CLOSING GENDER GAPS IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN CLOSING GENDER GAPS IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN © 2020 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contribu- tions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Rights and Permissions The material in this work is subject to copyright. Because The World Bank encourages dissemination of its knowledge, this work may be reproduced, in whole or in part, for noncommercial purposes as long as full attribution to this work is given. Any queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to World Bank Publications, The World Bank Group, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2625; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org. Photo cover: Produce market Guatemala Guatemala. Photo: Maria Fleischmann / World Bank CONTENTS Foreword 5 Closing Gender Gaps in Latin America and the Caribbean 7 I. Status of Gender Equality in LAC 11 Health 13 Education 15 Youth out of school and out of work 17 Labor force participation 18 Entrepreneurship and access to credit and productive assets 21 Gender-based violence 23 II. Leveraging Bank Operations to Close Gender Gaps: 27 Project Illustrations Improving human endowments 28 Removing constraints for more and better employment 37 Removing barriers to women’s ownership 50 and control of productive assets Enhancing women’s voice and agency 53 References 61 Foreword W e’ve seen considerable progress on gender equality across the Latin America and Caribbean region over the last de- cade. The gains came in many areas, including lower maternal mortality, higher rates of enrollment in formal education, in- creased participation in the labor force, and higher levels of rep- resentation in public leadership. However, not all women in the region have benefitted equal- ly. Young women continue to have high fertility rates. Indigenous and rural women still do worse in all dimensions of gender equal- ity. While women in the region increased their participation in economic activity, they continue to face the “double burden” of employment and household work/family care. This drives them into lower quality jobs than their male peers. In addition, wom- en from all segments of society continue to suffer from all kinds of violence, in many cases at the hands of an intimate partner. So, while we celebrate the progress made in recent years, we have to acknowledge that persistent inequality between men and women continues to hold back social progress and eco- nomic development. So, why gender equality? It is a basic human right for everyone – both male and female - to live the life of one’s choosing, free of deprivation. Gender equality matters in and of itself. However, gender equality also plays an instrumental role in development for individuals, fami- lies, communities and entire societies. Improving gender equality promotes poverty reduction, boosts growth and productivity, ensures that institutions are Closing Gender Gaps in Latin America 4 and the Caribbean more representative and translates into better outcomes for fu- ture generations. Women’s participation in the labor market pro- motes economic growth, which lowers poverty and inequality. Giving women access to assets enhances productivity. Greater gender equality in firms enhances outcomes for businesses. In addition, progress in some areas for women may trigger prog- ress in other dimensions. Conversely, gender inequality affects women and girls throughout their lives and produces significant economic and social costs. This Brochure provides examples of World Bank supported projects with a gender focus in the Latin America and Caribbean region. It showcases the breadth of the solutions available and speaks to the commitment of the institution to tackle gender gaps. We at the World Bank are dedicated to promoting gender equality through our operations and analytical work to generate the evidence on what works to close existing gaps and to help clients identify effective solutions. Gender equality is at the core of the Bank’s engagement, and many tailored solutions are al- ready underway. At the same time, together with our clients, we can and should do more. Because gender equality is not only good for women. Gender equality is good for women, men, children, communities and societies as a whole. If unaddressed, gender gaps will pre- vent us from achieving our twin goals of eradicating poverty and achieving shared prosperity. We need to get it right. Humberto Lopez Acting Vice-President for Latin America and the Caribbean The World Bank Foreword 5 Students in classroom Closing Gender Gaps in Latin America 6 Brazil. Photo: Stephan Bachenheimer/ World Bank and the Caribbean Closing Gender Gaps in Latin America and the Caribbean T he Latin America and Caribbean region (LAC) has achieved substantial progress on gender equality in past decades. Gains have come in diverse areas: declines in fertility and mater- nal mortality, gender parity in primary school enrollment, and an increase in women’s participation in the workforce and pol- itics, among others. But advances have stalled on some fronts. These include teenage pregnancy, vulnerable youth who are not working or studying, and gender-based violence. In December of 2015 the World Bank Group (WBG) approved its first-ever Strategy for Gender Equality, Poverty Reduction, and Inclusive Growth. The strategy recognizes that closing criti- cal gender gaps requires stronger and better-resourced efforts in four strategic areas: 1. Improving human endowment 2. Removing constraints for more and better employment 3. Removing barriers to women’s ownership and control of as- sets 4. Enhancing women’s voice and agency The LAC Regional Gender Action Plan (Fiscal Years 2016-2019) is putting the strategy into operation by supporting activities with potential for transformational change on gender equality. In Area 1, human endowments, the focus is behavior change interventions aimed at reducing teenage pregnancy; improv- 7 ing access to reproductive health services; in- encourage use of formal financial institutions. centivizing secondary school completion for To promote agency (Area 4), the focus is im- boys and girls; changing gender stereotypes proving women’s voice and participation at the in school textbooks, curricula, and classroom community level and preventing and respond- interactions; and promoting women and girls’ ing to gender-based violence. enrollment in science, technology, engineering With financial contribution from the Umbrel- and mathematics (STEM) fields of study. la Facility for Gender Equality (UFGE),1 the WBG To improve women’s employment and ac- is pursuing scalable pilot innovations designed cess to productive resources (Area 2), programs to expand the knowledge base of what works. are fostering female entrepreneurship, increase Region-wide and country-specific analytical livelihood opportunities in rural areas, and ad- work is bringing better understanding of factors dress the “care” agenda by reducing women’s that improve access to health and education, time burden through improved access to elec- decrease teenage pregnancy, improve wom- tricity. Increasing women’s access to assets en’s access to finance, expand female partici- (Area 3) is receiving attention through initia- pation in the labor force, and improve women’s tives to reform property ownership laws and balance of work and family life. 1 The Umbrella Facility for Gender Equality (UFGE) is a multi-donor trust fund dedicated to strengthening awareness, knowledge, and capacity for gender-informed policy-making. The facility supports World Bank and IFC projects and is managed by the Bank’s Gender & Development Group. Since its launch in 2012, it has received generous contributions from Australia, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Iceland, Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, and the United States. Closing Gender Gaps in Latin America 8 and the Caribbean Yamid Duran Ramirez holds his daughter Leyla Colombia. Photo: © Dominic Chavez/World Bank Closing Gender Gaps in Latin America and the Caribbean 9 Mother and child on a farm in Chimaltenango Guatemala Closing Gender Gaps in Latin America 10 Guatemala. Photo: Maria Fleischmann / World Bank and the Caribbean I. Status of Gender Equality in LAC T he countries of the LAC region vary in size, affluence, and cul- tural make-up, but they all share a common trait, persistent inequalities in gender. In the past three decades, the region as a whole has made substantial, laudable progress in this field. It has closed the gen- der gap in primary education, lengthened women’s life expec- tancy, and increased female labor force participation. Still, there remains much unfinished business. The region lags in women’s ownership of assets, sexual and reproductive health services, affordable child care, and jobs for women in higher-paying sec- tors of the economy. Indigenous women often face the greatest disadvantages, weighed upon by the double constraints of eth- nicity and gender. In a region that has persistent high rates of ad- olescent pregnancy and gender-based violence (GBV), women’s lack of agency is another source of concern. This section provides a brief overview of the region’s perfor- mance on gender equality. 11 Box 1. Why Gender Equality Matters Gender equality matters in and of itself, because the ability to live the life of one’s own choos- ing, free of deprivation, is a basic human right for everyone, whether male or female. But it also has instrumental value for development. Studies have consistently shown that improv- ing gender equality enhances growth and productivity, improves outcomes for the next gen- eration, and makes political institutions more representative. • When women develop their full labor market potential, significant macroeconomic gains and reductions in poverty are likely to follow. A World Bank study estimates that between 2000 and 2010, female labor income in LAC accounted for 28 percent of the region’s reduc- tion in inequality and 30 percent of its fall in extreme poverty (World Bank 2013). Viewing the relationship from the other direction, Cuberes and Teignier (2016) estimate that exis- ting gender gaps in entrepreneurship and participation in the workforce lead to average income losses of 15.7 percent in the short run and 17.2 percent in the long run in LAC. • Women’s endowments and opportunities shape those of the next generation. Evidence from a range of countries shows that increasing the share of household income controlled by women, either through their own earnings or cash transfers, leads to more investment in their children’s human capital. This feeds into higher labor force participation and be- tter educational outcomes for the next generation (World Bank 2012a, Beegle, Goldstein, and Rosas 2011, and Morrison, Raju, and Sinha 2007). • When women own property and land, they gain increased power and voice in decision making. Wiig (2013) compared decision-making outcomes in Peruvian peasant communi- ties that were eligible for joint titling of property with outcomes in communities that were not eligible. Women in eligible communities took part in a significantly higher number of household decisions. In Nicaragua, Grabe, Grose, and Dutt (2015) find that women’s landownership is positively and significantly correlated with speaking in community mee- tings and in household decision making. It increases a woman’s power and control within her marriage and reduces her exposure to domestic violence. Continued on the next page Closing Gender Gaps in Latin America 12 and the Caribbean Continued from the previous page • Increasing women’s agency leads to better development outcomes, institutions, and po- licy choices. In Mexico, the daughters of women who have more control over household decisions work fewer hours on household tasks (Reggio 2010). Empowering women as political and social actors can change policy choices and make institutions more repre- sentative of a society’s range of voices (Klugman et al. 2014). HEALTH slower pace than in other regions despite improvements in GDP and other develop- The LAC region has made mixed progress in mental indicators (Figure 2). The highest improving women’s health. Life expectancy, adolescent fertility rates are found in the Do- an overall indicator of a population’s health, minican Republic, Venezuela, Nicaragua, Pan- increased on average in the region from 71 to ama and Ecuador (Figure 3). The WBG study 78 years for women and 65 to 72 for men be- “Teenage Pregnancy and Opportunities in Lat- tween 1990 and 2017. Maternal mortality rates in America and the Caribbean” finds that key were nearly halved between 1990 and 2015 determinants of early childbearing include lim- (from 136 per 100,000 live births to 68), but that ited aspirations for the future, harmful social progress was far from evenly spread. Some norms, poverty, and low education (Azevedo countries such as Haiti and Bolivia still have et al. 2012). Teenage pregnancy brings with it very high maternal mortality rates (Figure 1). high risks of maternal death. But after a suc- Within countries, indigenous and rural wom- cessful birth, the experience of early pregnancy en typically have maternal mortality rates that and motherhood follows a woman through her are twice or three times the national averages life, tending to lower her educational achieve- (World Health Organization 2014). Part of that is ments and job opportunities. As a result, ad- due to low access to medical care. In Bolivia, for olescent mothers are exposed to situations instance, less than 60 percent of indigenous ru- of greater vulnerability and the repetition of ral women give birth with the support of skilled patterns of poverty and social exclusion (Aze- health personnel, compared to almost all urban vedo et al. 2012 and UNFPA, UNICEF, and PAHO non-indigenous women (World Bank 2015a). 2016). Moreover, the children to whom she Among all regions of the world, LAC gives birth are themselves at high long-term has the second-highest adolescent fertili- risks of poor health and social outcomes. ty rate and the rate is declining at a much I. Status of Gender Equality in LAC 13 Figure 1. Maternal Mortality Remains High in Some Countries in the Region and Progress Varies. 2000 2017 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 Bolivia Suriname Guatemala Paraguay Nicaragua Ecuador Guyana Perú Belize Panama Argentina El Salvador Mexico Honduras Chile Costa Rica SVG Colombia Brazil Uruguay Puerto Rico Jamaica Venezuela Dominican Republic St. Lucia Haiti Source: World Development Indicators Figure 2. The Pace of Reduction in Teenage Pregnancy is Slow in LAC. Adolescent fertility rate (births per 1,000 women ages 15-19), 1990-2017 Difference 1990-2017 (%) 1990 2017 Adolescent fertility rate (births per 1,000 140 140 120 120 Difference 1990-2017 (%) 100 100 women ages 15-19) 80 80 60 60 40 40 20 20 0 0 -20 -20 -40 -26,3 -27,8 -24,7 -40 -60 -42,7 -52,5 -60 Sub-Saharan Latin America & Middle East & East Asia Europe & Africa Caribbean North Africa & Pacific Central Asia Source: World Development Indicators Closing Gender Gaps in Latin America 14 and the Caribbean Figure 3. Most Countries in the Region Have High Rates of Teenage Pregnancy Adolescent fertility rate (births per 1,000 women ages 15-19), 2017 94 85 85 82 79 74 73 71 71 69 68 67 65 63 62 60 59 59 57 53 53 52 49 41 41 DR Venezuela, RB Nicaragua Panama Ecuador Guyana Honduras Guatemala Paraguay El Salvador Belize Colombia Bolivia Argentina Suriname Mexico Brazil Uruguay Peru Costa Rica Jamaica Haiti SVG Chile St. Lucia Source: World Development Indicators EDUCATION men. In addition, significant gender differences persist in the fields of study that men and wom- One significant success in gender equal- en choose. ity in LAC is the achievement of gender parity in primary school enrollment. As of Within indigenous communities, strong 2017, average net enrollment rates in primary gender disparities in education exist. A re- school were 94 percent for girls and 93 percent cent analysis of census data in Bolivia, Mexico, for boys. Secondary school enrollment is still and Peru shows that the interaction between far from universal (79 percent for girls and 76 being female and belonging to a minority percent for boys), with the gap tending in most group (defined as being a native speaker of a countries to favor girls (Figure 4). In fact, one of minority language within the country) causes the greatest gender-related challenges in edu- a compounding disadvantage in educational cation is the generally low attendance, progres- attainment (Tas, Reimao, and Orlando 2013). sion, and completion rates of boys at the sec- Figure 5 shows how this accumulation of disad- ondary level. In tertiary education, it is notable vantage undermines literacy and completion of that a greater proportion of women enroll than primary and secondary school. I. Status of Gender Equality in LAC 15 Figure 4. Boys’ Secondary School Enrollment is Lower than Girls’ in Most LAC Countries. Net secondary enrollment (2017) Boys Girls 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 Argentina Belize Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia Costa Rica DR Ecuador El Salvador Guatemala Honduras Jamaica Mexico Panama Peru St. Lucia SVG Uruguay Venezuela Source: World Development Indicators Figure 5. Indigenous Women in LAC Face Compounding Disadvantages in Educational Attainment. Literacy and educational attainment in the reference and minority groups, by gender Non-minority Group Male Non-minority Group Female Minority Group Male Minority Group Female 100 80 60 40 20 0 Literacy Primary Secondary Literacy Primary Secondary Literacy Primary Secondary school school school school school school completion completion completion completion completion completion Bolivia Mexico Peru Source:Tas, Reimão and Orlando. 2013 Closing Gender Gaps in Latin America 16 and the Caribbean YOUTH OUT OF poverty and obstruct social mobility (Ferreira et al. 2012 and Vakis, Rigolini, and Lucchetti 2016). SCHOOL AND OUT OF Critically, among young women there WORK is a greater portion of NEETs than among According to recent research, one in five young men (Figure 6). According to a recent youths between the ages of 18 and 24 in study that analyzed NEET women, “the sin- LAC is not in education, employment, or gle most important risk factor associated with training (a status known as “NEET”), total- their condition is marriage before age 18, com- ing more than 18 million people (De Hoyos pounded by teenage pregnancy” (De Hoyos et et al. 2015). Large numbers of young people al. 2016: 2). However, the same study found that enter the labor market every year, but many young men now account for all the growth in fail to find work. Youth who drop out before the total number of NEET youth in the region. completing secondary school typically lack key Factors that increase the likelihood of skills that formal-sector employment requires. youth becoming NEETs in LAC relate to la- Often they end up settling for less stable jobs in bor markets, the educational system, and the informal sector, which sets them on a life- socioeconomic status. These include the high time path of lower earnings and opportunity cost of studying; disconnection between sub- (De Hoyos et al. 2016). In addition, Székely and jects taught in school and youths’ lives; uncer- Karver (2015) show there is long-term effect on tainty and lack of information about the future labor markets: generations that have higher returns of education; scarcity of opportunities shares of NEETs experience long-lasting harm in education and work; difficulties in accessing to productivity, lowering overall economic higher education; inability to advance beyond growth. The phenomenon may also contribute temporary, unstable, high-informality, and low- to crime, addiction, disruptive behavior, and paid job; constraints to building personal as- social disintegration (Chioda 2015, Bussolo et pirations and internal motivation to return to al. 2014, and Hoyos et al. 2016). This sizeable school or work; inability to take consistent ac- population of economically excluded youth tions towards goals; and discrimination against may in coming years undermine recent gains in women in the labor market (Hoyos et al. 2016, poverty reduction in the region. Given that most Trucco and Ullmann 2015, Costa and Ulyssea NEET youth come from poor households, the 2014, Machado and Muller 2018, Monteiro 2013, trend will also lead to greater intergenerational and Simões et al. 2013). I. Status of Gender Equality in LAC 17 Figure 6. NEETs in Latin America Make up a Higher Proportion of Young Women than Young Men. Share of youth not in education, employment or training (% of male and female populations), 2017 Men Women 50 40 30 20 10 0 Guatemala Guyana Honduras El Salvador Belize DR Colombia Mexico Brazil Paraguay Ecuador Costa Rica Panama Argentina Uruguay Peru Chile Bolivia LAC Average Source: World Development Indicators LABOR FORCE 2016). The increase in participation rates has been sharpest among low-income women,2 PARTICIPATION which helps explain the contribution of female Women’s participation in the region’s la- labor earnings to the decline in extreme pov- bor force rose by 25 percent between 1990 erty as well as the severity of poverty (World and 2018, in contrast with the global trend Bank 2012b). Despite the general trend of more of a slight decline (Figure 7). An increase in women entering the labor force, the participa- female labor force participation and higher fe- tion rate remains significantly below male rates male labor earnings contributed to significant in LAC (Figure 7 and 9). In 2018 about 52 percent reductions poverty in LAC between 2006 and of women aged 15 and above took part in the 2016 (Figure 8). Drivers of these gains include labor market, against 77 percent of men (World increased access to education for women, the Development Indicators) (Figure 7). decline of fertility, and later marriage (Chioda 2 Comparing the increase in labor market participation between women from the bottom and top quintiles in LAC reveals that low-income women are entering the labor force at a much higher rate than wealthier women. This trend is particu- larly marked in Panama, Paraguay, Costa Rica, Peru, and Colombia (World Bank 2012b). Closing Gender Gaps in Latin America 18 and the Caribbean Figure 7: Female Labor Force Participation in LAC has Risen Considerably over the Last Two Decades but the Gender Gap Persists. Labor force participation rate by gender (ages 15+) (modeled ILO estimate), 1990-2018 Men Women 100 80 81 77 60 52 40 41 20 0 1990 2018 Source: World Development Indicators. Figure 8: Women’s Labor Earnings Contributed Significantly to Poverty Reduction between 2006 and 2016. Share of income sources that contributed to poverty reduction at US$5.50 ppp 2011 poverty line Women Labor 21% Men Labor 39% Non-labor income 40% Source: Authors’ calculations. Estimates of poverty at the regional level are population-weighted averages of countries. The figure shows the Shapley Decomposition of poverty changes between 2006 and 2016 by components of income aggregate. I. Status of Gender Equality in LAC 19 Figure 9: Gender Disparities Vary in Labor Force Participation. Labor force participation rate (%) among population ages 15+ (modeled ILO estimate), 2018 Men Women 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Venezuela Suriname Mexico Peru Haiti Jamaica St. Lucia Colombia SVG Paraguay Ecuador Bolivia Uruguay Brazil Panama Chile DR Nicaragua Argentina Honduras El Salvador Costa Rica Guyana Guatemala Source: World Development Indicators. While labor force participation is high for according to data from Colombia, Costa Rica, women in LAC compared to other regions Panama, and Mexico (ECLAC 2014). Women are of the world, women typically hold low- also much more likely than men to work part- er-quality jobs. Men are far more likely than time, often due to household and caregiving women to have formal employment in bet- responsibilities. Part-time work and informal ter-paying industries such as high tech, con- sector employment offer women additional struction, utilities, and transportation. Women flexibility, but this frequently comes at the cost tend to be segregated in education and health, of labor rights, pensions, and other benefits or to work as domestic servants. These reali- (Chioda 2016). In addition, women—particular- ties are often particularly acute for indigenous ly young women—are more likely to be unem- women, who are employed as domestic work- ployed than men.3 ers far more often than non-indigenous women, 3 In 2018, female unemployment averaged 10 percent in LAC compared to 7 percent for men, and 21 percent for young women, and 16 percent for young men (World Development Indicators). Closing Gender Gaps in Latin America 20 and the Caribbean ENTREPRENEURSHIP of women having financial accounts are found in Chile, Venezuela and Brazil (Figure 10). AND ACCESS In addition, female-owned firms in LAC TO CREDIT AND are concentrated in fewer and less econom- PRODUCTIVE ASSETS ically profitable sectors than male-owned firms, primarily in trade, manufacturing, Women have less access to key productive and services (IFC 2011). While differences in assets, limiting their ability to take equal productivity are mainly a function of business part in economic opportunities. While rates size and economic sector, women-owned firms of female entrepreneurship are higher in LAC may be less profitable due to differences in lev- than other regions—roughly 50 percent of els of education; access to productive resourc- firms had female participation in ownership in es, networks, and markets; and access to train- 20184—women are more likely to be “necessity ing and business development services (IFC entrepreneurs” who start businesses because 2011 and Bruhn 2009). Further, the greater time they are denied opportunities in the formal la- demand on women for household and child bor market.5 They tend also to be concentrated care activities lowers the amount of time they in micro- and small-scale enterprises. Women have for market work and the duration and are less likely than men to have a formal bank type of experience and learning. Consequent- account, save at a financial institution, and take ly, these factors affect the sectors that women out loans from financial institutions. In 2017, enter and their choice of activity. Combined the regional average for women possessing household and micro-firm data from Mexico bank accounts at a financial institution or with point to child care obligations as the main re- a mobile-money-service provider was 52 per- striction on the growth of female-owned firms. cent, as opposed to 59 percent for men. Wom- The data also show that the differences in size en’s low figures corroborate a 2011 study by the and profits between female- and male-owned International Finance Corporation (IFC) that firms are larger for women who live in house- found that up to 70 percent of women-owned holds which have children under the age of 12. small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in LAC The presence of children accounts alone, in were either underserved or not served at all by fact, for 30 to 40 percent of the size and profit formal financial institutions. The highest rates difference between female- and male-owned 4 In 2018, the percentage of firms with female participation in ownership was on average 47 percent in East Asia and the Pacific, 29 percent in Sub Saharan Africa, 33 percent in Europe and Central Asia, and 23 percent in the Middle East and North Africa (World Development Indicators). 5 These differ from “opportunity entrepreneurs” who establish businesses to take advantage of a perceived business opportunity (Amim 2010). I. Status of Gender Equality in LAC 21 Figure 10: Gender Gaps Persist for Bank Account Holders. Account at a financial institution or with a mobile-money-service provider (% age 15+), 2017 Men Women 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Chile Venezuela Brazil Costa Rica Uruguay DR Bolivia Argentina Paraguay Ecuador Colombia Panama Guatemala Honduras Peru Mexico Haiti Nicaragua El Salvador Source: World Development Indicators. firms (Bruhn 2009). Other analysis from Mexico the sole head of household have been repealed and Bolivia shows that female-owned firms are in country after country, removing an import- two to three times more likely to operate inside ant legal barrier to women’s land rights. In 2003, the owner’s home than are male-owned firms. Brazil joined the group that has amended their This suggests that household obligations could Civil Codes to grant women the right to be the restrict location, size, and industry choices for head of household. However, restrictions re- female business owners, possibly leading to main in Chile. There, married women are not performance differences (Bruhn 2009). recognized as head of household under the Across the region, most legal frame- law, and therefore do not enjoy equal rights works enshrine equal rights to access land to joint administration of property—this falls for women and men (World Bank 2018). under the sole responsibility of the husband Better rights to land have been among the ben- (World Bank 2018). In addition, women’s rights efits of strengthened equality provisions in laws have been strengthened by changes in mari- addressing women’s status within the family tal legal regimes. Most countries in the region, and within marriage. Laws recognizing men as for instance, now have partial community or deferred community property regimes,6 which 6 In partial community property regimes, assets acquired before marriage are regarded as the separate property of the Closing Gender Gaps in Latin America 22 and the Caribbean ensure that in case of divorce or widowhood, women are entitled to half of the joint assets GENDER-BASED accumulated during the marriage (World Bank VIOLENCE 2018). Colombia, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua Violence against Women (VAW) is a severe have made joint titling compulsory for land problem in LAC and produces immediate that is granted by the state to married or de fac- and long-term harm to survivors, their to couples (OECDS 2017). Joint titling is option- families, and society at large. Violence al in Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, and Honduras (OECD against women affects one in three women in 2017). According to gender-disaggregated Latin America and the Caribbean. This social home ownership data in 10 countries, women’s epidemic carries an economic cost of between individual home ownership ranges from 46.1 1.6 percent and 6.4 percent of the gross domes- percent in Panama to 21.4 percent in Ecuador tic product of the countries of the region. Ac- (Deere, Alvarado, and Twyman 2012). The per- cording to recent research by the Pan-American cent of women agricultural landowners ranges Health Organization (PAHO), the percentage of from 51 percent in Ecuador to 12.7 percent in women in twelve LAC countries who reported Peru, according to household surveys in seven that their partners physically abused them at countries that collect gender-disaggregated some point in their lives ranges from 17 percent data on land ownership (FAO Gender and Land in Dominican Republic to more than 50 per- Rights Database).7 Indigenous women may face cent in Bolivia. In addition, between 11 and 25 additional barriers to property ownership due percent of women ages 15 to 49 across the re- to linguistic barriers, documentation require- gion reported that their partners had physically ments, and community-based land tenure sys- abused them in the 12 months preceding the tems that favor male decision-making (World survey (Bott et al. 2013). Factors perpetuating Bank, FAO, IFAD 2009). this type of violence include weak or discrimi- natory legal and institutional frameworks, pa- triarchal social norms that underpin gendered acquiring spouse and assets acquired after marriage are regarded as the couple’s joint property. In deferred commu- nity property, the rules of full or partial community of property apply at the time the marriage is dissolved. Until then, separation of property applies. Most Caribbean countries have a separation of property regime in which all assets and income acquired by the spouses before they marry and during the marriage remain the separate property of the acquiring spouse. At the time of divorce or the death of one of the spouses, each spouse retains ownership of all assets and income brought to the marriage or acquired during the marriage by that person and any value that has accrued to that property (World Bank 2018). 7 Percentage of women agricultural landowners in LAC from household surveys (2000-2010): Ecuador (51), Mexico (32.2), Paraguay (27), Haiti (23.5), Nicaragua (19.9) Honduras (14.4), Peru (12.%). Figures are from FAO Gender and Land Rights Database. http://www.fao.org/gender-landrights-database/en/ I. Status of Gender Equality in LAC 23 Figure 11: Women in LAC Face High Rates of Gender-Based Violence. Physical partner violence, ever and past 12 months Ever Past 12 months 52 39 39 31 27 25 25 24 21 18 17 16 14 12 10 11 8 8 7 7 7 7 Bolivia Colombia Peru Ecuador Nicaragua Guatemala Honduras El Salvador Paraguay Jamaica Haiti Dominican 2003/2008 2005 2007/2008 2004 2006/07 2008/09 2005/2006 2008 2008 2008/09 2005/06 Republic 2007 Source: Bott et al. 2013. differences in power, and attitudes that tolerate lower access to education; and child marriage violence against women (Heise 2011). in the region most often takes the form of infor- Child marriage is a form of violence mal or non-matrimonial union (UNICEF 2019). against women with devastating effects Child brides face increased risks of poor health on the life and development of girls in Lat- outcomes, having children at younger ages, in America. According to UNICEF, one in four dropping out of school, earning less over their young women in Latin America and the Carib- lifetimes and living in poverty when compared bean was married or in early union before the to their peers who marry later (Wodon et al. age of 18, and this rate has remained constant 2017). Young women who marry before the age over 25 years (UNICEF 2019). In the Dominican of 18 may also be more likely to experience in- Republic, Nicaragua, Honduras and Belize, the timate partner violence, restricted mobility and rate of women (aged 20 to 24) who married or limited decision-making. While data is scarce, were in union before the age of 18 exceeds 30 of the four countries in LAC with comparable percent. In LAC, child-brides are more likely to data, child brides report greater partner vio- live in rural areas, in poor households and with lence than women who marry after age 188: In Colombia, 46 percent of women (aged 20 to 24) 8 Colombia, Honduras, Haiti and Guatemala have comparable data on the percentage of ever-married women (aged 20 to 24) who were ever subjected to any violence by current or former intimate partner by age at marriage. Closing Gender Gaps in Latin America 24 and the Caribbean who were married before age 18 report ever is overall the world’s most violent region, with experiencing any violence by current or former 23.9 homicides per 100,000 inhabitants in 2012, intimate partner, compared to 39 percent of compared to 9.7 in Africa, 4.4 in North America, those married at or after age 18; in Honduras 2.7 in Asia, and 2.9 for Europe. Eight countries9 the rates are 41 and 28 percent, respectively in LAC exceed the level of violence defined by (UNICEF 2019). the World Health Organization as “conflict” vi- In LAC, men between the ages of 15 and olence (30 homicides per 100,000), with Hon- 29 are both the primary perpetrators and duras experiencing the staggering rate of 90 victims of violent crime (Chioda 2017). Ac- homicides per 100,000. In various countries, cording to the World Report on Violence against the problem is compounded by widespread Children, Latin America has the highest youth gang-related crime that is largely drug-related homicide rates in the world (Pinheiro 2016). LAC (Chioda 2017). 9 Colombia, St. Kitts and Nevis, Guatemala, Jamaica, El Salvador, Belize, Venezuela RB, and Honduras. I. Status of Gender Equality in LAC 25 Students walk the streets of near the Plaza de Armas in Lima, Closing Gender Gaps in Latin America 26 Peru on June 28, 2013. Photo © World Bank/Dominic Chavez and the Caribbean II. Leveraging Bank Operations to Close Gender Gaps: Project Illustrations T he WBG Gender Strategy (FY2016–23), Gender Equal- ity, Poverty Reduction, and Inclusive Growth, sets out how to engage in more selective and ambitious ways at the country level. The strategy recognizes that gender equal- ity is central to the World Bank’s twin goals of ending extreme poverty and boosting shared prosperity. It aims to “set more ambitious gender targets, establish a new methodology for measuring progress, and outline an agenda for new frontier ar- eas with transformational projects.” It also shifts the focus of the World Bank’s approach to gender from ensuring that gender is “mainstreamed” in its projects to aiming to close critical gender gaps at the country level, with a focus on four strategic areas for achieving gender equality, as outlined in Figure 12. To address the critical gender issues outlined above, the LAC Regional Gender Action Plan FY2016-19 implements the strategic areas with three main types of initiatives. These are (1) identifying opportunities to promote gender equal- ity at the country level, (2) embedding gender in operations to address critical gender gaps, and (3) fostering knowledge activi- ties and data collection on gender to provide evidence on what works to improve gender equality in LAC. 27 Figure 12: The World Bank Group Has a Four-Strategy Approach to Gender Equality. Improving human Removing constraints for endowments more and better Jobs Addressing “sticky” first Lifting constraints to generation gaps in health increase the quantity and (maternal mortality) and quality of jobs and closing education. Working on earnings gaps with a focus emerging, second on women’s labor force generation issues, such as participation, occupational ageing and sex segregation, care non-comunicable diseases. services and safe transport. Removing barriers to Enhancing women’s voice women’s ownerships & agency and engaging and control of assets men and boys Improving conditions under Helping to prevent and which women can secure respond to gender-based ownership of and control violence and address over productive assets and adverse masculinity norms access the finance and in FCS and elsewhere, and insurance needed to enhance women’s voice acquire those assets. and agency. Source: World Bank 2015b The following section gives brief country il- porting changes in school curricula to remove lustrations on how the WBG is supporting activ- negative gender stereotypes and use neutral ities that could have transformational impact and inclusive language in textbooks, and is on gender equality in LAC. helping train teachers to create classroom en- vironments that challenge gender stereotypes IMPROVING HUMAN and promote inclusivity. The WBG is also sup- porting programs aimed at encouraging girls ENDOWMENTS to enter STEM fields of study, which have been To improve human endowments, WBG opera- traditionally perceived as masculine. tions in LAC are focusing on reproductive health outcomes including lowering adolescent fertili- Reducing Teenage Pregnancy ty and maternal mortality, improving water and Teenage pregnancy undermines development sanitation, and closing gaps in education, es- because it destroys opportunity and perpetu- pecially by increasing secondary school reten- ates a poverty cycle between generations, so- tion among boys. For its part, the WBG is sup- cial exclusion, and high social costs. The WBG is Closing Gender Gaps in Latin America 28 and the Caribbean working to reduce teenage pregnancy through Project (2010-2017). The intervention aimed research and awareness-raising activities and to increase aspirations, encourage education- by supporting innovative interventions across al attainment, build self-esteem, and provide sectors. Building on evidence put forward in information on reproductive health. Training the World Bank regional report “Teenage Preg- was provided to peer educators, who then dis- nancy and Opportunities in Latin America and seminated the information in their schools. The the Caribbean: on Early Motherhood, Poverty impact evaluation experimentally measures and Economic Achievement” (Azevedo et al. the effectiveness of three peer educator selec- 2012), the WBG is supporting its clients in ad- tion strategies: (i) most connected in terms of dressing the issue in the LAC region. network centrality; (ii) most popular as identi- In Brazil, the Second Bahia Socio Economic fied by a student survey; and (iii) nomination Development for Inclusive Growth Development by school staff. The impact evaluation seeks Policy Loan (2014-2016) supported the prepara- to understand whether the peer-led life skills tion of a statewide action plan in Bahia State to program focused on reproductive health and prevent teenage pregnancy. Bahia has high lev- goal-setting can improve (i) educational attain- els of teenage pregnancy: almost one fourth of ment, (ii) self-esteem, and (iii) aspirations of live births are to women aged 15 to 19. There is high school students, and decrease (iv) teenage a strong association between premature preg- pregnancy rates. nancy and poverty as economic opportunities decline for young mothers and their children. Reducing Maternal Mortality The project funded mass media campaigns on While maternal and infant mortality have fallen teenage pregnancy prevention and measures dramatically in LAC, the gains are not equal- to improve pregnancy care in 25 state materni- ly shared: certain countries such as Nicaragua ty hospitals. and Haiti, and within countries people who live in poor and rural communities, lag behind the Also in Bahia, Brazil, the Latin America and rest. The WBG is supporting increased access the Caribbean Gender Innovation Lab (LAC- to maternal and neonatal health services in GIL)10 funds an impact evaluation of the work rural and remote communities through perfor- first implemented through the multisectoral mance- and community-based interventions. loan Integrated Health and Water Management 10 The LACGIL is a solutions platform that identifies scalable interventions for women’s economic empowerment and dis- seminates its findings to improve operations and policies in the following thematic areas: (i) human capital and produc- tivity; (ii) economic participation; (iii) the role of social norms, and (iv) understanding and measuring agency. The Lab’s mission is to provide project teams, policymakers, and development practitioners with knowledge about what works to close gender gaps in the region to effectively promote gender equality and drive change. The LACGIL is supported through the World Bank Group’s Umbrella Facility for Gender Equality (UFGE). II. Leveraging Bank Operations to Close Gender Gaps: Project Illustrations 29 UFGE Targets Adolescent Pregnancy through Innovative Grants in LAC The Umbrella Facility for Gender Equality in LAC targeted the issue of adolescent pregnancy by funding innovative grants. In Ecuador, UFGE funded a WBG partnership with the Munic- ipality of Quito to design and test an innovative intervention that aimed to reduce teenage pregnancy in municipal schools. Implemented in 2012, the pilot project had two compo- nents: (1) peer-to-peer sexual and reproductive health education and (2) text messaging to encourage teens to follow through with their aspirations for the future. The health training, implemented with the collaboration of about 60 school psychologists and 400 peer educa- tors, reached approximately 6,500 teens in municipal schools. Covered topics included life plans and aspirations, gender stereotypes, gender-based violence, healthy sexual relation- ships, contraceptives, and leadership. About 2,000 of the teens took part in the text-mes- sage component of the program. They received messages encouraging them to keep their aspirations for the future at “top of mind.” The goal was to reduce teenage pregnancy and encourage school continuation and completion. In a randomized control trial that accompa- nied the pilot program, the WBG conducted baseline and follow-up interviews with approx- imately 2,000 teens, some of whom received the pilot project interventions (the treatment group) and others whom did not (the control group). The evaluation showed attending a school where the Text Me Maybe program was implemented reduced teen pregnancy by 3 percentage points: the teen fertility rate in control schools was 7.3 percent and in treatment schools was 4.1 percent. Therefore, the reduction of 3 percentage points is equivalent to a 44 percent reduction in teen pregnancy as a result of the program. The program also led to an increase in self-reported educational aspirations as well as school continuation, measured by whether students responded that they were currently in school. The study found that the text message component did not create additional positive impacts on pregnancy rates, aspirations or gender norms; but results were primary driven by the peer-to-peer program- matic component of the pilot (Cuevas, Favara and Rounseville 2015). Continued on the next page Closing Gender Gaps in Latin America 30 and the Caribbean Continued from the previous page In Argentina, the UFGE funded a WBG-designed training intervention to increase educa- tional and work aspirations and promote decision-making skills among teenage girls. This was based on qualitative research that identified elements that influence sexual and repro- ductive health, contraceptive use, school attendance, and other life decisions among teen- age girls (ages 13 to 15). The intervention is part of the Provincial Public Health Insurance De- velopment Project (2011-2019) and the project’s Additional Financing (2015), which supports the province’s SUMAR public insurance scheme, which provides a benefit package of basic and preventative services to about 14 million beneficiaries. The intervention was piloted in three provinces (Salta, Jujuy, and Tucumán), in each province targeting 360-600 first- and second-year female students in public schools in vulnerable communities. High attendance of the school-based workshops was sustained throughout the intervention, and the program received positive evaluation from program participants. A non-randomized control trial using difference-in-difference methodology analyzed impacts of the intervention on educational and labor force aspirations, gender attitudes and social-emotional skills. Participation in the intervention increased school enrollment by 7 percentage points in the calendar year follow- ing the intervention; increased reported take up of health services and use of modern con- traceptive method to prevent unwanted pregnancies. The study also found high effects on specific socio-emotional skills, including self-regulation, empathy and respect, autonomy, self-determination and personal growth; more equitable beliefs relative to traditional gender roles (household division of labor, contraceptive use, motherhood, intrahousehold violence, and women’s work). Positive, but not statistically significant, effects were recorded in areas of educational aspirations, formal labor force participation, and family formation. The find- ings will help guide decisions on the need to deepen and scale up this type of intervention, which complements other programs of health care and adolescent well-being. In Nicaragua, through the Improving Com- and performance-based contracts in 62 munic- munity and Health Care Services Project (2010- ipalities, with indicators such as institutional 16) and the Strengthening the Public Health deliveries, pre-natal, and post-partum care. The Care System Project (2015-20), the WBG has objective is enhanced efficiency in health care been supporting Nicaragua’s Family and Com- networks, particularly in hard-to-reach rural and munity Health Care Model. The projects includ- indigenous territories. As part of this effort, 62 ed implementation of capitation mechanisms municipal care networks received medical and II. Leveraging Bank Operations to Close Gender Gaps: Project Illustrations 31 non-medical equipment, including some for ect (2013-19) provides approximately 450,000 minor rehabilitation treatment. The project has women with free reproductive health services, also supported the establishment of maternity including family planning, prenatal care, deliv- homes (casas maternas) to provide a place of ery, and breast-feeding support. The project is rest and support for women coming from dis- supporting establishment of a results-based tant communities, reducing maternal and child mechanism to help existing health facilities death from complication of birth delivery. As a provide essential maternal, child health, and result, between 2011 and 2016 institutional de- nutrition services at a quality standard of care. liveries in targeted municipal health facilities in- In addition, the project is helping scale-up the creased from 72 to 93 percent, pregnant women Kore Fanmi initiative, which provides targeted receiving four prenatal checkups rose from 50 family support through multisectoral commu- to 74 percent, and for postpartum women re- nity development agents. The initiative is to be ceiving postnatal care within 10 days of delivery the main vehicle delivering critical services, in- increased from 32 to 65 percent. The WBG also formation, supplies, and referrals to vulnerable supported the drafting and adoption of a Na- households at the community level. The com- tional Adolescent Sexual Reproductive Health munity development agents are incentivized Strategy to reduce teen pregnancy and risky to refer pregnant women to primary level care behaviors. This included training in adolescent for institutional deliveries. If complications oc- health care provision for more than 7,000 health cur during delivery, the mother is referred to staff and 8,000 teachers (World Bank 2018). the nearest facility that provides emergency In Haiti, the Improving Maternal and Child obstetric care. Health through Integrated Social Service Proj- Closing Gender Gaps in Latin America 32 and the Caribbean UFGE Funds Behavioral Analysis to Improve Prenatal Care in Haiti As a compliment to ongoing WBG lending operations in Haiti, UFGE funded a diagnostic to identify the structural and behavioral barriers preventing women from attending prenatal care visits and from delivering at formal health institutions. Through qualitative field work, which included a range of actors including pregnant women, matrons, family members, com- munity health workers and hospital staff, the diagnostic uncovered prenatal care behaviors, attitudes and opinions relating to institutional delivery, social dynamics and relationships that contribute to women’s childbirth decisions. To overcome behavioral biases, structural barriers, and women’s perception of quality of care – all identified as key challenges to safe deliveries in Haiti – the diagnostic recommends targeted communications with women and matrons to better inform them on when to pursue institutional delivery, what to expect in hospital settings, and timing for visits. Greater information to assuage women’s uncertainty about hospital deliveries – including more transparency relative to cost of care and process- es – is also recommended to address ambiguity women have relating to health center visits. Finally, the study recommends targeted interventions with medical staff to improve women’s experience and perception of formal health institutions. When implemented, these efforts aim to improve the safety of childbirth in Haiti and increase the effectiveness of new health policies and programs aimed to reduce maternal mortality in the country. Reducing Exposure to ed to reduce incidence of waterborne diseases, which affects women more than men. The time Waterborne disease and spent caring for children and adults with wa- Women’s Time Burden terborne diseases; and time spent with house- through Improved Water and hold workloads (including fetching water to the household) will be measured and disaggregat- Sanitation Services ed by sex in this project. The overall target is re- Several recently approved water sector proj- ducing the gender gaps on these indicators by ects in Brazil aim to reduce gender gaps in out- half in relation to baseline levels. comes related to water and sanitation services Likewise, improved reliabilty of access to (WSS). The Paraiba Improving Water Resourc- water made possible through the Ceara Water es Management and Service Provision project Security and Governance project (2019-2026), (2019-2026) seeks to improve service provision the construction of the Banabuiú – Sertão Cen- of WSS. Reliability in access to water is expect- II. Leveraging Bank Operations to Close Gender Gaps: Project Illustrations 33 tral Pipeline System aims to reduce domestic systems’ capacity to continue services follow- workloads and the incidence of waterborne ing extreme weather events, improve national gastrointestinal diseases, contributing to im- and regional disease surveillance, and support prove the wellbeing of both men and women, immediate response to targeted public health but with a larger expected impact on women. emergencies. Importantly, the project will en- Similar to the Paraiba project, work in Ceara able member countries to monitor gender-spe- will track the reduction of the time lost from cific aspects of natural disasters and health routine activities because of waterborne and emergencies, which can put women at risk of gastrointestinal diseases (aim to reduce gap life-threatening complications due to blocked by 20%) and the reduction of time spent with access to obstetric care and increased risk to household workloads (including fetching water pathogens, such as Zika. to the household) – (aim to reduce gap by 10%). Incentivizing Secondary Securing Women’s Access School Completion to Health Care after If LAC is to take advantage of the demograph- Emergencies ic dividend, a bulge in the proportion of young Extreme weather events related to climate people in national populations, those young change can threaten women’s access to health people must acquire the skills necessary to care and result in gender-specific public health contribute productively to the economy and emergencies. In the Caribbean, Hurricanes their communities. While access to education Irma and Maria (2017) exposed the vulnerabili- has increased throughout the region, LAC has ty of critical health infrastructure and women’s persistently high drop-out rates in its second- increased vulnerability to outbreaks of mos- ary schools. An WBG study in 18 LAC countries quito-borne diseases such as Chikungunya found that among students born between 1994 and Zika. and 1996 who were in upper secondary school by 2009 through 2011, a stark 58 percent would In the OECS, the WBG will partner with drop out (Kattan and Székely 2015). Secondary member countries to strengthen national and school is a crucial pathway between education regional health systems, reduce the economic and the labor market. Drop-out at this level burden of extreme weather events and mon- has profound implications both for individual itor gender-specific impacts of infectious dis- future earnings and macro-economic growth. eases in their aftermath. The OECS Regional The WBG is supporting policymakers and prac- Health Project (2019-2024) will strengthen cli- titioners in the region to better understand mate resilience of health facilities and health the gender-differentiated drivers of secondary Closing Gender Gaps in Latin America 34 and the Caribbean school drop-out and develop effective and in- young men, by providing monetary incentives novative policies to keep youth in school. to students from municipalities that have the In Brazil, the Support to Upper Second- highest rates of extreme poverty. The Youth ary Reform Project (2017-23) aims to increase Savings Program (Programa de Incentivo Edu- the relevance and quality of upper secondary cacional Poupança Joven), supported through schools. The Brazilian upper education system both initiatives, provides students in participat- has the highest repetition rate in LAC, some ing municipalities an annual financial reward of the lowest completion rates, and pervasive for each of the three years of secondary edu- age distortions. There is a substantial gender cation successfully concluded. In addition, the gap in upper secondary school completion in beneficiary students must also participate in favor of girls: the completion rate for 19-year- extracurricular activities, such as good citizen- old Brazilian girls is 63.4 percent against 52.3 ship, crime prevention and gender equality pro- percent for boys, an astounding 11 percent- grams. Between 2014 and 2019, the secondary age point differential (the overall average rate school dropout rate of the schools benefitting is 58.2). To close this gap, the project offers a from the program declined from 16.0 percent in range of interventions based on national and 2014 to 10.9 percent in 2019, and the number of international evidence that girls often abandon students enrolled in the Youth Savings Program their studies due to pregnancy or care respon- who pass to the next grade increased from 8,900 sibilities, whereas boys tend to leave school in 2014 to 22,240 in 2019 (World Bank 2019b). to seek employment, most of it informal. Data also point to higher uptake of natural science Addressing Gender and math streams by boys than girls. For that Stereotypes in School reason, another set of interventions will seek to Curricula and the Classroom encourage girls to study natural sciences and A national school curriculum can reinforce so- math, by removing social barriers and uncon- cial and gender inequalities by implicitly up- scious biases that keep many female students holding traditional gender stereotypes or by from those fields. disregarding the diversity of learning needs and Similarly, in the State of Piauí in Brazil, the styles among girls and boys throughout the Piauí Productive and Social Inclusion Develop- country. Alternatively, a national curriculum ment Policy Loan (2015-17) and the Piauí Pillars can promote positive messages about equality of Growth and Social Inclusion Project (2015- between women and men. In several countries 2020) aim to reduce school drop-out among in LAC, the WBG supports efforts to remove gen- public upper secondary students, especially der biases from textbooks and curriculum and II. Leveraging Bank Operations to Close Gender Gaps: Project Illustrations 35 to change teacher attitudes that tend to rein- gender relations, nonviolent masculinity, and force gender inequality. ways to prevent violence against women. The In Guyana, the Education Sector Improve- project also supports the Ministry of Education ment Project (2017-2023) is revising the nation- in revising its training materials to address gen- al curricula and teaching guide to make them der stereotypes. more inclusive in terms of disability, gender, In Haiti, the Providing an Education of Qual- and indigenous peoples. Another goal is to ity Project (2016-22) includes interventions in avoid stereotyping, instead focusing on repre- primary schools to combat gender stereotypes sentation, illustrations, language, and trans- and promote a positive school environment formational roles. The project trains teachers both for girls and boys.  The project focuses in student-centered pedagogies and student on three activities in public primary schools: assessment practices consistent with the new (1) girls, boys, and parents’ clubs to provide a curriculum framework. The training seeks to platform for gender-sensitive discussions on sensitize teachers to the consequences of bias- health, aspirations, behavioral norms, and oth- es (conscious or unconscious) against students er issues, (2) training for school teachers on of different genders, racial and ethnic groups, children’s rights, non-violent discipline, and and students with disabilities. It equips teach- dispelling of gender stereotypes, and (3) reno- ers with classroom strategies to overcome vation of school latrines to meet national stan- these biases and accommodate students who dards of hygiene and gender-specific needs. have special needs and diverse learning styles. In Uruguay, the Improving the Quality of In the Dominican Republic, the Support to Initial and Primary Education Project (2016-22) the National Education Pact Project (2015-20) is aims to improve the teaching practices and helping the government develop a three-day learning environment of early and primary training program for teachers on prevention of education. The project is conducting a na- bullying and violence in schools. The training is tion-wide diagnostic as an input to the Gen- modeled after a successful program developed der Equality Action Plan by which the National by the Violence Prevention Center (CEPREV) in Public Education Agency (ANEP) is addressing Nicaragua. Employing a personal, family, and challenges that girls face in school. The proj- community perspective, the CEPREV model ect is considering including in-service training has found wide use in schools across the region for primary teachers to increase awareness of to promote non-violent relationships, peaceful gender dimensions of learning, especially so- resolution of conflicts, understanding of the cial norms about masculinity and femininity causes and consequences of violence, healthier and differential cognitive development in ear- Closing Gender Gaps in Latin America 36 and the Caribbean ly grades, as well as non-violent conflict reso- In Brazil, the Support to Upper Second- lution. This training would include four types ary Reform Project (2017-23) includes a set of of interventions: (1) face-to face classes, led school-based interventions that target social by pedagogical experts, to attempt to revise barriers and unconscious biases that prevent teaching frameworks and reflect on the teach- girls from selecting natural sciences and math ing process, learning outcomes, and teacher as fields of study. These interventions include performance, (2) workshops for the teachers of (1) professional development for teachers to a single school or center, (3) class observation increase the use of practical and applied strat- for in-place identification of issues, support, egies in the teaching of natural sciences and and advice, and (4) virtual support for on-time math, (2) raising awareness among teachers needs. In some cases, materials such as teach- and principals of unconscious gender biases, ers’ guidelines and school books would com- (3) strategies to build a “science identity” for plement these interventions. girls, and (4) removal of gender stereotypes and biases from learning materials. Promoting Women in STEM In Mexico, through the Additional Financing Fields of Study for Energy Efficiency in Public Facilities Project The gender gap in enrollment and graduation (2018-21), the WBG is expanding investment in rates in science, technology, engineering and energy efficiency in public schools. The project mathematics (STEM) in LAC has widened in also includes a “Women in STEM” program that recent years (UNESCO 2015). Cultural norms mentors young women in public high schools about traditional gender roles and femininity to increase their interest in science and engi- influence which subjects Latin American wom- neering. The activity responds to long-standing en decide to pursue in tertiary education, often low participation by women in STEM education steering them away from STEM fields. Gender and employment in Mexico. equity in STEM could improve women’s labor market opportunities and enhance scientific and technological advances in the region, rais- REMOVING ing productivity and growth. Through second- CONSTRAINTS FOR ary and tertiary education projects in multiple MORE AND BETTER countries, the WBG is helping to change the cul- tural perception and mindsets of young women EMPLOYMENT While over the past three decades, women and encourage them to choose STEM. have dramatically increased their role in the LAC workforce, their participation remains be- II. Leveraging Bank Operations to Close Gender Gaps: Project Illustrations 37 low men’s, albeit in degrees that vary country • Lack of connection between women entre- to country. The WBG is working to loosen con- preneurs and farmers to value chains and straints on women’s labor force participation. markets These include: • Lack of access to time-saving resources such • Skills gaps as electricity • Gender norms about occupational choices In addition, the WBG is focusing on ways to • Inadequate child care services smooth the transition of young people of both genders from school into working life. The goal • The needs of sick and elderly dependents is to uncover and address gender-differentiat- • Insufficient resources including productive ed factors that tend to channel youth into vul- inputs, information, and networks nerable groups that are neither working nor studying. UFGE Funds Study to Understand Gender Implications of Tourism Models in St. Lucia and Grenada A UFGE grant developed a nationally representative Tourism, Gender and Competitive- ness survey to understand the impact of two different tourism models – non-all-inclusive and all-inclusive – on the quality of employment and gender in Grenada and St. Lucia. The survey gathered data from employees and employers within non-all-inclusive and all-in- clusive hotels and supporting agricultural businesses relative to length of hours of work, job security, access to child care, safety, promotion, finance for training and investments, sexual harassment, access to medical care, income gaps and voice and representation. The survey found that the tourism sector has a high level of female ownership and man- agement on both islands (63 percent of hotels in St. Lucia and 78 percent in Grenada in- clude women owners), and women’s share of ownership is 61 percent in St. Lucia and 67 percent in Grenada. Outside of ownership roles, female employees remain highly concen- trated in female-dominated occupations, such as housekeeping, food and beverage and front office management. Also, gender disparities exist in remuneration for female employ- ees: while the tourism sector fares better than the national average, the survey found that, when controlling for experience and other individual and hotel characteristics, women’s mean compensation was 23 percent lower than men’s in Grenada and 10 percent lower in Continued on the next page Closing Gender Gaps in Latin America 38 and the Caribbean Continued from the previous page St. Lucia. Furthermore, female employees were more likely than male counterparts to not be compensated for overtime, and are promoted less frequently than male employees. When comparing all-inclusive and non-all-inclusive models, the study found that non-all-inclusive hotels make up a majority of hotels in both islands, but all-inclusive hotels are significantly larger (more than six times larger on both islands), and provide more jobs (76 percent of hotel employment in St. Lucia and 71 percent in Grenada). All-inclusive hotels also provide more benefits, including subsidized meals, free or subsidized transport, and fund more training programs for employees. The findings of the study reveal important tradeoffs between all-in- clusive and non-all-inclusive models of tourism development for women, and may be useful to ongoing WBG work on tourism market development in the OECS and other small island nations where tourism is critical to the economy. Fostering Female improve their competitiveness. Key program activities include an eight-month acceleration Entrepreneurship program aimed at helping entrepreneurs devel- Having limited opportunities in the private sec- op soft and business skills and facilitate peer- tor and a need for time flexibility, women in the to-peer learning and self-development. A pro- region frequently turn to entrepreneurship. The gram evaluation shows that the program led to WBG is pioneering initiatives to catalyze wom- empowerment, increased confidence, changes en’s entrepreneurial talent and address barriers in knowledge on how to grow their businesses in the set-up, management, and expansion of and deal with external challenges. Enhanced their businesses. Helping women’s entrepre- competitiveness among participants in Mont- neurial talents take off will help advance wom- serrat, Guyana and Barbados was noted, where en’s economic empowerment, create jobs, 34 to 40 percent of entrepreneurs experienced reduce poverty, and contribute to growth and growth of their business through the expansion shared prosperity. of location and customer base and some who In the Caribbean, the WBG has worked began exporting products (World Bank 2019a). through the Women Innovators Network of the In Suriname, the Competitiveness and Sec- Caribbean (2013-19) to establish a support sys- tor Diversification Project (2019-2025) seeks to tem for growth-oriented women entrepreneurs. improve competitiveness and governance in The system provides women with methods, targeted sectors and industries; and a key com- tools, and expertise to help them innovate and ponent to this work includes strategic invest- II. Leveraging Bank Operations to Close Gender Gaps: Project Illustrations 39 ments in SMEs and value chains in emerging ically those that are female-owned, resulting in industries, including agribusiness and tourism. participation in the project. Currently, female-owned and managed firms In Mexico, the WBG partnered with the Na- in Suriname are smaller and less likely to have tional Institute of the Entrepreneur (Instituto international quality certifications, external au- Nacional del Emprendedor—INADEM) to de- diting of financial statements or direct exports. sign and evaluate the institute’s first national These gaps are associated with disparities program to promote female entrepreneurs, in access to finance, including lower rates of Women Moving Mexico (Mujeres Moviendo a banks or supplier credit to finance investments Mexico—MMM). The pilot was launched in five or working capital. The project will also iden- states (Mexico City, Aguascalientes, State of tify regulations that hinder women’s economic Mexico, Queretaro, and Guanajuato) and pro- participation in the economy and will promote vided close to 2,000 women with a mix of hard reforms to level the legal playing field with men. skills (better management and business liter- In Suriname, women have only two-thirds of acy), and soft skills (behaviors for a proactive the legal rights afforded to men: they face addi- entrepreneurial mindset). The World Bank as- tional restrictions when registering a business sisted INADEM and the implementing organi- and accessing credit, and lack legal protections zation, Communities of Social Entrepreneurs that affect their ability to enter the labor market (Comunidades de Emprendedoras Sociales— and return to work after having children (World CREA), to conduct a rigorous impact evalua- Bank 2020). The project will fund a Program for tion. Preliminary results nine months after the Suriname’s Growth Enterprises (SURGE), which program show a significant increase in mana- will provide business development services gerial capacities, weekly profits, probability of and matching grants for productivity-enhanc- hiring an additional worker, and access to for- ing investments and value chain development. mal finance. The WBG team is currently collect- SURGE will promote and give preference to ing data to assess the impact at 18-20 months firms that are women-owned or led or that em- out from the program. It is also continuing to ploy a majority of female workers. The project work with INADEM and CREA to expand the will monitor increase in revenue of firms, specif- program’s sustainability and scalability. Closing Gender Gaps in Latin America 40 and the Caribbean LACGIL Assesses Impact of Training on Female Entrepreneurs In Mexico, the LACGIL supports the impact evaluation of a pilot completed through Female Entrepreneurship IE Follow Up (P165672). Building on a previous study (Campos et al. 2017) which showed that training focused on specific soft skills increased monthly profits of female entrepreneurs by 40 percent, the evaluation measures the impact of a training program for female entrepreneurs that combines two types of training: (i) traditional hard skills training focusing on business literacy and business management skills (42 hours) and (ii) personal ini- tiative training to build soft-skills, innovation mindset, grit, and forward-looking capacity (18 hours). Based on two follow-up surveys completed within two years of the program comple- tion, preliminary results show that the program increased profits, salaries and formalization. Moreover, the program proved to be cost-effective: the increase in profits and salaries and the cost of the program were recovered in less than five months. These results show a return on investment that varies between 280 percent in the most conservative scenario (program effect decays entirely by third year) and 966 percent in the more optimistic scenario (program impact decays by 10 percent annually). Increasing Livelihood women and youth in community deliberations that conceive of and build rural infrastructure Opportunities and Incomes of projects. Twenty-eight percent of members of Rural Women rural producer organizations who are project Women farmers often own fewer assets (land, beneficiaries are women. The project has pro- livestock, human capital) and have less access moted women’s participation in agriculture val- to inputs (seeds, fertilizer, labor, finance) and ue chains generally, and in the most prominent services (training, insurance) than men. Women value chain—coffee—in which 45 percent of also often need agricultural training and cus- producers were women. In rural producer orga- tomized support to ease their double work load nizations that focus on vegetables, 32 percent as farmers and caregivers. In the LAC region, of members were women. The project placed WBG projects are helping women farmers link special emphasis on promoting women’s par- up with agricultural value chains, agricultural ticipation in decision-making in these organi- extension, training services, and technology. zations. The World Bank is providing additional financing for the project. In Honduras, the Rural Competitiveness Project (2008-20) is promoting participation of II. Leveraging Bank Operations to Close Gender Gaps: Project Illustrations 41 In Haiti, the Relaunching Agriculture: tourism sectors, with a specific emphasis on Strengthening Agriculture Public Services II Proj- building organizational capacity, productivity ect, or RESEPAG II, (2011-19) aims to improve and access to markets for women’s coopera- livelihood in areas damaged by Hurricane Mat- tives and producer groups. The project will thew. Its focus is providing access to agricul- monitor job creation of project activities for tural support and extension services through women and youth. the establishment of a Market Support Facil- In Brazil, the Rio Grande do Norte Regional ity (MSF). The Facility targets farming with the Development and Governance Project (2013-19) goal of equal participation of women and men. is targeting support to women-led producer or- It promotes adoption of priority technologies ganizations through grants, guidance on busi- and improved agricultural inputs, strengthens ness plan development, and design and imple- producer-based organizations, provides for mentation of productive activities. Since 2015, greater technology transfer, and supports im- 52 producer organizations (including 31 led by provements in post-harvest and agribusiness female presidents) have received support for technology distributed to small farmers. production of irrigated fruit and vegetables, In Jamaica, the Second Rural Economic De- concentrated fruit pulp, sweets and confec- velopment Initiative Project (REDI II) (2019-2025) tions, sustainable algae-based cosmetics and continues the first phase of a project that im- food products, and milk and fish products. Ar- proved access to markets while strengthening tisanal production of clothing and household climate resilience. The first phase of the project goods has also received support. The value of (closed July 2017), benefitted over 19,000 micro sub-project grants averages US$362,000, with and small-scale rural producers, 51 percent of producer organizations contributing an addi- whom were women. REDI II will build on this tional 20 percent in cash or in kind. Current- success by linking rural micro, small and medi- ly, beneficiaries number more than 1,000, of um agricultural and community-based tourism whom 63 percent are women. enterprises to Jamaica’s agriculture food and Closing Gender Gaps in Latin America 42 and the Caribbean UFGE Develops Training for Female Producer Organizations in Brazil In partnership with WBG partners in Rio Grande do Norte, the UFGE funded qualitative re- search on the opportunities and constraints facing rural women (Costa et al. 2016). The re- search informed the development of training tools utilized within the Rio Grande do Norte Regional Development and Governance Project. The two primary teaching aids : the video “Women’s Strength” (Força das Mulheres) in which rural women speak of the challenges and discrimination they have faced and their victories in overcoming these, and a visual-only booklet (due to low literacy rates) depicting the gender division of labor in the daily life of a farming family and how these might be transformed. The project also provided gender train- ing to a subset of producer organization engaged in social enterprises. In Mexico, the WBG is applying a range of in- findings, the team is designing an experiment struments including lending, grants, technical to test outreach mechanisms and behaviorally assistance and carbon finance to improve for- framed messages to encourage women to take est landscape management. This programmat- part in NRM activities. ic approach supports Mexico’s Paris Agreement Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) tar- Promoting Women’s get of zero deforestation by 2030. The goal is Employment in Non- to enhance the economic value of forests by creating jobs and income in forest landscapes, Traditional Sectors strengthen community forest enterprises, and The WBG has been promoting participation of foster competitiveness of the forestry sector. women in social and economic opportunities As part of the program, the WBG team conduct- that arise from construction and maintenance ed a qualitative study of the constraints that of rural roads. A recent qualitative study found Mexican rural women face in getting involved that women who took part in this work in Ar- in natural resource management (NRM) activ- gentina, Nicaragua, and Peru11 enjoyed more ities. The resulting report (Siegmann and Afif income and greater control over it. The work 2018) identified psychological and social bar- broadened their networks to enable them to riers, including low access to information, as- meet peers and access social support and in- piration scarcity, low self-efficacy, rigid social formation. It gave them new technical skills, norms, and lack of role models. Based on these and enhanced their self-esteem, confidence, 11 Peru Decentralized Rural Transport Project (2007-13) and Nicaragua Fourth and Fifth rural roads projects (2006-17). II. Leveraging Bank Operations to Close Gender Gaps: Project Illustrations 43 and aspirations (Casabonne, Jimenez, and tine road maintenance work. These strategies Muller 2016). Overall, helping women enter include (1) training and sensitizing for all actors non-traditional work challenged entrenched (municipalities, the Provincial Road Institutes, social norms, an important step toward giving companies and associations) on ways to pro- women an equal voice and role in society and vide equal opportunities for men and women, the household. Upcoming rural roads projects (2) incorporating gender-equal practices in the in the region are applying these lessons to bring calls for hiring by road maintenance associa- more women into their work teams. tions and companies, (3) using gender-inclu- In Nicaragua, the Rural and Urban Access sive language in all communications, and (4) Improvement Project (2017-22) seeks to reduce providing incentives and awards to companies constraints to women’s employment in rural and associations that act to increase women’s road construction that a qualitative assessment employment. identified (Casabonne, Jimenez, and Muller 2015), namely lack of childcare, lack of informa- Addressing the “Care tion on job opportunities, and exclusion from Agenda” jobs perceived to be traditionally men’s. Ac- When children, the sick and disabled, and tions include (1) technical and gender-sensiti- the elderly need care in Latin America, it is zation training to increase the diversity of wom- overwhelmingly female relatives who take on en’s occupations within the sector, leaving the the job. This is one of the key constraints keep- choice of tasks open to them, (2) use of a gen- ing women out of the labor market. In LAC, the der-sensitive recruitment strategy to give wom- WBG is stepping up research and operations en better access to information through such to meet this challenge. The recently published communication channels as community radio joint IABD/WBG report “Cashing in on Educa- and fliers, and (3) piloting of childcare provision tion: Women, Childcare, and Prosperity in Latin to women employed in roads construction. America and the Caribbean” (Mateo Diaz and In Peru, the Support to the Subnational Rodriguez-Chamussy 2016) offers key insights Transport Program (2015-21) has conduct- into how to design and provide childcare so ed an in-depth analysis of key constraints on as to expand female participation in the labor women’s participation in road maintenance. force and aggregate economic productivity. The Ministry of Communication and Trans- In Chile, the WBG provided technical assis- port, in coordination with local governments, tance to inform the design and evaluation of is designing common standards, practices, and the pilot phase of the government-funded Na- strategies to promote hiring of women in rou- tional System for Social Care, Chile Cuida. The Closing Gender Gaps in Latin America 44 and the Caribbean program addresses two pressing social issues: ean households, which according to a nation- (1) the high concentration of women among al survey have at least one person needing it informal caregivers and its incompatibility with (young children, elderly people, or people with women’s increasing participation in the labor disabilities). The program’s first phase covered market, and (2) the fragmented and insuffi- 12 municipalities. In 2017, the WBG evaluated cient supply of formal services targeted to the that phase with an eye to strengthening scale- population groups most requiring care—young up. This work found success in establishing a children, the elderly, and people with disabili- well-coordinated program at the local level and ties. Launched in 2015, Chile Cuida offers home meeting the care needs of the target popula- care to poor older people and trains and em- tion. The evaluation identified implementation ploys women from these people’s communi- bottlenecks and suggested improvements for ties to provide these services. The services are identifying care providers and better targeting projected for use in about 12 percent of Chil- beneficiaries. UFGE Funds Analysis on the Care in Colombia In Colombia, with funding from the UFGE, the WBG completed analytical work to inform gov- ernment efforts to improve its National Social Care System. Like many Latin American coun- tries, Colombia faces an unprecedented aging of its population, creating the challenge of an increasing elderly population with fewer resources to manage the care they require. Addition- ally, the number of disabled people has also grown, resulting in an increased demand for care services of different types and strains on care-providers, both family members and formal pro- viders. To better understand these challenges in the context of Colombia, the work included: 1. profiling of caregivers and households that could benefit from care services offered by a national program (demand assessment), 2. stocktaking of existing public programs and services (cash transfers, services, incentives) that address the needs of households with dependents (supply assessment), and 3. analysis of the employment-creation effect of expanding social care services. Continued on the next page II. Leveraging Bank Operations to Close Gender Gaps: Project Illustrations 45 Continued from the previous page The research found that nearly 40 percent of the Colombian population depend on care due to their age and/or level of disability; the majority of caregivers – approximately 80 per- cent – are women; unpaid caregivers spend between 35 and 45 percent of their daily work- ing time (6 hours out of 16 hours per day) providing home care or care specific to members of the household; between 32 and 45 percent of unpaid caregivers list a paid job outside of the home as their main activity; and provision of care happens mostly within the family. UFGE-funded activities provided key inputs for Colombia’s national dialogue on care policy and its impact on women’s agency and labor force participation. Importantly, the methodol- ogies developed through the work – the demand assessment based on household-level data and the supply assessment based on qualitative methods – may be replicated elsewhere to design policies to adequately respond to the growing need for care services, while mitigating time-burden on household members, particularly women. In Brazil, World Bank operations are help- tal or rigorous quasi-experimental evaluations ing expand early childhood education (ECE) of childcare interventions, including ECE, on through the Recife SWAP Education and Public women’s labor force participation in LAC. Re- Management Program (2012-18) and in Uru- sults indicate that women who are given access guay the Improving the Quality of Initial and to subsidized childcare in the region have a two Primary Education Project (2016-22). Dias and to 22 percent increase in probability of employ- Rodriguez-Chamussy (2016) review experimen- ment (Diaz and Rodriguez-Chamussy 2016). Closing Gender Gaps in Latin America 46 and the Caribbean LACGIL: Optimizing Childcare Policy and Childcare Programs in LAC Throughout Latin America, the LACGIL funds ongoing studies on childcare policies and pro- grams in the region and their impact on women’s economic empowerment. A collaborative research study among the LACGIL, the IFC Gender Secretariat, and the East Asia and Pacific Gender Innovation Lab (EAPGIL) seeks to analyze the case of Chile, Cambodia, and other countries where private-sector employers are legally required to support or provide child- care. This study helps understand the prerequisites for a successful provision of childcare arrangements and consists of three components: (i) financing: how to design effective mech- anisms to distribute the costs among government, employers and beneficiaries; (ii) legislat- ing: what policy design lessons can be drawn from successful childcare programs around the world; and (iii) ensuring take-up: which demand-side factors matter most. This study will provide lessons for designing different aspects of childcare policy and childcare programs in LAC and globally. In Honduras, LACGIL – in collaboration with the Education, Health, and Social Protection and Jobs Global Practices and in partnership with the Early Learning Partnership Multi-Donor Trust Fund (ELP MDTF) – conducts a study to examine (i) the childcare needs of families with children in urban areas with higher employment opportunities for women and (ii) the provi- sion of care services in these areas, with an emphasis on the availability, price, and quality. The study will map childcare programs and provision gaps in areas with higher employment opportunities for women. In doing so, the study seeks to improve the evidence base on the efficiency and effectiveness of policy design and implementation of different childcare provi- sion models, and to increase gender equality in the labor market. In Mexico, the LACGIL supports a study on childcare services, examining demand, supply and financing of childcare and its impact on female labor force participation. Specifically, the study produces ex-ante estimations of scenarios of interest for the provision and financing of childcare services in Mexico. One scenario is the proposed reform of Articles 201 and 202 of the Law of Social Security to broaden eligibility for childcare support to fathers (men) under the package of social security benefits that currently cover mothers only. The study aims to answer the question of how a legislative reform that guarantees childcare service access to fathers affects female labor participation. Continued on the next page II. Leveraging Bank Operations to Close Gender Gaps: Project Illustrations 47 Continued from the previous page In Uruguay, the LACGIL, the UN Women, local academia, and the Uruguayan National Office of Social Security have been collaborating since June 2019 to identify, design, imple- ment, and evaluate mechanisms that encourage fathers to take part-time, paid parental leave. In 2013, Uruguay implemented a law that grants the benefit of a fully paid, part-time parental leave to private sector workers, to be shared between mother and father. However, a national survey of care (2017) shows that only 4.5% of fathers take the benefit, while 69.6% of eligible mothers do. The main factors related to this behavior are (i) lack of information about the parental leave benefit; (ii) perceived financial costs associated with taking parental leave; and (iii) social norms dictating that childcare should be provided by the mother. Based on these findings, this study proposes a randomized experiment to evaluate the effect of behaviorally-informed messages designed to encourage fathers to opt for the benefit. The study will inform the design of gender equality policies in the workplace as well as the imple- mentation of parental leave policies. Reducing Women’s Time fits many of the home-based income-generat- ing activities in which women engage. Burden by Increasing Access In Haiti, the Renewable Energy for All Project to Energy (2017-23) and the Modern Energy Services for All Modern energy services play a key role in facil- Project (2017-23) are improving electricity con- itating access to such necessities as clean wa- nections in rural and peri-urban areas. This is ter, sanitation, and health care. They advance done by scaling up on-grid investments in solar development by providing reliable and efficient energy, deploying a range of off-grid electrifica- lighting, heating, cooking, mechanical power, tion options, introducing pay-as-you-go mod- transport, and telecommunications. Because els, which minimize upfront investment, and women, especially in rural areas, hold prime re- promoting, through leasing, the use of energy sponsibility for the bulk of household work, ac- efficient time-saving appliances. All of these ef- cess to clean and affordable energy facilitates forts support income-generating activities that use of household appliances, which directly re- many Haitian women carry out at home, such duces the time burden of this unpaid work and as producing fruit juice or ice cream, raising increases their time to engage in paid work. chickens for commercial markets, and selling Furthermore, better access to electricity bene- bottled drinks from small shops in their homes. According to local women consulted during the Closing Gender Gaps in Latin America 48 and the Caribbean project’s preparation, having electricity for re- Facilitating Labor Market frigeration systems is a priority for income-gen- erating activities. Women also mentioned Transitions of Young Women that being able to charge cellphones at home and Men would help greatly because they currently need Cognitive, socio-emotional, and technical skills to travel long distances to cell-phone charging are important for successful school-to-work booths, which charge fees. The energy projects transitions by young men and women. The WBG are also helping integrate women micro-entre- is helping LAC countries improve gender-equal preneurs into emerging off-grid electricity sup- access, quality, and relevance of skills and train- ply chains related to solar home systems, solar ing opportunities, especially among vulnerable lanterns, and cell phone charging. groups. Improving these skills—and employers’ ability to find people who have them—can re- duce unemployment, raise incomes, and im- prove standards of living. LACGIL Tests Strategies to Increase Girls’ and Boys’ Motivation to Stay in School In Brazil, the LACGIL supports a pilot intervention with the Promundo Institute and the Secretaria Municipal de Educação do Rio de Janeiro on the project “Projetando Futuros (Designing Futures)”. The program aims to address the high share of NEETs – youth out of school and out of work – in Brazil by stimulating aspirations of boys and girls and to as- sist them in transitioning from the school to the workplace. The program intervention in- cludes the co-creation (teachers and secondary students) of a toolkit “Designing Futures” and the subsequent use of it by teachers in the classroom. The toolkit is meant to (i) pro- vide a space for teachers and students to identify barriers preventing students from stay- ing in school and (ii) build aspirations for the students to help them transition from school to the workplace. The toolkit opens with a diagnostic exercise to better understand stu- dents’ needs and group characteristics. Subsequent activities and exercises are struc- tured to identify family cycles of work and income, strengthen women’s representation in various social spheres, discuss the gendered division of labor and its implications for dif- ferent family members, address lacking motivation, reflect on one’s sense of belonging, Continued on the next page II. Leveraging Bank Operations to Close Gender Gaps: Project Illustrations 49 Continued from the previous page and establish life projects based on concrete goals and critical reflection on gender norms and aspirations. To equip students with skills to take action, the toolkit includes activities relative to discrimination in education and the labor market, resilience when looking for a job, learning from role models and where to find mentors (among others). This project is informed by previous analytical work conducted by the World Bank. A com- plimentary study investigates if the participatory curriculum can increase girls’ and boys’ motivation to stay in secondary school. In Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, the The WBG supports efforts to provide land and Human Development Service Delivery Project property titles to women in state land adjudi- (2017-22) aims to expand and improve Techni- cation programs and to expand access to cap- cal Vocational Education and Training (TVET) ital and financial services by tailoring financial for poor and unemployed persons. The project products to women customers. sets a target of 50 percent women participants and provides a childcare stipend to at least Increasing Women’s Land 400 parents of young children to help prevent and Property Ownership school dropout of young mothers. through Joint Titling REMOVING When women own land, several crucial bene- fits accrue to them and their families. Having BARRIERS collateral allows women to obtain credit to buy TO WOMEN’S key agricultural inputs, or make other invest- ments to increase food production. Access to OWNERSHIP AND land can lift a woman’s status and enhance her CONTROL OF bargaining power in families and communities, PRODUCTIVE ASSETS boosting well-being at the household level. The WBG is helping to keep this trend going by Women in LAC face gender disparities in access supporting joint titling and registration in hus- to and control over land and property, as well bands’ and wives’ names in land administra- as other productive resources and services. If tion projects. women cannot own property and land to use as collateral, they have difficulty obtaining credit. Closing Gender Gaps in Latin America 50 and the Caribbean In Nicaragua, the Property Rights Strength- al y Pesquero, FND) to provide 80,000 loans to ening Project (2018-24) includes a gender strat- 75,000 rural MSMEs, with an average loan size of egy to promote issuance of titles jointly to cou- US$1,500. Eighty-four percent of credit recipi- ples as well as to female heads of households. ents are women, 12 percent are located in com- The project is financing communication cam- munities classified as marginalized or highly paigns designed to raise women’s awareness of marginalized, and 5 percent are first-time bor- their property rights. Moreover, the project will rowers (World Bank 2017a). provide training to land administration staff at In addition, the Savings and Credit Sector the central and local levels on gender-equita- Consolidation and Financial Inclusion Project ble governance of land tenure and will produce (2011-17) aimed to deepen financial inclusion technical manuals on gender equality in prop- in underserved areas in Mexico. Two programs erty rights and land titling. supported by the project, the Technical As- sistance Program for Rural Microfinance (Pro- Expanding Women’s Access grama de Asistencia Técnica a las Microfinanzas to Financial Services Rurales—PATMIR) and the Financial Inclusion Financial inclusion makes it easier for women Program (Programa Integral de Inclusión Finan- to obtain high-quality financial services. This is ciera— PROIFF) had a strong focus on women. crucial to achieving inclusive growth. Women, Under PATMIR, 604,037 women obtained links especially poor ones, disproportionately face fi- to financial services (58 percent of total new nancial access barriers that prevent them from members in the program), while under PROIFF participating in the economy and improving about 500,000 women (almost 50 percent of their lives. The WBG is working to promote ac- total beneficiaries) received a basic loan, and cess to credit for women to help achieve gen- 670,000 (two thirds of total beneficiaries) con- der equity and poverty reduction. tracted for a “programmed” deposit. Finally, 90 percent of the 1.8 million people who received In Mexico, the Expanding Rural Finance Proj- financial education from the National Savings ect (2015-20) is expanding availability of finance and Financial Services Bank (Banco del Ahorro to underserved micro, small, and medium en- Nacional y Servicios Financieros -BANSEFI) were terprises (MSMEs) in rural areas by establishing women. Participating Financial Intermediaries (PFIs). To date, 110 such rural bodies have received In Argentina, the Access to Longer Term Fi- US$123 million in credit lines from the Rural nance for Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Financial Development Agency (Financiera Na- (MSME) Project (2016-21) has earmarked US$1 cional de Desarrollo Agropecuario, Rural, Forest- million for lending to segments of MSMEs that II. Leveraging Bank Operations to Close Gender Gaps: Project Illustrations 51 face difficulty obtaining long-term finance. en equally in income: and have women in their These include enterprises that employ indige- management team. The project provides a nous people or have them in their value chains; credit line intermediated by Banco de Inversión support work-life balance and shared social y Comercio Exterior S.A. (BICE) to participating responsibility by men and women; provide financial institutions for on-lending to MSMEs. daycare to dependents; treat men and wom- UFGE Launches Initiatives to Expand Women’s Access to Financial Services in LAC A UFGE-supported study in the Dominican Republic explores whether traditional credit scoring models restrict women’s access to formal credit and tests a new model to under- stand how other gender-related characteristics and behaviors can predict creditworthiness differently for women and men.  The study employs machine learning and big data from mo- bile phones, mobile app usage, and mobile money transactions to generate new data points that may improve women’s creditworthiness and grant them access to credit otherwise un- available to them.  The aim of the study is to generate strategies to close the gender credit gap in emerging markets for vulnerable segments of the population, particularly for those who traditionally have no formal credit history. The study is in collaboration with researchers from the University of California at Berkeley and Northwestern University, in partnership with the Asociación La Nacional de Ahorros y Préstamos (ALNAP), Innovations for Poverty Action (IPA) Dominican Republic and Uruguayan Fintech12. In Panama, the UFGE seeks to expand access to finance for rural indigenous women. In partnership with indigenous women’s organizations, the WBG completed a diagnostic on demand and supply for economic empowerment programs inclusive of indigenous popu- lations, and based on this diagnostic, designed a pilot intervention in six Indigenous com- munities. The pilot includes support under three pillars: (i) ecosystem training designed for indigenous women and other key stakeholders (husbands and community leaders); Continued on the next page 12 12 The researchers gratefully acknowledge additional funding from the Digital Credit Observatory (Center for Effective Global Action and Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation), USAID, and Data2X (UN Foundation). Closing Gender Gaps in Latin America 52 and the Caribbean Continued from the previous page (ii) financial inclusion through the establishment of community banks and financial manage- ment training; and (iii) technical assistance for women’s producer organizations within pilot communities. Inclusion of key stakeholders in training modules has proved so instrumen- tal in women’s inclusion that the implementing organization has revised its methodology in other communities where it works. Findings from the pilot aim to inform a productive devel- opment program that targets indigenous women in Panama. ENHANCING Boosting Women’s Voice WOMEN’S VOICE and Participation at the AND AGENCY Community Level Agency is the freedom and ability of a woman In Bolivia, the Community Investment in Rural to effectively choose her goals and make free Areas Project (2011-19)13 and the project’s ad- decisions regarding her life plans. Agency takes ditional financing, includes a detailed gender many forms, such as control over resources action plan to ensure that women participate (measured by ability to earn and control in- in general decision making and prioritization come), ability to move freely and have voice in of sub-projects, small-scale construction to im- society, influence policy and family formation, prove infrastructure such as irrigation systems, and have freedom from violence (World Bank rural roads, fencing for livestock, domestic wa- 2012a and Klugman et al. 2014). A focus of ter supply, and electricity. During consultations, the WBG’s work in LAC has been to strengthen indigenous women indicated several con- women’s voice and participation in community straints to participation in community activi- affairs and prevent GBV. ties: limited free time due to household respon- sibilities, social norms that confine women to 13 It includes two projects: BO PICAR Community Investment in Rural Areas (P107137) and BO Community Investment in Rural Areas Project Additional Financing (P154854) II. Leveraging Bank Operations to Close Gender Gaps: Project Illustrations 53 the domestic sphere, perceptions that men are (2010-19) to benefit non-indigenous women responsible for their communities and there- in the Province of Catamarca. The Northwest- fore make decisions, lack of self-esteem, and ern Corridor Development Project (2017-2023), lack of knowledge on how to engage in com- meanwhile, has taken a similar approach. By munity decision-making. The project provided strengthening youth and women’s agency, it training to about 660 women on how to identify promotes economic development for indige- community needs and prioritize projects to fi- nous women and youth to help counter unem- nance. Women’s participation in these deliber- ployment and gender-based violence among ations aims to build their skills and confidence these groups. to take up greater roles in community life. At the end of 2017, 39 percent of sub-projects in the Preventing and Responding communities had been prioritized and led by to Gender-Based Violence women (Charlier 2017). Over the past five years, the WBG has intensified In Argentina, the Qom Culture Route initia- efforts in the region to prevent GBV and protect tive, part of the Indigenous People’s Plan under and assist its victims, helped by a conducive the Argentina Norte Grande Road and Water policy environment. LAC countries have estab- Infrastructure Project (2011-19), promoted a lished legal frameworks and national actions tourist and cultural corridor centered on Qom plans to combat GBV. The WBG is supporting indigenous culture. By encouraging artistic pro- these by strengthening institutional capacity duction and engagement in cultural tourism, and supporting awareness raising and inno- the project aimed to strengthen women’s col- vative interventions in behavior change. For lective identity, and empower women in their instance, as part of its transport projects, the role as custodians of Qom culture. Activities WBG is also involved in establishing codes of included construction of seven craftswomen conduct and other initiatives to reduce sexual community centers, training of women in or- harassment. ganizational, productive, and life skills, men- In Peru, the Improving Performance of torship and group formation, and creation of a Non-Criminal Justice Services Project (2019- network of seven women’s associations along 2024) aims to ensure that women and children the cultural route. A qualitative study funded by have full access to the legal system, especially in UFGE found strong effects on women’s agency cases of sexual and physical violence. Through (Casabonne, Jimenez, and Muller 2015). Based support of Alegra centers, which provide free le- on these positive results, the experience is be- gal, social and psychological support to low-in- ing adapted in another project financed by come populations, the project will integrate the Norte Grande Road Infrastructure Project Closing Gender Gaps in Latin America 54 and the Caribbean UFGE Adapts SASA! Methodology to Reduce GBV The UFGE provided inputs to the Safer Municipalities Project (2012-18) in Honduras, which strengthen municipal capacity to respond to and prevent violence. The UFGE funded the ad- aptation of an innovative community-based violence prevention model, called SASA!14, to re- duce intimate partner violence, which was included in the project’s activities to improve local infrastructure and support services for victims of violence. The Government of Honduras and Raising Voices signed a memorandum of understanding to establish SASA! in the country, which was the first in Latin America to adopt the program. Key materials and tool kits have been translated into Spanish and adapted to the Honduran context. In the state of Piaui, through the Piaui Pillars of Growth and Social Inclusion Project (2015- 20), the WBG is supporting a newly created women’s coordination body, helping it design, implement, and evaluate policies aimed at increasing women’s empowerment and agency and preventing violence against women. In the context of this project, the UFGE financed a second adaptation of SASA! to the Brazilian context, resulting in a toolkit entitled VAMOS! The UFGE also piloted capacity-building workshops with government representatives from a vari- ety of government agencies with a focus on women’s policies and the use of the toolkit. The work will be implemented in 10 additional municipalities at the request of the government of Teresina under a technical assistance component of the Piaui Service Delivery and Public Sector IPF. Additionally, a South-South exchange, cofounded with Women, Business and the Law, featured UFGE work in Piaui during the visit of representatives of Lusophone African countries to learn about the implementation of Brazil’s comprehensive VAW legislation, the Maria del Penha law. actions under the National System of Special- der-based and family violence. More broadly, ized Justice for the protection and Punishment the project seeks to remedy discrimination for of Violence against Women to provide access linguistic, cultural, social or gender reasons that to justice for women living in situations of gen- create barriers to justice.14 14 This intervention, developed and originally implemented in Uganda by the non-profit group Raising Voices, found in a follow-up survey that incidents of intimate partner physical violence in the previous 12 months were 52 percent lower among women who had received the intervention than among those who had not. II. Leveraging Bank Operations to Close Gender Gaps: Project Illustrations 55 In Brazil, in the states of Bahia, Manaus, pal Secretary of Policies for Women to (1) pre- Piauí, Pernambuco, and in the cities of Ter- pare a diagnostic of violence against women esina and Salvador, the WBG has support- in the city, (2) improve the Secretary’s strate- ed policy actions to implement Lei Maria da gic plan for the next four years and establish a Penha—the first Brazilian federal law, passed monitoring and evaluation system for the plan, in 2006, to combat domestic violence against and (3) implement a project to empower and women. The law provides that local, state, protect women by providing job training, rais- and federal governments, together with the ing public awareness about domestic violence, justice sector, must create mechanisms to and giving psychological and judicial support prevent domestic and family violence against to victims of violence. In the city of Salvador, women. Past WBG engagement has included the Salvador Social Multi-Sector Service Delivery establishment of referral centers for female Project (2017-22) is supporting development of victims of violence,15 expansion of services to a system to detect early warning signs of GBV rural and remote areas through mobile units,16 and establish a referral process for GBV victims. communications campaigns to inform wom- Specifically, the project is financing prepara- en of available services,17 and the creation of tion of an inventory of municipality agencies monitoring and evaluation systems to ensure and services related to GBV and an integrated better linkages between GBV-related data and attention protocol to be used with GBV victims. service delivery mechanisms. Currently, the In Ecuador, the First Inclusive and Sustain- WBG supports municipal level work in the city able Growth DPF (2019-2021) identifies violence of Teresina and Salvador. The Teresina Enhanc- against women as a critical barrier to women’s ing Municipal Governance and Quality of Life economic opportunities. The DPL identifies re- Project (2018-21) is funding an urban renewal forms to increase access to formal jobs, espe- investment that includes new water and sani- cially among vulnerable segments of the popu- tation infrastructure, a shoreline park, cycling lations, which include new laws and regulatory paths, wider roads, and a theater. As part of frameworks to prevent and eradicate violence objectives to lower municipal-level crime and against women. Through policies, plans and violence, the project is supporting the Munici- programs, the DPL seeks to transform socio- 15 Bahia Socio Economic Development for Inclusive Growth Development Policy Loan (2013-14) funded 27 referral centers in 21 municipalities, which included counseling, psychological and legal support to victims of violence. 16 Second Bahia Development Policy Loan (2014-16) expanded service coverage to victims of GBV in rural and remote ar- eas. At the end of 2015, mobile units providing services and raising awareness on GBV assisted more than 5,000 wom- en in 67 rural municipalities (IEG 2017). Amazonas Modernizing Public Sector Management, Citizen Security, and Gender Policies Development Policy Loan (2014-16) provided mobile units on buses and boats to target isolated communities. Between 2013 and 2015, community access expanded from two rural communities to 47 in Manaus (Wold Bank 2017b). 17 Amazonas Modernizing Public Sector Management, Citizen Security, and Gender Policies Development Policy Loan (2014-16) Closing Gender Gaps in Latin America 56 and the Caribbean cultural patterns and practices that normalize additional financing (2018-2020) include gen- violence against women, and to provide care, der-sensitive elements such as adequate light- protection and reparation of women victims ing in platforms, stations, and surrounding of violence to ensure their safety and integrity areas, child-friendly access, and safe facilities. and to resume their life, job and family activi- In addition, Metro trains will have gangways to ties. Through these efforts, the WBG seeks to link all cars in a train, which will allow passen- promote a safer environment for women to life, gers who feel unsafe to go to another car even study and work, and to formalize women’s par- while the train is moving. The project foresees ticipation in the workforce. a communications campaign to change behav- iors and promote prevention and reporting of The WBG transport sector is working to sexual harassment in public transport. Surveys ensure large infrastructure projects include to assess satisfaction level of Metro users will in- gender-specific consideration in design and clude specific questions on sexual harassment implementation. In Ecuador, the Quito Met- and mobility and classify responses by gender. ro Line One Project (2013-18) and the project’s UFGE Pilots Strategy to Curtail Sexual Harassment in Public Transport in Mexico In Mexico, the UFGE funded a pilot project Hazme el Paro (an informal way of saying “help” or “have my back”) to inform the Urban Transport Transformation Program (2010-19). The work included a qualitative study to identify sources of sexual harassment in public transportation in Mexico City, and developed a pilot to increase women’s safety within the public transpor- tation system. The pilot intervention included (1) a marketing campaign created precedent for a strong, united opposition to sexual harassment of women and provided transport pas- sengers with strategies to intervene without putting themselves at risk, (2) a smartphone application to facilitate reporting, (3) awareness training for vehicle operators, police, and civil society groups on non-confrontational ways of stopping harassment in public transport, and (4) an evaluation of the program’s effectiveness. II. Leveraging Bank Operations to Close Gender Gaps: Project Illustrations 57 As part of WBG’s work, various transport en- tion of girls, due to the increased number of terprises in LAC have taken actions to mitigate truck drivers traveling the corridor. These com- GBV-related risks linked to the influx of large munities also have high numbers of children numbers of workers into communities for in- and adolescents caught up in violence, bully- frastructure projects. In Bolivia, the National ing, and teenage pregnancy. The initiative in- Roads and Airport Infrastructure Project (2011- cludes (1) a diagnostic study which identified 18), the Road Sector Capacity Development the root causes of social problems in six pilot Project (2015-22), and Santa Cruz Road Corridor schools and their communities through a se- Connector Project (2017-21) include a Code of ries of group interviews, (2) training sessions on Conduct for construction companies and their gender awareness and violence prevention for employees. It states zero tolerance for sexual community citizens, school teachers, and of- harassment of women who live near construc- ficials at the state secretariat of education, (3) tion sites, and includes periodic training for creation of training courses and teaching ma- workers and managers about misconduct, pen- terial on gender awareness for school teachers, alties, and Law 384, which establishes a frame- (4) a referral exercise that mapped formal and work to combat violence against women in Bo- informal services available to women and chil- livia. In addition, the Santa Cruz Road Corridor dren survivors of violence, (5) a training plan for Connector Project (2017-21) includes measures construction workers and a draft Code of Con- to strengthen economic empowerment of in- duct on GBV and child abuse prevention based digenous women by improving the production, on the context of Brazil, (6) study of GBV and marketing, and commercialization capacities child abuse risks through interviews at a labor of women microentrepreneurs as an economic camp, and (7) an assessment of the effective- alternative to commercial sex work. The com- ness of the State government’s current griev- ponent is part of the Indigenous Peoples Plan ance redress mechanism concerning GBV and (IPP) to prevent gender-based violence, un- child abuse cases. wanted pregnancies, and HIV/AIDS/STD, all of which can worsen in a community when work- ers arrive for construction jobs. In Brazil, the Tocantins Integrated Sustain- able Regional Development Project (2012-19) includes an initiative for high schools along the national highway BR-153 corridor. Local communities there are suffering from GBV and child abuse/exploitation, especially prostitu- Closing Gender Gaps in Latin America 58 and the Caribbean LACGIL Investigates Impacts of Violence on Women and Girls The LACGIL currently supports two studies in LAC that seek to better understand the impact of various forms of violence on women and girls’ economic empowerment. In El Salvador, the LACGIL, in partnership with the Development Research Group (DECHD), is conducting a study that aims to provide causal evidence of direct impacts of crime on girls and women’s economic decisions, including human capital accumulation and employment. The research will evaluate the exposure of Salvadoran women and girls to crime, which is measured in two ways: (i) if they are direct victims, or (ii) if they are living or studying in a location with high intensity of violent crimes or in the gang-controlled territory. The study will utilize spatial and temporal variation of violent and gang-related crimes and the exogeneity of a crime reduc- tion policy in El Salvador, made available through the construction of a unique data set of gangs-controlled territories and geo-code homicides committed in El Salvador during the 2005-2017 period, with specific information of victims and—in some cases—perpetuators. The study will contribute to the academic and policy literature on how crime exposure and its variation over time affects individuals’ economic decisions, especially for those living in extremely violent contexts. In Brazil, the LACGIL supports a study on violence against women and economic em- powerment, to be completed in partnership with the School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley and the University of Georgia. The study will investigate whether mu- nicipal characteristics predict a correlation between violence against women and economic empowerment. While existing research examines whether and how financial interventions (e.g. microfinance, conditional cash transfers, women’s police stations) can impact violence against women (Perova and Reynolds 2017, Manser and Brown 1980), this study will use na- tional administrative data (from Brazil’s Ministry of Health) to understand whether changes in the gender wage gap brought by economic fluctuations in the wider economy influences rates of intimate partner violence, a phenomenon net examined in the context of developing countries. II. 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