EXPECTATIONS AND ASPIRATIONS A New Framework for Education in the Middle East and North Africa OVERVIEW Overview Expectations and Aspirations A New Framework for Education in the Middle East and North Africa This booklet contains the updated overview (originally published in November 2018) from Expectations and Aspirations: A New Framework for Education in the Middle East and North Africa, doi: 10.1596/978-1-4648-1234-7. A PDF of the final, full-length book, once published, will be available at https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/ and print copies can be ordered at http://Amazon.com. Please use the final version of the book for citation, reproduction, and adaptation purposes. © 2019 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000; Internet: www.worldbank.org Some rights reserved This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. 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Cover design: Aya Krisht. The Arabic calligraphy on the cover is composed of the words “knowledge, education, learning.” Background image by Kjpargeter/Freepik.com. Used with permission; further permission required for reuse. Interior image credits: The following images are by individual artists from thenounproject.com: Figure ES.1 / Figure O.1: “Rope” by Pedro Baños Cancer. Figure ES.2 / Figure O.7: “Handshake” by Gregor Cresnar; “Climbing” by IYIKON; “Man Pushing Big Ball” by Gan Khoon Lay; “Pull” by Pavel, N. Figure O.2 / Figure O.17: “Diploma” by Ben Davis; “Brain” by Max Hancock. Figure O.21: “Handshake” by Gregor Cresnar; “People” by Anastasia Latysheva; “Idea” by Ben Markoch. Contents Foreword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v Acknowledgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Abbreviations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Education has large untapped potential for the Middle East and North Africa. . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Much has changed in MENA—and the world—but education in MENA remains stuck . . . . 2 Four tensions are holding back education in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 A new framework is needed to realize education’s potential in MENA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Push for learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Pull for skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Recognize that context matters for learning and skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 A new education pact. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Unleashing the potential of education is attainable. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Boxes O.1 Conflict has taken a large toll on education in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 O.2 World Development Report 2018: Learning to Realize Education’s Promise. . . . . . . 13 O.3 Prioritizing early childhood education in the United Arab Emirates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 O.4 Attracting the best students to teaching depends on the right policies and programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 O.5 School principals also must act as instructional leaders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 O.6 Teaching at the right level benefits students. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 O.7 Improving foreign language instruction is important . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 O.8 Conflict in MENA is depriving many children of education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 iii i v    C o n t e n t s O.9 MENA’s gender paradox presents a dual challenge for human capital. . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 O.10 EdTech offers opportunities to leapfrog learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 O.11 Signaling in education is communicating about skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 O.12 Reforming vocational education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 O.13 Finland and the Republic of Korea rely on different successful education models . . . . 43 O.14 In Rwanda, education has played a role in building peace. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 O.15 Peru has found success in aligning interests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 O.16 Egypt’s education sector uses technology to ensure accountability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Figures ES.1 Four tensions are holding back education in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x ES.2 “Push, pull, and pact” offers a new framework for education in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . xii O.1 Four tensions are holding back education in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 O.2 MENA is stuck in a credentialist equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 O.3 MENA students are more likely to be asked to memorize. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 O.4 Obedience plays a central role in children’s education in MENA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 O.5 Teachers in MENA have less autonomy than teachers in OECD countries. . . . . . . . . . 10 O.6 Substantial time is devoted to religious education in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 O.7 “Push, pull, and pact” offers a new framework for education in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . 12 O.8 What matters for growth is skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 O.9 When adjusted for learning, the number of years of effective schooling in MENA drops substantially. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 O.10 Preprimary enrollments are lower in MENA than in many other regions. . . . . . . . . . . . 17 O.11 Large differences in preprimary enrollment ratios are found across MENA. . . . . . . . . . 17 O.12 The required working hours for teachers in MENA are well below those in top-performing countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 O.13 Teacher absenteeism is prevalent throughout MENA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 O.14 MENA has the biggest gaps in student achievement between top and bottom performers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 O.15 MENA has the largest gender gaps in test scores. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 O.16 Computers are available in MENA’s schools, although coverage varies considerably . . . . 35 O.17 MENA needs a skills equilibrium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 O.18 A personal connection (wasta) is critical to securing work in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 O.19 School principals in MENA have less authority than those in OECD countries. . . . . . 40 O.20 Tolerance is associated with education, but intolerance is high even among the educated in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 O.21 Learning is a collective responsibility, and everyone is accountable. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 BO.16.1 Technology can shape accountability relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Tables O.1 MENA countries have some of the lowest results on international student assessments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 O.2 Participation in national and international assessments has surged in MENA since 2007. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 O.3 MENA’s student achievement gaps have both narrowed and widened . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Foreword In 1963, a country in the Middle East and education policies and the need for urgent North Africa region (MENA), Tunisia, made and deep reforms. The report comes on the history when it convinced the World Bank to heels of the release, in October 2018, of the help it finance, develop, and promote its edu- Human Capital Index, which measures how cation system. Other countries followed, and countries are preparing their citizens for a the World Bank took the lead in investing in productive future, and which is revealing education across the world. large gaps for countries in MENA. The index Fifty-five years later, in 2018, when it came confirms that education is pivotal to building to standing up and being counted, nine coun- MENA’s human capacity and to unleashing tries in MENA came forward and chose to be its human wealth. early adopters of the Human Capital Project. The facts are telling, and they call for our Many others followed.  attention. The youth in MENA have achieved These countries took this step in recogni- much higher education levels than their par- tion of a difficult reality: that they were part ents, more than any region in the world. of a region lagging in clever and efficient Unlike in other regions, however, this achieve- investments in its most precious asset—its ment has yet to translate into better opportu- people, and especially its youth. These coun- nities and higher income. tries also stood up with the determination to MENA has the highest intergenerational do better, work faster, and take on the formi- mobility in education in the world, but its dable challenge of acting decisively to alter intergenerational mobility in income is low. the course of history—and to offer a new, The region’s average spending on education is positive, forward-looking, and bold vision for higher than the world average. In spite of their region, their countries, and their youth.  that, its learning outcomes are among the This book on the comprehensive reforms lowest. awaiting MENA’s education systems arrives Girls are, by far, outperforming boys in at a time of profound thought about the learning outcomes—with the highest gender region, its potential, its future, and its place in gap among all countries. Yet the region has a fast-changing and fast-paced world. It feeds the lowest female labor force participation into a dialogue opened by the World Bank rates in the world. MENA has the highest and others with MENA countries on their youth unemployment rates in the world; these v v i    F o r e w o r d rates are mostly among the educated, espe- innovative, leading-edge, creative, ambi- cially women. tious, and bespoke solutions for our partner All of this makes for a huge loss of produc- countries. We need to point out the weak- tivity for MENA economies. And all of this nesses and help to address them. This is makes for the many paradoxes of MENA at where our effort and energy will go, for we large. firmly believe that the MENA countries and In recent years, the region has witnessed economies need to set a far-reaching goal the devastating effects of the unmet expec- for themselves—not only to close the gap in tations and unrealized aspirations of its human capital but to leapfrog to a prosper- population, especially youth and women. We ­ ous, peaceful, and stable future that meets ought to learn from those, still current, trou- the expectations and aspirations of its bled times—learn and act. young people. There is today an immediate need for a compact with youth, one in which the Ferid Belhaj World Bank will have to play an active and Vice President dynamic role. Above and beyond the diag- Middle East and North Africa Region nostics that any report can provide—and The World Bank this one is a case in point—we need more Acknowledgments This report was prepared by Safaa El Tayeb Sekkarie, Jee Peng Tan, Simon Thacker, El-Kogali, Education Global Practice Ayesha Vawda, and Mohamed Yassine. Manager, Middle East and North Africa We also appreciate the contributions of region (MENA), at the World Bank. The St. Catherine University research assistants report draws on contributions by a team led Kapono Asuncion, Zea Branson, Taylor Flak, by Lianqin Wang and Caroline Krafft and Lyndsay Kast, Caitlyn Keo, and Johanna composed of Mariam Nusrat Adil, Tatlow. Colleagues from across the MENA Mohammed Audah, May Bend, Maja Education Global Practice and other units Capek, Angela Demas, Laura Gregory, Igor contributed valuable information. Kheyfets, Almedina Music, Robert Prouty, Various drafts of the report benefited from Manal Quota, Jamil Salmi, Elisabeth the excellent comments and suggestions from Sedmik, Venkatesh Sundararaman, Samira Ragui Assaad, Benu Bidan, Kamel Braham, Nikaein Towfighian, and Noah Yarrow. Michael Crawford, Luis Crouch, Amit Dar, Overall guidance in the preparation of the Sameh El-Saharty, Mourad Ezzine, Tazeen report was provided by Hafez Ghanem, Fasih, Deon Filmer, Poonam Gupta, Amer Regional Vice President; Shantayanan Hasan, Raja Bentaouet Kattan, Xiaoyan Devarajan, Senior Director; Jaime Saavedra, Liang, Lili Mottaghi, Halsey Rogers, and Senior Director; Rabah Arezki, Chief Sajjad Shah. We would also like to thank the Economist; Daniel Lederman, Deputy Chief members of the MENA Regional Economist; Luis Benveniste, Director; and Management Team for their feedback. Keiko Miwa, Director. This report benefited greatly from the feed- We appreciate the contributions of our col- back received during regional and in-country leagues, including Husein Abdul-Hamid, consultations. In particular, we are grateful Fadila Caillaud, Michael Drabble, Jiayue Fan, for the invaluable feedback received at Kasra Farivari, Katherina Hruskovec regional consultation events held in December Gonzalez, Samira Halabi, Yue-Yi Hwa, Pierre 2017 in Amman, Jordan, and Beirut, Kamano, Thomas Michael Kaye, Amira Lebanon. Comments, insights, and sugges- Kazem, Lisa Lahalih, Jee Yoon Lee, Juan tions were received during the event from Manuel Moreno, Harriet Nannyonjo, H. E. Dr. Omar Razzaz, Prime Minister and Shahram Paksima, Karine Pezzani, Samia former Minister of Education of Jordan; vii v i i i    A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s H. E. Dr. Tarek Shawki, Minister of Education collaboration with Maja Capek, Emma of the Arab Republic of Egypt; and H. E. Fadi Etori, and Elisabeth Sedmik from the MENA Yarak, Secretary General, Ministry of education unit. Aya Krisht developed the Education, Lebanon. We also appreciate the cover design. Patricia da Camara, Karolina valuable feedback received from representa- Ordon, and Ashraf Saad Allah Al-Saeed tives of governments, academia, nongovern- provided guidance and support on commu- mental organizations, civil society nications and dissemination. Elisabeth organizations, and international development Mekonnen provided overall administrative organizations across MENA. support. Our special thanks go to everyone who The report draws on literature and docu- supported the publication, dissemination, ments by researchers and specialists from and communication efforts for this report. across the world and on the authors’ own They include Sabra Ledent, the principal experiences and interactions with many dedi- editor of the report, and Jewel McFadden, cated educators, administrators, policy mak- who coordinated the publication process in ers, and students in MENA. Executive Summary Education has a large untapped potential to the Arab Spring (World Bank 2015a), youth contribute to human capital, well-being, unemployment rates have risen, and the and wealth in the Middle East and North quality of public services has deteriorated Africa region (MENA).1 In fact, it has been (Brixi, Lust, and Woolcock 2015; World at the heart of the region’s history and civi- Bank 2013). Even in relatively stable coun- lizations for centuries. In the 20th century, tries, labor market outcomes for the edu- education was central to countries’ ­struggles cated have worsened (El-Araby 2013; Krafft for independence, to building modern states 2013; Rizk 2016; Salehi-Isfahani, Tunali, and economies, and to defining national and Assaad 2009; Tzannatos, Diwan, and identities. Today, MENA has the lowest Ahad 2016). Exacerbating these challenges share of human capital in total wealth was the substantial downturn in the global ­ globally (Lange, Wodon, and Carey 2018). oil market, which has placed more pressure Although the region’s young people have on resource-rich countries (IMF 2017) and attained higher educational levels than their created an even more urgent need to push parents, they were not able to translate for human capital development across their educational attainment to greater MENA. income opportunities (Narayan et al. 2018). Despite large investments in education MENA has the highest absolute intergener- over the last 50 years, impressive growth in ational education mobility compared to enrollment rates, and gender parity at almost other regions in the world, but it also has all levels of education, MENA has not been low intergenerational income mobility. In able to fully reap the personal, social, and most other regions, educational attainment economic benefits of education. During these and income mobility are well correlated same 50 years, the Republic of Korea also (Narayan et al. 2018). invested in its human capital and succeeded in The 435 million residents of MENA are moving from a developing country in the enduring a period of pronounced hardship. early 1960s to one of the top 20 economies in Ongoing threats to peace and economic sta- the world today. Korea established a world- bility are contributing to challenges across class education system, and its students con- numerous sectors. Economic growth has sistently rank among the top in international remained persistently low in the aftermath of learning assessments. By contrast, MENA ix x   E x e c u t i v e S u m m a r y students have consistently ranked among the Four tensions lowest on such assessments. Although much has changed politically, The education process consists of a complex economically, and socially in MENA, its edu- set of factors and actors at multiple levels. cation systems have largely remained Factors outside the education system—­ unchanged. Over the past decade, new tech- political, economic, and social—formally nologies have emerged and spread globally, and informally interact with the education disrupting the lives of billions and changing system and shape its outcomes. Behavioral the nature of work. Consequently, the kinds norms and ideological polarization among of skills needed to succeed in the labor market governments, interest groups, and citizens are changing as well (World Bank 2019). The can hold countries back from delivering pub- role of technology as a demand shaper in the lic goods (World Bank 2016). Education in future of work is certain, but its role as a MENA has been held back by these behav- delivery catalyst holds great potential that the ioral norms and ideological polarization, region has not yet tapped. Indeed, technology which are embodied in four sets of tensions is changing how today’s students are being (see figure ES.1): (1) credentials and skills; prepared to enter the future workforce—that (2) discipline and inquiry; (3) control and is, it is influencing not only the ends of educa- autonomy; and (4) tradition and modernity. tion but also the means. Technology presents These tensions have held education back a unique opportunity to help deliver high- from evolving to deliver learning that quality education in a more efficient and prepares students for their future. The four ­ effective manner. tensions are deeply embedded in the region’s MENA has the capacity and resources to history, culture, and political economy, but leverage technology to create education sys- they exist to varying degrees in each country, tems that will build its human capital. The and they largely define social and political region has the tools and the opportunities to relations. They have informed and shaped leapfrog and create prosperous and peaceful education policy in MENA countries since ­ societies. However, the power of education to independence, and they are at the heart of build human capital and to create change the current national discourses on education depends on its quality, its access to comple- reforms. mentary economic and social environments, Schools and classrooms are the platforms and its ability to leverage technology smartly. on which these tensions are exercised through curricula, pedagogy, and the norms that define interactions among principals, teach- FIGURE ES.1  Four tensions are holding back education in MENA ers, parents, and students. These tensions ulti- mately shape the educational outcomes for Tradition young people in MENA and affect their lives, as well as the economies and societies in Credentials Discipline which they live. In an increasingly connected world, the effects of these tensions can reach beyond the region’s borders. Unless they are Classroom School Society addressed, MENA will not be able to reap the Control Education Autonomy full benefits of education, no matter how much money is invested. Credentials and skills. A credential in the form of a degree, diploma, or certificate is Inquiry Skills usually associated with acquiring a specific set Modernity of skills. In the labor market, credentials sig- nal productivity based on the assumption that Source: World Bank. more years of education are associated with E x e c u t i v e S u m m a r y    xi higher productivity. Throughout MENA, a modern world and the moral imperatives public sector employment was historically of a religious society. The result is tension guaranteed to anyone with a sufficient educa- between modernity, or the forces of change, tion credential. Thus, checking the credential and tradition (Cook 2000). This tension can box became more valued than acquiring lead to conflicts within education processes skills. As a result, there is little or no link (Massialas and Jarrar 1987). In MENA, between education credentials and skills in modernity is frequently associated with MENA. Countries are stuck in a “credential- Western models and approaches and is used ist equilibrium,” in which a weak demand for by opponents of change to halt reforms. skills and a strong demand for credentials in However, modernity is the process of renew- the labor market induce families to demand ing social norms, and there are multiple credentials from the education system more “modernities.” The issue is not replacing tra- than skills (Salehi-Isfahani 2012). The educa- dition with modernity. Rather, it is allowing tion system, in turn, responds to their demands review of the traditional practices and norms by providing credentials. that hold back the potential of education Discipline and inquiry. In societies in and engaging in a process of renewal that which social norms are strong, discipline prepares students to better relate to a chang- ensures adherence to those norms. Concepts ing world. of discipline and inquiry are closely linked to pedagogy and curricula, as well as to the day- to-day interactions in schools among princi- Push, pull, and pact: A new pals, teachers, and students. Overemphasis on discipline leads to memorization and passive framework for education learning. Across MENA, curricula depend To realize the potential of education, MENA heavily on rote memorization, leaving little needs to tackle the four tensions and estab- time for the development of critical thinking lish an education system that prepares all skills. Although discipline is important, too students for a productive and successful much may constrict students’ abilities to future. Such a system would be modern learn, think, explore ideas, or question con- and flexible and would nurture a culture of cepts. Inquiry, by contrast, allows students to excellence and creativity in learning. It also understand their surroundings, contextualize would leverage disruptive technologies and concepts through questions and experimenta- adopt modern approaches so it can offer tion, and build the skills they need to learn young people the skills they need to define throughout life. their trajectories in life and adapt to local, Control and autonomy. The tension national, and global changes. Finally, it between control and autonomy is embodied would be a system that would be based on in the ongoing debate about the decentraliza- a shared national vision and would connect tion of education services delivery and the with the overall development goals of the balance of power among central ministries, country. All of society would be responsible regional offices, and schools. Several MENA for ensuring its success. To establish such a countries have experimented with aspects of system, MENA needs to adopt a new frame- education decentralization, autonomy, and work for education—one that includes a accountability. The success of these efforts concerted push for learning, a wide-reaching has varied. In some instances, a decentralized pull for skills, and new pact for education model to devolve decision making was rolled (see figure ES.2). out, but it did not provide the means for The potential of education is achieved only implementation at local and school levels. when it confers the skills and knowledge that Tradition and modernity. According to constitute human capital. It is, in fact, the some scholars, the greatest challenge facing skills conferred through learning that deter- MENA is aligning the development needs of mine education’s contribution to economic x i i    Executive Summary FIGURE ES.2  “Push, pull, and pact” offers a new makes it difficult to make a regional rec- framework for education in MENA ommendation. Even though this phenom- enon is a regional one, it manifests itself in A stronger pull for skills many different ways in different countries. Hence, it needs to be addressed with a very A new pact specific formula in each country. for education 5. Applying learning assessments that regu- larly monitor student progress to ensure A stronger push that students are learning. for learning 6. Giving all children, regardless of gender, race, background, or ability, an opportu- Source: World Bank. nity to learn—a requirement for raising learning outcomes at the national level. growth—not the years of schooling (Barro 7. Leveraging technology to enhance the and Lee 2013; Hanushek and Woessmann delivery of education and promote learn- 2008; World Bank 2018). MENA has suc- ing among students and educators and ceeded in providing schooling; now it needs prepare students for an increasingly digital to achieve learning. The number of actual world. years of schooling has increased across MENA; several countries have reached an To reap the benefits of education, MENA average that is close to a full cycle of primary must align its push for learning with a pull and secondary education. However, when the for skills . Without a realignment of the number of actual years of schooling is labor market that increases the demand for adjusted for learning, the effective years of skills, the contribution of the education sec- schooling in MENA are, on average, 2.9 less tor to the economy will not be fully realized. than the number of actual years of schooling. A concerted push for learning can lead to In other words, the poor quality of education some progress, but it is not enough to real- in MENA is equivalent to approximately ize the full potential of education. Such a three lost years of education (World Bank push would move education closer to fulfill- 2018). ing its potential, but it would be a second- To pursue a push for learning, countries best approach that would leave most of that need to focus on seven areas: potential untapped (Rodrik 2008). A first- best approach involves multisystem reforms 1. Building the foundational skills—from that align the push for learning with a pull for early childhood through the early grades skills. It includes economic reforms to bring of school—needed for future learning and the skills required in the labor market in line success. with those conferred by education and sought 2. Ensuring that teachers and school leaders, by parents and students, as well as efforts who are the most important inputs to the to address distortions in the education sec- learning process, are qualified, well selected, tor and beyond. Employers would shift from effectively utilized, and incentivized to con- focusing on credentials to demanding skills. tinue to develop professionally. Parents and students could then demand 3. Modernizing pedagogy and instructional skills from the education system, which practices to promote inquiry, creativity, would help MENA move away from a cre- and innovation. dentialist equilibrium to a skills equilibrium. 4. Addressing the language of instruction Achieving this shift, however, will depend on challenge presented by the gap between employers doing a better job of signaling the spoken Arabic and modern standard skills they need. It will also depend on policy Arabic. The close connection among lan- makers addressing rigid labor policies that guage, religion, and national identity discourage employers from seeking open, E x e c u t i v e S u m m a r y    xiii transparent ways of hiring for skills. A pull mindset. However, such an effort must be for skills will depend as well on civil service based on credible evidence not linked to any reforms that support hiring, motivating, and ideological or political rhetoric; it must focus empowering the best teachers and placing on real, substantial reforms and not minor them where they are most needed. changes in policies (Khemani 2017). Finally, a pull for skills will depend on cur- Changing laws can also lead to a shift in ricula that reflect the skills that prepare stu- norms. However, enactment of laws alone is dents for social and economic life. Curricula not sufficient; they must be strictly imple- reforms must, then, ensure alignment of what mented and their compliance encouraged. students learn with the skills they need. A behavioral response to incentives in the Curricula should serve as the nexus for the short run can lead to longer-term shifts in multiple spheres of society, the labor market, behavior and social norms (World Bank and the education system. Meanwhile, the 2015b). shift from a credentialist equilibrium to a A pact for education. Improving education skills equilibrium should be evident in curri- is not the responsibility of educators alone; it cula. Systems are aligned when official curri- must involve all members of society—­ cula reflect the skills demanded by society and politicians, businesspeople, and community the labor market. Conversely, when official and religious leaders, as well as parents, curricula are outdated and disconnected from teachers, school principals, and students real life, the result is a mismatch between themselves. Education can potentially play what students acquire and what society and many roles in an economy and society, but employers require. there are tensions among stakeholders’ goals. Context matters. Education reforms in By far, the most difficult are often-opposing MENA through a push for learning and a views, strongly held convictions, and diver- pull for skills will not achieve the same results gent interests. The dissonance across different in all contexts. There are multiple models for stakeholders’ goals for education is a substan- transforming education. Finland and Korea tial obstacle. were both top scorers in the 2015 Programme Establishing a new pact for education is for International Student Assessment (PISA), therefore critical. The interests of the wide a sign of strong learning. Yet the two educa- variety of stakeholders—including teachers, tion systems that produced this learning are principals, inspectors, politicians, communi- quite different. MENA countries need to roll ties, employers, and students—need to be out reform efforts based on what is feasible in aligned by building powerful alliances. Doing education, economic, and social reform—­ this requires a unified vision that takes into successful education reforms will depend on account the four tensions holding back educa- understanding the existing constraints tion, the local context, and the social norms (Rodrik 2008). How reforms are designed, that define the tensions. It also requires strong introduced, approved, and implemented leadership to align interests and rally support within a specific country also determines their around common national goals to which edu- success. The effectiveness of different policy cation must contribute. A new pact also will options often depends on whether comple- depend on a common sense that everyone is mentary conditions are in place and whether responsible and everyone is accountable in the sufficient resources are available. provision of education—that is, accountability Making any substantial changes in educa- needs to go beyond the education system. tion calls for tackling inefficient social norms Finally, a new pact requires reconciling invest- that inhibit reform. Changing social norms is ments and resources with the vision’s priori- not easy, but it can be done. Raising aware- ties. High-performing education systems—such ness about the costs or inefficiencies of certain as those in Japan, Korea, and Singapore—are norms, or the benefits that would accrue to good examples of strong education pacts society from reforms, can help shift the social across stakeholders. These countries have x i v   E x e c u t i v e Summary adopted a unified vision for education and IMF (International Monetary Fund). 2017. have consistently and coherently instituted “Regional Economic Outlook—Middle East reforms to achieve human capital–driven eco- and Central Asia.” IMF, Washington, DC. nomic growth (Wong 2017). Khemani, Stuti. 2017. “Political Economy of Reform.” Policy Research Working Paper 8224, MENA has the history, culture, and World Bank, Washington, DC. resources to leapfrog into a future founded on Krafft, Caroline. 2013. “Is School the Best Route a learned society and a knowledge economy. to Skills? Returns to Vocational School and The region has great expectations and aspira- Vocational Skills in Egypt.” Working Paper tions. Unleashing the potential of education is 2013-09, Minnesota Population Center, attainable, but it will take a commitment by all University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. to make education not only a national priority Lange, Glenn-Marie, Quentin Wodon, and but also a national emergency. Kevin Carey. 2018. The Changing Wealth of Nations 2018: Building a Sustainable Future. Washington, DC: World Bank. Note Massialas, Byron G., and Samir A. Jarrar. 1987. 1. The World Bank defines MENA as includ- “Conflicts in Education in the Arab World: The ing these countries and economies: Algeria, Present Challenge.” Arab Studies Quarterly Bahrain, Djibouti, Arab Republic of 9 (1): 35–52. Egypt, Islamic Republic of Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Narayan, Ambar, Roy Van der Weide, Alexandru Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Morocco, Cojocaru, Christoph Lakner, Silvia Redaelli, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syrian Arab Daniel Gerszon Mahler, Rakesh Gupta N. Republic, Tunisia, the United Arab Emirates, Ramasubbaiah, and Stefan Thewissen. 2018. West Bank and Gaza, and the Republic of Fair Progress? Economic Mobility across Yemen. This report excludes Malta from the Generations around the World. Equity and analysis as it has little in common with the Development. Washington, DC: World rest of the region. Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org​ /-handle/10986/28428. Rizk, Reham. 2016. “Returns to Education: An Updated Comparison from Arab Countries.” References ERF Working Paper 986, Economic Research Barro, Robert J., and Jong Wha Lee. 2013. “A New Forum, Giza, Egypt. Data Set of Educational Attainment in the Rodrik, Dani. 2008. “Second-Best Institutions.” World, 1950–2010.” Journal of Development American Economic Review 98 (2): 100–04. Economics 104 (September): 184–98. Salehi-Isfahani, Djavad 2012. “Education, Jobs, Brixi, Hana, Ellen Lust, and Michael Woolcock. and Equity in the Middle East and North 2015. Trust, Voice, and Incentives: Learning Africa.” Comparative Economic Studies 54 (4): from Local Success Stories in Service Delivery in 843–61. the Middle East and North Africa. Washington, Salehi-Isfahani, Djavad, Insan Tunali, and Ragui DC: World Bank. Assaad. 2009. “A Comparative Study of Cook, Bradley. 2000. “Egypt’s National Education Returns to Education of Urban Men in Egypt, Debate.” Comparative Education 36 (4): Iran, and Turkey.” Middle East Development 477–90. Journal 1 (2): 145–87. El-Araby, Ashraf. 2013. “Economics of Egypt’s Tzannatos, Zafiris, Ishac Diwan, and Joanna Tertiary Education—Public versus Private and Abdel Ahad. 2016. “Rates of Return to Fairness and Efficiency Considerations.” In Education in Twenty-Two Arab Countries; An Is There Equality of Opportunity under Free Update and Comparison between MENA and Higher Education in Egypt? (in Arabic), edited the Rest of the World.” ERF Working Paper by Asmaa Elbadawy, 135–62. New York: 1007, Economic Research Forum, Giza, Egypt. Population Council. Wong, Anny. 2017. “Insights from East Asia’s Hanushek, Eric A., and Ludger Woessmann. 2008. High-Performing Education Systems: “The Role of Cognitive Skills in Economic Leadership, Pragmatism, and Continuous Development.” Journal of Economic Literature Improvement.” Background paper prepared 46 (3): 607–68. for Growing Smarter: Learning and Equitable E x e c u t i v e S u m m a r y    xv Development in East Asia and Pacific, World ———. 2016. Making Politics Work for Bank, Washington, DC.  Development: Harnessing Transparency World Bank. 2013. Jobs for Shared Prosperity: and Citizen Engagement. Washington, DC: Time for Action in the Middle East and North World Bank. Africa. Washington, DC: World Bank. ———. 2018. World Development Report 2018: ———. 2015a. “Inequality, Uprisings, and Conflict Learning to Realize Education’s Promise. in the Arab World.” MENA Economic Monitor Washington, DC: World Bank. 3 (October 15). World Bank, Washington, DC. ———. 2019. World Development Report 2019: ———. 2015b. World Development Report 2015: The Changing Nature of Work. Washington, Mind, Society, and Behavior. Washington, DC: DC: World Bank. World Bank. Abbreviations CAL computer-assisted learning ECCE early childhood care and education ECD early childhood development ECE early childhood education EGMA Early Grade Mathematics Assessment EGRA Early Grade Reading Assessment GCC Gulf Cooperation Council ICT information and communication technology IDP internally displaced person LOI language of instruction MENA Middle East and North Africa MOOC massive open online course MSA modern standard Arabic OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development PBB performance-based budgeting PIRLS Progress in International Reading Literacy Study PISA Programme for International Student Assessment STEM science, technology, engineering, and mathematics TIMSS Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study xvii Overview ‫ان رصيد أي امة متقدمة هو أبناؤها المتعلمون وان تقدم الشعوب واألمم انما يقاس بمستوى التعليم وانتشاره – شيخ زايد ال نهيان‬ The credit of any developed nation is its educated children, and the advancement of people and nations is measured by the status and reach of their education.   —Shaykh Zayed Alnahyan Education has large untapped returns to education in the labor market are potential for the Middle East and among the lowest in the world (Patrinos 2016). Beyond the labor market, education North Africa in MENA is only weakly associated with Young people in the Middle East and North social outcomes such as civic engagement Africa region (MENA) 1 today have more and participation in community issues, educational opportunities and have attained unlike in other regions (Diwan 2016). higher educational levels than their parents. MENA also has the lowest share of human Among the world’s regions, MENA ranks capital in total wealth globally (Lange, highest in terms of absolute intergenera- Wodon, and Carey 2018). The contribution tional education mobility (Narayan of education to human capital, economic et al. 2018). However, its high levels of growth, and social outcomes is well docu- educational attainment have not translated ­ mented (Becker 1962; Lochner and Moretti into greater income opportunities. 2004; Milligan, Moretti, and Oreopoulos Intergenerational income mobility in MENA 2004; Mincer 1974; OECD 2014; Sala-​ is low. Educational attainment and income i-Martin, Doppelhofer, and Miller 2004). mobility are strongly correlated in most Education has a large, untapped potential to other regions and within the world’s high- contribute to the human capital, well-being, income countries, but not in MENA and wealth of MENA (Lange, Wodon, and (Narayan et al. 2018). Families and individ- Carey 2018). It has been at the heart of the uals invest in education in the hopes of ben- region’s history and civilizations for centuries. efiting from good work opportunities in the In the 20th century, education was central labor market, but in MENA the private to countries’ struggles for independence, 1 2    Expec tations and Aspir ations to building modern states and economies, and over the last five decades? More important, to defining national identities. what can MENA countries do to emerge from MENA has made large investments in edu- this impasse and retake their position as lead- cation over the last 50 years and has ers in education and innovation? How can achieved impressive growth in enrollment they unleash the potential of their human rates and gender parity at almost all educa- capital to create prosperous and peaceful tion levels. And yet all MENA ­ countries— societies? regardless of their geography, demography, MENA countries have an opportunity to economy, or society—have not been able to realize the untapped potential of education reap the full personal, social, and economic and fulfill the expectations and aspirations of benefits of education. During these same their young citizens and future generations. 50 years, the Republic of Korea also invested But some hurdles must be overcome. This in its human capital and succeeded in moving report identifies four sets of tensions that are from a low-income country in the early holding back MENA’s education potential: 1960s to one of the top 20 economies in the (1) credentials and skills; (2) discipline and world today. Korea established a world-class inquiry; (3) control and autonomy; and education system, and its students consis- (4) tradition and modernity. These tensions tently rank among the top in international are found within countries, societies, commu- learning assessments. By contrast, MENA nities, and households and are manifested students have consistently ranked among the and reinforced in schools and classrooms. lowest on such assessments. Unless they are addressed, no amount of When asked in a 2017 World Bank MENA investment in education can reap the full ben- Facebook poll whether they thought educa- efits. The report proposes a new framework tion improves their chances in the job market that calls for a concerted push for learning, in their country, 92 percent of respondents a stronger pull for skills, and a new pact for said “No,” and one respondent said, “A thou- education. Despite challenging regional geo- sand ‘no’s.”2 “What is taught in schools and politics, socioeconomic pressures, and global universities has no relationship with work life trends, MENA has the capacity and resources or reality—time wasted in a failed system,” to create education systems that will build its wrote one respondent. “Education in our human capital. country is just to get a credential, and one ends up on a couch or in cafes with no work and a lost future for all students,” wrote Much has changed in MENA— another. Thousands more expressed similar and the world—but education in dissatisfaction with education in their coun- tries. The frustration expressed by the MENA remains stuck Facebook poll respondents is not merely a Today, the 435 million residents of MENA perception; it is the reality facing millions of are enduring a period of pronounced hard- young people in MENA today. This can and ship. Ongoing threats to peace and economic should change. stability are contributing to challenges across Why has MENA not been able to realize many sectors. Economic growth has the potential of education? How did the remained persistently low in the aftermath of region whose educational excellence over five the Arab Spring (World Bank 2015b); youth centuries drove innovation in science and unemployment rates have risen; and the qual- social development and the region that cata- ity of public services has deteriorated (Brixi, lyzed the European Renaissance and scientific Lust, and Woolcock 2015; World Bank revolution (Overbye 2001) become one of the 2013a). Even in relatively stable countries, worst performers in educational outcomes labor market outcomes for the educated today? And why has the region not been able have worsened (El-Araby 2013; Krafft 2013; to improve despite significant investments Rizk 2016; Salehi-Isfahani, Tunali, and O v e r v i e w   3 Assaad 2009; Tzannatos, Diwan, and Ahad how the education sector interacts with other 2016). Exacerbating these challenges is the sectors, broader socioeconomic and political substantial downturn in the global oil mar- trends, and the behavioral norms and inter- ket, which has placed more pressure on ests of various groups. resource-rich countries (IMF 2017) and has In the 10 years since The Road Not created an even more urgent need to push for Traveled, much has changed in the region and human capital development across MENA. the world, but MENA’s education systems Although MENA countries vary substan- remain stuck, “engineering” to meet the high tially in their economic development, as well demand of a large and growing school-age as in the nature of the social and political population with the same delivery mecha- issues they face, they share many characteris- nisms of previous decades. During this tics and challenges. The Arab countries that decade, MENA countries have spent an aver- form the larger part of MENA share a com- age of 4.5 percent of their national income on mon language and much of their history and education, and more than 15 million addi- culture. Many countries in the region have tional boys and girls have enrolled in school- parallel education histories, which include ing at all levels. 3 At the same time, the some of the earliest universities in the world political economy landscape has changed and substantial historical contributions to drastically. From the 2011 Arab Spring arose human knowledge and development (Abi- a public outcry for better basic services and Mershed 2010; Rugh 2002). More recently, equal opportunities that changed long-­ as a result of similar postindependence trajec- standing dictatorships in the Arab Republic tories, there has been a substantial overlap in of Egypt, Libya, and Tunisia; amended consti- pedagogical methods and labor market issues. tutions in Jordan and Morocco; and altered And throughout the region, education quality the status quo in almost every county in the and learning outcomes have faced many of region. The Syrian Arab Republic and the the same challenges. Republic of Yemen continue to struggle with A decade ago, the World Bank addressed civil war (see box O.1), which has generated the crisis in education quality in MENA in one of the worst refugee crises of all time. It The Road Not Traveled: Education Reform has inflicted great suffering on millions of ref- in the Middle East and North Africa (World ugees across the region and the world and Bank 2008). It noted that MENA countries imposed serious constraints on host commu- had succeeded in engineering an education nities (Brussels Conference 2019; UNHCR system focused mainly on inputs, such as 2019a). building schools, but they had done little to The past 10 years have also been marked change the incentives and behavior of educa- by remarkable technological advances. At the tors. The report proposed a new road toward time of The Road Not Traveled report, the education systems built on improving incen- iPhone was one year old, Twitter was just tak- tives and public accountability, on the one ing off, and Facebook users numbered around hand, and achieving an equilibrium in the 145 million globally (Guardian 2014). By labor market between the supply of educated 2016, there were 107 mobile subscriptions per individuals and labor demand, on the other. 100 persons in MENA countries,4 and by MENA countries have indeed embarked on 2017 there were almost 100 million active numerous reforms in their education sectors, social media users (Radcliffe and Lam 2018). but with little or no success. In some instances, Of the 2.1 billion current Facebook users, the reforms have been piecemeal or uncoordi- more than 100 million are in MENA. The nated or have failed to tackle the fundamental social network WhatsApp, which was issues. In others, they have not been suffi- launched in 2009, has 1.5 billion users glob- ciently funded or communicated to stake- ally. Today, more than two-thirds of young holders. Meanwhile, too often education Arabs use Facebook and WhatsApp. reforms have paid insufficient attention to Furthermore, YouTube, which was three years 4    Expec tations and Aspir ations Box O.1  Conflict has taken a large toll on education in MENA MENA has been rattled by violent conflict and pro- receiving countries may not be able to verify the tracted crises for years, forcing millions of people to authenticity of their documents (ESU 2017). leave their homes in search of safety and security. At the tertiary level, only about 5 percent of Although MENA is home to just 6 percent of the Syrian refugees ages 18–24 in host countries across world’s population, it hosts more than a third of the MENA are enrolled in higher education (European world’s refugees and about a quarter of the world’s Commission 2018). Because tertiary education is conflict-related internally displaced persons (IDPs).a not a priority in emergency assistance programs, This situation has put great pressure on the host coun- funding remains a major roadblock (European tries’ education systems. For example, in 2018–19 Commission 2017; Nakweya 2017). Lebanon absorbed almost 213,000 non-Lebanese stu- The education infrastructure and services in dents in public schools, the majority of whom were conflict countries have been heavily affected. For accommodated by opening second shifts in 346 pub- example, in the 16 cities that suffered heavy fight- lic schools across the country (Ministry of Education ing during the war in Iraq, only 38 percent of the and Higher Education, Lebanon 2019). Jordan also total school infrastructure remains intact, and operates 209 public ­double-shift schools and provides 18 percent (190 facilities) was destroyed (World nonformal education services run jointly by interna- Bank 2018b). Two-thirds of schools in the Republic tional organizations and the Ministry of Education of Yemen need repairs (UNICEF 2018). In Syria, (Government of Jordan 2018). In addition to schools, about one-third of school buildings have been dam- host countries face other challenges in providing suit- aged or destroyed, are occupied by parties to the able education services for IDPs. For example, host conflict, or are being used to shelter IDPs (Brussels countries often lack information about the education Conference 2017). systems in refugees’ countries of origin. Refugees also a. See IDMC (2019); UNHCR (2019a, 2019b); UNRWA (2019); World Bank, World may not have the requisite documentation, or the Development Indicators database. old in 2008, currently has 1.5 billion users certain, but its role as a delivery catalyst is an globally, and Saudi Arabia is its biggest mar- opportunity that needs to be leveraged. That ket in per capita consumption. Young Saudi will require investment in human capital, edu- Arabians ages 15–24 spend on average cation, and new skill sets in MENA. 72 minutes a day watching online videos Although much has changed politically, (Radcliffe and Lam 2018). At the same time, economically, and socially in MENA over the the world and the region have seen a sharp last decade, their education systems to a large increase in EdTech—information and com- extent have remained the same. Education munication technology (ICT) applications has the potential to fuel important economic aimed at improving education—­ investments, and social contributions, but its power to cre- which reached a record US$9.5 billion in 2017 ate change depends not only on its quality but (Shulman 2018). Khan Academy, which also on complementary economic and social opened its doors in 2008, uses YouTube to environments and the ability to leverage tech- provide lessons to millions. nology smartly. Meanwhile, technological advances, auto- mation, and innovation are increasingly shap- ing new jobs and changing the nature of work. Four tensions are holding back Although manual manufacturing jobs are being automated, technology has the potential education in MENA to create new jobs and increase productivity The education process consists of a complex (World Bank 2019). The role of technology as set of factors and actors at multiple levels. a demand shaper for the future of work is Factors outside the education system—political, O v e r v i e w   5 economic, and social—formally and infor- FIGURE O.1  Four tensions are holding back education in MENA mally interact with the education system and shape its outcomes. Behavioral norms and Tradition ideological polarization among govern- Credentials Discipline ments, interest groups, and citizens can hold countries back from delivering public goods (World Bank 2016b). In MENA, education has been held back by these complex interac- Classroom School Society Control Education Autonomy tions, behavioral norms, and ideological polarization, which can be captured in four sets of tensions: credentials and skills, disci- pline and inquiry, control and autonomy, Inquiry Skills and tradition and modernity (see ­ figure O.1). These tensions are deeply embedded in the Modernity region’s history, culture, and political econ- Source: World Bank. omy. They are reflected to varying degrees in all countries in the region, and to a large extent they define social and political and modernity. Third, the tensions are nei- ­ relations. They have informed and shaped ther unique to MENA nor time-specific. education policy in MENA countries since Throughout history, countries across the independence, and they are at the heart of world have struggled with these tensions in current national discourses on education defining their goals and policies. Fourth, no reforms. These tensions have held education one position applies to every country or systems from evolving and delivering the region. Each country, based on its national skills that prepare students for their future. development goals and vision, needs to Schools and classrooms are the platforms decide where it wants to place its education where these tensions are exercised through system within these tensions. curricula, pedagogy, and the norms that define interactions among principals, teach- Credentials and skills ers, parents, and students. These tensions ulti- mately shape the education outcomes of The tension between credentials and skills young people in MENA and affect their lives, has been a source of debate for almost as well as the economies and societies in 50 years. Since the 1970s, economists and which they live. In an increasingly connected sociologists have argued about the links world, the effects of these tensions can reach between education, skills, and the labor mar- beyond the region’s borders. Unless these ten- ket, using numerous theories and models, sions are addressed, MENA will not be able such as Becker’s human capital theory to reap the full benefits of education, no mat- (Becker 1962), Collins’s credentialist theory ter how much money is invested. (Collins 1979), and Spence’s signaling model Four features of these tensions are note- (Spence 1973). A credential in the form of a worthy. First, they are not mutually exclu- degree, diploma, or certificate is usually sive, and they coexist along a continuum. associated with the acquisition of a specific The challenge for countries is to determine set of skills or knowledge. In the labor mar- where they want to be on the continuum and ket, credentials signal productivity, based on what balance would be optimal to deliver the assumption that more years of education the desired outcomes. Second, the four ten- are associated with higher productivity (Page sions overlap in some areas and can rein- 2010). Credentials also bestow a certain sta- force each other. For example, notions of tus in society, where a higher degree is asso- control and autonomy could also be associ- ciated with higher status and figures in ated with d­ iscipline and inquiry or tradition matters such as marriage. 6    Expec tations and Aspir ations The history of education as a tool to gener- more generous benefits, and a better work ate bureaucrats for the public sector shaped environment, particularly for women the current structure of the education system (Barsoum 2015). Expectations of the public and labor market in MENA. Public sector sector are also high because employment employment was typically guaranteed for opportunities are often treated as a right, fur- anyone who had a sufficient education cre- ther disconnecting these opportunities from dential—diploma or degree. The requirement education. Several regional constitutions was more for the credential—the diploma or include the “right to work,” engendering a certificate—than for the skills. As a result, common attitude that employment should be MENA countries have become societies in provided by the government and not by the which there is little or no link between educa- private sector (Barsoum 2015). That attitude tion credentials and skills (Assaad, Krafft, is a legacy of the government employment and Salehi-Isfahani 2018). In the meantime, guarantees that were part of the region’s little pressure has been placed on education social contract (Assaad 1997, 2014). The institutions to ensure that credentials mean high wages and outsized role of government that the graduate possesses the relevant skills. employment in MENA crowd out the private Although the size of the public sector as an sector (Behar and Mok 2013; Nabli 2007), employer has declined in many MENA coun- and government strategies to increase high- tries, its legacy continues in the form of a quality private sector employment have “credentialist equilibrium” (Salehi-Isfahani largely failed, resulting in poor or limited 2012). In such an equilibrium, public sector opportunities for new graduates (Dahi 2012; employers communicate a strong demand for Salehi-Isfahani 2012; Springborg 2011) and credentials, and the private sector’s signals for reducing the demand for skills. skills are weak. Responding to market sig- The notion of reducing public sector nals, students and families focus more on the employment, a key aspect of a new Arab credential (degree or diploma) and less on the social contract, has gained little traction in skills and competencies that these credentials the region (Devarajan and Ianchovichina would ideally represent (see figure O.2). 2017). Since the Arab Spring, calls for a new The credentialist equilibrium in MENA social contract have not yielded meaningful countries has been created in part by imbal- change in the role of the public sector. In fact, ances in the labor market, where the large Egypt, Jordan, and Tunisia have all raised public sector is the preferred employer public salaries to stem further protests (Barsoum 2015; World Bank 2013a). In addi- (Capital Economics 2017). While placating tion to higher wages, the desire for public social discontent and temporarily supporting employment is motivated by greater prestige, the economy, this approach also reinforces the notion that public sector employment is the only path to high salaries, career growth, FIGURE O.2  MENA is stuck in a credentialist equilibrium and status within society—and so it will keep the region stuck in a credentialist Education equilibrium. system Strong supply of credentials Strong demand for credentials Discipline and inquiry Private The terms discipline and inquiry have mul- Weak demand for skills employers tiple meanings and uses. Here, discipline is defined as “the practice of training people to Youths and Strong demand Public obey rules or a code of behavior” (Oxford) families employers or “training that corrects, molds, or perfects for credentials the mental faculties or moral character” Source: Adapted from Assaad, Krafft, and Salehi-Isfahani 2018. (Merriam-Webster’s). Inquiry is defined as O v e r v i e w   7 “an examination into facts or principles” FIGURE O.3  MENA students are more likely to be asked to memorize ( Merriam-Webster’s ). In societies with Percentage of grade 8 students asked to memorize science facts and principles for every lesson or almost every lesson, 2015 strong social norms, discipline is a key fac- tor in ensuring adherence to norms. 70 Although discipline in respect and self- 60 58 57 57 60 restraint is important, too much restraint 53 53 49 48 may constrict students’ ability to learn, 50 45 44 42 think, explore ideas, or question concepts. 40 Percent Inquiry, by contrast, allows students to understand their surroundings or contextu- 30 alize concepts through questions and 20 experimentation. Some degree of discipline is important and 10 necessary, but violent discipline5 negatively 0 affects children’s physical, psychological, and p. n a an an p. ain co it s r ta te bi no wa Re Re oc social development and hampers their learn- rd Om Qa ira hr ra ba Ku Jo or b ic iA Ba Em ra Le am M ud ing and school performance, ultimately reduc- t, A ab Isl Sa yp Ar n, ing human capital development (El-Kogali Eg Ira d ite Un and Krafft 2015; UNICEF 2010). Violent child discipline is widespread in MENA. In a International average study of 50 countries, UNICEF (2013) found Source: Martin et al. 2016. that MENA has the highest percentage of children ages 2–14 years who are violently Singapore. Because of the emphasis on memo- disciplined, ranging from 79 to 95 percent rizing rules, procedures, facts, and principles, in Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, Morocco, Syria (pre- students are unable to show a basic under- conflict), Tunisia, West Bank and Gaza, standing of everyday ­ applications. In the 2015 and the Republic of Yemen (El-Kogali and Trends in International Mathematics and Krafft 2015). Science Study (TIMSS), fewer than half of Concepts of discipline and inquiry are Morocco’s grade 4 students could read a basic closely linked to pedagogy and curricula, as graph. And only about 55 percent of Egypt’s well as to the day-to-day interactions of and Saudi Arabia’s grade 8 students could students with teachers; the emphasis on disci- ­ ­ interpret a basic pictogram (Mullis et al. 2016). pline leads to passive learning and memoriza- The overemphasis on memorization of tion. Across MENA, curricula focus heavily on facts, principles, rules, and procedures does rote memorization, leaving little time for the not negate the fact that some knowledge development of critical thinking skills. needs to be retained. Rather, it is a question of According to teachers, the share of grade 8 stu- the degree of emphasis and the overall experi- dents required to memorize mathematics and ence of the child in the classroom. Cognitive science rules, procedures, and facts for all or science provides information that allows a most lessons in many MENA countries is more nuanced understanding of the balance almost twice the international average (see between rote memorization and higher-level figure O.3). The share exceeds 50 percent in ­ processes such as discovery learning. The Egypt, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Jordan, capacity to solve problems and to think criti- Lebanon, Oman, and Saudi Arabia, which is cally about new material depends on back- far above that in many high-performing coun- ground knowledge retained in one’s memory tries. For example, only 10 percent of grade 8 (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006). students in Canada and New Zealand are Repeated reflective practice is fundamental to required to memorize during most mathemat- building flexible knowledge and skills. In ics lessons, 11 percent in Sweden and the addition, students need guidance from teach- United States, and 14 percent in Ireland and ers to develop the knowledge and skills that 8    Expec tations and Aspir ations can facilitate independent, complex cognitive over practice; they tend to have outdated cur- work. Therefore, ideally there is a balance ricula focused on theory and memorization, between rote memorization and high-level as opposed to practical knowledge and ana- problem-solving, and, depending on the task lytical reasoning (El Hassan 2013). and level, it is a matter of striking the appro- The tension between discipline and inquiry priate balance. also applies to relationships such as those The tension between discipline and inquiry between teachers and principals and between also reverberates in higher education, where it parents and their children. In many MENA may hamper the push for solution-focused, countries, obedience is viewed as an especially multidisciplinary, high-impact research important quality that children should be (World Bank 2017a). Effective postsecondary encouraged to learn at home. Inquiry-driven education programs emphasize practical qualities, such as imagination and self-­ training instead of theoretical knowledge. expression, are emphasized less often (see Mounting evidence provided by the cognitive figure O.4). Moreover, the tension between ­ and learning sciences indicates that interactive discipline and inquiry is also found in societies approaches facilitate an effective learning with strong social norms for class, gender, or experience (Barkley, Cross, and Major 2005; hierarchy. For example, a recent comprehen- Prince 2004). This combination allows future sive household survey of men and women ages graduates to broaden their perspectives and 18–59 revealed that 90 percent of men and equips them with the skills to enter the labor 58 percent of women in Egypt agree with the market. But postsecondary education pro- statement “A man should have the final word grams in MENA are skewed toward theory about decisions in the home” (UN Women FIGURE O.4  Obedience plays a central role in children’s education in MENA Percentage of survey respondents who mentioned obedience, imagination, or self-expression as especially important qualities that children can be encouraged to learn at home 70 60 50 40 Percent 30 20 10 0 . q ya ait an ria za r p. sia co n ep ta o Ira Re Ga Lib oc rd ge w an ni Qa ,R Ku Tu Jo or b Al b d en ra Le an M m ,A k Ye pt an y tB Eg es W Obedience Imagination Self-expression Source: World Values Survey, Wave 6 (2010–14), from Inglehart et al. 2014. Note: These results are drawn from the following question: “Here is a list of qualities that children can be encouraged to learn at home. Which, if any, do you con- sider to be especially important? Please choose up to five.” Potential answers included independence, hard work, feeling of responsibility, imagination, tolerance and respect for other people, thrift/saving money and things, determination/perseverance, religious faith, unselfishness, obedience, and self-expression. O v e r v i e w   9 and Promundo 2017). Results were similar in There is no magic formula for balancing West Bank and Gaza (80 percent of men and centralized control and autonomy in edu- 48 percent of women) and Morocco (71 per- cation. It must be determined within the cent of men and 47 percent of women). These country context, with size, geography, and social norms may negatively affect the atti- population distribution playing important tudes of girls and women toward inquiry and roles in the decision. What is important is their right to ask questions both at home finding the balance in defining the roles and and in other settings such as school, university, responsibilities of institutional actors (for or work. example, the central government, local government, and communities) and defin- ing the locus of control of the education Control and autonomy processes and mechanisms used to steer the The tension between control and autonomy is system (World Bank 2005). In other words, usually associated with the debate on decen- the balance between central control and tralization of services and the balance of autonomy should reflect the roles and power between central ministries, regional responsibilities of central versus local gov- offices, and schools. The goal of decentraliza- ernance and political versus professional tion is typically to improve governance by power and accountability. fostering autonomy, accountability, and Limited autonomy at the school and class- responsiveness to local conditions and needs. room levels can constrain efforts by princi- These attributes can improve student learn- pals and teachers to be proactive in the ing. Over the last few decades, several MENA learning process and prevent them from tak- countries experimented with some aspects of ing responsibility for student learning out- decentralization, deconcentration, and devo- comes if they consider themselves as merely lution of authority from the central to the implementing a centralized approach regional and school levels, but their education (Karami Akkary 2014). Teachers in MENA systems remain highly centralized. The suc- have far less decision-­ making responsibility cess of attempted decentralization has varied. than those in member countries of the In some instances, the decision-making power Organisation for Economic Co-operation was authorized but was not supported by and Development (OECD) (see figure O.5). the resources needed to implement decisions. Studies in the Islamic Republic of Iran, For example, decentralization in Egypt in Jordan, and Kuwait have found that central 2002–07 was not supported by sufficient authorities maintain strict control of curricu- financial resources (Ginsburg et al. 2010). lar content and teaching practices, leaving Decentralization in Saudi Arabia in the 2000s little autonomy for teachers (Afshar and appears to have been adequately funded, but Doosti 2016; Al-Yaseen and Al-Musaileem the tasks and duties transferred to the local 2015; Namaghi 2009; World Bank 2015a). level were more administrative than geared Limited autonomy among teachers com- toward the development of local schools promises job satisfaction and the develop- (Almannie 2015). In other instances, a decen- ment of student skills, in part because it tralized model was rolled out in a policy impedes the ability of teachers to teach to the without putting in place the capacity to carry right level for their students, a critical element out the decentralized functions at the regional of effective teaching (Evans and Popova or school level. For example, Morocco’s 2015). Limited autonomy at the regional, regional academies for education and training provincial, and school levels for the hiring (académies régionales d’éducation et de for- and deployment of teachers also limits the mation) were only granted autonomy to man- ability to match teacher characteristics better age some logistical and financial decisions with teaching needs. based on guidelines provided by the central Greater autonomy in higher education government (World Bank 2015d). institutions tends to be associated with better 1 0    Expec tations and Aspir ations FIGURE O.5  Teachers in MENA have less autonomy than teachers accountability mechanisms. When autonomy in OECD countries and accountability are combined well, they Percentage of 15-year-old students attending schools in which teachers have tend to be associated with better student per- considerable responsibility for instructional decisions, PISA 2015 formance (OECD 2011b). Schools with more 90 autonomy over teaching content, student 80 assessment, and resource allocation tend to 70 perform better than those with less autonomy. 60 Ultimately, MENA school systems must find Percent 50 the balance between control and autonomy 40 that will best support learning and provide 30 schools with the resources and flexibility to 20 10 establish and achieve ambitious goals for stu- 0 dent learning. Tunisia Jordan Algeria Qatar United Lebanon OECD Arab Emirates Tradition and modernity Student disciplinary policies Student assessment policies According to some scholars, the greatest Course content Textbooks challenge MENA countries face is aligning Source: OECD 2016a. the development needs of a modern world Note: OECD = Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development; PISA = Programme for International Student Assessment. and the moral imperatives of a religious soci- ety, resulting in tension between modernity and tradition (Cook 2000). The focus on tra- performance (Aghion et al. 2009; World Bank dition versus modernity, or the forces of 2011). However, most universities in MENA change, can result in conflicts within educa- have very limited autonomy over academic, tion processes (Massialas and Jarrar 1987). staffing, and financial matters. In 2012 the This tension can be captured in the definition World Bank benchmarked the governance and purpose of education. In Arabic, ­taaleem practices of 100 universities in Algeria, Egypt, (education) comes from the root word ilm Iraq, Lebanon, Morocco, Tunisia, and West (knowledge). The plural of ilm is uloom, Bank and Gaza (World Bank 2013c). which also means science or sciences. Institutional autonomy was very low among Taaleem encompasses both learning and public universities, with the local or central teaching—the acquisition and provision of government making decisions about matters knowledge or science. Education in Arabic is such as the academic program, hiring teach- also tarbiya, which refers to education in the ing faculty, and fundraising. Private universi- sense of growing or rearing. Its root word, ties, by contrast, enjoyed much greater rabba, means raising or bringing up. Taaleem autonomy across all seven MENA economies and tarbiya have meanings similar to those surveyed (World Bank 2013c). In a follow-up of the Latin words educere—to lead forth survey in 2016, autonomy did not seem to and to train—and educare—to rear and to have changed much for both public and pri- educate (Bass and Good 2004; Cook 1999). vate universities (World Bank 2017b). 6 At the center of the debate on tradition A comparison of self-assessment and actual and modernity is the extent to which educa- scores revealed that public institutions per- tion should focus on the acquisition of knowl- ceive their autonomy to be higher than the edge or science ( taaleem ) versus the autonomy score in the external evaluation, acquisition of values (tarbiya). This question whereas private universities have a more is reflected in the evolution of the names given accurate perception of their autonomy (World to ministries of education in MENA coun- Bank 2017b). tries. Names have shifted between ministries Greater autonomy at a decentralized of tarbiya and ministries of taaleem, with level requires capacity, resources, and some countries settling on both names as O v e r v i e w   1 1 ministries of tarbiya and taaleem.7 When edu- These fears led to the release of the Imperial cation ministries were established in the mid- Rescript of Education in 1890, emphasizing dle of the 20th century after independence in Japanese values and Confucian virtues. Since most MENA countries, they were called min- then, Japanese education policy has main- istries of maarif—plural of maarifa (knowl- tained a balance between retaining ­ traditional edge) . Egypt, for example, began with Japanese values while adapting aspects of the the Ministry of Maarif and then shifted to world’s best education systems (OECD the Ministry of Taaleem. Currently, it is the 2011a). Ernst Friedrich Schumacher, a British Ministry of Tarbiya and Taaleem. The change economist in the 1970s, argued that the pur- was a deliberate decision made during the pose of education is to transmit the values tenure of President Jamal Abdel Nasser, who “through which we look at, interpret, and regarded education as the process required to experience the world” and that science “can- form the complete person and to shape the not produce ideas by which we could live . . . Egyptian identity (Ahramonline 2015). and is completely inapplicable to the conduct The values and principles reflected in edu- of our lives or the interpretation of the cation in MENA are shaped by national dis- world” (Schumacher 1973). He believed that courses usually dominated by elites and education was of no value if it did not trans- powerful groups. Classrooms and curricula mit fundamental convictions. In other words, become the platforms on which the struggle the purpose of education could be better between modernity and tradition are played understood not as taaleem but essentially as out. The tension between tradition and tarbiya. modernity in defining the purpose of educa- The traditional values and fundamental tion is prevalent not only in MENA. convictions of MENA countries were estab- Throughout history, countries worldwide lished in Islam, which represents the founda- have struggled to modernize while maintain- tion of national identity.8 These values and ing their cultural norms, values, and tradi- convictions are at the heart of education. The tions, with education as the mechanism. In proportion of instructional time devoted to Japan, when the Meiji government (1868– religious education in most MENA countries 1912) implemented reforms based on is well above the average time that OECD Western models of education, Japanese countries spend on religious, ethics, and moral feared their identity and values would be lost. education (see figure O.6). For example, FIGURE O.6  Substantial time is devoted to religious education in MENA Percentage of instructional time allocated to religious education in grade 1 of primary school 30 28 25 20 18 15 Percent 15 15 15 13 12 10 10 9 7 6 5 5 0 Yemen, Saudi Morocco Oman Iraq Kuwait Bahrain United Egypt, Djibouti Algeria Tunisia Rep. Arabia Arab Arab Rep. Emirates OECD average Sources: OECD 2017a for OECD average (refers to all grades of primary school); UNESCO 2011 for Algeria (2004), Bahrain (2004), Djibouti (2008), Iraq (2011), Kuwait (2004), Oman (2004), Tunisia (2008), and the Republic of Yemen (2004); World Bank calculations using various online sources for the Arab Republic of Egypt (2014), Morocco (2016), Saudi Arabia (2017), and the United Arab Emirates (2016). Note: OECD = Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. 1 2    Expec tations and Aspir ations based on the most recent comparable infor- A new framework is needed to mation available, grade 1 students in Bahrain, Iraq, Kuwait, Morocco, Oman, Saudi Arabia, realize education’s potential the United Arab Emirates, and the Republic in MENA of Yemen spend more than double the OECD To realize the potential of education, MENA average of 5 percent. Religious education also countries need to tackle the four tensions and reflects traditional teaching practices that establish an education system that prepares focus on memorization. The foundations of all students for a productive and successful rote learning in MENA can be linked to the future. Such a system would be modern and oral tradition among Arabs that predates flexible and would nurture a culture of excel- Islam, which has also been used to preserve lence and creativity in learning. It also would and spread Islamic teachings. leverage disruptive technologies and adopt It it is up to countries to determine the val- modern approaches so it can offer young peo- ues they want to bestow on their citizens. ple the skills they need to define their trajecto- However, it is important to recognize the ries in life and adapt to local, national, and trade-offs in terms of the time distribution global changes. Finally, it would be based on between subjects; more time on religious a shared national vision and would connect studies reduces the time allocated to other with the overall development goals of the subjects such as math and science. It is also country. All of society would be responsible important to recognize the impact of tradi- for ensuring its success. To establish such a tional modes of teaching on learning. In many system, MENA countries need to adopt a new countries, attempts to reform the education framework for education—one that includes system have been opposed as an attempt to a concerted push for learning, a wide-­ reaching change the national character. In Jordan, for pull for skills, and a new pact for education example, the introduction of curriculum (see figure O.7). The remainder of this report reforms sparked public outrage, mainly by describes the actions needed to implement conservative religious groups whose members this framework. characterized the reforms as an attempt to Related to this effort, the World Bank’s undermine the kingdom’s Islamic values and World Development Report 2018 highlights character (Kirdar 2017). Similarly, in Kuwait the global learning crisis (World Bank 2018e). various groups have protested ongoing cur- It sheds light on the dimensions of the crisis riculum reforms as the imposition of imported and proposes a way forward that is well concepts. aligned with the push, pull, and pact frame- Modernity does not mean importing a spe- work described here. It further reinforces the cific model. In many MENA countries, importance of all stakeholders working modernity is associated with Western models together to promote a focus on learning and and approaches and is used by both the skills (see box O.2). p roponents and opponents of change. ­ Modernization is a process by which social FIGURE O.7  “Push, pull, and pact” offers a new norms evolve and are renewed; modernity can framework for education in MENA take multiple forms. The issue is not replacing tradition with one form of modernity. Rather, A stronger pull for skills it is allowing review of the traditional prac- tices and norms that are holding back the A new pact potential of education and engaging in a pro- for education cess of renewal. Modernity is inevitable as the world changes. MENA countries need to pre- pare their students with the knowledge, skills, A stronger push for learning and values to engage with, adapt to, and suc- ceed in a changing world. Source: World Bank. O v e r v i e w   1 3 Box O.2  World Development Report 2018: Learning to Realize Education’s Promise There is nothing inevitable about low learning in which the elements cohere and everything aligns low- and middle-income countries. When improv- with learning. The payoff to these efforts is edu- ing learning is a priority, great progress is possible, cation that delivers for growth and development. as evidenced by success stories such as Korea. To do Countries have already made a start by getting so better, a nation must (1) assess learning, to make it many children and youths into school. Now is the a serious goal; (2) act on evidence, to make schools time to realize education’s promise by accelerating work for all learners; and (3) align actors, to make learning for all. the whole system work for learning. Together, these three policy actions can deliver a system in Source: World Bank 2018e. Push for learning increased across MENA, with several coun- tries reaching an average that is close to a full Focus on learning, not just on schooling cycle of primary and secondary education. The potential of education is achieved only However, when the number of actual years of when it confers the skills and knowledge that schooling is adjusted for learning, the number constitute human capital. In fact, the skills of effective years of schooling in MENA is on conferred through learning—not the years of average 2.9 less than the number of actual schooling—are what determine education’s years of schooling. In other words, the poor contribution to economic growth (see quality of education in MENA is equivalent figure O.8) (Barro and Lee 2013; Hanushek ­ to approximately three lost years of educa- and Woessmann 2008; World Bank 2018e). tion. For example, in 2010 young adults in MENA has succeeded in providing school- Jordan had on average 11 years of schooling, ing; now it needs to achieve learning. The the same as Kazakhstan and New Zealand number of actual years of schooling has (see figure O.9). After adjusting for learning, FIGURE O.8  What matters for growth is skills Annual average per capita growth in GDP, 1970–2015, conditional on test scores, years of schooling completed, and initial GDP per capita, selected countries a. Test scores and growth b. Years of schooling and growth (conditional on initial GDP per capita and years of schooling) (conditional on initial GDP per capita and test scores) Annual GDP per capita growth (percent) Annual GDP per capita growth (percent) 3 3 y = 0.00 + 0.07 x t = 0.82 2 2 R2 = 0.02 1 1 0 0 –1 y = 0.00 + 1.59 x –2 t = 7.39 –1 R2 = 0.55 –3 –2 –1.5 –1.0 –0.5 0 0.5 1.0 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 Test scores Years of schooling Source: World Bank 2018e, fig. 1.5. 1 4    Expec tations and Aspir ations FIGURE O.9  When adjusted for learning, the number of years of effective schooling in MENA drops substantially Actual years and learning-adjusted years of schooling of young people, ages 25–29 a. Actual years of schooling 16 14 15 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 14 14 14 12 12 12 12 13 11 11 11 12 12 12 10 10 10 11 11 11 11 Number of years 9 10 10 8 8 9 8 6 6 6 4 2 0 ain So No ana ve a Bo aila . h A ay w ord a Ka Zea an Lit hst d hu an Fe C ia r e ed a en ala ly Ire nia ng d Isr ry ite Mal l d Ja ta ng n SA Sta a Ko gap ina hr t Ira t, A es Isl ab ia Th Re . a, e Ku cco Sin , Ch es p. tsw nd str n ab Tu tar Ko nit Can om Eg Sau mir key ic p p ae Ba wai Slo ysi Ne J fric Sw ali ng ed ad de hil re or Ki pa za lan Hu lan Au atio M Ita an n, Ar rab am Re Re a yp di at R t ut rw a d o E r Q or k M ian Ar ng U Un d ss ite Ru Un Ho b. Learning-adjusted years of schooling 16 14 14 14 13 13 12 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 11 11 11 9 10 10 10 Number of years 10 9 9 9 8 8 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 4 4 2 0 tsw ain t, A Tu na ve a ga ep. Sa K cco ra t So Q bia r Ba frica Ira rab Jo ep. Isl i an ail p. w orw e y ala d Ka ithu sia kh ia n ian S stra y Fe we lia ra n M n a ng el d rel ry ng d St da Ko R, C an Sin a, R a re ic es d b y ni Ca om SA Ja es h A ta i A ai Ze a l ra rke Slo alt ni re hin Ne N Chil sta de de tio M alan Ki an an Au Ita za an Hu Isra Th Re ite I a po am rat at a n, Em rd p te na ud uw L y ut a Bo hr R d o or d M ng yp U A Un Ko Eg ss d ite Ru ng Un Ho Sources: World Bank 2018e, based on 2010 data from Barro and Lee 2013 and TIMSS 2015 (Mullis et al. 2016). Note: For the purposes of this illustration, years of schooling are adjusted using the grade 8 mathematics results from the 2015 Trends in International Math- ematics and Science Study (TIMSS). Results are compared with those of Singapore (highest-scoring economy). The figure highlights, as an example, that Jordan has actual years of schooling similar to those of Kazakhstan and New Zealand (around 11 years in each country), but students in Jordan attain 2 to 3 fewer years of learning in these 11 years than students in the two other countries. Jordan had two to three years less learning table O.1. Only 42 percent of grade 8 stu- than New Zealand and Kazakhstan. dents in Egypt had a basic understanding of MENA’s learning crisis is apparent across ­ science (Martin et al. 2016). In Morocco, primary and secondary grades and across only 36 percent of grade 4 students reached different subject areas. No MENA country minimum levels of reading literacy. came close to the international medians According to the results of the 2015 for the percentage of students reaching Programme for International Student the low international benchmarks of the Assessment (PISA), students age 15 in recent TIMSS and Progress in International Algeria, Jordan, Lebanon, Qatar, Tunisia, Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS)—see and the United Arab Emirates are on average O v e r v i e w   1 5 TABLE O.1  MENA countries have some of the lowest results on international student assessments Percentage of students reaching low international benchmarks of performance on TIMSS 2011 and 2015 and PIRLS 2011 and 2016 Mathematics (TIMSS) Grade 4 Grade 8 Country 2011 2015 Country 2011 2015 International median 90 93 International median 75 84 Bahraina 67 72 Bahraina 53 75 United Arab Emiratesa 64 68 United Arab Emirates 73 73 Iran, Islamic Rep. 64 65 Lebanon 73 71 Qatara 55 65 Iran, Islamic Rep.a 55 63 Omana 46 60 Qatara 54 63 Saudi Arabiab 55 43 Omana 39 52 Moroccoa 26 41 Egypt, Arab Rep. n.a. 47 Kuwaitb 30 23 Jordanb 55 45 Moroccoa 36 41 Kuwait n.a. 37 Saudi Arabiab 47 34 Science (TIMSS) Grade 4 Grade 8 Country 2011 2015 Country 2011 2015 International median 92 95 International median 79 84 Bahrain 70 72 United Arab Emirates 75 76 United Arab Emiratesa 61 67 Bahraina 70 73 Qatara 50 64 Iran, Islamic Rep.b 79 73 Iran, Islamic Rep.b 72 61 Omana 59 72 Omana 45 61 Qatara 58 70 Saudi Arabiab 63 48 Jordanb 72 63 Moroccoa 16 35 Lebanon 54 50 Kuwaitb 37 25 Kuwait n.a. 49 Saudi Arabiab 68 49 Moroccoa 39 47 Egypt, Arab Rep. n.a. 42 Reading (PIRLS) Grade 4 Country 2011 2016 International median 95 96 United Arab Emiratesa 64 68 Qatara 60 66 Iran, Islamic Rep.b 76 65 Saudi Arabia 65 63 Omana 47 59 Moroccoa 21 36 Sources: Mullis et al. 2016, 2017. Note: The international medians for 2011 and 2016 cannot be compared because the set of countries in each year is not the same. PIRLS = Progress in International Reading Literacy Study; TIMSS = Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study; n.a. = not applicable (the Arab Republic of Egypt and Kuwait did not participate in TIMSS for grade 8 in 2011). a. Statistically significant increase between 2011 and 2015/2016. b. Statistically significant decrease between 2011 and 2015/2016. 1 6    Expec tations and Aspir ations two to four years of schooling behind the Prioritize the early years to build the member countries of the OECD in applying foundations for learning their knowledge and competencies in read- Start from early childhood ing, mathematics, and science to real-world The period from before birth to approxi- situations. Algeria and Lebanon, both par- mately 6 years of age, when the brain under- ticipating in PISA for the first time in 2015, goes its greatest development, is critical to found that more than two-thirds of their stu- children’s development (Berlinski and Schady dents did not meet a basic proficiency level 2015; Heckman 2006; Leseman 2002). in science, reading, and mathematics. In these years, more than 1 million new neu- Low learning outcomes in MENA coun- ral connections are formed every second. It is tries call for a push across several aspects of also during this period that the building the educational process. To undertake a push blocks of the brain are formed and the child’s for learning, countries need to focus on seven environment stimulates brain development key areas: (Center on the Developing Child 2009; 1. Building the foundational skills—from Shonkoff and Garner 2012). Children’s early early childhood development through the environments and experiences, particularly early grades of school—needed for future the parenting they experience, are major learning and success. contributors to their early cognitive develop- 2. Ensuring that teachers and school leaders, ment (Paxson and Schady 2007). Parenting who are the most important inputs to the and developmental interventions, especially learning process, are qualified, well selected, those targeting disadvantaged children, can effectively utilized, and incentivized to con- have large (arguably the largest) impacts on tinue to develop professionally. human capital (Hamadani et al. 2006; 3. Modernizing pedagogy and instructional Heckman 2006; Temple and Reynolds practices to promote inquiry, creativity, 2007). Early childhood development (ECD) and innovation. programs—including in-home programs, 4. Addressing the language of instruction centers, and preprimary (kindergarten) challenge given the gap between spoken education—can play an important role in ­ Arabic and modern standard Arabic. The human capital accumulation prior to pri- close connection among language, reli- mary school. However, the impact of ECD gion, and national identity makes it diffi- programs depends on their quality and may cult to make a regional recommendation. be greater for disadvantaged children Even though this phenomenon is a regional (Berlinski, Galiani, and Gertler 2009; one, it manifests itself in many different Berlinski, Galiani, and Manacorda 2008; ways in different countries. Hence, it needs Bouguen et al. 2013; Hazarika and Viren to be addressed with a very specific for- 2013; Jung and Hasan 2014; Temple and mula in each country. Reynolds 2007; Vegas and Santibáñez 2010). 5. Applying learning assessments that regu- Because of the importance of early devel- larly monitor student progress to ensure opment, the largest and most cost-effective that students are learning. impacts of public investment in education 6. Giving all children, regardless of back- can be realized in the early stages of life. ground or ability, an opportunity to Investments made during the early years yield learn—a requirement for raising learning the highest return in terms of future produc- outcomes at the national level. tivity by laying the foundation for cognitive 7. Leveraging technology to enhance the and socioemotional skills (World Bank delivery of education and promote learn- 2018a). By contrast, if developmental growth ing among students and educators and is not supported from an early age, children preparing students for an increasingly may arrive at school well behind their peers. digital world. The opportunity costs of making up lost O v e r v i e w   1 7 ground in later years through remedial edu- MENA has not invested sufficiently in cation can be high. To take full advantage of ECD. As a result, most children begin school the high returns to ECD, governments need unprepared to learn. Gross enrollment ratios to expand access to high-quality ECD pro- percent, in preprimary education are just 31 ­ grams, which include prenatal and neonatal lower than in many other regions and with nutrition, health, and parenting interven- wide differences between countries (see tions as well as socioemotional and cognitive figures O.10 and O.11). Moreover, MENA ­ stimulation. also has the lowest public provision of FIGURE O.10  Preprimary enrollments are lower in MENA than in many other regions Preprimary gross enrollment ratios, 1976, 1996, and 2016 100 80 79 73 74 60 59 60 Percent 50 49 40 31 33 28 30 22 20 18 13 15 14 15 14 11 9 9 0 East Asia and Latin America MENA Sub-Saharan Europe and South Asia World Paci c and Caribbean Africa Central Asia 1976 1996 2016 Source: World Bank EdStats database (http://datatopics.worldbank.org/education/), based on data from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics. FIGURE O.11  Large differences in preprimary enrollment ratios are found across MENA Preprimary gross enrollment ratio 100 86 82 79 80 68 60 57 60 55 54 51 50 Percent 44 40 35 31 30 25 20 7 6 2 0 ) ) 1) ) ) 6) 6) 6) 5) sia 6) 6) yp MEN 17) 6) ) ou 16) 7) ep 3) 6) ira 016 16 Qa 016 Om 016 16 01 1 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 1 01 20 0 20 0 0 20 (2 (2 (2 2 (2 2 am za (2 (2 2 (2 (2 . (2 2 (2 . (2 s( r( ( ( ( a( c( on ria it an k a ain p. co an A ti p ta te i bi wa l Re Re Ga b oc rd ge an ni hr ,R ra pu jib Ku Tu Jo or ic b iA Al b Ba d en Em Re ra Le D n M ud m t, A ab b Isl Ye Sa ra an Ar n, nA tB Eg Ira d te ria es i W Un Sy Sources: For all except Jordan, World Bank EdStats database (http://datatopics.worldbank.org/education/), based on data from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics. For Jordan, Queen Rania Center at the Jordan Ministry of Education, provided in August 2018. Note: Data are for the latest available year between 2011 and 2017. 1 8    Expec tations and Aspir ations preprimary education, with only 29 percent piloting and scaling up of early learning of preprimary enrollment in public p ­ rograms, programs. compared with 71 percent in ­ private pre- The expansion of compulsory preprimary schools and nurseries (El-Kogali and Krafft education in Argentina in the 1990s is a good 2015). example of how a country can successfully Expanding ECD coverage is not enough; raise student learning outcomes in the early quality matters. High-quality ECD programs years (by grade 3). A study revealed that add- can boost children’s intellectual and social ing one year of preprimary school in Argentina development, preparing them to enter pri- increased the average grade 3 test scores by mary school ready to learn (Heckman 2006). 8 percent of the mean (Berlinski, Galiani, and Ample evidence shows that quality preschool Gertler 2009). Examples of excellence in education programs geared especially toward expanding quality ECE provision can also be disadvantaged children have a positive impact found in MENA countries. For example, in on beneficiaries’ earnings and even reduce the United Arab Emirates universalization of crime (Elango et al. 2015; Schweinhart et al. preschool education is among the top key per- 2005). These programs are also more cost- formance indicators of its ambitious Vision effective than other education interventions, 2021 national agenda. The country is on pace such as reductions in class size, and help to to reach a goal of enrolling 95 percent of its close performance gaps in socioeconomic sta- children in preschool by 2021, an increase of tus, ethnicity, and geographic origin (Glewwe more than 30 percentage points since the 2013; Heckman 2006). 1990s (see box O.3). MENA countries should accelerate the Children also develop their socioemotional expansion of access to high-quality prepri- skills and behaviors during the early pre- mary education. Because few data are avail- school years. Their attitudes are shaped by able on early childhood education (ECE) their environment at home and school and programs implemented in MENA countries, by their interactions with parents, siblings, it is difficult to determine whether the existing and teachers. Children develop cognitively, services are of high quality. Governments socially, and emotionally by engaging in should focus on measuring child development development activities with their families. outcomes and early learning environments to Reading, playing, looking at picture books, identify drivers of ECE quality in their respec- singing songs, and other activities all help tive contexts. Building on rigorous evidence, children grow and learn and have been shown they can make informed decisions on the to have a positive link to cognitive test scores Box O.3  Prioritizing early childhood education in the United Arab Emirates Embedded in its national goal of developing a first- ratio in the United Arab Emirates was at 82 percent. rate education system, the United Arab Emirates is The United Arab Emirates is therefore at the top of expanding access to preschool so that all children MENA in terms of preschool enrollment and shows receive a solid foundation for learning from an early a vast improvement from enrollment rates of less age. As part of its ambitious Vision 2021 national than 30 percent in the 1970s and 60 percent in the agenda, the country has set a target for 2021 of 1990s. 95 percent enrollment in preschools for the coun- Sources: United Arab Emirates National Agenda and Vision 2021, presentation, try’s children, and it is well on track to reach that http://www.rwadubai.com/media/2578/uae-national-agenda.pdf; World Bank, arget. As of 2016, the gross preprimary enrollment t­ Education Statistics (EdStats) database. O v e r v i e w   1 9 in young children and to promote school single word of connected text after more than readiness (El-Kogali and Krafft 2015). two full years of school (USAID 2018). In Various interventions have proven to be effec- Kuwait, Morocco, and Saudi Arabia, less tive and scalable in helping parents to engage than 50 percent of grade 4 students in 2015 with their children and promote their devel- had basic mathematical knowledge as mea- opment. Jordan’s Better Parenting project sured by TIMSS, while across all participating engaged parents and communities—including countries 93 percent of grade 4 students had imams—to raise awareness of better parent- mastered these basic mathematical skills ing. In Turkey, a program targeting mothers (Martin et al. 2016; Mullis et al. 2016, 2017). addressed parent-child interactions and pro- Early grade reading interventions can vided lessons on positive discipline. In Brazil, make a substantial difference. A review of 18 workshops involving mothers and home visits early grade reading programs found that showed positive results. Outreach through almost all were effective, and many were different media—such as radio, television, highly cost-effective (Graham and Kelly and print—to communicate about ECD can 2018). Several countries in MENA have made help to reduce violent discipline and promote concerted efforts to address literacy during children’s development (Eickmann et al. the early grades. Piloting early childhood and 2003; Kagitcibasi, Sunar, and Bekman 2001; early grade interventions to identify which Naudeau et al. 2011, cited in El-Kogali and successfully boost children’s foundational Krafft 2015). skills is an effective strategy to maximize the use of scarce resources. Measuring early Build foundational skills in the first three childhood development outcomes using early grades of school grade literacy and numeracy assessments can Because many children in MENA have a shed further light on the key drivers of early poor start to their formal education by not learning and help to identify gaps in the devel- being developmentally on track in preread- opment of key foundational skills from a ing skills, it is vital that the early grades of young age. school emphasize these important founda- To enhance children’s readiness to learn, tional skills. Basic reading, writing, numer- education policies in MENA could aim to acy, and socioemotional skills lay the align preprimary schooling with primary edu- foundation for learning throughout a child’s cation to ensure a smooth transition for life and into adulthood. Children lacking young children. Entering primary classrooms these skills are at risk of falling behind, where a different educational philosophy (or becoming disengaged from school, and not language of instruction) is practiced can be a acquiring the more advanced skills increas- difficult transition for young children. Moving ingly demanded in today’s labor market. from play-based, collaborative, child-centered Ultimately, if children lack the foundational learning—often conducted in a child’s mother skills that should be developed in the early tongue—to traditional teacher-centered grades of school, they cannot take advantage instruction—often in modern standard of the benefits that their education could Arabic (MSA)—can undermine the positive provide. impacts of even the most successful ECE pro- Many children in MENA remain illiterate grams. Therefore, aligning preschool and pri- and innumerate after two or three years of mary grade instructional styles is important, schooling. The Early Grade Reading with both focusing on developmentally Assessment (EGRA) revealed that more than appropriate teaching and learning techniques. one in three grade 2 children in Iraq, For example, the United Arab Emirates is in Morocco, and the Republic of Yemen could the process of aligning grades 1 and 2 of pri- not read a single word of connected text. By mary school with preprimary education, grade 3, this proportion had dropped, but still which consists of two years of kindergarten, more than one in six children could not read a to create a holistic ECE cycle covering all 2 0    Expec tations and Aspir ations children from ages 0 to 8. Finland, New school leadership is second only to class- Zealand, and various other OECD countries room teaching in its impact on student have undertaken similar efforts to align early l earning (Jensen, Downing, and Clark ­ childhood education with learning in the 2017a; Leithwood, Harris, and Hopkins early grades (OECD 2012b, 2017c). 2008; Leithwood and Mascall 2008). Select and support the best teachers and Select, prepare, support, empower, and school leaders motivate effective teachers and school It is paramount that education systems leaders recruit, train, and support those men and Effective teachers and school leaders have a women who have the greatest potential to be profound impact on students’ learning and effective teachers and school leaders. These their educational and career aspirations. systems must also provide for ongoing career Effective teachers are those who are knowl- development and upskilling to ensure that edgeable in both pedagogy and their subject the best teachers remain in the classrooms areas, who adapt and innovate their teaching and that classrooms and schools are provid- practices to facilitate students’ critical think- ing the most up-to-date and effective teach- ing, and who support learning for students ing practices and learning environments. with different learning styles (Hightower Attracting and selecting highly qualified et al. 2011; Metzler and Woessmann 2012; candidates to enter initial teacher education OECD 2012a). School leaders have an indi- programs are the first step in the long-term rect but powerful effect on student achieve- process of building an effective teaching force ment through their interactions with teachers (see box O.4). International experience points and their role in shaping school culture to the importance of establishing high stan- (Pont, Nusche, and Moorman 2008; dards to ensure that the best candidates are Witziers, Bosker, and Kruger 2003). Evidence selected for initial teacher education programs shows that teacher effectiveness is the most and that these candidates have a reasonable important school-related factor influencing opportunity to be hired after graduation student achievement (Darling-Hammond (Barber and Mourshed 2007; Bruns and 2000; Hanushek 2005; Mourshed, Chijioke, Luque 2015). In most MENA countries, the and Barber 2010), and among school factors screening process for initial teacher education Box O.4  Attracting the best students to teaching depends on the right policies and programs Attracting and retaining the best students into the in salaries over time is relatively modest. After teaching profession depends on policies and pro- 15 years, teachers can expect to earn only between grams such as scholarships and tuition support, 1.2 and 1.5 times their initial salaries (World Bank opportunities to progress and grow in the teach- 2015e). Such compressed salary scales within the ing career, competitive salaries, and other benefits teaching career in MENA may negatively affect such as housing assistance (World Bank 2013d). how appealing the teaching profession is to talented Moreover, it is critical to attract the candidates who candidates. In such instances, policies that address want to make teaching a profession rather than use it wage compression could be fundamental to improv- as a ticket for a public sector job. ing the quality of teaching. Recognizing this link, In some MENA countries, teachers are offered Jordan has embarked on a reform to decompress the competitive starting packages, but the increase salary scales for teachers (World Bank 2016a). O v e r v i e w   2 1 is dependent on test scores from secondary teaching qualifications. In Lebanon, leadership school graduation examinations (World Bank training programs are the main preparation 2015c). However, the scores needed to accept route to becoming a principal. Principals must students in the education field are lower than pass an interview and a yearlong training pro- those in other fields. In Egypt, for example, gram in leadership and supervision. Egypt has the required secondary school passing grade rigorous professional requirements: all school on the national examination for admission principals must have a minimum of 15 years of into education and literature majors is 75–85, teaching experience and a minimum of five whereas it is 80–88 for science and mathe- years of administrative experience. Candidates matics majors and 96–98 for medical school for the position of principal must hold a degree (World Bank 2010). Although test scores are in tertiary education and are required to com- necessary, they are not a sufficient basis for plete specific training. They also must pass a selection. Other criteria—­ such as creativity, written test, successfully complete a supervised engagement with education issues, and ability internship, and participate in an induction and to work well with others—are important mentoring program (Mullis et al. 2016). traits to consider. Where credentials do not appropriately Many MENA countries are raising the capture skills—one of the four tensions in qualifications to enter the teaching profession MENA—the risk of not selecting the most by requiring a bachelor’s degree, with some qualified teachers and school leaders is high. raising the required level to a master’s degree. This disconnect could jeopardize student However, most MENA countries do not learning. In many developed education sys- apply hiring criteria and processes that look tems, rigorous processes are in place for beyond academic degrees to assess candi- selecting the best-performing graduates of dates’ subject knowledge and pedagogical initial teacher education programs for teach- ­ and other skills. A teaching credential should ing positions, often requiring them to hold signify strong knowledge of subject-matter certificates or licenses. Some of the oldest and content and the teaching skills to deliver this most established licensing systems are in the content effectively while addressing specific United States, where state teaching licenses learning challenges (Loughran, Berry, and ensure a consistent set of standards with a Mulhall 2012; Shulman and Shulman 2004; certain level of teaching proficiency recog- Thames and Ball 2010). Only 4 of the 10 nized by all schools. Several MENA countries MENA countries that participated in TIMSS are beginning to explore the introduction of 2015 required teacher candidates to pass licensing and certification requirements for qualifying examinations for selection to teachers as a mechanism to raise and main- teaching posts (Mullis et al. 2016). tain standards. Developing effective school leadership starts Because technology, research, and labor with the selection and preparation of skilled, market needs are changing rapidly, teachers well-equipped new principals. Most MENA and school leaders must be able to update countries employ a variety of criteria for select- their knowledge and skills regularly. Intensive, ing principals, and, as in teacher selection, a content-focused professional development strong emphasis is often placed on academic programs can improve teachers’ subject mat- qualifications and teaching experience (Mullis ter knowledge and their ability to use this et al. 2016).9 In Oman, for example, school knowledge in their teaching (NCEE 2016). principals are chosen according to seniority Professional development programs for teach- and experience in teaching and classroom ers should focus on content and on improving management. Potential school principals in teaching skills so that teachers can effectively Bahrain are required to have experience as a deliver content to all types of students teacher, adviser, or education specialist. Some (Loughran, Berry, and Mulhall 2012; principals in Oman and Saudi Arabia have Shulman and Shulman 2004; Thames and degrees in educational leadership in addition to Ball 2010). Training programs that teach 2 2    Expec tations and Aspir ations Box O.5  School principals also must act as instructional leaders School principals also serve as instructional leaders degree and importance of skills transfers between who can lead, guide, and monitor instructional prac- principals and teachers, investing in the transfor- tices related to pedagogy and curriculum (Jensen, mation of all principals into instructional leaders is Downing, and Clark 2017a; OECD 2016a, 2016b). one of the most effective steps a country can take Instructional leadership fosters a school environment to improve student learning. In MENA countries, that focuses more on academic success, which in such a change for school principals could improve turn enhances student learning. For example, higher teaching practice and student learning. Successful average mathematics achievement is associated with change depends on how principals are appropriately principals’ reports of a greater school emphasis on selected, supported, and given the needed blend of academic success (Mullis et al. 2016). Because of the autonomy and accountability to perform. pedagogy specific to subject areas—such as Professional development is equally impor- how to teach a mathematics class effectively, tant for principals who have been in the posi- with follow-up visits in which trainers observe tion for a long time because a principal’s role and support teachers in the classroom—are and the demands of schooling change over highly effective (Darling-Hammond et al. time (Jensen, Downing, and Clark 2017a; 2009). Some MENA countries have put in OECD 2012a). Although professional devel- place promising professional development opment for principals needs to be tailored to programs for teachers. the local context and needs, a few core ele- Professional development is most effective ments are shared by many high-performing in changing classroom practice when teachers systems (Jensen, Downing, and Clark 2017a; work collaboratively (Brown, Smith, and World Bank 2018e). These elements include Stein 1995; Darling-Hammond et al. 2017; structuring leadership development around a Evans and Popova 2015; Yoon et al. 2007). vision for the school, whereby the school Collaboration allows teachers to benefit from leader manages and oversees implementation one another’s knowledge and skills and cre- of this vision. Other elements include linking ates opportunities for best practice sharing leadership development to practical problems and mentoring (Angrist and Lavy 2001; by means of action learning in a real school Borko 2004; Darling-Hammond et al. 2017). environment that is supported by mentors. High-performing countries in East Asia and Furthermore, school leadership programs elsewhere have practiced collaborative should develop leaders’ resilience, critical approaches in professional development for thinking skills, and ability to adapt practices decades, with positive results (Evans and to new situations. In high-performing sys- Popova 2015; World Bank 2018a; Yoon et al. tems, principals are often instructional leaders 2007). Technology and social media can be (see box O.5). Finally, leadership develop- powerful tools in promoting peer-to-peer ment programs should continue over the learning and collaboration between teachers. course of a leader’s career through a system- Many teachers in MENA are using groups on atic and comprehensive approach that is Facebook or WhatsApp to exchange informa- career-long and systemwide. tion. Moreover, lessons on platforms such as Nafham, the Arabic version of the Khan Assign the best teachers to where they are Academy, not only help students to learn but most needed can also help teachers to learn how to con- Decisions on teacher recruitment in most duct a lesson effectively. high-performing systems are made at the O v e r v i e w   2 3 school level (Barber and Mourshed 2007; establish and achieve ambitious goals for Bruns and Luque 2015), which allows a bet- student learning. ter match between teacher characteristics Having an adequate number of qualified and teaching needs, as identified by the teachers in the classroom is a basic prerequi- school. In MENA countries, however, site for learning. However, students in some teacher hiring and assignment in the public MENA countries are in classes so large that system generally take place at the central effective instruction can be difficult. Egypt, level and usually by a civil service ministry. Jordan, and Morocco have some of the larg- This arrangement has been a key challenge est classes among TIMSS participants, while in enhancing performance because schools class sizes in Gulf Cooperation Council do not have the autonomy to hire good (GCC) countries are generally in line with the teachers or fire poorly performing ones. international average of TIMSS participants Managing performance then becomes a long and those found in East Asia—though still bureaucratic process, which ultimately limits higher than in countries such as Australia and student learning as well as teacher motiva- Sweden (Mullis et al. 2016). tion. As noted earlier, decentralized decision Even in countries in which teachers are making requires capacity, resources, and recruited and assigned in adequate num- accountability mechanisms. Ultimately, bers, they are often not used efficiently. In MENA school systems must find the balance MENA, low teacher working hours are between autonomy and accountability that common (see figure O.12). Only half of the will best support learning and provide MENA economies in 2010 required work- schools with the resources and flexibility to ing hours for teachers that were comparable FIGURE O.12  The required working hours for teachers in MENA are well below those in top-performing countries Statutory teaching and working time required for teachers in primary education in selected MENA (2010) and OECD (2007) economies 2,500 120 100 93 100 2,000 83 Number of hours per year 80 1,500 67 67 Percent 57 60 54 53 52 1,000 39 40 500 20 0 0 n nd p. sia . an i on . za ep ep t pa ou Re Ga rd an ala ni ,R ,R Ja ib Tu Jo b b nd a en Ze Dj ra Le re m ka t, A w Ko Ye Ne an yp tB Eg es W Teaching time Other working hours Teaching time (percentage of total working hours) Source: World Bank 2015c. Note: OECD = Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. 2 4    Expec tations and Aspir ations to those of the top-performing countries Encourage instructional practices that (World Bank 2015c). Egypt and Tunisia maximize children’s potential were within the range of top-performing countries such as Japan, Korea, and New Teaching and learning are multifaceted and Zealand. Others—such as Djibouti, Jordan, complex. Children arrive at school with West Bank and Gaza, and the Republic of diverse backgrounds, life experiences, and Yemen—were all well below the threshold individual characteristics. Teachers interact of 1,200 working hours a year for teachers with children in a multitude of ways in primary education. In Lebanon, the because they have a variety of backgrounds, working hours required of primary and sec- life experiences, and teaching styles. The ondary education teachers were less than experience of students in the classroom half of those observed in top-performing rests on decisions teachers make about countries. delivering the curriculum. How teachers Teacher absenteeism is a chronic problem prepare and engage with students of various plaguing MENA school systems. Among abilities has an impact on their students’ MENA countries participating in TIMSS learning. Teaching at the right level, or 2015, an average of 16 percent of students adaptive instruction, is important to sup- in grade 8 were enrolled in schools whose port student learning (Evans and Popova principals reported teacher absenteeism to 2015)—see box O.6. Between 2013 and be a “serious problem” (see ­ figure O.13). 2015, at least six systematic meta-analyses The problem is most acute in Morocco examined interventions that improve learn- (affecting 28 percent of students), followed ing outcomes in low- and middle-income by Saudi Arabia, Oman, and Egypt. By com- ­ countries (Conn 2014; Glewwe et al. 2013; parison, only 4 percent of grade 8 students Kremer, Brannen, and Glennerster 2013; in OECD member countries were enrolled in Krishnaratne, White, and Carpenter schools with serious problems with teacher 2013; McEwan 2015; Murnane and absenteeism. Similarly, low levels were Ganimian 2014). Across the reviews, peda- observed in the Islamic Republic of Iran gogical interventions (including computer- (2 percent) and the United Arab Emirates assisted learning) that tailor teaching to (7 percent). student skill levels ranked among the most FIGURE O.13  Teacher absenteeism is prevalent throughout MENA Percentage of grade 8 students attending schools whose principal reports that teacher absenteeism is a “serious problem,” TIMSS 2015 30 28 25 23 22 20 20 16 16 Percent 15 15 14 13 12 10 9 7 5 4 2 0 p. A CD o a r ain n an s it p. an CD ta te bi cc no wa EN Re Re rd Om Qa ira OE OE hr ra o ba M Ku Jo or ab ic iA Ba Em n- Le am M Ar ud No b Isl t, Sa ra yp n, dA Eg Ira ite Un Source: IEA Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study—TIMSS 2015. Note: OECD = Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development; TIMSS = Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study. O v e r v i e w   2 5 Box O.6  Teaching at the right level benefits students Various models for instruction take into account the instruction, such as grade repetition and between- different abilities of students, ranging from group- class ability grouping. Grade repetition, which is ing students by ability in the classroom for part practiced in some MENA countries, requires stu- of the school day or after school (Banerjee 2012) dents who do not pass the year-end examinations to giving screening tests to students at the begin- to repeat the prior school year rather than moving ning of the school year to identify student abilities into the next grade with their peers (OECD 2016a). and target support accordingly (OECD 2011c). In Between-class ability grouping entails grouping Canada and Finland, extensive personalized sup- students in the same grade into classes based on port is available to any student who is struggling prior achievement, so that classes are homogeneous with the expected levels of learning, especially dur- in learning levels. A meta-­ a nalysis of 100 years ing the formative years of primary school (World of research on ability grouping found that such Bank 2018e). Evidence suggests that such tar- between-class grouping did not, in fact, benefit geted interventions and remedial lessons are more students (Steenbergen-Hu, Makel, and Olszewski- effective than other models of level-appropriate Kubilius 2016). effective means of improving student learn- ing in low- and middle-income countries. Address the language of instruction Where the instructional capacity of teach- challenge ers is low, structured pedagogy programs can A key area that affects learning is the lan- be effective. Such programs typically include guage of instruction (LOI). The LOI is nor- training courses for teachers and learning mally shaped by culture, history, and current resources for both teachers and students. In economic and political trends. For decades, addition to improving instructional quality on choosing the language to use for instruction a topic, structured pedagogy programs can has posed a major challenge for MENA, with change existing classroom practice because tension between tradition and modernity aris- they incorporate learning activities and peda- ing in several ways. The first tension is the gogical training. A review of 420 scholarly question of whether to use modern standard analyses of educational interventions in low- Arabic—also referred to as classical Arabic— and middle-income countries found that as the language of instruction. MSA differs structured pedagogy interventions had the from the language spoken daily in all Arabic- largest and most consistently positive effects speaking MENA countries. Because MSA is on student learning outcomes. Although none the language by which the Quran was of the structured pedagogy interventions revealed and written, it has been kept sacred reviewed had taken place in MENA coun- and has not changed with time, whereas the tries, some of the interventions were in coun- day-to-day language of societies has evolved, tries performing at similar levels on TIMSS creating a large gap between everyday lan- and PISA, such as Chile, Costa Rica, and guage and MSA. As a result, when children South Africa (Snilstveit et al. 2015). A variety start school and encounter classical Arabic, of scripted lessons and teacher coaching they must learn it almost as a new language. can help to overcome deficits in teacher They then struggle to acquire basic literacy skills in low-performing education systems skills and may feel substantial linguistic inse- (Mourshed, Chijioke, and Barber 2010). This curity because of their lack of familiarity with can be an important short- to medium-term MSA (Maamouri 1998). Research has shown intervention until teachers’ professional skills that students in MENA may be considered at are further developed. a linguistic disadvantage because they learn 2 6    Expec tations and Aspir ations MSA as if it were a second language (Bouhlila The second tension in the LOI relates to 2011; Ibrahim and Aharon-Peretz 2005; the multiple languages used in some MENA Salmi 1987). countries. For example, in Algeria and Before students can learn in a language of Morocco a substantial proportion of the pop- instruction, they need to have learned enough ulation speaks Tamazight; in Iraq and Syria of it. In every language, a vocabulary thresh- there are Kurdish communities; and in old must be met to understand simple text. Djibouti some communities speak Afar and For example, to understand English text, stu- Somali. Which language to use often becomes dents must know at least 5,000 words in a political issue more than a technical one English. Typically, children come to school because language is closely associated with knowing 4,000–6,000 words in their mother people’s culture and identity. Because many of tongue. On average, children can learn four the MENA countries identify with Islam, they vocabulary words per hour of second-­ support the use of classical Arabic—the lan- language instruction. Thus 1,000 or more guage of the Quran—as the language of schooling hours are needed to build enough instruction, even where large minorities are vocabulary to begin learning in a second lan- non-Arabic speakers, such as in Algeria, Iraq, guage (van Ginkel 2014). If students fail to and Morocco. However, there is substantial achieve both oral and written comprehension pressure from non-Arabic-speaking commu- of MSA in early primary school, their future nities to use their language as the mode of studies will be limited to memorizing and instruction for their children. regurgitating information without achieving a The third tension occurs when opportuni- synthesis of the information. Where teachers ties for social and economic advancement are are themselves not comfortable operating in higher in a language that is not a student’s MSA, the problem is likely to be exacerbated. mother tongue. Using a foreign language for Some MENA countries have addressed the instruction has been a topic of debate in MSA/dual-language challenge by designing MENA countries, with major implications for curricular materials and providing additional learning (see box O.7). Equity implications support in the early grades. For example, a are a factor as well. In the 1980s, the move- program introduced by the U.S. Agency for ment of Algerian and Tunisian public educa- International Development (USAID) and the tion away from instruction in French and Ministry of Education in Egypt showed toward MSA resulted in greater inequality in promise and is being scaled up. The program education (elites pulled their children into pri- included eight days of teacher training in vate French-speaking schools) instead of the addition to curriculum inputs. Grade 2 intended increase in classical Arabic skills. ­ students who received six months of interven- Furthermore, students who did not learn tion improved their performance by an French were at a disadvantage in seeking entire grade level (Gove, Brombacher, and future economic opportunities because Ward-Brent 2017). In Jordan, the interven- higher-income positions continued to require tion included allotting daily time for low-­ French fluency (Benrabah 2007; Lefevre performing students to practice foundational 2015). Addressing the language of instruction skills in reading and mathematics. Beyond an challenge is critical given the gap between enhanced curricular emphasis on founda- spoken Arabic and modern standard Arabic. tional skills, the intervention provided teach- The close connection among language, reli- ers with 10 days of training and additional gion, and national identity makes it difficult in-school coaching on how to target remedial to make a regional recommendation. Even support where needed. As a result, not only though this phenomenon is a regional one, it did the number of low-performing students manifests itself in many different ways in dif- decrease, but schools also noted an increase in ferent countries. Hence, it needs to be high-performing students (Gove, Brombacher, addressed with a very specific formula in each and Ward-Brent 2017). country. O v e r v i e w   2 7 Box O.7  Improving foreign language instruction is important In Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia, science and erated resistance (MacLeod and Abou-El-Kheir mathematics are taught in French at the secondary 2016). Tunisia’s system continues to embrace two level. However, only 30 percent of Tunisians, most languages, with Arabic used for all social sci- of whom live near the capital, are fluent in written ences and French used for STEM (science, tech- and spoken French. In Algeria, urban populations nology, engineering, and mathematics) studies. are fluent in French, but only 55 percent of rural Recently, the Ministry of Higher Education in the populations are fluent. A similar dynamic occurs in Kurdistan Region of Iraq commissioned a study Morocco. Students in areas without French fluency of its 13 state universities to assess the impact of have less access to education and less achievement E nglish-medium instruction. The study found that ­ (Lefevre 2015). In TIMSS 2007 and 2015, students 63 ­p ercent of instructors were satisfied with their being tested in their mother tongue performed bet- own level of English, and, despite English being the ter than those being tested in a language not used at official language of instruction, only 30 percent home. If mathematics (or any other subject) is to be spoke English all the time or almost all the time taught in a second language, adequate support for in lectures. ­E nglish was used for written materi- learning this language must be incorporated. als and homework, but instructors widely stated The language of instruction (LOI) has also been that their students’ language level was insufficient contentious and problematic at the tertiary educa- for English-medium studies, despite their 12 years tion level, pointing to the need for improvement of English-language instruction during their ear- in foreign language instruction at all levels. Most lier schooling (Borg 2015). At any education level, Arab countries use either English or French as the employing an LOI that is not the students’ mother LOI for mathematics, engineering, the medical sci- tongue requires training teachers, providing ade- ences, and other sciences. Qatar’s rapid expansion quate curriculum and classroom resources, and of higher education institutions in English gen- ensuring increased support for students. Use assessments for learning, not and student levels. However, if used inappro- credentials priately, they can reinforce shallow forms of Large-scale national and international learning, and classroom assessments can con- assessments can catalyze education reform at sume valuable lesson time without enhancing the policy level. They are often used to mea- student learning. In many MENA countries, sure and monitor student learning by track- students receive one of the only measures ing within-country trends in student of their learning through high-stakes year- learning, measuring what they have learned end examinations. These examinations are against learning targets, and providing then typically used to determine whether stu- points of comparison with other countries. dents move to the next level. More regular MENA countries are increasingly participat- feedback on their learning progress could be ing in international large-scale student helpful to students and teachers. In addition, assessments (see table O.2). In addition, high-stakes assessments often lead to perverse these countries are also conducting more incentives that negatively affect the behavior national assessments, which have the benefit of teachers, students, and parents and limit of being able to capture learning progress learning outcomes. directly related to aspects of national educa- Meanwhile, in MENA high-stakes exami- tion goals, the national curriculum, and nations reinforce the focus on acquiring cre- national education policies (see table O.2). dentials rather than skills. As the sole Public examinations can generate powerful determinant of whether a student moves incentives for change at the school, teacher, on to higher education, passing high-stakes 2 8    Expec tations and Aspir ations TABLE O.2  Participation in national and international assessments has surged in MENA since 2007 MENA economies undertaking national and international student assessments, 1995–2019 Economy 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 Algeria ◦• ◽ Bahrain • • ◊ ◊ ◦•◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◦• ▴ ◦• Djibouti × + Egypt, Arab Rep. • ◊ •◊ ◊ ×◊ ◊ × × × • ▴ ◦◊ Iran, Islamic Rep. ◦• • ▴ ◦• ▴ ◦• ♦ ◦•▴ ◦• ▴ ◦• Iraq ×+ ◊ Jordan • • ◽ • ◽ • ◽×+ ×+ ◦•◽ ◽ •◊ Kuwait ◦• ▴ ▴ ◦• ◦ ◦• ▴ ◦• Lebanon • • ♦ • •◽♦ × ◊ ×◽ • Libya Morocco • ▴ ◦• ▴ ◦• ◊ ◦ • ▴× + ◦• ▴◊ ◽ ◦• Oman ◊ • ◦•▴ ◦• ▴ ◦• Qatar ◽▴ ◦• ◽ ◦•▴ ◽ ◦•◽ ▴ ◽ ◦• Saudi Arabia • • ◦•▴ ◦•◊ ▴◊ ◽◊ ◦•×◊ Syrian Arab Republic • • Tunisia • ◦•◽ ◽ ◦• ◽ ◦• ◽ ◽ United Arab Emirates ◽a ◦•▴ ◽ ◦•◽ ▴ ◽ ◦• West Bank and Gaza • ◊ • • × × Yemen, Rep. ◊ ◦ ◊ ◦ ◦× +  ×  EGMA     ◊  National or other assessment     ▴  EGRA     ◽  PIRLS grade 4     ◦  PISA     •  TIMSS grade 4     ♦  TIMSS Advancedb TIMSS grade 8     Source: Compiled by the World Bank, based on information from country task teams and international assessment organizations. Note: Includes participating countries for which results were not reported because of sampling or other issues. EGMA = Early Grade Mathematics Assessment; EGRA = Early Grade Reading Assessment; PIRLS = Progress in Interna- tional Reading Literacy Study; PISA = Programme for International Student Assessment; TIMSS = Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study. a. The 2009 PISA scores pertain to the PISA 2009+ reported score for the United Arab Emirates (Dubai participated in 2009, and the remaining emirates participated in 2010). b. TIMSS Advanced assesses the advanced mathematics and physics knowledge and skills of students in their final year of secondary school who have taken courses in advanced mathematics and physics. TIMSS Advanced was administered in 1995, 2008, and 2015. O v e r v i e w   2 9 examinations is the object of learning, espe- Recently, East Asian countries with histori- cially in the last years of secondary education, cally high scores on the PISA and TIMSS rather than acquiring broader skills and assessments have tried to reduce high-stakes ­ learning to learn. Moreover, secondary-level testing at the upper-secondary level by intro- high-stakes examinations usually emphasize ducing more process-oriented and student- straightforward recall and procedural applica- centered assessment measures. For example, tions, leading to cramming, private tutoring, in an effort to eliminate teaching to the test and rote memorization. In Egypt, 53 percent and support curricular reforms aimed at of students resort to private tutoring, and a learning to learn, in 2014 Japan proposed the further 10 percent join paid study groups Prospective University Entrant Scholastic (Assaad and Krafft 2015). Abilities Evaluation Test, which is an alterna- Even in the lower grades, year-end school tive examination to be implemented from examinations affect opportunities for children 2019 onward. The examination will deem- to progress through grades, which can nega- phasize rote memorization while giving prior- tively influence teaching practices. Lebanon’s ity to students’ thinking ability, expression, students are tested monthly in class, take two and reasoning skills. The new test format examinations a year, and sit for national includes a written questionnaire (Kimura and examinations at the end of grades 9 and 12. Tatsuno 2017). In the Islamic Republic of Iran and Jordan, In a similar effort to promote student students may pass on to the next level pro- learning, Korea implemented an exam-free vided they do not fail more than three ­subjects semester nationwide in 2016 after pilot test- in their year-end examinations. These exami- ing it for two years (Cheng 2017). So that nations, or summative assessments, are lower-secondary school students can discover intended to measure whether students have their dreams and talents free from the pres- mastered the necessary content. They also sure of midterm and final exams, Korea channel students into educational tracks. allows teachers to make flexible use of the However, their high-stakes nature often curriculum for one semester. This arrange- results in teachers emphasizing memorization ment encourages student participation for examinations over problem-solving skills through discussion and practice and enables (Akar 2016; Shuayb 2012). Morocco’s system various activities such as career exploration. of examinations at each level is intended There is compelling evidence that forma- to channel students into educational and tive classroom assessments—the types of vocational tracks, and so it poses the risk of assessment procedures teachers use during teachers using didactic rather than dialogic the learning process to modify their activities teaching methods (Akar 2016; IEA 2015; and approaches in response to student Shuayb 2012). learning—can raise learning outcomes by ­ Recognizing the inherent risks, several giving students timely feedback on how to ­ MENA countries have reduced the emphasis improve (Black and Wiliam 2010; Hattie and on high-stakes examinations, especially in the Timperley 2007; Roediger, Putnam, and lower grades. Jordan, Kuwait, and Lebanon Smith 2011). Classroom assessment tech- have abolished high-stakes examinations that niques can include verbal questioning and ration progression between grades 1 and 3. feedback, written quizzes, students holding Kuwait’s education officials noted that this up response cards or miniature whiteboards change represented a substantial reduction to give the teacher a real-time snapshot of in the dependence on examinations. Their classwide understanding, or activities requir- example may guide further reforms aimed at ing students to retrieve and apply newly ensuring that high-stakes examinations are acquired knowledge. rationed, do not create perverse incentives for Although teachers in MENA regularly teachers and students, and test higher-order assess students, these classroom assessments thinking skills in other MENA countries. are rarely aligned with student learning 3 0    Expec tations and Aspir ations outcomes or used to adapt instruction to stu- 5.2 ­ m illion of primary school age, and dents’ learning needs. Over 70 percent of stu- 5.3 million of preprimary age (UNICEF dents in MENA who participated in TIMSS n.d.). A wide range of factors are associated 2015 had teachers who reported placing a with educational exclusion in MENA. These major emphasis on monitoring students’ include disability, child labor, low maternal progress in mathematics through students’ education, exposure to conflict (see box O.8), ongoing work or classroom tests (Mullis et al. child marriage, migrant status, living in a 2016). Yet across MENA countries, classroom rural or isolated area, and belonging to a assessments are rarely used to adapt instruction nomadic group or a group that prevents chil- or provide students with meaningful feedback. dren from attending school for cultural or For example, only one in four teachers in religious reasons (UIS and UNICEF 2014). Jordan reported using classroom assessments Policies of inclusion mean that students to inform lesson planning (Rabie et al. 2017). with physical disabilities, learning difficulties, Failure to do so limits the potential of class- and other special educational needs are room assessments to improve student learning. increasingly in school alongside their peers. An estimated 53 million persons with disabili- ties live in MENA, yet most countries in the Give all children a fair chance to learn region still have a limited supply of special Countries reap the benefits of education education services (Alkhateeb and Hadidi when all children learn and develop their 2015). This shortfall arises from limited fund- human capital. MENA countries have made ing, inadequate facilities, unqualified teachers, impressive efforts to expand education, but or negative attitudes toward disability and millions of children are still out of school. special education. Several MENA countries, In the 2014–15 academic year, 14 million such as Jordan, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, children across the region were not in school. and the United Arab Emirates, have developed Among the unenrolled, 3.5 million were regulations and policies to create barrier-free ­ c hildren of lower-secondary school age, accessible environments for students with Box O.8  Conflict in MENA is depriving many children of education MENA is host to about a quarter of the world’s Syrian refugee children, 46 percent are out of school internally displaced persons (IDPs). As of May 2018, (formal and nonformal) in Lebanon, 36 percent in about 2 million people were internally displaced in Jordan, and 37 percent in Turkey (Brussels Conference the Republic of Yemen, 2 million in Iraq, and 0.2 mil- 2019). lion in Libya (IOM 2018; UNHCR 2018; UN OCHA Beyond finding a political solution to the conflicts 2018). Although there are few reliable data on school in Syria and the Republic of Yemen, more needs enrollment rates for this group, IDPs typically face to be done to ensure that the generation of young high hurdles to access education services. Rough esti- refugees and displaced children is not left behind in mates place IDPs’ school enrollment at just 28 per- education. This includes international support for cent in the Republic of Yemen and about 52 percent countries that are hosting refugees, countries that in Iraq (Ministry of Education, Republic of Yemen are in conflict, and postconflict countries to help 2017; UNICEF 2017). Enrollment rates are often not expand school infrastructure and provide the nec- disaggregated by level of education, but enrollment in essary inputs for teaching and learning. It is also upper-secondary and tertiary education is expected important to help create safe learning environments to be much lower than in basic education, similar to and provide financial relief to displaced and refugee the enrollment patterns of refugees. In Syria and host families. At the tertiary level, it is important to offer countries, 7.7 million school-age Syrian children face ­ programs that enable refugee students to access great obstacles in accessing education services. Among higher education. O v e r v i e w   3 1 disabilities. However, inadequate school facili- the learning gaps are substantial between stu- ties and shortages of support personnel such dents by socioeconomic level (OECD 2016a). as school psychologists, sign-language inter- Among 15-year-olds, the economic, social, preters, speech and language pathologists, and and cultural status of their household correl- physical and occupational therapists are a ates with substantial differences in student challenge (Alkhateeb and Hadidi 2015). performance, as shown by the PISA 2015 results. In Lebanon, the gap is equivalent to a Mind the learning gaps and support the difference of more than two full years of lowest performers schooling. Moreover, all nine MENA coun- Although the average levels of student per- tries that participated in the 2015 grade 4 formance on international assessments have TIMSS mathematics assessment were among been low in MENA, there is a wide range of the 13 countries with the widest gaps between student performance within each country. the top and bottom quartiles of performance Unlike in many advanced countries—such as (see ­figure O.14). Improving performance Canada, Estonia, Finland, and Japan—where among those at the bottom would provide the the link between test scores and socio- most rapid improvement in overall levels of economic status is generally weak, in MENA learning. FIGURE O.14  MENA has the biggest gaps in student achievement between top and bottom performers Difference in scale score between the 75th and 25th percentiles of grade 4 mathematics achievement, TIMSS 2015 500 653 613 596 450 582 575 576 600 569 562 Di erence in score between 75th and 25th percentiles 540 565 527 400 512 506 504 496 499 500 517 465 350 492 492 485 446 445 462 462 426 438 450 300 400 393 372 377 TIMSS scale score 250 367 356 338 321 320 300 311 200 281 161 145 145 150 150 126 134 134 137 140 200 125 111 113 119 96 100 102 100 88 90 77 100 50 0 0 s . Fe and Ca n s da ite nce Au es Ba a iA n a Ira Mo r am co p. an n te b E ait Em es s ep ta Ko and te ali bi tio i da te Re Sa hra at c Om na , U d Ar Kuw t Qa ira R ra ro Ar mira ira str Un ra l r ra St ian Fin Jo l a, ic er Em F de re d th ud ab Ne ab Isl a Ar n, ss d d te ha nite Ru ni ni i, U uD U bi ba Du Ab 75th percentile 25th percentile TIMSS scale center point Source: Mullis et al. 2016. Note: Includes all participating MENA countries (blue) and a selection of other countries. The diamonds represent the 75th percentile scores, and the circles represent the 25th percentile scores in the selected comparison countries. The horizontal blue line represents the TIMSS scale centerpoint, which is the mean of the overall achievement distribution in 1995 (kept constant over the years). TIMSS = Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study. 3 2    Expec tations and Aspir ations TABLE O.3  MENA’s student achievement gaps have both narrowed and widened Change in grade 8 TIMSS average achievement, 10th and 90th percentiles, 2011 and 2015 Average score Change in Country 2011 2015 Average score 10th percentile 90th percentile Mathematics Bahrain 409 454 45 72 19 Oman 366 403 37 54 22 Qatar 410 437 27 40 20 Iran, Islamic Rep. 415 436 21 20 23 Morocco 371 384 13 20 8 United Arab Emirates 456 465 9 −4 23 Lebanon 449 442 −7 −7 −7 Jordan 406 386 −20 −8 −22 Saudi Arabia 394 368 −26 −13 −35 Science Qatar 419 457 38 52 19 Oman 420 455 35 54 19 Morocco 376 393 17 18 16 Bahrain 452 466 14 12 18 United Arab Emirates 465 477 12 −3 22 Lebanon 406 398 −8 −13 −2 Iran, Islamic Rep. 474 456 −18 −16 −19 Jordan 449 426 −23 −15 −21 Saudi Arabia 436 396 −40 −59 −20 Source: Mullis et al. 2016, 72. Note: TIMSS = Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study. FIGURE O.15  MENA has the largest gender gaps in test scores Some MENA countries are closing the Highest score point difference in science (girls − boys), TIMSS grade 4, 2015 achievement gap between their best and poor- est performers, while others appear to have a 90 79 widening gap (see table O.3). A notable case 80 among all participating TIMSS countries is 70 the United Arab Emirates, where the top stu- Score point difference 60 dents are performing better than in previous years, but the poorer performers are faring 50 39 worse. Increasing retention through targeted 40 32 30 programs can help bottom performers at risk 30 24 of dropping out to stay in school. 20 14 12 11 10 10 8 8 5 Pay attention to the boys because they are falling far behind girls in learning 0 outcomes a ain an co ia za n n s it Em r M p. am d te ta bi e sta wa ar lan MENA has the largest gender disparities in oc Re Om ed hr Qa ira ra lg kh Ku or Sw Ba n ic iA Bu Fi student achievement, and they are consistently ud Ka ab Isl Sa Ar n, in favor of girls. Eight out of the 10 countries d Ira ite Un with the largest gender gaps in TIMSS are in Source: Martin et al. 2016. MENA. Saudi Arabia has the largest gap, with Note: The difference between girls and boys in the Islamic Republic of Iran is not statistically ­significant. TIMSS = Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study. boys significantly underperforming compared with girls (see figure O.15). Because the O v e r v i e w   3 3 Box O.9  MENA’s gender paradox presents a dual challenge for human capital The underperformance of MENA’s boys is a phe- older participate in the labor force (World Bank, nomenon on a scale not seen elsewhere in the World Development Indicators database). world. Education systems in MENA are clearly The inefficiencies and costs associated with the not meeting the learning needs of boys. And yet loss of learning among boys are substantial, eco- although girls are outperforming boys in educa- nomically and socially. Moreover, the underrepre- tion, MENA has the lowest female labor force sentation of women in the labor market, despite the participation rates among all regions in the world, fact that women considerably outperform men in according to the World Bank’s World Development learning from the early years all the way to adult- Indicators database. On average, across all MENA hood, represents a substantial underutilization of countries only 20 percent of women ages 15 and human capital. learning outcomes for all MENA students are Child 2009). By age 3, the vocabulary of a low, the pervasive gender gap amounts to a child whose parents have a college degree can learning crisis for boys in the region. Gender be as much as three times larger than the gaps in learning appear early; by the second vocabulary of a child whose parents have not grade, girls are outperforming boys in reading. completed high school (Center on the For example, in West Bank and Gaza there Developing Child 2009). was a 10 percentage point gap between girls Access to early childhood education in (17 percent) and boys (27 percent) who could MENA is highly unequal within countries. For not read a single word of connected text. example, in Djibouti and Egypt a child Across the 18 countries that participated in the from the wealthiest quintile of households is EGRA between 2010 and 2015, the gender six times more likely to attend an early child- gap is the most pronounced for MENA coun- hood care and education (ECCE) program as a tries (USAID 2018). The early manifestation of child from the poorest quintile (El-Kogali and gender gaps in foundational skills such as lit- Krafft 2015). In Iraq, Libya, and Tunisia, chil- eracy and numeracy points to the need to dren from the wealthiest quintile are 17 times address the specific learning needs of boys in more likely to attend an ECCE program than the early grades. Indeed, interventions that are children from the poorest quintile. What are not targeting boys and students in need of the short- and long-term implications of additional support may exacerbate the gender inequalities in early childhood development, gap (see box O.9). care, and education? When children start pri- mary school, they are already set on different Dedicate more resources to children from trajectories. Some children will have all they the poorest households need for success in school and in adult life. Inequality of opportunity10 starts early in life. Others will start their school life at a disadvan- Therefore, efforts to address it must also start tage, which will have subsequent effects early. Children born into circumstances not throughout their years of schooling and conducive to their well-being are likely to beyond. fall behind in their health, nutrition, and phys- Finally, large enrollment gaps exist in ical, cognitive, social, and emotional develop- MENA, particularly between the richest ment—all precursors to success in school. For and the poorest children. For example, in example, at just 18 months of age, a child’s Morocco more than half of lower-secondary vocabulary reflects the socioeconomic status school-age children in the poorest quintile of of his or her parents (Center on the Developing households are out of school, compared with 3 4    Expec tations and Aspir ations 6 percent in the richest quintile. Gaps in rates Several conditions in MENA today support of out-of-school children also occur by gender greater adoption of EdTech, including a and location (urban versus rural). young, dynamic, and tech-savvy population; an education market valued at about US$100 ­ billion (Al Masah Capital 2012); and Leverage technology toward a stronger a region in which countries on average allo- push for learning cate about a fifth of their budget to education The rapid penetration of technology and the (Trade Arabia News Service 2013; World myriad opportunities it presents entice citi- Bank 2008). All of this points to an environ- zens and policy makers to invest in digital ment conducive to EdTech and its growth. technologies. Across MENA, three underlying Many online platforms in MENA are pro- factors will keep access to technology at the viding Arabic learning content. Some of the forefront: (1) governments’ desire to diversify English-language content from Khan away from an oil-dependent economy; Academy and others has been translated into (2) efforts by businesses to remain globally Arabic. MENA-based content providers such competitive by extending their reach on digi- as Nafham have followed the Khan Academy tal technologies; and (3) the opportunity format with original content that uses curri- offered by digital technology to support learn- cula from several countries in the region, ing for all. A technology-­ driven future will along with crowdsourcing to upload lessons. require children to be technologically savvy, Others—such as Bibliotheca Alexandrina and education systems must support them in in Egypt, the Education Media Company becoming so. Although many other sectors in Morocco, and Talal Abu-Ghazaleh have already borne the brunt of technological International University in Lebanon—have disruption, the education sector has not created digital content in different languages. changed substantially in its principal mode of Some initiatives allow qualified refugees to delivery over the last 150 years—globally and access online courses. For example, the in MENA. Technology offers a unique oppor- German distance-learning university tunity to deliver high-­quality education in a Fernuniversität Hagen allows qualified refu- more efficient and effective manner. If lever- gees to access all online courses and provides aged smartly, technology can help MENA language training. Kiron University has part- countries to advance their education systems nered with massive open online course and support learning. (MOOC) providers in the United States to organize a two-year online course for EdTech solutions hold promise to boost refugees, with the possibility of completing ­ learning their studies at a host university in Germany EdTech—information and communication (Unangst 2017). In the United Kingdom, the technology (ICT) applications aimed at Department for International Development’s improving education—have been growing Partnership for Digital Learning and fast globally. In 2017 revenue from the global Increased Access (PADILEIA) aims to address EdTech market was estimated at US$17.7 bil- the higher education needs of young people lion (Business Wire 2018).11 Several factors displaced in Jordan and Lebanon by the have fueled this growth: recognition of the Syrian crisis through blended academic pro- importance of education to economic growth; grams, including MOOCs, targeted online a flattening or even decline in public financing learning, and classroom-based learning for of education, thereby creating space for displaced students (SPHEIR 2017). private sector participation; and—perhaps ­ most important—efforts to disrupt this sec- Leverage the strong public support for tor through technology in the hope of increas- education technology in MENA ing student learning and moving rapidly Families, students, and the broader community ahead in international education rankings. in MENA countries strongly support further O v e r v i e w   3 5 integration of digital technology in classrooms have made substantial investments in school to change the nature of education and training ICT infrastructure (Lightfoot 2011). ICT is systems. In a survey on social media and available in most MENA schools, averaging ­ education reform across 13 MENA countries, about 2.7 computers for every 10 grade 8 stu- most respondents supported ICT in the dents (see fi ­ gure O.16). However, the interna- ­ classroom (ASMR 2013). Of those surveyed, tional average is 4 computers for every 10 84 percent felt universal Internet access should grade 8 students. Cross-country variability is be a norm and that children in schools should quite wide, with 10.5 computers for every be able to access the Internet on personal 10 students in Qatar, and only 1.0 computer devices. More than three-quarters felt that for every 50 students in the Islamic Republic of social media should be part of the school cur- Iran (Mullis et al. 2016). riculum; indeed, 61 percent believed students should be allowed to use social networking EdTech is necessary but not sufficient to media in class. Responding to a question on improve student learning outcomes whether students should be allowed to engage The evidence is mixed on the impact of tech- in a range of computer-related activities, nology on education. A recent study by the almost 80 percent noted they would be happy Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s to have their children use “collaborative web Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab tools” in classwork. Nevertheless, those sur- (J-PAL) evaluated more than 100 EdTech veyed also recognized that some aspects of interventions and reveals important insights access to technology could have detrimental on the use of technology in education (Escueta effects on student learning. et al. 2017). The study notes that online con- nectivity is a necessary but not sufficient con- Expand ICT infrastructure for wider reach dition for improving student learning of EdTech solutions outcomes aided by EdTech’s most promising Accessing EdTech solutions and platforms solutions. Teachers must be capable of guid- requires ICT infrastructure. MENA countries ing students on how to search online resources FIGURE O.16  Computers are available in MENA’s schools, although coverage varies considerably Number of computers (including tablets) available for student use in school for every 10 grade 8 students, 2015 12 10.5 Number of computers/tablets per 10 students 10 8 7.0 6 4 3.3 1.9 1.7 2 1.6 1.4 1.0 0.9 0.3 0.2 0 Qatar Bahrain Kuwait Oman Lebanon United Saudi Jordan Egypt, Morocco Iran, Arab Arabia Arab Rep. Islamic Emirates Rep. Source: Mullis et al. 2016. 3 6    Expec tations and Aspir ations Box O.10  EdTech offers opportunities to leapfrog learning Computer-assisted learning (CAL) programs pair childhood development programs or review early ­ face-to-face classroom learning with online curricu- their children’s secondary report card, or alerting lum components. These programs work well when university students that it is time to submit student delivered to students through structured online and loan materials (Economist 2017; Escueta et al. 2017; in-class settings in which teachers are trained to facili- Pugatch and Wilson 2018). tate this interaction. CAL occurs any time a student Digital textbooks are interactive and allow learns through a combination of supervised school unique learning experiences for students. At one experiences away from home and online content end of the spectrum in MENA are mobile apps delivery, with some element of student control over that provide online interactive libraries, such as time, place, path, or pace (Horn and Staker 2011). Rawy Kids in Egypt or the Kitabi Book Reader With blended learning, classroom and online experi- in Lebanon. At the other end are those that use ences are tailored to reinforce one another (Horn and entertainment and games to encourage learning, Staker 2012). such as Sho’lah and Loujee, a “smart” Arabic toy Technology-based behavioral interventions aimed at learning-through-play (Arab News 2016). (nudging) draw on insights from behavioral eco- Recently, two smartphone app–based games were nomics. These interventions are proving effective in shown to improve early grade reading in conflict- a wide variety of education settings (Escueta et al. ridden Syria: Antura and the Letters and Feed the 2017). Nudging presents beneficiaries with choices Monster, both of which showed positive learn- without changing the costs of these choices in any ing results on initial impact evaluations and won real way. Typically, nudges reach users by text mes- awards at the 2017 EduApp4Syria competition sage, reminding parents to register children for (Comings 2018). and supporting the growth of critical thinkers improving student learning outcomes aided who can organize, prioritize, and synthesize by EdTech solutions. along the way. The study also offers some To ensure learning for all, special attention options that could be applied in MENA coun- should be paid to digital literacy skills. In tries (see box O.10). many countries, youths from both advan- A recent analysis of PISA results for MENA taged and disadvantaged backgrounds spend countries confirms these findings. Access to roughly the same time online each week. technology alone cannot solve problems However, there are significant differences in related to student outcomes (McKinsey 2017). the way they use the Internet. Even in high- The impact of adding one more computer to a income countries, where access to the Internet classroom is small, whereas supplying teach- is almost equal for children from different ers with computers has a larger positive socioeconomic backgrounds, students from impact; adding a computer for the teacher in disadvantaged backgrounds are more likely each classroom is six times more effective in to chat or play video games than their richer terms of student PISA scores than giving a stu- peers, who use the Internet more to search for dent a computer.12 Although increasing access information or read the news (World to computers and the Internet may not on its Economic Forum 2016). To turn “opportuni- own measurably improve academic achieve- ties into real opportunities” (OECD 2016d, 3) ment, it has been successful in increasing the for everyone and reduce (digital) inequalities, ease of technology use and the time spent schools must teach literacy skills while learning to use digital devices. In this sense, actively promoting technology as a means of online connectivity in the classroom could be improving skills and knowledge, including a necessary but not sufficient condition for learning about potential job markets. O v e r v i e w   3 7 Pull for skills FIGURE O.17  MENA needs a skills equilibrium Complementary reforms are needed for Education Strong supply education to achieve its potential Strong demand system of skills for skills For education to reach its full potential, it must provide students with skills that satisfy the economic and social needs of each coun- Private try. A push for learning would move educa- employers Strong demand tion closer to fulfilling its potential, but it for skills Youths and would be a second-best approach that would families Public leave most of that potential untapped employers (Rodrik 2008). Source: Adapted from Assaad, Krafft, and Salehi-Isfahani 2018. A first-best approach involves multisys- tem reforms that align a push for learning The education system needs to then respond with a pull for skills. It includes economic by supplying the set of skills needed reforms to match the skills required in the and ­ s ignaling the skills acquired (see labor market with those conferred by educa- figure O.17). tion and sought by parents and students. However, employers in MENA are not Multisystem reform would seek to address effectively communicating (signaling) to the distortions in the education sector and education system or students and parents beyond. For example, it would address sig- what skills they need. This weak signaling is nals and incentives from the labor market as exacerbated by the fact that in most coun- well as implement reforms within the educa- tries, private sector firms are disproportion- tion sector. Without a realignment of the ately microenterprises, and these businesses labor market that increases the demand for lack the ability to send signals effectively to skills, the education sector’s contribution to the region’s education systems (Assaad, goals such as economic diversification will Krafft, and Salehi-Isfahani 2018). Nor are not be fully realized. Moreover, without civil these firms well positioned to receive signals service reforms that support hiring, motivat- from the education system. Currently, the sig- ing, and empowering the best teachers, the nals are essentially for credentials (see teaching profession would remain underval- box O.11). ued and learning would be compromised. It is therefore important to understand how the education sector interacts with the eco- Address rigid labor policies nomic, social, and political environment to MENA’s rigid labor policies also constrain achieve expected outcomes and to imple- the pull for skills. For example, labor laws ment policies that address both the educa- make it extremely difficult for employers to tion system and labor market challenges. fire employees (World Bank 2013a). This factor creates a disincentive for the private Improve signaling for skills sector, and employers are therefore less likely Distortions in the labor market in MENA to hire on a trial basis to learn about a candi- countries have led to an emphasis on cre- date’s skills, as is common practice in other dentials rather than skills. To break out of parts of the world. That disincentive, cou- the current credentialist equilibrium in pled with the absence of information on the MENA and move toward a skills equilib- quality or productivity of graduates, means rium, employers need to send youths and that firms tend to hire based on social families strong signals of the kinds of skills networks. needed. For their part, these youths and Personal connections, not skills, drive families need to in turn demand the relevant labor market outcomes in MENA, further skills from the education system. dampening the demand for skills. A Gallup 3 8    Expec tations and Aspir ations Box O.11  Signaling in education is communicating about skills Countries across MENA are not in a skills equilibrium. Most high school graduates have fewer ways in The Gulf Cooperation Council is experiencing gaps which to signal their abilities, although the financial between nationals and immigrant workers in terms of returns to ability increase steeply with experience skills, labor prices, and labor mobility. There, policy (Arcidiacono, Bayer, and Hizmo 2010). makers are discussing the need for a fundamental In MENA, test scores do not currently appear reform of the skills system. For example, of the 23,000 to provide adequate information about ability annual new job seekers in Kuwait, some 10,000 (Assaad, Krafft, and Salehi-Isfahani 2018). In addi- would be unable to find suitable jobs. Placements for tion to making test scores more meaningful (by these job seekers would require the demand for labor measuring skills more effectively), changes in labor to increase (employers wanting more of the kinds of policy could provide employers with the informa- workers currently produced by the education system) tion and flexibility they need by, for example, or education reforms to match skills more closely with encouraging trial periods of employment prior the labor market (Sleiman-Haidar 2016). to long-term contracts. Together, these practices Signaling is the process through which one party would send employers a more accurate signal of reveals some information about itself to another. graduates’ skills. For example, in the labor market employers do Signals from employers to students and educa- not immediately know the productive capabilities tional institutions are important as well. National of their new hires. One prominent way in which employer surveys, with widely publicized reports applicants signal their abilities is through educa- and results, could be one route to signaling the tion (Arcidiacono, Bayer, and Hizmo 2010; Spence skills that employers need. Career academies or 1973). In the United States, the résumés of college other models of employer-school partnerships can graduates include information on grades, majors, give students information on the jobs available and test scores. This information acts as a signal and the skills required. Partnerships that facilitate of ability and increases the likelihood that college internships, mentoring, and other informational graduates will be paid in line with their ­ abilities. experiences may be effective (Lerman 2013). Poll conducted in 16 MENA economies employment and assigned a job from which found that, on average, 70 percent of respon- their employer was unable to terminate their dents agreed that a personal connection is appointment, with wages determined by critical to securing a job (see f ­igure O.18). seniority and education level (Meng, Shen, Families and students also lack incentives to and Xue 2013). In the late 1970s, China suc- focus on skills; in the labor market, measur- cessfully implemented multiple economic able skills from education are rewarded much reforms, including giving more wage flexibil- less than, if at all, social background or cre- ity to firms and introducing a labor contract- dentials (Assaad, Krafft, and Salehi-Isfahani ing system that moved away from lifetime 2018; Krafft and Assaad 2016; Krishnan tenure and gave state-owned enterprises the et al. 2016). right to lay off workers. Following China’s Effective reforms, such as those in China, first national work conference in 1980, enter- address both rigid labor policies and the prises were granted more autonomy in hiring, education-specific challenges that contribute ­ and job seekers were given more autonomy to to low skills and poor signals. Previously in find jobs, including in the private sector China, strict regulations, a lack of competi- (Brooks and Tao 2003).Wage flexibility, tion, and an inability to fire unproductive including instituting bonuses, has been gradu- workers resulted in low productivity ally increased, and the share of bonuses in (Morrison 2011). Within the command econ- total wages for all enterprises increased omy, workers were guaranteed lifetime from 2 percent of the wage bill in 1978 O v e r v i e w   3 9 FIGURE O.18  A personal connection (wasta) is critical to securing work in MENA Percentage responding to the statement that a personal connection is critical to securing work 100 10 90 12 20 18 19 20 21 23 26 80 19 29 22 30 28 70 19 24 60 Percent 50 90 85 40 79 79 79 78 76 75 73 72 67 66 64 63 62 30 58 20 10 0 n an ain it co . sia p. ria s za a q ic ya r ep ta te bi no Ira wa bl Re Ga Lib oc rd ge ni Qa ira hr ,R ra pu ba Ku Tu Jo or b iA Al Ba nd en Em Re ra Le M ud m ka t, A ab b Ye Sa ra an yp Ar nA tB Eg d ite ria es W Un Sy Agree Disagree Source: Gallup Poll 2013. to 16 ­p ercent in 1997, effectively giving professional incentives have even greater employees the incentive to perform well potential. Changes to career ladders and other (Brooks and Tao 2003). Since 1997, earnings forms of recognition for teachers have had have almost doubled (Meng, Shen, and Xue substantial motivational effects in several 2013). Meanwhile, the reforms have led to high-­performing countries. These systems use higher returns to schooling (Zhang et al. appraisal processes to identify talent and 2005). Students have greater incentives to accomplishment (Darling-Hammond et al. learn skills that will allow them to earn higher 2017; Liang, Kidwai, and Zhang 2016). wages based on their skill set and productivity In most MENA countries, teachers’ career instead of their education credentials. advancement pathways depend mainly on years of service, not performance (World Reform civil service to attract the best Bank 2012). Greater efforts are needed to educators reform teacher incentive systems to promote A pull for skills requires civil service reforms good teaching and learning and to provide to recruit, retain, and empower the best edu- rewarding career pathways. These types of cators. No education system will be successful initiatives may require reforming civil service unless it provides meaningful incentives rules and regulations to support incentive (financial or professional) for teacher effort and accountability systems. For example, in (World Bank 2018e). Although the evidence Shanghai teachers can advance profession- is mixed on the effects of financial incentives ally through a five-level ranking system on teachers, professional incentives appear to (Liang, Kidwai, and Zhang 2016; World hold the potential for better student learning Bank 2018a). Australia, Canada, and outcomes. Merit pay systems may be Singapore have similar career ladders or ­ warranted in some contexts, but the interna- pathways that reward teachers’ knowledge, tional evidence is clear that well-chosen skills, and contributions (NCEE 2016). 4 0    Expec tations and Aspir ations Useful examples of rewarding and flexible in MENA’s public schools do not have the pathways for school principals can be found authority to select teachers for their around the world. For example, in Flemish schools or to fire underperforming or Belgium a former principal can serve as chronically absent teachers. By contrast, director of a community of schools that col- many OECD countries (Denmark, laborates on issues such as career guidance Ireland, the Netherlands, New Zealand, for students, course provision, and special Slovenia, Switzerland, the United needs education (Pont, Nusche, and Kingdom, and the United States) give the Moorman 2008). England has created a school principal a substantial role in hiring Leadership Development Framework that and firing teachers (see figure O.19). Of provides a pathway of programs and stan- the six MENA countries participating in dards that extend across a school leader’s PISA 2015, the three with the highest career, including opportunities for experi- mathematics scores (Lebanon, Qatar, and enced school leaders to support other princi- the United Arab Emirates) grant a level of pals (Pont, Nusche, and Moorman 2008). In responsibility to principals for school gov- Shanghai, the career ladder of school princi- ernance that is similar to that in OECD pals has four levels that are aligned with job countries, although more studies are performance (Jensen, Downing, and Clark needed to demonstrate whether the corre- 2017b; Liang, Kidwai, and Zhang 2016; lation between school governance and stu- NCEE 2016). dent performance is causal. In MENA, a school principal’s authority Efforts are under way to improve school to determine resource needs, budgeting, leadership in some MENA countries, and personnel management is relatively although it has been a slow process. low (World Bank 2015c). Most principals Tunisia’s primary school directors have FIGURE O.19  School principals in MENA have less authority than those in OECD countries Percentage of students in schools in which the principal has considerable responsibility for ... Making budget allocations within the school Approving student admission Setting student disciplinary policies Hiring teachers Deciding which courses to o er Setting student assessment policies Firing teachers Forming the school budget Choosing textbooks Choosing course content Setting teachers’ salary increases Setting teachers’ starting salaries 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Percent OECD average MENA average Source: OECD 2016a. Note: OECD = Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. O v e r v i e w   4 1 little access to financial resources. Although students are able to do with their learning— they are explicitly required by law to pro- that is, the skills students have acquired as a vide guidance to teachers on curriculum result of the education process. and teaching-related tasks, in practice these Curricula in education systems across tasks are often left to pedagogical counsel- MENA reflect the belief that education ors and inspectors who make periodic vis- should provide academic content, workforce its. Tunisia’s school directors also do not preparation, and social and civic develop- have the authority to select or remove ment. Recent reforms over the last few teachers in their schools. Likewise, they do decades have added, for example, life skills, not have the authority to reward strong foreign languages, problem-solving performance. Recognizing these governance approaches, and more science, mathematics, issues in primary education, Tunisia has and information technology to curricula designed a project aimed at empowering (Alayan, Rohde, and Dhouib 2012). The leg- school leaders and strengthening school islative rhetoric in MENA countries on what management that will be implemented in skills students should acquire in school the coming years (World Bank 2018c). aligns with 21st-century skills. Most empha- size mastery of Arabic and foreign languages, awareness of human rights, desire for inter- Align curricula with the skills national cooperation, awareness of environ- demanded mental and conservation issues, critical Official curricula determine what education thinking, and research skills. For example, systems intend their students to learn. Saudi Arabia’s education legislation states Ideally, those curricula should reflect the that students should have the skills and skills that prepare students for social and knowledge to contribute to society economi- economic life, and any reforms should be cally and culturally and to build up their aimed at ensuring that what students learn communities. The United Arab Emirates’ aligns with the skills they need. In fact, cur- curriculum document states that its educa- ricula are the nexus where the multiple tion system trains students for physical, spheres of society, the labor market, and the intellectual, and emotional development and education system should meet. The shift prepares them for their future. Morocco’s from a credentialist equilibrium to a skills goals focus on language acquisition, devel- equilibrium can be observed through curri- oping appropriate social skills, understand- cula. Systems are aligned when official cur- ing civic matters, and preparing students for ricula reflect the skills demanded by society future careers (UNESCO 2011). and the labor market. Conversely, when Yet even though the legislative rhetoric official curricula are outdated and discon- may reflect a modern approach to education, nected from practical, real-life content, the the material studied, and the pedagogical result is a mismatch between what students approaches used, many MENA classrooms acquire and what society and employers remain traditional and disconnected from require. students’ everyday lives (Bouhlila 2011). Across the world, curricular reforms are Material is presented as a set of facts and moving toward expressing outcomes in terms processes to be memorized and in a manner of skills and away from defining curricular that does not encourage independent learn- content only as subject material to be taught ing and investigation. Connections between (UNESCO 2017b). This shift represents a theory and practice are left unexplored, as greater pull for skills as the focus moves from are links between past and present (Alrebh the acquisition of facts and toward what and Al-Mabuk 2016). In addition to the 4 2    Expec tations and Aspir ations Box O.12  Reforming vocational education In some MENA countries, the vocational education (Oxford Business Group 2017), and there is inter- tracks are growing and include religious, technical, est in other countries across the region in making industrial, agricultural, and commercial education. vocational education work better for students and Algeria has recently seen increased enrollment in for the labor market. vocational education. The nation has partnered with Vocational education works best when schools public and private companies to create programs in collaborate with employers. In Egypt, vocational construction, public works, electricity, agriculture, schools lack appropriate facilities and hands-on and tourism (Oxford Business Group 2015). Bahrain learning opportunities (Krafft 2013). Vocational began to introduce apprenticeships in 2007–08. education has also failed to adapt appropriately After the 2011 revolution, the Tunisian Ministry of to the available jobs, and it may be too rigid in its Education began to develop a reform plan that will structure, failing to provide students with a broad include restructuring its vocational education tracks enough foundation for employment. poor learning that results, a lack of relevance A few MENA economies have recently to real life makes students less interested and begun to explore competency-based learning. less prepared for the world beyond school. Through its Integrated Education Reform Relevance is particularly important in pro- Program, Kuwait is transforming its curricula grams that are intended to relate closely to and instructional and assessment methods. the workplace (see box O.12). This approach focuses on the student, empha- Internationally, economies take a variety of sizes applied knowledge, and caters to differ- approaches to creating and implementing ent learning abilities. A national curriculum skills- or competency-based curricula. In U.S. framework has been developed by local edu- public schools, competency-based systems use cation professionals, along with curricular state learning standards to determine academic standards for all subjects and grades. expectations and define “proficiency” in a Competency-based textbooks are being devel- given course, subject area, or grade level oped in line with the new standards, as well (although other sets of standards may also be as a national assessment to gauge progress at used, including standards developed by dis- the national, school, and student levels. tricts and schools or by subject-area organiza- tions). Several high-scoring East Asian education systems (Hong Kong SAR, China; Recognize that context matters Japan; Korea; and Singapore) have begun to legislate and implement competency-based for learning and skills century curricula to help students develop 21st-­ Implementing education reforms in MENA skills by reducing the relative weight of through a push for learning and a pull for s ubject-centered education. Among these ­ skills will not achieve the same results across ­ economies, some, such as Korea, prefer greater all contexts. There are multiple models for control and prescribe the curriculum. Others, transforming education. Finland and Korea such as Japan, set general guidelines and grant were both top scorers in PISA 2015, a signal greater autonomy to schools and teachers to of strong learning. Yet the two education develop their curricula (Asia Society and systems producing this learning are quite dif- OECD 2018; Cheng 2017; Moon 2007). ferent (see box O.13). O v e r v i e w   4 3 Box O.13  Finland and the Republic of Korea rely on different successful education models Both Finland and Korea have successful, high-­ country (Morgan 2016). Finnish schools offer wel- performing education systems, and yet these sys- fare services and free early academic support for tems differ greatly. Korea is known for its rigorous, students who have needs in reading, writing, or test-driven system, whereas Finland has a more math (Morgan 2014, 2016), which helps to diminish accommodating, flexible system with no mandated preexisting inequalities among students, enabling standardized tests, except for college entrance exams them to learn. (Darling-Hammond, Wei, and Andree 2010). A high In addition, both countries invest in and develop school student in Korea spends on average 10 hours a accomplished teachers. In Finland, teaching is a highly day at school and is under immense pressure from his respected profession that is often perceived to be more or her family to do well (Ellinger and Beckham 1997). important than medicine or law. Finland admits only By contrast, Finland allows students to take courses the top 10 percent of students to the teacher education at their own pace in their final years of schooling, program. Teachers come out of the five-year intensive enabling them to learn the material better with less program well prepared, allowing them to have more stress and on their own time (Morgan 2014). There autonomy to teach the way they feel is most effective is no clearly “right” education system—both of these (Morgan 2014). The program involves a wide variety high-­performing systems promote learning. of training, including observing teachers in the class- And yet despite their different environments, room, practicing teaching lessons with students, as these systems have a few distinct similarities. Both well as preparing students to become researchers and countries are committed to providing students with practitioners. In Korea, teachers are required to take equal learning opportunities. In Korea, teachers 90 hours of professional development courses every rotate to different schools every five to seven years, three years to enhance their teaching. One Korean creating more chances for exceptional teachers professional development program offers an advanced to interact with disadvantaged students (Morgan certificate, which often leads to an increase in salary 2016). PISA revealed that the opportunities to learn and sometimes to a promotion (Darling-Hammond, in Finland are essentially the same throughout the Wei, and Andree 2010). MENA countries need to roll out reform education system can emphasize the develop- efforts based on what is feasible in education, ment of more targeted job skills because edu- economic, or social reform. Successful cators will know what skills employers need. reforms will depend on understanding the Conditions that enable or hinder program existing constraints (Rodrik 2008). For exam- success are a crucial aspect of successful ple, countries such as Jordan and Lebanon reforms. face a large influx of refugees from the civil How reforms are designed, introduced, war in Syria, so any reforms of their educa- approved, and implemented within a specific tion systems must consider the need to accom- country also determines their success. For modate refugee children in the system and the example, in Mexico reforms were introduced associated constraints. Another example is after significant negotiations with teachers’ when coordination between the education unions, which resulted in their successful sector and labor market is not feasible, and implementation. In Tunisia, the reform pro- the information needed to provide specific in- cess became confrontational and was ulti- demand job skills is not available. In this case, mately blocked (Grindle 2004; Kingdon et al. the education system could, in the interim, 2014; World Bank 2018c). focus on important foundational skills in The effectiveness of different policy options schools. When coordination between the edu- often depends on whether complementary cation sector and labor market is feasible, the conditions are in place. For example, 4 4    Expec tations and Aspir ations school-based decision making can be effective in the social norm for driving safety. in improving learning outcomes, but it may be However, it is not enough just to enact less effective in disadvantaged contexts in laws; they must be strictly implemented which parents are less able to participate ­ and encouraged. Meanwhile, a behavioral (Carr-Hill, Rolleston, and Schendel 2016). response to incentives in the short run can Meanwhile, early childhood development pro- lead to longer-term shifts in behavior and grams have enormous potential to improve social norms (World Bank 2015e). An learning outcomes, but they are ineffective example is nudging via text message to when program quality is low (Bouguen et al. encourage parents to register their children 2013; Jung and Hasan 2014; Temple and for ECD programs (Escueta et al. 2017; Reynolds 2007) or when they are not available Pugatch and Wilson 2018). for the highest-risk populations (Karoly 2017). Another approach to influencing norms is Sufficient resources and a sustained to identify champions or norm entrepreneurs approach that stays the course to the end within social groups who could lead or while continuously monitoring results are ­ demonstrate the change, thereby leveraging also important. In Morocco, a lack of ade- social influence to change behavior (World quate funding was a big obstacle to achiev- Bank 2015e). A good example is the Teachers ing the goals of education reform between First initiative in Egypt, which has developed 2005 and 2009 (European Commission a professional development program build- 2010). High turnover among the top leader- ing on the UNESCO Competency Framework ship of ministries of education and senior for Teachers. As of 2018, it had enrolled administrators also stalls reform efforts. 10,000 teachers across eight governorates Between 2010 and 2017, Jordan had six (Teachers First 2018). It trains school-based ministers of higher education, Egypt had innovation teams to support teachers in seven, and Lebanon had four—all of whom adopting modern pedagogy in the classroom. were in office for less than three years. 13 Teachers First also aims to transform the Recent high turnover in ministers of educa- teacher assessment system to capture changes tion has also been noted in Kuwait, in behavior over time, with the learner Morocco, and Saudi Arabia. becoming more active in learning and assess- ment processes (Teachers First 2018). Tackle social norms that hold back education Promote tolerance through education To make any substantial changes in educa- The prospects for peace and stability in tion, countries must tackle the inefficient MENA will be shaped by its citizens’ ability social norms that inhibit reform. Changing to coexist with people of different nation- social norms is not easy, but it can be done. alities, ethnicities, and religions. Education Raising awareness about the costs or inef- is one of the principal means of building a ficiencies of certain norms or the benefits culture of peace (UNESCO 1999). It can that would accrue to society from reforms help to promote tolerance by enhancing can influence a shift in the social mind-set. knowledge and reasoning skills and reduc- However, such an effort would have to be ing prejudices (Coenders and Scheepers based on credible evidence not connected 2003). to any ideological or political rhetoric and In MENA, higher levels of education are would have to focus on real, substantial generally associated with higher levels of reforms and not minor changes in policies t olerance for people with different back- ­ (Khemani 2017). Changing laws can also grounds (see figure O.20). In Algeria, Iraq, lead to a shift in norms. For example, laws Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Tunisia, and on wearing seat belts in cars led to a shift West Bank and Gaza, higher levels of O v e r v i e w   4 5 FIGURE O.20  Tolerance is associated with education, but intolerance is high even among the educated in MENA Percentage of respondents who would not like to have “people of a different religion” as neighbors, by highest education level attained 70 60 50 40 Percent 30 20 10 0 Algeria Bahrain Iraq Jordan Lebanon Libya Morocco Qatar Tunisia West Bank and Gaza No formal education Primary completed Secondary completed University degree Source: Inglehart et al. 2014. education correspond to more tolerance for experiences, and labor market dynamics. people of a different religion. However, the Modern curricula that promote noncognitive association between level of education and or “soft skills” (as well as cognitive skills) social values in MENA is weaker than in the and instructional practices that promote rest of the world (Diwan 2016). inquiry, discussion, reasoning, and team- Even the most educated in MENA have work can promote greater tolerance. levels of intolerance at or above the rates of Conversely, traditional curricula that are other regions in the world. For example, heavy in outdated content and narrowly 34 percent of MENA respondents to the 2014 defined concepts and emphasize knowledge World Values Survey said they disliked having recall, control, and discipline can lead to neighbors who were immigrants or foreign closed minds. In Rwanda, education has workers (Inglehart et al. 2014). This rate of been an important part of a holistic, systemic dislike is three times higher than that observed approach to bringing about changes in atti- in high-income countries (12 percent). tudes leading to more tolerance and less vio- Furthermore, 32 percent of respondents in the lence (see box O.14). region disliked having neighbors of a different In view of the conflicts MENA has been religion. This rate is the highest across all facing for almost a decade, there is an impor- regions and almost eight times higher than tant role for education in the promotion of that of high-income countries. peace and social stability. However, educa- Thus, although education may contribute tion cannot do it alone. Improving political to greater tolerance, its effect may largely and economic conditions is also critical for depend on what is taught and how it is the peace and stability of the region. This taught in the classroom, as well as political effort requires multisystem alignment as well orientation, social interactions, historical as a wider social and political commitment. 4 6    Expec tations and Aspir ations Box O.14  In Rwanda, education has played a role in building peace Education can be a crucial entry point for address- values, girls’ access to education, and attention ing the drivers of conflict. In Rwanda, education to children with special needs. To improve their was recognized as the “vehicle for positive social impact, education leaders sought support from transformation to reduce the likelihood of returning complementary health and social programs that to violence.” Schools became the common ground enhanced the educational experience for children. where parents could meet, rebuild trust, and seek In short, the implementation of these agreements a common goal. To develop education policies that required communal ownership, trust, and time to explicitly addressed social cohesion and to contrib- develop. Greater authority over implementation at ute to national reconciliation, curricula were modi- the school and district levels was granted, accom- fied to emphasize “a culture of peace” and promote panied by greater accountability and operational positive national values, justice, tolerance, respect, ­ efficiency, more responsive and efficient manage- solidarity, and democracy. Curricular reform and ment, and ­continued capacity building. the removal of social barriers took patience and time because they required agreements on l ­anguage, Source: World Bank 2013b. A new education pact aligned through a powerful alliance. This effort would require strong leadership and Stakeholders’ goals for education reflect the shared accountability. It also would require myriad roles that education can play in an bringing investments and resources in line with economy and society. Many stakeholders the vision’s priorities. High-performing educa- have a shared sense of purpose around basic tion systems—such as those of Japan, Korea, goals such as literacy; however, beyond these and Singapore—are champions of strong goals, groups have different views of the pur- ­ education pacts that underscore the role of a pose of education. The dissonance across unified vision for education across stakehold- ­ stakeholders’ goals for education is a sub- ers. That vision includes consistent and coher- stantial obstacle. Education becomes a ent reforms to achieve human ­ capital–driven “­battlefield” (Purpel and Shapiro 1995, 60) ­ economic growth (Wong 2017). where the different stakeholders fight in pur- suit of ideological hegemony. National leaders must lead the change In all countries, education is the subject of an ongoing national dialogue. In MENA, this Political will and leadership are critical to national dialogue needs to be channeled rallying MENA around a new pact for edu- toward a unified vision that takes into cation. Political leadership can initiate shifts account the four tensions holding back educa- in behavioral norms to push for education tion, the social norms that define them, and reform (Acemoglu and Jackson 2015). The the local context. A shared vision also needs national leaders of Japan, Korea, and to take into account countries’ development Singapore, in championing education priorities, their economic opportunities, and reforms, made education a national priority their realities and resources so that the goals with a vision and clear goals and cultivated a set are realistic and attainable. consensus among stakeholders (World Bank To realize this unified vision, political will 2018e). Policies were built on the realization is critical. Moreover, the interests of a wide that the full potential of education can be variety of stakeholders—including teachers, achieved only through cross-sectoral policy principals, inspectors, politicians, communi- alignment. The leaders succeeded in promot- ties, employers, and students—need to be ing a shared vision for education to which O v e r v i e w   4 7 parents can aspire for their children’s future norms and expectations of a group such as (World Bank 2018e) and a shared responsi- a teachers’ union (Khemani 2017; World bility among all stakeholders for assuming Bank 2015e). their role in educational outcomes (Wong Experience has shown that reforms can 2017). succeed if there is strong political will to MENA has produced many great leaders implement them. This means that politicians whose charisma and vision have led to and interest groups would have to refrain remarkable progress. For example, Egyptian from using education as a tool to support educator Taha Hussein, who became blind their political views. An important step as a young child, went on to become one of toward aligning political will and stakehold- the preeminent thinkers of his time, leaving ers’ interests in education reform would be to his mark on an entire nation (Cachia 2014). reduce the number of policy makers who Serving as minister of education in the have the power to veto policy reforms for early 1950s, he worked to massively expand political interests and bring them in line with public education and to abolish school other stakeholders through a narrative of fees. Considering education essential to shared values (Acosta and Haddad 2014)— human existence, Hussein famously said, see box O.15 for an example of a successful “Education is like water and air” (Cook use of this approach in Peru. and El-Refaee 2017). To rally support for education reform in 2008, Australia’s deputy prime minister devel- oped clear outreach strategies that engaged the Reconcile interests in a unified vision news media. She personally briefed the media for education on new proposals in advance, using stories A new pact and shared vision require align- about schools and students to humanize the ing political will and multiple interests in narrative around reform. She also communi- society. Perverse behavioral norms and ide- cated with the business community through ological polarization can hold countries “boardroom lunches,” highlighting the busi- back from delivering public goods (World ness case for reforms (Bruns and Schneider Bank 2016b). Moreover, human sociality, 2016). The minister of education of Ontario, whereby people associate and behave as Canada, regularly visited schools and school members of a group and establish norms boards across the province when he was and patterns of cooperation, can also block shadow minister, meeting with about 6,000 reforms (Khemani 2017; World Bank people in an effort to spend time with t ­ eachers, 2015e). Some groups impede reforms that students, and parents to engage them in policy they perceive would reduce their power or dialogue and establish trust (OECD 2011c). ability to extract benefits (Khemani 2017; Recently, the president of Egypt has also Kingdon et al. 2014). One example might been using the media and conferences to build be the teachers who are benefiting from the support for education reforms. He has been industry of private tutoring. This group advocating and supporting major reforms could try to obstruct any reforms in assess- overhauling the education system, shifting ment systems that would jeopardize the from the traditional rote learning, high-stakes additional income they receive for holding examination system that focuses on credentials private classes for students preparing for to a modern system that focuses on learning national examinations. This could also be and skills. He held several youth and education true of teachers’ unions that do not want to conferences to rally public support for the see reforms that would require teachers to reforms, reassuring parents and students about work additional hours or to change their the benefits of these reforms for them individu- practice significantly. Resistance to reform ally and for society and the economy as a may be driven not only by self-interest but whole. He announced that 2019 would be the also by peer pressure to comply with the year of education (Egyptian Gazette 2018). 4 8    Expec tations and Aspir ations Box O.15  Peru has found success in aligning interests Through political will and alignment of stake- to the government’s fight against poverty. During holders’ interests, Peru succeeded in reducing the the 2006 presidential campaign, all candidates rate of stunted growth among children under age pledged to reduce malnutrition by 5 percentage 5 in only six years. This was achieved by reduc- points for children under 5 years of age within ing the number of policy makers with veto power. 5 years (5×5×5). Once elected, the president of These “veto players” were brought in line with Peru renewed his public commitment and set a tar- other stakeholders through a shared set of values. get reduction of 9 percentage points and secured Stakeholders were unified under a common policy support from the prime minister, the minister for platform and advocacy coalition, the Children’s women and social development, and regional gov- Malnutrition Initiative. This coalition was estab- ernors. Between 2005 and 2011, Peru reduced lished to convene both government and non- stunting by 10 percentage points. government stakeholders to consolidate a single objective of making children’s malnutrition central Source: Acosta and Haddad 2014. Share accountability to deliver results greater accountability means that all stake- Accountability is critical to improving learn- holders work collectively within a common ing. However, identifying who is accountable vision for education and share responsibility for learning outcomes is extremely difficult for learning. These stakeholders (policy because different actors within and outside makers, school leaders, teachers, parents, the education system interact to produce employers, and students) must first hold learning outcomes. Usually, educators, espe- themselves accountable to ensure learning cially teachers, are the focus of accountabil- while demanding accountability from ity for student outcomes. Although teachers others. For MENA countries to reap the full play a crucial role in student learning benefits of education, responsibility and because they interact directly with students accountability have to be shared collectively in the learning process, policy makers, school (see figure O.21). leaders, and parents, among others, also For accountability systems to be effective, have an important role in shaping education the roles and responsibilities of the various outcomes. Therefore, accountability in edu- stakeholders have to be clearly defined and cation cannot be limited to any one individ- understood. For example, a lack of under- ual or group (UNESCO 2017a; World Bank standing of the new roles for school admin- 2004). istrators in Sweden resulted in varying In a new education pact for MENA, approaches and structures, which made it accountability needs to go beyond the educa- difficult to evaluate and compare learning tion system. There would be multiple across municipalities (Burns, Köster, and accountability mechanisms, whereby citizens Fuster 2016). Moreover, when accountabil- hold governments accountable, policy mak- ity lines are not clear, blame could be shifted ers hold schools accountable, and principals among service providers, and citizens would hold teachers accountable. However, if the not be able to determine who is responsible system as a whole is not aligned, conflicts (UNESCO 2017a). Without clearly defined and distortions will arise between the stake- roles and responsibilities, even well-designed holders at various levels (Burns, Köster, and accountability mechanisms can fail. On the Fuster 2016). System alignment toward one hand, parental monitoring in school can O v e r v i e w   4 9 FIGURE O.21  Learning is a collective responsibility, and everyone is accountable Policy makers Parents • Accountable for providing vision, leadership, • Accountable for children going to and strategy for the education system to and completing school promote learning and skills • Responsible for providing enabling • Responsible for providing curricula, standards, and Employers learning environments at home, engaging assessments development and effective • Responsible for sending the right in school activities, and seeking out feedback and efficient management of resources signals to the education system and on student learning (physical, financial, human, and information parents on skills required • Responsible for holding policy makers, sharing) • Accountable for rewarding skills schools, and teachers accountable for learning not credentials by demanding qualified teachers, relevant School leaders curricula, and safe school environments • Accountable for creating a school environment conducive to learning Civil society Labor market • Responsible for demanding transparent (safe, well-equipped, well connected) • Responsible for monitoring, supporting, communication of education inputs and and empowering teachers to deliver learning outcomes and hold them accountable Teachers Government and Parents and civil • Accountable for student learning education providers society progress in their classroom • Responsible for monitoring student progress • Responsible for undertaking Learning continuous professional development and holding policy makers and Media school leaders accountable • Accountable for reporting factual Students Media information and for correcting false claims • Responsible for sharing information on student progress with parents • Responsible for offering a platform for Students policy makers and other stakeholders to • Responsible for being active and curious learners share information and promote greater • Responsible for demanding accountability and skills from transparency on education policies and schools, teachers, and policy makers other educational information • Responsible for using technology and social media to exchange • Responsible for delivering news knowledge and learning and organize in a constructive manner responsibly based on evidence and data Source: World Bank. be counterproductive if parental involve- education policies, developing curricula and ment becomes too invasive and schools do standards, introducing national informa- not grant the teacher sufficient autonomy tion systems that effectively monitor learn- (World Bank 2008). On the other hand, if ing, and allocating resources at the national schools do not understand and recognize and regional levels (human, physical, and parents’ role in the education system, they financial). may be unresponsive to legitimate parental Parents are responsible for their children’s initiatives and suggestions. education and for creating a supportive At the level of the education provider, home environment. They are also responsi- teachers are responsible for monitoring and ble for engaging in school activities and assessing their students’ progress and for monitoring their children’s learning individ- giving parents regular feedback. Teachers ually and collectively through parents’ asso- also should pursue ongoing professional ciations. Parents should also hold the development. School leaders are responsible education system (policy makers, schools, for creating a school environment condu- and teachers) accountable for their children’s cive to learning and ensuring that teachers learning and demand qualified teachers, rel- are delivering on learning by monitoring evant curricula, and safe learning environ- and empowering them. Policy makers have ments. Employers also have a responsibility the overall responsibility for providing in the learning process. They need to signal vision and strategy and developing, leading, to parents, students, and the education and supporting the implementation of s ystem what skills are needed in the ­ 5 0    Expec tations and Aspir ations Box O.16  Egypt’s education sector uses technology to ensure accountability The Arab Republic of Egypt has embarked on • Enhancing transparency around student assess- ­ ambitious accountability reforms in the education ments and citizens’ trust of assessment results s ector using modern technology. It is enhancing ­ • Strengthening accountability across key stake- accountability through the following channels: holders, giving the community and parents a greater voice in policy making • Increasing the amount of data and information • Creating a better compact between the Minis- available to policy makers and the public, thereby try of Education and Technical Education and improving accountability for resource allocation schools by improving district-level management. and service delivery FIGURE BO.16.1  Technology can shape accountability relationships Policy makers Voice Compact • Public con dence in a fair • Education data dashboard and better secondary graduation system • Quality assurance systems • Education data dashboard Accountability relationships Providers • Frontline providers Management Citizens (teachers, principals) • Education data dashboard • Organizations • Teacher professional development (ministries, schools) and induction systems Client power • Public con dence in a fair and better secondary graduation system • Education data dashboard Source: World Bank 2018d. labor market. Finally, students are also The media play an important role in hold- responsible for their learning; they must not ing stakeholders accountable and in explain- be passive recipients. With their growing ing complex issues. Social media are a access to social media, students have access growing major source of information in the to massive amounts of learning resources. In world and in MENA countries, especially for many instances, they may have more access youths, and they can serve as a platform for to information than their parents on global policy makers wishing to share information skills and knowledge and can demand these and promote greater transparency on educa- skills from the education system. Students tion policy reforms. Social media also provide can also organize themselves to support their citizens with a mechanism to hold policy schools and hold service providers and edu- makers and educators accountable. And yet cators to account. social media can also be exploited by interest O v e r v i e w   5 1 groups to block important reforms and education budgets on staff salaries—often spread misinformation. In MENA countries more than 90 percent of all recurrent educa- such as Egypt, Jordan, and Kuwait, oppo- tion spending. In doing so, they crowd out nents of education reforms have launched investment in other important inputs that strong social media campaigns against those contribute to learning, such as teaching and reforms. Open channels for communication learning materials, professional development, and debate are important to creating a pact and school rehabilitation and maintenance. around learning. Policy makers should engage Countries everywhere are facing trade-offs with stakeholders through various channels when deciding whether to spend scarce to address concerns, correct information resources on hiring additional teachers or using evidence, and rally collective support financing other educational inputs. Investing for education reforms. in the professional development, working con- Beyond social media, technology can also ditions, and salaries of current and future be leveraged to establish accountability sys- teachers often proves to be more effective for tems. Several countries are implementing increasing student learning than employing education dashboards to facilitate open data more teachers. The same is true for greater and a move toward evidence-based policy investment in technology or the use of teaching making. The government of Egypt has effec- assistants in the classroom (OECD 2017b). tively leveraged modern technology to pro- Investments in hiring additional teachers to mote accountability (see box O.16). reduce class sizes may have an impact on For its part, civil society is responsible for learning, but teachers should be targeted to demanding transparent communication of areas in which class sizes are particularly large education inputs and outcomes. and act as a constraint on ­ learning. A synthe- sis of more than 800 meta-analyses related to student achievement concluded that the value Prioritize investments to promote for money in raising performance is better learning and skills achieved through interventions other than A new pact for education must include reducing class size (Hattie 2009). This conclu- agreement on how and where resources are sion is supported by research that finds that used. For decades, MENA countries have increasing teacher effectiveness has a greater spent substantial shares of their income on value for money than reducing class sizes and education to meet the demand of growing suggests assigning the most effective teachers populations over the last half-century. In to the largest classes to maximize the potential fact, most MENA countries allocate far benefit (Hanushek 2011; Rivkin, Hanushek, more to education than many wealthy and Kain 2005). countries. For example, Tunisia spends Sufficient investment in early childhood 20.6 percent of its national budget on educa- education and in the early grades of schooling tion, which is nearly twice the OECD coun- is also needed to ensure that students build try average of 11.3 percent. Although the foundational skills that enable them to learn share of spending on education in MENA is effectively in the later stages of education. relatively high, it has been declining since its However, ECE has been the level that has peak at the turn of the century, from a received the least investment in MENA coun- median level of 20.6 percent in 2000 (and tries, resulting in enrollment rates that are 5.9 percent of GDP) to 13 percent in 2016 closer to those in Sub-Saharan Africa and (4 percent of GDP). 14 Spending adequate low-income countries, as indicated by the lit- amounts on education is necessary but not tle international data available. No MENA sufficient for success. How resources are country spends more than 0.4 percent of its used is just as, if not more, important. GDP on ECE from the public budget. Most Spending needs to align with learning. spend far less (well below 0.2 percent). By MENA countries spend large shares of their comparison, the average OECD country 5 2    Expec tations and Aspir ations invests 0.7–0.8 percent of its GDP on ECE, pact for education. Specifically, MENA will and some countries—such as Sweden—invest realize the potential of education when (1) it as much as 1.3 percent of GDP. Because the gives priority to learning; (2) it focuses on region’s young and growing populations con- the early years of schooling and opportuni- sistently exhibit low levels of foundational ties are equally distributed, including for skills, public investment in high-quality early those affected by conflict; (3) curricula are learning programs for all children should be a modernized and educators are empowered; policy priority. (4) employers demand skills and communi- Even though MENA countries have been cate them; (5) all stakeholders agree on a spending large shares of their national budgets common vision for education and jointly on education, it is important that spending on take responsibility for its outcomes and are education be sustained and in some countries held accountable for their roles, which are increased. Equally important, the spending clearly defined; and (6) resources are aligned must target learning. This requires concentrat- with priorities. These changes will require a ing on outcomes and not just inputs and out- joint effort to address the four tensions puts. Results-based or performance-based holding education back in the MENA budgeting (PBB) seeks to introduce explicit countries. measures of performance or results directly Improving education is not the responsibil- into the budgeting process with specific indi- ity of educators alone; it also involves all mem- cators that can be used to measure the effec- bers of society—politicians, businesspeople, tiveness of budget implementation. Ministries and community and religious leaders, as well of education that receive budgets under a as parents, teachers, school principals, and stu- results-based budgeting system would receive dents themselves. By far the most difficult task allocations to achieve certain sectoral outputs is dealing with varying and often opposing (for example, increasing preprimary enroll- views, strongly held convictions, and divergent ment) rather than to finance certain amounts interests. But it is not impossible. Countries of inputs (such as salaries or capital costs). with high-performing education systems have In Jordan, Morocco, and Tunisia, the min- succeeded in rallying support around a com- istries of education have been early adopters mon vision and shared responsibility. of those countries’ performance-based bud- The role of technology as a demand shaper geting systems (Beschel and Ahern 2012). In in the future of work is certain, but its role as Western Europe and other member countries a delivery catalyst holds great potential that of the OECD, PBB approaches have been the region has not yet tapped. Indeed, tech- employed for some time. The Netherlands, nology is changing how today’s students are for example, introduced proto-PBB prepared to enter the future workforce—that approaches as far back as the 1970s and is, it is influencing not only the ends of educa- moved its entire public sector to program tion but also the means. Technology presents and performance budgeting in 1999. Such a a unique opportunity to help to deliver high- move shifts the focus of ministries so that quality education in a more efficient and their activities coalesce around the achieve- effective manner. If leveraged smartly, tech- ment of their strategic sectoral policy nology can offer an opportunity for MENA agendas. countries to advance their education systems quickly and to support learning. MENA has the history, culture, and Unleashing the potential of resources to leap into a future founded on a learned society and a knowledge economy. education is attainable The region has great expectations and aspira- MENA countries can enjoy the full benefits tions. Unleashing the potential of education is of education only when a push for learning attainable, but it will take a new pact to ele- is coupled with a pull for skills and a social vate education not only as a national priority O v e r v i e w   5 3 but also as a national emergency. The question ­ducation systems took part in the survey), e is: Are its leaders ready and do they have the making it difficult to assess trends over time. will and grit to see through the implementa- 7. Seven economies use tarbiya in the official tion of policy reforms? name of their ministry of education (Algeria, Iraq, Kuwait, Lebanon, Syria, Tunisia, West Bank and Gaza); three use taaleem (Libya, Qatar, and Saudi Arabia); and seven use both Notes tarbiya and taaleem (Bahrain, Egypt, Jordan, 1. The World Bank defines MENA as ­ including Morocco, Oman, the United Arab Emirates, these countries and economies: Algeria, and Republic of Yemen). Bahrain, Djibouti, Arab Republic of Egypt, 8. Malta is the exception; it is classified as part Islamic Republic of Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, of the Middle East and North Africa in the Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Morocco, Oman, World Bank’s regional classifications. Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syrian Arab Republic, 9. The information in this paragraph is extracted Tunisia, the United Arab Emirates, West Bank from TIMSS 2015 Curriculum Questionnaire and Gaza, and Republic of Yemen. This report Exhibits, http://timssand​pirls.bc.edu/timss2015​ excludes Malta from the analysis as it has /​ e ncyclopedia​ / curriculum​ - questionnaire​ little in common with the rest of the region. -exhibits​/main​-preparation​-routes-and-current​ 2. The World Bank’s Facebook poll (in both -­requirements​-for-principals/. Arabic and English) asked residents of MENA 10. Inequality of opportunity exists where une- about the state of education in their country. qual outcomes are attributable to factors The question received 42,235 responses. beyond an individual’s control. 3. World Bank, Education Statistics (EdStats) 11. Estimates of global EdTech revenues vary database. Based on authors’ calculations considerably, depending on the source of this using data for 2007 (or closest) and 2016 information. (or latest). 12. The analysis also found that computers have 4. World Bank, World Development Indicators a greater impact in countries in which ICT database. penetration is low. Providing a teacher with 5. The definition of violent child discipline as a computer in the North African countries used in the UNICEF Multiple Indicator Cluster that participate in PISA (Algeria and Tunisia) Survey (MICS) is based on discipline by anyone increased PISA scores by 24.5 points. Doing in the household within the last month, and the same in the two GCC countries (Qatar includes psychological aggression (shouted, and the United Arab Emirates), where class- yelled, or screamed at the child; called the child room technology is more common, added dumb, lazy, or another name like that); phys- just 1.1 PISA point. ical punishment (shook the child; spanked, 13. These tenures for ministers of education were hit, or slapped the child on the bottom with ­ compiled from a variety of sources, including a bare hand; hit the child on the bottom or http://www.mohe.gov.jo/en/pages​ / ​ F ormer​ elsewhere on the body with something like a Ministers.aspx; http://www​.­culturaldiplomacy​ belt, hairbrush, stick, or other hard object; hit .org/academy​/index.php?Minister-Dr-­Hassan​ or slapped the child on the hand, arm, or leg); -​B​-Diab; https://live.worldbank.org/experts/elias​ and severe physical punishment (hit or slapped -​bou-saab; https://live.worldbank.org/experts​ the child on the face, head, or ears; beat the /marwan​-hamadeh; https://en.wikipedia​.org​​ child with an implement—hit over and over as ​ ist_of_Ministers_of_Education_of​_Egypt; /wiki​/L hard as one could). https://dailynewsegypt.com/2015/09​ / 19​ 6. In fact, the level of autonomy may have /tough-job-ahead-for-new-­education​-minister​ decreased; the overall score declined from -el-sherbiny/; and http://www​.­dailynewsegypt​ 3.1 to 2.9 on a 5-point scale, with 5 repre- .com/2017/02/14/­parliament​-​approves-new​ senting the highest level of autonomy. A factor -cabinet-reshuffle​-nine​-­ministries/. contributing to the lower overall autonomy 14. World Bank, Education Statistics (EdStats) score, however, may be that the sample of uni- database. MENA’s regional median is com- versities participating in the 2012 and 2016 puted as the median of all national data assessments did not remain the same (more points available in a given year using the public institutions from centralized tertiary EdStats database. 5 4    Expec tations and Aspir ations References Eid Mohamed, Hannah R. Gerber, and Slimane Aboulkacem. Rotterdam: SensePublishers. Abi-Mershed, Osama, ed. 2010. 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World Development Report 2019: Education Laboratory, Institute of Education The Changing Nature of Work. Washington, Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, DC: World Bank. Washington, DC. ———. Various years. Education Statistics Zhang, Junsen, Yaohui Zhao, Albert Park, and (EdStats) database. Washington, DC. http:// Xiaoqing Song. 2005. “Economic Returns to datatopics.worldbank.org/education/. Schooling in Urban China, 1988 to 2001.” ———. Various years. World Development Journal of Comparative Economics 33 (4): Indicators database. Washington, DC. 730–52. ECO-AUDIT Environmental Benefits Statement The World Bank Group is committed to reducing its environmental footprint. In support of this commitment, we leverage electronic publishing options and print-on-demand technology, which is located in regional hubs world- wide. Together, these initiatives enable print runs to be lowered and shipping distances decreased, resulting in reduced paper consumption, chemical use, greenhouse gas emissions, and waste. We follow the recommended standards for paper use set by the Green Press Initiative. The majority of our books are printed on Forest Stewardship Council (FSC)–certified paper, with nearly all containing 50–100 percent recycled content. The recycled fiber in our book paper is either unbleached or bleached using totally chlorine-free (TCF), processed chlorine–free (PCF), or enhanced elemental chlorine–free (EECF) processes. More information about the Bank’s environmental philosophy can be found at http://www.worldbank.org/corporateresponsibility. Education, which had been at the heart of the Middle East and North Africa region’s (MENA) history and civilizations for centuries, has a large untapped potential to contribute to human capital, well-being, and wealth. The region invested heavily in education for decades but has not been able to reap the benefits of its investments. Despite a series of reforms, MENA has remained stuck in a low-learning, low-skills level. Expectations and Aspirations identifies four key sets of tensions that are holding back education in the region: credentials and skills, discipline and inquiry, control and autonomy, and tradition and modernity. These tensions are shaped by society and reflected in schools and classrooms. If not addressed, MENA will continue to operate below its potential. This report outlines a new framework with a three-pronged approach that can help address these tensions and unleash the potential of education in MENA: • A concerted push for learning that starts early for all children regardless of background, with qualified and motivated educators, and that leverages technology, uses innovative approaches, and monitors learning. • A stronger pull for skills by all stakeholders in the labor market and society that involves coordinated multi-system reforms within and beyond the education system. • A new pact for education at the national level with a unified vision, shared responsibilities and accountabilities. Education is everyone’s business and not just the responsibility of the education system. The push, pull, pact framework offers an opportunity for MENA to charge forward and reclaim its heritage of a learned region and meet the expectations and aspirations of its people. The current situation in MENA requires a renewed focus on education, not just as a national priority for economic growth and social development but as a national emergency for stability, peace, and prosperity. SKU 33384