principals are hired, it is critical to Note: PIRLS = Progress in International Reading Literacy Study. empower them with continuous professional 2 3 0   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations development opportunities. In-service train- at least 10 years (Mullis, Martin, Goh, et al. ing is equally important for principals who 2016). A review of school leadership using have been in the position for a long time. the Systems Approach for Better Education Training is important because a principal’s Results (SABER)-Teachers assessment tool in role changes over time along with school nine MENA countries found that most coun- demands (Jensen, Downing, and Clark tries did not have well-established policies in 2017 b; OEC D 2013). As technolog y, place to support strong school leadership research, and labor market needs are chang- (World Bank SABER-Teachers database). ing rapidly, school leaders must be able to These countries either do not invest suffi- update their knowledge and skills regularly. ciently in school leadership development While professional development for princi- (except Egypt) or do not have a clear policy pals needs to be tailored to the local context that principals are mandated to implement to and needs, many high-performing systems improve instructional practice (except Egypt, share some core elements that are worth Jordan, and Tunisia). The ongoing reform highlighting (Jensen, Downing, and Clark efforts in many MENA countries have recog- 2017b; World Bank 2018b): nized the importance of school leadership and have started to prioritize school leader- •  Leadership development is structured to ship development. Kuwait, for example, has reflect the principal’s vision for the school, launched school leadership programs as part including the way a system expects its of a comprehensive reform. teachers to act, the kind of schools the Many countries have developed ways to system wants, and the system’s vision for make the profession of school principal more how schools improve. rewarding and flexible. In Flemish Belgium, •  School leaders are trained to manage pro- former principals can become directors of a fessional learning organizations through community of schools that collaborate on instructional and collaborative leadership. issues such as career guidance for students, This means that the principal is not the course provision, and special needs educa- sole instructional and curriculum leader, tion. England has created a Leadership but instead appoints leaders and shares Development Framework that provides a oversight. pathway of programs and standards that •  Leadership development is tied to prac- extend across a school leader’s career, includ- tical problems that are actionable, uses ing opportunities for experienced school problem-solving approaches in a real leaders to provide support for other head school environment, and is supported teachers (Pont, Nusche, and Moorman by mentors. 2008). In Shanghai, the career ladder of •  School leadership programs build skills school principals has four levels, which are for a dynamic work environment by devel- aligned with job performance (see box 10.3). oping leaders’ resilience, critical thinking These international experiences show that skills, and the ability to adapt practices career ladders offer school leaders a struc- for new situations. tured path for professional growth and pro- •  Leadership development programs con- vide incentive structures that reward tinue throughout a leader’s career, through performance and results. In turn, school a systematic and comprehensive approach leaders are more willing to develop their that is career-long and systemwide. expertise, to collaborate with other col- While most education systems in MENA leagues, and to coach and mentor their less have established requirements for school experienced peers. Career ladders also principals, more than half of those participat- encourage expert teachers and school leaders i n g i n t h e Tre nd s i n I nt e r n at ion a l to move into positions in which they are most Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) needed and can make greater contributions, 2015 had not updated these requirements for leading to more equitable systems. D e v e l o p i n g E f f e c t i v e Sc h o o l   L e a d e r s h i p    231 Box 10.3  School principals’ career ladders in Shanghai Since the early 1990s, China has focused on making influential leaders in education. To be promoted one sure that the most capable instructional experts are rank up, principals must achieve a rating of “excel- leading schools. All school principals come from the lent” in one annual assessment or a rating of “quali- teaching ranks, and many of them maintain teach- fied” in two consecutive assessments. ing duties after moving into principal positions. Principals and teachers participate in an inno- In order to encourage continued professional vative approach for bringing up low-performing growth and motivate principals for high perfor- schools by matching them with high-performing mance, Shanghai introduced a career ladder for schools. The high-performing school is contracted principals in 1993. To encourage innovation and to support and develop the low-performing school. competition among principals and improve student Principals are also encouraged to work in less devel- learning, the ladder has a four-level structure tied oped areas. Their promotion on the career ladder to the pay scale. The ladder articulates educational takes such contributions into consideration. requirements, expected professional skills, continu- Shanghai has rapidly strengthened its school ing professional development requirements, and per- leadership effectiveness since the ladder’s inception. formance appraisal processes for school principals. Combined with the teacher career ladder, Shanghai Requirements are specified for principals at each has built an entire career path for teachers and prin- level. For instance, master principals, the top level cipals. Beginning-level principals are selected from on the ladder, not only must have senior qualifica- excellent teachers on the high level of the teacher tions, but also should have an outstanding record career ladder. of education theory and teaching research and Sources: Jensen, Downing, and Clark 2017c; Liang, Kidwai, and Zhang 2016; be recognized provincially and even nationally as NCEE 2016. Provide school leaders with more MENA’s public schools do not have the authority to support teaching authority to select teachers for their school or and learning to fire underperforming or chronically absent teachers. In contrast, many OECD countries The role that school principals play in school (Denmark, Ireland, the Netherlands, New governance processes is critical to school Zealand, Slovenia, Switzerland, the United quality (Bruns, Filmer, and Patrinos 2011; Kingdom, and the United States) grant the Demas and Arcia 2015). Providing school school principal a substantial role in hiring leaders with decision-making power and and firing teachers (see ­ figure 10.3). Of the six resources can give them more direct influence M ENA countries participating in the on the performance of teachers and other Programme for International Student school personnel. Such authority may encour- Assessment (PISA) 2015, the three with the age teachers to be more responsive to students’ highest mathematics scores (Lebanon, Qatar, learning needs. This approach can be more and the United Arab Emirates) give principals effective than central decision making, which a similar level of responsibility for school gov- is far removed from the point of ­delivery and ernance as OECD countries, although more has little ability to incentivize teachers to studies are needed to demonstrate whether the improve learning (World Bank 2018b). correlation between school governance and In MENA, a school principal’s authority to student performance is causal. determine resource needs, budgeting, and per- In Tunisia, primary school directors do not sonnel management is relatively low (OECD have access to financial resources. Although 2016b; World Bank 2015). Most principals in by policy they are explicitly required to 2 3 2   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations FIGURE 10.3  School principals in MENA have less authority than those in OECD countries Percentage of students in schools in which the principal has considerable responsibility for ... Making budget allocations within the school Approving student admission Setting student disciplinary policies Hiring teachers Deciding which courses to o er Setting student assessment policies Firing teachers Forming the school budget Choosing textbooks Choosing course content Setting teachers’ salary increases Setting teachers’ starting salaries 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Percent OECD average MENA average Source: OECD 2016a. Note: OECD = Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. provide guidance to teachers on curriculum experience is the importance of developing and teaching-related tasks, in practice this role the capacity and accountability for school- is often left to pedagogical counselors and level leaders to exercise their authority inspectors who make periodic visits. Tunisia’s skillfully and responsibly. The reform effort school directors do not have authority to also illustrates the need for active engage- determine the selection or removal of teachers ment of local actors, including teachers and in their schools. School directors do not have parents, in developing policy and making decision-making authority to reward strong d e c i sion s re g a rd i n g i mple m e nt at ion performance. Recognizing these governance (Paschyn 2013). issues in primary education, Tunisia has MENA countries will need to grant school designed a project to empower school leaders principals greater autonomy so that they can and strengthen school management, which make instructional and administrative deci- will be implemented in the coming years sions based on local needs. At the same time, (World Bank 2018a). school leaders will have to show improve- Greater autonomy for principals alone is ment in their schools’ student learning out- unlikely to be successful unless there is a comes to demonstrate accountability. A solid foundation for good accountability transformational change such as this requires (Bruns, Filmer, and Patrinos 2011; Demas new policies and implementation support and A rcia 2015). Qatar’s independent from all stakeholders. school model was a groundbreaking reform in the region. It created mechanisms for References school autonomy and accountability and Alsaeedi, Farraj, and Trevor Male. 2013. demonstrated the potential of a results- “ Tr a n s f o r m a t i o n a l L e a d e r s h i p a n d based approach. 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E v id e n c e on Ac count abilit y R efor m s . “Communities of Learning.” https://www​ Washington, DC: World Bank. .education.govt.nz/communities-of-learning/. Bush, Tony, Edith Kiggundu, and Pontso Moorosi. ———. No date. “Information for Aspiring 2011. “Preparing New Principals in South Principals.” http://www.educationalleaders​ A f r i c a : T h e AC E S c ho ol L e ad e r s h ip .govt.nz/Aspiring-principals/. Programme.” South African Journal of Mullis, Ina V. S., Michael O. Martin, Pierre Foy, Education 31 (1): 31–43. and M . Hooper. 2016. “T I M S S 2015 Demas, Angela, and Gustavo J. Arcia. 2015. “What International Results in Mathematics.” TIMSS Matters Most for Autonomy and Accountability: and PIRLS International Study Center, Boston A Framework Paper.” SABER Working Paper 9, College, Chestnut Hill, MA. http://timssandpirls. World Bank, Washington, DC. bc.edu/timss2015/international​-results/. Hallinger, Philip, and Ronald H. Heck. 2011. ———. 2017. “PIRLS 2016 International Results “Exploring the Journey of S chool in Reading.” TIMSS and PIRLS International Improvement: Classifying and Analyzing Study Center, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Patterns of Change in School Improvement MA. http://timssandpirls.bc.edu/pirls2016​ Processes and Learning Outcomes.” School /­international-results/. Effectiveness and School Improvement: An Mullis, Ina V. S., Michael O. Martin, Shirley International Journal of Research, Policy, and Goh, and Kerry Cotter, eds. 2016. TIMSS Practice 22 (1): 1–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080​ 2015 Encyclopedia: Education Policy and /09243453.2010.536322. Curriculum in Mathematics and Science. Jensen, Ben, Phoebe Downing, and Anna Clark. Chestnut Hill, MA: Boston College, TIMSS 2017a. “Preparing to Lead: Hong Kong and PIRLS International Study Center. http:// Preparation for Principalship Program; Case timssandpirls.bc.edu/timss2015/encyclopedia/. Studies for School Leadership Development NCEE (National Center on Education and the Programs in High-Performing Education Economy). 2016. “Shanghai: Culture, Policy, Systems.” National Center on Education and and Practice.” Empower Educators: How the Economy, Washington, DC. http://ncee​ High-Performing Systems Shape Teaching .org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09​/ P ­ reparingto​ Quality around the World Country Brief, LeadHongKong092617.pdf. NCEE, Washington, DC. ———. 2017b. “Preparing to Lead: Lessons in Ng, Foo Seong David, Thanh Dong Nguyen, Principal Development from High-Performing Koon Siak Benjamin Wong, and Kim Weng Education Systems.” National Center on William Choy. 2015. “Instructional Leadership Education and the Economy, Washington, DC. Practices in Singapore.” School Leadership http://ncee.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10​ and Management 35 (4): 388–407. /­PreparingtoLeadFINAL101817.pdf. Nguyen, Dong Thanh, David Ng, and Pui San ———. 2017c. “Preparing to Lead: Shanghai Yap. 2017. “Instructional Leadership Structure Continuing Professional Development; Case in Singapore: A Co-Existence of Hierarchy and Studies for School Leadership Development H e t era rchy.”  Jo u r n a l of E d u c a t i o n a l Programs in High-Performing Education Administration 55 (2): 147–67. Systems.” National Center on Education and OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation the Economy, Washington, DC. and Development). 2013. PISA 2012 Results: Leithwood, Kenneth, Alma Harris, and David Excellence through Equity: Giving Every Hopkins. 2008. “Seven Strong Claims about Student the Chance to Succeed. Paris: OECD Successf ul S chool L eadership.” School Publishing. Leadership and Management 28 (1): 27–42. ———. 2016a. PISA 2015 Results. Vol. 2: Policies https://doi.org/10.1080/13632430701800060. and Practices for Successful Schools. Paris: Leithwood, Kenneth, and Blair Mascall. 2008. OECD Publishing. http://www.keepeek.com​ “Collective Leadership Effects on Student /Digital-Asset​- Management/oecd/education​ Achievement.”  Educational Administration /pisa-2015-results​-volume-ii_9789264267510​ Quarterly 44 (4): 529–61. -en#page1n. 2 3 4   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations ———. 2016b. School Leadership for Developing Achievement: The Elusive Search for an Professional Learning Communities. Teaching Association.” Educational Administration in Focus 15. Paris: OECD. Quarterly 39 (3): 398–423. ———. 2016c. School Leadership for Learning: World Bank. 2010. “Jordan SABER-Teacher Insights from TALIS 2013. Paris: OECD. C o u n t r y R e p o r t : J o r d a n 2 0 10 .” http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264258341-en. SA BE R C ou nt r y Repor t , World B a n k , Paschyn, Christina Maria. 2013. “Zig-Zagging Washington, DC. Education Policies Leave Qatari Students ———. 2015. MENA Regional Synthesis on the Behind.” Al-Fanar Media, October 25. https:// Teacher Policies Survey: Key Findings from www.al-fanarmedia.org/2013/10/zig-zagging​ Phase 1. Washington, DC: World Bank. -education-policies-leave-qatari-students​ https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle​ -behind/. /10986/21490. Pont, Beatriz, Deborah Nusche, and Hunter ———. 2018a. “Republic of Tunisia: Strengthening Moorman. 20 08. Improving School Foundations for Learning Project.” Project Leadership. Vol. 1. Paris: OECD. http://www​ A p p r a i s a l D o c u m e n t , Wo r l d B a n k , .oecd.org/education/school/44374889.pdf. Washington, DC. Van der Westhuizen, Philip C., M. J. Mosoge, and ———. 2018b. World Development Report 2018: H. J. Van Vuuren. 2004. “Capacity-Building Learning to Realize Education’s Promise. for Educational Managers in South Africa: Washington, DC: World Bank. A Case Study of the Mpumalanga Province.” ———. Various years. Systems Approach for Int e r n atio n al Jo u r n al of E d u c ation al Better Education Results (SABER)-Teachers Development 24 (6): 705–19. database. Washington, DC: World Bank. Witziers, Bob, Roel Bosker, and Meta Kruger. http://saber.worldbank.org/index.cfm?ind ​x​ 2003. “Educational Leadership and Student =​8&pd=1&sub=0. Prioritizing Investments to Promote Learning and Skills 11 Igor Kheyfets and Mohammed Audah I n the Middle East and North Africa of education. Countries in which public edu- (MENA), governments have allocated cation spending is skewed toward the tertiary substantial resources to meet the educa- level may need to realign their investment pri- tion demands of growing populations. Most orities to be more conducive to achieving countries have been able to expand access to early learning goals. education at a faster rate than the increase in their school-age populations (see chapter 1), which has led to impressive gains in school Invest sufficient public enrollment. Today, in some countries—like resources in education Tunisia—education accounts for one-fifth of To reach their education goals, countries must all government spending (World Bank make adequate investments in their education EdStats database). For the region as a whole, systems. Large public investments may be public investment in education has declined needed at times of system expansion or slightly since 2000. However, while adequate reform, and consistent investments are needed public funding is necessary, it is not sufficient to sustain quality learning over time. to ensure learning. As has often been noted, Governments that place the improvement of “It’s how, not simply how much, that counts” learning outcomes at the center of their policy (Vegas and Coffin 2012; World Bank 2018). agendas need to ensure that adequate domes- Within education budgets, the allocation tic resources are allocated to strengthening of spending is often misaligned with national their education systems. These resources strategic goals, such as improving learning should be allocated equitably, used efficiently, outcomes. MENA countries spend large and managed with clear links between public shares of their education budgets on staff budgets and education results (see spotlight 3). salaries, which may crowd out investment in other important inputs that enable learning. MENA governments have allocated Sufficient investments in early childhood edu- substantial resources to education cation (ECE) and in the early grades of schooling are also needed to ensure that stu- Nearly 50 million more children were dents build basic foundational skills that enrolled in school in the MENA region at the enable them to learn effectively in later stages turn of the new millennium than in 1970. 235 2 3 6   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations More than half of the increase was due to Across MENA, tremendous progress has greater numbers of girls enrolling in school been made in expanding access to schooling (World Bank EdStats database). Substantial through larger public investments in educa- financial efforts have made this possible. tion. In the early 1970s, the median national Between the 1970s and the 1990s, many education budget in MENA accounted for countries in the region made concerted around 3 percent of gross domestic product efforts to increase their public expenditures (GDP). By 2000, that number had doubled to on education.1 Some countries—like the 6 percent, and more than 20 percent of Arab Republic of Egypt and Morocco— national public budgets was spent on educa- aimed to achieve universal enrollment in pri- tion (see figure 11.1). In some countries—like mary education. Others—like most countries Djibouti and the Republic of Yemen—educa- of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)— tion’s share of the national budget reached moved toward universal coverage in second- 30 percent around the turn of the century, a ary education. Saudi Arabia was among level not seen in MENA either before or since. the countries that managed to do both After 2000, the region witnessed a steady (see box 11.1). decline in public spending on education as a Box 11.1  Public spending and expansion of access to education in Saudi Arabia In 1979, Saudi Arabia’s modest gross enrollment and 86 percent for secondary education by 2005 ratio (GER) of 57 percent in primary education (when the major expansion of access to schooling was among the lowest in the region. Similarly, the had been ­completed). Among girls, GERs rose more 27 percent GER in secondary education placed the than 50 percentage points during this time, reach- country among the bottom third of all MENA coun- ing gender parity. These gains came at a substantial tries. Fewer than 800,000 children were enrolled cost to the Saudi Arabian public budget. Between in primary school, and fewer than 300,000 were 1981 and 1998, the share of GDP spent on educa- enrolled in secondary school. In both levels, only tion more than doubled—from 4 to 8 percent. This 36 to 37 percent were girls. Over the following impressive investment yielded equally impressive decades, Saudi Arabian authorities invested substan- results: 4.6 million more students were enrolled in tial resources in expanding access to education, suc- the country’s primary and secondary schools by cessfully increasing GERs to 93 percent for primary 2005 (see figure B11.1.1). FIGURE B11.1.1  Saudi Arabia rapidly expanded school enrollments Enrollment trends, by level of education, 1979 and 2005 a. Gross enrollment ratios 4,000 b. Number of students 100 93 86 3,098 Enrollment (thousands) 3,000 2,610 80 57 60 2,000 Percent 40 30 27 1,000 798 604 20 10 6 176 296 4 23 47 0 0 Preprimary Primary Secondary Tertiary Preprimary Primary Secondary Tertiary Education level Education level 1979 2005 Source: World Bank EdStats database (http://datatopics.worldbank.org/education/). P r i o r i t i z i n g I n v e s t m e n t s t o P r o m o t e L e a r n i n g a n d S k i l l s    237 FIGURE 11.1  Public spending on education in MENA grew steadily to 2000, then declined Government expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP and of total government expenditure a. As a percentage of GDP, 1970–2016 8 5.9 5.1 4.6 4.6 4.7 4.5 4.1 4.0 3.8 6 3.6 Percent 4 2 0 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 b. As a percentage of total government expenditure, 1990–2016 30 20.6 16.5 18.6 25 15.7 14.4 13.8 20 Percent 15 10 5 0 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 75th percentile Median 25th percentile Five-year moving average Source: World Bank EdStats database (http://datatopics.worldbank.org/education/). Note: MENA regional medians (and corresponding interquartile ranges) are computed as the median of all national data points available in a given year. Due to sporadic reporting across countries, the medians are sensitive to the selection of countries included in the calculation for any given year. However, the results displayed are not substantially affected by the changing composition of countries used to calculate the median. The five-year moving average is included as a robustness check. share of GDP and total government expen- cut back their public spending to below diture. By 2016, the median education bud- 4 percent of GDP. Bahrain and Lebanon are get had shrunk to approximately 4 percent behind the rest of the region, with less than of GDP, and only 13 percent of national 3 percent of GDP and less than 10 percent of budgets was spent on education. A few their budgets going to education. Not sur- countries—like Oman and Tunisia—still prisingly, private funding from households invest more than 6 percent of GDP in educa- makes up much of the funding gap in these tion (see figure 11.2). However, most have countries. 2 3 8   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations FIGURE 11.2  Large variations exist in public spending on education across MENA Government expenditures on education as a percentage of GDP and of total government expenditure, 2016 or latest available year a. As a percentage of GDP 8 6.6 6.2 5.7 6 5.3 5.1 5.1 5.1 4.5 4.4 4.4 4.4 Percent 3.9 3.8 3.8 3.6 4 3.4 2.7 2.6 2 0 ) 5) 6) 6) 9) 8) ) 9) 0) 8) 4) ) 6) 6) 8) ) 6) 6) ian 14 13 08 01 01 01 00 00 00 01 00 01 01 00 00 01 01 20 20 20 ed (2 (2 (2 (2 . (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 n( a( r( (m sia an za co ic ti ria CD an it p. p. ain ep ta bi no ou wa bl Re Re Ga oc Om rd ge A ni Qa OE hr ,R ra pu ba ib EN Ku Tu Jo or b ic iA Al Ba nd en Dj Re ra Le am M M ud m ka t, A b Isl Ye Sa ra an yp n, nA tB Eg Ira ria es W Sy b. As a percentage of total government expenditure 25 22.9 19.3 19.3 19.2 20 17.3 15 13.5 13.4 12.7 12.7 12.5 12.3 Percent 12.0 11.4 11.3 10.5 10 8.6 7.6 5 0 5) 6) ) 9) 9) 6) ) 4) 8) ) 6) 6) ) 8) 0) 6) 8) 08 ian 13 14 01 01 00 00 00 01 00 01 01 00 01 01 00 20 20 ed 20 (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 . (2 (2 (2 (2 a( n( (m r( sia p. ic co it CD p. ain an ti an ria bi ep no wa ta bl Re Re ou oc A ni OE hr ra rd Om ge Qa pu ,R ba EN Ku Tu ib or ic b iA Ba Jo Al en Re ra Le am Dj M M ud t, A m b Isl Sa ra Ye yp n, nA Eg Ira ria Sy Sources: OECD 2017a; World Bank EdStats database (http://datatopics.worldbank.org/education/). Note: Data are for the latest available year between 2006 and 2016. MENA regional medians are computed as the median of the latest available year’s figures for each country. The OECD average is as reported in OECD (2017a, tables B2.3 and B4.1). OECD = Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. In countries with insufficient public (OECD) average (see figure 11.3). Strikingly, investment, private payments often in West Bank and Gaza, where estimated make up the difference ­ private expenditure amounts to approximately While comprehensive and reliable information 5 percent of GDP, and in Lebanon, where esti- on private expenditures on education is diffi- mated private expenditure amounts to at least cult to obtain, some countries in MENA 3 percent of GDP, households collectively where data are available tend to have relatively spend as much on education as does the state high levels of private spending. 2 Based on (see figure 11.2). In Bahrain, Kuwait, and available data covering six MENA countries Morocco, households finance 20 to 33 percent from 2002 to 2015, World Bank estimates of all education spending. By comparison, in suggest that private spending on education in an average OECD country, private expendi- MENA is substantially above the Organisation ture accounts for about 15 percent of all edu- for Economic Co-operation and Development cation expenditure.3 P r i o r i t i z i n g I n v e s t m e n t s t o P r o m o t e L e a r n i n g a n d S k i l l s    239 Allocate resources toward learning the OECD, which should require lower rela- tive spending levels rather than higher ones. Even when the overall level of investment in Expanding access to preprimary education education is high enough, the allocation has been a challenge for many MENA coun- of spending within the sector has an impor- tries. On average, MENA enrolls only tant influence on the level of learning. 31 ­percent of children of preschool age, com- Underinvestment in ECE or the early years of pared with 49 percent worldwide. While schooling, for example, may lead to children the leading countries—Algeria, Lebanon, and failing to develop early in life the foundational skills necessary for learning at the later stages of education. Similarly, committing large FIGURE 11.3  High private spending on education is common in MENA Estimated private expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP, latest available year shares of the education ­budget to salary spend- ing may crowd out investment in other quality-­ 6 5.3 enhancing inputs. 5 4 Underinvestment in early learning Percent 3 3.0+ contrasts with large outlays for higher 2 1.6 education 1 0.9 1.1 0.7 1.1 1.0 1.2 0.8 0.3 Government spending on education is skewed 0 more heavily toward the tertiary level in some 6) 2) 5) 5) 0) 3) 4) 01 00 00 –1 01 00 01 (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 13 MENA countries (see figure 11.4). At the ain ti it co za CD 20 ou wa Ga oc n( OE hr ib same time, public investment in early learn- Ku or no Ba nd Dj M ba ka Le ing opportunities may be lower than would an tB es be optimal. Algeria, the Islamic Republic of W Iran, Kuwait, and Lebanon all exceed the Excluding tertiary education Including tertiary education OECD average of 24 percent of public educa- Sources: OECD 2017a; UNESCO Institute for Statistics UIS.Stat database (http://data.uis.unesco.org/); tion budgets spent on tertiary education. At World Bank 2006, 2007b, 2017. Note: Data are not available for “excluding tertiary education” for Lebanon or West Bank and Gaza or the same time, the tertiary GERs in MENA, for “including tertiary education” for Djibouti. Year(s) of data on which the estimates are based are with the exception of the Islamic Republic of listed in parentheses beside the economy name. For Bahrain, Kuwait, and Morocco, “Initial household funding of education” from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics database is used (UIS n.d.). Iran, are far below the 70 percent observed in For Lebanon, “3.0+” indicates an estimate of at least 3.0 percent. OECD = Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. FIGURE 11.4  Public investments in education in MENA disproportionately focus on tertiary education Tertiary gross enrollment ratio (GER) and percentage of government education expenditure spent on tertiary education, 2016 or latest available year 80 69 70 60 43 41 Percent 38 39 40 33 33 32 33 27 30 29 24 24 24 24 20 20 17 5 0 Algeria Djibouti Iran, Islamic Kuwait Lebanon Morocco Syrian Tunisia MENA OECD Rep. Arab Republic Expenditure on tertiary education as a percentage of government expenditure on education Tertiary GER Sources: OECD 2017a; World Bank EdStats database (http://datatopics.worldbank.org/education/). Note: Data are for the latest available year between 2006 and 2016. MENA average expenditure is computed as the median of the latest available figures for each country between 2006 and 2016. OECD = Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. 2 4 0   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations the United Arab Emirates—have at least place a heavy emphasis on capital investment. 75 percent of their young children enrolled in Capital investment includes the construction ECE, several others are far behind. Djibouti, of new schools and the rehabilitation and the Syrian Arab Republic, and the Republic of expansion of existing facilities as well as the Yemen have fewer than 10 percent of children procurement of school equipment and other ­ gure 11.5). enrolled in ECE (see fi physical assets. With high fertility rates in Governments in MENA generally under- many parts of the region, countries will con- invest in the provision of ECE. Based on the tinue to face pressures to expand their educa- little international data available, no MENA tion infrastructure until at least 2030, when country spends more than 0.4 percent of demographic growth may begin to slow.4 GDP on ECE from the public budget. Most Today, some countries, such as Kuwait spend far less (well below 0.2 percent). In and Qatar, spend more than 20 percent of comparison, the average OECD country their education budgets on capital investment invests about 0.7 to 0.8 ­ percent of GDP on (see figure 11.6).5 Lebanon and Morocco fol- ECE, and some countries—like Sweden— low, devoting more than 13 percent of spend- invest as much as 1.3 percent of GDP in ing to capital investment. Such levels of ECE (see box 11.2). With young and grow- capital investment are often needed to meet ing populations that consistently show low the demand for education infrastructure in levels of foundational skills, public invest- c ou nt r i e s w it h g row i n g s c ho ol - a g e ment in high-quality early learning pro- populations. grams for all children is a key ­policy priority To ensure that large capital expenditures for the MENA region. are used efficiently, effective budget planning is required in the sphere of public capital investment. MENA education systems are Substantial capital investments often characterized by ad hoc budget requests respond to the needs of growing for capital projects that are not well rooted in student populations sector strategic priorities (Beschel and Ahern MENA’s vibrant demographic growth has 2012). As a result, approval processes can be required a long-running expansion of the long and unpredictable, and capital invest- region’s education infrastructure. As a result, ment decisions may not be linked to clear sec- education budgets of many MENA countries tor needs. Several countries around the world FIGURE 11.5  Large differences in preprimary enrollment ratios are found across MENA Preprimary gross enrollment ratio 100 86 82 79 80 68 60 57 55 60 54 51 50 Percent 44 40 35 31 30 25 20 7 6 2 0 ) ) 1) ) ) 6) 6) 6) 5) 6) ) yp MEN 17) 6) 6) ou 16) 7) ep 3) 6) 16 16 16 16 16 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 1 01 20 20 0 20 0 0 0 20 (2 (2 (2 2 (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 2 2 (2 . (2 n( s( r( ( ( ( c( ia it an k a ain za p. co sia an A p. a ti ta te i bi no wa l er Re Re Ga b oc Om rd ni Qa ira hr ,R ra pu g ba n A Djib Ku Tu Jo or ic b iA Al Ba d en Em Re ra Le am n M ud m t, A ab b Isl Ye Sa ra an Ar n, tB Eg Ira d ite ria es W Un Sy Sources: For all except Jordan, World Bank EdStats database (http://datatopics.worldbank.org/education/), based on data from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics UIS.Stat database (http://data.uis.unesco.org/). For Jordan, data from the Queen Rania Center at the Jordan Ministry of Education, provided in August 2018. Note: Data are for the latest available year between 2011 and 2017. P r i o r i t i z i n g I n v e s t m e n t s t o P r o m o t e L e a r n i n g a n d S k i l l s    241 Box 11.2  Growing public investment in early learning: The cases of Finland and Sweden Between 1999 and 2014, Finland and Sweden—two shares of the education budget in both countries. high-performing Scandinavian countries—made large Finland’s tertiary education sector shrank as a share investments in expanding the coverage of their pre- of all education spending, from 34 to 28 percent, school systems. Finland’s preprimary GER grew from while Sweden’s tertiary education sector decreased 47 to 80 percent, while Sweden’s increased from 76 to slightly, from 27 to 25 percent. In absolute terms, 96 percent during this time. The cost of this expan- both countries’ funding for tertiary education sion was substantial. Both countries’ public education remained at a relatively constant 2 percent of GDP budgets increased as a share of GDP: from below 6 to during this time (and tertiary enrollment ratios 7 percent in Finland and from approximately 7 to remained flat). The clear priority being given to 8 percent in Sweden. The share of their education expanding early learning in the early 2000s earned budgets dedicated to preprimary education more than both Finland and Sweden praise as the top OECD doubled (from 5 to 11 percent in Finland and from 7 to countries for public investment in ECE (OECD 17 percent in Sweden) to pay for this expansion. 2017a). At the same time, higher levels of education— Sources: OECD 2017a; World Bank EdStats database (http://datatopics.worldbank​ especially the university sector—received smaller .org/education/). FIGURE 11.6  Large capital budgets reflect the demographic needs of many MENA economies Capital expenditure as a percentage of all public education spending, 2016 or latest available year 30 23.9 21.4 20 Percent 13.5 13.1 11.7 10.4 10.2 10 8.7 7.6 6.6 4.7 4.6 3.8 0 ) 1) 9) ) 3) 0) 3) 1) ) 4) 3) 7) 2) 16 11 14 01 00 01 01 01 01 01 01 00 01 20 20 20 (2 (2 (2 (2 . (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 r( n( e( it co an sia an p. za ti ain ep ta ag no wa ou Re Ga oc Om rd ni Qa hr ,R er ba ib Ku Tu Jo or ic Ba d en av Dj Le am an M m CD Isl k Ye an OE n, tB Ira es W Sources: World Bank staff estimates based on data from OECD 2017a and World Bank EdStats database (http://datatopics.worldbank.org/education/). Note: Data are for the latest available year between 2007 and 2016. Estimates for the following include primary and secondary education only: Jordan, Kuwait, Morocco, the Republic of Yemen, and the OECD average (including postsecondary, nontertiary). OECD = Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. have addressed this issue by adopting national Salaries make up the largest share of infrastructure plans (NIPs) that cover the edu- recurrent education spending, leaving cation sector. NIPs allow for long-term plan- little room for other important inputs ning of school infrastructure investment supported by robust analyses of actual and Many countries in MENA spend more than projected needs. Box 11.3 describes several 80 percent of their recurrent public education examples that may be relevant to MENA budgets —that is, all budget spending countries.6 except capital investment—on personnel 2 4 2   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations Box 11.3  Capital budgeting in education: The use of national infrastructure plans Capital budgeting can be integrated into sectoral In Peru, the Ministry of Education partnered with policy making through the use of national infra- local academics to devise a strategy for reducing seis- structure plans. In education, these are often called mic vulnerability of education facilities. This infor- national school infrastructure plans or national edu- mation then fed into the creation of the National cation infrastructure strategies. These approaches School Infrastructure Plan 2025. In Romania, the combine evidence-based policy making (where deci- government designed a holistic and evidence-based sions are made on the basis of relevant sector data) model to inform decisions about investments in edu- with medium- and long-term strategic planning. With cation infrastructure by strengthening their existing a NIP in place, the decision about whether or not to Education Management Information System and build a school in a particular location can be made by monitoring and evaluation mechanisms, identifying thoroughly analyzing relative needs across different education infrastructure needs at the subnational localities and by applying transparent selection criteria level, and developing of a set of criteria to prioritize to timely and accurate data. This approach to infra- investments. structure planning is preferable to an ad hoc approach, as each investment can be viewed through the lens of Sources: Beschel and Ahern 2012; Teixeira, Amoroso, and Gresham 2017; the strategic needs of the sector and country. Universidad de los Andes and World Bank 2017. FIGURE 11.7  A wage bill’s high share can crowd out other important education spending in MENA Staff salaries as a percentage of recurrent public education spending, 2016 or latest available year 100 98 98 96 94 94 92 88 87 86 84 79 79 79 77 80 73 60 Percent 40 20 0 3) 5) 2) 4) 3) 0) 5) ) 2) ) 4) ) ) 3) 5) 13 09 16 14 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 20 20 20 20 (2 (2 (2 i (2 . (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 s( ( r( e( on lic sia an za ain co it an p. ep t ta te ag ou wa Re Ga b oc rd Om n ni Qa ira hr ,R pu er ba ib Ku Tu Jo or ic Ba nd en Em av Dj Re Le am M m ka CD ab b Isl Ye ra an OE Ar n, nA tB Ira d ite ria es W Un Sy Sources: World Bank staff estimates based on data from OECD (OECD 2017a) and World Bank EdStats database (http://datatopics.worldbank.org/education/). Note: Data are for the latest available year between 2009 and 2016. Estimates for the following include primary and secondary education only: Djibouti, Jordan, Kuwait, Morocco, the Syrian Arab Republic, Tunisia, the United Arab Emirates, the Republic of Yemen, and the OECD average (including postsecondary, nontertiary). OECD = Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. costs (see figure 11.7). Lebanon leads the way salaries. While teachers are clearly the most with 98 percent, while many others— important contributors to learning in the Djibouti, Jordan, Syria, Tunisia, and the classroom, inputs such as teaching and learn- Republic of Yemen— spend more than ing materials are also critical. When less than 90 percent of recurrent expenditure on percent of the recurrent education budget 10 ­ P r i o r i t i z i n g I n v e s t m e n t s t o P r o m o t e L e a r n i n g a n d S k i l l s    243 is allocated to nonsalary spending, there is Learning can only happen with little room for financing the day-to-day oper- an adequate number of ation of schools, and other important invest- qualified teachers ments that contribute to learning are crowded Having an adequate number of qualified out, such as teaching and learning materials, teachers in the classroom is the basic prereq- professional development, and school reha- uisite for learning. However, students in bilitation and maintenance.7 Adequate fund- some MENA countries are taught in classes ing of nonsalary categories in education so large that effective instruction can be dif- budgets is crucial for ensuring that large pub- ficult. A handful of countries in the region lic investments translate into education report having among the largest class sizes of results. Unbalanced allocations between all countries participating in the Trends in wage bill expenses and investments in non- International Mathematics and Science Study salary recurrent spending, as well as capital (TIMSS) 2015. Average class size for grade 8 investment, can lead to inefficiencies in the mathematics varies from a high of 43 ­students use of existing financial resources. in Egypt to a low of 25 in Lebanon (see f igure 11.8). Egypt, Jordan, and Morocco ­ have some of the largest classes among Manage the teacher workforce TIMSS participants, while GCC countries efficiently have class sizes generally in line with the Despite MENA countries’ large investments international average of TIMSS participants in teachers, such investments can make a and those found in East Asia (though still positive contribution to student learning higher than in countries like Australia and only if human resources are managed and Sweden). used efficiently and deployed in areas where Meanwhile, student-teacher ratios (STRs) they are needed. If teachers are not present in some MENA countries are substantially in the classroom or are lacking in certain below their average class sizes. For example, key subjects, then the substantial invest- Egypt’s STR is 23 in primary education, but ments that countries make in their education only 15 in secondary education (15 students systems—whose largest share is devoted to per teacher compared with average grade 8 financing teacher salaries—may not lead to class size of 43). Wide disparities between learning. STRs and average class sizes may indicate FIGURE 11.8  Class size varies across MENA, with the Arab Republic of Egypt and Morocco having among the largest classes Students per class for grade 8 mathematics, as reported by the teacher, TIMSS 2015 50 43 41 40 36 Students per class 34 32 32 32 30 29 29 30 28 27 27 27 26 25 25 23 20 10 0 p. o e an ia n in a la n ge it s r p. n a en . ep ta te bi ali r cc pa a no wa ys Re Re a po rd Om ra ed Qa ira hr a R o str ala Ja ba Ar Ku ve Jo ga or ic b a, Sw Ba Em Au ra Le am re M M di Sin ,A Ko u na ab Isl Sa pt io Ar n, y at Eg Ira d rn ite te Un In Source: IEA 2015. Note: TIMSS = Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study. 2 4 4   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations inefficient use of teaching staff (due to rela- teachers can often prove to be more effective tively low teaching hours, for example). The at increasing student learning than employing differences in the two ratios depend on sev- more teachers to reduce class sizes. The same eral factors: the number of classes or students is true for greater investment in technology or for which a teacher is responsible, the amount the use of teaching assistants in the classroom of instruction time compared with the length (OECD 2017b). Investments in the hiring of of teachers’ working days, the proportion of additional teachers to reduce class sizes should time teachers spend teaching, how students be targeted to areas where class sizes are par- are grouped within classes, and use of team ticularly large and act as a constraint on learn- teaching (Shewbridge et al. 2016). ing. However, STRs should be reduced in STRs vary widely across MENA countries tandem with other education system reforms, in both primary and secondary education. In such as changing pedagogy in order to capture primary school, STRs range from a high of the potential benefits of smaller classes, where 30 students per teacher in Djibouti to a low greater numbers of teachers can be used most of 9 in Kuwait (see figure 11.9). At the lower effectively (OECD 2017b). end, Bahrain, Lebanon, Qatar, and Saudi Although countries in MENA employ Arabia join Kuwait, with STRs around 12. large numbers of teachers, many countries A similar pattern holds at the secondary also experience teacher shortages, especially level, where Kuwait and Lebanon average in mathematics and science. On average 8 students per teacher. Only Djibouti and across MENA, 45 percent of students in West Bank and Gaza have relatively high sec- grade 8 are estimated to attend schools whose ondary STRs, at 23 and 20, respectively. capacity to provide instruction is affected “a Decisions to invest in smaller classes and lot” by the shortage of qualified mathematics lower STRs can be costly. Countries all over teachers, and 46 ­ percent are in schools con- the world face trade-offs when deciding strained by the shortage of qualified science whether to spend scarce resources on hiring teachers (IEA 2015). For example, in Egypt, additional teachers or financing other educa- 69 ­percent of grade 8 students attend schools tional inputs (see box 11.4). Investing in pro- that face substantial shortages of specialized fessional development, working conditions, science teachers, according to TIMSS 2015, and higher salaries for current and future and 62 percent are in schools that have FIGURE 11.9  Student-teacher ratios vary widely across MENA Student-teacher ratios in primary and secondary education, 2016 or latest available year a. Primary b. Secondary 35 25 23 30 30 27 27 27 20 20 Students per teacher Students per teacher 25 24 24 23 17 25 15 15 18 15 14 20 16 11 10 15 10 10 12 12 12 12 10 8 8 9 10 5 5 0 0 n, en ti ic . Ar Mor p. Em co an Al es yp nd G ia ra a Jo p. Tu n Le sia Ba on ain iA r Ku a it Ira k an uti Eg lam za ra p. Jo . an ud isia a Ar Ba r Em in Le es Ku n it am ep p ud ata a t, A az bi bi a no Ira em ou wa wa r Re Re t, A Re Re ab hra t t t Is Ga ab oc rd rd k a ge n ni o Qa ira ira hr Isl , R ra ra Sa un Sa Q ba ba Y jib an jib b yp ic b iA d T D tB D n, tB Eg d d ite ite es es W W Un Un Source: World Bank EdStats database (http://datatopics.worldbank.org/education/). Note: Data are for the latest available year between 2011 and 2016. P r i o r i t i z i n g I n v e s t m e n t s t o P r o m o t e L e a r n i n g a n d S k i l l s    245 Box 11.4  Class size policies across the OECD The average class size among OECD member such as the improvement of teacher education, pro- ­ countries is approximately 21 students in primary and fessional development, and employment conditions 23 students in lower-secondary education. However, or the more widespread use of assistant teachers some high-performing systems such as Shanghai and other professionals who can support qualified (China) and Singapore choose to have larger classes teachers. Trade-offs often exist between investing in to free up teacher time for professional learning and more human resources by maintaining small classes self-improvement in their everyday practice. and investing in better human resources and new The trade-offs between investing in smaller class approaches to teaching (including through greater sizes versus investing in alternative educational use of technology). A synthesis of more than 800 inputs are inherent in all education systems. On studies relating to student achievement concluded the one hand, some evidence suggests that smaller that value for money in raising performance is better classes may have a positive impact on educational achieved through interventions other than class size attainment and student behavior. Research from reduction (Hattie 2009). This result is supported by England indicates that students in smaller classes are research finding that increasing teacher effectiveness the focus of a teacher’s attention for more time, and has greater value for money than reducing class sizes there is more active interaction between students and and suggests assigning the most effective teachers to teachers and more student engagement (Department the largest classes to maximize the potential benefits for Education, United Kingdom 2011). A study from (Hanushek 2011; Rivkin, Hanushek, and Kain 2005). Denmark estimated that reducing class sizes by With the exception of situations in which ini- 5 percent during all compulsory s ­ chooling—from tial class sizes are very large—above approximately about 18 to 17 students per class—would extend 30 students per class—most estimates suggest that expected enrollment in postcompulsory school- expected benefits in terms of education outcomes ing by about 1 percent (approximately 0.04 year from a reduction in class size are typically mod- or 8 days of additional schooling), which translates est. Given the high cost of such interventions, other into a 0.2 percent increase in expected lifetime earn- alternatives are frequently found to be more cost- ings (Bingley, Jensen, and Walker 2005). effective at improving students’ learning outcomes. On the other hand, the potential benefits of small classes need to be weighed against other investments, Sources: OECD 2017b; Santiago et al. 2016; Shewbridge et al. 2016. shortages of specialized mathematics teachers MENA countries surveyed in 2010 required (see figure 11.10). Even in the relatively well- working hours for teachers that were compa- off countries of the GCC, shortages of math- rable to those of the top-performing countries ematics and science teachers are well in (World Bank 2015). Only Egypt (1,760 hours) excess of the OECD levels of 11 and 12 per- and Tunisia (1,680 hours) were within the cent, respectively. range of top-performing countries such as Japa n , t he Republ ic of Kore a , a nd New Zealand (1,554 to 1,960 hours per year). Efficient teacher utilization requires Meanwhile, Djibouti, Jordan, Lebanon, West sufficient working hours and low Bank and Gaza, and the Republic of Yemen absenteeism were all well below this range (see figure 11.11). Even in countries where teachers are deployed For instance, the working hours required in in adequate numbers, they are often not used Lebanon of primary (864 hours) and second- efficiently. In MENA, low numbers of work- ary (640 hours) education teachers were less ing hours for teachers and high rates of teacher than half of those observed in top-performing absenteeism are common. Only half of the countries. 2 4 6   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations FIGURE 11.10  Students across MENA face shortages of qualified mathematics and science teachers Percentage of grade 8 students attending schools whose capacity to provide instruction is affected “a lot” by a shortage of teachers with specialization in mathematics or science, TIMSS 2015 80 60 Percent 40 20 0 p. an an a it A in co p. r s n CD CD ta te bi no wa EN Re Re a oc Om rd Qa OE OE ira hr ra ba M Ku Jo or b ic iA Ba Em n- ra Le am M ud No t, A ab Isl Sa yp Ar n, Eg Ira d ite Un Shortage of mathematics teachers Shortage of science teachers Source: IEA 2015. Note: OECD = Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development; TIMSS = Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study. FIGURE 11.11  The required working hours for teachers in MENA are well below those in top-performing countries Statutory teaching and total working time required for teachers in primary education in selected MENA (2010) and OECD (2007) ­economies 2,500 100 93 100 83 2,000 80 67 67 Number of hours per year 1,500 57 60 54 53 52 Percent 39 1,000 40 500 20 0 0 n d p. sia . an ti n . za ep ep pa no n ou Re Ga rd ala ni ,R ,R Ja ba ib Tu Jo b nd a en Ze Dj ra Le re m ka t, A w Ko Ye Ne an yp tB Eg es W Teaching time Other working hours Teaching time (percentage of total working hours) Source: World Bank 2015. Note: OECD = Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. P r i o r i t i z i n g I n v e s t m e n t s t o P r o m o t e L e a r n i n g a n d S k i l l s    247 At the same time, teachers in MENA are students in grade 8 were enrolled in schools expected to spend a higher proportion of their whose principals reported teacher absenteeism working time teaching than their counterparts to be a “serious problem” (see ­ figure 11.12). in OECD countries. The same survey indicates The problem is most acute in Morocco that, while the top-performing countries typi- (­affecting 28 percent of students), followed by cally require less than 60 percent of a teacher’s Saudi Arabia, Oman, and Egypt. By compari- working hours to be spent teaching, MENA son, only 4 percent of grade 8 students across countries are usually above this threshold.8 In the OECD were enrolled in schools with serious some M ENA economies— such as the problems with teacher absenteeism. Similarly, Republic of Yemen (83 percent), Djibouti low levels of absenteeism were observed in the (93 percent), and West Bank and Gaza Islamic Republic of Iran (2 percent) and the (100 percent)—nearly all of a teacher’s work- United Arab Emirates (7 percent). ing time is supposed to be spent teaching, leav- A closer study of the Moroccan school ing little room for professional development, system provides a more detailed look at the det- ­ collaboration, and other nonteaching tasks.9 rimental effect of teacher absenteeism. In the Teacher absenteeism is another chronic schools visited by the research team in 2016, problem plaguing MENA school systems. 4 percent of teachers were absent from school, Among the MENA countries participating in and an additional 6 percent were in school but TIMSS 2015, an average of 16 percent of absent from class (see table 11.1). This absence FIGURE 11.12  Teacher absenteeism is prevalent throughout MENA Percentage of grade 8 students attending schools whose principal reports that teacher absenteeism is a “serious problem,” TIMSS 2015 30 28 25 23 22 20 20 16 16 Percent 15 15 14 13 12 10 9 7 5 4 2 0 p. A CD r ain n an co a s it p. an CD ta te bi no Re wa EN Re oc rd Om Qa ira OE OE hr ra ba M Ku ab Jo or ic iA Ba Em n- Le am M Ar ud No b t, Isl Sa ra yp n, dA Eg Ira ite Un Source: IEA 2015. Note: OECD = Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development; TIMSS = Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study. TABLE 11.1  Teacher absenteeism affects teaching time in Morocco Teacher effort service delivery indicators, by school type, 2016 Public Indicator Urban Rural Total Private Total Absence from school (percent) 3.2 5.2 4.8 1.7 4.4 Absence from class (percent) 3.6 6.4 5.9 2.7 5.5 Teaching time (planned) 4 hrs., 34 mins. 4 hrs., 23 mins. 4 hrs., 26 mins. 5 hrs., 51 mins. 4 hrs., 37 mins. Teaching time (actual) 4 hrs., 15 mins. 3 hrs., 51 mins. 3 hrs., 56 mins. 5 hrs., 25 mins. 4 hrs., 9 mins. Teaching time lost –19 mins. –32 mins. –30 mins. –26 mins. –28 mins. (actual – planned) (–7%) (–12%) (–11%) (–7%) (–10%) Source: ONDH 2017. 2 4 8   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations TABLE 11.2  A lack of key educational inputs affects many students in Morocco Percentage of grade 4 students who lack selected inputs, by school type, 2016 Public Indicator Urban Rural Total Private Total Students without a textbook 6.3 16.0 13.8 2.3 12.3   Mathematics textbook 1.6 25.9 22.5 0.7 20.0   French textbook 1.5 12.7 10.3 0.3 8.9   Arabic textbook 10.5 11.9 11.4 4.4 10.4 Students without a pencil 5.0 11.2 9.8 0.7 8.6 Students without a notebook 8.5 16.1 14.4 5.7 13.3 Classrooms without minimum teaching resources 30.6 37.3 35.7 11.6 32.5 Source: ONDH 2017. Note: Classrooms without minimum teaching resources are those in which 90 percent of students do not have pencils and notebooks. reduced average teaching time by 28 minutes In Oman, 73 percent of principals indi- (or 10 percent) for grade 4 students. The effect cated that a shortage of instructional materi- was larger in rural public schools than in urban als hindered their school’s capacity to provide public schools or in private schools. On aver- instruction (IEA 2015). This is well above the age, rural public school teachers were three international average of 48 percent. In times more likely to be absent from school than Algeria, although almost all lower-secondary private school teachers, resulting in students schools have basic furniture and usable office from rural public schools receiving almost 30 equipment, a substantial proportion lack percent less instruction time than those from essential pedagogical material, and 33 per- private schools (ONDH 2017). cent of schools do not have basic scientific equipment and lab materials (Suchaut 2006; Availability of instructional materials World Bank 2007a). allows teachers to teach effectively MENA countries have made tremendous prog- Even when teachers are in the classroom for ress in expanding access to education over the an adequate number of hours, they may not last four decades, at a substantial cost to the be able to help students to learn effectively public purse. The next challenge is to ensure when they lack necessary instructional mate- that these investments translate into improved rials. Textbooks and other learning materials learning outcomes for the region’s students. are often not available until late in the school This effort will require maintaining the year, especially in schools located in remote momentum for adequate public investment, or hard-to-reach areas. In Morocco, for ensuring that financial and human resources example, a shortage of textbooks in rural are allocated equitably and used efficiently, and public schools (where 16 percent of grade 4 forging stronger links between resource alloca- students did not have a textbook) left those tions and education sector results. Only then students at a disadvantage compared with can the promise of education for all translate their peers in urban public schools (where 6 into better learning outcomes and life prospects percent lacked a textbook) and those in pri- for the next generation of MENA’s citizens. vate schools (where 2 percent lacked a text- book) (see table 11.2). Students in rural public schools were also twice as likely as Notes their urban peers to be without a pencil or a 1. More than US$2 trillion in public funds have notebook. Overall, one in three Moroccan been spent on education in MENA since the classrooms surveyed did not have the mini- 1970s (based on World Bank estimates from mum teaching resources for at least 90 per- EdStats data), which is approximately equal cent of grade 4 students (ONDH 2017). to the annual GDP of India. P r i o r i t i z i n g I n v e s t m e n t s t o P r o m o t e L e a r n i n g a n d S k i l l s    249 2. National education accounts (NEAs) offer a staff compensation. Some high-performing new and promising avenue for systematically countries—such as Finland (36 percent), the collecting comprehensive data on education Republic of Korea (30 percent), and the expenditures from national sources. This United Kingdom (28 percent)—spend well approach should be used widely to enhance the above that amount on nonsalary inputs availability of comparable information on pub- (OECD 2017a). lic and private funding of education around the 8. Egypt is a notable exception, where only 39 world. For comprehensive guidelines on the percent of a teacher’s statutory working time preparation of NEAs, see http://uis.unesco.org​ is expected to be spent teaching. At the time /en/news/national-education-accounts. of the analysis, Egyptian teachers had enough 3. This is comparable to the 15 percent of educa- time to fulfill their duties, but legislation at tion spending attributable to households in the time (2010) was unclear on how working Djibouti. However, Djibouti’s estimate excludes time should be distributed across various spending on tertiary education; if it were tasks. As a result, teachers spent most of their included, the share of private spending would time on lesson planning and preparation and likely rise. By comparison, the OECD average administrative tasks (World Bank 2015). for the private share of education spending 9. However, the survey, which collects data on excluding tertiary is around 8 percent. statutory working hours, cannot capture the 4. Based on United Nations population projec- actual working hours of teachers. tions, countries such as Algeria, Djibouti, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Oman, Saudi Arabia, and Tunisia References are likely to see their preschool- and school- Beschel, Robert P., Jr., and Mark Ahern. 2012. age populations (ages 0 to 19 years) peak by Public Financial Management Reform in the around 2030. Other countries, such as Middle East and North Africa: An Overview Bahrain, Egypt, Jordan, Syria, and the of Regional Experience. 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Montreal: UIS. http://data.uis.unesco.org. spotlight 3 Linking Budget Management to Learning Igor Kheyfets S pending must target learning. Across frame of the NDP. A second way is to set out the Middle East and North Africa in the NDP the general strategic directions to (MENA) region, many governments be prioritized in each sector, which then cas- have moved toward modernizing their budget cade down into sectoral plans such as ESPs or management practices to improve the trans- action plans of the respective line ministries. parency, efficiency, and accountability of A third way is to prepare stand-alone sector public service provision in all spheres, includ- strategic documents like ESPs that are not ing education (Beschel and Ahern 2012). linked explicitly to a national vision docu- By making learning the central (and measur- ment but can be guided implicitly through able) objective of education systems and strategic policy pronouncements from the aligning public budgets to meet this goal, head of state, for example. governments can spend the funds devoted to The United Arab Emirates’ Vision 2021 education more efficiently. This effort employs a combination of the first and sec- requires high-level strategic planning, clear ond approaches. The high-level national links between spending and results, and strategic document lays out eight concrete timely budget execution. key performance indicators (KPIs) to be achieved in the education sector by 2021 (see table S3.1). These KPIs then cascade Link budgets to strategic into the strategic plan of the Ministry of national and education priorities Education, whose 2017–21 implementation Nearly every country in the world has a period is aligned with the time frame of the national strategic framework to guide its national Vision 2021. In that sense, both the long-term policy planning. Many of these country’s and the education ministry’s objec- frameworks are set out in formal national tives are aligned and are tied to specific, mea- development plans (NDPs) or similar high- surable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound level strategic documents. In MENA, at (SMART) indicators (IEG 2012). least 10 such plans are currently under implementation (IIEP n.d.). Many countries also have education sector plans (ESPs), sub- Budget for education with an sector plans, or national education strategies explicit focus on learning that provide overall strategic guidance to Targeting spending to learning requires con- education policy making.1 centrating on outputs and outcomes, not just Higher-level strategic documents can inputs. Performance-based budgeting inform education budget preparation in sev- (PBB)—also known as “results-based budget- eral ways. One way is to lay out specific edu- ing” or “output-based budgeting”—seeks to cation objectives with clear indicators to be introduce explicit measures of performance achieved within the (usually long-term) time d i rec t ly i nto t he budget i ng pro cess. 251 2 5 2   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations TABLE S3.1  United Arab Emirates Vision 2021 lays out national key performance indicators for the education sector National agenda priority: First-rate education system Indicator Latest result 2021 target 1. Average PISA score Mathematics: rank 38 Among the top Science: rank 36 20 countries Reading: rank 36 (PISA 2015) 2. Average TIMSS score Mathematics, grade 4: rank 35 Among the top Science, grade 4: rank 35 15 countries Mathematics, grade 8: rank 19 Science, grade 8: rank 22 (TIMSS 2015) 3. Upper-secondary graduation rate (percent) 97.9 98 (2017) 4. Enrollment rate in preschools (public and private) (percent) 92.6 95 (2017) Percentage of students with high skills in Arabic, according to 5.  67.8 90 national tests (2017) 6. Percentage of schools with high-quality teachers 32.0 100 (2017) 7. Percentage of schools with highly effective school leadership 28.0 100 (2017) 8. Enrollment rate in university foundation year (percent)a 44.8 0 (2017) Sources: Ministry of Education, United Arab Emirates n.d.; Prime Minister’s Office, United Arab Emirates n.d. Notes: PISA = Programme for International Student Assessment; TIMSS = Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study. a. The foundation year is a program to strengthen Arabic, English, mathematics, and information technology skills of incoming university students. Under Vision 2021, the foundation year is planned to be phased out. Performance-based budgets are often orga- performance budgeting in 1999. Such reforms nized around programs with specific perfor- make it easier for ministries of finance to mance indicators that can be used to measure hold line ministries accountable for results the effectiveness of budget implementation. linked to specific budget allocations, while Ministries of education that receive budgets also helping line ministries to align their under a PBB system would receive allocations activities with the achievement of their strate- to achieve certain sectoral outputs (for exam- gic sectoral policy agendas (Beschel and ple, increasing preprimary enrollment) rather Ahern 2012; OECD 2010). than to finance certain amounts of inputs (such as salaries or capital costs). In Jordan, Morocco, and Tunisia, minis- Improve budget execution rates tries of education have been early adopters of to smooth service delivery those countries’ PBB systems (Beschel and Even in countries with robust strategic Ahern 2012; OECD 2010). In Western planning and budget formulation systems E u rop e a nd ot her c ou nt r ie s of t he in place, public expenditures may fail to Organisation for Economic Co-operation produce the desired results. A problem seen and Development (OECD), PBB approaches in many education systems is lagging bud- have been employed for some time. The get execution, which can be observed in the Netherlands, for example, introduced proto- differences between the amounts budgeted PBB approaches as far back as the 1970s and and those actually spent. Underexecution moved its entire public sector to program and of budgets can occur for many L i n k i n g B u d g e t Ma n a g e m e n t t o L e a r n i n g    253 reasons—from revenue shortages brought high-level strategic documents, and policy frame- about by weak revenue collection systems works on its Planipolis website (IIEP n.d.). to late disbursements or lengthy procure- 2. See the Tunisia BOOST database (http:// ment procedures and internal controls. For boost​.worldbank.org/country/tunisia). example, in countries such as Jordan, Lebanon, and Morocco, having different References agencies involved in signing off on certain Beschel, Robert P., Jr., and Mark Ahern. 2012. budget expenditures causes substantial Public Financial Management Reform in the delays in public procurement. In some Middle East and North Africa: An Overview MENA countries (notably Iraq), the delays of Regional Experience. Washington, DC: caused by lengthy and burdensome budget World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank​ control procedures explain delays in capital .org/handle/10986/9368. projects (Beschel and Ahern 2012). In IEG (Independent Evaluation Group). 2012. Tunisia, the development budget in educa- “Designing a Results Framework for Achieving tion (which finances capital investment) is Results: A How-To Guide.” World Bank, frequently underexecuted by as much as Washington, DC. http://siteresources.worldbank​ 8 ­p ercent per year. 2 In Algeria, the invest- .org/EXTEVACAPDEV/Resources/designing​ ment budget for education was under­ _results_framework.pdf. IIEP (International Institute for Educational executed by 15 to 26 percent between 2002 Planning). No date. “Planipolis: A Portal of and 2004 (World Bank 2007). National Education Plans and Policies.” United Improving budget execution rates can Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural start with a review of the relevant adminis- Organization (U N E SCO), Paris. http://​ t r a t i v e p r o c e du r e s t o i d e n t i f y k e y planipolis.iiep.unesco.org/. ­ bottlenecks. Depending on the underlying Ministry of Education, United Arab Emirates. No causes, budget execution can be improved date. “Ministry of Education Strategic Plan by simplifying and streamlining existing 2017–2021.” Ministry of Education, Dubai. procedures; strengthening the management, https://www.moe.gov.ae/En/AboutTheMinistry​ planning, and procurement capacities of key /Pages/MinistryStrategy.aspx. agencies and departments; introducing OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). 2010. Progress in Public internal management systems and practices Management in the Middle East and North that improve coordination across units and Africa: Case Studies on Policy Reform. Paris: clarify their responsibilities; improving edu- OECD. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/978926​ cation management information systems 4082076-en. and data flows between data systems for Prime Minister’s Office, United Arab Emirates. education and those for finance, procure- No date. “Vision 2021.” Prime Minister’s ment, and human resource management; Office, Dubai. https://www.vision2021.ae​ and streamlining the planning and execu- /­e n ​/national-agenda-2021/ list /fi rst-rate​ tion of capital projects, as was done in Iraq -­c ircle. (Beschel and Ahern 2012). World Bank. 2007. “People’s Democratic Republic of A lgeria Public Expenditure Review: Assuring High Quality Public Investment.” Vol. 1: “M a i n Repor t.” World B a n k , Notes Washington, DC. https://openknowledge​ 1. The International Institute for Educational .worldbank.org/handle/10986/7880. Planning of the United Nations Educational, ———. Va rious yea rs. BOOST database. Scientific, and Cultural Organization maintains Washington, DC: World Bank. http://boost​ a database of national education plans, .worldbank.org/country/. Strengthening Skills by Linking Education to the Labor Market 12 Almedina Music and Caroline Krafft T Workplace training can provide o reap the benefits of education, the M idd le E ast a nd Nor t h A f rica students with job-relevant skills (MENA) will have to align its push for learning with a pull for skills. After Skills training programs are more successful leaving school, many young people in when the private sector is involved in devel- MENA are not able to find work or they oping curricula and training methods or in secure jobs with limited prospects.1 Youths providing on-the-job training (World Bank are often stuck in low-wage, unstable, 2019). Workplace training comes in different informal jobs with limited social protec- forms: short-term programs, apprenticeship tion, or jobs that offer few opportunities to schemes at the upper-secondary school level, strengthen their skills or increase their internship programs for university students, employability for better jobs. In the Arab informal training, and many others. Training Republic of Egypt, for example, informal- programs are designed to improve labor mar- ity is two times more common among ket outcomes, raise productivity, and reduce workers 15 to 24 years old than among employee turnover (World Bank 2018b).2 workers 35 to 54 years old (Gatti et al. The evidence on the effects of youth train- 2012). Unless the labor market is realigned ing programs is mixed. Most of the literature to increase the demand for skills, the on programs in high- or middle-income coun- potential contribution of the education sec- ­ tries finds limited effects on employment out- tor to the economy will not be fully real- comes (Card, Kluve, and Weber 2010; Datta ized. To align the skills that young people et al. 2018; Kluve et al. 2019; McKenzie acquire more closely with those that the 2017). However, some programs have shown labor market requires, employers have a positive effects on employment and earnings. role to play in providing on-the-job train- In Nepal, a large youth training intervention ing. Improving the flow of labor market generated an increase in nonfarm employment information for the decision making of of 10 percentage points and sizable gains in employers and students may also facilitate monthly earnings (Chakravarty et al. 2019). school-to-work transitions. In India, a subsidized vocational education 255 2 5 6   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations program for women residing in low-income with vocational education and training, but households led to higher probability of engagement falls to only 5 percent in the employment and higher earnings. Results commercial sector. Social services and tour- were sustained over the medium term (Maitra ism and hotels have similar levels of cooper- and Mani 2017). In Kenya, the Ninaweza ation with employers (20 percent), while the Youth Empowerment program, which inte- medical sector also experiences a moderate grates information and communication tech- level of cooperation as evidenced by the nology, life skills, internship training, and number of employers participating (13 per- job placement support for youths, shows cent) (SPU, MOHE 2012). positive impacts on labor market outcomes Vocational schools suffer from a lack of (World Bank 2018b). Colombia’s Jóvenes en appropriate facilities and hands-on learning Acción (Youth in Action) program combines opportunities (Krafft 2017). In Egypt, classroom instruction with on-the-job train- percent of workers are in jobs requiring a 41 ­ ing at private companies. The probability of technical skill; the share is 34 percent in formal employment and earnings rose in the Tunisia. Only around a quarter (25–27 per- short term and has been sustained in the long cent) of workers in jobs requiring a technical run (Attanasio, Kugler, and Meghir 2011; skill acquired it through regular schooling Attanasio et al. 2015). figure 12.1). In Egypt, a further 12 per- (see ­ Many active labor market policies cent acquired the skill through technical (ALMPs) in MENA have not been successful education. Other routes, including on-the- i n add re s si ng yout h u nemploy ment . job training, learning from a craftsperson, In Tunisia, employers who hired subsidized vocational training, or from a contractor, graduates were usually hiring anyway, and were common. Vocational training and graduates receiving the subsidy were the most ­ c ontractors were a particularly common employable (Broecke 2013). A job-matching route in Tunisia, while craftspeople were a program that matched more than 1,000 indi- major source of skills in Egypt. viduals in Jordan led to only 15 jobs (Groh Those entering vocational education and et al. 2015). Some ALMPs, however, may training in MENA often lack basic skills have positive effects other than employment. (Krafft 2017). Mostly there is no coordi- A program in Tunisia used the process of nated action plan to deal with this chal- writing an undergraduate thesis to teach stu- lenge, and disadvantaged students do not dents basic entrepreneurial skills (Brodmann, receive coherent and systematic support in Grun, and Premand 2011). Students were most cases. Vocational training programs mentored by professors and private sector are often related directly to specific occupa- coaches to develop business plans. The initial tions. If this type of program is to become results showed that the program motivated more attractive to prospective students, students and gave them confidence to take switching between academic and vocational risks.3 tracks needs to be easier, and the quality of Effective engagement with the private options at the upper-secondary level needs sector is crucial for successful workplace to improve more generally. In Singapore training.4 However, nearly 80 percent of since the early 1990s, publicity campaigns Egyptian employers report, for example, no showed that vocational education and tech- active cooperation with vocational and nical jobs are not second-best options in a training institutions (Álvarez-Galván 2015). technology-driven world; enormous state In addition, the level of employer engage- investment has gone into upgrading techni- ment varies greatly across different eco- cal and vocational education and training nomic sectors and occupational fields. In (T V ET) programs at all ­ l evels. Today, Egypt, the highest reported level of engage- nearly two-thirds of all postsecondary ment is in the industrial sector, with 33 per- enrollments are in TVET programs with cent of employers reporting cooperation state-of-the-art facilities and equipment S t r e n g t h e n i n g S k i l l s b y L i n k i n g E d u ca t i o n t o t h e La b o r Ma r k e t    257 FIGURE 12.1  Only a quarter of workers in Egypt and Tunisia acquired their technical skills through regular schooling Percentage of workers with technical skills reporting source of skills a. Arab Republic of Egypt 35 33 30 27 25 20 Percent 15 12 9 10 6 4 4 5 2 2 0 n g n te ic g or ily r he so in tio in bl iva ct m ol in Ot pu er ra ca fa pr ho ra tsp nt du J, J, lt J, sc Co OT OT af le OT na lar Cr ca tio gu ni ca ch Re Vo Te b. Tunisia 30 25 25 20 17 Percent 15 14 12 12 10 10 6 5 3 2 0 g e g or n r lic n ily he at in in so tio ct ub m riv ol in Ot er ra ca fa ,p ho ra tsp ,p nt du J, lt J sc Co J OT OT af le OT na ar Cr ca tio l gu ni ca ch Re Vo Te Sources: Calculations based on the Economic Research Forum Egypt Labor Market Panel Survey 2012 (http://www.erfdataportal.com/index.php/catalog/45) and Tunisia Labor Market Panel Survey 2014 (http://erfdataportal.com/index.php/catalog/105). Note: The panels show the source of technical skills for those in jobs requiring a technical skill among wage workers ages 15–64. OTJ = on-the-job (training). and top-quality instructors with industry in construction, public works, electricity, experience (World Bank 2018a). agriculture, and tourism (Oxford Business MENA countries recognize these issues Group 2015). Since the 2011 revolution, the and increasingly foster public-private part- Tunisian Ministry of Education has been nerships to provide more students with the developing a reform plan, which includes opportunity to work as part of their stud- restructuring its vocational education tracks ies. In Algeria, enrollment in vocational (Oxford Business Group 2017). Other tracks has increased. The Algerian govern- countries across the region are interested ment has partnered with public and pri- in making vocational education work bet- vate companies to create suitable programs ter for students and for the labor market. 2 5 8   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations In Saudi Arabia, several large private com- challenges in finding an adequately skilled panies have developed industry-specific workforce is above the average level seen apprenticeship programs. One of the oldest in both lower-middle-income and upper- examples is Saudi Aramco’s apprenticeship middle-income economies (see fi ­ gure 12.2). program, which was designed to support In these four countries, every third firm national strategic objectives but also reduces surveyed reported that the scarcity of an the burden of finding nonuniversity gradu- adequately educated workforce is a major ates who require substantial retraining.5 or a severe constraint for their business. Yet The World Bank Education to Work in Djibouti and West Bank and Gaza the Transition Project for West Bank and Gaza share of companies reporting challenges is aims to develop and implement employment- below the average in lower-middle-income oriented education programs in partnership economies, and Jordan and Lebanon have with the private sector (World Bank 2012). rates below those of upper-middle-income Higher education institutions can compete countries. Employer surveys indicate greater for funds by proposing new and innovative demand for socioemotional skills and study programs that respond to the needs of higher-order cognitive skills than for basic the labor market. The unemployment rate of cognitive or technical skills (Cunningham graduates from participating institutions has and Villaseñor 2016). High-paying jobs been reduced by 9.7 percent6 alongside other increasingly require social skills, with tech- achievements. nological change providing one possible explanation (Deming 2017). Across MENA economies the intensity of Companies in MENA report training provided by firms is low. In other difficulties in finding an words, firm-provided training in the region is adequately skilled workforce lagging far behind firm-provided training in In Iraq, Morocco, Tunisia, and the Republic other countries (see figure 12.3). Firms in of Yemen, the share of companies reporting Djibouti, Lebanon, Morocco, and Tunisia FIGURE 12.2  Firms in MENA vary in whether they face an inadequately educated workforce Percentage of firms reporting an inadequately educated workforce as a major or very severe constraint 40 34 35 32 29 30 27 27 25 23 Percent 19 19 20 15 15 10 10 6 5 0 za ti p. . sia co om me n n q om me ep a no Ira ou Re Ga oc rd ni ,R ies ies on co on co ba ib Tu Jo or b d en ec e-in ec -in Dj ra Le an M m ,A e dl dl k Ye t an id id yp r-m -m tB Eg es er we p W Up Lo Sources: World Bank Enterprise Surveys, most recent available year (http://www.enterprisesurveys.org/). S t r e n g t h e n i n g S k i l l s b y L i n k i n g E d u ca t i o n t o t h e La b o r Ma r k e t    259 FIGURE 12.3  Firms in MENA have below-average rates of formal training Percentage of firms offering formal training 40 37 36 35 30 28 25 25 25 21 Percent 20 15 13 10 10 5 5 4 0 p. za . ti co sia om me an n om me ep no ou Re Ga oc rd ni ,R ies ies on co on co ba ib Tu Jo or b nd en ec e-in ec e-in Dj ra Le M m ka t, A dl dl Ye an id id yp r-m r-m tB Eg es we pe W Up Lo Sources: World Bank Enterprise Surveys, most recent available year (http://www.enterprisesurveys.org/). provide relatively more training, but less than Improving labor market the average in economically similar countries. information flows can help both In MENA countries, firms with a larger share students and employers of young workers are more likely to provide training to their workers. In fact, the higher Better communication between the education the share of university-educated employ- system and employers to identify what skills ees, the higher the probability of providing are in high demand and increase those skills training (EBRD, EIB, and World Bank 2016). within the education system can improve stu- The intensity and quality of the training dent outcomes. Improved communication received in the workplace is crucial. This is will be a necessary part of moving away from even more true in a fast-changing world, a credentialist equilibrium to a skills equilib- where updating skills is the key to workers’ rium. If employers shift from focusing on cre- relevance and longevity. An estimated 41 per- dentials to demanding skills and cent of all work activities in Kuwait are sus- communicating the skills that are in demand, ceptible to automation, as are 46 percent in parents and students will then demand skills Bahrain and Saudi Arabia, 47 percent in the from the education system. National United Arab Emirates, 49 percent in Egypt, employer surveys, with widely publicized 50 percent in Morocco, and 52 percent in reports and results, could be one route to sig- Qatar (World Economic Forum 2017). In nal the skills that employers demand. In most addition, whether jobs are declining, stable, MENA countries, private sector firms are or growing, their skills profile is changing disproportionately microenterprises. These substantially. The World Economic Forum’s businesses lack the ability to send signals Future of Jobs analysis found that, by 2020, effectively to education systems (Assaad, 21 percent of core skills in the countries of Krafft, and Salehi-Isfahani 2018), so surveys the Gulf Cooperation Council will be differ- and other intentional links are required. ent from the skills that were needed in 2015 Career guidance is one way to communi- (World Economic Forum 2017). cate to future employees what type of 2 6 0   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations studies and skills are most sought after in help students to understand their strengths the labor market. Career information pro- and professional interests and provides grams often provide direction on course- information on education institutions and work selection and career planning, usually some data on labor market outcomes such on an individual basis in schools and univer- as employment opportunities after gradua- sities (OECD 2010; OECD and EC 2004). tion (SEMS 2010). Generally, digital solu- Career information can be especially useful tions can improve access to information, for students who lack family or social net- and online job platforms have been taking works that can provide meaningful direc- advantage of this information to improve tion. Many countries have experimented job -m atch i ng c apacit y (A g uer revere , with mechanisms to integrate career guid- Langan, and Mnif 2018). ance with national lifelong learning strate- gies. Still, evidence is limited on how career information initiatives affect students’ Notes choices, training trajectories, and outcomes 1. Youth unemployment rates in the MENA (Hooley 2014; Hooley and Dodd 2015; region are the highest in the world, reaching Kluve et al. 2019). 30 percent in 2017. See World Bank World Across countries, the breadth and depth of Development Indicators database. programs vary substantially, highlighting the 2. A trained workforce contributes to higher need for a well-articulated vision, cohesive firm productivity (see, for example, Almeida strategy, and robust quality assurance mech- and de Faria 2014; Gonzales-Velosa, Rosas, and Flores 2016; Rosholm, Nielsen, and anisms linked to funding. Successful career Dabalen 2007; Tan and López-Acevedo guidance programs have clear objectives and 2003). measure outcomes to track program perfor- 3. A male participant from Tunis explained, mance. They also offer different pathways for “I have become more independent. My participants from diverse backgrounds, so behavior has changed. I use my new skills. skilled career guidance staff can tailor skills I am more disciplined.” Students also development trajectories to students’ needs explained that the program expanded their (OECD and EC 2004). professional networks by giving them oppor- In MENA, career guidance for students tunities to interact with mentors. “I now have is inadequate. Most students at the higher- a social network. I know whom to consult,” education level aim to work in the public said a female participant. 4. What does successful workplace training sector, where few jobs are available (Assaad, look like? Countries with well-developed sys- Krafft, and Salehi-Isfahani 2018). However, tems, such as Austria, Denmark, Germany, if students do not have enough information Norway, and Switzerland, have formalized to guide their educational choices, the gap an engagement with employers and other between labor market demands and the stakeholders, with clear pathways for youths corresponding supply of graduates might to enter into training (OECD and ILO 2017). increase in certain specializations. Chile Successful programs have invested in a close established online platforms where students and trusted relationship between the private can access information on employability and the public sectors. Comprehensive and and future earnings by degree as well as the labor market–oriented pathways are built required courses for specific occupations around demanded occupations. 5. See the Aramco website (https://www​ (World Bank 2019). The Mexican Ministry .­s a u d i a r a m c o . c o m / e n / c a r e e r s / s a u d i​ for Education has developed an innovative -applicants/non-employee-programs/high​ method to equip students with labor mar- -school-and-diploma-graduates/apne) and the ket information: “Career guidance in my Chevron website (http://careers.chevron.com​ memory” (Orientación vocacional en mi /find-a-job/saudi-arabia). ­m emoria), a USB stick distributed to stu- 6. World Bank Education to Work Transition dents. It includes a set of questions that Project 2018 data. 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Various years. World Development /9789264266681-en. Indicators database. Washington, DC: World Oxford Business Group. 2015. The Report: Bank. https://databank.worldbank.org/data​ Algeria 2015. London. https://oxfordbusiness​ /source/world-development-indicators. group​.com/algeria-2015. World Economic Forum. 2017. “The Future of ———. 2017. T he R e po r t: Tu ni si a 2 017. Jobs and Skills in the Middle East and North London. https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com​ Africa: Preparing the Region for the Fourth /­o ver v ie w​/ t rack- s er ie s - refor m s - a re - s e t​ Industrial Revolution.” Executive Briefing, -­overhaul-sector. World Economic Forum, Geneva. Rethinking Tertiary Education: High-Level Skills and Research 13 Jamil Salmi A Tertiary education needs to growing body of research indicates that tertiary education contributes to confer skills relevant to the labor the long-term prosperity of any market and to focus on high- nation (Salmi 2017­ a). Tertiary education quality research offers high-level skills for an adaptable labor force, including scientists, professionals, The performance of tertiary education technicians, and teachers in basic and sec- institutions in the Middle East and North ondary education as well as future govern- Africa (MENA) can be measured at two ment, civil service, and business ­ leaders. It levels: first, the quality and relevance of also generates new knowledge through basic their graduates and, second, their research and applied research and provides a platform o utput. In the first instance, the current ­ for accessing the existing store of global educational experience in MENA universi- knowledge and adapting it to local u ­ se. An ties can generally be described as tradi- innovative tertiary education system facili- tional, based on rigid and often outdated tates sustainable transformation and growth curricula that emphasize memorization of throughout the economy (Salmi 2017­ a). content over development of critical rea- Tertiary institutions also contribute sub- soning and analytical ­ skills. The tendency stantially to positive social outcomes, such to focus on the theoretical rather than on as improved health and welfare, better civic practical ways of learning gives precedence participation, good governance, and protec- to the ability to recite theoretical concepts tion of human and environmental rights (knowing what to say) rather than the abil- (McMahon and Oketch 2013; OECD 2012; ity to solve problems (knowing how to Oketch, McCowan, and Schendel 2014). In ­ p erform). A combination of narrow con- order to realize these economic and social tent and disconnected context makes it dif- outcomes, tertiary systems and institutions ficult to broaden students’ perspectives and need to have the capacity to provide a high- equip them with the labor market skills quality education that equips students with and attitudes they will need to adapt to the skills necessary to thrive in current eco- labor market ­ developments. The high levels nomic and social circumstances and to adapt of graduate unemployment found in many to future changes and i ­nnovations. MENA countries confirm the mismatch 263 2 6 4   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations between what students learn and the skills and national ­ e conom ies. Overall, as that graduates need to achieve ­ s uccessful ­ e videnced by its international rankings, labor market outcomes (Salmi 2017­ b). MENA needs to improve the quality of Global rankings can be a useful proxy system. its tertiary education ­ with which to assess the research strength of universities in MENA countries from an international ­viewpoint. In spite of the meth- Attracting the best, investing odological limitations of ranking systems, adequate resources, and international rankings help to identify top operating under enabling universities that generate knowledge through governance systems are key their cutting-edge research, offer high-­ determinants of university quality teaching with innovative curricula performance and teaching methods, and produce gradu- Well-performing universities depend on ates with the necessary high-level skills to highly sought graduates, leading-edge excel in global labor markets (Salmi 2017­ b). research, and dynamic knowledge and tech- For example, the Shanghai Ranking is the nology ­transfer. As such, the outstanding per- leading publication of international rank- formance of these universities can be ings; it does not rely on subjective reputa- attributed to three complementary sets of fac- tional surveys but uses only objective tors: (1) a high concentration of talent (aca- i ndicators. In 2017, the Shanghai Ranking ­ demics and students), (2) enough resources to listed only three MENA countries—the offer a rich learning environment and support Arab Republic of Egypt, the Islamic Republic advanced research, and (3) enabling gover- of Iran, and Saudi Arabia—with universities nance features that encourage strategic vision, in the top 500 (Shanghai Ranking ­ n.d). innovation, and flexibility (Salmi 2009). The Leiden Ranking1 also confirms the These features enable institutions to make weak performance of MENA u ­ niversities. decisions in an autonomous manner and to One of the most highly cited publications of manage resources without being encumbered rankings, the Leiden Ranking objectively by ­bureaucracy. The configuration of results measures the number of publications of uni- in research, learning, and technology transfer ­mpact. The 2017 edition versities and their i depends on the nature and specific mission of ranks 900 universities worldwide according each tertiary education institution (research to their output of publications in the Web of science). However, intensive, teaching, applied ­ Science database in the following five fields: these three sets of factors have to be aligned (1) biomedical and health sciences, (2) life for any type of tertiary education institution and earth sciences, (3) mathematics and com- to succeed (Salmi 2009). puter science, (4) natural sciences and engi- Adequate academic preparation among neering, and (5) social sciences and incoming students is one of the major chal- humanities. Only five MENA countries— ­ lenges facing MENA universities (Salmi Egypt, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Lebanon, 2017­ a). In many countries in the region, Saudi Arabia, and Tunisia—have universities incoming students are inadequately prepared with enough scientific publications to appear for tertiary education due to the poor quality in the 2017 edition of the ranking (Leiden of secondary education, as discussed in this University 2017). 2 The top-ranked MENA ­ report. Those who have been strongly pre- university, the University of Tehran, is ranked pared for tertiary-level academic work tend 195, followed by King Saud University, which to leave the country to study ­ elsewhere. In is ranked 229. In general, MENA universities other words, the brain drain is a serious issue fall far below Southeast Asian ­ universities. 3 countries. A growing proportion of in several ­ Because M ENA universities have low doctoral graduates from MENA countries research capacity and production, they can- are staying in Europe and North America not serve as engines of innovation for local after completing their ­studies. R e t h i n k i n g T e r t i a r y E d u ca t i o n : H i g h - L e v e l S k i l l s a n d R e s e a r c h    265 A factor that has accelerated brain drain FIGURE 13.1  Four steps can be taken toward successful tertiary in some MENA countries is the fact that the education reform in MENA richest universities in the Gulf Cooperation Proposed sequence for reform design and implementation Council countries have attracted large num- Set of bers of top academics from ­ M ENA. These Vision interventions Launch Sustainability universities have sufficient resources to pay competitive salaries and purchase advanced Source: Elaborated by Jamil Salmi. scientific equipment (Salmi 2017­ a). Among the numerous factors influencing formulating a vision for the future of tertiary the performance of tertiary education systems education. The vision would define the mis- ­ and institutions around the world, recent sion and role of tertiary education as well as research has identified governance as the the guiding principles that would orient most important determinant (Aghion et ­ al. growth of the system; outline policies to 2009; Salmi 2009, 2011). A good governance improve equity, quality, and relevance; and structure and favorable regulatory conditions channel efforts to strengthen the research can promote innovative behavior among country. capacity of the ­ autonomous tertiary education institutions, Once formulated, the vision would be enable the development of strong quality translated into a comprehensive strategic plan assurance systems, and facilitate the design of that articulates quantitative targets for innovative financing mechanisms that expanding coverage and reducing ­ disparities. encourage improved ­ performance. Therefore, The plan also would set out overall goals for in their efforts to support tertiary education improving quality and enhancing program institutions interested in transforming their relevance. Additionally, and as needed, the ­ approach to education, national authorities in plan would revisit the institutional configura- MENA countries might encourage more tion of the entire tertiary education s­ ystem. autonomous governance, better quality assur- The plan would also outline those reforms ance mechanisms, and ­ p erformance-based necessary to establish appropriate conditions budget allocation ­mechanisms. Presently, uni- for the effective operation of tertiary educa- versities in the region have few incentives to tion institutions, including supportive quality improve the quality of their graduates and assurance mechanisms, favorable gover- research ­production. nance, and sustainable ­ financing. Rethinking tertiary education: Strategic reforms to translate the vision The way forward into reality To improve the quality and relevance of The most effective reforms are designed as a their tertiary system, MENA countries set of coherent, mutually reinforcing inter- could produce a comprehensive vision and ventions aimed at improving the operation of strategic plan for tertiary education ­ reform. the entire tertiary education system (Salmi Based on international experience, the 2017­ b). Denmark, for example, initiated a appropriate sequence of a reform process at series of reforms in 2002–03 that included the tertiary level follows the four steps changing the governance arrangements at the shown in ­ figure 13.1 and discussed further national and institutional levels (Holm- below (Salmi 2017­ b). Nielsen 2017). These changes brought the university sector under the authority of the Ministry of Industry and Innovation and A vision that aligns tertiary education strengthened the role of the board by moving with skills for the future from an elected university president to an A first step for thinking about possible process. international, competitive selection ­ reforms in MENA countries consists of This change resulted in more funding for 2 6 6   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations university research and several university teaching certificate before completing their mergers, enabling universities to achieve a doctorate. This is a first step in acknowledg- ­ critical mass in research and boost their sci- ing the importance of good teaching for entific production while improving the global future university ­ professors. Second, it is competitiveness of Danish ­universities. important to offer appropriate incentives that MENA countries keen on reforming and reward teaching excellence on par with out- transforming their tertiary education system standing ­ research. Professors can be given the could identify and design a set of interven- necessary time to work on improving their tions most appropriate to reach their long- teaching performance, similar to the empha- term ­ goals. By doing so, they could ensure sis given to allotting adequate time for better results in the following key areas of research. Finally, early integration of teach- ­ ­performance. ing and research is a powerful way of making the educational experience more stimulating Increasing equity in tertiary and effective and encouraging students to education access think creatively to find innovative solutions To ensure that tertiary education is accessi- to the big challenges facing the economy and ble, MENA governments need to eliminate ­society. all financial and nonmonetary barriers that Strengthening links with industry is an may affect the ability of students from effective way of increasing the relevance of d isadvantaged groups (low income, girls, ­ tertiary education programs in MENA rural, language or ethnic groups, persons countries. Universities can use a large vari- ­ education. with disability) to pursue a tertiary ­ ety of mechanisms, including internships for Well-targeted scholarship and student loan undergraduate students, in-company place- programs should be in place for that purpose ments of research students and academics, rather than universally free higher ­ education. and use of industry practitioners as visiting International experience shows that the most lecturers. Incorporating training for entre- ­ effective interventions for removing the non- preneurship into regular university pro- financial barriers facing underrepresented grams can also help to bring them closer to groups include academic and career counsel- the productive ­ sectors. Finally, universities ing, outreach and bridge programs linking may consider establishing cooperative learn- universities and high schools, affirmative ing programs that alternate on-campus action programs, and measures to increase learning periods with regular in-firm intern- retention and reduce dropouts (Salmi and ships, following the model developed by the Malee Bassett 2014). University of Waterloo in Canada (University of Waterloo ­ n.d.). Improving quality and relevance of At the national level, almost all MENA tertiary education institutions, countries already have a quality assurance programs, and courses agency (Salmi 2015). Their main task, mov- To improve the quality of tertiary education ing forward, is to make sure that each ter- programs, MENA universities could intro- tiary education institution puts in place a duce innovative curricular and pedagogical well-functioning quality assurance unit and practices that stimulate independent learning develops a strong self-evaluation c ­ ulture. curiosity. International and foster intellectual ­ Quality assurance agencies could also focus experience suggests a few lessons regarding on learning outcomes rather than inputs and how best to accomplish this (Salmi 2017­ b). processes. This process would encourage ter- ­ Some countries—for example, the United tiary education institutions to be innovative, Kingdom—have found it convenient to instead of traditional, in their educational require all doctoral candidates to get a ­outlook. R e t h i n k i n g T e r t i a r y E d u ca t i o n : H i g h - L e v e l S k i l l s a n d R e s e a r c h    267 Strengthening quantity, relevance, and successfully built a critical mass of excellence impact of the research output of in teaching and research much faster than universities comprehensive universities in their respective It is important to strengthen the research countries (Altbach and Salmi 2011). capacity of universities, clearly recognizing MENA research-intensive universities the role that they can play as part of the could encourage, through appropriate finan- national innovation system within the coun- cial and academic incentives, the design of tries’ science and technology ­ strategy. For research programs based on solution-focused MENA countries to achieve this goal, govern- research questions (Yusuf and Nabeshima ments will need to facilitate more flexible gov- 2007). This effort could link the main devel- ernance arrangements for research-­ intensive opment challenges of their economies directly u niversities. Each country could generate a ­ to the geographic regions where the universi- clear science and technology development ties are located, allowing a more systematic strategy at the national level, encouraging meshing of disciplines across faculties and strong links between academia and industry institutes and resulting in higher-impact (Salmi 2017­ b). In addition, sufficient funding ­research. will be needed for innovative ­ research. Academic mobility is very low in MENA Launch the reform, taking political risks ­ universities. To reduce inbreeding at the insti- into consideration tutional level, universities could define rules to limit the number of doctoral graduates As MENA countries prepare to launch ter- recruited directly after they finish their tiary reform initiatives, it is important to con- research degree by establishing promotion sider incentives and stakeholder ­ buy-in. The criteria that take into consideration experi- extent to which governments rely on positive ence in foreign academic settings—including incentives to encourage change, rather than at least a short stay at a good-quality foreign mandatory edicts to impose reforms, has a university and joint doctoral programs with positive influence on outcomes (Salmi 2017b). partner universities (Salmi 2017­ b). Tertiary education institutions and actors By setting up their own incubators or tend to respond more readily to constructive closely linking up with industrial parks, the stimuli. Ultimately, tertiary education reform ­ strongest MENA universities could contribute is most feasible within a supportive policy directly to innovative ways of producing environment in which all participants funda- goods and services (Yusuf and Nabeshima mentally agree on the scope, pace, and direc- 2007). Systematic efforts are needed to under- tion of reform (Salmi 2017­ b). Engaging with take industry-oriented research and seek the views of all stakeholders ensures greater opportunities to commercialize ­ technology. likelihood of positive outcomes when imple- Each research-focused university could menting ­reforms. define areas of excellence that are different from those of other universities and that are Focus on structural measures to ensure directly relevant to the regional ­environment. the sustainability of reforms Research universities that have rapidly achieved a high level of performance have Successfully launching tertiary education done so by concentrating their efforts to reform is necessary, but not sufficient; equally reach excellence on niche programs and important to the reform’s success is putting in research areas (Salmi 2011). For example, place conditions that can guarantee its sus- through this niche-seeking strategy, Moscow tained positive impact over the long r ­ un. Higher School of Economics and Hong Kong Doing so involves two dimensions: one linked University of Science and Technology have to the reform process and one related to the 2 6 8   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations content of r ­ eforms. In the first instance, the Nokkala, and Steinel 2011). MENA govern- reform packages should be presented and ments could consider two options to help adopted as national programs, not as parti- their public universities to introduce perfor- san initiatives of a single political party or the mance elements into the personnel status of governing ­ majority. Such an approach is the academics. The first would be to maintain ­ only way to ensure that the consensus the civil service status of academic staff and achieved when launching a reform has a establish benefits and rewards to recognize durable ­ e ffect. The set of reforms could the performance and contributions of indi- include enabling measures to facilitate the vidual ­ staff. The second would be to elimi- long-term durability of the proposed ­ changes. nate the civil service status of academic staff Appropriate governance and sustainable and make each university the employer of its financing are the most important enabling academic and administrative staff, as has conditions (Salmi 2017­ b). happened in ­ Finland. Research-intensive uni- versities in MENA countries would develop Modernizing governance for greater and post their own criteria for recruitment accountability and establish their own salary scale and International experience shows that auton- package of benefits (Salmi 2013). omous institutions are more responsive to Public universities in several Western incentives for improved performance and European countries have brought in addi- ­ esources. A series efficient use of available r tional benefits to reward outstanding aca- of recent case studies on emerging research demic performance (Salmi 2016). In France universities indicates that fully autonomous and Germany, for example, universities ben- institutions are not constrained by exter- efiting from excellence initiatives commenced nally imposed regulations and can, as a special incentives to support postdoctoral result, manage their resources—human researchers, create tenure tracks for talented and financial—with more flexibility in young researchers, and offer salary supple- order to strengthen performance (Altbach ments for senior p ­ rofessors. The University of and Salmi 2011). Montpellier set up attractive postdoctoral It is important that MENA authorities programs, tenure tracks, and high-profile allow public universities to be free to deter- positions combining higher incomes and ded- mine their own employment conditions, such ic ated re s e a rch s ­uppor t . Heidelb erg as the ability to hire and fire staff, if and University developed a new human resources when needed, and to set the remuneration policy whereby promotion is not linked conditions to encourage academic staff to directly to seniority anymore but is associ- engage in ­ research. Flexible procurement ated with a performance-based system of rules are also needed to accelerate and sim- bonuses that recognizes good research and plify the purchase of goods and ­ services. In teaching as well as successful participation in addition, MENA universities need to have administrative tasks (Salmi 2017­ a). independent fiscal control, including the abil- T he M ENA Universit y Governance ity to reallocate resources internally accord- Screening Card (UGSC) could be a useful ing to self-determined ­ criteria. Independent tool for reflecting on the governance of ter- fiscal control is necessary so that institutions tiary education institutions (see box 13.1). It can strengthen weak academic units, cross- highlights areas that require development subsidize programs, and fund new initiatives and c ­ hange. quickly and flexibly in response to evolving needs (Altbach and Salmi 2011). Ensuring sustainable financing to meet Autonomous universities would be in a long-term prosperity better position to introduce performance ele- Whether tertiary education can be financially ments to reward those academics and sustainable in MENA depends on how the researchers who perform best (Eastermann, education system in each country addresses R e t h i n k i n g T e r t i a r y E d u ca t i o n : H i g h - L e v e l S k i l l s a n d R e s e a r c h    269 Box 13.1  The MENA University Governance Screening Card (UGSC) The UGSC was developed by the World Bank and institution-based approach that focuses on univer- the Marseille Center for Mediterranean Integration sities and higher education institutions as opposed in 2010 as a benchmarking tool to assess the extent to national systems or country r­ atings. The UGSC to which MENA’s tertiary education institutions are has the capacity to: following governance practices aligned with their • Identify strengths and weaknesses at individual institutional goals, national policies, and interna- institutions tional ­ trends. The tool was first applied in 2011–12 • Identify trends at the national level and was revised in 2016. Since 2015, it has been • Identify trends and practices by type of implemented in more than 100 universities from institution eight MENA ­ countries. • Generate interest for reforms at the institu- T he UG SC captu res the multidimensional tional, national, and regional l ­evels.The tool nat u re of gover na nce , i nclud i ng (1) overa l l can be accessed through the following link: context, mission, and goals; (2) management; ­http://cmimarseille.org/. (3) autonomy; (4) accountability; and (5) partici- pation in decision ­ m aking. The UGSC uses an Sources: Karim 2016; World Bank and MCI 2013, 2017. the following questions about financial needs, Notes funding sources, and allocated ­resources. 1. The CWTS Leiden Ranking is based on the •  Strategic decisions that influence the database produced by Thomson Reuters, m edi u m - a n d lo ng - t e r m f i n a n ci ng called “Web of Science ­ bibliographic.” See ­n eeds. What institutional configuration ­http://www.leidenranking.com/. would allow for a balanced and afford- 2. S e e   h t t p s : / / w w w. l e i d e n r a n k i n g . c o m​ able tertiary education system? The size /­ranking/2017/list. 3. For example, China, the Republic of Korea, and shape of the tertiary education sys- and Singapore each have at least one univer- tem affect the amount of public funding sity in the top 100. needed. It makes a huge difference, for the ­ public purse, whether the system expands through expensive public universities or References less expensive short-duration institutions Aghion, Philippe, Mathias Dewatripont, Caroline such as community colleges or technical Hoxby, Andreu Mas-Colell, and André ­ Sapir. institutes. The development of online edu- ­ 2009. “The Governance and Performance of cation and private institutions also helps Research Universities: Evidence from Europe to alleviate government ­ budgets. and the ­ U.S.” NBER Working Paper 14851, •  Resource mobilization ­ options. How can National Bureau of Economic Research, public and private funding sources be Cambridge, ­M A. mobilized in the most effective manner? Altbach, Philip G ­ ., and Jamil Salmi, e ­ ds. 2011. What are efficient and equitable student The Road to Academic Excellence: Emerging Research Universities in Developing and aid mechanisms to maintain equality of Tra n s i t i o n ­C o u n t r i e s . D i r e c t i o n s i n opportunities? Development. Washington, DC: World ­ ­ Bank. •  Resource allocation ­ a pproaches. What Eastermann, Thomas, Terhi Nokkala, and are appropriate performance-based Monika S ­ teinel. 2011. University Autonomy mechanisms to distribute public resources in Europe II: The S ­ corec ard . Brussels: in a manner that encourages innovation European University ­ A ssociation. h ­ ttp://​ and rewards performance? w w w ​ . e u a . b e ​ / ­L i b r a r i e s / P u b l i c a t i o n s​ 2 7 0   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations /­University_Autonomy​_ i ­ n_Europe_II_-_The​ Washington, DC: Council of Higher Education _ ­Scorecard.sflb.ashx. ­Accreditation. ­ Holm-Nielsen, ­ Lauritz. 2017. “Opportunities for ———. 2016. “Excellence Strategies and the Change—University Reforms in D ­ enmark.” Creation of World-Class U ­ niversities.” In CY D Foundation Study 1-2017, Aarhus Global Rankings and the Geopolitics of University, Aarhus, ­ Denmark. Highe r E duc ation: Un d e rst an ding the Karim, ­ Nasr. 2016. “University Governance J. ­ Influence and Impact of Rankings on Higher Changing the Higher Education Paradigm in Education, Policy, and Society, edited by Ellen ­ M ENA.” Marseille Center for Mediterranean ­Hazelkorn. London: ­Routledge. Integration (blog), May 27. h­ ttp://cmimarseille​ ——— . 2 017­a . T he Te r t i a r y E d u c a t i o n .org/blog/university-governance-changing​ Imperative: Knowledge, Skills, and Values for -higher-education-paradigm-mena. ­Development. Boston, MA: Sense ­ Publishers. Leiden ­ University. 2017. CWTS Leiden Ranking ———. 2017­ b. “Building the Research Capacity of 2017. Leiden: Leiden ­ U niversity. ­ http:// of MENA U ­ niversities.” Background paper, www.leidenranking.com/ranking/2017­/ list. World Bank, Washington, ­ DC. ­ McMahon, Walter ­ W., and Moses ­ Oketch. 2013. Salmi, Jamil, and Roberta Malee B ­ assett. 2014. “Education’s Effects on Individual Life “The Equity Imperative in Tertiary Education: Chances and on Development: An ­ Overview.” P ro m o t i n g Fa i r n e s s a nd ­ E f f i c i e n c y.” British Journal of Educational Studies Intern ation al Review of Educ ation 61 (1): 79–107. 60 (3): 361–77. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation Shanghai ­ Ranking. No ­ date. Academic Ranking and ­ Development). 2012. Higher Education in of World ­ U niversities. Shanghai Ranking Regional and City Development: Southern C o n s u l t a n c y, ­S h a n g h a i . ­h t t p : / / w w w​ Arizona, United States, 2011. Paris: ­ OECD. .shanghairanking.com/ARWU2018­.html. Oketch, Moses, Tristan McCowan, and Rebecca University of ­ Waterloo. No ­ d ate. “Co-op at ­ S chendel. 2014. “The Impact of Tertiary ­W aterloo.” ­ h t t ps: //uwaterloo.ca /f ut u re​ Education on Development: A Rigourous -students/co-op. Literature ­Review.” EPPI-Centre Report 2205, World Bank and MCI (Marseille Center for U.K. Depar tment for I nternational ­ Mediterranean I ­n t e g r a t i o n ) . 2 0 1 3 . Development, L ­ ondon. http://r4­d.dfid.gov.uk/. Benchmarking Governance as a Tool for Salmi, ­Jamil. 2009. The Challenge of Establishing Promoting ­C hange. Washington, DC: World World- Class ­U niversities. Directions in ­Bank. ­ Development. Washington, DC: World ­ Bank. ———. 2017. “6th MENA Tertiary Education ———. 2011. “The Challenge of Establishing Conference: Towards Competitiveness and World- C la s s Re s e a rch Un iver sit ie s i n Equity in Tertiary Education in the MENA Developing ­ C ountries.” In Leadership for Region; Collaboration for Good Governance, World-Class Universities: Challenges for Sustainable Financing, and Developing Countries, edited by Philip G ­ . Internationalization,” Marseille, France, June ­ Altbach. New York and London: ­ Routledge. ­ 15 –16. MC I , M a rsei l le ; World B a n k , ———. 2013. “Formas exitosas de gobierno Washington, ­DC. ­http://cmimarseille​.org/sites​ universitario en el ­mundo.” CYD Foundation /default/files/newsite/library/files/en ​/­O ne​ Study 03/2013, CYD Foundation, ­ Barcelona. ­ -pagers.pdf. ———. 2015. Is Big Brother Watching You? Yusuf, Shahid, and Kaoru N ­ abeshima. 2007. The Evolving Role of the State in Regulating How Universities Promote Economic G ­ rowth. and Conducting Qualit y ­ A s s u ra n c e . Washington, DC: World ­ Bank. Strengthening Accountability for Better Learning Outcomes 14 Lianqin Wang, Manal Bakur N Quota, Angela Demas, and Bob Prouty A ccountability is critical to improving monitoring and evaluation (M&E) systems, learning. Accountability in education t ­ ransform the inspection systems to support implies a systemwide obligation to teaching and learning, and increase school monitor student learning, identify problems, autonomy for better accountability. School- and work out how to solve them (UNESCO level accountability can be enhanced further 2017). It requires efforts by persons within by making information widely available to the education system, such as teachers and communities and parents so that they have school leaders, along with support and pres- the means to hold schools accountable and sure for change by actors outside the system, can engage effectively as part of the overall such as parents and communities (UNESCO accountability system. Media and technology 2017; World Bank 2004). also play an important role in strengthening Countries in the Middle East and North accountability systems. Africa (MENA) have established learning goals for students—an important step toward greater accountability—but few countries use Establish accountability these goals effectively to monitor and improve mechanisms within learning outcomes. The inspection systems in education systems the region often emphasize compliance with For accountability systems to be effective, the rules and standards, rather than provision of roles and responsibilities of stakeholders instructional or professional support. must be clearly defined and understood. Furthermore, the highly centralized educa- Teachers are responsible for monitoring and tion systems in MENA do not grant school assessing students’ progress and for giving principals the authority to exercise key parents regular feedback. School leaders are accountability mechanisms. The focus on cre- responsible for creating a school environment dentials rather than skills has reduced the conducive to learning and for monitoring and pressure to hold education systems account- empowering teachers to ensure that they are able for enhancing learning. Compared with delivering on learning. Policy makers have parents in other regions, MENA parents are overall responsibility for providing vision and less involved in school decision making. strategy. They develop, lead, and support the MENA countries should shift to results-based implementation of education policies, develop 271 2 7 2   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations curricula and standards, introduce national education systems can identify underper- information systems that monitor learning, forming schools and students in a timely and allocate resources at the national and fashion, allowing for concrete actions to regional levels (human, physical, and finan- support these schools and students. cial). Some of these topics are discussed in Ministries of education (MOEs) in most other chapters. This chapter highlights key MENA countries have succeeded in defining issues that shape accountability in the educa- learning objectives. These objectives are artic- tion system. ulated in national curricula outlining program content and intended levels of subject-matter mastery for teachers and students. Of the 10 Develop results-based MENA countries that participated in the monitoring and evaluation Systems Approach for Better Education Defining clear student learning goals and Results (SABER) Teacher Survey, 8 are rated standards for what students should know as “established” or above for their ability to and be able to do after completing each communicate to teachers what students should school year is a key element in strengthening learn (see box 14.1 for more information on accountability. Standards should be ade- SABER).1 Likewise, the 2015 Programme for quately reflected in the curricula, and M&E International Student Assessment (PISA) sur- mechanisms should be in place (Fuhrman vey results indicate that the majority of and Elmore 1994). By measuring the extent 15-year-old students attend schools that have to which student learning standards are met, w r it ten p er for m a nc e st a nd a rd s a nd Box 14.1  Systems Approach for Better Education Results (SABER) SABER is a diagnostic tool developed by the World • School health and school feeding Bank and launched in 2012 that collects and analyzes • Student assessment comparative data and knowledge on education sys- • Teachers tems around the world. SABER evaluates the quality • Tertiary education of countries’ education policies against evidence-based • Workforce development. global standards, with the aim of helping countries to As part of its methods, SABER identifies and strengthen their education systems systematically. This assesses the education policies that matter most in evaluation is based on measures and topics that can helping countries to achieve education results. By ana- be compared easily across education systems around lyzing policy intent, SABER informs critical dialogue the world. at the policy level, which then affects learning at the As of April 2019, the SABER program covers the school level. SABER aggregates policy levers to a set following domains of education: of policy goals per topic. Countries can be assessed, • Early childhood development depending on the level of development of their edu- • Education management information systems cation systems with respect to each goal. SABER is • Education resilience approaches part of the feedback loop that ensures that all educa- • Engaging the private sector tion systems, especially those serving the poorest and • Equity and inclusion most marginalized students, are achieving the results • Information and communication technologies needed to boost learning worldwide. • School autonomy and accountability • School finance Source: World Bank n.d. S t r e n g t h e n i n g A cc o u n t a b i l i t y f o r B e t t e r L e a r n i n g O u t c o m e s    273 evaluations, along with systematically self-­ established student learning goals and stan- recorded student outcomes (see figure 14.1). dards that serve as a guide for designing and However, many of the region’s MOEs have implementing school improvement plans, not used learning objectives effectively to conducting teacher preservice and in-service monitor learning outcomes or to introduce training, applying teacher assessments, inquiry-based approaches to teaching and designing M&E mechanisms, as well as learning. Although MENA countries conduct assigning resources and funding. These sys- learning assessments, few use assessment tems use assessment results to provide feed- results to address weaknesses in student per- back on teaching practices and to identify formance (World Bank 2018c). Inputs and underperforming schools and students so compliance with related policies are often that targeted interventions can be developed monitored, but the objectives and standards (Clarke 2012; Jaimovich 2014; Resnick, are rarely used to assess learning outcomes Nolan, and Resnick 1995). Schools in (Devlin 2010). This missing link may partially Australia place strong emphasis on using explain the low results for MENA countries assessment data to inform instruction. participating in international assessments. In some schools, teachers administer an High-performing education systems such array of assessments in literacy and numer- as those in Australia, France, Japan, acy and work as teams to analyze the data to M a s s a c hu s e t t s ( U n it e d S t at e s), t h e create a well-rounded picture of student Netherlands, and Ontario (Canada) have learning (NCEE 2016). FIGURE 14.1  Many MENA countries have developed school monitoring mechanisms Percentage of 15-year-old students attending schools in which quality assurance arrangements exist, PISA 2015 100 90 80 70 60 Percent 50 40 30 20 10 0 Algeria Jordan Lebanon Qatar Tunisia United Arab Emirates Written speci cations of student performance standards (school initiative) Written speci cations of student performance standards (mandatory) Internal evaluation or self-evaluation (school initiative) Internal evaluation or self-evaluation (mandatory) Systematic records of test results and graduation rates (school initiative) Systematic records of test results and graduation rates (mandatory) Source: OECD 2016. Note: PISA = Programme for International Student Assessment. 2 7 4   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations Although opportunities for teachers to To achieve the goals of education, MENA learn about the national assessment results countries will need to establish more rigorous in MENA are still limited, some countries M&E mechanisms that are based on evi- are making notable progress.2 Bahrain, for dence and focused on results. Such an example, uses international results in a approach requires moving away from tradi- variety of ways to inform decision mak- tional input and process-driven methods. ing, including tracking the impact of Shifting to a focus on results requires more reforms on student achievement levels and accurate data and information for taking informing resource allocation (World action. Assessing learning and acting on evi- Bank 2018c). Jordan’s education reform of dence are important elements of accountabil- the 1990s also provides an example of pol- ity systems (World Bank 2018b). icy makers improving stakeholder access to information on student learning, which Strengthen supervision and other has had a positive impact on student per- support to schools formance (see box 14.2). The Jordanian experience demonstrates that, with effec- School inspectors provide the most visible tive use of data, it is possible to improve form of performance monitoring in many accountabilit y for bet ter learning MENA school systems; they are a very impor- outcomes. tant component of accountability systems. Box 14.2  Jordan’s education reform: Evidence-supported accountability Jordan became the first Arab country to partici- students to inform teacher training, and (6) analyzed pate in the International Assessment of Educational characteristics related to achievement. Progress (IAEP), which assesses 13-year-old students Jordan’s National Center for Human Resources in mathematics and science. Among the 19 countries Development (NCHRD), established in 1990, was that participated in the 1991 IAEP, Jordan ranked designed as a longitudinal system to monitor stu- near the bottom. These results offered tangible evi- dent learning achievements and assess instructional dence of Jordan’s poor student learning outcomes quality at the basic education level. A key focus and came as a shock to the country. of NCHRD has been to produce and disseminate In response, Jordan accelerated education reform reports to develop a feedback loop between the efforts. The curriculum was reviewed, and new parties researching the education system and those learning materials were developed. Jordan evalu- implementing changes. Through these efforts, ated teacher qualifications and introduced a uni- Jordan has made remarkable gains in educational versity bridge program to upgrade teacher skills quality. Between 1997 and 2007, Jordan made more substantially. The bridge program essentially elimi- progress on the Trends in International Mathematics nated the two-year teacher education programs by and Science Study (TIMSS) science test than any requiring all two-year programs to be consolidated other participating country, although the more with four-year institutes, thereby extending teacher recent 2015 results showed a drop. training. Throughout this phase, Jordan laid a founda- This reform entailed several key actions. Focusing tion for reform efforts with sound research and on evidence, the government (1) established expert e vidence-based policy choices. The focus was on ­ committees to investigate the causes of poor per- three objectives: (1) seeking and gaining access formance, (2) examined the IAEP test item by item to data, (2) analyzing learning determinants and and compared results to the curricula, (3) estab- benchmarking against other countries, and (3) using lished benchmarks for 13-year-olds’ achievement, evidence in policy making. (4) identified strengths and weaknesses in the teach- ing of each subject, (5) compared the performance of Source: Abdul-Hamid, Abu-Lebdeh, and Patrinos 2011. S t r e n g t h e n i n g A cc o u n t a b i l i t y f o r B e t t e r L e a r n i n g O u t c o m e s    275 Among the six MENA countries that partici- available to provide assistance to underper- pated in PISA 2015, the proportion of stu- forming schools (see box 14.3). Similarly, in dents attending schools receiving school Helsinki, Finland, schools are organized into inspections ranged from 61 percent in Tunisia networks of about 25 schools. These net- to 96 percent in Qatar (OECD 2016). works are under the responsibility of district Throughout the region, school inspectors visit leaders and offer instructional improvement schools a few times a year and prepare admin- assistance (Jaimovich 2014). Other smaller istrative reports. The inspection reports are support structures, such as those in the based on standardized lesson plans and Netherlands and New Zealand, act as bro- schedules that are centrally developed for all kers and are responsible for hiring technical teachers (World Bank 2008), focusing on assistance providers who work directly with teachers’ progress through the curriculum, schools to help them to improve student not on student learning results. These inspec- achievement (Jaimovich 2014). tion reports may influence the career paths MENA countries have great potential to of teachers and school administrators. In use the supervision and other support systems addition, inspectors have traditionally been already in place for improving learning, if they trained to emphasize compliance with rules develop incentive systems to transform tradi- and standards, rather than to provide instruc- tional compliance inspection into support for tional or professional support. Changing the teaching and learning and promote collabora- focus from inspection and supervision to tive efforts at the school level. In Dubai the use instructional support will require new models of school self-evaluations in private schools to monitor, evaluate, and support schools. encourages school personnel to collaborate Evidence shows that more decentralized with external supervisors for school improve- collaborative approaches to supervision can be ment (Alkutich 2016). Cuadra and Thacker very effective in helping schools to improve (2014) note the importance of both explicit instructional practices and increase student (opportunity to attract additional resources, performance when they are aligned with other for instance) and implicit (professional satis- efforts to give schools more autonomy and faction from positive feedback, for example) accountability (OECD 2011). In 2015, for incentives for improving supervision systems example, the Scottish government produced in MENA. Moreover, central governments the fourth version of “How Good Is Our need to reconsider their functions and budget School?”—a framework that can be adapted priorities to bring them closer to the learner by and used with school leaders, teachers, stu- providing greater support to schools. This sup- dents, parents, and partners across the school port could be in the form of more human and community to support collaborative enquiry financial resources targeted to disadvantaged for self-evaluation. This self-evaluation allows geographic areas, social groups, and weak schools to identify their own features of effec- schools. Substantial improvements in coun- tive practice and to develop a shared under- tries’ overall student learning could also standing of what to do next, which can inform be made by a commitment to bringing up their school and district improvement plans. bottom-performing districts and schools. This ­ This framework also addresses the need to approach is a proven path toward overall edu- close the gap in attainment and achievement cation excellence and inclusion; it has led experienced by the most disadvantaged chil- Finland to become one of the top international dren (Education Scotland 2015). performer for many years (Sahlberg 2014). Support systems targeting underperform- ing municipalities and schools are another Shift to greater local and school-level important accountability measure. For exam- autonomy for enhanced accountability ple, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts and Boston Public Schools created support Countries around the world, including most systems in which administrative, pedagogi- Organisation for Economic Co-operation and cal, and strategic planning experts are Development (OECD) countries, have moved 2 7 6    Expec tations and Aspir ations Box 14.3  Boston Public Schools’ support systems In the U.S. decentralized education system, the human resources, data management, education tech- federal government incentivizes reforms and sets nology, infrastructure, and finance. quality standards, but states have the autonomy to Underperforming schools receive support from the design policies and monitor the provision of educa- network and from the state government, including tion services. Service delivery is the responsibility of district and school assistance centers (DSACs). DSACs local governments and school districts, which are help schools with self-assessment, improvement plans directly accountable to their constituents. and monitoring, access to professional networks, Boston Public Schools is the largest school dis- opportunities for sharing best practices, and strate- trict in Massachusetts, serving nearly 125 schools gies for improving finances and strengthening capac- and 57,000 students, of whom 78 percent have ity. These schools can also receive funding from the low socioeconomic status. To provide support for state government to pay for private licensed provid- underperforming schools, Boston Public Schools has ers who can help them to hone their pedagogical and established a system in which each network provides teaching practices and increase their management and pedagogical and administrative ­ support services to administrative capacity. In Massachusetts, chronically 15 or 16 schools. The network’s team includes a underperforming schools are required to close. ­ language specialist, a mathematics specialist, and support for teacher effectiveness, special education, Sources: Jaimovich 2014; Massachusetts Department of Education 2018; OECD 2015. toward more decentralized approaches in edu- recruitment is removed from local needs and cation (Busemeyer 2012). The core idea often results in human resource wastage or involves shifting decision making on some key inefficiencies and a mismatch between school functions, including human and financial needs and service delivery. Also, school prin- resources management, away from centralized cipals often do not have the authority to exer- government structures and toward lower cise key accountability mechanisms such as administrative units such as governorates, removing nonperforming teachers from the school districts, or individual schools. Regional classroom. The levels of decision-making and district authorities can be instrumental in authority across countries within the region mobilizing resources. They can respond with are documented in table 14.1. greater agility to urgent needs by removing Decentralizing the education system institutional barriers and building capacity at requires consistent and strong leadership the school level (Brixi, Lust, and Woolcock across administrative units. Whereas princi- 2015; Lewis 2016). The goal of decentraliza- pals can create conditions that encourage tion is typically to improve governance by fos- excellence in teaching, district leaders can tering autonomy, accountabilit y, and create conditions that encourage excellence in responsiveness to local conditions and needs. leadership (Levin, Datnow, and Carrier These attributes, in turn, can improve student 2012) by providing resources, tools, and learning (King and Özler 2004). information for quality assurance and perfor- Most education systems in MENA have mance monitoring. Districts are also well highly centralized management structures. positioned to provide comparative and indi- These structures have limited ability to iden- vidual school analysis, helping schools to tify and respond to the individual needs of understand their own level of performance in schools and their students. For instance, as relation to that of neighboring schools and discussed in the preceding chapters, in most the wider system—for instance, as has been M ENA countries, the current central done through the Data Must Speak program d ecision-ma k i ng pro cess for teacher ­ (UNICEF n.d.). S t r e n g t h e n i n g A cc o u n t a b i l i t y f o r B e t t e r L e a r n i n g O u t c o m e s    277 TABLE 14.1  Most decisions on education policy and inputs are made at the central level in MENA Level of education decision-making authority, by economy, 2015 West Bank and Gaza Syrian Arab Republic United Arab Emirates Iran, Islamic Rep. Egypt, Arab Rep. Saudi Arabia Yemen, Rep. Lebanon Morocco Djibouti Bahrain Algeria Tunisia Jordan Kuwait Oman Qatar Libya Iraq Policy National strategy t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t Planning t t t t t Establishment of input and infrastructure norms t to o t t t t t to t t to Finance t t t Resource allocation ° t to ° t l t o ° t ° ° Human resource o management t t t t t t Principal selection t t o t t o t t Teacher selection t t t t t t t t Teacher deployment t t o t t o t Teacher training t to to t to t t Establishment of teacher responsibility t t t t t t t Supervision of teachers to o o to to to t o to t o Firing of teachers o t t t t ° t ° t t ° Pedagogy t t t t t Curriculum design t t t t t t° t t t t t° Standards setting t t t t t t t t t t t Examination management t to to t to t t t t t to to Source: Compiled from World Bank SABER database (http://saber.worldbank.org/index.cfm). Note: t = central ministry; o = provincial and regional administration; ° = schools. It is unrealistic to expect that greater resource use (Demas and Arcia 2015; accountability at the school level will improve UNICEF 2015), with small to moderate posi- results unless schools also have greater tive effects on efficiency and learning ­ decision-making authority over their opera- (­Carr-Hill, Rolleston, and Schendel 2016). tions. By transferring core managerial Effects are stronger in middle-income and responsibilities to schools, school autonomy more advantaged communities than in low- with proper support can (1) foster local own- income and disadvantaged communities. ership and accountability; (2) reflect local pri- While the impact of such decentralization orities, values, and needs through increased depends on its design and the country con- participation of parents and the community; text, the managerial capacity of the school and (3) give teachers the opportunity to build leadership is an important factor for obtain- ­ a strong instructional program on a founda- p ositive outcomes (Bloom et al. 2015; ing ­ tion of personal commitment to students and Hanushek, Link, and Woessmann 2013). their parents. Increased school autonomy and Experience with more school autonomy improved accountability can lead to improved and accountability in MENA shows potential, learning by aligning teacher and parent although so far the scope of implementation incentives. Studies have shown a causal link has been limited. In the Arab Republic of between school autonomy and efficiency in Egypt, the Education Reform Program piloted 2 7 8   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations this approach in seven governorates, allocating countersigning school expenditures, and resources to schools by formula funding. meeting regularly with school staff to discuss Schools received assistance to prepare school students’ results. An accountability unit, the improvement plans (World Bank 2018a). Staff Education Quality Accountability Unit, was at the governorate and school levels received set up in the MOE and is fully staffed and support to improve their ability to carry out operational (World Bank 2018d). their roles. Teachers were trained to assist stu- dents in improving their analytical problem- solving skills. Jordan, Lebanon, and Morocco Involve communities and parents have experimented with school-based pro- in accountability systems grams for many years, but they still fall short The engagement of communities and parents in producing and using good-quality data at in monitoring school performance has been the school level (Brixi, Lust, and Woolcock shown to contribute to student learning, par- 2015). However, Jordan’s experiences suggest ticularly when parents are involved in decid- pockets of success with improved education ing how and what to monitor (Zeitlin et al. services, stronger community engagement, 2011). Buy-in from parents is a key step and a heightened sense of school accountabil- toward a new pact for education in which the ity (Brixi, Lust, and Woolcock 2015). These interests of a wide variety of stakeholders— achievements could be strengthened by taking including teachers, principals, inspectors, a more holistic approach to change in which politicians, communities, employers, and the central MOEs provide far greater support ­students—are aligned. to school leadership. Since greater school autonomy and accountability demand higher Raise parents’ expectation for learning school-level capacity, the central government and district level must be accountable for In all education systems, it is a natural reflex of ensuring that school leaders have the incen- parents, students, and teachers to focus on the tives to change and that schools have what credentials that signify completion of a course they need to succeed. of study. When tightly linked to achievement In light of MENA’s overly centralized of learning and skills, the credential helps education systems, countries are encouraged parents to know whether their child has ­ to consider increasing local and school obtained all of the skills necessary for obtain- autonomy by granting more authority to ing employment or for continuing an educa- schools to manage human and financial tion program. But when the credential is resources as well as instruction (including increasingly decoupled from achievement of the hiring and firing of teachers). Schools learning and skills, as is currently the case in can be more accountable if they are empow- many MENA countries, the focus on creden- ered with more authority and supported by tials enables weak systems to persist without capacity development for school leaders and making the necessary course corrections. teachers. Getting credentials drives what and how teach- Some MENA countries have already ers teach and students learn. As a result, less started a process for school improvement and attention is given to developing students’ skills accountability. The school improvement pro- than to scoring well on high-stakes examina- gram in Jordan, for instance, was imple- tions. In some cases, focusing on examination mented in 35 field directorates and 2,778 scores without developing the underlying skills schools between 2011 and 2016. The pro- has led to high levels of cheating in assess- gram improved the capacity of schools to ments, as documented in Jordan and Morocco develop and implement plans and improved (Buckner and Hodges 2015) as well as in the accountability of MOE staff at the central Lebanon (Bacha, Bahous, and Nabhani 2012). and field directorates. Parents got involved in Parental involvement in school programs developing school improvement plans, can be an important lever for MOEs to bring S t r e n g t h e n i n g A cc o u n t a b i l i t y f o r B e t t e r L e a r n i n g O u t c o m e s    279 additional pressure for bottom-up change to the community. Government officials and within the system. These ministries could the public have differing interests when it lead a national dialogue to engage govern- comes to data—government officials need ment, educators, parents, civil society, and all information to set policies and to reallocate stakeholders in understanding what roles resources, while parents and communities they can play. This effort could lead to a need information to make sure that their own greater push to improve student learning out- children are succeeding. These purposes are comes, including a focus on skills rather than complementary, and both are needed. Parents on credentials. can also use such information to put pressure Innovative approaches to communication on schools to raise standards and improve can be developed to involve communities in results (Brixi, Lust, and Woolcock 2015; raising expectations of learning. An approach World Bank 2018b). Many education systems that has proven effective in the health sector in high-income countries welcome such pres- and that could be adapted to the education sure and channel it toward continuous sector in M E NA is know n as social improvement. Low- and middle-income coun- and behavior change communications tries are also exploring this approach, such as (SB C C) (Storey a nd Fig ueroa 2012) Kenya, where enabling parents to hold teach- (see box 14.4). Mobile phones and other ers and schools accountable has had positive information and communication technology impacts on student learning (Duflo, Dupas, can be useful tools to support communica- and Kremer 2011). In MENA, where teacher tion, but it is important to understand how absenteeism is prevalent, this approach could mutual signaling occurs between the educa- be particularly useful. tion sector and stakeholders such as parents In addition to school data on student and and employers and on developing a commu- teacher absenteeism, the availability of com- nications strategy based on this information. parative results of national examinations and learning assessments can help parents to monitor the performance of their children’s Empower parents with information to school and hold it accountable. Such infor- support school-level accountability mation can give parents a voice in the educa- For parents to play a strong role and insist on tional process and empower them to promote accountability, school data must be accessible their children’s learning and academic Box 14.4  Social and behavior change communications (SBCC) SBCC focuses on the community as the unit of sustainable change in behaviors; to strengthen change. SBCC is an evidence-based process of community engagement; to influence decision mak- using communication, usually as part of a broader ers, family, and peer networks; to influence policy intervention, to promote behaviors that lead to development; and to increase demand (USAID improvements in outcomes. Explicit emphasis is 2017). To improve the focus on learning outcomes placed on changes in behavior as an outcome, seek- and skills, SBCC would need to deepen awareness ing to understand why people do what they do and among all stakeholders (including parents, stu- how to support positive change. Given the growing dents, educators, and employers) of the importance understanding that behaviors take place in a par- of focusing on skills rather than on credentials so ticular context and that change must be supported that graduates are well prepared for the job market. from multiple levels of influence, SBCC is designed to influence social norms in support of long-term, Source: Storey and Figueroa 2012. 2 8 0   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations growth (Weiss, Lopez, and Rosenberg 2010). Resources Development in Jordan routinely Another way to strengthen accountability conducts comparative analyses of the national and the flow of communications is to share examination results and submits a report to school-level data through school report cards the education directorates, but not to parents (IIEP 2018) (see box 14.5). However, these (World Bank 2016a). This means that parents approaches may not be effective if there is are not routinely equipped with the informa- limited capacity within the system to respond tion needed to make informed decisions on effectively to positive pressure; there is also where and when—as well as how—to engage the potential for adverse effects such as fur- in dialogue with schools to improve perfor- ther burdening the most vulnerable (Read mance and to bring positive pressure to bear. and Atinc 2016). A forum for dialogue with parents should be in place, and schools need Establish institutional arrangements the authority and quick-response capacity to for parents to participate in school shift resources and improve the flow of com- management munications to maintain both trust and accountability. Many education systems create institutional Strengthening school-level information arrangements that involve the community in sharing in the MENA region will require new decision-making processes. For instance, approaches to empowering parents and other Finland, Massachusetts (United States), and stakeholders. Jordan is one of the most Ontario (Canada) have local education man- advanced education systems in the region in agement units, such as school boards and dis- data collection and analysis. Yet even Jordan tricts, that oversee administrative and does not have a policy requiring that analysis academic management and report to the state of public examination results be distributed level. In New Zealand, schools are managed to parents. The National Center for Human by democratically elected school boards, Box 14.5  Using school report cards to promote transparency and accountability S chool repor t ca rds a re a good exa mple of • Creating legal provisions for the disclosure of using school data to strengthen education sys- school data tems. School report cards can cover a wide range • Selecting data that are critical to monitor- of aspects regarding the effectiveness of an individ- ing financial, management, or pedagogical ual school, including student achievement, teacher accountability qualifications, school facility conditions, teach- • Designing mechanisms enabling “fair compari- ing resources, and other important indicators of sons” between schools school quality and achievement. The information • Training school management committees, presented in the school report card provides the teachers, parents, and community groups on school community, including students and parents, how data can be used to demand accountability the opportunity to ensure that a school has received • Introducing a legal grievance redress mecha- an appropriate amount of resources and is meeting nism for parents and communities. student needs. Many countries have adopted school By taking advantage of open school data and report cards as a means of sharing school-level using school report cards effectively, governments can data. involve the school community at-large in shaping the To ensure that school report cards are used to education system and ensuring education transparency their full potential as a means of promoting trans- and accountability at the local and national levels. parency and accountability, the following key fac- tors need to be considered: Source: IIEP 2018. S t r e n g t h e n i n g A cc o u n t a b i l i t y f o r B e t t e r L e a r n i n g O u t c o m e s    281 which have a direct relationship with the cen- actors in school management, including tral level (Jaimovich 2014). In El Salvador, actions to address learning and other school the Community Managed Schools Program issues (CARE 2016). (EDUCO), established in 1992, gave parents power and responsibility for schools, includ- Provide a home environment that ing the hiring and firing of teachers. The supports learning EDUCO quickly increased enrollment in rural areas and positively affected student To learn, children need to feel safe and learning outcomes (Jimenez and Sawada ­ supported in their learning environments. 1998). EDUCO was intended to decentralize The home environment provides the founda- education by strengthening the direct involve- tion for children’s learning and should be con- ment and participation of parents. However, sidered as an element of the accountability the program was ended in 2010 due to cost system (UNESCO 2017). Education success is inefficiency and a newly elected Salvadoran positively affected by home learning opportu- government, which was dissatisfied with the nities such as when parents read to their chil- program’s labor relationship between teach- dren and when learning resources are available ers and communities (Florez et al. 2015). at home. The benefit of in-home exposure to This case offers some important lessons for literary Arabic was evidenced in a recent the design and implementation of programs study, showing that children from literate to improve the involvement of communities middle-income families with spoken Arabic ­ and parents in education. could retell short stories told in literary Arabic Many MENA countries have school man- and that recent additions of modern standard agement committees (SMCs), but few of these Arabic children’s literature, home reading, and committees have a substantive voice in school cartoon programming fostered fluency among affairs (Brixi, Lust, and Woolcock 2015). preprimary children (Leikin, Ibrahim, and In Morocco, for example, SMCs have been Eghbaria 2013). widely established, yet their functionality and Before entering school, children in effectiveness are weak. The SMCs are not MENA countries are less prepared for liter- authorized to handle funds, and their compo- acy learning than children in other regions. sition is unbalanced, with little representa- On average, across all countries that partici- tion from individuals outside of school pated in the Progress in International personnel. SMC members do not have clear Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) 2016, roles and can lose motivation because they 39 percent of grade 4 students had a parent lack influence on school affairs. Parent- who reported often having engaged in liter- teacher meetings often represent the only acy activities with their child during the other substantial opportunity for interaction preprimary years. However, MENA coun- between parents and the school, but these tries that participated in PIRLS 2016 all meetings are typically infrequent and of short reported lower percentages (see ­ figure 14.2). duration, providing limited opportunity for The assessment also found an alarming meaningful engagement (World Bank 2016b). lack of resources for in-home learning. For There is little systematic research on the example, 74 percent of homes of grade 4 stu- extent of parental and community involve- dents in Egypt and 70 percent of those in ment with schools in MENA, but several Morocco had 10 or fewer children’s books. promising initiatives are emerging. For exam- In Oman, 38 percent of grade 4 students had ple, parents in the United Arab Emirates are 10 or fewer children’s books in the home, regularly invited to participate in school activi- down from 55 percent in 2011 (IEA 2013; ties, including workshops for students Mullis et al. 2017). (Al-Taneiji 2012). Egypt’s New Schools MENA parents are behind their interna- Program has been implemented in more than tional peers in providing their children with a 90 communities and engages community supportive home environment for learning. 2 8 2   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations Awareness campaigns and capacity building Use media and technology to could be a means of improving this situation, support accountability systems since many parents may not understand the relationship between home environment and Social media are a major source of informa- school achievement or may not have sufficient tion in the world and in MENA countries, skills and tools with which to support their especially for youths, and they can serve as a children’s learning development. Such efforts platform for policy makers wishing to share could improve children’s learning and information and promote greater transpar- strengthen the education pact through which ency on education policy reforms. Social the home and community become important media also provide citizens with a mecha- links in the chain of education system nism to hold policy makers and educators accountability. accountable. And yet social media can also be exploited by interest groups to block FIGURE 14.2  Few children in MENA benefit from sufficient literacy important reforms and spread misinforma- activities at home tion. Open channels for communication and Percentage of grade 4 students whose parents reported often doing early literacy debate are important to creating a pact activities with their child before primary school around learning. Policy makers should 45 engage with stakeholders through various 39 40 channels to address concerns, correct infor- 35 31 31 mation using evidence, and rally collective 29 30 27 24 23 support for education reforms. Civil society Percent 25 21 20 20 is responsible for demanding transparent 15 12 communication of education inputs and 10 outcomes. 5 Technology can also be leveraged to estab- 0 lish accountability systems. Several countries s ain r it a an p. p. co ta te bi wa Re Re are implementing education dashboards to oc Om Qa ira hr ra Ku or b ic iA Ba Em ra am M ud facilitate open data and a move toward t, A ab Isl Sa yp Ar n, evidence-based policy making. The govern- ­ Eg Ira d ite Un PIRLS international average ment of Egypt has effectively leveraged mod- Source: Mullis et al. 2017. ern technology to promote accountability Note: PIRLS = Progress in International Reading Literacy Study. (see box 14.6). Box 14.6  Using technology in Egypt’s education sector to ensure accountability Egypt has embarked on ambitious accountability • Enhancing transparency around student assess- reforms in the education sector using modern tech- ments and citizens’ trust of assessment results nology. These reforms are enhancing accountability • Strengthening accountability across key stake- through the following channels: holders, giving the community and parents a greater voice in policy making • Increasing the amount of data and informa- • Creating a better compact between the Ministry tion available to policy makers and the public, of Education and Technical Education and thereby improving accountability for resource schools by improving district-level management. allocation and service delivery Source: World Bank 2018a. S t r e n g t h e n i n g A cc o u n t a b i l i t y f o r B e t t e r L e a r n i n g O u t c o m e s    283 Notes Washington, DC: World Bank. https:// op e n k nowle d ge .worldba n k .or g / h a nd le​ 1. A rating of “established” indicates that the /10986/21607. standards for what students must know and Buckner, Elizabeth, and Rebecca Hodges. 2015. be able to do at both the subnational and “Cheating or Cheated? Surviving Secondary national levels are set. Djibouti and West Exit Exams in a Neoliberal Era.” Compare: A Bank and Gaza were rated as “emerging,” Journal of Comparative and International meaning that the policy in place reflects Education 46 (4): 603–23. https://doi.org​ some good practices but is still being /10.1080​/03057925.2015.1088379. developed. Busemeyer, Marius R. 2012. “Two Decades of 2. The following SABER-Student Assessment Decentralization in Education Governance: Country Reports were reviewed: Bahrain Lessons Learned and Future Outlook for Local (2013), the Arab Republic of Egypt (2013), Stakeholders.” Paper presented at Conference Iraq (2013), Jordan (2014), Lebanon (2013), on Effective Local Governance in Education, Libya (2015), Morocco (2015), Oman Organisation for Economic Co-operation and (2013), the Syrian Arab Republic (2013), Development, Warsaw, April 16. 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World Bank, Washington, DC. https://hubs​ UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, .worldba n k .or g /do c s / i m ageba n k /page s​ and Cultural Organization). 2017. “Global /­docprofile.aspx?nodeid=26374671. Education Monitoring Report Summary ———. 2013d. “SABER Student Assessment 2017/8: Accountability in Education; Meeting Country Report: Lebanon 2013.” Systems Our Commitments.” UNESCO, Paris. Approach for Better Education Results UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund). (SABER) Country Report: Student Assessment, 2 015.   U N I C E F M E N A RO d at ab a s e . World Bank, Washington, DC. https://hubs​ New York: Paris. https://open.unicef.org/post​ .worldba n k .or g /do c s / i m ageba n k /page s​ -document​/m ­ enaro-oa5-2015/. /­docprofile.aspx?nodeid=20137625. ———. No date. “Data Must Speak.” UNICEF, ———. 2013e. “SABER Student Assessment New York. https://www.unicef.org/education​ Country Report: Oman 2013.” Systems /­data-must-speak. 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Countr y Repor t: Libya 2015.” Systems ———. 2018c. “SABER Student Assessments Approach for B et ter E ducation Results Ratings and Data.” World Bank, Washington, (SA BER) Country Report Student D C . ht t p: //s ab er.worldba n k .or g / i ndex​ Assessment, World Bank, Washington, DC. .cfm?indx=8&pd=5&sub=1. https://hubs.worldbank.org/docs/imagebank​ ———. 2018d. “World Ban k E ducation.” /Pages/docProfile.aspx?nodeid​=27369103. Information compiled by Jordan Country ———. 2015b. “SABER Student Assessment Team, World Bank, Washington, DC. Country Report: Morocco 2015.” Systems ———. No date. SABER—Systems Approach for Approach for Better Education Results Better Education Results database. World Bank, (SABER) Country Report: Student Assessment, Washington, DC. http://saber.worldbank​ .org​ World Bank, Washington, DC. https://hubs​ /­index.cfm. .worldba n k .or g /do c s / i m ageba n k /page s​ Zeitlin, Andrew, Lawrence Bategeka, Madina /­docprofile.aspx?nodeid=27368416. Guloba, Ibrahim Kasirye, and Frederick ———. 2016a. “SABER School Autonomy and M u g i s h a . 2 0 11 . “ M a n a g e m e n t a n d Accountability: Jordan Country Report 2015.” Motivation in Ugandan Primary Schools: SA BE R Cou nt r y Repor t , World Ban k, I m p a c t E v a l u a t i o n F i n a l R e p o r t .” Washington, DC. Improving Institutions for Pro-Poor Growth, ———. 2016b. “SABER School Autonomy and University of Oxford, Oxford, U.K. http:// Accountability: Morocco Country Report www​.iig.ox.ac.uk/. Conclusion Safaa El Tayeb El-Kogali and Caroline Krafft 15 H ow can countries in the Middle East examples that can help to tap into this and North Africa (MENA) region potential. achieve the full potential of educa- This conclusion offers some key lessons tion? The chapters in this book examine the for policy reforms that countries can adopt status of education in the MENA region, rec- and adapt to their specific conditions in order ognizing the variations between and within to achieve the potential of education. countries. They present a political economy characterization of the tensions that are hold- ing back the potential of education in Offering lessons for effective MENA. They also propose a new push-pull- education reform pact framework to address the challenges. No solution fits all: Implementing a Within this framework, the chapters high- reform will not achieve the same results light the common issues, challenges, and con- across all contexts straints that exist inside and outside the region’s education systems and describe the There are multiple models for transforming challenges that are keeping MENA countries education. Finland and the Republic of Korea from reaping the potential benefits of educa- were both top scorers in the 2015 Programme tion for their citizens. for International Student Assessment (PISA), Understanding countries’ education invest- a signal of strong learning. Yet the two edu- ments, learning process, measurement of cation systems leading to this learning are learning, and roles played by stakeholders is quite different (see box 15.1). A variety of a critical first step to achieving the potential models for education can help countries to of education. The process of education is not achieve their goals. There is not one, singular, only technical but also political, cultural, and or uniform “best practice” for reforming or social. Recognizing the multidimensional running an education system. The most effec- nature of education helps to identify the tive education model for a country will stakeholders and tensions that constrain depend on its current capabilities as well as learning at the society, school, and classroom its political, economic, and social context. levels. Each chapter offers specific policy This context determines what is feasible and options and solutions, sharing successful what will work. Emphasizing different goals 287 2 8 8   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations Box 15.1  Finland and the Republic of Korea rely on different successful education models Both Finland and Korea have successful, high- (Morgan 2016). Finnish schools offer welfare ser- performing education systems, and yet these vices and free early academic support for students systems differ greatly. Korea is known for its rigor- who need help in reading, writing, or math (Morgan ous, test-driven system, while Finland has a more 2014, 2016), all of which help to diminish preexisting accommodating, flexible system with no mandated inequalities among students, enabling them to learn. standardized tests, except for college entrance In addition, both countries invest in, and exams (Darling-Hammond, Wei, and Andree 2010). develop, accomplished teachers. In Finland, teach- A high school student in Korea spends, on average, ing is a highly respected profession that is often 10 hours a day at school and is under immense pres- perceived to be more important than medicine or sure from his or her family to do well (Ellinger and law. Finland admits only the top 10 percent of stu- Beckham 1997). By contrast, Finland allows stu- dents to the teacher education program. Teachers dents to take courses at their own pace in their final come out of the five-year intensive program well years of schooling, enabling them to learn the mate- prepared, allowing them to have more autonomy rial better without stresses and on their own time to teach the way they feel is most effective (Morgan (Morgan 2014). There is no clearly “right” educa- 2014). The program involves a wide variety of train- tion system—they both promote learning. ing, including observing teachers in the classroom, Despite their differing environments, there are practicing teaching lessons to students, as well as a few distinct similarities. Both countries are com- preparing students to become researchers and prac- mitted to providing equal learning opportunities titioners. In Korea, teachers are required to take to students. In Korea, teachers are rotated to dif- 90 hours of professional development courses every ferent schools every five to seven years, creating three years to enhance their teaching. One Korean more chances for exceptional teachers to interact professional development program, in particular, with disadvantaged students (Morgan 2016). PISA offers an advanced certificate, which often leads to revealed that the opportunities to learn in Finland an increase in salary and sometimes a promotion are essentially the same throughout the country (Darling-Hammond, Wei, and Andree 2010). of education, such as social mobility or job the question of “what works” is insufficient. training, also can lead to different education The often-­ contradictory results of studies of models. “what works” become more informative when we ask, “When does it work?” “Why does it work?” or “What else has to happen for it to For education reforms to be successful, work?” Solitary education reforms, on their they must be coherent with other own, are likely to be ineffective or less effec- system elements tive than combinations of interventions. A few An enormous body of research has been pro- examples illustrate the importance of ensuring duced on what works in education in the that reforms are coherent and coordinated and decade since the last MENA education flag- that they complement existing systems: ship report was published (World Bank 2008). A rich proliferation of high-quality experi- •  Early childhood development programs ments in education has occurred in an attempt have enormous potential to improve learn- to disentangle cause and effect. Yet, notably, ing outcomes, but they are ineffective reviews of what works in education still do not when program quality is low (Bouguen et find c­ onsistent results (Evans and Popova al. 2013; Jung and Hasan 2014; Temple 2015; Glewwe et al. 2013; Kremer, Brannen, and Reynolds 2007) or when they are not and Glennerster 2013; McEwan 2015). available to the most at-risk populations Researchers are beginning to recognize that (Karoly 2017). C o n c l u s i o n   2 89 •  An early literacy program, when imple- on foundational skills. When coordination mented by a nongovernmental organi- between the education sector and the labor zation with complementary teaching market is feasible, more specific job skills materials, had enormous effects on early can be a focus of education, because educa- ­ l iteracy. When teaching materials were tors would know the skills employers need. omitted during scale-up by the government, Conditions that enable or hinder program the intervention had insignificant effects on success are a ­c rucial aspect of successful literacy (Kerwin and Thornton 2015). reforms. The effectiveness of different pol- •  Simply providing technology (comput- icy options often depends on whether ers) to children—a solitary reform—has complementary conditions are in place. For ­ no effect on learning (Cristia et al. 2012). example, school-based decision making However, computer-assisted learning may be less effective in disadvantaged con- for mathematics, delivered as an after- texts where parents are less able to partici- school complement to in-school ­ learning, pate effectively (Carr-Hill, Rolleston, and improved mathematics scores (Lai, Schendel 2016). Khaddage, and Knezek 2013). •  Skills and entrepreneurship training pro- The success of reforms also depends on grams, on their own, tend to be ineffec- how the reforms are designed, tive at improving labor market outcomes. introduced, approved, and However, skills and financial capital implemented together can be an effective interven- tion for generating income and employ- For example, Mexico’s president Carlos ment (Bausch et al. 2017; Blattman and Salinas started introducing reforms and Ralston 2015; Cho and Honorati 2014). negotiating with the teachers’ union after his first three years in power. He also used tact- These studies illustrate how reforms—and ful negotiations instead of confrontation, education systems—need to be coherent and which led to successful reforms (Grindle coordinated, so that all of the pieces work 2004; Kingdon et al. 2014). In contrast, together and complement each other. Tunisia’s Minister of Education Néji Jalloul A “pick-and-choose” approach, or piecemeal took on the Tunisian General Labor Union reform, will not work. soon after taking office and approached reforms in a confrontational manner, leading to the reforms being blocked and costing him Reforms should vary across countries, his position. depending on what is feasible in MENA has already undertaken many pol- education, economic, or social reform icy reforms within the education sector, but Successful reforms depend on understand- often with insufficient attention to how the ing existing constraints (Rodrik 2008). For education sector interacts with broader soci- example, countries like Jordan and Lebanon etal trends and incentives. The tendency of face a large influx of refugees due to the reform efforts in the region to ignore comple- conflict in the Syrian Arab Republic, so any mentarities or constraints is one reason for reforms to their education systems must the lack of progress in student learning. consider the need to accommodate refugee Other reasons relate to the misalignment of children in the system and the specific con- education investments with learning priori- straints associated with them. Another ties, issues of pedagogy, curricula, lack of example is when coordination between the assessments and accountabilities, misaligned education sector and labor market is not interests, and political and social tensions. feasible and the information necessary to Technology is changing how today’s students provide specific, in-demand job skills is not are prepared to enter the future workforce— available, the education system should focus that is, it is influencing not only the ends of 2 9 0   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations education but also the means. Technology roles; and (6) resources are aligned with pri- can provide a unique opportunity to help orities. These changes will require a joint education systems to be more efficient and effort to address the four tensions holding effective. If leveraged smartly, technology can education back in the MENA countries. offer an opportunity for MENA countries to Improving education is not the responsi- advance their education systems and support bility of educators alone; it involves all learning. members of society—politicians, business- people, and community and religious lead- ers as well as parents, teachers, school Education cannot do it alone, and principals, and students themselves. By far education is everyone’s responsibility the most difficult task is dealing with vary- The skills acquisition process is affected by a ing and often opposing views, strongly held wide variety of actors and factors, such as the convictions, and divergent interests. But it private sector, civil society, the macroeco- is not impossible. Countries with high-­ nomic environment, or broader trends in performing education systems have suc- technology like the Internet and social media. ceeded i n rallyi ng suppor t a rou nd a This is why education reform is a dynamic common vision and shared responsibility. and complex process. Comprehensive reform MENA has the history, culture, and beyond the education system, particularly in resources to leap into a future founded on a the labor market, will be required to address learned society and a knowledge economy. persistent shortfalls in learning outcomes. The region has great expectations and aspira- Such approaches may, for instance, address tions. Unleashing the potential of education signals and incentives from the labor market is attainable, but it will take a new pact to in addition to implementing reform within elevate education not only as a national prior- the education sector. For these reasons, it is ity but also as a national emergency. 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Education Reform in the Middle East and Karoly, Lynn A. 2017. Investing in the Early North Africa. MENA Development Report. Years: The Costs and Benefits of Investing in Washington, DC: World Bank. Appendix: Overview of MENA Policy Recommendations TABLE A.1  Overview of MENA policy recommendations Challenges Policy directions Examples Responsible actors Chapter 3: Securing learning for children in conflict and crisis Remove barriers to education Children in or near conflict zones Provide safe, free transportation The governments of Iraq, Jordan, Ministry of education, face safety issues preventing them to school through security and Turkey have cooperated with in cooperation with local from accessing education services. escorts or shuttle buses. Where the International Organization for nongovernmental organizations Refugee children have reported feasible and appropriate, pilot Migration, which operates school (NGOs) and international bullying and security incidents on innovative education technology buses transporting Syrian refugee organizations, undertakes needs their way to school. Additional (EdTech) solutions and mobile children to school and catch-up assessments and targets concerns stem from children learning kits for remote learning classes. vulnerable communities, where having to travel long distances to in areas where formal education parents are inclined to keep reach the nearest school. services are not accessible. children at home due to safety concerns. A substantial share of children who Eliminate school fees and provide Lebanon abolished enrollment Ministry of education and ministry are refugees or internally displaced textbooks and learning materials fees and provides free textbooks of finance, with support from the persons (IDPs) do not attend free of charge. for all children attending public international donor community, school because of the cost schools. develop a multiyear budget that associated with school attendance. includes schooling for refugees The German Academic Exchange and vulnerable host communities. Service and other institutions provide scholarships to Syrian refugees living in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. Destroyed school infrastructure Operate double-shift schools, Lebanon operates 346 double-shift Ministry of education assesses and and the arrival of large numbers of supplement public education schools, with most refugee children maps demand for education IDPs and refugees have led to with nonformal education attending the second shift. services, expands the teacher overcrowded schools in conflict services, and repair or rebuild workforce, and enhances the About 17,600 school-age countries and host communities. school infrastructure in areas capacity of the public education refugees in Jordan are enrolled in where conflict has subsided. system. nonformal education services offered by international organizations and local NGOs. table continues next page 293 2 9 4   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations TABLE A.1  Overview of MENA policy recommendations (continued) Challenges Policy directions Examples Responsible actors Chapter 3: Securing learning for children in conflict and crisis (continued) Remove barriers to education (continued) The lack of credentials from Relax administrative enrollment The European Qualifications Ministry of education reduces previous education slows the requirements for refugees and IDPs Passport for Refugees provides administrative enrollment enrollment process for refugees who do not have documentation refugees with an official requirements for refugees and and IDPs and often makes it of their educational achievements. document listing their degrees, coordinates with private tertiary impossible for them to pursue a language competencies, and education providers to facilitate Establish tests to determine the tertiary education. other credentials relevant for access. appropriate education level and pursuing further education or procedures to determine employment. equivalency of previously obtained degrees with local certification requirements. Improve the learning experience of displaced children Refugee children are confronted Offer language classes to Many governments, international Ministry of education ensures with unfamiliar languages of familiarize displaced children with organizations, and local NGOs that language of instruction does instruction and curricula (for a new language of instruction. provide specialized language not create a prohibitive barrier for example, instruction in English or support for refugee children such refugees’ learning process and Teach displaced children in their French in Lebanon and Turkish in as extra hours of instruction in adapts curricula to be conflict native language, where Turkey); internally displaced the afternoon (for example, in sensitive where appropriate. appropriate and politically feasible. children can be affected by a Germany and Turkey). change in dialect or language as Use host community curriculum in protracted conflicts so that Djibouti mandates the use of well (for example, Arabic- and children have a better chance of Djiboutian curriculum but allows Kurdish-speaking children in Iraq). eventually being integrated into instruction for refugees to take the local labor market. place in English. Refugee and internally displaced Provide psychosocial support NGOs like Save the Children Ministry of education trains children who have fled war and such as arts and music therapy in implement programs such as teachers or deploys counselors to destruction have experienced public schools and create safe Healing and Education through provide psychosocial support. trauma that can inhibit their learning and play spaces in Arts (Jordan). NGOs integrate psychosocial learning. camps and at NGO sites. Lebanon is training teachers and support in nonformal education. school counselors in psychosocial support and conflict-sensitive classroom management. Children who have missed out on Offer remedial education and United Nations Children’s Fund Ministry of education, years of schooling need remedial support services for children who (UNICEF) and others provide international organizations, and education and accelerated have trouble following the remedial education in nonformal local NGOs coordinate remedial learning programs (ALPs) to catch regular class content. education centers throughout education services and establish up and keep up with the material MENA. a clear pathway to formal Provide ALPs for children who covered in school. education. have missed out on years of Lebanon offers an ALP that schooling to bridge the gap and condenses the national provide a pathway to the formal curriculum and delivers it in education system. Arabic for refugee children. Strengthen resilience at the systems level Unpredictability in the amount of In emergencies provide Multiyear funding commitments Donor community coordinates external funding makes education education sector funding that is and transparent reporting of with host countries and sector planning exceedingly adequate, timely, predictable, donors are expected at the annual establishes mechanisms for difficult in protracted crises and and not earmarked. Brussels Conference, where transparent and regular can destabilize the entire donors gather to debate the reporting, timely transfer of Make funding available in the first education system. status of access to and quality of pledged funds, and multiyear half of the calendar year for education for Syrian refugees and commitments. planning and implementation support for host communities. during the following academic year. table continues next page A p p e n d i x : O v e r v i e w o f MEN A P o l i c y R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s    295 TABLE A.1  Overview of MENA policy recommendations (continued) Challenges Policy directions Examples Responsible actors Chapter 5: Establishing a foundation for lifelong learning Intervene early for biggest impact Early learning interventions have Place early learning and The United Arab Emirates has Ministry of education explicitly some of the highest returns on development of key foundational placed great emphasis on sets universal early learning as a investment for individuals and skills at the top of the national increasing preschool coverage as priority and ensures that it is societies. However, many countries productivity and growth agenda. part of its Vision 2021 national reflected in the budget. fail to prioritize universal access to agenda. The country is on track Expand access to high-quality Ministry of finance adequately preschool and cognitive to achieve the target of 95 preschool programs. funds early learning programs, development during the early percent early childhood especially those targeting poor years. As a result, children do not Target resources toward the most education (ECE) coverage in children. arrive in school ready to learn. vulnerable children to ensure that public and private preschools by no one is left behind during this 2021. critical period for the develop- ment of key foundational skills. Universalize preschool education Most MENA children do not have Accelerate expansion of access to Starting in 1993, Argentina began Ministry of education organizes access to quality ECE programs. high-quality preprimary implementing a wide-reaching increased provision of high- The preprimary gross enrollment education, which will require national program to expand quality preschool education, ratio for 3- to 5-year-olds in MENA (1) reallocating financial resources compulsory preprimary designs incentives for private was just 31 percent in 2016 to the early years, (2) training education, which was shown to providers to expand access for compared with a global average of early childhood educators, have significant positive impacts the most vulnerable, and informs 49 percent. MENA ranked below (3) refurbishing existing spaces, on students’ learning outcomes parents about the benefits every other region except South and (4) constructing new spaces. lasting into grade 3. of ECE. Asia. Preprimary enrollment ratios Algeria and the United Arab Ministry of finance prioritizes are particularly low in Djibouti, the Emirates are good examples of funding from the public budget Arab Republic of Egypt, Saudi effective ECE expansions in the for increasing the public Arabia, the Syrian Arab Republic, MENA region. provision of high-quality and the Republic of Yemen. preschool education and financial incentives for private providers. Build strong foundational skills in the early years After two or three years of Improve readiness to learn before In Jordan, daily time is allocated Ministry of education, university schooling, many MENA students school and ensure that, once in for low-performing students to faculties of education, school cannot read. More than one in school, children are gaining age- practice foundational skills in leaders, teachers, and parents three children in grade 2 in Iraq, appropriate literacy and reading and mathematics. develop and implement effective Morocco, and the Republic of numeracy skills. foundational learning programs England’s literacy screening Yemen could not read a single during the early grades. Pilot early grade learning checks highlight the importance word of connected text on the interventions to boost the of assessing and monitoring 2011/2012 Early Grade Reading foundational skills of literacy and students’ early acquisition of skills Assessment (EGRA), indicating that numeracy in the early grades and to identify weaknesses and target the early grades are not as scale up successful ones. additional support to students in effective as they might be in need. teaching children to read. table continues next page 2 9 6   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations TABLE A.1  Overview of MENA policy recommendations (continued) Challenges Policy directions Examples Responsible actors Chapter 6: Ensuring inclusive and equitable learning Remove barriers to access Primary completion is universal, Equalize access to education—at Countries such as Canada, Ministry of education sets but completion of upper- all levels—across the MENA Estonia, Finland, and Japan have universal secondary education secondary education and region. high levels of academic enrollment ratios and learning as transition to university (and good Focus more resources on children performance alongside low levels top priorities, ensuring that jobs in the labor market) are and youths from the poorest of inequality in access and resources are allocated toward limited to children and youths households, as they are the most learning. In these countries, the achieving these goals. from more advantaged likely to be excluded. link between test scores and households (for example, in Egypt, socioeconomic status is generally Offset private spending on Jordan, and Tunisia). weak. education, because it reinforces inequality of opportunity. Recognize and address learning gaps by supporting the lowest-performing students and schools Among MENA’s 15-year-olds, the Monitor the proportion of Between the Trends in Ministry of education uses large- economic, social, and cultural children not reaching expected International Mathematics and scale, system-level student status of their families is strongly levels of learning and provide Science Study (TIMSS) 2011 and assessments to monitor learning correlated with their learning support to those students and 2015, Bahrain, Oman, and Qatar gaps and provides additional achievement, as demonstrated by schools achieving below made substantial advances support to identified areas of the Programme for International expectations. among the lowest-scoring need. Student Assessment (PISA) 2015 mathematics students; Oman Ministry of finance prioritizes results. Based on these data, and Qatar also made substantial these efforts. Lebanon shows the greatest gap advances in science. in learning achievement by socioeconomic status—one that equates to a difference of more than two full years of schooling. Target resources to in-need geographic regions Significant inequalities exist in Monitor gaps in student High-performing countries Ministry of education organizes education by socioeconomic and achievement by socioeconomic monitor school outcomes and and ministry of finance prioritizes geographic circumstances across and geographic circumstances. intervene when necessary by initiatives such as designing and MENA. Students from urban areas providing required resources. implementing suitable data Identify areas of need and devote in Morocco and Saudi Arabia systems and monitoring additional resources to the receive higher-quality education processes and supervising lowest-performing students and than students from rural areas; in ongoing implementation and schools. Lebanon, PISA 2015 scores show a evaluation. two-year gap in science literacy between national quarters of the PISA index of economic, social, and cultural status. table continues next page A p p e n d i x : O v e r v i e w o f MEN A P o l i c y R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s    297 TABLE A.1  Overview of MENA policy recommendations (continued) Challenges Policy directions Examples Responsible actors Chapter 6: Ensuring inclusive and equitable learning (continued) Improve the quality of boys’ education and address MENA’s gender paradox Substantial inequalities exist in the Improve the training of teachers Between 2011 and 2014, Oman Ministry of education strengthens quality of education between all- and principals—particularly undertook a study, “The Male teacher recruitment and training boys and all-girls schools in many those in underperforming Dilemma,” to understand the for all-boys schools. MENA countries. Student schools, which are often all-boys factors contributing to School leaders organize teacher assessments indicate that systems schools in the region—to equip differences in academic training. are not working for boys in many them with a range of effective performance between boys MENA countries. For example, in student-centered teaching and and girls. TIMSS 2015, the seven countries classroom management tech- with the largest gender gaps in niques, including setting high grade 8 science—Bahrain, Jordan, expectations for all students. Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Identify top-performing teachers and the United Arab Emirates— and leaders from all-boys schools were all in MENA, and achievement and raise their voices to allow favored girls. others to learn from them. Increase resources for special needs to reduce inequality Suitable interventions for students Embed systems of early detection Jordan and Tunisia have declared Ministry of education declares with specific learning difficulties of learning difficulties and special their commitment to provide commitment to services for and special educational needs are education needs in schools. education services for children children with special needs and lacking in MENA. with special needs, and Tunisia puts in place policies to identify Pilot and scale up interventions has also adopted measures to and support students in need of to improve the quality of integrate children with minor additional support. education service provision for disabilities into regular schools. students with special needs. School leaders and teacher Finnish teachers are trained to trainers ensure that teachers are identify students who are aware of the need for early slipping behind, and a teacher is detection of learning difficulties dedicated to those students. and understand the new policies on how to address these needs. Chapter 7: Modernizing curricula, instruction, and assessment to improve learning Modernize curricula to meet students’ needs Across MENA, curricula are focused Update and modernize curricula In Oman, recent curricular Ministry of education and on learning facts to gain to promote the development of reforms aim to (1) introduce new curricula developers review knowledge, leaving little room for 21st-century skills; in particular, subjects, (2) limit the amount of curricula. students to think creatively, (1) move from memorization to theoretical content, (3) make University faculties of education engage in cooperative higher-order skills and a broader learning more meaningful by ensure strong links between the experiences, or apply range of competencies, (2) align relating content to students’ curricula and teacher education. understanding to real-life curricula with children’s need to practical world, and (4) reduce situations. Competencies such as develop lifelong skills, and the emphasis on memorization. flexibility, teamwork, and problem (3) allow sufficient time for solving are essential for success in effective learning. future labor markets. table continues next page 2 9 8   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations TABLE A.1  Overview of MENA policy recommendations (continued) Challenges Policy directions Examples Responsible actors Chapter 7: Modernizing curricula, instruction, and assessment to improve learning (continued) Encourage instructional practices that maximize children’s potential Across the region, pedagogical Align instructional practices with Finland improved education by Ministry of education sets methods (how the curriculum is learning goals by improving implementing long-term policies standards for initial teacher delivered) emphasize rote teacher training so that teachers on excellence in teaching, education and monitors quality. memorization and low-level skills use instructional practices that including attracting and retaining University faculties of education over critical thinking skills, resulting maximize children’s potential, a high-quality teaching workforce review curricula and teaching in low learning outcomes. starting with policies that and training teachers to examine methods to ensure new teachers encourage student-centered their own practices have these skills. instructional methods, paying systematically. attention to individual learning, Teacher training providers review Kuwait is embarking on and employing structured their curricula to ensure that systemwide reforms pedagogy, such as lesson plans teachers are continuing to concentrating on student- and scripted lessons, particularly develop these skills. focused classroom practices. where teacher capacity is low. Ministry of education purchases Provide teachers with useful and or develops high-quality high-quality resources. materials to support teachers in providing instructional practices Attract and retain the best that maximize children’s teachers and amplify their potential. influence as mentors. Provide classroom environments conducive to learning The intended curriculum is often Allow enough time (in the year) Oman and Saudi Arabia have Ministry of finance prioritizes not implemented in MENA for effective learning and avoid recently moved to increase adequate budgets for conducive countries due to inadequate multishift school days, wherever instructional time, although classroom environments. resources, including insufficient possible. instructional time is still low by teachers, teaching and learning international comparison. Ministry of education monitors Provide sufficient teachers and classroom environments and materials, and school teaching and learning materials targets resources where needed. infrastructure. to all schools and students. School leaders are trained and incentivized to improve their schools’ environments. Use assessment methods to adapt instruction and promote higher-order skills Although MENA’s teachers Build the capacity of teachers to Lebanon has conducted some Ministry of education, teacher regularly assess students, develop and use formative and small-scale studies to explore training institutes, university classroom assessments are not task-based assessments so that using task-based assessments faculties of education, and others always used to identify they can (1) determine students’ (rather than intelligence quotient responsible for initial and misunderstandings or adapt prior learning achievement, tests) to identify students for practicing teachers improve instruction to students’ learning (2) assess acquisition of cognitive gifted education programs. teachers’ skills in using needs. For example, only one in and noncognitive (including assessments for learning. In Oman, examination grades four teachers in Jordan reported socioemotional) skills, and incorporate scores from classroom- using classroom assessments to (3) adapt pedagogical strategies based assessment tasks. inform lesson planning. to students’ needs. table continues next page A p p e n d i x : O v e r v i e w o f MEN A P o l i c y R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s    299 TABLE A.1  Overview of MENA policy recommendations (continued) Challenges Policy directions Examples Responsible actors Chapter 7: Modernizing curricula, instruction, and assessment to improve learning (continued) Use assessment methods to adapt instruction and promote higher-order skills (continued) High-stakes examinations, such as Replace high-stakes examination Jordan, Kuwait, and Lebanon have Ministry of education reforms the Tawjihi in Jordan and West systems that contribute to abolished high-stakes examination systems. Bank and Gaza or the Thanaweya cramming and private tutoring examinations that ration progress Amma in Egypt, overemphasize with other forms of assessment. between grades 1 and 3. rote recall and reinforce the Focus on classroom assessments The Republic of Korea has an acquisition of credentials over that are aligned with intended “exam-free semester” for lower- skills. student learning outcomes and secondary students. test skills beyond low-level In 2019, Japan will implement a factual recall. university entrance examination that deemphasizes rote memorization, while prioritizing students’ thinking, expression, and reasoning skills. MENA countries are increasingly Use large-scale, system-level Jordan shares the results of its Ministry of education and related participating in large-scale, student assessments to inform national assessment with the agencies publish the results of system-level student assessments, education policy decisions by public, allowing education large-scale, system-level student but few are using the results to making results available to the stakeholders the opportunity to assessments and make databases inform education decision making. public and making data sets respond to the status quo and available to researchers. For example, in 2015 Saudi Arabia available to researchers. participate in efforts to make developed a national assessment improvements. program that has been applied every year, although results are yet to be released to the public. Chapter 8: Leveraging education technology Ensure that investments in technology respond to the changing nature of work and leverage technology as a delivery catalyst Several countries have made large Take a holistic approach to AWS Educate builds cloud comput- Ministry of education supports investments in information and investing in technology that the notion that ICTs are accepted ing skills for the future workforce. communication technology (ICT), recognizes the demand-shaping Similarly, Microsoft launched the tools of the future for teaching with little impact to date. role of technology and leverages One Million Arab Coders initiative and learning, helps to build the Technology investments in the it as a catalyst for service delivery. that offers an intensive curriculumcore capacities of teachers to use education sector are often in the to prepare Arab coders to develop ICT tools in their classrooms, Make investments that shape shape of one-off, boutique solutions on the cloud, while supports the development of ICT demand by building skills that are interventions. Skills that Code.org mainstreams computer infrastructure (both hardware critical for the future of work and technology can replace are fading science education in schools by and software), establishes begin focusing on equipping in demand, but skills that providing curriculum for K–12 academic, curricular, and use youths with the skills that are complement technology are ­computer ­science. standards for ICT in schools, and relevant for the digital economy becoming highly valued. works closely with the private rather than with credentials. Egypt has undertaken ambitious sector in developing and reforms to leverage technology for Make investments that catalyze implementing appropriate course delivering student assessments the delivery of education more content. and assisting classroom learning efficiently. practices. The Egypt Knowledge Couple technology interventions Bank hosts digital learning assets with a renewed focus on for a wide range of curriculum empowering teachers and school competencies, while the grade 10 leaders and innovating pedagogical exams are in the process of being and assessment practices. moved from paper to computer. Harness the power of Digital platforms and libraries can technologies to support and expand access to state-of-the-art steer teachers in their classroom knowledge and online learning. practices; for example, through Platforms like Edraak and Nafham online training, connections to have immense potential when other teachers, and rapid delivered to students through provision of support materials structured online and in-class and lesson plans. settings in which teachers are trained to facilitate this interaction. table continues next page 3 0 0   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations TABLE A.1  Overview of MENA policy recommendations (continued) Challenges Policy directions Examples Responsible actors Chapter 9: Empowering teachers to lead the way to better student learning Recruit the best and prepare them to be effective teachers In some cases, the policy and Establish a policy and regulations In Finland, only 10 percent of Ministry of education and higher process for selecting new teachers to attract the best candidates to applicants will gain acceptance to education, ministry of civil are inadequate. Where teacher teacher education programs in teacher education programs. services, universities, and other selection processes exist, their higher education and establish Initial selection is based entirely legislative branches establish an requirements are sometimes not rigorous teacher selection on a written test drawn from six enabling framework for sufficiently stringent to ensure that processes for assigning teaching wide-ranging academic and transparent and functional new teachers have the necessary positions. professional articles that students teacher selection and assignment competencies to enter the study in advance. processes. Include requirements such as high profession (for example, in levels of educational attainment In Morocco, teacher candidates Human resources unit within Lebanon and Saudi Arabia). (at least a bachelor’s degree), must have a three-year bachelor’s ministry of education organizes a In countries with stringent a minimum amount of previous program, pass a written test, and national selection process with requirements for the teacher practical experience, and passing interview to enter the Teacher support from regional and local selection process, implementation grades in subject-knowledge and Certification Center, where they governments and schools, when can be challenging (for example, in pedagogical assessments, conduct study pedagogy for one possible. Kuwait and Morocco). interviews to assess skills and additional year. Ministry of finance allocates motivations, and update In the United States, licensure resources for selection process. requirements according to requirements may include having emerging needs, among others. a minimum education level, Strengthen the capacity of the passing a state licensure exam, ministry of education to coordinate and having teaching experience. and manage selection processes Teachers must renew their license and teacher licensure programs. every few years. Strengthen continuous professional support to teachers The first year of teaching is the Develop teacher induction Oman’s induction program Ministry of education develops most challenging, but first-year programs focusing on classroom involves three two-week courses the model and creates an teachers receive little support. The practices and teaching skills. focused on teaching practices enabling environment. number of teachers with and policies as well as the Introduce a minimum amount of Ministry of finance provides seed appropriate subject-matter curriculum. professional development, with a funding, and school leaders build knowledge is insufficient. Where focus on improved pedagogical Egypt, Lebanon, Qatar, and time into teachers’ workday for in-service training programs exist practices and subject knowledge, Tunisia have professional capacity building and piloting. but the methodology is traditional, and link professional development policies in place a one-off workshop may be School leaders and teachers are development with career that focus on improved needed, rather than continuous in charge of their own improvement opportunities. pedagogical practices. Egypt’s professional development and professional development and Teachers First program provides support programs embedded in Introduce collaborative actively link with other schools. continued mentorship and schools (for example, in Morocco professional development models coaching and fosters and many Gulf Cooperation such as teacher research groups participation in communities of Council [GCC] countries). Many and teacher networks in schools practice. countries do not link professional and across schools, with emphasis development with career on mentoring and coaching by In Shanghai, research groups at all advancement, reducing the more experienced teachers and school levels meet two to three incentives for meaningful teacher sharing of good practices. hours every week to discuss engagement and limiting the curriculum and best practices. opportunities to identify and Continue to experiment with promote teachers with the collaborative and other greatest ability. innovative models and to monitor, evaluate, and scale up lessons from pilots. table continues next page A p p e n d i x : O v e r v i e w o f MEN A P o l i c y R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s    301 TABLE A.1  Overview of MENA policy recommendations (continued) Challenges Policy directions Examples Responsible actors Chapter 9: Empowering teachers to lead the way to better student learning (continued) Use teacher assessment to strengthen support and accountability Teaching standards and Establish and update teaching Morocco has established an Ministry of education develops a mechanisms to monitor and assess standards to be adequately aligned inspection force that visits supervisory body, designs and teachers are lacking (for example, with the curriculum; introduce schools every three years. applies teacher evaluations based in the Republic of Yemen). Existing supervisory mechanisms to on international evidence, and, Egyptian schools evaluate teaching standards and oversight monitor teachers’ attendance and with the support of state and teachers at least twice a year. mechanisms focus on compliance compliance with teaching local governments, helps schools Both internal and external with administrative tasks instead of standards; develop a supervisory to oversee teacher performance examinations are informed by the practices to improve learning (for body within the ministry of and to conduct regular principal’s individual assessment example, in Djibouti, Lebanon, and education capable of visiting evaluations. and classroom observation. West Bank and Gaza). Where schools periodically. Empowered school leaders teacher assessments exist, results Principals in Ontario, Canada, Introduce teacher assessments, communicate with the ministry are not used effectively to improve conduct a teacher appraisal including several methods, such of education regarding teachers. classroom practice and participate program twice a year based as evaluations of both subject in professional development on competency statements. Regional and local governments knowledge and pedagogical opportunities. Consequences of Classroom observations are used along with school leaders practice, as well as classroom evaluations are also unclear (for to assess teachers. collaborate on teacher observations, the principal’s example in Egypt, Jordan, and assessments and foster assessment, and parents’ and Tunisia). transparency. students’ assessments. Incorporate several instruments in teacher assessments, including classroom observations, evaluations of subject knowledge and pedagogical practices, lesson planning capacity, student learning results, assessments by principals and peers, and inputs by parents and students, and link results of teacher assessments with classroom practice and professional development. Provide meaningful incentives to motivate and reward teachers Lack of incentives for qualified Introduce incentives for teachers Qatar is considering career Ministry of education defines the teachers serving vulnerable who teach in rural and isolated pathways to motivate teachers to teachers’ career ladder and populations makes it difficult to areas or who teach critical perform. assesses and revises incentives place teachers where they are subjects with a shortage of already in place. It identifies Australia, Canada, and Singapore needed most. The failure to teachers. teachers who serve in vulnerable have career ladders that reward sanction low-performing teachers areas and teach critical subjects Provide well-chosen professional teachers’ knowledge and skills. can lead to a loss of learning and designs incentives accordingly. incentives, rather than financial Chronically underperforming opportunities for students. incentives, to support improved teachers are not allowed to Ministry of finance budgets teaching. continue teaching. incentives in line with teacher workforce and projects salary Improve the design and expenditures. implementation of incentives that reward behaviors that Local governments, school teachers can change. leaders, education NGOs, and the private sector offer nonmonetary Link career advancement to the incentives (for example, teaching results of teacher assessments awards and enhanced and performance in the professional development classroom. opportunities). table continues next page 3 0 2   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations TABLE A.1  Overview of MENA policy recommendations (continued) Challenges Policy directions Examples Responsible actors Chapter 10: Developing effective school leadership Transform the role of the school principal from administrator to instructional leader School principals in most MENA Support the shift to instructional Kuwait’s School Leadership Ministry of education creates train- countries hold purely leadership, formally give principals Program supported pilot schools ing support, establishes technical administrative roles, with few an instructional leadership with greater autonomy and support for school restructuring, instructional responsibilities. mandate, provide them with participatory and team-based and provides reskilling opportunities Where principals are expected to appropriate training and approaches for planning. for supervisors to support principals. provide instructional leadership, mentoring, and train supervisors New Zealand supports Higher education and training they often lack guidance or an to address learning issues. collaborative instructional institutions create professional adequate support system (for Support distributed leadership leadership for principals. development curriculum to example, in Jordan). models and deconceptualize the support instructional leadership. Singapore supports collaborative supervisor’s role to provide school leadership that enables Ministry of finance supports pilot support for principals in subject-specific instructional experiences with devolved budget instructional leadership. feedback. responsibilities. Modernize criteria and processes to select new school leaders In some cases, selection processes Establish criteria for merit-based Egypt has created rigorous Ministry of education develops for principals are not transparent, hiring of principals, increase professional requirements for merit-based recruitment, and principals have low education minimum experience requirements, school principals. selection, and certification levels (for example, in the Islamic and develop specialized leadership requirements and provides Kuwait, Qatar, and Saudi Arabia have Republic of Iran). Where clear training programs. internship and induction created professional development teacher selection processes exist, programs and capacity building Establish multiple criteria for programs for principals. criteria are often limited to for district offices. principals, including management academic qualifications and Qatar and the United Arab experience and expertise. Higher education and training teaching experience (for example, Emirates require an educational institutions create leadership in Bahrain, Jordan, and Oman). Develop a pool of candidates leadership license for principals. training and management skills Where selection processes are through talent management. Shanghai requires candidates to programs. transparent, they often require a postgraduate education degree, Create a certification process as have a school principal eligibility but are often highly centralized part of preparing and selecting certificate and provides prior processes (for example, in Egypt principals. training in leadership and and Qatar). management skills. Shanghai also Build the capacity of district supports the district education education offices to take the lead office in selecting principals in selecting principals. based on fit with the needs of Establish supervised internship and individual schools. The process induction programs as an extension includes training in leadership to the selection process. and management. Empower school leaders with professional development and rewarding career pathways In some cases, there is little or no Establish prior leadership training Egypt has created rigorous Higher education and training professional development for for principals and provide professional requirements for institutions create professional school principals (for example, in continuous in-service professional school principals. development curricula that also Djibouti and Morocco). Often, development, with regular support career pathways. New Zealand has a centrally limited career pathways prevent evaluation of training effectiveness. funded leadership support Ministry of education creates the emergence of school Initiate the process of developing training program targeted to the enabling environment. leadership as a professional option career pathways for school leaders needs of individual schools. attracting high-caliber personnel Ministry of finance develops and link career pathways to (for example, in Lebanon and Kuwait, Qatar, and Saudi Arabia procedures for increased budget systemwide goals and priorities. Tunisia). Where strong school are developing career pathways autonomy at the school level. leadership programs are Provide technical support for for school leaders. implemented, evaluation of pilots collaborative school leadership, Shanghai rotates high-performing for system scaling up and support pilot greater autonomy for teacher school leaders to low-performing is limited (for example, in Egypt selection and management, and schools with incentives for career and some GCC countries). establish multifaceted training advancement. programs for school leaders. table continues next page A p p e n d i x : O v e r v i e w o f MEN A P o l i c y R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s    303 TABLE A.1  Overview of MENA policy recommendations (continued) Challenges Policy directions Examples Responsible actors Chapter 10: Developing effective school leadership (continued) Provide school leaders with more authority to support teaching and learning In almost all MENA countries, Grant school principals more Qatar’s independent school Ministry of education works with school principals have limited autonomy to make instructional model created mechanisms for other relevant authorities to autonomy to manage human and and administrative decisions school autonomy and develop policies. It designs financial resources and have suitable for improving teaching accountability and demonstrated implementation and creates insufficient authority in making and learning in their schools. the potential of a results-based training and other capacity instructional and other decisions. approach (but failed to account development support. Build capacity for school leaders Often, school principals have sufficiently for pushback linked to to exercise more autonomy and limited capacity to implement the change process). accountability to improve more school-based management. learning. Lebanon, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates give principals a similar level of responsibility for school governance as Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries do and have had good results on mathematics performance. Chapter 11: Prioritizing investments to promote learning and skills Invest sufficient public resources in education In some countries, public Allocate a sufficient share of the Saudi Arabia’s massive scale-up of Ministry of finance allocates education investment is national public budget to public spending on education adequate funding to ensure basic insufficient to meet the basic education to ensure minimum between the 1970s and 1990s led learning conditions for all learning needs of large numbers of basic learning conditions for all 4.6 million more children to be children. children (for example, in Lebanon). children. enrolled in school by 2005 Ministry of education and local Where public education compared to 1979. Target additional resources to authorities use scarce resources investment is sufficient to get most address the needs of Tunisia’s Social Action Program efficiently to enroll all children children enrolled in school, gaps in underperforming students and and Morocco’s Urgency Program and work with other relevant coverage and learning vulnerable populations. are two examples of targeted actors to develop and implement opportunities remain among interventions that identify regulations governing private vulnerable groups (for example, in In addition to ensuring students at risk of dropping out financing and private provision of Jordan). In other countries, public adequate public spending, and provide additional education. education investment is adequate, crowd in private investment for pedagogical and psychosocial but inefficiencies remain (for education (where possible), while Ministry of education, ministry of support to help them to remain example, in many GCC countries). addressing equity concerns that finance, and ministry of social in school. can arise from regressive private policy work together to ensure spending. In MENA, private spending on that social programs are well education is common but is often designed, are adequately funded, regressive; education authorities and reach vulnerable in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, populations. aim to minimize this negative impact by capping private school fees and linking the fee levels that private schools can charge with performance. table continues next page 3 0 4   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations TABLE A.1  Overview of MENA policy recommendations (continued) Challenges Policy directions Examples Responsible actors Chapter 11: Prioritizing investments to promote learning and skills (continued) Allocate resources toward learning Public spending is skewed toward Prioritize public investment in In the early 2000s, Finland and Ministry of education explicitly upper levels of education— early learning, building Sweden shifted substantial public sets universal early learning as a especially higher education—that foundational skills in preschool expenditure toward expanding priority and ensures that this few children from poor and basic education. preprimary education. By 2014, focus is reflected in the budget. households are able to reach (for they were spending 11 and 17 It budgets adequate amounts for Ensure that nonsalary expenses example, in the Islamic Republic of percent, respectively, of their nonsalary education expenses. are adequately budgeted and Iran, Kuwait, and Lebanon). public education budgets on financed, allowing for timely Ministry of finance adequately Employee compensation accounts preprimary education (more than provision of key educational funds early learning programs, for more than 90 percent of all double the share in 1999). As a inputs that contribute to learning especially those targeting poor recurrent education spending in result, enrollment rates rose by 33 (such as teaching and learning children. It ensures that nonsalary some countries, crowding out and 20 points, respectively, to 80 materials, professional education expenses are financed investment in other important percent in Finland and 96 percent development, and school accordingly. inputs (for example, in Jordan). in Sweden. rehabilitation and maintenance). Manage the teacher workforce efficiently Some countries lack sufficient Ensure that teacher salaries are In North Carolina, United States, Ministry of education mandates numbers of teachers overall or in competitive, especially in hard- a policy of “charging” teachers the minimum number of working certain subjects (such as to-staff subjects like mathematics US$50 per day for missing work and teaching hours for each mathematics and science in and science. after using a certain number of category of teachers and Egypt), while others face sick days was shown to decrease recommends minimum class Monitor teacher effort, punish widespread teacher absenteeism rates of absenteeism. sizes and ratios of teaching and absenteeism, and encourage (for example, in Morocco). nonteaching staff per student. accountability. Egypt and Tunisia are on par with Teachers’ working hours are low by international standards (for top-performing systems like Ministry of finance allocates Mandate numbers of working example, in Djibouti, Jordan, Japan, Korea, and New Zealand adequate funding to employ and teaching hours that are high Lebanon, West Bank and Gaza, and that require teachers to work a enough teachers at competitive enough in comparison to top- the Republic of Yemen), or relatively high number of hours salaries. performing systems, while allow- insufficient time is allocated to teaching (above 1,500 hours per ing sufficient nonteaching time School-level authorities ensure nonteaching activities (such as year) and a relatively high for professional development, efficient staffing and professional development and number of hours engaging in collaboration, and lesson performance and allocate collaborative activities). Class sizes nonteaching activities. ­preparation. resources in accordance with and student-teacher ratios are too Across the OECD, the average recommended class sizes. low in some GCC countries, while Gradually reduce the number of class size is 21.3 students in in other countries excessive excessive teaching and nonteach- Local and school-level authorities primary education and 23.5 in numbers of teachers and ing staff, where feasible (for oversee teachers to ensure lower-secondary education. nonteaching staff crowd out example, in densely populated compliance and productive use investment in nonsalary quality- areas with small class sizes) and Some top-performing systems of nonteaching time. enhancing inputs. reallocate resources to nonsalary like Singapore and Shanghai inputs. (China) opt for larger classes to free up teacher time for professional learning and self- improvement. table continues next page A p p e n d i x : O v e r v i e w o f MEN A P o l i c y R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s    305 TABLE A.1  Overview of MENA policy recommendations (continued) Challenges Policy directions Examples Responsible actors Chapter 12: Strengthening skills by linking education to the labor market Provide more students the opportunity to gain work experience as part of their studies Curricula of the vocational track (at Coordinate and support dialogue In Algeria, enrollment in Ministry of education supports the upper-secondary level) is very between the private sector and vocational tracks is rising. The dialogue between training theoretical, with limited practical training institutions in the form of government has partnered with institutions and the private content. Most students do not platforms that allow exchange. public and private companies to sector, adapts curriculum to have the opportunity to gain work create suitable programs in match labor market needs with Develop a strategic framework, experience as part of their studies. construction, public works, core elements of practical which refers to advocacy, The private sector is not consulted electricity, agriculture, and learning within the workplace, partnership, and coordination in in the design of the curriculum, tourism. develops quality assurance relation to the objective of aligning and there is little cooperation mechanisms for training and training in critical economic sectors. In Saudi Arabia, several large between the private sector and accreditation mechanisms for private companies have training institutions. The private Broaden public-private training institutions, incentivizes developed industry-specific sector does not see any value in partnerships and ensure relevance the private sector, and informs apprenticeship programs providing training opportunities to of programs for the labor market. the public about the benefits of (ad hoc basis). students except for some ad hoc apprenticeship schemes. cases. Many students entering Strengthen and expand current Since 2011, the Tunisian Ministry efforts to put in place a quality Training institutions provide technical and vocational education of Education has been assurance system (accreditation, remedial education for students and training tracks lack basic skills. developing a reform plan, which standardization, and certification). who lack basic skills, develop a will include restructuring its system for matching students Link secondary and tertiary vocational education tracks. with companies and providing vocational education and Other countries across the region some elements of career promote transferability. have expressed an interest in guidance, and train teachers in the making vocational education support of students while on Formulate rigorous regulations work better for students and for practical training. and procedures for establishing the labor market. and improving training programs, Private sector representatives including updating and communicate skills needs and standardizing current regulations take on students to be trained and procedures and assessing within the company. results of the training institutions’ performance. Strengthen labor market information systems to improve outcomes and efficiency. Chapter 13: Rethinking tertiary education: High-level skills and research Elaborate a vision that aligns tertiary education with skills and research for the future Many MENA tertiary education Produce a comprehensive vision The California Higher Education Ministry of higher education, in systems face an acute tension and strategic plan for tertiary Master Plan set the scene and the close consultation with principal between the need to cope with education development and parameters for balanced growth stakeholders (students, fast-growing enrollments, while reform to improve the quality and and development of tertiary academics, university leaders, maintaining the quality and relevance of the tertiary system. education in that state. employers, and civil society), relevance of program offerings. develops a comprehensive vision Following international experi- China and New Zealand have for the future development of the ence, adopt a reform process elaborated long-term visions for system, including defining the including the following four development of their tertiary future size and shape of the steps: (1) elaborate a comprehen- education systems. system. sive vision for the future, (2)  define a set of interventions constituting the country’s strate- gic plan, (3) launch the plan after adequate consensus building, and (4) consider factors of ­sustainability. table continues next page 3 0 6   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations TABLE A.1  Overview of MENA policy recommendations (continued) Challenges Policy directions Examples Responsible actors Chapter 13: Rethinking tertiary education: High-level skills and research (continued) Modernize governance for greater accountability Many tertiary education systems in Grant institutional autonomy to Morocco and Saudi Arabia Ministry of higher education MENA are constrained by universities, which would allow recently granted greater introduces the proper legal and centralized approaches. Lacking them to manage their autonomy to their public regulatory changes needed to institutional autonomy, universities resources—human and universities, following the grant institutional autonomy. and other tertiary education financial—with more flexibility in examples of Denmark and Greater autonomy goes hand in institutions in the region do not order to strengthen performance. Finland, two countries that hand with greater accountability have the flexibility needed to substantially improved the through appropriate means manage the rapid growth of governance of their public (accreditation, student enrollment and maintain high universities in the past decade, engagement surveys, financial standards of quality and relevance. allowing for more flexible audits, and labor market management in all aspects information). (academic, organizational, human resources, and financial resources). Put in place a sustainable financing model for long-term prosperity Lack of sufficient financial Address the following questions Jordan and Lebanon have In each MENA country, ministry of resources has been one of the about financial needs, funding allowed private institutions to finance and ministry of higher main challenges facing universities sources, and resource allocation: absorb a substantial share of education work together to in the MENA region. This lack of enrollment, reducing pressure on mobilize public resources, Strategic decisions that influence resources makes it extremely the public budget. promote the development of medium- and long-term financing difficult to accommodate the private and online education, and needs. What institutional With its two open universities, rapidly growing demand for design funding allocation configuration would allow for a Thailand has shown how online tertiary education, while mechanisms that encourage improving or even only balanced and affordable tertiary education can offer good innovation and reward maintaining the quality and education system? What should educational opportunities to a performance. relevance of tertiary education be the balance of government large share of the student programs. support for public universities, population. short-duration institutions Denmark and the Netherlands (community colleges or technical rely on an objective and institutes), online education, and transparent funding formula to private institutions? allocate public resources. Resource mobilization options. How Denmark also uses performance can public and private funding contracts to encourage sources be mobilized in the most innovation. effective manner? How can MENA governments rely on efficient and equitable student aid mechanisms (scholarships and loans) to maintain equality of opportunities? Resource allocation approaches. What performance-based mechanisms are appropriate for distributing public resources in a manner that encourages innovation and rewards good results? table continues next page A p p e n d i x : O v e r v i e w o f MEN A P o l i c y R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s    307 TABLE A.1  Overview of MENA policy recommendations (continued) Challenges Policy directions Examples Responsible actors Chapter 14: Strengthening accountability for better learning outcomes Develop results-based monitoring and evaluation Systems in most MENA countries Shift to a results-driven culture, Jordan uses benchmarks for Ministry of education develops focus on monitoring compliance establish clear learning standards achievement. standards of learning, rather than learning outcomes. and targets, and strengthen strengthens the EMIS, ensures Kuwait has established standards Capacity is limited (1) for education management use of data for decision making, for supporting learning and designing, implementing, and information system (EMIS) and supports creation of research implementation. conducting monitoring and capacity to provide reliable data centers, which develop education evaluation (M&E) of programs and on learning. Bahrain uses international test research expertise. (2) for generating information results to inform policy. Strengthen capacity in research, Ministry of finance provides about what works based on program design, implementation, Jordan’s Center for Human funding for research functions. evidence (for example, in most and M&E functions of the Resources Development provides GCC countries). While data on education system. long-term monitoring of learning, learning are available, the information is often not used to with feedback loops to Ministry Focus more on communications improve learning; and the capacity of Education. The health sector to involve all stakeholders in to align all actors within the experience shows the potential decision making and education system to improve of social and behavior change establishment of goals. teaching and learning (for communications. example, in many GCC countries) is limited. Strengthen supervision and other support to schools The inspection function focuses Change the role of inspector to Bahrain and Qatar have made Ministry of education develops mainly on process and compliance providing instructional support efforts to shift supervision from policies to reshape the role of with rules and standards, not on for teachers with a focus on compliance to instructional inspectors and to shift resources student learning results. There is a learning outcomes. support. They have started to disadvantaged areas and lack of support for disadvantaged implementing external school schools. Develop new models to monitor, geographic areas and for reviews combined with school evaluate, and support schools, underperforming schools. self-reviews. such as focusing more on school self-evaluation. Scotland’s “How Good Is Our School?” framework can be Have inspectors use results to adapted and used with school work more effectively with leaders, teachers, students, schools. parents, and partners across the Target underperforming districts school community to support and schools with enhanced collaborative enquiry for self- human and financial resources to evaluation. improve learning. In the United States, the Boston public school system supports networks to improve learning, particularly for underperforming schools. table continues next page 3 0 8   E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations TABLE A.1  Overview of MENA policy recommendations (continued) Challenges Policy directions Examples Responsible actors Chapter 14: Strengthening accountability for better learning outcomes (continued) Shift to greater local and school-level autonomy for enhanced accountability Personnel functions and financial Increase the role of district offices The Education Reform Program in Ministry of education provides resource management are highly in supporting school leadership as Egypt piloted a model of resource training to district personnel to centralized in most MENA a transitional step to strengthening allocation to schools in conjunc- enable them to focus on countries, and schools have little school autonomy and pilot the tion with the preparation of improving school-level results and authority or responsibility for devolution of authority and school improvement plans. Staff to develop policies, models, and results. In cases where the accountability to the school level. at the governorate and school capacity for decentralization, devolution of authority and levels received capacity building while building its own capacity to Build capacity at the ministry of accountability to the school level to improve their ability to carry support local accountability. It education, district, and school has been piloted, this devolution is out their roles. ensures monitoring of results and levels to support local often not done systematically or establishes appropriate policy accountability and responsibility Lebanon, Qatar, and the United systemwide (for example, in Egypt framework and safeguards for for results and establish financial Arab Emirates provide greater and Jordan). In cases where teacher personnel management. management safeguards. autonomy to principals, which principals have greater autonomy, appears to affect learning results. Ministry of finance provides few incentives are given for Establish accountability financial resources for pilot performance, and system support mechanisms, provide opportunity Many OECD countries grant the programs and opportunities for for accountability is minimal (for for school-level input into hiring school principal a substantial role devolving financial resource example, in Lebanon, Qatar, and and firing of teachers, and consider in hiring and firing teachers. management to the school level. the United Arab Emirates). student results in evaluation of principal’s performance. Raise parents’ expectation for learning Parents and students focus on Involve parents through The health sector has developed Ministry of education establishes credentials rather than actual communication strategies to social and behavior change communications capacity and learning outcomes. increase the focus on actual communications with a focus on works closely with local learning outcomes. the community. structures. Establish institutional arrangements for parents to support school accountability In some cases, data collection is Create legal provisions for Boston Public Schools in the Ministry of education establishes limited and sharing is low, effective data collection, United States provides parents data collection, management, hampering the ability of parents management, and sharing across with a detailed report card and dissemination policies and and communities to pressure schools, parents, and comparing their school’s sets up a technical department. It schools and teachers for school communities and disclose school performance with that of other then establishes a body of improvement (for example, in data in user-friendly formats for schools in the same district. facilitators to provide training and Jordan, Morocco, and the Republic parents and communities. other support to parents, schools, Chile’s new Local Education of Yemen). Many systems have and communities, working Ensure that boards, councils, and Services provide training and limited capacity to respond collaboratively with regional and school management committees support to SMCs in several areas, positively to pressure from parents local governments. (SMCs) have sufficient decision- including how to use data to or communities for improved making power that is adequately improve school performance. Ministry of education and accountability. Even in countries linked to resources and provide legislative branch of government where parents participate and are In El Salvador, the Community- support for parents and engaged, local capacity is still too Managed Schools Program (EDUCO) create laws and regulations to communities to develop and low to foster accountability and strengthened the direct involvement establish SMCs involving parents implement school improvement student learning (for example, in and participation of parents and the and communities in school plans. affairs. Qatar and the United Arab community, which expanded rural Emirates). schools and enrollments. Ministry of education establishes Egypt’s New Schools Program a body of facilitators to sought to engage community develop and provide adequate actors in school management by training and support to boards, guiding the Board of Trustees in councils, and SMCs and promotes carrying out school self- decentralized decision making. assessments and improvement Ministry of finance budgets SMC plans and in identifying gaps in operations and establishes learning, infrastructure, and mechanisms for timely transfers school environment for and financial decentralization. community leaders to act on. table continues next page A p p e n d i x : O v e r v i e w o f MEN A P o l i c y R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s    309 TABLE A.1  Overview of MENA policy recommendations (continued) Challenges Policy directions Examples Responsible actors Chapter 14: Strengthening accountability for better learning outcomes (continued) Provide a home environment that supports learning Children in MENA are less prepared Use awareness campaigns and A study demonstrated the Ministry of education for developing literacy than capacity-building efforts to benefits of in-home exposure to communications units develop children in other regions, and they inform parents of in-home literary Arabic and home reading. awareness campaigns to inform have less access to in-home approaches to support learning. parents of in-home approaches materials for learning. such as home reading and storytelling to strengthen the literacy environment. Use media and technology to support accountability systems Social media are not sufficiently Employ education dashboards Egypt has leveraged modern Ministry of education establishes exploited to strengthen and similar approaches to foster a technologies to promote information-sharing procedures accountability or to counter move to open data- and accountability. using digital platforms and open resistance to reforms. evidence-based, transparent communications through social decision-making systems. media. ECO-AUDIT Environmental Benefits Statement The World Bank Group is committed to reducing its environmental footprint. In support of this commitment, we leverage electronic publishing options and print-on-demand technology, which is located in regional hubs world- wide. Together, these initiatives enable print runs to be lowered and shipping distances decreased, resulting in reduced paper consumption, chemical use, greenhouse gas emissions, and waste. We follow the recommended standards for paper use set by the Green Press Initiative. The majority of our books are printed on Forest Stewardship Council (FSC)–certified paper, with nearly all containing 50–100 percent recycled content. The recycled fiber in our book paper is either unbleached or bleached using totally chlorine-free (TCF), processed chlorine–free (PCF), or enhanced elemental chlorine–free (EECF) processes. More information about the Bank’s environmental philosophy can be found at http://www.worldbank.org/corporateresponsibility. Education, which has been at the heart of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region’s history and civilizations for centuries, has a large untapped potential to contribute to human capital, well-being, and wealth. The region has invested heavily in education for decades, but it has not been able to reap the benefits of its investments. Despite a series of reforms, MENA has remained stuck in a low-learning, low-skills level. Expectations and Aspirations: A New Framework for Education in the Middle East and North Africa identifies four key sets of tensions that are holding back education in the region: credentials and skills, discipline and inquiry, control and autonomy, and tradition and modernity. These tensions are shaped by society and are reflected in classrooms. If they are not addressed, MENA will continue to operate at a level below its potential. This report outlines a new framework with a three-pronged approach that can help address these tensions and unleash the potential of education in MENA: • A concerted push for learning that starts early for all children regardless of background, with qualified and motivated educators, and that leverages technology, uses modern approaches, and monitors learning outcomes • A stronger pull for skills by all stakeholders in the labor market and society that involves coordinated multisystem reforms within and beyond the education system • A new pact for education at the national level with a unified vision, shared responsibilities, and accountabilities. Education is not just the responsibility of the education system—it is everyone’s business. The push, pull, and pact framework offers an opportunity for MENA to move forward to reclaim its heritage of a learned region and to meet the expectations and aspirations of its people. The current situation in MENA requires a renewed focus on education, not just as a national priority for economic growth and social development, but as a national emergency for stability, peace, and prosperity. 978-1-4648-1234-7 SKU 211234