>IVIRONMENT? - A1VELOPMENT Work in progress & . my 8 for public discussion 4Jv ___ Challenges and Oppo * for Sustainable Man '.. ',M E j 'tzk" AnthonyJ. HootCII Martin Fodor Editors - 4A w - Symbiosis, or living together, is a phenomenon in biology with myriad exampLes found among coral reef communities. The composite photograph on the front cover shows coral reef inhabitants that may othervise seem to be potential enemies forming unusual allianrces in search of comamon resources such as food, shelter, or protection from predation and disease. Over ecological time symbiotic relationships within coral reefs have evolved complex partnerships, with perhaps the most highly evolved being among the corals themselves- coral tissue occupied by single cellular algal dinoflagellates, or zooxanthellae-sharing physical space and solar and chemical energy. Image 1 is an enlarged view of the polyps0 of the massive coral, AMontastrea cavnos.a. the most dominant reef-building species in the western Atlantic. Image 2 showvs a zone of the brain coral, DiploHia strigosa, near San Blas, Panama. The clownfish, Amphlprion bicinctus, lives among the tentacles of a sea anemone in the Red Sea (image 3). A. bicinctus enjoys protection from predators, while enticing other small fish into the anemone's grasp. The large moray eel, Gyrmnothorax flavimarginaluis (image 4)1 appearing to devour the shrimp, Lysmata amnbionensis, is actually allowing it amazing liberty in cleaning small parasites from within its mouth anol gills. As a species, perhaps humans can learn from these examples by also forming unique relationships in search for a common good. These proceedings, from a World Bank conference held on October 9-11, 1997, emphasize themes dealing with critical management issues for sustaining and conserving of coral reefs around the world. If coral reefs are to beniefit our children, as they have sustained and enriched our generation's time on Earth, then it is incumbent upon us to form unusual alliances- symbiotic relationships- 0 that result in mutually beneficial outcomes and work toward the common goals of conservation and sustainabilitv Unfortunately for us, our global population growth and resulting demands on natural resources far exceed the pace of the ecological adaptation to which coral reefs have been accustomed. Among our diverse interests we must seek out and develop those partnerships that can help coral reefs and people to continue to provide for future generations. ENVIRONMENTALLY AND SOCIALLY SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT CORAL RELEFS Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management Proceedings of an Associated Event of the Fifth Annual World Bank Conference on Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development Cosponsored by the World Bank and the International Center for Living andAquatic Resources Management Held at the World Bank, Washington, D. C October 9-11, 1997 Marea E. Hatziolos, Anthony J. Hooten, and Martin Fodor, Editors The World Bank Washington, D. C Copyright © 1998 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H. Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printing July 1998 This report has been prepared by the staff of the World Bank. The judgments expressed do not necessarily reflect the views of the Board of Executive Directors or the government they represent. Cover design by Beni Chibber-Rao. Composite cover photograph by Jan C. Post and Anthony J. Hooten. Photograph of Jacques-Yves Cousteau by Francine Cousteau, courtesy of Phillip Dustan. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data International Conference on Environmentally Sustainable Development (5th; 1997; World Bank) Coral reefs: challenges and opportunities for sustainable management: proceedings of an associated event of the fifth annual World Bank Conference on Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development/Marea E. Hatziolos, Anthony J. Hooten, Martin Fodor, editors. p. cm. -- (Environmentally and socially sustainable development series. Environment) "Sponsored by the World Bank and the International Center for Living and Aquatic Resources Management (ICLARM), held at the World Bank, Washington, D.C., October 9, 10, 11, 1997." Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-8213-4235-5 1. Coral reef conservation--Congresses. 2. Coral reefs and islands-Economic aspects--Congresses. 3. Endangered ecosystems- -Congresses. 4. Ecosystem management--Congresses. I. Hatziolos, Marea Eleni. II. Hooten, Anthony J. III. Fodor, Martin, 1968- IV. World Bank. V. International Center for Living and Aquatic Resources Management. VI. Title. VII. Series. QH75.A1154 1997 333.95'5316--dc2l 98-19384 CIP ®3 The text and cover are printed on recycled paper, with a flood aqueous coating on the cover. In Memoriam I have spoken often about the decline of coral... This decline, if it continues, will mark the end of one of the great beauties of creation and the end of a great hope-that of discovering life forms hitherto unknown on Earth... If our grandchildren never have the opportunity to see living coral-it will be to the everlasting shame of our age .... Let us not forget that we are responsible to posterity for the preservation of the beauties of the sea as well as for those on - _ < 4 land.. .We have a moral obligation toward our descendants. We must not pass on to them a legacy of empty oceans and dead reefs. We must no longer think of the sea as "myste- > rious" ... There are no longer "mysteries"; there are only problems to which we must find the answers .... We are entering a new era of research t is my fondest wish that the world below, and exploration. We must learn how to make use hidden in the deeps, may become as well of the biological and mineral resources of the known to future generations as the conti- oceans ... But we must also learn how to preserve nents are to us today. For this to occur, it is nec- the integrity and the equilibrium of that world essary above all that the world survive... the which is so inextricably bound to our own. Soon, gold-flecked madreporarians, the translucent perhaps, we will realize that the sea is but an alcyonaceans, the gorgeous sea fans-all these immense extension of our human world, a things, and many more, are threatened by the province of our universe, a patrimony that we side effects of our civilization..., must protect if we ourselves are to survive. Captain Jacques- Yves Cousteau Excerpts from Life and Death in a Coral Sea, 1971 iii An Emperor angelfish, Pomacanthus emperator, surrounded by small fishes, Anthias squamipinnis, in the northern Red Sea. Photograph by Jan C. Post. iv Contents Acknowledgments viii Foreword ix Opening Session 1 Keynote Address Coral Reef Conservation: Science, Economics, and Law Ismail Serageldin 3 Objectives of the Conference Marea E. Hatziolos 8 Status of the International Coral Reef Initiative Richard Kenchington 11 The Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network: Reversing the Decline of the World's Reefs Clive Wilkinson and Bernard Salvat 16 Partnerships for the International Coral Reef Initiative Timothy E. Wirth 20 Panel One. Destructive Fishing Practices 23 Chair: Sofia Bettencourt Abatement of Destructive Fishing Practices in Indonesia: Who Will Pay? Rili Djohani 25 Is Harvesting Wild Groupers for Growout Sustainable? R. E. Johannes and N. J. Ogburn 30 Destructive Fishing Practices in the Asia-Pacific Region Nancy MacKinnon 32 Destructive Fishing with Dynamite Solomon Makoloweka 35 Policy Reform and Community-Based Programs to Combat Cyanide Fishing in the Asia-Pacific Region Charles Victor Barber and Vaughan R. Pratt 39 Ocean Harvesting of Ornamental Marine Life: A Mechanism for Reef Preservation John C. Walch 50 Macroalgal Culture as a Sustainable Coastal Livelihood in Coral Reef Areas Jose A. Zertuche-Gonzdlez 53 Discussion 55 v vi Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management Panel Two. Illegal and Sustainable Trade in Reef Products versus Certified Trade and Sustainable Bioprospecting 63 Chair: Michael Rubino Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora James Armstrong and Jared Crawford 65 Reef-Destructive Practice versus Opportunities for Sustainable Mariculture: Coral Reefs and Pharmacologic Potential David J. Newman 68 Coral Reefs: Conservation by Valuation and the Utilization of Pharmaceutical Potential Walter H. Adey 72 Marine Pharmaceuticals from the Reef: A View from the Field Patrick L. Colin 76 The Marine Aquarium Fish Trade Daniel Pelicier 79 The Marine Aquarium Fish Council: Certification and Market Incentives for Ecologically Sustainable Practices Jamie Resor 82 Discussion 85 Panel Three. Marine Protected Areas 91 Chair: Jan Post The Relationship of Tourism-Related Revenue Generation to Coral Reef Conservation Donald E. Hawkins 93 Permanent No-Take Zones: A Minimum Standard for Effective Marine Protected Areas Callum M. Roberts 96 Tropical Marine Reserves Should Encompass Spawning Aggregation Sites R. E. Johannes 101 The Role of Marine Protected Areas in Coral Reef Conservation Tundi Agardy 103 The Reefs at Cancun; A Social Laboratory Juan E. Bezaury Creel 106 Entrepreneurial Marine Protected Areas: Small-Scale, Commercially Supported Coral Reef Protected Areas Stephen Colwell 110 Various Factors in Coral Reef Protection in Jamaica and the Role of the South Coast Conservation Foundation Peter Espeut 115 GREEN GLOBE: The Tourism Industry and Sustainability Carolyn Hill 118 Environmental Responsibility and Tourism on Tropical Islands Richard C. Murphy 121 Discussion 124 Panel Four. Marine Information and Education 129 Chair: Marea E. Hatziolos ReefBase: Status and Plans J. W. McManus 131 Coral Reefs: Harbingers of Global Change? Phillip Dustan 139 The Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network: Communities, Governments, and Scientists Working Together for Sustainable Management of Coral Reefs Clive Wilkinson and Bernard Salvat 143 Contents vii Marine Information Management and Environmental Education Janine M. H. Selendy 147 Discussion 151 Panel Five. Economic Valuation of Coral Reefs 155 Chair: Maritta Koch-Weser Economic Values of Coral Reefs: What Are the Issues? John A. Dixon 157 Indonesian Coral Reefs: A Precious but Threatened Resource Herman Cesar 163 Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of Coral Reef Management and Protection: A Least-Cost Model for the Developing Tropics Richard Huber 172 Discussion 175 Summary 181 Hard Decisions and Hard Science: Research Needs for Coral Reef Management Nancy Knowlton 183 Summary and Recommendations Marea E. Hatziolos 188 Epilogue Ismail Serageldin 191 Appendixes 193 A. Conference Recommendations 195 B. International Coral Reef Initiative Regional Summaries 198 C. Selected Educational Materials Pertaining to Coral Reefs Barbara J. Ornitz 200 D. World Wildlife Fund and Coral Reef Conservation Sue Wells 202 E. World Wildlife Fund Projects Involving Coral Reefs 206 F. Coral Reef Conservation in the Wider Caribbean through Integrated Coastal Area Management, Marine Protected Areas, and Partnerships with the Tourism Sector Alessandra Vanzella-Khouri 209 G. Conference Participants 212 Acknowledgments T he Coral Reef Conference and this pro- Fifth Annual World Bank Conference on ceedings are the product of many partner- Environmentally and Socially Sustainable ships. First and foremost, we thank the Development (ESSD5). International Center for Living and Aquatic In addition, we are grateful to the following Resources Management (ICLARM), our cospon- individuals for their support in planning and sor, without whose financial and logistical sup- logistics: Jane Ballentine, Razmik Bazikian, port neither the conference nor these proceed- Barbara Best, Jennifer Bossard, Beni Chibber- ings would have been possible. Meryl Williams, Rao, Reza Firuzabadi, Catherine Golitzen-Jones, John McManus, Sheila Vergara, Rosenne Funk, Yusri Harun, Gita Hemple, Alicia Hetzner, and James McMahon were instrumental in Virginia Hitchcock, Bonnie Howell, Irani Huda, bringing these efforts to fruition. We would also Seyda Kocer, Matthew Manfreda, and Jonathan like to acknowledge the Great Barrier Reef Miller. Marine Park Authority, the Smithsonian Finally, we express our appreciation to Ismail Institution, and The World Conservation Union Serageldin, vice president, Environmentally and (IUCN) for their support in program develop- Socially Sustainable Development, for his con- ment. We thank all panelists and session chairs, tinued commitment and unflagging support to who contributed their time and energy. Special coral reef conservation and the World Bank's thanks also go to Joan Martin-Brown, adviser to role in this effort. the Environmental and Socially Sustainable These proceedings are contributions to both Development vice presidency, for making the the International Coral Reef Initiative and the Coral Reef Conference a major element of the International Year of the Reef, 1997. ICRL ~~~~~~~~~~~It A L INTERNATIONAIL CORAL REEF !1; IiITIATVE viii Foreword A s the International Year of the Reef draws conservation, the Bank and its partners, The 1A,to a close, it is clear that the challenges to World Conservation Union (IUCN) and the conservation of the world's coral reefs Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, sup- have, if anything, intensified. The global picture, ported a priority-setting exercise to establish and gleaned from monitoring efforts such as Reef maintain key protected sites around the world. Check 97 and ReefBase, is one of general reef The results, published in the four-volume report decline amidst the still rich beauty of coral reefs "A Global Representative System of Marine along the Red Sea coast or the far reaches of the Protected Areas," were presented two-and-one- Chagos Archipelago. But even here, the notion half years ago at the Bank's first international of pristine is no longer valid. Not surprisingly, conference on coral reefs, which explored sus- increased pressures on reefs brought about by tainable financing for coral reef conservation. spectacular demographic growth in the coastal Now, in this follow-up event on coral reefs, zone, expanding tourism, changes in agricultur- organized as part of the Bank's Fifth Annual al practices, destructive fishing, and the influ- Conference on Environmentally and Socially ence of climate change phenomena such as El Sustainable Development, attention has focused Nifio have left us swimming against the tide in a on addressing some of the most urgent threats race against time. facing coral reefs today. These include reef- Our mandate is to see that we win the race destructive practices exemplified by the grow- and reverse the decline. We have made impor- ing use of cyanide fishing in some of the richest tant strides, educating the public and policymak- reefs of the world, unsustainable trade in reef ers about the silent crisis unfolding beneath the products, and constraints to effective establish- world's seas and building constituencies for ment and management of marine protected coral reef conservation around the globe. Since areas. This proceedings volume stresses the need Elliott Norse's strategic vision for conserving for strengthening the policy environment while global marine biological diversity was published adopting economic incentives and improved in 1993, several initiatives have been launched resource valuation techniques, informing with support from the World Bank and others. management decisions through targeted In 1995, the International Coral Reef Initiative research and monitoring, and rallying public was launched in the Philippines and has now support through environmental education and been endorsed by more than 70 countries. the media. Recognizing the importance of establishing and Strategic partnerships have a vital role to play. maintaining marine protected areas (MPAs) as As the cover of these proceedings suggests, such essential elements of any strategy for marine partnerships often emerge from the least likely ix x Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management corners. The power of new alliances between the technologies, and creating the right incentives public and private sectors and inclusion of mar- for their adoption. In the name of the late ket-based incentives must be explored if we are Captain Jacques-Yves Cousteau and the under- to move the conservation agenda forward. water world he so eloquently represented, let us Turning the tide toward effective conservation rededicate ourselves to meeting the challenges will require sustained new commitments and a ahead for preserving life on earth in 1998, the willingness to take on major tasks in reforming International Year of the Oceans, and well policies, identifying alternative-sustainable- beyond into the next millennium. Ismail Serageldin OPENING SESSION Keynote Address Coral Reef Conservation: Science, Economics, and Law Ismail Serageldin World Bank T his is the International Year of the Reef, in the ecosystems on which we depend for air, which we celebrate the unique splendors water, food, and livelihoods. From issues such of the most amazing habitats on earth. as climate change to biodiversity to rain forests, The richness and diversity of coral reefs defy the the public has been educated about the need to imagination. All shapes and colors are repre- change human behavior if we are to act as true sented in a dazzling array of species that coexist stewards of the earth. in a delicate balance around and within. This While the need for change is finally manifest- "fragile symphony of inner space," to use ing itself in our practices on land, the challenge Cousteau's words, harbors some of the most bio- is infinitely greater for the magnificent but logically diverse and productive systems on increasingly threatened communities under the earth. Coral reefs are, by conservative estimates, sea. Not only are coral reefs obscured from sight, home to hundreds of thousands of species of but the damage that occurs to them is usually plants and animals, less than 1 / 10 of which have the result of many different forces, some of been discovered or described. which are from actions taken on land and often At the phyletic level, coral reefs are more miles away, resulting from agriculture, industry, diverse than rain forests, including unique life or simple habitation. Externalities associated forms and body plans known only in the marine with these often distant actions can devastate realm. Reefs are also life support systems for the the delicate balance of reef communities. millions of human beings who derive their Sometimes it is by our more direct actions, from livelihoods from them, benefiting from the mul- improper fishing to anchoring to overharvesting tiple services that reefs provide in shoreline pro- the bounty of the reefs, that destruction occurs. tection, nutrient cycling, recreation and tourism Today, more and more reefs are showing the and human inspiration. signs of severe degradation, transformed from Reefs themselves are the largest organic lush communities teaming with life to desolate structures built by living creatures, tiny polyps wastelands within the space of a decade. It is that actually create barriers hundreds of kilome- therefore fitting that in this fifth year, this year of ters long, atolls, lagoons, and many unusual Rio+5, that we should also be observing the structures. Corals also coexist with tiny crea- International Year of the Reef, an occasion to tures of the plant kingdom known as zooxan- focus public attention on the inherent splendor thellae, in a unique symbiotic bond. of reefs-and their plight-as we enter a critical We have, in the last five years from the time phase in their future on this earth. of the Earth Summit in Rio, learned much about The themes of this year's Fifth Annual World the need to modify our behavior and to respect Bank Conference on Environmentally and 3 4 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management Socially Sustainable Development (ESSD5) The human sources of this degradation are Conference, "Partnerships for Global Ecosystems: well documented in many cases, while others, Science, Economics, and Law," have much to such as the recent outbreaks of disease, require teach us about finding solutions to the myriad further study. Other forms of stress, such as problems confronting us as we struggle to con- global warming and rises in sea surface temper- serve these magnificent legacies of the last 10,000 atures, and changes in precipitation and storm years. The interactions between environmental frequency (induding those anticipated with the degradation and coral reef decline are often com- current El Nifto event), are likely being acceler- plex. While the basic ingredients are well ated by human activities, and contribute to the known-overpopulation, poverty, and the grow- cumulative stress being heaped on coral reefs. ing disparity between rich and poor, political dis- Climate change, which has been the topic of enfranchisement, and unregulated economic recent major conferences held at the White growth, we rely on the physical, biological, and House, by the World Bank, and many others, is social sciences to elucidate the cause and effect in fact a serious issue for many small island relationships between the human condition and states and could be affected by rising sea level. environmental change. While science and technol- Some of the flatter islands could disappear com- ogy may show us a way out, we cannot get there pletely. The global warming of sea surface tem- without the right incentives and sufficient perature has been among the highest on record resources. Economic and social policies, legal and is leading to increased bleaching on coral frameworks, and education are essential to creat- reefs worldwide. ing these conditions. So too, are ethics and spiritu- What can science give us to improve our ality, fueled by a greater awareness of our impact understanding of the cause and effect relation- on this earth and our place in the universe. ships from these threats? Solutions require that we address these dif- Research and monitoring, such as that just ferent components as pillars of effective action. completed under ReefCheck, and more compre- Therefore, let me speak briefly to each of the hensive surveys underway in programs like the above themes of this year's ESSD conference in Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network the context of coral reefs. (GCRMN), ReefBase, CoralBase, and remote sensing, are essential in helping us understand Science the nature of cause-effect relationships and assessing the extent of coral reef degradation. It What do we know? The scientific community is important that we monitor and understand tells us there is now a global crisis in the health what is going on, just as we've been doing with and productivity of coral reefs. For example, the the rain forests. In fact, one of my campaigns is results of the first global survey of human impact to ensure that coral reefs receive as much atten- on coral reefs, ReefCheck 97, involved 250 coral tion and public awareness as rain forests have reefs in 30 countries around the world. And the received. However, we need to also be able to findings are alarming: the surveys revealed no predict and quantify ecosystem change at a mid pristine reefs; in almost every case there were temporal scale. Aside from our need to under- visible signs of human impacts, including the stand global climate change as a long-term complete absence of high-valued target species process, events such as the current El Nifio have in many areas of Southeast Asia. Even remote climatological effects that are predictable within reefs were heavily fished of sharks, lobster, giant a one- to three-year time frame, and this has clam, and grouper, with evidence of cyanide and major impacts that we should factor into our blast fishing, pollution and overharvesting. policymaking. These and other recent reports of growing inci- Yet we need more from the scientific commu- dence of disease and pathologies being docu- nity than simply monitoring and reporting what mented in both hard and soft corals indicate that is happening on coral reefs-we need research the phenomenon of reef decline is indeed global. to inform management decisions and alterna- Coral Reef Conservation 5 tives to unsustainable use patterns as well. opment for the poorest communities concerned. What is the carrying capacity of visitors to a It is important that indigenous communities, in particular reef? Do we know how far one can fact, receive continuous benefits from well-man- harvest sustainably? There is the need for scien- aged coastal ecosystems so that they have an tists to offer solutions through alternative forms interest and stake in protecting the coral reefs. of production and harvest, to promote resource Other ways of generating additional income are enhancement and habitat restoration. Science marine-based tourism, aquaculture, and bio- and technology can contribute to identifying prospecting of coral reef and related ecosystems solutions to these problems, such as carrying for the natural products and pharmaceuticals capacity studies, alternative production and har- industry. vesting techniques, mariculture, marine bio- Tourism holds out tremendous prospects for prospecting, resource enhancement, and habitat income generation based on the health and pro- restoration, many of which will be reviewed in ductivity of coral reefs. The Caribbean boasts an this conference. annual revenue in excess of US$10 billion dol- lars. For the reef-studded island states that pop- Economics ulate this region, tourism-most of it coastal-is the principal engine of economic growth. In Solutions will also require the integration of other regions, popular tourist destinations like economics. By internalizing the environmental the Seychelles-where work has been initiated and social costs of resource use, we can create on behalf of environmental sensitivity-70 per- the price signal that will move people in the cent of foreign exchange and 20 percent of the right direction. We need to create enabling gross domestic product come from tourism. frameworks for the smallholders, small fishers, But success stories are not always the case. In and local communities to participate in that eco- Indonesia, for example, in economic terms, reef nomic solution. We want to introduce best prac- loss from destructive practices and degradation tices in production that use market-based incen- is substantial. The value of coral reefs along tives, and we want to lower the costs of "going Indonesia's coast has been estimated at more green" through concessional financing, through than US$120,000 per square kilometer in a recent risk capital, so that entrepreneurs can find a way Bank study. When one considers the number of of doing things in an environmentally friendly square kilometers among 17,000 islands spread fashion, and not find the effort too costly. over an area larger than the United States, coral There are millions of poor fishers whose liveli- reef loss becomes a major issue. The value of the hood depend on coral reefs. Coral reefs provide live fish trade exceeds one billion dollars. The up to 25 percent of all the fisheries harvested in challenge is to replace destructive fishing prac- developing countries and 90 percent of animal tices, including the use of cyanide and dyna- protein consumed in the South Pacific. Thus, mite, with sustainable production. But it is coral reefs are not an insignificant aspect of the important to know how to design and ensure livelihoods and social welfare of communities- the adoption of sustainable production tech- a facade only for tourism. They are an integral nologies. We need to create incentives for these part of the economy of many, often poor, coastal by first getting the price of resources right. We communities. Preservation and conservation need to green national accounts, measuring the strategies have to incorporate such realities. intrinsic (not just the productive) value of natur- Finding new ways to enhance the livelihoods al resources and functioning ecosystems to the of reef-dependent communities and to increase national economy. Equally important, we need the benefits derived from the productivity of to internalize the environmental and social costs coral reefs while not undermining the function- to society of destructive actions that benefit only al integrity of these ecosystems is a major chal- a few. Costs and benefits need to be seen in the lenge that we must meet. It is a big challenge to proper light so that tradeoffs can be understood capture the profits for conservation and devel- and decisions about resource allocation made in 6 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management a transparent, rational way. Finally, we need to mentation in Indonesia early next spring, has a remove harmful subsidies, quite possibly the strong enforcement component to complement single worst enemy of biodiversity on earth. the technical management interventions. Environmental economics and natural re- Marine Protected Areas and Fisheries Reserves source valuation have much to offer but even An essential task before us is the establishment more to achieve along this frontier. Effective of functional marine protected areas (MPAs). communication is an important element of the Over 1,300 MPAs were identified and mapped in challenge. Information must be interpreted and the four volume study, A Global Representative effectively communicated to decisionmakers System of Marine Protected Areas, launched and to the public. Public education campaigns here more than two years ago in a similar sym- will be essential in identifying the impacts of posium. But those MPAs that are properly man- various use options and tradeoffs to be consid- aged are relatively few-under 200. The rest are ered, and in shaping human behavior. In every- poorly managed or lack any kind of manage- thing that we do the central question should ment information. Many of these protected areas continue to be: Who pays, and who benefits? are really paper parks, and simply having them on a map does not safeguard their protection. Law Building Social Capital We need to incorporate the principles of integrat- ed coastal zone management and recognize the Ultimately, there is no solution that can be suc- linkages upstream and downstream, and across cessful from the top down. We must build social sectors. Unfortunately, the fragmentation of deci- capital at the grass roots-empowering commu- sionmaking prevents policymakers from "see- nities by building on the indigenous knowledge ing" that coastal zones are precisely the interface that exists-and helping with enforcement, edu- between human beings, their economic activity cation and information, access to credit, markets and the sea, and that is where the primary and new technologies. We must also learn to lis- impacts take place. Many people look at munici- ten. This is not an easy task, but it is an essential pal development, agriculture, and other sectors, task. Reaching out to the local community, lis- but fail to see them as an integrated system. tening to its wisdom and adding to its knowl- We need to introduce much more systematic edge is what the discourse between indigenous environmental impact assessment and zoning, culture and the modern sciences should be. licensing agreements as appropriate, and we need to regulate access to certain parts of the Summary coastal zone, to ensure the maintenance of envi- ronmental quality. This synthetic approach, which brings together In our policies we need to invoke the polluter- science, economics and law will cost very little pays principle and systematically enforce the reg- relative to how much will be saved in the future; ulations we adopt. For example, we now have it is the evidence of almost every case dealing cyanide detection tests-small field test kits that with environmental issues that small invest- enable detection of cyanide use in fish for export. ments now bring huge dividends later and for Examples such as this begin to put in place mech- the world at large. To make such approaches anisms that identify destructive practices. While work, we need to build partnerships across the economic incentives are important to compliance, world as well as across sectors-public and pri- these must be backed up by the threat of legal vate, formal and informal, international and prosecution of violators. The Bank is placing new national, and local. emphasis on transparency and combating cor- The International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) ruption in the enforcement of policies related to is such a partnership, and the World Bank is its projects. The Coral Reef Rehabilitation and pleased to be a partner in this global effort. Management Project (COREMAP), set for imple- Many things have happened under ICRI's 6 Coral Reef Conservation 7 aegis-six regional workshops have been held where complementarity and symbiosis abound, around the world to prioritize issues and actions and it is up to us to use our imagination to make at the regional level; the GCRMN, in six regions this happen. and with more than 15 nodes has recently been In conclusion, decisive action in the few launched and its findings reported elsewhere in years ahead is essential if we are not to irre- these proceedings. Recapitulating many of the trievably destroy or diminish one of the earth's themes endorsed by these initiatives, the most wonderful treasures. To act responsibly International Year of the Reef (IYOR) has placed now, to find the solutions that allow for the sus- enormous efforts on environmental education tainable use of these precious resources, that and deployment of rapid reef assessment, such find adequate livelihood for the poor who are as ReefCheck. sometimes caught into being the unwitting These efforts underscore the need for cooper- agents and victims of these destructive prac- ation through partnerships. For only through tices, to expand our awareness to encompass partnerships do I believe that we will be able to these magnificent habitats and all that they move forward to protect the magnificence of the imply, that is the challenge before us. It is to this creatures that live on the reef. And it will require task that we are gathered here, and I am hope- breaking new ground. Just as some of the rela- ful that our deliberations will be more than a tionships found within a coral reef may seem descriptive litany of all that is going wrong. extraordinary or counterintuitive to us humans, Our deliberations must result in a series of spe- new partnerships may not always appear to be cific actions to which we must pledge ourselves. symbiotic-and one wonders whether the big For only by action now will we be acting as true multinational corporations and the small, local stewards of the earth. This earth that we did communities can actually work together. But we not inherit from our parents, this earth that we should be inspired by the reef itself, for there is borrowed from our children. Objectives of the Conference Marea E. Hatziolos World Bank T his conference has multiple objectives. and other poison fishing used in the live aquar- Principal among them, however, is to ium and food fish trades. These methods mobilize action in support of coral reef destroy not only coral reef habitat but a host of conservation and management. The best avail- nontarget species as well in the process of able information on the status of coral reefs extraction. Destructive practices such as these worldwide tells us that reefs are in decline or are increasing around the world, but most threatened over a large part of their distribution. alarmingly in Southeast Asia-the global epi- While there are many factors associated with center of marine biodiversity. coral reef degradation, the focus of this confer- Related to the live reef fish trade is the unsus- ence is on a growing set of unsustainable prac- tainable and often illegal trade in reef products, tices, which, by their very nature and accelerat- including a variety of corals, sea horses, mol- ed growth, are resulting in severe and potential- lusks, and sponges, as well as sea turtles and ly irreversible impacts on coral reefs. These prac- dugongs. This has resulted in the endangerment tices, from the destructive harvest and trade of of several species through the economic and bio- live reef organisms to the rapid growth of unreg- logical extinction of local populations. ulated tourism in coastal areas-along with Finally, there is the exponential growth of measures to counteract them-are the central marine-based tourism. This is manifest in the themes of this conference. Understanding the explosive growth of beachfront resorts and nature and underlying causes of these impacts is related infrastructure, and the rapid expansion essential to identifying options and sustainable of the cruise ship industry. The direct impacts solutions. A key objective of this conference, of these industries through the conversion and therefore, is to bring to bear the wealth of expe- loss of habitat for resort and port construction, rience and the range of disciplines and institu- the physical damage to reefs from trampling by tional affiliations represented here, to shed more tourists, anchoring or grounding of vessels, light on the problems and open the way to pos- and the eutrophic effects of effluent discharges sible solutions. are major sources of stress on coral reef sys- tems. Other, indirect impacts of tourism Major Issues and Conference Themes include those associated with overfishing and overharvesting in the coral reef omamentals The conference revolves around three major trade as local demand for these products themes dealing with destructive use of coral increases, thus undermining the value of these reef resources. These include reef-destructive reefs to tourism and other productive indus- fishing, such as blast fishing, muro ami, cyanide tries in the future. 8 Objectives of the Conference 9 Why do such practices persist? A number of reefs, and initiatives that create synergies in the factors conspire to keep them going. While the design of marine ecotourism with the establish- proximate causes and impacts of such behavior ment of marine protected areas and no-take fish- are clear, the root causes of many of these issues ery reserves-that is, operations that are mutu- are complex. Lack of information and knowl- ally reinforcing and self-sustaining. edge are likely to be key factors. These include a failure by actors or decisionmakers to compre- Identifying Solutions hend the longer-term implications of selective or destructive fishing practices on reef recovery To be sustainable, management solutions must and biodiversity, or the impacts of "non extrac- be informed by science, stimulated by econom- tive" but polluting industries like tourism on ics and reinforced by laws. These income-gener- reef productivity. Educated as we scientists and ating alternatives will also have to be sensitive managers are, we, too, have failed to appreciate to environmental and social equity concerns. We that by our very presence we are creating an know that there are many studies under way impact, as documented recently in the sobering that speak to these concerns. Some of these pilot results from ReefCheck 97. studies have been field-tested; others require Ignorance is only part of the problem. further research to determine their feasibility Perverse incentives also play a role. Often in and replicability. A major contribution of this place is an incentive structure that favors quick forum will be to document these approaches in profits for a few at the expense of many. the context of the conference themes, assess their Subsidies across sectors-in fisheries, water, and effectiveness, and identify means to develop agriculture, totalling hundreds of billions of dol- them further with a view to incorporating the lars a year-have distorted markets, with devas- more successful ones into the design of Bank tating results for coastal and marine resources. projects. In addition to the policy and regulatory Analyzing these perverse incentives and their framework necessary to introduce these altema- failure to internalize the environmental and tives, we will take a look at the incentive struc- social costs of reef resource use, emphasizing tures required, and how these may be brought instead the financial gain, is the subject of a spe- about through environmental education, public cial plenary session on economic valuation. Last, awareness, and the creation of greener markets. but by no means least, are the problems of weak Equally essential will be the need to continually regulatory regimes and policy frameworks. monitor our efforts- to make sure that what we There are few laws protecting coral reef ecosys- are doing is resulting in positive impact. If not, tems and their resources. What laws exist are how can we redesign our efforts to create value generally not enforced, and when they are, there rather than destroy it in the context of managing is often a lack of transparency or consistency in coral reefs? This is "where science must come how they are applied. Shifting these incentives, in-not only with respect to research and devel- through the introduction of market-based mech- opment, but in the monitoring and evalution of anisms and a level playing field, will form the interventions, and in the redesign of activities basis of discussion in each of the conference consistent with our criteria for sustainability and theme plenary sessions best practice. Targeted research and global mon- The challenge, of course, lies in identifying itoring will be essential elements of any solu- viable alternatives to current tradeoffs between tions to problems surrounding the sustainable long-term sustainability and short-term gains in management of coral reef ecosystems. the management and use of reef resources. As the theme of this year's Environmentally Among the options that will be examined are and Socially Sustainable Development Confer- reef-based mariculture of grouper and other ence suggests, partnerships play a major role in high-value species, bioprospecting and opportu- these solutions. Building on the ideas and nities for certification and trade in sustainably alliances that emerged from a related conference produced goods and services derived from coral organized here two years ago on sustainable 10 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management financing for coral reef conservation, this event themes then, our objectives will be to distill should bring us several steps closer to realizing some key conclusions and recommendations strategic partnerships on the ground. Since June that can be offered for follow-up. The bottom 1995, a number of initiatives are now under line is action. At the end of the day our goal is way-within the Bank and elsewhere. Adding to have identified concrete actions and a strate- value to these initiatives by identifying potential gy to implement them-over the short, medium, collaborators and resources, and facilitating net- and long terms-with benchmarks to measure works to disseminate results, is another impor- our progress along the way. If we can take it tant objective of this conference. upon ourselves to advance this agenda, by In the course of our discussions, we will try to entering into new partnerships, leveraging identify and pair specific actions with key stake- resources, and sustaining our commitments, this holder groups. For each of the five conference conference will have been a great success. Status of the International Coral Reef Initiative Richard Kenchington Great Barrier ReefMarine Park Authority T he background to the International Coral The second is removing things that occur nat- Reef Initiative (ICRI), as it stands, stems urally on or around coral reefs. The particular from the colloquium organized in 1993 in issue is the quest for sustainable fishing. It seems Miami, Florida, under the driving force of Dr. almost inevitable that we have to address the Robert Ginsburg. That colloquium considered vicious spiral through overfishing to destructive the range of evidence about the deterioration of fishing. In short, as the catch goes down, the des- reefs and reached the conclusion that despite peration among fishers goes up, and the means many years of identifying the problems with of catching for subsistence or in pursuit of devel- reefs, there was still depressingly little action opment is increasingly likely to lead to destruc- toward their conservation. tive fishing practices. Since the 1993 meeting, there have been a The third dimension is something I prefer to number of actions. The first of these was call "alienation." It is converting coral reefs to through the high-level meeting of the Small something else-it is turning a coral reef into a Island Developing States (SIDS), held in harbor, a sewage system, an air strip, land for Barbados, as a follow-up of the United Nations building hotels or condominiums, land for agri- Commission on Environment and Development culture or factory sites-into anything other than in Rio de Janeiro. The SIDS expressed that they, a coral reef. We use weasel words, such as "recla- more than anyone else, had concerns and vital mation." Redamation implies salvation, redemp- interests in their coral reefs. After all, if the coral tion, improvement to serve a higher purpose. reef represents a very significant part of a given The reality is that for every square kilometer of SIDS country's natural resource base, its contin- coral reef that we alienate or damage so that it is uing productivity in the face of the pressures of no longer productive, we must generate the developing a modern economy is an over- equivalent of US$120,000 per year forever (see whelming challenge. This challenge presents Cesar, pages 163-74). Alternatively, we have three particular dimensions that we may seek to deprived our coastal communities of the rights manage. or the means to feed 40 to 80 families forever, The first is pollution-the tendency of without recourse to other economic resources. humankind to physically put things into coastal In 1994, the U.S. Coral Reef Initiative was systems and coral reefs that did not exist before. started, and as a linked activity, the International Whether we are considering chemical, thermal, Coral Reef Initiative was established. For both, or biological introductions-they all add things the driving force was the urgency to protect that the receiving system is not ecologically pre- coral reefs and related ecosystems. Both reflect- adapted to operate. ed that there had been many previous calls, that 11 12 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management the problems had been well known at the acad- organizations as we might wish, and there is emic and community levels for several decades, scope for going further with such organizations. but there has been depressingly little action. I prefer to use an analogy of a patient visiting his ICRI Progress doctors and being told through increasingly sophisticated diagnosis that the condition is bad The first phase in ICRI was led by the United and getting worse, without any treatment proce- States. It consisted primarily of thorough prepa- dures being implemented. rations for and immediate follow-up of the global Based on this background, what is the ICRI? workshop held in Dumaguete City, Philippines, in It is a strange association-a free and informal 1995. The workshop was attended by delegations partnership of governments, international from more than 40 countries. Donor partners development banks, nongovernmental organi- sponsored the attendance of government delega- zations, scientific groups, and the private sec- tions from the regions. The essential part of ICRI is tor-brought together to focus on the need for getting people from the regions, particularly man- action to manage and save the world's coral agers and decisionmakers whose work affects reefs. ICRI is sparked and spirited by the active coral reefs, to participate and play a substantial involvement of decisionmakers, particularly role in developing an understanding of the issues economic and social decisionmakers, to an and solutions to the problems. ICRI started from extent that was not achieved in many of the a top-down approach, but with the deliberate earlier attempts to catalyze actions on behalf of objective of becoming a bottom-up organization coral reefs. as quickly as possible. Originally eight government partners signed The mantra of action-the whole purpose of on to ICRI in the context of the SIDS meeting in the Dumaguete City meeting-was to provide Barbados. The United States and Japan started the basis for an action-based approach. The doc- the process through a joint agreement, and rapid- uments which emerged were a call to action-a ly welcomed aboard Australia, France, Jamaica, brief, pithy statement of many parenthood val- Philippines, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. ues, couched in terms for decisionmakers. The The World Bank, UNEP, UNDP, Coral Reef call to action basically states to decisionmakers Alliance, UNESCO, IUCN and many others that coral reefs are not just an important part of became involved. Presently, it is difficult to iden- the world's heritage, they are an important part tify the total membership, but officers of over 80 of the world's health-economic as well as envi- governments have participated in ICRI activities. ronmental. Most of the relevant United Nations agencies The second document was a framework for have been exposed to ICRI activity. Neverthe- action, couched at the global level, identifying less, ICRI is not a part of the international the issues and the types of actions needed if the bureaucratic structure. It sits to one side as a deterioration of coral reefs is to be slowed, halt- vehicle for like-minded governments and groups ed and eventually reversed. The framework for to identify and promote action. The word action sorts out what we can now call "assured "action" comes up with great frequency in the sustainability." It identifies four major themes: agendas of ICRI; it is almost a mantra. ICRI is there to identify and promote action 1. Integrated Coastal Zone Management within the scope of the widest possible range of Framework: Coordinating policies, management international programs. ICRI gets raised in the concerns, development objectives and stake- context of such things as the Conference of holders interests across the different landscapes Parties for the biodiversity convention, the Land- of the coastal zone. Based Sources of Marine Pollution discussion, the Global Environment Facility, the UNEP 2. Capacity Building: Building the capacity for Council, UNDP, and others. ICRI has not yet communities, governments, nongovernmental partnered as closely to the food and agricultural organizations-everyone involved with coral reef Status of the International Coral Reef Initiative 13 areas and resources-to understand the needs The different regional characteristics reflect and the options for managing coral reefs and the the different past, present, and likely future of whole range of human activities that affect them. biophysical factors and socioeconomic settings. 3. Research and Monitoring: Systematic gathering Regional Activities of socioeconomic and biophysical information that relates to the scales of time and space neces- In the Caribbean the priorities have been com- sary to design and sustain measures to manage munity action and activities related to develop- coral reefs. ing sustainable tourism-using the economic motor of tourism and the parallel economic 4. Review: In the early phase of ICRI, there was a motor of sustainable aquaculture, to provide an considerable amount of skepticism as to the prob- underpinning for valuing coral reefs and their ability of any detectable action on coral reefs or conservation, linked with the CARICOMP mon- among coastal communities, and previous calls to itoring network system. action and the subsequent lack of progress. There In the Pacific the major priority has been was a general feeling, which I detected at Duma- community education. In particular, the Pacific gete City, that said: We have now signed up for a has invested substantially-in the last 18 call to action-a promise to address the plight of months-in the International Year of the Reef deteriorating coral reefs around the world Let us education programs ranging from primary ensure that we deliver this time by putting some- schools to regional communities. They have thing in place that will enable us to demonstrate fought in promoting the "Pacific Way," which how well or badly we perform in delivering on links conservation terminology of the present that promise. That is this review process-sys- with customary ownership and customary prac- tematically collecting information that enables us tices of management-to stress to communities to assess the extent to which we are successful in the importance of conservation in a system, meeting the goals of management to ensure the where in many of the cases a breakdown in com- continuing survival, health, and productivity of munity management can be directly linked to coral reefs and related ecosystems. the failure of coral reefs in some areas. In the East Asian seas one of the driving pri- Regional Workshops orities has been destructive fishing, particularly cyanide fishing, but to a large extent explosive Flowing from Dumaguete City, there has been a fishing, linked to management capacity building series of six regional ICRI workshops-in the and the development of a monitoring system Caribbean, Pacific, East Asian Seas, South Asian from an existing information base. Seas, East Africa and the Western Indian Ocean, Major priorities in South Asian seas are base- and, most recently, in the Middle East, held in line inventory and monitoring of the condition Aqaba, Jordan. The purpose of the workshops of reefs and related ecosystems, with a parallel was to turn the global framework for action into effort in regional capacity development an agenda for action for each region, that In East Africa and the Western Indian Ocean addresses the ecological, economic, and social the priority has been community- and village- and political realities, taking into account the level education and action, covering both man- resources ICRI has, is likely to get, and the pace agement activity and methods whereby the at which we can work. local people can be part of monitoring reef con- The purpose of the regional workshops was to ditions and therefore understand the linkage identify the issues, the priorities in the region, the between good-quality reefs and good-quality actions required to address those issues, a schedule outcomes. of activities to implement those actions, and those The workshop in the Middle East is so important performance criteria, so that we can recently completed that we cannot identify any improve management. major themes, but the exciting achievement is 14 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management that the Middle Eastern partners have come theme, whereby we eventually reverse the onus together to discuss a network. of proof for use of coral reef resources. Now the onus is on those who would keep a reef in its Other Activities Linked to ICRI natural and productive state to prove publicly that to do so is preferable to a proposed change The Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network or development, or that the costs of activity to (GCRMN), which is discussed elsewhere in remove or reduce impacts should be built into these proceedings, is linked with ReefBase (from the costs of the proposed development and not ICLARM). The GCRMN is jointly sponsored by simply borne through environmental degrada- the International Oceanographic Commission of tion. This is very difficult to do, because nor- UNESCO, UNEP, and the World Conservation mally the opportunity to prove comes too late in Union. The linkage between the GCRMN and an economically and politically charged process ReefBase is essential; it is part of an effort to alter the development. Thus, the idea is to enabling us to establish an accessible global bio- reverse the proof and ask those who are trying to physical baseline as to the ecological status of develop coral reefs to look at the long term to see coral reefs. whether the benefits of the development and the The Intemational Year of the Reef (IYOR) activity are going to be worth it against the 1997, originally was scheduled for 1995 but recurrent $US120,000 per square kilometer per slipped to late 1996 when it was launched dur- year free goods from the reef. ing the International Coral Reef Symposium in Linked to this is the issue of implementing a Panama. IYOR has two themes-one is public much more sophisticated approach to identify- education, with literally hundreds of coral reef ing and managing risks, and to assigning costs education products presently around the world, and liabilities, perhaps using insurance and and the other is the promotion of research and director's professional liabilities, particularly monitoring. with international companies. It may be possi- The International Year of the Ocean is an offi- ble to make those liabilities accountable against cial United Nations international function and is the development beneficiaries and to remove designated for the calendar year 1998. At the ourselves gradually from the tradition of priva- suggestion of the ICRI Coordinating Planning tizing benefits and socializing natural resource IOC, we agreed to recognize November 1998 as and environmental losses. the coral reef month of the International Year of the Ocean. Summary Underlying is the principle of ICRI serving and seeking to capitalize and encourage action Where should ICRI go from here? Phase One on a broad range of fronts. ICRI is not a funding established the alert and the need in the meeting organization; it is not an implementer of activi- in Dumaguete City, Philippines. Phase Two con- ties at the field or local community level. ICRI is sisted of the regional workshops. During Phase there to encourage such activity, to urge and Two the coordination of ICRI passed from the facilitate its members-both coral reef nations United States to Australia. In the preparation for and donors-in establishing projects and pro- that passage the management changed from an grams for such actions and to review and report executive planning comrnittee to a coordinating on performance against the objectives of the call planning committee, with a strong emphasis on to action. regional capacity development, with the aspira- ICRI is a vehicle for underpinning the devel- tion that sooner or later the international coordi- opment and implementation of policy for eco- nation role can be phased down as the regional logically sustainable use and development and coordination capacity is built up. conservation of coral reefs and associated Phase Three: The next major activity on the ecosystems. There are two themes that I believe ICRI calendar will be the first review meeting. we will see develop. The first is the economic The International Tropical Marine Ecosystems Status of the International Coral Reef Initiative 15 Management Symposium (ITMEMS) reflects a of international forums. We conclude again that desire to extend beyond coral reefs, but also to ICRI was set up as a catalyst for urgent action in tropical marine systems generally, because those coral reefs. It has produced a framework for systems are linked. The object of the conference, action; it is both top-down and bottom-up. which will be held in Townsville, Australia, at ICRI has drawn on the fact that there is a the end of 1998 will be to review activity against strong correlation among coral reefs, scuba div- the regional action strategies, and as necessary to ing, and decisionmakers. Many of the world's revise those strategies. decisionmakers either dive or see the attractive In the meantime, we are continuing work images from coral reefs. This is a very fortuitous within the ICRI secretariat on increasing com- overlap, because what we are seeking to do with munication between regions through use of the ICRI and with coral reef conservation has an Internet, and in three to four weeks we hope to even broader significance. Coral reefs are per- be on-line with an interactive ICRI home page haps the easiest part of the vitally important cross-linked to the GCRMN and a whole range shallow marine environment with which to of coral reef web pages. engage the attention of the world's decision- We see a need for a continuation of the makers. We are helping communities, govern- Coordinating Planning Committee (CPC) on a ments, nongovernmental organizations, donors, policy discussion and coordinating basis, feed- and others identify priorities and performance ing into its partners at government, nongovem- in relation to coral reefs and other marine sys- ment, and agency levels. We see a continuing tems, and much rests on our success through his need for the secretariat and the CPC to develop strange hybrid, ICRI, in making sure that we do briefs to partners for performance in a number indeed achieve action. The Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network: Reversing the Decline of the World's Reefs Clive Wilkinson Global Coral ReefMonitoring Network Bernard Salvat GCRMN Scientific and Technical Advisory Committee T here are certainly problems with the status The Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network and health of many coral reefs around the (GCRMN) has been established to provide these world. However, the problems are not data to determine whether reefs are declining or specifically global, but a coincidence of related recovering. problems, occurring simultaneously at many The status of the world's reefs reported at the locations. Eighth International Coral Reef Symposium in Panama in 1996, was: Global Status of Coral Reefs *Reefs in the Red Sea and Middle East were generally healthy with few significant pres- Coral reefs, often termed fragile ecosystems sures. because of high biodiversity and the apparent * Many East African reefs were being severe- fragility of corals, are actually robust and have ly affected by sediment runoff from existed for about 35 million years. Current reefs increased agriculture and deforestation, are about 8,000 years old after they grew back nutrient pollution, and major overfishing, when sea levels rose over 100 meters as the glac- including some damaging practices. iers melted. Coral reefs have recovered over * Most Indian Ocean reefs and banks are near short and long time scales after large climate pristine, but there is distinct degradation changes, meteorites, volcanic activity, and other around the well-populated islands (Como- catastrophic events. There is now clear evidence ros, Madagascar, Mauritius). that reefs and human populations are not co- * South Asian reefs vary, with the major existing well, with clear evidence of reef decline. island chains (Andamans, Chagos, Mal- It was predicted in 1992 that 10 percent of the dives, and Nicobars) being very healthy, world's reefs were irreparably damaged and 30 whereas reefs off India and Sri Lanka have percent of the reefs would suffer significant been severely damaged by over-exploita- damage within 10 to 20 years if remedial action tion of fisheries, sand and rock, and large- was not implemented; another 30 percent could scale pollution. also be similarly damaged in 20 to 40 years if * Southeast Asian reefs vary, with reefs on human populations continued to grow and shallow continental shelves near large pop- apply pressures similar to current levels. ulations being overfished, including exten- Serious reef decline was confirmed in 1993 at sive damage from shallow water trawling, a meeting organized by Professor Bob Ginsburg blast, cyanide and muro ami fishing, and in Miami. However, the predictions could not from sediment and nutrient pollution. be quantified because of insufficient data. Many reefs surrounded by deep water have 16 The Global Coral Reef Monitorinzg Network 17 been damaged during fishing, but have canes, and typhoons; earthquakes and volca- high recovery potential if damaging prac- noes; extreme low tides; very high rainfall and tices are minimized. Most remote reefs are floods. Recovery from quasi-natural impacts is being damaged by roving bands of fishers, less certain: global climate change and ENSO including the Spratly Islands. events; global sea level rise; ultraviolet radiation * East Asian reefs are affected by overfishing increases; crown-of-thorns starfish and other and pollution. Reefs off China are severely predators; and diseases of corals and other damaged, and Japanese reefs have been organisms. There is growing evidence that these affected by unwise development (building may be linked to human alteration of the global of seawalls and harbors), pollution, and environment, but solutions lie with internation- overfishing. al forums and agencies, like the United Nations * Remote Pacific reefs are in good health, but and World Bank. some are showing signs of overfishing, The GCRMN will focus on local anthro- including the use of cyanide and localized pogenic or human impacts that are causing extinctions of animals like giant clams and steady reef decline. Most human stresses are beche-de-mer. chronic, persistent, and have relatively minor to * The Great Barrier Reef is well managed, moderate immediate impacts (with the excep- with minor impacts from sediment and tion of catastrophic impacts, like nuclear blasts nutrient runoff from overgrazed land, along and shipwrecks), but the persistence leads to with some fishing impacts. steady reef decline. Resource users and manage- • Reefs in the wider Caribbean are heavily ment agencies can reduce or eliminate these by affected by overfishing and pollution, with controlling damaging activities on the coast and coral diseases increasing. Tourism is bring- in the watershed. ing long-term benefits to communities and The major anthropogenic stresses causing reducing reef damage. Some reefs, like damage are sediment pollution, nutrient pollu- Jamaica, have effectively collapsed, where- tion, and overfishing, including destructive as others, like those in Belize and Bahamas, fishing. A range of lesser anthropogenic stress- are still healthy. es-pesticides and complex chemicals, heavy Coral reefs will not become extinct, but we will metals and other toxins, and oil spills-are witness the effective loss of many reefs and their causing either relatively minor or localized economic benefits around large human popula- damage to coral reefs, or are undocumented. tions in East Africa; South, Southeast, and East Minimizing these will be difficult, but many Asia; and parts of the Caribbean and tropical will be alleviated if other sources of pollution Americas. These pressures will increase, as popu- are reduced. lations in many tropical countries will double in the next 20 to 30 years, and rapid economic Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network growth will increase sediment and nutrient pol- lution and the demand for coral reef products. GCRMN is a key component of the International Many coral reef species are threatened with Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in that it will produce regional extinction, like the commercially impor- the necessary data for effective reef management, tant beche-de-mer, giant clams, trochus, some provide training to many people involved in reef sharks, the humphead wrasse, coral trout, resource management, raise awareness in com- and the Nassau and other grouper. Many are munities of the problems facing reefs, and inform already endangered species as listed by IUCN. them that the best mechanism of management is by communities seeking solutions themselves. What Causes Reef Decline? The GCRMN is sponsored by the Intergovern- mental Oceanographic Commission, the United Reefs generally recover in 10 to 20 years from Nations Environment Programme, and the World severe natural stresses such as cyclones, hurri- Conservation Union. 18 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management The GCRMN is a partnership of communi- vation and management; there are increasing ties, governments, and scientists collaborating in numbers of well-trained resource managers in networks to gather data on the status and trends industrial countries and some (but not enough) in reef health and to raise awareness among user being trained in developing countries. Many communities about the problems facing coral social scientists are starting to study coral reef reefs. The strategic plan is available from the user communities and determine how destruc- sponsoring agencies. tive patterns develop to advise on socially The long-term goal is to involve all users, acceptable ways of resource management. There especially local communities, in reducing anthro- are, however, few specialists in laws on owner- pogenic impacts and ensuring that reefs are man- ship and control of coastal areas previously aged for sustainable benefits. The short-term regarded as common property. There are also goals are to provide communities with the capac- few specialists able to assess the economic value ity to assess the status of reefs, observe the links to communities of sustainable use of coastal between damaging activities and reef status resources. Most economic studies on coral reefs (such as marked declines in fish stocks or loss of have been made through the auspices of the coral cover), and make data available to imple- World Bank. ment effective management of the resources. For All information must then feed into political example, there is a need to demonstrate that the processes, but without political will at the deci- establishment of fishing reserves, marine protect- sionmaker level, efforts at local area manage- ed areas, and local management regimes to out- ment will be futile or directly thwarted by com- law damaging practices can conserve coral reefs peting political interests. There are insufficient and provide sustainable economic returns. political lobbyists urging the need for sustain- The structure of the GCRMN consists of six able resource management. The GCRMN seeks regions throughout the world, based on the the involvement of all disciplines in the search UNEP Regional Seas Programme. Within each for solutions. region, there may be one to many nodes that will The critical actions to minimize reef damage be effectively independent in budgeting, moni- are through increasing user awareness and pro- toring, and reporting. The regions are the Middle viding education on the causes of problems and East; Western Indian Ocean and Eastern African on relatively simple remedies. The GCRMN will States, with two nodes; South Asia; the East involve schools and other groups in reef moni- Asian Seas, with five independent country nodes toring in parallel with education on how reefs and two others serving groups of countries; the function and how they are damaged by direct Pacific, with six nodes: and the Caribbean and human pressures. Tropical Americas, which will contain many nodes The GCRMN is providing communities with to be decided with the CARICOMP network. basic training in underwater assessment meth- ods and direct socioeconomic surveys, to enable Integrated and Interdisciplinary Strategies communities to contribute directly toward to Resolve Reef Problems preparing local, national, regional, and global coral reef status reports. Data on reef status and Just as the problems are multifaceted, so solu- trends from the GCRMN will be given to man- tions will require a range of disciplines. agement agencies, especially for areas under Integrated coastal management (ICM) is seen as active management, compared with nearby un- the best method to resolve problems of over- managed areas. exploitation and destruction of coastal resources. At all times GCRMN and ICRI will work ICM involves all stakeholders in integrated towards minimizing damaging activities and management of the coasts and immediate catch- stress positive, sustainable uses for coral reefs: ment area. sustainable fishing, including the live capture of There are sufficient numbers of biological and reef fish, harvesting of juvenile and larval fish physical scientists involved in coral reef conser- for raising in cage culture; mariculture of algae, The Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network 19 fish, and invertebrates; harvesting of sand and coordination and for the ICRI process to focus coral rock within the production capacity of coral reef remedial action at the level of the user. reefs; and sustainable tourism. Frequently, The cost of initiating an average-sized node is tourism is regarded as a problem, whereas it is anticipated to be approximately US$100,000, potentially the most sustainable way to generate with recurrent expenditures decreasing, until income from coral reefs. Most tourist operators countries are self-financing after about three to do not wish to damage the resources that five years. attracts tourists, but they may do so through a Thus, we have sufficient knowledge about lack of information on cause and effect. There is the biology, geology, and physics of coral reefs an urgent need to incorporate tourist operators to implement sustainable management. We within reef management teams. understand how many coastal communities use and interact with their resources to recommend Conclusions sustainable management strategies. There is sufficient experience in coral reef management The GCRMN will succeed by: to apply to all reef areas and to most user com- * Developing independent networks of coun- munities. tries with similar interests and problems to Calls that not enough is known about the share skills and enthusiasm biology and geology of coral reefs to manage * Training all stakeholders in basic and effec- them are false; claims that the size or shape of tive methods of assessing reef status and marine protected areas cannot be determined or analyzing data assessed for effectiveness are naive. Over- * Ensuring that training occurs at the com- exploitation is the experiment; establishing pro- munity level and that collaborative net- tected areas is the normal, or "control," situation works are established among communities, that existed for thousands of years. governments, and scientists We lack economic, legal, and political advice - Obtaining low levels of sustained funding and expertise on the ground and where deci- to allow communities and governments to sions on coral reefs are made to integrate knowl- conduct monitoring and education edge and experience from the other disciplines. • Producing annual reports on the status of We need many disciplines and the political coral reefs for communities and decision- will to assist communities in managing their makers. own resources sustainably. The GCRMN seeks To achieve these, there is a need for low-level, such assistance at the ground level to help con- sustainable funding for GCRMN Nodes and serve coral reefs for future generations. Partnerships for the International Coral Reef Initiative Timothy E. Wirth U.S. Department of State Jam here to talk about a specific and unique highlighting the threats to research and encour- partnership that has made significant strides aging a stronger focus on the tropical, coastal, toward preserving this precious ecosystem- and marine environment. the International Coral Reef Initiative, or ICRI. The regional workshops have generated ICRI was founded to mobilize governments extensive regional cooperation to help individ- and a wide range of other stakeholders whose ual countries manage reefs. The workshops also coordinated, vigorous, and effective actions are illustrate that partnerships between govern- required to address the threats to coral reef ments must extend beyond the international ecosystems. ICRI encourages stable coral reef diplomatic community. The diplomats must management practices worldwide, including bring the message home to their policymakers measures to prevent illegal fishing practices, that the world community is concerned about achieve stable fisheries, and protect the ecologi- reefs. We must also heed the voices being raised cal systems that support them. in communities around the world that effective The ICRI framework for action states: management is needed if we are to achieve long- "Achieving the ICRI purpose requires the full term stable use of coral reef ecosystems. participation and commitment of governments, The ICRI Global Workshop was held in the local communities, donors, NGOs, the private Philippines in 1995. The setting made it crystal sector, resource users and scientists; therefore clear that in many regions of the world local true partnerships, cooperation and collaboration communities are a fundamental part of the exemplify the ICRI activities." global partnership to manage coral reefs sus- I have been involved with ICRI since its tainably. This has been recognized in widely inception in 1994, and am very pleased with the accepted principles of integrated coastal zone numerous positive results-and positive part- management, which are becoming more and nerships-that have come out of it. more widely adopted around the world. The ICRI's first task was to build a fundamental importance of local community involvement global partnership in support of coral reefs. must be reflected in local, national, and region- International activities under ICRI have includ- al policies and programs. ed a major diplomatic campaign and a series of In the past few years ICRI has been successful local and regional workshops convened in the in gaining global consensus on the importance of Pacific, the tropical Americans, the South and conservation and stable use of coral reefs. The East Asian seas, East Africa, and the western decisions and resolutions of the major global Indian Ocean. Through these events and others, environmental bodies, including the Commis- partner governments have concentrated on sion on Sustainable Development, the UNEP 20 Partnerships for the International Coral Reef Initiative 21 Governing Council, the Convention on Biological have been working with industry to identify Diversity, and the Intergovernmental Oceano- sources of cyanide and the means to test for it in graphic Commission reflect this global concern. fish, and they have been setting up testing facil- As reflected by this conference, the donor ities to help the world monitor and stop this institutions are strong partners in the coral reef destructive trade. Government and multilateral initiative. Some of the strongest initial impetus donor support of such outstanding efforts is for ICRI came from bilateral aid agencies, from essential. The U.S. government, for one, is ready the United Kingdom, France, Sweden, Australia, to do what we can to tackle our own responsi- Japan and the United States who are supporting bilities as a major importer of fish from Korean major coastal zone management initiatives coral reefs. And I am very pleased that the pri- around the world. The World Bank and the vate sector is also more and more involved in regional development banks are strongly looking for solutions to the cyanide problem. involved in coral reef and coastal zone pro- This brings me to the final partner I want to grams, and this command must increase as the mention-the private sector. The private sector commitment to stable development is deepened. is starting to become more involved in our over- Another partnership that is gaining momen- all effort to manage the threats to coral reefs and tum is that of the Global Coral Reef Monitoring coastal zones. At the Middle East Seas Regional Network. This network is designed to link scien- Workshop two weeks ago, the impact of bur- tists, resource managers, and coral reef users into geoning tourism development was identified as national and regional networks that collect, one of the major threats to reefs in the region. In assemble, and synthesize information on the state each island nation of the Caribbean, planeload of coral reefs. The network supports our efforts to after planeload of Americans and Europeans understand the trends in coral reef health, and to lands each day. Everywhere around the world manage them for sustainable use, taking into we can see runoff from offshore investment account the needs of local communities. activities flowing out and choking reefs. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) We need to bring the private sector more fully have been partners in ICRI since its inception. into this coral reef initiative partnership. Among Their commitment to raising awareness of the us today are many who have found exciting plight of the reefs, and to instigating action to ways to draw the private sector into looking for protect them is as long-standing as any of the constructive solutions. When we share our expe- partners to this effort. Nowhere is this more vis- riences, we find that private, commercial inter- ible than in the efforts to stop cyanide fishing for ests can be willing partners in our search for sus- the food fish and aquarium trades. NGOs have tainability. I have found this in my own discus- been critical in raising awareness of the issue- sions with the cyanide industry, the tourist the masterful publicity campaign launched industry, the diving industry, and the airlines. before the Biodiversity Convention Conference Often their willingness to engage is only as far of the Parties in Jakarta in 1995 kicked off the away as our ability to begin a dialogue, to con- most recent global wave of mechanisms on structively lay out the issues, and to begin the destructive fishing methods. search for common interests. Once they are on I can say from experience that NGOs have board as partners and committed, they will been outdoing the State Department in diplo- work as hard as the rest of us. matic approaches to high levels of government The challenge to involve the private sector in the Asian region. They have been developing faces each of us as partners in the coral reef ini- and implementing alternatives to cashing in on tiative. We must meet that challenge and build coral reef fish for the food and aquarium trades the constructive partnerships will most support and investigating aquaculture alternatives. They concerted action on the reefs. PANEL ONE DESTRUCTIVE FISHING PRACTICES Session Chair: Sofia Bettencourt, World Bank Abatement of Destructive Fishing Practices in Indonesia: Who Will Pay? Rili Djohani The Nature Conservancy D ynamite and cyanide fishing both have a Large portions of reefs are blasted away devastating effect on reefs. However, every day throughout Indonesia, reducing reef these issues require specific management flats and upper slopes to rubble. The use of strategies because of the different groups and explosives to gather food fish, using bottles con- market forces involved. A thorough understand- taining dynamite or ammonium nitrate, is wide- ing of the history anrd nature of destructive fish- spread throughout the archipelago. Although ing practices and of the perceptions of the stake- spreads of soft coral may give the appearance of holders involved is essential to develop effective a revitalized reef, this habitat supports very few local and regional management strategies. A com- fish and may even be disruptive in the recolo- bination of enforcement, awareness and training nization of reef-building hard corals. programs, and alternative livelihood programs More recently, the coral reefs are now being has proved to be a successful strategy in the threatened by cyanide fishing, which is causing abatement of destructive fishing practices in long-term damage to Indonesia's coral reef habi- Komodo National Park (Flores). But who is tats on a large scale. This poison is used to cap- going to pay in the long term? The careful plan- ture live reef fish for the restaurant and aquari- ning and development of ecotourism as a part um trades. The cyanide stuns the target fish, of a conservation strategy may both contribute such as Napoleon wrasse and groupers, but it to the effective protection of the reefs against leaves a trail of dead, small fish and dying corals destructive fishing practices and generate in its wake. It may take several decades for a reef income to sponsor management (park) strategies. to recover. An estimated 29 percent of Indonesia's coral reefs remain in good or excel- Background lent condition, leaving over half in damaged or critical condition. One of the richest genetic storehouses on earth, Indonesia supports one-eighth of the world's History and Nature of Destructive coral reefs. At least 2,500 species of reef fish and Fishing Practices 400 species of stony corals inhabit Indonesia's waters. Indonesia's coral reefs are being Blast Fishing destroyed at staggering rates. Destructive fish- ing practices, coupled with uncontrolled rural Although now illegal, blast fishing has been a and coastal development, are severely damag- widespread technique in Indonesia for over 50 ing coral reefs, putting at risk the livelihoods of years. The type of explosives used has evolved more than 7,000 villages. from dynamite to self-made fertilizer/kerosene 25 26 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management bombs wrapped in Sprite soft-drink or beer bot- Some Stakeholders' Perceptions tles, which are thrown overboard to catch and Precedents schooling fish at shallow reef areas. More sophisticated bombs have been encountered in The major underlying issues for the use of Komodo National Park, in Flores, whereby the destructive fishing methods are increasing pop- fishermen use remote-control mechanisms to ulation and competition for fishing grounds. explode the bombs away from the boat, reduc- Growing population pressure has a direct ing the resulting noise. The blast fishermen usu- impact on the reefs, resulting in overexploita- ally work in pairs or in small groups. Free divers tion of fish and invertebrate species. collect the fish individually by hand, or by spear, Uncontrolled urbanization and modernization placing them in sacks before surfacing. Recently, of fishing techniques lead to habitat destruction divers have been able to prolong their stays and rapid depletion of fish stocks. Access to underwater by breathing compressed air new markets, products, and technology is alter- pumped by low-pressure compressors (hookah) ing the existence of coastal fishing communities from the boat. Pet-Soede and Erdmann (forth- whose livelihood often depends entirely on the coming) classified blast-fishing operations in the sea. It becomes increasingly difficult for the Spermonde Archipelago (South Sulawesi) in fishermen to catch enough fish for their daily small-, medium-, and large-scale operations. life. They become easy targets for the middle- Their data show that there is a strong economic men who are recruiting fishermen for their busi- incentive for boat owners to enlarge their ness. The punggawa provide them food, fishing blasting operations. The fish is sold at local gear, and boats-building up the debts of the markets, usually through a system of middle- fishermen, who quickly become entirely depen- men (or punggawa). dent on the middlemen for their livelihood. At some point, the fishermen do not have a choice Cyanide Fishing but to use the cyanide to catch fish in order to pay their debts on time. Providing alternative In the early 1990s, foreign fishing companies livelihood programs that offer economic incen- began collecting reef food fish for the growing tives for changing the behavior of local fisher- markets in Hong Kong (China)-still the major men should be part of the strategy to abate ille- trading and import market for live reef food gal fishing practices. fish-Taiwan (China), Singapore, and China. Two groups can be distinguished among the Initially, the companies used their own fishing dynamite fishermen on the basis of their moti- crews to catch groupers and Napoleon wrasses vation and engagement in dynamite fishing. The with cyanide and hookah. In a few years, this first group consists of those who do not have the unsustainable technique was introduced to means to switch to sustainable fishing practices many fishing communities throughout Indo- on their own. nesia with the help of a network of the local Such a fisherman might say, "I know we are punggawa. These middlemen can monopolize causing damage to the coral reefs but what am I this trade in their area via a complete control to do? I have no other skills and it is my only over fishing communities through a system of income. There will always be fish in the sea." credit and debt and the use of their influence to Members of the police also acknowledge the engage government support. The valuable fish fact that dynamite fishing is a socioeconomic are kept in holding pens (keramba) until mother problem and sympathize with the fishermen, as ships collect and transport them to overseas they are only looking for food. In areas such as Asian markets. The role of foreign fishing com- Spermonde, the problem is not solved by panies has been reduced to the trading of the tar- enforcement alone. On one occasion, the police get fish, which considerably lowers their risk of stepped up enforcement for two days, cracking being caught and charged with illegal fishing down on the dynamite fishing. Consequently, practices in Indonesia. there were no fish available at the local markets. Abatement of Destructive Fishing Practices in Inidonesia 27 Introduction of other sustainable fishing tech- deep diving. After listening to the information, niques is essential. he said, "I would still go diving again as much The second category is that of hard-core fish- as possible, so I can earn more." ermen who do not fear the law and who take It is evident that awareness and training pro- for granted the consequences of being involved grams will be effective for this target group only in destructive fishing practices. They are usual- if coupled with a more lucrative alternative fish- ly led by influential and relatively wealthy ing technique or source of income. leaders who organize and train a small group of fishermen in dynamite fishing. These "pro- Local Management Strategies fessional" fishermen will not hesitate to throw their bombs at representatives of the enforce- It is essential to differentiate management strate- ment agencies in the heat of fights at sea. An gies for dynamite and cyanide fishing, taking increased enforcement effort in Komodo into account the local socioeconomic situation in National Park has led to the capture and death each priority area. Locations near urban centers of a few notorious blast fishermen. Others have greatly influence the reluctance of local fisher- since found an alternative livelihood in pelagic men to turn to other fishing techniques. In fisheries (where they catch Spanish mackerel). remote areas, much less time is generally need- The combination of adequate enforcement and ed to gain the trust of fishermen and engage local market opportunities led to the decrease them in alternative livelihood programs. This of blast fishing in the park. fact, in turn, will affect the planning and design Cyanide fishing involves an international syn- of the management program. Short-term strate- dicate with different mobile groups involved in gies should be designed to put an immediate supplying markets overseas. The consensus halt to destructive fishing practices, and long- among the exporters and trading companies of term strategies should be designed to devise live reef food fish is that it is essential to find sustainable solutions. alternative fishing techniques that do not destroy A combination of enforcement, awareness the reefs. The aim should be to eliminate the use and training programs, and alternative liveli- of cyanide, not the trade itself. However, a ques- hood programs has proved to be a successful tion arises: Who is going to pay for the develop- strategy in the abatement of destructive fishing ment of new, sustainable harvesting and cultiva- practices in Komodo National Park. Upon tion techniques that should be more lucrative? request from the Department of Forestry, The The enforcement of laws against cyanide fishing Nature Conservancy assists the Komodo is complicated for the following reasons: National Park Authority with the planning and * It is difficult and expensive to detect management of the marine natural resources. cyanide in fish, and the impact on the reefs The intent is to establish a marine reserve that is less visual. fully protects the complete natural community * The transport vessels are registered as cargo structure and habitat of the demersal and seden- vessels; consequently fishing laws do not tary marine ecosystem in all its diversity (Pet apply for to these boats. and Djohani, 1996). The greatest immediate * The use and availability of cyanide is legal threat to the park comes primarily from outside for other industries, such as mining and elec- fishermen who are engaged in illegal destructive troplating, so the poison is readily available. fishing methods. The Nature Conservancy Fishing companies supply fishermen with air helped form a team consisting of the park's compressors for their diving but often neglect to management, police, army, and fisheries. This give them instruction in their use. As a result, team now works together to carry out a routine death or paralysis from the bends has become patrolling program. Since its inception in 1995, widespread. A young fisherman, paralyzed blast fishing has declined by more than 80 per- from his lower chest down, was informed of the cent. Workshops, presentations, and exhibitions correlation between the bends and frequent or throughout the year help build national and 28 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management provincial government and local support. Target * To influence the planning and design of the audiences include planners, legislators, fisher- a sustainable project that will include the men leaders, schoolteachers, and entrepreneurs. construction of ecolodges on islands and Fishing villages receive posters and comic books mountains and planning of sea safaris, and, that illustrate the impact of dynamite and at a later stage, to help monitor the tourism cyanide use. Economic alternatives for local activities such as diving, hiking, sportfish- communities are essential to reducing destruc- ing, and kayaking in the park. tive fishing practices. In close cooperation with * To ensure the involvement and employ- outside investors and local entrepreneurs, The ment of local communities in ecotourism Nature Conservancy is helping develop eco- activities. tourism, pelagic fisheries, and environmentally * To develop mechanisms for the generation of sound mariculture. Compatible training pro- income for park management from the eco- grams are set up for communities living in and tourism revenues. Local entrepreneurs have outside the park to enhance skills and encourage already sponsored the installation of moor- participation in these opportunities. ing buoys at popular dive spots in and The challenge is to develop mechanisms that around Komodo National Park. Cruise boats ensure the long-term sponsoring of enforce- and other tour operations will be targeted as ment, awareness programs, and the develop- well to contribute to park management. ment of alternative livelihoods. The private sec- tor, with the support of government, will play Regional Recommendations an increasingly important role in protecting the coral reefs, generating income for park manage- Strategic alliances are required to effectively ment, and providing alternative income for address the issues of cyanide and dynamite fish- local villagers. ing in Indonesia and the Indo-Pacific region. Moreover, it seems virtually impossible to orga- Ecotourism: An Important Ally nize and cover the costs of enforcement, aware- ness, and alternative livelihood programs Ecotourism can play an important role in pro- throughout Indonesia without the involvement tecting the marine natural resources in an area. of the private sector. The careful planning and The Nature Conservancy is currently exploring development of ecotourism as a part of a conser- ways to work together with ecotourism devel- vation strategy may contribute to the effective opers in the Komodo area, whose businesses protection of the reefs against destructive fishing help endorse a threefold strategy to ban destruc- practices and generate income for the sponsor's tive fishing practices in and around Komodo (that is, the park's) management strategies. National Park: Those who are concerned with the region must: * Increased capacity to monitor the reefs * Visualize and explain the impact of destruc- through the presence of ecolodges on tive fishing methods to key policy- and islands outside the park and the presence of decisionmakers at regional and international sea safaris and dive live-aboard vessels forums cruising in the park * Inform and engage the international private * Increased support to raise the conservation sector, in particular those in the field of eco- awareness and commitment of the govern- tourism, in local conservation, and in man- ment at all levels agement of marine natural resources * The generation of alternative sources of * Develop mechanisms in which tourism rev- income and employment for local commu- enues will flow back to park management nities. * Ensure local social benefits derived from The Nature Conservancy is working with the international tourism activities, for exam- major ecotourism developer in the buffer zone ple, through marketing of local handicrafts area with the following goals in mind: and training of local guides. Abatement of Destructive Fishing Practices in Indonesia 29 References for Management of the Marine Resources of Komodo National Park and Surrounding Djohani, R. 1995. "The Combat of Dynamite Areas in Eastern Indonesia." The Nature and Cyanide Fishing in Indonesia: A Strategy Conservancy, Jakarta. to Decrease the Use of Destructive Fishing Pet-Soede, P., and M. V. Erdmann. Methods in and around Komodo National Forthcoming. "Blast Fishing in Southwest Park." The Nature Conservancy, Jakarta. Sulawesi: An Increasing Demand for Pet, J. S., and R. Djohani.1996. "A Framework Fertilizer." The Nature Conservancy, Jakarta. Is Harvesting Wild Groupers for Growout Sustainable? R. E. Johannes and N J. Ogburn R E. Johannes Pty. Ltd. O \ne way of reducing the impact of the live gesting that supplies are dwindling in other reef food fish trade on grouper stocks is countries. But no research has documented these to encourage the expansion of grouper declines or established any cause. Is it overfish- farming, which is carried out in a number of ing of the juveniles, overfishing of the adults Indo-Pacific countries. There is considerable that produce the juveniles, habitat degradation room for expansion by means of culturing these and pollution, or a combination of these? Or is it fish-in abandoned shrimp ponds throughout an artifact of the great natural interannual varia- much of Southeast Asia, and using cage culture tion in recruitment that is known to occur in a in some areas, such as eastern Indonesia. variety of species of groupers? But despite more than a decade of research in It is widely believed that reef fish populations at least 16 different countries commercial suc- are limited not by competition or available habi- cess has proved elusive because of the fragility tat, but by recruitment-that is, by the numbers of grouper larvae, the difficulty of obtaining of larvae that manage to complete their ocean- suitable food for them, and cannibalism. ic/pelagic life stage, locate a suitable reef, and Mortality rates have been either uniformly high settle there. If this were strictly true (more recent or frustratingly and unpredictably variable. research by a number of workers casts some Taiwan, China, has reportedly had some doubt on this, however), it would imply that recent success in the hatchery raising of estuar- removing juvenile groupers from the wild to ine groupers Epinephelus coioides and E. malabari- farm them would be robbing Peter (wild stocks) cus commercially. But the technology, which has to pay Paul (aquaculture). If grouper stocks are been developed by the private sector and care- limited by habitat availability or predation, fully guarded, is not available for export. however, there is less likelihood that harvesting Moreover, the price of hatchery-raised juveniles wild juveniles in moderation would deplete in Taiwan, China, has been too high for compe- wild stocks. tition to compete in the export market. So A variety of poorly documented methods are grouper farming in other countries continues to used to harvest wild grouper juveniles in a num- rely heavily on wild-caught juveniles. ber of Asian countries. The Philippines has There are reports of dwindling supplies of one of the longest histories in this regard. In a wild juveniles in some areas, for example, project sponsored by The Nature Conservancy, Epinephelus akaara and E. coioides in Hong Kong, we examined some of the methods used there in China, and the adjacent waters of mainland order to the determine the species caught, the China. There are also a number of general state- possible social and ecological impacts of these ments made in various reports and papers sug- fisheries, and long-term trends in availability of 30 Is Harvesting Wild Groupers for Growout Sustainable? 31 grouper juveniles. To obtain anecdotal informa- they started using them, they saw no decline in tion in the absence of published data, we sought catch per gango. the opinions of the fishers. The exceptions to this were fishers in estuar- We found evidence of only two species of ies near Roxas City, Panay. They reported a grouper juveniles, Epinephelus coioides and E. marked and prolonged decline in the availabili- malabaricus, being caught in large numbers. ty of juvenile groupers, which they said paral- These are the same two species produced in leled declines in abundance of most other estu- hatcheries in Taiwan, China. arine species. They saw the cause as environ- The capture method that appeared most eco- mental degradation, especially sedimentation. logically and socially sustainable is that of using Severe sedimentation and shallowing of the artificial habitats made of brush, rock, or wood estuary, owing to deforestation in the adjacent and referred to as gangos. Constructing and watersheds, have been documented in these operating gangos is an occupation economically waters, as well as a significant reduction in within reach of very poor families. Gango own- water circulation and quality because of the ers in northern Cebu estimate the labor and uncontrolled proliferation of fish ponds. material costs of obtaining and transporting The Nature Conservancy is sponsoring the nest-building materials to nest sites at 200 to 400 introduction of Philippine gangos in the Komodo pesos (about $US6 to 12). They state that costs area of eastern Indonesia. Its purpose is to pro- may be recovered in as little as two harvests vide alternative employment for fishers present- (typically between one and two months apart). ly using destructive fishing practices, and to The materials for the net used to encircle the encourage the greater farm production of gango and capture the fish cost about 700 pesos groupers so as to help reduce the pressure of the (approximately $US22). live reef food fish trade on wild stocks. The oft- Although normally described as reef fishes, cited problem of obtaining suitable food to feed juveniles of both E. coioides and E. malabricus settle these carnivorous fish is not an issue in this in estuarine areas in and near mangroves. They region, since an unexploited fish stock unsuit- move to coral reefs only after achieving a size of able for other purposes has been identified. about 1 kilogram. Between 70 and 90 percent of Our study covered portions of only one coun- Philippine mangrove areas have been destroyed try, and only two species of juvenile groupers. If in recent times. It is possible, especially under reef fish farming is to achieve its full capacity to these circumstances, that the shelters used by fish- take advantage sustainably of the large and fast- ers to attract the juvenile groupers in such areas growing demand for live reef food fish, then increase the likelihood of their survival. more such efforts should be made to investigate In any event, it is noteworthy that the major- the biology of, and fisheries for, the juvenile reef ity of grouper fry collectors we interviewed fish of species that are (or could be) caught for around all four of the main Philippine islands growout in the western Indo-Pacific region. we visited-most of whom had been operating There will be little incentive for the industry- for two decades or more-said that they per- which is composed of innumerable small com- ceived no long-term decline in abundance of peting units-to fund such research. The task grouper fry or juveniles. At most locations gango would therefore seem to fall logically to govern- operators said that although the numbers of gan- ments, aid agencies, and large NGOs (non- gos in their waters had increased markedly since governmental organizations). Destructive Fishing Practices in the Asia-Pacific Region Nancy MacKinnon The Nature Conservancy D estructive fishing practices have seri- (such as Teodal) with drums of sand, which ously damaged many of the world's they dump on reefs, killing all marine life in richest and most diverse coral reefs, the vicinity. The mixture remains active for providing an urgent warning that immediate three days, continuing to kill fish that enter and far-reaching action is needed. The the contaminated area. Philippines stands out as one of the hardest hit * Explosives. Blast fishing is so widespread areas, with more than 70 percent of its 13,000 throughout the region that large sections of square miles of reef in varying stages of deteri- once-vibrant reef have been reduced to rub- oration. In Indonesia this trend is being repli- ble. In Komodo National Park, Indonesia, cated, with only 29 percent of that country's for example, a Rapid Ecological Assessment square miles of reef considered in good condi- found the impact on reefs from explosives tion. Among the region's most destructive fish- was moderate to high at more than half of ing, trends are: the surveyed sites. * Sodium cyanide. Fishermen use cyanide to * Meting. "Meting" is an emerging threat that stun and capture fish for the live reef food involves the indiscriminate removal of all and aquarium fish trades. Although the tar- edible organisms from reefs. Fishermen get fish often survive the cyanide assault, destroy corals and other organisms by the poison leaves a trail of dead and dying using metal crowbars to rip away coral fish in its wake. Living coral reefs are also cover to dislodge abalone, clams, and other among the casualties. Because of depleted invertebrates. This practice leaves behind fish stocks and unrelenting market demand, nearly 100 percent dead coral rubble. the live reef fish trade is expanding geo- graphically, moving into the western Causes of Destructive Fishing Practices Pacific, in particular Papua New Guinea, in the Asia-Pacific Region the Solomon Islands, and Micronesia. * Depletion of spawning sites. Commercial Destructive fishing involves a complex array of fishing companies use helicopters and political, economic, and sociological factors The advanced technologies to locate and deplete following outlines some of the primary chal- spawning sites. Continued pressure could lenges: quickly cause fish stocks to collapse, perma- * Consumer demand. Unrelenting demand nently altering entire ecosystems. for live reef fish has fueled the dramatic * Pesticides and herbicides. Fishermen mix surge in sodium cyanide fishing. China, pesticides (such as Endrin) and herbicides including Hong Kong and Taiwan, drives 32 Destructive Fishing Practices in the Asia-Pacific Region 33 the $1 billion-per-year live food fish indus- sound grouper mariculture is critical to increas- try. The United States, Europe, and Japan ing sustainability of the live food fish industry. In lead demand for aquarium fish, which totals addition to relieving pressure on wild fish stocks, a small percentage of the food fish trade. mariculture offers alternative livelihood opportu- * Uninformed consumers. Though cyanide nities to divert fishermen from cyanide fishing fishing has received considerable media and other destructive practices. With a goal of coverage, consumers remain largely eventually gaining market share over wild- unaware of the real cost of reef fish. To date, caught grouper, the Conservancy will work with there are few mechanisms for consumers to regional mariculture experts, local communities, participate in meaningful reform. and local business partners to establish a maricul- * Lack of local marine tenure. Unfortunately, ture demonstration center at Komodo National most local villagers lack the authority to Park, Indonesia, to serve as a model for replica- protect their own waters. As Dr. Robert tion across the region. Johannes notes, "Fishing crews from out- side the region destroy reefs while local vil- Certification for aquarium fish. The World lagers are powerless to intercede-either Wildlife Fund, the National Aquarium, the due to local laws, poor communications, or American Marine Life Dealers Association, the bribery of village or government officials." Pet Industry Joint Advisory Council, The Nature * Local economic forces. Poor island nations Conservancy, and others have formed the often trade away their future by depleting Marine Aquarium Fish Council (MAFC). MAFC and destroying their own marine resources will act as an independent organization that will for immediate needs or short-term gain. set standards and oversee voluntary environ- Especially when locals are powerless to pro- mental certification in the aquarium industry. tect their waters, they may use destructive fishing practices to fish their reefs before Cyanide testing. The Conservancy is working someone else does. Moreover, as resources with the DuPont Corporation to develop simple, become depleted, fishermen increasingly inexpensive, and noninvasive cyanide detection turn to destructive methods to capture what tests that will detect minute levels of cyanide in few fish stocks remain. fish, even several weeks after exposure. We hope * Weak policies and enforcement. Many to develop a legally defensible test to discourage countries allow large-scale commercial fish- live fish exporters from buying or exporting ing yet lack policies that are effective at cyanide-caught fish. Presently, the Philippines is ensuring that these companies operate on a the only country to test fish prior to export, and sustainable basis. For those countries with the fish must be killed to be tested. laws prohibiting destructive practices, gov- ernments may lack the infrastructure or Local marine tenure. Patrolling vast waters is political will to enforce those laws. costly and often impractical at the national level. Local villagers are not only the best positioned Conservation Tools to protect their waters, but also the ones who have the greatest personal interest in ensuring Destructive fishing must be addressed on both the long-term health of their reefs. The regional and site-specific levels. The following are Conservancy supports the reinstatement of tra- some of the most promising strategies that The ditional marine tenure where it existed previ- Nature Conservancy and others are pursuing: ously and the introduction of co-management systems for marine resource management in Regional areas where it not previously exist. Grouper mariculture production. The Conser- Science and research. The Conservancy and vancy believes that expansion of environmentally partners are seeking funding for a three-year 34 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management investigation of the short- and long-term effects PCS has become the nation's leading advocate of fishing with sodium cyanide and explosives for a balance between development and conser- on coral reef communities. vation. The Conservancy will remain a behind- The Conservancy is also considering research the-scenes partner, providing technical support on the effects of cyanide on aquarium fish. and participating in joint fund-raising until PCS Should results demonstrate that cyanide com- becomes fully self-sufficient. promises the health of fish through increased mortality or reduced reproductive output, con- Alternative livelihood development. At several sumers can help drive demand for fish free of sites the Conservancy is developing sustainable cyanide. enterprises, including ecotourism, catch-and- release sportfishing, and mariculture as alterna- Prevention in the western Pacific. Live reef fish tives to destructive fishing. These sites will serve importers report that the trade is looking to the as "learning beds" to develop models for effec- western Pacific as the "new frontier." Working tive marine resource management that can be with the International Marine Life Alliance applied throughout the region. (IMA) and other partners, the Conservancy seeks to help prevent cyanide fishing in the Enforcement. Active patrolling and enforce- western Pacific-before the industry can estab- ment are essential to marine resource manage- lish an economic foothold. To date, the ment In Komodo National Park, for example, Conservancy has provided fisheries policy guid- the Conservancy helped activate police and Park ance to threatened areas including Papua New Authority patrols. Because of increased Guinea, Palau, the Marshall Islands, and the patrolling, and extensive community education, Federated States of Micronesia. blast fishing declined by 87 percent in 1996. In addition the Conservancy intends to col- laborate with local and regional NGOs (non- Training. International Marine Life Alliance governmental organizations) to develop a offers a comprehensive program to retrain regional education campaign targeting coastal cyanide fishermen. The Cyanide Fishing villagers, political leaders, and other decision- Reform Program (CFRP) advocates fine-mesh makers. The campaign will demonstrate the nets for aquarium fishermen. For live food fish potential ramifications of cyanide fishing collectors. CFRP promotes hook and line in through communication materials such as conjunction with the decompression technique posters, videos, pamphlets, and comic books. of inserting a needle into a fish's swim bladder. In some cases, CFRP provides training in relat- Local ed businesses to diversify fishermen's econom- ic bases. Local NGO development. Local NGOs can pro- vide the most powerful and long-term voice for Marine protected areas/no-take reserves. Among conservation. Among many valuable functions, the most promising strategies marine protected local NGOs can guide policy development, areas and no-take reserves not only protect coral oversee community training and education, and reef habitats, they show promise in enhancing help create sustainable economic alternatives. fish stocks in adjacent fishing grounds. These In Palau the Conservancy helped establish areas should incorporate spawning aggrega- the Palau Conservation Society (PCS). Today, tions for protection. Destructive Fishing with Dynamite Solomon Makoloweka Tanga Coastal Zone Conservation and Development Programme T his paper highlights the problem of along this coastline, with most of them depend- describing the process used to identify the ing on fishing for their livelihood. Other impor- issues and causes, key stakeholders, steps tant economic activities include farming and taken so far to address the issues, obstacles trade based on coastal resources. Seaweed farm- encountered, and lessons learned. ing is gaining momentum, while there is poten- Destructive fishing practices with dynamite tial for tourism development. have been recorded in the Tanga Region and The program is a partnership being imple- indeed along the Tanzania coastline since the mented by the Tanga Regional Authorities with mid-1960s. The Fisheries Act of 1970 banned the technical advice from IUCN and financial assis- use of explosives. However, a World Conser- tance from Irish Aid. Phase I ran from 1994 to vation Union (IUCN) and Tanga Regional 1997; Phase II began in July 1997 and will con- Authority 1987 joint preliminary survey to tinue until July 2000. determine the status of coral reefs in the region showed that explosive fishing was still a prob- Environmental Issues lem and had a major impact on the reefs (IUCN, 1987). The Tanga Coastal Zone Conservation The program conducted participatory resource and Development Programme's survey in 1995, assessment in nine coastal villages to establish which involved fishermen from villages, resource use patterns (for example, who uses showed that of the 93 reefs in the region 10 per- what and at what levels). It was found during cent were destroyed, about 20 percent were still this survey that coastal communities were well in good condition, while the remaining 70 per- aware of most of the underlying causes of cent were in a moderate state with a possibility destructive fishing practices. The study showed for recovery if no further human activity is con- that up to 80 percent of the adult males in coastal tinued-such as, by making them protected villages were involved in fishing, but more peo- areas or by controlling access and types of activ- ple were catching less now than they were a few ities (Horrill and Kalombo 1995). years back (Gorman 1995). The exercise was facilitated by government extension workers. Setting Identification of Stakeholders The Tanga Region is in the northeastern part of Tanzania in the West Indian Ocean. It has a The socioeconomic survey was followed by a coastline of 150 kilometers where in the north it regional workshop organized by the program. borders with Kenya. Over 200,000 people live This involved representatives of all key stake- holders-for example, representatives of coastal 35 36 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management villages, regional and district government carry out gear inspection, inspection of fish authorities, and commercial users of coastal nat- killed by dynamite, and both land and sea ural resources. The main objective of the work- patrols in their respective areas of jurisdiction. shop was to agree on priority issues, analyze To make the patrols more effective and legally causes, and develop suggestions for possible binding, they formed bylaws to apprehend law solutions (table 1). The following were the issues offenders. The bylaws were later approved by as identified by workshop participants: the districts. The village committees have * Declining fish stocks become the focal points for planning and imple- * Low agricultural production mentation of agreed actions. Both district and * Beach erosion program staff from Fisheries, Natural Resources, * Poor enforcement and Community Development have facilitated * Scarcity of fuelwood and building materials the process by providing technical assistance to * Beach pollution the villages. * Lack of social and economic services. As a result of the workshop, three pilot vil- Coral Reef Survey lages were selected to try possible solutions to their top two most pressing issues. These vil- To determine the status of the coral reefs the pro- lages were Kipumbwi in Pangani district, gram carried out a participatory coral reef sur- Kigombe in Muheza district, and Mwambani in vey along the entire coastline. The survey was Tanga Municipality. carried out by Fisheries personnel and involved The immediate reaction by the pilot villages fishermen in the villages. The surveys were fair- was to form special committees to take action to ly simple, involving mapping, measuring the deal with fisheries-related issues. The villagers proportion of live to dead corals, fish popula- were given basic training in program planning, tion, and fish and coral diversity. The surveys problem analysis, formation of objectives, work were conducted using an open boat, outboard plans, and monitoring. engine, a global positioning system (GPS), and Since destructive fishing and poor enforce- snorkels. mrent by government were identified as some of Results of the survey included the following: the major causes of low fish catches, the fish * Reefs were identified-including 14 that scarcity committee in each village resolved to had not been charted before. - Approximately 10 percent of reefs were Table 1. Causes and Possible Solutions for the Issue found to be destroyed, 20 percent were in of Declining Fish Catches good condition; the remaining 70 percent Causes were in moderate condition with a possibil- * Uncontrolled mangrove culling ity for recovery if no further human activity * Destruction of coral reefs takes takes place. * Poor gears The majority of the reefs destroyed or in poor • Poorgearseinubrofshmn condition are near areas densely populated with * Increase in number of fishermen humans (Horrill and Kalombo 1995). Fishermen Sein T ers-fishing cose tovcast helped in collecting data and reviewing the Possible solutions results. The program later fed back the coral reef * Restrict illegal fishing techniques survey information to all users. Information * Mangrove replanting included reef status, fish population status, coral . Close areas to fishing diversity, importance of the reef for different * Provision of appropriate gears fisheries, fishing gears, fish species, and which * Develop alternative incomes villages use the reefs. This prompted village * Restrict trawlers fishing offshore committees in pilot villages to take further actions intended to boost fish catches. Two of Source: Kalombo 1997. the pilot villages, Kipumbwi and Kigombe, Destructive Fishing with Dynamite 37 The total training program included partici- Table 2. Effects of Reef Closures patory rapid/rural appraisal and learning (PRA) techniques, communication, facilitation, * Fish in closed area will be able to grow larger and so and animation skills; coastal ecology; coastal produce more eggs. culture; and analytical and planning skills. The * Reef conditions will improve, increasing the number of participants also learned how to serve as train- fish shelters. ers in planning and business management. The * Number of fish in closed areas will increase. result has been improved relationships and * Fish will migrate to other reefs and be caught. understanding between villagers and govern- * Fishing area restrictions will leading to overfishing in ment extension workers. open areas. Training in coastal ecology for government * Fishers' income will decrease with decreased catches staff, such as magistrates and police at the because of overfishing. regional and district level, has tremendously Source: Kalombo 1997. improved law enforcement. Other tools used are PRA and animation, which are techniques to stimulate people to identify and analyze their opted to establish management areas so that problems, and search for solutions themselves. they could try some of the proposed actions, such as closing of some reefs, village patrols, Monitoring and Evaluation and gear and fish inspections. This led to a series of meetings to reach agreements with A number of tools are being used for monitoring neighboring villages using the same reefs. The and evaluation, including a logical framework meetings were very protracted, but the villages that sets out objectives, results, indicators, and reached a consensus to close some of the reefs. assumptions; periodic remeasuring of the social Before reaching a final decision, however, vil- economic baseline; and monitoring of the health lagers debated the advantages and disadvan- of coral reefs, mangroves, and seagrass beds. tages of reef closures and the benefits of long- Our approach to monitoring and evaluation is and short-term closures (table 2). like planning and implementation: it must Since most of the reefs were already over- belong to different stakeholders. fished, most villagers agreed that there were The following are recommendations for more benefits in closing the reefs. future actions: Minutes of all meetings, attendance, and * Start any new program with a "listening" agreements with adjacent villages were recorded phase. This should be based on participato- and endorsed by village assemblies. The same ry appraisals that involve all stakeholders were forwarded to the District Council, where from the beginning in identifying and pri- they were again endorsed and passed over to the oritizing the issues. Director of Fisheries to await final approval. * Provide training in participatory problem analysis, planning, and monitoring to both Tools for Sustainable Development government workers and villagers. This can result in a high level of commitment by Training and learning through training instruc- coastal villagers to their planned solutions. tion in different skills at all levels had to be pro- * Strengthen capacity at all levels and promote vided for regional and district government offi- communication between different sectors, cers, extension workers, and villagers. First, a different levels, and different stakeholders. training needs assessment was carried out for * Train extension workers and selected vil- extension workers. The assessment revealed lagers to be trainers themselves. This that lack of technical skills was not a problem, appears to be an effective way of improving but that lack of communication skills was certain skills and techniques of a larger (Chiwile and Salenge 1994). number of villagers. 38 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management • Involving different sectors of government of training villagers as trainers, and by using in training courses and seminars has begun appropriate and accessible technology. to bear fruit. For example, the district regis- trar has taken the initiative in determining, References with district magistrates and public prose- cutors, why the prosecution of certain cases, Chiwile, P., and H. Salange. 1994. "A Report of particularly those involving illegal fishing, the Training Needs Assessment for the is generally prolonged and unsuccessful. Extension Workers along the Coastal Zone." This has resulted in tremendous improve- Tanga, Tanzania. ment in fines imposed and reduction of Gorman, M. 1995. "Report on Socio-Economic prosecution time (Horrill 1997). Study/Participatory Rural Appraisal * Have regular workshops and feedback Conducted in March/April 1995." TCZCDP, meetings with stakeholders. Keep all play- Tanga, Tanzania. ers informed; this will help keep popular Horrill, J. C., and H. Kalombo. 1996. "Report support. on the Results of the Survey of the Coral * Simple monitoring techniques play an Reefs of the Tanga Region." TCZCDP, important part in feedback. Tanga, Tanzania. * Monitoring systems need to be developed Horrill, J. C. 1997. "Evaluation of Enforcement with the participation of the people who Trials TCZCDP." Tanga, Tanzania. have to use them, and they should be IUCN (World Conservation Union). 1987. "The appropriate for the resources available to Coastal Resources of Tanga Region, them and their operations. Monitoring tools Tanzania." and procedures must be simple. Kalombo, H. 1997. "Artisanal Fisheries * Future financial demands of programs can be Management in Tanga, TCZCDP." Tanga, minimized by a community-based approach Tanzania. Policy Reform and Community-Based Programs to Combat Cyanide Fishing in the Asia-Pacific Region Charles Victor Barber World Resources Institute Vaughan R. Pratt International Marinelife Alliance-Philippines Cyanide Fishing: A Poison Tide on the Reef essary to pry apart the coral heads and reach the stunned fish that hide in crevices. The rewards ince the 1960s, more than a million kilo- are high, with some cyanide divers making grams of deadly sodium cyanide has been more than university professors in their coun- squirted onto coral reefs in the Philippines tries, but so are the risks. Untrained in diving to stun and capture ornamental aquarium fish safety, many fishermen fall prey to decompres- destined for the pet shops and aquariums of sion sickness (the bends.) Contributing to this Europe and North America. More recently, a chain of poison are a variety of intermediaries- growing demand for larger reef food fish has vessel and holding-tank facility owners, fish vastly increased the incidence and spread of exporters and importers-and civilian, police, cyanide fishing. Consumers in Hong Kong, and military officials who look the other way China, and other major Asian cities greatly value for a cut of the profits. certain reef fish when they are plucked live from Cyanide kills corals and reef invertebrates a tank, cooked, and served minutes later, and along with many nontarget fish. Large percent- pay up to $300 per plate for some species. The ages of the fish that are captured live die in tran- combined demand for aquarium and live food sit because of their poison-weakened state. fish has spread cyanide fishing throughout Deadly in any marine environment, the spread Indonesia and into neighboring countries such of cyanide fishing is particularly tragic in the as Fiji, the Maldives, Papua New Guinea, and countries of the Indo-Pacific region. As the glob- Vietnam. In the past year, officials in countries al center of marine biodiversity for corals, fish, as far-flung as Eritrea, the Marshall Islands, and mollusks, and reef invertebrates, the region may Tanzania have voiced suspicions that their fast- justifiably be called the Amazon of the Oceans. growing live-fish export industries may also be Cyanide fishing also threatens the livelihood of using cyanide. poor coastal people in the region, where depen- Far from Hong Kong's restaurants and the dence on fish protein is very high and fisheries pet stores of Europe and North America, fisher- provide millions with income. men in Southeast Asia, the Indian Ocean, and The Philippines, birthplace of cyanide fish- the Pacific dive into the sea with hookah tubes in ing, is also the only country with a program in their mouths-attached to air compressors on place to eradicate the practice. Since the early small boats-and makeshift squirt bottles in 1990s the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic their hands. These fishermen squirt cyanide Resources and the International Marinelife into coral formations, thereby stunning their Alliance-Philippines (IMA), a nongovernmental prey for collection. Sometimes a crowbar is nec- organization (NGO), have jointly developed and 39 40 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management implemented the Cyanide Fishing Reform Cyanide Fishermen Program (CFRP). Experience with the CFRP over the past five years shows that cyanide fishing can The number of cyanide fishermen operating in be reduced through a combination of the right Southeast Asia and neighboring countries in policies and laws, beefed-up enforcement efforts, unknown. Based on estimates in the enhanced public awareness, cyanide testing of Philippines, where there are probably about live fish exports, training of cyanide fishermen in 4,000, the number of hard-core cyanide fisher- cyanide-free live fish capture techniques, and men throughout the Indo-Pacific region proba- development of sustainable community-based bly does not exceed 20,000. In short, cyanide resource management and livelihood alternatives fishing is not a ubiquitous problem, like slash- that transform local fishermen into the front line and-burn farming, practiced by millions of poor of marine stewards and protectors. farmers. Nor is poverty the root cause of One key aspect of the CFRP's initial success cyanide fishing, although many cyanide fisher- has been initiation of policy reforms in both men are certainly very poor. Rather, cyanide source and consumer countries to create anti- fishermen are a fairly small and discrete group cyanide fishing incentives and enforcement responding to very specific incentives: a new mechanisms. A second important element has technology, a ready market for the product, lax been development of effective partnerships with government enforcement of anticyanide laws, fishing communities themselves, focusing on and the lack of viable livelihood alternatives. transfer of nondestructive technology and Experience in the Philippines suggests that improvement of local livelihoods. when cyanide fishermen are introduced to This paper identifies the key actors in the live cyanide-free techniques for live fish capture and fish trade and analyzes their roles and interests. ensured a fair price for their catch, they are will- It then looks at the process by which research and ing and often eager to give up using the poison advocacy that first exposed the cyanide fishing and to talk about ways to ensure the long-term problem in the Philippines during the 1980s has sustainability of their local reefs and fisheries. been transformed into a new policy framework Development of reliable alternative sources of and program of action on the ground. The paper income strengthens these incentives, and strict then elaborates the policy reforms governments government enforcement of anticyanide fishing of both exporting and importing countries must laws further reinforces them. make to establish incentives for a cyanide-free live fish trade, and examines the community- Live Reef Fish Exporters based strategies that lie at the heart of the CFRP's efforts to counter this ominous threat to the very The number of companies involved in the live heart of the planet's marine biodiversity. fish export business in Southeast Asia is also unknown, but it appears to be expanding rapid- Actors in the Live Reef Fish Trade ly. In the early 1960s, for example, there were only 3 companies exporting aquarium fish from The live reef fish trade in Southeast Asia has an the Philippines, and export of live food fish did estimated annual retail value of at least $1.2 bil- not yet exist. By the 1990s there were some 45 lion, about $1 billion from the live food fish trade aquarium fish exporters in the country, and 8 (mostly with Hong Kong, China), and nearly companies exporting live food fish. At least 10 $200 million from exports of aquarium fish to companies run holding tanks for live food fish in Europe and North America. Not all of the fish in Bali, Indonesia, a major transshipment point. the trade are caught with cyanide (Australia's Conservative estimates of the annual volume of live reef fishery, for example, is cyanide-free), but Asian trade in live food fish alone range most of them are. To understand the dynamics between 20,000 and 25,000 metric tons, mostly of this trade, it is necessary to understand the from Indonesia, and the real total may be far various actors involved and the incentives that greater. Philippine government statistics show currently shape their behavior. that as many as 6 million aquarium fish were Policy Reform and Community-Based Programs to Combat Cyanide Fishing in the Asia-Pacific Region 41 exported in 1996, and Indonesia is catching up reefs and healthy fish populations, and are often quickly. vocal in their support for marine conservation. Exporters of cyanide-caught live food and Effective mechanisms have not yet been devel- aquarium fish are responding to a strong market oped, however, to fully tap this group for politi- demand and the lack of meaningful law enforce- cal and financial support in combating cyanide ment and monitoring by governments. Partner- fishing, although some efforts such as the ships with the exporters for more sustainable live Professional Association of Diving Instructors' fisheries are possible only when source country Project Aware are working to instill greater gen- governments take strong action to eradicate the eral environmental consciousness in divers and export of cyanide-caught fish and importing dive operators. countries demand proof that incoming fish were Engaging these diverse groups in efforts to not caught with cyanide. combat cyanide fishing requires two basic ele- ments. First, government policies must provide Live Reef Fish Importers a structure of negative and positive incentives that make cyanide fishing unattractive for the Businesses that import live food and aquarium whole range of actors involved in the trade and fish are in essentially the same position as make sustainable alternatives attractive. exporters: absent government pressure to Second, partnerships must be developed direct- ensure that the fish they import were not caught ly with fishing communities currently using with cyanide, they have little incentive to take cyanide, to assist them in abandoning the action on the issue. As one large importer of live cyanide fishing tradition and adopting tech- food fish argued: "We [the Hong Kong niques, technologies, and economic strategies importers] do not participate in any catching of that improve their livelihoods while protecting fish or its activities. We just finance the people their rich marine environment. by equipping them with boats and fishing gear. We just buy fish from them. The production side Policy Reforms to Combat Cyanide Fishing is left to them." Cyanide fishing will not end until governments Live Reef Fish Consumers set in place effective policies to eradicate it and to encourage sustainable live reef fisheries. The Consumers have an important role to play in use of cyanide to catch fish is illegal in virtually pressuring the aquarium fish industry to take every country of the Indo-Pacific region, but the action on. imports of cyanide-caught fish. big profits to be made, combined with lack of Indeed, publicity and ensuing consumer pres- enforcement and other supporting actions, mean sure in Europe and North America has had some that with the exception of those in the impact on aquarium fish importers and led to Philippines, these laws do not much discourage efforts like the Marine Aquarium Fish Council in cyanide fishing. the United States, discussed below. Consumer Policy reform, in this context, therefore pressure against cyanide fishing is virtually means more than passing laws. It also involves nonexistent among the Chinese consumers of establishment of effective institutions to monitor live food fish, though. As one Hong Kong, the live reef fish trade, enforce the laws, and pro- China, observer noted, "Being endangered actu- vide economic incentives for fishermen, traders, ally seems to spur demand." and consumers to shift to ecologically sustain- able, cyanide-free reef fisheries (see box 1). Divers and Dive Operators Experience with the Philippines' Cyanide Fishing Reform Program suggests the following Scuba diving and snorkeling on tropical reefs is priority areas for policy reforms to combat a big and growing business throughout the cyanide fishing in the many countries of the Indo-Pacific region. Divers and dive operators Indo-Pacific region where it is a growing threat. have a strong interest in maintenance of coral 42 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management Policy Reforms in Live Reef Fish Source The Philippines now collects live fish data in Countries ways that allow the government to keep a watch over total numbers of particular fish species Establish Cyanide Detection Test (CDT) Laboratory moving through domestic and international air- Facilities at All Major Live Fish Collection ports and major international seaports, activities and Transshipment Points. of exporters, and other relevant information. IMA collects the data through its CDT and mon- A simple test to determine the presence of itoring network, and provides it to all relevant cyanide in live fish was developed by IMA and national and provincial government offices. the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR) and has been in use for over five years in Establish a Firmer Legal Framework to Detect the Philippines. Currently five laboratories test and Prosecute Cyanide Fishing and Trade in over 6,000 samples annually. An effective CDT Cyanide-Caught Fish, Ultimately Requiring testing network is key for a strong effort to Mandatory Testing and Certification of All Live reduce cyanide fishing. Without testing, author- Reef Fish Exports. ities cannot determine whether fish have been caught with cyanide or obtain convincing evi- While fishing with cyanide and other poisons is dence to prosecute violators. To be successful, banned in virtually every country in Southeast CDT labs must also be backed up by a larger net- Asia and the Pacific, a much firmer legal frame- work of agencies and monitoring posts, and staff work in needed to make these bans effective. trained in sampling prospective live fish ship- Once a CDT laboratory and monitoring network ments and rapid sample transport. Such a net- is established, all prospective exporters should work requires directives on participating in sam- be required to submit to random sampling and pling and monitoring from central agencies to testing, inspection, and government licensing. their local offices, and training in correct sam- All shipments should require a certificate show- pling and shipping-to-lab procedures. ing the origin, volume, and species composition Although testing is not a panacea, it is the bes. of the shipment, and certifying that it has been technical tool currently available to identify subject to random CDT procedures and is cyanide-tainted fish and provide hard evidence cyanide-free. with which to prosecute violators. Countries that A mandatory certification system (as was want to provide incentives to stop cyanide fishing established by law in the Philippines in late must be serious about developing their capacities 1997) provides key positive as well as negative to systematically test live fish intended for export. incentives for exporters. On the one hand, uncertifiable fish become liabilities. On the Establish a National System of Data Gathering and other hand, certified fish can obtain an "envi- Monitoring That Provides Useful Data for ronmental market premium" in markets where Regulating the Live Fish Trade. importing governments regulate imports and consumers prefer fish caught without cyanide. In order to monitor and regulate the live fish Enforcement procedures and penalties must trade, governments need accurate and appropri- be fairly applied, and should focus on punishing ate data. Many national systems for collecting the larger players in the trade, such as exporters fisheries and export statistics do not adequately and corrupt officials, and not unduly persecute disaggregate data, making it impossible to tell, the cyanide divers themselves. Governments for example, how many individuals of a particu- might consider enacting strong forfeiture provi- lar species were collected in a particular loca- sions to prosecute large operators. With this tion, exported in a given month or year, or who approach, violators would lose not only fish that did the collecting and exporting. There is no test positive for cyanide, but also equipment way to regulate cyanide use in the live fish trade such as boats and holding facilities proved to until such data are regularly collected. have been used for cyanide fishing. Policy Reform and Community-Based Programs to Combat Cyanide Fishing in the Asia-Pacific Region 43 Nonetheless, local cyanide divers should be advance by the government, and requires the educated that what they are doing, for whatever poison's sale to be "strictly controlled." Control reasons, is illegal and that repeat offenders will elements include requirements for traders and be punished harshly. This will be perceived as end users to seek authorization from the just, however, only when local fishermen see the Department of Environment and Natural big operators prosecuted first. Targeting the big Resources (DENR) to purchase, distribute, or cyanide fishing interests also reduces incentives use cyanide, and to file weekly reports on the for local divers to join in the trade. sale or use of the substance. Both traders and buyers would be subject to spot checks by the Ban or Restrict the Export of Especially Vulnerable government. Penalties under the act are stiff, Species, Such as the Napoleon Wrasse (Cheilinus with prison terms for unauthorized possession undulatus). or importation of cyanide ranging from six to 12 years and fines set at a minimum of $10,000. Blanket bans on the live reef fish trade are both While this type of law will undoubtedly be unwise and unworkable and just drive the trade difficult to enforce, it should nonetheless underground. When the Philippines attempted increase the price of cyanide on the black mar- a ban in parts of Palawan province several years ket, thus making nondestructive techniques of ago, cyanide fishermen continued to use the poi- live fish capture more economically attractive to son, but killed the fish after capture and sold fishermen currently using cyanide. them on the fresh fish market. Also, bans deprive local communities of one of the most Address Corruption Within Vulnerable Government lucrative sources of income to be found in the Units Such as Fisheries, the Navy, Customs, and coastal zone. The cyanide-free capture of live Police Forces. fish at sustainable levels with a fair return to local fishermen should be the objective of live The ease with which government officials fishery policy. charged with regulating the live fish trade can That said, the pressures on particular species be bribed in many places works against all of the may become so great that governments may want other incentives that source country govern- to ban altogether their capture and export. For the ments might put in place to stop cyanide fishing. Napoleon wrasse, highest-valued of the live food But with so much money at stake in the cyanide- fish species, overexploitation may soon reach crit- based live fish trade, corruption is a recurrent ical levels, warranting a complete ban. A ban is problem. Governments can eliminate corruption unlikely to stop the Napoleon wrasse trade alto- only if officials at the highest levels take a firm gether, but it may reduce the total volume. public stand against it and when corrupt offi- cials are dealt with harshly under the law. Heads Regulate the Import, Distribution, and Use of vulnerable agencies, such as fisheries, the of Cyanide. navy, and customs, must establish firm policies that those convicted of involvement in cyanide Cyanide has many legitimate uses in industry, fishing will be summarily fired and permanent- but a considerable amount of the poison is ly barred from civil service or military positions. diverted into the live fish collection business. In National police agencies and prosecutors can most countries of the Indo-Pacific region, make it known publicly that they will seek the import, distribution, and use of cyanide are vir- maximum penalties available under the law to tually unregulated. To remedy this problem, a prosecute corrupt officials. draft Sodium Cyanide Act that would strictly The media can help by exposing instances of regulate the import and use of cyanide was corruption related to cyanide fishing in the introduced in the Philippine House of press. Even in societies where the press is Representatives in late 1996. The draft bill restricted, firm government policy statements requires all cyanide imports to be authorized in against cyanide fishing and related corruption 44 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management should give the press a freer hand in reporting sent, no importing country requires proof that abuses. Finally, an effective CDT lab and moni- imported live fish were not caught using toring network, backed up by community-based cyanide, or penalizes firms that import fish monitoring, can provide government with a caught with the poison. Key steps for setting up great deal of information about potential cor- more helpful incentives in importing countries ruption problems. include the following: Mount Public Awareness Campaigns in the Media Monitor Imports of Live Fish and Provide Data to and Schools. Exporting Countries. NGOs and government leaders should work Importing country governments should estab- systematically to build public awareness about lish data collection and storage systems to keep the threat of cyanide fishing and the steps that track of the number by species of live fish must be taken to stop it. Press releases, symbol- imported, and the country of origin. They ic public events, and the steady provision of should then share that data with relevant gov- information to journalists are all tools that can ernment agencies in source countries. In this raise public awareness and strengthen other way, monitoring agencies in source countries anti-cyanide fishing incentive measures. can compare their own export statistics with In the schools information on the values of import statistics and thus determine the validity marine resources and biodiversity, the effects of of those export statistics-provided exporting cyanide fishing, and the tools available to stop it countries begin to collect detailed export data, as should be integrated into curricula from the pri- the Philippines is already doing. mary grades onward. Cyanide fishing is a learned behavior that becomes a tradition over Phase in a Legal Requirement That All Live Reef time. By teaching the cyanide-free tradition in Fish Imports Be Certified as Cyanide-Free. coastal area schools from an early age, countries can help to ensure that children are fully aware When live fish-exporting countries require of the alternatives to cyanide fishing and their cyanide-free certification for all exports, as in the positive consequences. Philippines, importing countries should recipro- Divers are also potential allies in raising cate by requiring all live fish importers to pro- awareness and gathering information. In the vide certification from the source country gov- Philippines in 1994, IMA initiated a voluntary ernment that the fish they are importing have Status of Coral Reefs (SCORE) survey, using a been certified as cyanide-free. Since Indonesia simple questionnaire on reef conditions, which and other exporting countries do not currently divers were asked to complete and return by have testing and certification systems in place, it mail. By mid-1996, 200 of the 4,000 survey forms is probably unrealistic for importing countries to distributed by IMA had been completed and immediately impose a ban on imports of noncer- returned, providing the first new primary data tified live fish. But importing country govern- on the condition of Philippine coral reefs since a ments, and importers, can move in this direction survey done in 1983, including reports on sus- by gradually phasing in a prohibition on noncer- pected cyanide fishing locations. tified live fish imports, simultaneously working with exporting countries to develop testing and Policy Reforms in Live Reef Fish-Importing certification procedures, laws, and technical Countries capacities. Importing governments will also need to establish cooperation with groups such as As in any transnational trade, source countries IMA and the Marine Aquarium Fish Council for live reef fish need the cooperation of import- (discussed below), which can provide indepen- ing country governments if their efforts to stem dent third-party monitoring of the certification cyanide use at home are to be effective. At pre- systems that national governments set up. Policy Reform and Community-Based Programs to Combat Cyanide Fishing in the Asia-Pacific Region 45 Provide Donor Assistance to Live Fish-Exporting in early 1998. The U.S. Agency for International Countries to Help Them Combat Cyanide Fishing. Development is also providing support for the Philippines' CFRP, and is currently developing Live fish-importing countries that are providers anticyanide fishing activities as part of its of development assistance (such as the United Coastal Resources Management Project in States, Canada, Japan, and the countries of the Indonesia, in collaboration with IMA. European Union) should offer financial and technical assistance to exporting countries, to Strengthen Consumer Awareness about the Impacts assist them in developing cyanide-fishing of Cyanide Fishing. reform programs and certification procedures. The Asian Development Bank has set a good As in other areas of environmental certification, example in this regard, providing some $2.7 mil- it is crucial to build consumer awareness. lion for the Philippines' CFRP as part of a new Where consumers themselves increasingly Fisheries Sector Loan slated for implementation demand assurances that the fish they are buy- Box 1. Establishing Partnerships with Live Fish at the industry's conventions and in its trade maga- Exporters and Importers zines. Food-fish importers, mostly in Hong Kong (China) and southern China, are less organized and Along with establishing partnerships with fishing com- less concerned about the environmental impacts of munities, effective policies to combat cyanide fishing their trade, but this situation is likely to improve over must also cultivate support from other private sector time, as it did in the aquarium trade during the 1980s. actors in both source and importing countries. Some of Already, the Hong Kong Fisheries Department, World the most important steps in this regard include the fol- Wildlife Fund-Hong Kong, and other groups are work- lowing: ing to raise consumer awareness. Ensure that testing of fish for cyanide is done rapidly, Create partnerships with the private sector in live fish fairly, and efficiently. As already noted, establishment of importing countries. The best current example of such a cyanide detection testing (CDT) capacities and require- partnership is the newly formed Marine Aquarium ments is an essential incentive for discouraging Fish Council (MAFC) in the United States, which is the cyanide fishing. But speed is essential if cyanide test- single largest market for Indo-Pacific aquarium fish. In ing is to gain the support of legitimate exporters, who 1996, a number of U.S. conservation organizations and do not want their business unduly delayed by red tape. aquarium trade groups met to develop the MAFC as a To that end, laboratories need to follow the Philippines' body that would serve as an industry-independent model and function seven days a week, returning test governing council to establish standards and oversee results to the exporter (with a cyanide-free certificate if environmental certification of aquarium fish imports the tests are negative) within 24 to 36 hours. and sales in the United States. Equally important, the agency managing CDT labs Composed of aquarium fish importers, scientists, must be trusted to be fair, efficient, and incorruptible and environmental NGOs, the MAFC will establish by the fish collectors and exporters. standards for certifying aquarium fish with reference to collection methods, suitable and nonrecommended Provide and publicize official cyanide-free certification. As species, size limits, holding and transportation meth- demand for cyanide-free live fish grows in overseas mar- ods, and other standards of practice. Costs would be kets, fish that exporters can daim as reliably cyanide-free borne by a percentage of the sales price, although can command a higher price. This was proved in the grant funding would have to cover startup costs to 1980s when aquarium fish from the Philippines, tainted develop and test applicable certification procedures. with that country's cyanide-fishing reputation, began to Actual certification would be carried out by certifica- command a lower price than the same species from tion institutions accredited by the MAFC and adhering Indonesia-thought to be cyanide-free at the time. to the MAFC standards, not by the MAFC itself. The Preliminary evidence from the grouper fishery in Coron, MAFC would require that collectors, traders, and Philippines, indicates that a similar market premium is retailers adhere to all standards continuously and beginning to operate in live food fish markets. would identify appropriate enforcement mechanisms, Govenmuents therefore need to formalize and pub- including the monitoring of the chain of custody from licize their certification process, both at home and reef to retailer. The council would work closely with abroad. For the aquarium fish trade, this could be done the American MarineLife Dealers Association. 46 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management ing have not been caught with cyanide, the erative marketing and other strategies for pressures on live fish exporters and the govern- adding fisheries production value, and safe ments that regulate them to take action will diving techniques. grow rapidly. These sessions are specialized to address It is important to note that testing of live fish specific types of live fish capture. Fishermen imports on their arrival in importing countries is who primarily collect aquarium species are not an effective strategy and is likely to be coun- trained in the use of fine-mesh barrier nets. terproductive. Cyanide metabolizes out of Fishermen for whom food fish are the target fish relatively rapidly, and tests conducted at species are trained in hook-and-line techniques import destinations are likely to be negative for for capturing groupers and simple techniques cyanide, regardless of whether the fish was for decompressing the air bladders of captured caught with cyanide or not. fish to ensure their postharvest survival and health. Because particular grouper species Community-Based Strategies favor distinctive bait sizes and shapes, bait preparation is a key part of the hook-and-line Without fishermen in the equation, there is sim- training as well. ply no solution to the cyanide-fishing problem. Following the "classroom" sessions, the fish- There is no policy, law, or technology that can ermen and trainers carry out four days of in- replace the need to work directly with cyanide water training in either net or hook-and-line fishermen. Training, community organization, techniques. The intensive one-week training is income enhancement, and establishment of followed by a three-week follow-up period of community-based coastal management systems monitoring by the trainers to ensure that in communities currently using cyanide-or trainees have mastered fishing techniques and vulnerable to its introduction as a live fish trade proper postharvest care. Other activities, such as is established in their area-constitute the core organizing local fishing associations and cooper- partnership necessary to end cyanide fishing. atives and developing value-added livelihood activities-discussed below-take more time Train Fishermen in Cyanide-Free Fishing and involve periodic follow-up participation by Technologies. the trainers over months or years. Using this basic model, IMA in 1997 expand- When fishermen are presented with effective ed training programs to many new areas of the cyanide-free technologies for capturing live food Philippines and now operates such programs in and aquarium fish-and given greater aware- five major cyanide-using regions. IMA has also ness about the legal, health, and ecological risks initiated the first Indonesian training program- of cyanide fishing-many choose to convert to for 60 fishermen-in North Sulawesi province, cyanide-free techniques. working with a local partner organization. In the Philippines, IMA has trained over 2,000 cyanide fishermen in cyanide-free live fish Enhance Local Income from the Live Fish Trade and capture techniques. A typical one-week local Other Sources. training program targets 20 to 30 fishermen who are currently using cyanide to catch either Fishermen's incentives to forsake cyanide fish- live food or aquarium fish and have developed ing increase-and partnerships between fishing an interest, whether through IMA awareness communities and outsiders such as IMA grow activities or their own experiences, in learning stronger-when local income from sustainable cyanide-free techniques. Initially, three-day on- use of marine and other local resources rises. land "classroom" sessions provide lectures and Beyond training in cyanide-free fishing tech- discussions concerning the arguments in favor niques, IMA therefore works with fishing com- of cyanide-free fishing, cyanide-free technolo- munities to promote a variety of livelihood gies, postharvest management of catches, coop- enhancement activities. Policy Reform and Community-Based Programs to Combat Cyanide Fishing in the Asia-Pacific Region 47 When fishermen can get more money for tion. In short, the IMA training and livelihood cyanide-free live fish, they are extremely enthusi- enhancement strategy seeks to assist a larger astic about converting to cyanide-free techniques. socioeconomic transformation of poor fishing As in most poor fishing communities in communities toward a better standard of liv- Southeast Asia, cyanide fishermen receive only a ing based on sustainable resource use and cap- small percentage of the value of their catch, with turing a larger share of the local profits for the lion's share of profits accruing to middlemen. local benefit. By helping fishermen obtain postharvest equip- ment and know-how and assisting them to devel- Strengthen Community-Based Management of Local op their own marketing cooperatives and outlets, Fisheries and Reefs. the local share of the profits can be increased. In the area of North Sulawesi, Indonesia, Partnerships with fishing communities must go where IMA initiated a training program in July beyond training and income enhancement, 1997, for example, the local partner organization important as these elements are. Sustainable is the provincial cooperative of retired military coastal management requires the participation veterans. By providing the fishermen with div- and support of the local communities that ing compressors (previously, the only one in the directly earn their living from the sea, in cooper- village was owned by a live fish broker with a ation with government agencies-an arrange- local monopoly on the trade) and offering high- ment often called "co-management." Cyanide er prices for fish through the cooperative, the fishing, blast fishing, coral mining, mangrove program will break the power of the middle- destruction, and many other sources of coastal man and help the fishermen obtain higher prices degradation can be slowed only when the com- for the cyanide-free aquarium fish they capture. munities on the front line become central players The cooperative itself sees a good business in protection efforts and beneficiaries of sustain- opportunity, of course, but perhaps as impor- able management. This requires policy shifts by tant, the cooperative's director is also a dive-tour most governments, which have traditionally operator concerned about the effects of cyanide treated coastal zones and fisheries as the exclu- on the reefs that have made the province a pre- sive preserve of state power and policy. mier dive destination. In some areas of eastern Indonesia and the Few fishing communities, however, subsist western Pacific, long-standing customary sys- wholly on the live fish trade. More typically, tems of marine tenure and management provide they pursue a "portfolio" economic strategy a sound institutional basis for community-based combining live fish, fresh and dried fish, agri- efforts. Where customary systems exist, govern- culture, wage labor, and other activities. An ments should recognize and support them and effective livelihood enhancement strategy needs provide technical and financial inputs to assist to target all of these activities and introduce traditional communities in adapting to rapid new ones where an opportunity exists. Intro- economic and technological changes. duction of simple technologies can often add Most coastal communities in Southeast Asia, significant value to products that communities however, do not possess functioning customary are already harvesting and selling. In Philippine systems for managing and conserving coastal fishing communities where the capture and sale resources. Many are composed of a heteroge- of tiny dried fish (dilis) is a common activity, neous mix of immigrants and natives who lost teaching simple techniques to spice the fish can such systems long ago. This loss does not mean raise their value by 40 percent. Where raw oys- that viable community management systems ters are collected, teaching oyster sauce produc- cannot be nurtured. The Philippines, where cus- tion methods adds considerable value to that tomary coastal management systems have van- product. In some communities, 'IMA training ished, has the most extensive and active com- programs promote nonfishery activities, such as munity-based coastal resources management soap making, tailoring, and handicrafts produc- (CBCRM) initiatives in Southeast Asia. 48 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management Box 2. Toward a Cyanide-Free Fishing Tradition the CDT liaison office (the fish sampled were air on Canipo Island, Philippines transported to Manila for testing). The results, in the form of a certification that the tested fish were Canipo Island is located in the Calamianes group of cyanide-free, were returned to the Kawil members islands in the north of Palawan province. The area has within 36 hours, so as not to unduly interfere with been a traditional fishing ground for live grouper col- shipping of the catch. lection, especially the high-priced spotted coral trout, In 1995, IMA started working with Kawil to train Plectropomus leopardus. For years, hundreds of fisher- more fishermen in the area and to assist in modifying men used sodium cyanide to collect groupers. In 1993, the bladder-decompression techique and tools, substi- however, a local businessman engaged in live grouper tuting less stressful large-guage hypodermic needles collection and dismayed at the impacts of cyanide on for sharpened plastic straws. The Kawil hook-and-line the reefs, started a cooperative called Kawil and decompression technique is also being transferred Amianam-Filipino for hook-and-line collecting. The to other areas of the country via training programs. group used the traditional hook and line but also Sampling and testing of Kawil's catch has continued developed a method for decompressing air bladders of for the past two years, and the test results indicate that the captured fish using a plastic straw, which is neces- virtually all members of the group are continuing to sary for the fish to survive when they are rapidly use the hook-and-line method and have not reverted to brought from 20 to 25 meters to the surface. cyanide use. More than 400 fishermen in the area soon joined Major reasons for the preliminary success of the Kawil because of pressure from the Cyanide Fishing cyanide reform effort in the Canipo area seem to be: Reform Program, which began operations in the area * Dedicated and persuasive leadership of the fisher- and opened a cyanide detection test (CDT) liaison man's organization office in 1994. Furthermore, Kawil's decompression * Fishermen's receiving a higher price for cyanide-free method exploded the long-standing myth: you can't groupers catch live groupers with a hook and line. In 1994, the * Presence of CDT sampling and monitoring person- Kawil fishermen began having samples of their catch nel in the area tested by the CDT lab in Manila, with assistance from * Self-policing of its members carried out by Kawil. A successful CBCRM program requires gov- the Philippines, members of local fishermen's emnment commitment in policy and law, collabo- organizations and cooperatives have been dep- ration with like-minded donors and NGOs, and utized as fish wardens to patrol and monitor a "learning process" of drawing on the ideas and their fishing grounds. innovations of local communities to establish, Although local community groups cannot be refine, institutionalize, and measure the accom- expected to directly confront well-organized- plishments of CBCRM initiatives. and often well-armed-cyanide-fishing vessels, they can perform important norm-setting and Build the Capacity of Local Communities to Serve self-policing activities within the community. as Front-Line Agents in Anticyanide Monitoring After all, a "community" does not decide to and Enforcement. renounce cyanide fishing. More often, one group of individuals within a community may Building on training, community organization, make that decision, while others continue using and livelihood enhancement initiatives, an cyanide. Peer pressure is thus important in effective cyanide-fishing reform program needs spreading the cyanide-free tradition throughout to enlist local communities as partners in the the community. specific tasks of monitoring and enforcement (see box 2). Local fishermen are on the water far Conclusion more regularly and know their areas better than government fisheries officers. With minimal Cyanide fishing is not the only threat to the coral training, which NGOs are often best equipped reefs and other coastal ecosystems of the Indo- to provide, these groups can serve as an early Pacific region. Other threats include rapid con- warning network, letting officials know when version of coastal habitats such as mangroves cyanide fishing operators appear in an area. In for aquaculture, charcoal, and building materi- Policy Reform and Community-Based Programs to Combat Cyanide Fishing in the Asia-Pacific Region 49 als; overfishing because of government-subsi- As detailed above, there is a clear and not too dized fleet overcapacity; dynamite fishing; hap- complicated set of actions to address the prob- hazard coastal tourism development; runoff lem if governments set the right incentives in from industrial pollution, mining, urban wastes, place, and partnerships are developed among and fertilizers and pesticides; and sedimentation fishing communities, exporters and importers of arising from deforestation. But the training and live fish, scientists, and NGOs. community organization strategies essential to The difficulties in stopping cyanide fishing stopping cyanide fishing also provide an impor- should not be underestimated. It is important tant catalyst for communities to address a broad- to note, though, that people have long captured er range of threats to their local reef environ- and sold live fish without using cyanide, and ment. And four unique characteristics of they still do in many places, such as the cyanide fishing provide hope that it can be Caribbean and Hawaii, where live aquarium stopped or at least significantly reduced faster fish have been collected with fine-mesh nets for than some of the other threats to coral reefs: decades. Nothing is intrinsically wrong with a Cyanide fishing is generally focused on iso- cyanide-free live fish trade as long as it is prac- lated reefs far from the effects of coastal habitat ticed at sustainable levels and protects the coral conversion and sedimentation. As a result, the reef ecosystem that provides fish habitat. But problem is relatively localized and a discrete tar- cyanide fishing is fast becoming a deadly get for control efforts. tradition in the Philippines, handed down Discovered in the late 1950s, cyanide is a rel- from father to son. It will soon be just as firmly atively recent fishing technique and has only established in Indonesia and other countries come into widespread use in the past three throughout the Indo-Pacific region. Our chal- decades in the Philippines, much more recently lenge is to eradicate the growing cyanide tradi- in other countries. Outside of the Philippines, tion and replace it with a cyanide-free fishing therefore, the practice is not yet deeply embed- tradition. ded in local cultures and economies. Cyanide fishing targets a very specific high- Note end market-live food and aquarium fish, with some food species selling for as much as $180 This paper summarizes data and condusions found in per kilogram and some aquarium species fetch- Sullied Seas: Strategies for Combating Cyanide Fishing in ing $350 per individual. The consumers and Southeast Asia and Beyond by Charles V. Barber and their suppliers are therefore an identifiable and Vaughan R. Pratt, published by World Resources Institute fairly limited group. and Intemational Marinelife Alliance-Philippines, 1997. Ocean Harvesting of Ornamental Marine Life: A Mechanism for Reef Preservation John C Walch The Aquatic WildLife Co. In 1973 Robert P. L. Straughan wrote in The Collection of ornamental marine fish and inverte- Marine Collector's Guide: "Whereas today the brates has in the past been considered a factor that average aquarium uses white sterile corals, it has a negative impact the on coral reefs. is entirely possible that the aquarium of tomor- Overfishing, destructive harvesting methods, the row will contain. nothing but living corals and removal of large coral colonies to serve as fish." bleached decorations in aquariums, and high Straughan's prediction has indeed become mortality rates at both the distribution and con- reality. What once required donning mask and sumer levels are all issues stated by the environ- fins to experience is now being replicated in mental lobby as reasons to ban the trade of orna- homes and offices around the world. Today's mental marine life. While some of these issues living reef aquariums mirror all the splendor may have had a degree of legitimacy in the past, and beauty of a healthy, natural coral reef. most, if not all, are no longer matters of concern. Maintenance of an enclosed marine ecosystem is As the collectors, exporters, wholesalers, an excellent way of learning and sharing the retailers, and consumers gain experience and secrets of life on a coral reef. I have noticed that knowledge, changes and improvements are con- children in contact with marine life have a tinually being made. Overfishing to the point of heightened concern for the marine environment. extinction may well be a legitimate point of con- While not everyone has the means to travel to cern regarding certain large-scale commercial see coral reefs first hand, exposure to properly fishing activities related to the food fish indus- established reef aquariums in the classroom or try. Or, in the case of the sea horses, possible in private homes may increase the sensitivity of extinction in an attempt to satisfy the traditional future generations for the need to protect the Chinese medicine market may be a legitimate world's reefs. Today's inland expeditions to life issue. However, the concern of overfishing car- on the coral reef can also serve as a mechanism ries little credibility when applied to the present for reef preservation. methods of collecting ornamental marine fish. While it may appear somewhat contradictory, The demand for ornamental marine fish is harvesting ornamental marine life from coral increasing at a steady rate; however, it will never reefs could also serve as a tool for coral reef con- reach the magnitude associated with food fish. servation. With proper management, guidance, The negative impact on population densities and the continued improvements in the marine from responsible collection of ornamental aquarium hobby, this could indeed be true. marine life has always been much less severe Historically, the marine aquarium trade has and more localized than the effects of pollution, had a less than clean environmental reputation. sedimentation, and tourism. Even if this is true, 50 Ocean Harvesting of Ornamental Marine Life 51 however, it does not necessarily make the prac- lects not only the juvenile anemone fish but also tice acceptable. It is in the best interest of every- the anemone-along with the adult pair of fish. one-including the aquarium trade-to pre- When asked why this was done, fishermen serve the reefs. The simple recognition that always answered, "If I do not take them, some- ornamental marine life is a valuable consumer one else will." However, when there is area- product provides an incentive for its conserva- wide coordination, education, or a regulatory tion. The problem arises when the collection permit policy, adult anemone fish will be left methods used are destructive to the surround- and only juveniles will be collected. This will ings or threatening to a sustainable population allow collectors to return to the anemone on a density of a given species. regular basis to harvest the new juveniles. Such The solution is complex and involves a num- programs can prevent a tragedy of the coral reef ber of diverse interest groups and a series of commons. related actions. To achieve the collective goal of Sustainable harvesting practices work only if coral reef preservation, the individual goals of all the fishermen support them. This is the chal- each party must be considered and seriously lenge facing the parties involved in the educa- pursued. Using the aquarium trade as a model, tional process and local governance. While the we must first identify the parties, their personal motives may vary, the end goal of fishers and needs, and individual and collective goals. conservationists may be the same-to ensure We can start at the source of the product-the that there is a continued supply of anemone village fisherman-rather than with the end fish in population densities that will allow consumer. His personal goal is a simple one: he harvest without threatening their existence. needs to care financially for his family. Maintenance of these population densities will However, the income he derives from the aquar- not only require replacing destructive harvest- ium trade can be greatly affected by local and ing methods with sustainable ones, but may international laws and the availability of prod- also require education to minimize negative ter- uct. Without beneficial guidance regarding the restrial activities that are also affecting life on changing desires of the trade and the influence the reef. of a stewardship program, his personal and Consumers have already demonstrated their immediate needs may indeed overshadow any desire to purchase animals that are collected long-range planning or conservation approach. without the use of explosives and cyanide poi- By educating fishermen about the technological soning. The growing awareness of fish health advancements over the years in responsible har- has increased the number of animals being pur- vesting techniques, the proper storage and han- chased from countries that do not use these dling of their product, and the potential of mar- destructive methods, and the popularity of iculture, local income and coral reef health can aquacultured marine life. The consumer has also collectively benefit. learned that sustainably harvested and maricul- Guidance and stewardship programs may be tured ornamental marine life are, in the long easier to administer in countries where fishing run, worth the additional expense because the rights to a reef are controlled by the adjoining animals thus obtained are more likely to live. village, as opposed to areas where the implicit The Aquatic WildLife Company is located far rule is "Take it before someone else does." In the from a natural coral reef in the foothills of the countries that allow open fishing on all reefs, Appalachian Mountains in Cleveland, Tennessee. there is a need to establish some type of "owner- Yet we are very concerned and cognizant of ship" program, either through additional educa- what is happening to the world's tropical coral tional programs or through governmental con- reefs. Hard coral propagation techniques devel- trols, such as a permitting process. oped and perfected within our 24,000-gallon A good example in the Indo-Pacific region is land-based mariculture facility have already the popular aquarium species of anemone fish. been transferred to villagers in the Solomon Under an "open reef policy" the fisherman col- Islands so that they can help us meet our grow- 52 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management ing demand using ecologically responsible and the lighting requirements for photosynthet- methods. We also closely follow the ever-chang- ic animals have all been beneficial to the surviv- ing marine aquarium hobby and in many cases ability of animals by aquarists. we set the trends. Both Dana Riddle (manager of The Aquatic WildLife Company is dedicated our Marine Research Project and author of The to protecting the aquatic environment and will Captive Reef) and I spend much of our time pro- continue to develop propagation techniques, moting consumer education through articles improve the methods used during the handling published in trade journals and personal speak- and shipping of marine life, advance the hobby ing engagements at regional and international when and wherever possible, and be willing to aquarium meetings. Our popular ecoReeflm share the knowledge gained with any interested aquarium system was designed to sustain a nat- parties. We assert that a critical and effective ural and healthy balance between the living mechanism in protecting and preserving the marine organisms, and we incorporate features natural resources of the world's coral reefs may that were once considered controversial but are well be to develop a stronger alliance with the now considered essential. Our research on how aquarium trade, expand education about sus- to maintain the brilliant colors of Acropora tainable harvesting techniques, and continue to species corals in captivity, nutritional require- promote the benefits of maricultured ornamen- ments of both fish and invertebrates, flow rates, tal marine life. Macroalgal Culture as a Sustainable Coastal Livelihood in Coral Reef.Areas JoseA. Zertuche-Gonzdlez UniversidadAutonoma de Baja California Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanoidgicas M itigation of destructive reef practices development, thereby preventing the growth of requires not only educational and reg- opportunistic plants that often kill corals. The ulatory programs but also the provi- development of cultures provides an additional sion of alternative livelihoods for people living source of organic matter for herbivores (fish and in coral reef areas. Commercial activities per- invertebrates) that in turn provide additional formed around coral reef areas should be envi- opportunities for fishermen. ronmentally compatible with the corals but Seaweed farming is an activity in which should also be socially compatible with the tra- women can work, thus obtaining additional ditional activities of coastal inhabitants. income for the family. As a sustainable liveli- In this paper, the culture of seaweed on reef hood, seaweed farming prevents migration to flats is proposed as an ecologically and commer- urban areas and helps development in the cially viable alternative that could divert province. destructive fishing activities to an environmen- Some environmental problems have been tally friendly endeavor. related with seaweed culturing, but usually they Seaweed culture in reef flat areas has been can be easily prevented. The use of mangrove practiced since 1971 in the Philippines. To date, stakes to hold culture ropes is a new threat for there are no reports of a reef area being mangroves. This practice has been reduced by destroyed by the impact of seaweed culture. For informing farmers of the importance of man- over 25 years, reef flats have continuously pro- groves in maintaining good water quality (nec- duced tons of seaweed, while coral, other inver- essary for seaweed culture) and by encouraging tebrates, wild algae, sea grasses, and fish live them not to remove full plants, but instead to cut and flourish there. only branches, which are capable of regenerat- The seaweeds commonly cultured in tropical ing. The removal of eelgrass (initially indicated regions are sold as a source of carrageenan as preparation of a site for seaweed culture) is no (Euchema and Kappaphycus) and agar (Gracilaria). longer recommended, since, empirically, it has These seaweeds, however, are also consumed been observed that seaweed grows better on eel- directly or in soups and beverages as part of the grass than on sand, apparently because of nutri- local diet. ent availability. Other problems, related to waste Besides an economic benefit, seaweed culture generated from farm materials and from domes- in these regions has offered additional environ- tic material from people living in these areas, are mental and social benefits. Seaweed cultures can usually controlled because of the simple fact that absorb the excess of nutrients produced by ter- farmers are concerned with keeping water qual- restrial farming and local villages or from tourist ity high to permit better plant growth. 53 54 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management Seaweed farming has been extended to other ment of seaweed farming on social and politi- countries of East Asia and Africa. Modest cal issues. It is important to determine how suc- attempts are now being performed in the cessful seaweed farming has been in increasing Caribbean. Concern has risen because of the the living standard of people who practice it. introduction of nonindigenous strains to these What influence does it have on family and com- areas. Regarding the introduction of Eucheuma munity integration? It is important to know the and Kappaphycus to these countries, there are no compatibility of seaweed culture with other reports of negative effects. The introduction of commercial activities in time and space (such as these species in Cuba has been carefully studied, the use of land and waterfront). Assuming the and so far, no negative effects have been culture of seaweed is feasible in these areas, an observed. An increase in the diversity in areas understanding of the social and political where the algae have been introduced, because aspects is essential in order to decide the feasi- of to the additional food and added niche for bility of seaweed farming in a particular area local species of fish and invertebrates, is one of and country. the positive effects observed. A combined effort of academia and industry Although seaweed farming in reef flats has allowed Dr. Doty to initiate seaweed culture on gone on for over 25 years, very few studies reef flats. It is estimated that around 40,000 peo- have been performed concerning its social and ple in the Philippines alone are thriving because ecological impacts. Farming methods practiced of this activity, and coral reefs are still there. We today are basically the same ones proposed by can only speculate about the impact of these Dr. Maxwell Doty three decades ago. Therefore, people on the coral reef in the absence of sea- much remains to be done in order to improve weed farming, but most likely there would be the benefits (or avoid problems) generated by far less coral than there is now. seaweed farming. For instance, to improve this There are many other regions in the world livelihood for seaweed farmers, technological where seaweed farming could provide a way to advances are necessary to increase production preserve coral reefs. In some countries, particu- of seaweed per unit of time and area at a lower larly those in the Caribbean, there exist academ- cost. Aspects such as farm management, to ic and private efforts, often uncoordinated and reduce the impact of herbivores and pest with very limited financial support, attempting weeds, or the increase in quality obtained by to develop seaweed farming. Academia, indus- genetics and strain selection, are topics where try, and developing agencies need to undertake research is required in order to increase yield joint efforts to see that these opportunities and quality. Equally important is the assess- become a reality. Discussion Audience question: I would like to ask if the ditional, purely fishing society-In Palau, for panelists could comment on the anthropological example, the Palauan fishermen are used to free- perspective of trying to switch traditional cap- dom and their own schedule, and they don't ture fisherman to something like aquaculture or take kindly to having to routinely check on agriculture. I had done some research in the past ponds, so that didn't go down very well. So I which shows that sometimes there's a rejection think the problem you are raising is one that you of a move of something that's seen as tradition- can expect to be serious in some areas and not a ally much more like farming or fishing that is problem in others, and you just have to adapt more acceptable. And I was wondering if the accordingly. panelists have had any experience with that? Bill Kiene, Smithsonian Institution: Much of Solomon Makoloweka: In this regard, actually, the focus of the discussion has been on altema- with the coastal people in the area where we are tives for local, poor fishermen, as well as devel- working, there are fishermen and agriculturists. oping their culture incentives to supply the Although 90 percent of the people are fisher- market for these fish. Bob [Johannes], you had a man, according to a survey which was carried picture of a large wrasse there [during your pre- out, but still those same people do practice farm- sentation]. The potential value of those live fish ing, but they have these attendant problems: by in places like Hong Kong is tremendous; there improving, or trying to eliminate some of the was a report of over $10,000 dollars paid for one obstacles in farming, some of the people can be of those fish. If you develop industries-for redirected to exploit fully the resource. example, a gold mine-a company does this, it's not necessarily going to stop a local person to Bob Johannes: The situation where you have dig his back yard for gold if it's there. Is there people that are simultaneously both farmers and any effort to educate people around the world fishermen is very widespread in the area that that are consuming these fish, that it is not nec- we're talking about, which makes it a little easi- essary to have a status-symbol meal to survive? er. Also, sometimes when you make a transition, a culture is forced to make a transition from one Vaughan Pratt: There has been a lot of work type of living to another, it's also simultaneous- going on in the past couple of years in Hong ly being transported-like the transmigration Kong trying to educate the consumer. Unfor- program in Indonesia-and this makes it doubly tunately, eating cyanide-caught fish is not a pub- difficult. I have seen situations where maricul- lic health problem. If people were dying, then ture didn't seem to go down very well in a tra- they would think twice about it. The problem 55 56 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management we're dealing with-the people eating the fish Jose Zertuche: Well, we no doubt are overfish- are the same people we're fighting with to not ing-I am referring to any species, not only use ivory and other endangered species as well. fish-is one of the main problems. One does not And the campaign hasn't worked to educate need cyanide to remove fish from a coral reef. I them about saving a furry animal, much less guess that all of these observations that have getting them concerned about a coral reef, so we been repeated again and again are good, have a difficulty in that. So it boils down to-if because that tells us that there are many prob- we can't influence the consumer, then maybe lems that require many solutions. Some people we can influence the importers, and that's what just mentioned the issue regarding consumers, we're working on now-to get them involved in and it is clear-pardon the comparison-but it the more sustainable capture of these fish. Then is similar to the drug war. If we do not work on it all boils down to what we've all talked about people who consume drugs, it will be very dif- today-if we teach a cyanide fishermen to farm ficult to address drug trafficking. Of course, or to any other alternative but we don't get him overfishing is just one way to harm coral reefs. off of this [cyanide], when he decides not Regulations are needed at all levels-the same to farm anymore he only has this to go back to. type of education-all the way to sanctions So, it's back to the whole chicken and the egg- applied to local fishermen, you should have a we really need to get them off the [cyanide] counterpart for the consumer, too. bottle into another form of fishing, or make what they're catching now done better without Bob Johannes: These days a great many people using cyanide, and then try other alternatives. who are concerned with the fisheries conserva- But working on the consumer in Hong Kong- tion in the coral reef context look upon marine it's been done, it's being done, and I really reserves offering the most hope. We have a dis- don't think they're going to be the big key to cussion panel on marine research in this confer- the solution. ence, so we are covering the issue to some extent. Jack Sobel, Center for Marine Conservation: The panel has defined destructive fishing in a Nancy MacKinnon: Regarding marine reserves, fairly narrow way, treating things such as dyna- fishing and spawning aggregations, I think a lot mite fishing-and the really egregious examples of people would say it is a huge problem, and that are very obvious and blatant. And that may more research is needed to understand where be appropriate for many of the countries in those aggregations occur, so they can be incorpo- which the panelists have focused their efforts. rated into marine protected areas. However, in areas like the wider Caribbean where activities such as cyanide and dynamite fishing and other superegregious methods are Walter Adey, Smithsonian Institution: While not very widespread and not causing wide- direct reef destruction is probably a primary spread harm, you still have extraordinary prob- problem at the moment, coastal eutrophication lems with simply overfishing the resource and and siltation is not far behind. Worldwide, removing critical components of the ecosystem. coastal eutrophication and siltation results from I'm wondering if we need to look more broadly farming. I would be very concerned with an at the question of what is destructive to reefs, emphasis of shifting to farming rather than mar- and addressing not only these most egregious iculture as a way of solving direct destruction of examples-because if that is all we address-in the reef. I think that is simply putting off the many places we are still going to be left with col- problem for a few years. lapsing ecosystems that are a result of what would not be classified based on these defini- Solomon Makoloweka: I talked about tions as destructive methods. improved agriculture-that would take care even of the hazards of improper agriculture of Discussion 57 the coasts, so this would be a very improved will better enforce protection of reefs rather technique of farming-that should take care of than proceed with the idea of local communities the anomalies which would otherwise be haz- in the short term. But again in the long run, I ardous. think we should work on how we can establish exclusive user rights for local communities in Herman Cesar, World Bank: I would like to ask Indonesia, but it will take a long time in figur- a question about "political will" to Rili ing out the legal basis to get the right or the [Djohani] and to Vaughan [Pratt]. It seems that political clout in Indonesian to work on those one of the striking differences at the moment sort of issues. In the meantime, I think you have between the Philippines and Indonesia is that in to work with the private sector in particular to the Philippines, there has been a gradual change protect the reefs-either in remote areas, or an in political will, where a lot of destructive prac- area's nearby urban centers. Again ecotourism tices are now being much better enforced than might be a very good vehicle to start with, or they used to be-whereas in Indonesia, that sustainable agriculture enterprises in buffer does not seem to be the case yet. I would like to zones of national parks. ask the panelists what they see as the way to go about on the one hand community-based man- Bob Johannes: The question was why the differ- agement-such as the private sector partner- ence between Indonesia and the Philippines in ships, teaching, and training-these micro- the rate of improvement of political awareness? I improvements-and the political will question think it was Churchill who said that democracy on the other hand. It seems that Indonesia, at was the worst system of government, except for the moment, is still fighting such an uphill bat- all the rest [laughter]-I think the big difference tle, whereas the Philippines are now going, between Indonesia and the Philippines is that the from legislative and enforcement points of view, Philippines is a democracy and it is very clear in so much easier that now it is more of a nice the newspapers that anyone who wants to speak downhill track. I would like your comments. out against anyone, including the president, can do so with almost impunity. Whereas in Rili Djohani: It is a difficult question, I think. I Indonesia, in order to make political change you agree it is very difficult to get political will from have to have pressure on politicians from the various government agencies involved in the public-you don't get it in Indonesia, because conservation management of marine resources people are afraid of being critical. It is a big dif- in Indonesia. Again, community-based manage- ference and I think it's part of this problem. The ment may work in remote areas where there is problem that pertains to both countries, however, not a lot of influence from urban centers, but is the enormous corruption at virtually every you will always run into the problem when level from almost the highest, and perhaps the there is a conflict between the use of a resource highest, right down to the local policeman. In that between local communities and, say, a fishing sense, both countries have a big, big problem. company. For example, foreign fishing compa- nies with a permit from the central government. Vaughan Pratt: Let's remember that the politi- It is very difficult to empower a local agreement cal will in the Philippines came at a great cost, saying a community has the exclusive right to because it took a revolution for it to happen. It use this resource versus more lucrative agree- took six to seven years for a new government to ments with the private sector which have been institute democratic policies. But in 1991, at the agreed upon in another part of Indonesia. So I end of President Aquino's term, they imple- don't really think that in the short term commu- mented a local government code which nity-based management will work in Indonesia. devolved all national powers to local govern- That's why I repeat again that alliances with the ments, which gave mayors and all the gover- private sector, which will actually bring in the nors more power-power over forestry, power necessary capital and power to the local area, over their coastline. And that turned more terri- 58 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management torial use right management over to coastal with you that we need to consider the whole communities. And in doing that, coupled with range of destructive fishing practices, gears and education programs, the community has other means that can destroy the habitat of coral become more aware of being in charge of what's reefs, but these will have to be targeted on a per- theirs. And that has spurred more local law region basis. The issue of cyanide, and to a less- enforcement groups, where people go out and er degree the issue of explosives, has taken so patrol their areas to protect what they have. much prominence because it is a regional And that's the difference. And the other thing is threat-it cuts across countries. Therefore, it that President Ramos is a diver, and the fact that requires a regional strategy. The issue of habitat he dives as much has he can, he knows what destruction by fishing gears seems to be more we're talking about, and his honesty has filtered site specific, as is explosives, and therefore may down to the local communities where corrup- require more site-specific strategies that maybe tion is much less than it used to be. So there are an international resolution cannot tackle. But I all these factors all together, and if Indonesia agree that it should be brought to the table. can replicate that in any means, then hopefully Tomorrow we will have time for our breakout we'll have some hope of saving the reef. discussion, and I encourage members from the public to come to this meeting and bring with Alexander Stone, Reef Keeper International: I them solutions that may be targeted toward want to refocus attention to Jack Sobel's point these site-specific threats. about the fact that if we are going to talk about reef destructive fishing practices we need to, at Robin Marinos: I have been to three meetings least on a second-tier level, also focus on activities this week and they all have to do with coral over and beyond the use of dynamite and cyanide. reefs, overfishing, and so forth. And I find In the wider Caribbean and in many U.S. coral everybody's talking and I don't know who can reef areas as well, there are practices which-it is have an effect on this-we're at the World Bank not just question of being responsible for over- meeting here. Evidently the World Bank has a fishing-it's a question of being responsible for lot of influence-and I would ask what kind of degradation and destruction of the habitat. That immediate action can the World Bank or other includes roller trawls, the use of fish traps (in organizations connected to the World Bank Hawaii), the use of certain nets and the way they have, especially upon governments like the are used, and certain shrimp trawling methods Indonesian government? I have evidence that it also. So, I just want to make the point and put it is openly involved in overfishing, what I con- on the record that the use of other fishing gear is sider illegal fishing, and actually the live turtle not just a problem with reefs because of over- trade-the slaughter of green sea turtles. At the fishing, there's a habitat destruction component moment there are about 15,000 to 20,000 being to the use of that gear. And if we here in the slaughtered openly-you can go there any day World Bank and our other constituencies are of the week and watch them, and they are catch- going to target reef destruction fishing practices ing them with cyanide, bombs, whatever. What as an action item, we need to expand our context can these organizations do immediately to pro- beyond what we have been talking about. vide the right kind of pressure that the govern- ments finally turn out and stop being involved? Sofia Bettencourt: I can answer that. From our In Indonesia the case is clear. We're all talking, opinion, and I think some of the panelists have and no one's doing. We have to start doing made reference to this, the threats have to be tar- things-whether its monetary pressure or what- geted on a site-specific basis and on a regional ever. That's why I'm here. I'd like to have basis. So what we have is a pragmatic approach answers to these comments. of targeting the most important threats first, and these most important threats will vary from site Sofia Bettencourt: Perhaps I can respond, since to site and from region to region. I fully agree I am the World Bank staff member on the panel. Discussion 59 We are looking at several levels. In Indonesia take into consideration the environmental impli- specifically we are now assisting the govern- cations of any activity. There is a case study of El ment of Indonesia in developing a coral reef Nidio [inaudible], for example, deforestation in rehabilitation and management program. This coastal areas causes sedimentation and loss of will be a 13-year program which the World Bank fisheries on coral reefs. And if we have to devel- will help support. It will have other donors op agriculture as a livelihood in the area where involved, such as the Asian Development Bank, coastal reefs are to be protected, we have to feel the Australians, and the Japanese. It's a concen- the consequences of these actions. For example, trated effort that will initially target policies, the discharge of pesticides or the sedimentation strategies, and a very large awareness campaign, due to rainfall, and all this sort of thing. If we and it will start with pilot sites that will then allow ecotourism beyond a certain minimum expand to a second phase. But we are going to level, we are likely to cause a stress to the coral be working on enforcement and legal issues, and communities also. So my thinking is that in sug- on strategy and awareness as exactly the time to gesting all these alternatives, we have to look tackle political will and trying to target the larg- into the implications of these actions on the reef er public. In addition to that we have done a system as a whole. very large study. My colleague, Herman Cesar, has completed a very large study on the eco- Sofia Bettencourt: We are fully aware that nomic value of coral reefs, and he has been able indeed there are impacts-the secondary to offer to politicians (the study has been trans- impacts of introducing alternative income gen- lated into Indonesian and has been presented in eration. And I think that the strategy has been several fora around the world) trying to deter- one to look at being pragmatic-and seeing if mine the economic cost of reef destruction. we have a large threat at the moment. We may These figures are now in the hands of politicians. not be able to tackle all the threats at once, and They are being cited by ministers in Indonesia. It we may be able to develop an alternative income takes time, but I think we are working towards generation that in the short term reduces the this period at a more global level, we have been impact on the reefs. But then at the same time, active in conveying fora such as these, so we can try to get a mitigation process. For example, get various stakeholders to speak together. We assessing the carrying capacity of the area before have also recently launched a "Marine Market introducing that sort of income generation. I Transformation Initiative" trying to work with think what we are debating now is being as the private sector and other partners to develop pragmatic as possible in trying to curb the very incentives at the market level to curb, among urgent threats and then trying to tackle the other others, destruction on the reef. ones. But I think you have a very, very good point-before introducing these alternative Audience question: I think it is a very good income generating solutions, one should be suggestion among so many-the alternative doing a study of carrying capacity to find out livelihood to be provided to the coastal commu- what their impacts in the long term may be. nity-especially those who are depending on fishing. Some suggestions have also been made, Rili Djohani: I think often it's also not a matter but I think that the whole question of coral reef of introducing new, alternative livelihoods, but systems and their sustainability is not to be con- just looking at an area which is trying to liaise sidered only on the basis of one system alone. A with ongoing developments, and whether we suggestion has been made for agriculture devel- like it or not, those developments will proceed. opment in the coastal areas and alternative What we are now trying to do is be very strate- source of ecotourism, which is, of course, a gic about these alliances and see how we can source of economy in many, many countries. make it as sustainable as possible, and how can The problem is adjusting to alternatives sources we articulate benefits for conservation if it's near or alternative livelihoods. I think we have to a national park and so on. So I wouldn't say it's 60 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management always an introduction of new, alternative liveli- ground that support them, and many of them hoods, but very often we try to link with ongo- will demand some research to follow it. And ing developments. It is also building on the his- none of the resources will be a solution forever. tory of an area-what kind of practices are used, All of them will have their limitations, and what can these be expanded or not? It's not really the I think is that when we provide these solutions, introduction of an entirely new alternative liveli- we have to include a very careful follow-up with hood in most of the areas we work in. serious research that can tell us up to when and how these solutions can be good. For instance, Ariel Cuschnir, Unigroup International: I am a talking about seaweed culturing, we can consid- marine biologist. I would like to raise the issue of er many favored things. There is some evidence nondestructive fisheries. Taking into considera- that it [seaweed culturing] will increase biodi- tion two topics, one is the increasing world versity, maybe will increase the number of inver- demand for marine and coastal coral reef organ- tebrates and fishes that will live there, it will isms, either for the food or aquarium industries. help to clean excess of nutrients and on and on, On the other hand how fragile marine coral reef so an advocate of seaweed culturing can tell us ecosystems can be. For example, Dr. Johannes many of these things. But on the other hand, mentioned before groupers-we know from the there is also some constraint. There is some con- scientific literature that groupers that reach 12 sideration or worries about the introduction of centimeters in size, the recruitment on a reef by commercial strains, just to give an example. So that fish will take between one and three years. those things-if we are going to provide sea- So taking into consideration the two factors of weed culturing as a solution-that is something both demand and the fragility of the coral reef that has to be looked at very carefully. There are environment my question is: Shouldn't we raise some good examples of it, for instance introduc- the issue of how sustainable our current fishing tion now of Ecuma [inaudible] in Venezuela and techniques are? Cuba. It was done through the government; and promoted by the government; in one case it even Bob Johannes: I think the issue is being raised received support from Mexico, and has been constantly in the literature on coral reef fish- doing very careful research into the impacts that eries-how much fisheries it can sustain. There these will have on coral reefs. are more and more bits and pieces of informa- tion put together to try to arrive at some kind of Bob Johannes: If I could take a different tack on rule of thumb, but it is not a very easy question your question, I think we have now recognized in to answer. You can come up with a general fisheries in general, that there's too much natural answer, but when it comes down to specifying variation from one year to the next in recruitment how much this particular reef can yield, that's and stock growth and so forth, that we are never, much harder. In other words, I don't have a real- never going to be able to manage fisheries in any ly satisfactory answer to your question, nor do I optimal way-the way we used to think we know of a recommendation for research or any- could. Optimum sustainable yield, optimum eco- thing else that would provide a good answer nomic yield, whatever. And that we're going to anytime soon. have to settle for something cruder-and that is "precautionary management." I think the pre- Ariel Cuschnir: I think it is a very important cautionary approach as used in coral reef areas- point, but the main message that I get out of the most obvious example is the marine reserve- these comments and questions is that any solu- and when in doubt close a big chunk of reef and tion that we provide, we need to see the conse- that way you guarantee that you're not going to quences. Either it is something that is compati- have calamitous stock collapse, at least. You're ble with our solutions or not, and what else can not going to have optimum harvest rates either, be effective. No doubt, any of these solutions but that's out of the question-you might as well will have to have some sort of research back- forget about that. But I think you have to go one Discussion 61 step further, and this I don't think many people increasing population, markets that have a high have realized yet. It simply not possible to do the demand for these products, an increase in fish- research that is necessary in order to get the kind ing technologies, weak enforcement, competi- of information the textbooks tell you is necessary tion for scarce resources, a social structure that to manage fisheries throughout the tropics. There lends itself to these practices, such as a middle- are vast areas of reefs, mangroves, soft bottom man structure existing in Indonesia and in other communities, for which we have no information. parts of Southeast Asia. Availability of explo- My belief is that we must think about what 10 sives and cyanide and destructive inputs to years ago would have been unthinkable. And these practices, tradition, and lack of political that is what I call "dataless management." That is will. We've identified a range of possible solu- closing areas of reef where we don't have any tions. These will be discussed in further detail direct data. Now dataless management does not tomorrow. One solution that has been proposed mean information-less management. You have is to basically have a very strong combination of two sources of information: you have the research processes, such as enforcement, awareness, that is done in similar areas elsewhere that can be training, and alternative income generation- extrapolated with some confidence, and you also and that one such intervention is simply not have local knowledge of fisheries from other peo- enough. We also talked that it may be interesting ple who depend on these resources. So I think we and important to separate between shorter-term have to stop talking about vast amounts of addi- measures-things that need to be done to imme- tional research-we can't afford them, they're not diately remove the threats to the reefs, and costeffective, we don't have the people power longer-term policies that need to be in place in anyway, so get on with it by more and more pre- order for the programs to be sustainable. We cautionary, and dataless, (sometimes precaution- talked about the need to involve communities in ary) management. identifying their problems, and also in review- ing the results of the monitoring, so that their Walter Adey, Smithsonian Institution: What awareness can be increased as to the real status Bob Johannes says is absolutely correct, but for of the reef. And you would be surprised how people in the room that might not recognize- effective that can be. We have been in a village, decades of research tell us that most reefs-while for example, where a person went down diving, they may have a very high GPP, or gross prima- and took a video of the reef, and showed it back ry productivity, they have a near zero net prima- to the village, and at the same time showed them ry productivity. The normal, obvious way to the video of a healthy reef-and the reaction of change this is to raise nutrients. You can't do that the villagers was outstanding. We discussed the with a reef. The basic overall point is that the pro- need to provide ownership to the communities duction, overall, that can be taken out of a reef is either through user rights or through alternative seriously limited. Now everything else he said income generation that they can feel are theirs. goes from there, but I think everybody should We talked about various forms of alternative remember that, and all the scientists in the room income generation that may be sustainable, such I'm sure know that already. as user-pay schemes, involvement of the private sector in ecotourism. We talked about fish nests Summary: Sofia Bettencourt: If I could summa- as a possibility for habitat enhancement in rize some of the results that we discussed here: spawning grounds of groupers. We talked about We discussed destructive practices comprising ornamental fish culture, and we talked about the poison and explosives, and we started touching need to introduce site-specific solutions rather on the removal of the habitat, which I think than generalized ones. Finally, we talked about should be a topic for tomorrow's discussion as the need to involve the intermediaries and the well. Among the causes that we identified are consumers in the overall strategy. PANEL Two ILLEGAL AND SUSTAINABLE TRADE IN REEF PRODUCTS VERSUS CERTIFIED TRADE AND SUSTAINABLE BIOPROSPECTING Session Chair: Michael Rubino, International Finance Corporation Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora James Armstrong andJared Crawford Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora T he international trade in reef products is a threatened species in three categories: substantial industry that is challenging to * Appendix I: Species threatened with extinc- monitor and regulate, especially in the case tion that are or could be affected by trade. of corals.1 The total international trade in reef All seven species of sea turtle are included species may only be guessed at, since little or no in Appendix I. recording of such trade is done by importing and * Appendix II: Species not necessarily in dan- exporting countries, and this will continue to be ger of extinction but which could become so the case until reef species are listed in the appen- if trade were not strictly regulated. Ten dixes of CITES (the Convention on International species of clams and a similar number of Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and conch species are included in this appendix, Flora).2 While international trade in some reef as well as some 2,000 species of coral. species of conservation concern from large * Appendix III: Species that are protected by traders such as the Philippines and Indonesia has the states that list them and for which those declined slightly in the recent past, trade from states seek the cooperation of the other par- small island states has remained steady or has ties in ensuring that illegal trade does not increased. Numerous heavily traded species such take place. as sea cucumber and sea urchin are not currently Explicit guidelines, or biological criteria, are listed in the appendixes of CITES. used to determine whether a species is threatened CITES provides proven mechanisms for regu- with extinction prior to considering any proposal lation of international trade and achieving sus- to list a taxon in the appendixes of CITES. tainability in the trade of over 2,000 reef species and many more marine species. Each party to the System of Permits convention is required to designate one or more "management authorities" to be responsible for Any international trade, meaning any export, re- administering the convention and one or more export, import, or introduction from the sea of "scientific authorities" to advise on scientific and animals or plants, or any part or derivative of a technical issues, including assessments of the species included in the appendixes of the con- threat that may be posed to species by interna- vention, requires the issuance of a permit or cer- tional trade. Parties must establish legislation tificate by a management authority. The proce- that prohibits international trade in specimens in dures for issuance and use of the permits or cer- violation of the convention, penalizes such trade, tificates vary according to the appendix in which and allows for confiscation of specimens illegal- the species concerned is listed. The convention ly traded or possessed. The convention classifies provides minimum controls for conservation 65 66 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management purposes for trade in certain species of wildlife, fishing, promote regional agreements between but the parties are free to reinforce the protection states, and establish mechanisms to enforce the provided. Stronger measures may even include Appendix II listings. International and non- the forbidding of all trade in species of wildlife. governmental organizations, specialized agen- Despite perceptions to the contrary, the permit cies of the United Nations, and industry have procedures in CITES are not complex. been asked to provide financial assistance for The Standing Committee of the Conference projects on sturgeon species. of the Parties to CITES provides policy advice The success of CITES may also be measured to the Secretariat of the Convention. Technical by the number of species listed in Appendix II guidance is provided to the parties by four that have never been moved to Appendix I. permanent committees: the Plants Committee, Numerous species, including fur seals and nar- the Animals Committee, the Nomenclature whales, have been maintained in Appendix II Committee, and the Identification Manual with continued commercial trade permitted at Committee. levels that are not detrimental to them. CITES promotes projects to determine the Nondetriment Findings population status of species and to assess the effects of international trade. Recognizing the The Conference of the Parties to CITES recog- importance of the fisheries trade and the need nizes that commercial trade in marine and reef for effective regulation, several projects involv- taxa may be beneficial to the conservation of ing marine species have been conducted; one species and ecosystems when carried out at lev- such is the recently completed survey of corals els that are not detrimental to the survival of the in the Philippines, which investigated options species in question. The nondetriment finding is for sustainable use. at the core of CITES, and it is a requirement specified in Articles III and IV of the convention. Enforcement In classifying species and determining whether the populations are robust enough to be traded Enforcement of the convention is the responsi- internationally, the scientific authority deter- bility of the parties and their respective manage- mines, through scientific procedure, whether ment authorities, customs, and police services. international trade will jeopardize the survival Enforcement assistance is also an important of the species. focal activity of the CITES secretariat, which reg- The sturgeon is one such case where interna- ularly publishes reports on infractions or the tional trade was determined to be a significant types of fraud or smuggling employed. Where factor in the drastic decline in population. The serious infractions exist, the standing committee combined impact of overfishing and pollution may take appropriate measures to remind states on sturgeons, valued mainly for caviar, led to the of their obligations. The extent of illegal trade in proposal at the most recent meeting of the CITES-listed species is by nature difficult to Conference of the Parties to list all 23 species of evaluate. One of the secretariat's priority activi- the fish in Appendix II except for those which ties is to combat illegal trade, in cooperation were already listed in Appendix I. In many areas with the national authorities designated by the where caviar had traditionally been harvested in parties to the convention, Interpol, and the a sustainable manner, sturgeons were now being World Customs Organization. killed in large numbers to extract caviar and supply meat and fins. The current appendix list- Capacity Building ings are intended to assist range states in regu- lating the trade in caviar and to limit it to sus- Recognizing that proper implementation of the tainable levels. Additionally, the parties are convention in many countries requires increased called on to conduct scientific research on the capacity and information exchange, programs sustainability of sturgeon fisheries, curtail illegal are in place to provide technical assistance and Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora 67 promote bilateral training of CITES parties. * Improved grass-roots and community- Capacity-building efforts also include the devel- based management of coral reef resources opment of projects with the parties and liaison * Improved monitoring, recording, and with donor agencies. Detailed reviews have reporting of trade been carried out to determine the status of * Maximized conservation benefit through national legislation for CITES implementation, judicious management of bioprospecting and the CITES secretariat puts a great emphasis * Sustainable conservation of reef species on training the staff of management and scien- through use of CITES trade mechanisms tific authorities as well as customs agencies * Understanding the status of key species and worldwide. International trade in marine the impacts trade has on these keystone species of conservation concern presents addi- taxa. tional challenges, as agencies and laws regulat- ing fisheries are often distinct from those that Marine Taxa address environmental issues. Special attention has been given to addressing the capacity-build- Marine taxa listed in CITES include: ing needs of small-island developing states as * 2,000 taxa of hard and soft coral well as efforts to influence the nonparties from * 130 whale taxa this group to join the convention. * 32 taxa of clams CITES provides sound mechanisms for regu- * 19 seal taxa lation of a sustainable trade in reef species * 18 taxa of turtles through a worldwide network of management * 8 albatross and frigate bird taxa and scientific authorities and established legisla- * 6 taxa of sirenians tive requirements. As noted by the Centre for * 5 fish taxa International Environmental Law (CIEL), CITES * 3 penguin taxa does not compete with other regimes relating to * 3 gull taxa marine fisheries. Rather, it is a safeguard that * 1 crocodile taxon. protects species of conservation concern when other measures have failed, and it provides an Notes important tool for helping to achieve sustainable fisheries. Through strategic partnerships with 1. When the Philippine ban on coral trading was lift- organizations such as the World Bank, CITES ed in 1992, some 7.5 million specimens of coral from 63 can assist range states in developing the capaci taxa were exported from that country in less than nine ty required to trade these resources in a sustain- 2. CITES, also known as the Washington Convention, able manner. was adopted in 1973 and came into force on July 1, 1975. Specifically, collaborative action will seek to It is an intergovernmental treaty, with 142 parties, that achieve: provides the necessary framework for regulating trade * Amelioration of conflicts between national in threatened species of wildlife. The overriding goal of fisheries and environmental legislatin .the convention is to ensure that intemational trade in fisheries aneviometspecimens of wildlife does not affect the survival of * Application of lessons learnedl through pre- species, and to demonstrate that the effective and sound vious trade studies and assessments management of resources may be beneficial to the con- * Enhanced and effective national legislation servation of species and ecosystems and to the develop- ment of local communities. Reef-Destructive Practice versus Opportunities for Sustainable Mariculture: Coral Reefs and Pharmacologic Potential DavidJ. Newman U.S. National Cancer Institute T he coral reef, be it shallow or deep, is an greater whenever an established coral reef is incredible and as yet almost untapped destroyed. source of what a natural-products chemist Since the advent of scuba, which was brought would call "secondary metabolites." By this, one to fruition roughly 45 years ago by the man in means chemical entities that are not essential for whose memory we are gathered here today, maintenance of life (growth and reproduction) Jacques Cousteau, scientists of all disciplines in an isolated setting, but are usually produced have been able to gather information as to the when an organism is under stress. Such stresses makeup of reef communities. With each new in a marine environment are usually associated piece of information, it has become more and with the absolute requirement to maintain a more obvious that a viable reef community is foothold on some living space. Although mobile just that, an interactive commune of all manner animals in the marine environment can roam far of species and that the individual species do not and wide to obtain nutrients, almost all inverte- exist in isolation, each having a part to play in brate animals that one sees when inspecting the maintenance of the commune. coral reefs are effectively immobile and thus Some simple examples will suffice to make require that nutrients be presented to them via a my point. When the surface temperature of the flowing water column (for example, they are fil- Caribbean was elevated a few years ago (as may ter feeders). In order to attain this desired state, well happen in the Eastern Pacific and other they must actively compete for the (relatively) areas this coming year because of El Niffo), the very small amount of real estate that there is in, algal symbionts in the corals were expelled. As a on, or about a coral reef. result, one of the major sources of nutrient in I like to use the analogy that the "happy" corals (the products from the photosynthetic coral reef, meaning one that is not being actively processes of the zooxanthellae) disappeared. disrupted by outside forces (be they fishing with The second is from areas in the Philippines (in dynamite or raised temperatures or excess nutri- parts of Negros and Cebu) where fishing, ents from sewage), is a very tight-knit commu- instead of using nets or lines, is practiced using nity and can be considered to be the marine dynamite or hand grenades. Although a large equivalent of a rain forest insofar as its vast vari- number of fish are collected this way, the explo- ety of different species (or biodiversity) is con- sives not only stun or kill the fish, they also cerned. Although one reads and hears a vast destroy the reef. As a result, the reef fishes no amount about the loss of species from deforesta- longer have the nutrients produced by the reef tion of rain forests, I would be willing to argue invertebrate and algal communities to feed on that the loss of biodiversity is potentially much and so either die or leave, thus removing what is 68 Reef-Destructive Practice versus Opportunities for Sustainable Mariculture 69 probably the major source of protein for the local sources). Approximately 20 years ago, more sys- inhabitants, leading to long-term economic tematic investigations began, in which materials harm for the immediate benefit of a few. On the were tested for their effects in various pharma- Coromandel coast of India, even today, coral cologically oriented screens (anti-infectives, reefs are used as a ready source of raw material cytotoxicity, simple immunology, inflammatory for the local manufacture of cement. Removal of processes, for example) and the catchphrase the coral has led to the demise of the reef fish became, and has remained, "bioactivity-driven population and the loss of a ready and cheap isolations." What this means is that now the source of protein for the subsistence economies extracts are tested against a wide variety of of the immediate area. This is the same result as pharmacologically relevant screens, and only if in the Philippines but from what appeared ini- an "activity of interest" is seen is the material tially to be a much more benign cause, the pro- further worked on-initially by chemists and duction of building materials. then by other scientists. Economics is the major reason for this change Pharmacologic Potential of Coral Reefs in isolation philosophy, and for an economic rea- son that is not always appreciated outside of the As a result of the extreme pressure for space and scientific or technological community. Since the nutrient in a reef, there is in effect chemical war- infrastructure required to investigate any natur- fare going on continuously between the inhabi- al product in a rapid screen is very costly (24- tants of the ecosystem. Anyone who has seen the hour stable electrical power, access to robotic demarcation line of dead cells that is drawn systems, high-speed computation, access to between two sponges of different genera when state-of-the-art chemical instrumentation), only they touch, or has wondered why a highly col- very well funded researchers in major universi- ored nudibranch without any obvious protective ties or in well-financed biotech/pharmaceutical armor has not become a tasty breakfast for a companies generally can afford to expend the cruising fish or other predator, can see the effects funds necessary to pursue such leads, so any of specific secondary metabolites. lead that is pursued should have the potential These phenomena were fairly well known to for further development. At the moment, only marine biologists and a few chemists who liked countries with secure, well-funded economies to skin-dive prior to the advent of reliable scuba, can afford to undertake such studies on their and the chemical literature of the 1940s and own, and even then, only a very few actually early 1950s gave an indication of the potential of have the necessary infrastructure to further the marine environment, a prime example being develop any lead. It must be emphasized that in the reports by Bergmann and Feeney (1951) of general, the structure that is found in nature is the isolation and purification from Caribbean normally only a lead, not a drug, and vast sums sponges of the chemical compounds that ulti- have to be spent to further develop the material mately led to the antiviral drugs Ara-A and AZT before its "chemical descendant" can be consid- and to the anticancer agent Ara-C. ered as a clinical candidate. Over the last 25 to 30 years, the immense Although the above could be thought of as potential of the marine environment as a source excuses for not pursuing such agents, in fact, of lead chemical structures has begun to emerge. Mother Nature has proved time and again that Initially, these explorations could best be she is a much better chemist than any mere mor- described as "grind and find" operations where tal. In a recent analysis, Cragg and others (1997) invertebrate organisms were simply taken, effec- demonstrated that over 60 percent of all antitu- tively at random, from reefs, ground up, and mor agents and anti-infective agents introduced used to provide extracts, and then the chemicals worldwide between 1983 and 1994 had a natur- that they contained were isolated and identified, al product structure in their background. simply as a chemical exercise (the marine equiv- Although pharmaceutical houses had generally alent of phytochemical investigations of plant moved away from studies of natural products in 70 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management the last few years in favor of products from com- been identified. Furthermore, any contractor col- binatorial chemistry, there are now moves lecting for the NCI must obtain prior permission toward reinvestigating selected natural sources from the central government of any source coun- for their potential as leads to new structures. try and abide by the restrictions it imposes with However, these forays back into the field of nat- respect to collection areas and time. In fact, the ural products by some pharmaceutical NCI requires that the export permit from the researchers are being conducted with care and source country be sent with the samples when generally only if quality and sources of supply they are air-freighted to the United States. can be guaranteed. In practice, what this means in the marine Costs environment is that companies have to be assured that the materials that they test must be Overall, it costs the NCI approximately $700 per available in the event that more material is sample to collect, identify, process, and store the required for further studies. What does this material that a coral reef provides. To then statement imply for the source country? It screen one sample in the antitumor screen-one means that any collections made must be stored time-costs the NCI approximately $250, and frozen, fully identified taxonomically, that the the rule of thumb is that it takes about 5,000 location must be known accurately (such as, samples to be tested before one of them will through the use of GPS-global positioning sys- make it to the next stage in the process toward a tem-coordinates). High-quality underwater drug entity. In general, the chance of any one photographs must be taken, and then high-qual- sample making it to market is well over 1 in ity voucher specimens must be deposited in a 50,000, but the more different types of screen recognized repository. Only if these require- that a single extract can be put through, the ments can be met is an organization normally higher the probability that it will be a hit in one willing to spend time and money in working on of them. With the permission of the source coun- a given material. tries, we are now letting many organizations look at the samples collected, under conditions Potential Areas for Help requiring that the source countries be involved in the later development of any materials that How can the more developed countries realisti- come from the screening. Because of differences cally aid in these endeavors? In the case of the in patent law between the United States and United States, the National Cancer Institute other countries, we cannot assign patent rights (NCI) has really moved to the forefront in the in advance of a discovery, nor can we state that collection and processing of marine samples in an individual is, or is not, an inventor in order that they may be investigated for their advance of any discovery, nor are we permitted potential as leads to pharmacologically relevant as an agency of the U.S. government to require compounds. Dr. Patrick Colin, of the Coral Reef specific royalty payments in any agreement Research Foundation, presents information written in advance of a patentable discovery. (pages 74-76) on the NCI collection program What can the World Bank and other funding from the perspective of the collector. The NCI organizations do? As mentioned above, one of collects via a specific collection contractor who is the major requirements for collection and screen- bound by the NCI letter of collection that speci- ing of samples (not only those from the marine fies, in advance, that any organization working environment) in the source country is a stable sci- with these materials must involve the source entific infrastructure. Provision of scholarships, countries in the event that a compound isolated and perhaps more important, the provision of an from the raw material proceeds on toward clini- adequate source of scientific instrumentation cal trial, and this must occur whether the mater- and supplies for work to be performed in the ial is the pure natural product or has even been source countries, will materially aid in the real- made synthetically after the natural product has ization of the value of a country's natural Reef-Destructive Practice versus Opportunities for Sustainable Mariculture 71 resources. One of the most frustrating things that government on the in-sea aquaculture of a deep- can occur for source country scientists is to be water Lissodendoryx species that produces the brought over to the United States (or another antitumor candidate Halichondrin B. In this, a industrial country) for training, and then on sponge that normally grows at a 100-plus meters return to their home countries, realize that they has been successfully grown at 10 meters and cannot apply their skills because of the lack of still produces the metabolite of interest. This items that are taken for granted in the developed would not have been practical in the absence of world. There are large numbers of extremely tal- the oceanographic expertise that was available ented individuals who cannot achieve their goals within New Zealand. because of a lack of infrastructure and scientific Finally, a comment should also be made on supplies in the source countries. the apparent monetary value of a collection. In the short term the World Bank could help Although it costs the NCI over $700 to collect a by subsidizing training for source country scien- marine sample, the intrinsic value of any given tists in methods of scientific collection and tax- sample is only a few dollars. If, however, some onomy, which do not require too much special- biological assay can be run in the country that ized equipment initially, and to provide access demonstrates activity, then the value rises by to the information banks of the developed world at least an order of magnitude, if not more, as (oceanographic data is available on the Web, for that country has now proved its ability to pro- example, using GIS technologies). Perhaps the vide biologically active materials. Thus, yet major reason why this was successful was that another area for help would be in the provision they were (and are) able to present to any poten- of funding and training for the use of simple tial collaborator, a catalog of species and their biological assays, thereby giving a significant habitats prior to any screening. This type of "value-added" component to a country's reef endeavor, such as a cataloging of the fauna of a resources. given area, fulfills many purposes, not the least of which is being able to present to potential col- References laborators an idea of what diversity exists in a given area. Such information really becomes Bergmann, W., and R. Feeney. 1951. important when any form of mariculture of an "Contribution to the Study of Marine invertebrate is considered. With information as Products. XXXII. The Nucelosides of to current fluxes, types of growth patterns, and Sponges." Journal of Organic Chemistry 16: so on already under way, the chances of success 981-87. are much higher than they would be if starting Cragg, G. M., D. J. Newman, and K. M. Snader. from scratch. 1997. "Natural Products in Drug Discovery As an example of such studies, one may point and Development." Journal of Natural to the work of the NCI with the New Zealand Products 60: 52-60. Coral Reefs: Conservation by Valuation and the Utilization of Pharmaceutical Potential Walter H. Adey Smithsonian Institution C oral reefs, as a marine biome, provide the destruction. Unfortunately for coral reef conser- largest diversity per unit of global area vation, unlike rain forests, where the destruction - on earth. One estimate (Reaka-Kudla for logging and farming can be seen from satel- 1996) proposes that coral reefs have about 1 mil- lites and is obvious to anyone on-site, the early lion species, with only about 10 percent stage of coral reef degradation is rather subtle. described. It has been estimated that rain forests, The human species is presently destroying the the most diverse terrestrial biome, contain over coral reefs of the world. Already 10 percent are 2 million species, but in an area 20 times larger irretrievably lost to coastal siltation and human than that of coral reefs. With ships and scuba, eutrophication that allows algal growths to most of the diversity of coral reefs is more or less smother and kill the reef-building communities easily accessible, while much of the rain forest (Crosby and others 1995). Another 25 percent are terrain is difficult to penetrate and is accessible deteriorated and endangered. Dynamite, electric only by rivers. The great diversity in rain forests shock, chemicals such as arsenic and rotenone, is mainly in the monophyletic groups of chloro- fish traps, and overfishing in general are destroy- phytic higher plants and arthropod insects, ing and depleting the fish and shellfish predator while the diversity of coral reefs is distributed species that are important in maintaining the across more than 38 phyla and innumerable tax- health and continuation of coral reef communi- onomic subgroups. Coral reefs offer a phyletic ties. Human perturbation may be the cause of diversity that is nearly an order of magnitude worldwide episodes of coral bleaching, in which greater than that of rain forests, again greatly corals lose their symbiotic algae. Also, human increasing the potential for obtaining unique activities may be responsible for the worldwide compounds of pharmaceutical interest. outbreaks of coral diseases such as black band disease, which is caused by a cyanobacterium. The Need to Conserve Coral Reefs The nations of the world are shocked by this deterioration and have declared a worldwide The commercial value of coral reefs for tourism, coral reef initiative (Crosby and others 1995) to the hobby industry, and as a source of seafood is analyze the damage, propose solutions, and ini- enormous. Unfortunately, coral reefs are excep- tiate appropriate conservation programs. The tionally sensitive to human exploitation, as well Coral Reef Alliance, together with more than 40 as local and global pollution. They can also be other organizations, has designated 1997 as the harmed by global climate changes caused by our International Year of the Reef. To lose forever the activities. Worldwide, coral reefs are showing majority of coral reefs of the earth would be an signs of deterioration and in some cases overt ecocide, unforgivable by future generations. It 72 Coral Reefs: Conservation by Valuation and the Utilization of Pharmaceutical Potential 73 would also provide the significant potential for cially prevalent in slow-moving and sessile forms. the loss of numerous pharmaceutical com- In addition these micropredators have evolved pounds even before they are discovered. highly effective chemical offenses to allow them to incapacitate and ingest their prey. Protists have Natural Products Obtained from Coral Reefs effective delivery systems called extrusomes where the chemicals are stored and concentrated. In recent years, there has been substantial Some of these micropredators also have rnicroor- progress toward developing new pharmaceuti- ganisms living inside them, such as algae, many cals from marine organisms (numerous publica- of which possess powerful defense chemicals. tions summed up by Fenical 1996, and Hay and These micropredators live with their cells exposed Fenical 1996). The filter-feeding, or grazing, directly to other microorganisms and may have macropredators (such as sponges, bryozoans, sea chemicals with antibiotic properties. squirts, and sea slugs) that yield the best results When standard agar culture methods are have a combination of the following traits: ses- used to isolate bacteria from the sea, less than 5 sile, stationary or slow moving, soft-bodied and percent of the species, as shown to be present by without structural defenses, brightly colored, DNA methods, are successfully cultured. light-refracting or with contrasting markings, Similarly, standard methods for collecting meso- and possessing endosymbiotic microorganisms and micropredators in aquatic environments that can produce additional toxins. Most impor- yield only a small percentage of those that are tant, they are avoided as prey by most predators. present. Commercial interest in natural products Also, motile and sessile predators produce toxins chemistries, prior to the often long road to labo- to catch their prey. Some of the most powerful ratory synthesis, is often thwarted by the rarity toxins ever tested are found in marine macro- of the species with compounds of interest. As we predators, such as jellyfish, sea snakes, gastro- will also describe briefly below, our broad suc- pod cone shells, and puffer fish (Halstead 1988, cess with large numbers of species in coral reef Meier and White 1995). Toxins work by disrupt- microcosms and mesocosms suggests the poten- ing cellular functions and may provide the mole- tial to locate, monitor, and then, most important, cules we need to cure human diseases. culture in quantity those species having com- In the clear waters of coral reefs are found the pounds of interest. world's greatest assemblages of such promising candidates for possessing secondary metabolites Culture Systems for Pharmaceutical with useful bioactivities. Already, promising Development new drugs have been found in sponges and other ocean invertebrates and larger algae, some For 20 years the Marine Systems Laboratory has that are in preclinical development and others been a world leader in the development of labo- beginning clinical trials (Carte 1996). ratory aquatic ecosystems (Adey 1983, Adey and Loveland 1991, Adey 1995). Numerous coral The Potential for Meso- and Micropredators reefs have been included in the over 100 ecosys- tem years of laboratory experience in this field. Just as there are numerous larger invertebrates Here we will briefly describe a 400-liter that are predators, or have chemical defenses to Caribbean coral reef ecosystem that has been sub- other predators, there are many more small and ject to biodiversity research for the past year. This microscopic species, colonial bacteria, protists experimental unit, established 11 years ago and (single-celled organisms that develop no tissues closed to significant biotic introductions for the and have advanced membrane-bound nuclei), past six years, has been maintained under a tight and small and micrometazoans, (tiny, multicellu- engineering and operational regimen that would lar invertebrates) that are themselves predaceous be expected to demonstrate a strong parallel with or are eaten by larger predators and have devel- the wild ecosystem. It is noteworthy that the sys- oped chemical defenses. Such defenses are espe- tem calcification rate (the single best indicator of 74 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management long-term reef function) has consistently pounds of potential pharmaceutical value, sev- remained at about 5 kg/m2/yr, or 25 percent eral of which have been identified. The fact that above published pantropic means for reef flats these species are widely spread over many high- and upper fore reefs (Crossland and others 1991). er-level taxa only enhances the possibilities for This calcification rate is particularly important obtaining numerous unique chemistries. for maintaining diversity. It is calcification and Especially noteworthy, in this context, is that the the continued building, at macroscopic and majority of the populations in this system were microscopic scale, of structure and spatial hetero- derived from a single site in the tropical west geneity that in large measure provides wild reefs Atlantic. Equally promising, these results were with the highest specific biotic diversity on earth. achieved without major dedicated funding, sug- In addition, the gross primary production level, gesting that the considerable genetic/natural as measured by oxygen produced in photosyn- product chemistry potential of coral reefs thesis, is approximately 10 g 02/m2/ day. This throughout the tropics can be localized in labo- lies well within the range of wild reefs (Crossland ratories and tested and cultured to production and others 1991) and thus provides the moder- levels at quite moderate cost, without any degra- ately high levels of energy input, up through a dation of wild systems. Such microcosm systems complex food web, that most theoretical diversity have been demonstrated at warehouse scale for models in the current literature require to maxi- the aquarium trade and could easily be adapted mize biodiversitv. Finally, this unit has received to pharmaceutical identification and production. its wave/current energy input only through bel- Thus, wild reefs would not need to be subjected lows pumps that greatly enhance larval survival, to bioprospecting. "Genetic prospecting," by while water quality control is managed by algal highly trained crews, requiring only small quan- turf scrubbing, a process that avoids filtration. tities of reef material to achieve introduction of Although analysis of the organisms in this many hundreds of species into reef microcosms, microcosm will continue for several months, of would be adequate. The development of a large- the phyla that commonly occur in coral reefs scale culture industry using the genetic worldwide, and for which adequate analytical resources of coral reefs would provide a conser- capability was available in this study, 27 out of vation drive to this most endangered of earth's 29 possible phyla were demonstrated. Over 500 biomes that is unlikely to be achieved by any species in 343 genera and 231 families have been other means. documented to date in this microcosm; roughly two-thirds of these can be termed macroorgan- References isms and one-third microorganisms. Virtually all of these taxa reproductively maintain popula- Adey, W. H., 1983. "The Microcosm: a New Tool tions. Continued new additions to the list sug- for Reef Research." Coral Reefs 1: 193-201. gest that a final count would be over 700 species. . 1995. "Controlled Ecologies." Entry in In considering this amount of biodiversity, it is Encyclopedia of the Environmental Sciences. noteworthy that microbes (most bacteria and San Diego, Cal; London: Academic Press. viruses), fungi (primarily phycomycetes), para- Adey, W. H., and K. Loveland. 1991. Dynamic sitic taxa, and mostly nonmarine taxa have not Aquaria: Building Living Ecosystems. San Diego, yet been treated. Also, for several minor phyla, Cal; London: Academic Press. as noted, we have yet to initiate a search with Carte, B. K. 1996. "Biomedical Potential of techniques appropriate to their location. Thus, Marine Natural Products." BioScience 46 (4): the numbers stated are minimal. 271-86. Crosby, M. P., S. F. Drake, C. M. Eakin, N. B. Pharmaceutical Value Fanning, A. Paterson, P. R. Taylor, and f. Wilson. 1995. "The United States Coral Reef Many families of organisms in this microcosm Initiative: An Overview of the First Steps." are likely to have species with chemical com- Coral Reefs 14:1-3. Coral Reefs: Conservation by Valuation and the Utilization of Pharmaceutical Potential 75 Crossland, C., B. Hatcher, and S. Smith. 1991. and Products." Oceanography 9(1):10-20. "Role of Coral Reefs in Global Ocean Meier, J., and J. White, eds. 1995. Handbook of Production." Coral Reefs 10:55-64. Clinical Toxicology of Animal Venoms and Fenical, W. 1996. "Marine Biodiversity and the Poisons. New York: CRC Press. Medicine Cabinet: The Status of New Drugs Reaka-Kudla, M. L. 1996. "The Global from Marine Organisms." Oceanography 9(1): Biodiversity of Coral Reefs: A Comparison 23-27. with Rain Forests." In M. L. Reaka-Kudla, D. Halstead, B. W. 1988. Poisonous and Venomous E. Wilson, and E. 0. Wilson, eds., Biodiversity Marine Animals of the World. Princeton, N.J.: II: Understanding and Protecting Our Natural Darwin Press. Resources. Washington, D.C.: Joseph Hay, M. E., and W. Fenical. 1996. "Chemical Henry/National Academy Press. Ecology and Marine Biodiversity: Insights Marine Pharmaceuticals from the Reef: A View from the Field Patrick L. Colin Coral Reef Research Foundation T he shallow-water areas of the world trop- ligrams of some compound are presented as the ics, which include coral reef' sea grass norm, tarring all with the same brush of ravaged beds, mangroves, and other habitats, con- reefs left in the wake of irresponsible collectors. tain a high species diversity of organisms living There are a number of aspects of the NCI in close proximity to one another. Many of the approach to discovering and exploiting new organisms have evolved complex chemical com- marine biochemicals that favor, I believe, a sus- pounds for defense, predation, aggression, and tainable use of the shallow tropical environ- other unidentified functions. These are the sorts ment. Initially, the samples collected for and of chemical compounds that can be developed extracted by the NCI are relatively small, usual- into drugs to treat a wide variety of afflictions. ly about 1 to 1.5 kilograms, although a lesser For the past six years I have headed a pro- amount can be taken if the organism produces a gram collecting samples of many invertebrates high yield of extract. Samples are frozen and and marine plants for screening by the U.S. shipped in that condition from collecting areas National Cancer Institute (NCI). Our responsi- to the NCI laboratories in Frederick, Maryland, bilities under this contract are to do the initial maximizing the yield of extract from each sam- collections, photograph and document the sam- ple as compared with other means of storage ples, and, if necessary, be able to relocate and before extraction. The 1-kilogram wet weight of recollect samples for further development work. a sample ideally produces about 2 to 20 grams of This is very exciting work because we are the aqueous and organic extract. These two extracts, ones who acquire the raw material to begin the which might contain dozens of different com- process of finding new pharmaceuticals from pounds, allow sufficient material to undertake the sea. the initial screening tests and provide, if needed, We, not the NCI directly, usually open contact for follow-up testing. Also some isolation, and initially deal with the government agencies purification, and elucidation of chemical struc- of the sample source countries and serve as the ture of promising compounds takes place. The conduit for distributing testing results to the quantity of extract obtained from the original various countries. samples is usually sufficiently great that it is There is a huge gulf of misunderstanding usually unnecessary to do time-consuming and regarding this type of activities. Suspicions expensive recollections every time an initially abound, unfortunately sometimes with justifi- promising sample is identified. However, the able reason. The negative aspects tend to get all original sample does not normally provide the press. Cases where metric tons of one species enough compound to undertake extensive test- are collected off reefs to provide a few mil- ing or commercial development of a drug. There 76 Marine Pharmaceuticals from the Reef 77 simply isn't enough compound contained in 1 students involved both as a learning experience kilogram of initial sample to allow that. and as direct contributors to the technical work. The collection of a 1-kilogram sample is usu- Most natural products are too difficult to synthe- ally environmentally benign. We do not collect size and the NCI (and licensees) are committed hard (stony) corals or threatened, endangered, to obtaining natural products from the source or protected species. Prime target groups are countries where technically possible. An exam- sponges (Porifera), ascidians (Urochordata), bry- ple of this commitment is the mariculture of the ozoans (Entoprocts), nudibranchs (Mollusca), sponge Lissodendoryx species in New Zealand for soft corals (alcyonacea), and algae. In practice, it the compound Halichondrin B. In the cases is almost impossible, after the fact, to identify where additional material is needed to continue where on the reef samples have been collected. development work on the very small percentage This sort of collecting is not a "clear-cutting" (around the 1 to 2 percent level) of samples that operation; rather it is a delicate, very selective ever reach this advanced stage, the host country cropping of a limited number of organisms out is fully informed and permission is obtained of everything occurring over a broad area. On an prior to collection of additional material. average collecting trip with two to four dedicat- The NCI is involved in drug discovery, not ed collectors in the water for a few hours each drug development and sales; in essence it oper- day, 10 to 15 samples per day is normal, with an ates as an honest broker between the pharma- exceptional area producing 25 to 40 samples. ceutical company and the source countries. Its The smaller the sample weight needed for contract collector, such as our organization, also screening, the greater the number of species cannot benefit economically from any discover- within an area that can be sampled. The 1-kilo- ies. This means the NCI and its collectors have gram level is a reasonable compromise, with no incentive to deal with the host countries in enough species in a diverse area to keep a small less than a totally honest manner. In reality, it is team of collectors busy for several weeks. Once in the NCI's and its collectors' self-interest to an asymptote on species to collect has been work closely with and protect the host countries' reached for a given area, it is either time to move interests. The more access we have to sample a or to change the quantity required for a sample. country's biota, the higher the chance of finding We also use a process of what I like to call "pro- useful compounds, something that makes us all gressive discrimination" in working a sample look good and helps fulfill the promise of medi- area. First the easily collected species are taken. cinals from the sea. This is a worthy goal as long Then progressively more difficult samples are as the interests of the host country are protected worked on. I believe this strategy results in the by all parties. maximum number of likely samples for screen- Given these pluses for the NCI program, it is ing, maximizing the chances for a "hit." One surprising how hard we have to work to find might argue that this only helps deplete the rare and persuade countries to allow us to collect organisms on the reef, but this assumption flies their organisms for screening. There appear to in the face of biological fact. Nearly all benthic be several reasons for this. First, there is the organisms in shallow water are patchily distrib- huge amount of confusion and outright suspi- uted, and what may be uncommon or rare in one cion mentioned earlier. This revolves around area may be abundant in another nearby, appar- issues of intellectual property rights, royalties, ently identical, area for reasons unknown to us. licenses, and such. However, we believe that The NCI in its international collections pro- with an informed understanding of the issues gram views the countries where collections are most countries will see that allowing bio- made as collaborators who are entitled to be fully prospecting under an agreement similar to the informed as to the results of the testing program one utilized by the NCI is a good policy; coun- and fully involved to the maximum technical tries that don't allow such activities run the risk level that is appropriate. The latter effectively of being left behind by those who do. Second, translates into having host country scientists or some countries have their own national pro- 78 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management grams and do not welcome or need overseas poorly identified organisms being the source of researchers. That is understandable in some novel organics. Often there are few adequate cases, but of little advantage for countries that voucher specimens or photographs of the organ- do not have such programs. Third, some coun- ism, and only rarely is there a reference that can tries are, unfortunately, not interested unless be cited which includes an accurate description there are economic benefits up front, something and photographs of the organism. Our group that organizations like the NCI do not provide. has taken the approach of trying to maximize Biological resources that are never screened the biological information, particularly taxo- will not provide benefits to anyone. If the deci- nomic, obtained from marine invertebrate col- sion is made to allow collections, it is important lections for screening by the NCI. This is done for countries to require written agreements with through high-quality voucher specimens and researchers or collectors that clearly specify who photographs taken on-site. It is no accident that the country is dealing with, what will be done a large number of new taxa are being described with the samples collected, require that the coun- from our collections, usually by the taxonomists try be fully informed of developments from mate- who are paid from the NCI contract to make the rials from their country, and ensure that the coun- final identifications. While these new taxa are try will have the ability to negotiate fair compen- usually described in specialist literature, our sation for any discoveries made from their coun- group is also dedicated to making this informa- try. The NCI collection programs meet all these tion available to a more general scientific audi- requirements and have written collection agree- ence through publication of general field guides. ments that cover these issues. Without such Tropical Pacific Invertebrates is our first such effort knowledge and agreements, everything is left to and will be followed by a series of volumes spe- the goodwill of corporate executives and lawyers. cific to phyla being prepared by our specialist The final point I would like to make is that taxonomists over the next several years. marine natural product collections provide a The discovery of a remarkable medicinal fantastic opportunity to increase knowledge of compound from a coral reef area, sufficiently species-level diversity and taxonomy of the valuable to provide the impetus for conserva- often-difficult groups of marine organisms, par- tion of reefs, has not yet occurred. It is this ticularly invertebrates, that are of most interest dream, however, along with the prospect of dis- to marine chemists. The earlier marine natural covering new biological information, that keeps product chemistry literature is replete with us excited about this type of work. The Marine Aquarium Fish Trade Daniel Pelicier Professional Aquarium Fish Collector and Exporter P rivate marine aquariums have begun to be water to grow. It has been said that only when popular only recently. Few hobbyists, how- you starve your aquarium do the corals start to ever, have been successful in keeping the grow. Only recently, with advanced techniques organisms in their aquariums alive for any length and filtering systems, has it become possible for of time, mainly because of the rapid deterioration the dedicated hobbyist to keep corals alive. of water quality. This situation has improved dra- matically within the last decade, when more Stakeholders sophisticated pumping and filtering systems have become available. At the same time, the Of course, the explosive demand for marine rapid expansion of air transportation by jet planes aquarium organisms has led to a proliferation of has made it possible to transport live marine suppliers. Originally, all aquarium fish were organisms over large distances from countries caught by hand with no other equipment than a with reefs to the main markets, which are in the mask, a snorkel, sometimes flippers, and a little United States, Europe, and Japan. This triggered scoop net. This is difficult, however, as reef fish an explosive increase in demandL, and many hide in crevices in the coral. Consequently, all developing countries with coral reefs, such as the kinds of methods have been devised to chase the Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Indonesia, saw a great fish out of their hiding places. At first crowbars potential for earning hard currency. The bulk of were used to break the coral, but at present the organisms traded today in the marine aquari- chemicals, mainly cyanide, are squirted into the um trade consists of fish, (the Philippines alone coral. The fish come out stunned and are exported some 6.3 million aquarium fish in 1996), scooped up and placed in tanks with clean run- but also invertebrates such as shrimp, anemones, ning water, after which many are resuscitated. and tube worms are in great demand. Also, lots of After this treatment they will usually live long so-called live rock is exported. This is usually enough to be shipped out and sold, but eventu- dead coral, which contains a multitude of boring ally cyanide-caught fish die because their inter- and encrusting organisms such as calcareous nal organs have been damaged. After the collec- algae, tube worms, hydroids, and anemones. Live tor has left, the cyanide cloud drifts along the rock is used as decoration and as substrate. reef, killing everything in its wake. In the Although the dream of many aquarists is to have Philippines alone, an estimated 65 tons of a miniature living coral reef, keeping corals alive cyanide are sprayed on the reefs each year to in an aquarium has proved exceedingly difficult. catch aquarium and food fish. Not surprisingly, Corals require special light conditions and there is a lot of opposition to the aquarium trade extremely pure, oligotrophic (nutrient-poor) because in many places it destroys the reefs and 79 80 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management the fish populations. But collecting for the crash anyway. The clown fish keep a aquarium trade is an important source of "reserve" of juveniles below the rim of ten- income in many developing countries. The tacles of their host anemone, whose growth marine aquarium trade has become big busi- is impeded by the presence of the adults. ness, and it has been estimated that its aggregate When I remove only one of the adults, one annual retail sales value amounts to about $300 of the juveniles quickly grows up and million. It would be unrealistic to try to ban the replaces the one I have removed, also aquarium trade completely, and therefore the assuming the sex of the one missing from big question is: Would it be possible to sustain- the pair. Thus, I minimize the risk to repro- ably use these reef resources in a nondestructive duction. In the lagoon, I have cloned sea manner? I have been an aquarium fish collector anemones to provide an "anemone planta- and exporter in Mauritius for 30 years and am tion," which is rapidly being colonized by convinced that the answer is affirmative. clown fish, which I can exploit. Although I do not have exclusive fishing rights * I do not catch any fish that cannot be kept anywhere, I have been the only one to exploit a alive in the aquarium and advise my clients number of reefs, which I consequently consider on which species can live together with each as my own fishing grounds. They have provided other and with invertebrates such as coral. me with a steady supply of aquarium fish over * I carefully observe the population of my tar- the years while their habitat has remained get species to make sure I do not deplete unchanged. To achieve this I do the following: any distinct population and catch pairs of * I catch everything carefully by hand, using certain species to be kept together in the only a hand net. aquarium. * I work deep, below the depth of most finely * I package and ship my fish myself in spe- branching corals, and therefore run less of a cially sealed plastic bags filled with seawa- risk to damage the reef. ter and oxygen. My loss between catch and * I work mainly among coral rubble and arrival of the fish overseas is less than 10 boulders, also because there my net does percent, while a loss of some 70 percent is not get caught so easily and the fish can't not uncommon in many other areas. hide so well. Because I deal directly with my clients, they * I carefully put my fish in containers under- know they will receive quality fish and are water rather than keeping them in nets or therefore prepared to pay premium prices. plastic bags, to avoid stress. I decompress Many exporters elsewhere just buy from my fish, bringing them up in stages. The freelance collectors and therefore have no decompression tables for the various fish idea how the fish are caught. are the result of my 30 years of experience. Sometimes this requires leaving the fish Conclusion behind at a certain depth when I go home, to be picked up later, something I can do Aquarium fish collecting can become a sustain- only in a secure environment where my able source of income, but to do it right requires buoys are not stolen. Some fish I decom- dedication and training. When carefully done, press by inserting a hypodermic needle into aquarium fish collecting constitutes for many their swim bladders underwater. species only a minor factor in the determination * I know the biology of most of my target of their population size in comparison with species, such as the cleaner shrimp Lysmata other factors such as natural predation, avail- amboinensis or the endemic Mascarene ability of hiding places, pollution, and storm clown fish Amphiprion chrysogaster. The events. There is a lot more to the trade than shrimp population shows natural cycles of scooping fish out of the sea, putting them in a abundance and decline, and I mainly catch plastic bag, and sending them off. The fact that a them just before their population would fish has not been caught with cyanide does not The Marine Aquarium Fish Trade 81 necessarily mean it has been harvested sustain- by a particular operator is assigned a specif- ably or is not damaged. ic reef area. In this way the operator has a long-term interest in keeping "his" reef Recommendations intact and productive. The compilation of a list of marine organ- * Probably the best way to change behavior isms that cannot be caught, because capture and eliminate mala fide traders and bad col- would endanger the species or the species lectors would be through economic pres- cannot be kept alive or can only be kept as a sure. Bad collectors and exporters should go juvenile. out of business because they are known to and boycotted by a unified organization of Role of the World Bank importers. * The aquarium fish importers, hobbyists, The World Bank could: and conservation organizations should get * Incorporate sustainable aquarium fish col- organized and set standards, oversee certifi- lecting in the projects it finances for reef cation of imports, and help the exporting management as an alternative source of country with training and certification of income to destructive reef exploitation. exporters. In the United States, there is a Training in sustainable collecting methods good start with the establishment in 1996 of and handling of aquarium fish, certification the Marine Aquarium Fish Council and the of collectors and exporters, testing for American Marine Life Dealers Association. cyanide, and institution building to oversee In Europe, many countries lack a similar the trade should be integral parts of such organization. The United Kingdom has a programs. trade association, the Ornamental Fish * In its policy dialogue with governments of Industry, which has taken some action. coral reef countries, stress the importance of • There should be a strict cyanide testing and coral reefs and assist these countries with export licensing system in the exporting the implementation of enforcement of the countries, like the one started by the regulations against destructive practices International Marinelife Alliance in the such as cyanide and dynamite fishing. Philippines. Destruction of natural resources should not * Licensing of all aquarium fish collectors. At be a reason for a country to turn to the Bank present only the exporter requires a license. for development assistance. An importers' association could send * Finance-through loans or the Global inspectors to the developing countries to Environment Facility (GEF)-the establish- check on collecting and shipping practices. ment and management of a Global Repre- * An area-based management system where- sentative System of Marine Protected Areas. The Marine Aquarium Fish Council: Certification and Market Incentives for Ecologically Sustainable Practices Jamie Resor WWF- USWorld Wildlife Fund (WVF)- United States C oral reefs are a critical habitat for the vation organizations, government agencies, diverse marine life that is vitally impor- public aquariums, hobbyists, scientists, and the tant to the environmental and economic aquarium trade itself-have publicized the health of tropical nations with substantial problems and have designed programs to coastal areas. If managed properly, they can address parts of it (as examples, the training of provide important resources for local suste- fishers to convert cyanide users to nets instead, nance as well as commercial trade in food fish and improved animal husbandry); however, the and aquarium organisms. Display of reef problem has yet to be addressed comprehen- organisms in public and private aquariums is sively from reef to consumer, and there has been one of the best means to enhance public aware- no market incentive to encourage proper collec- ness of reef biodiversity and the need to con- tion. The central question that arises is: What serve reef ecosystems. However, coral reefs can be done to create the necessary market face numerous threats, including pollution, incentive to encourage the utilization of best agricultural runoff, industrial excavation, and management practices for the harvest of fish and destructive fishing practices. Consumers in the other marine organisms for the aquarium trade? United States, Europe, and East Asian coun- tries may often unknowingly contribute to one Proposed Solution of these threats through their support of the trade in marine aquarium fish and inverte- To address this question, a cross section of orga- brates that is partially supplied with marine nizations representing the aquarium trade, con- organisms collected from coral reefs using servation organizations, public aquariums, hob- harmful practices. byists, and scientists proposes to establish a Such collection practices, which include the Marine Aquarium Fish Council (MAFC) that use of sodium cyanide and other harmful chem- would act as an independent governing council icals, cause destruction or irreversible damage to to establish standards, oversee environmental coral reefs. The adverse effects of these practices certification, and promote conservation educa- have been well documented in the Philippines tion. Actual certification would not be done by and Indonesia. In addition, there has not been the MAFC but rather would be undertaken by enough research done to determine what is sus- MAFC-accredited certification institutions that tainable in terms of collection practices for any would apply the standards developed by the species. MAFC. The goal of the MAFC will be to ensure Many individuals and organizationsl famil- that collection, handling, and sale of marine iar with the aquarium trade-including conser- organisms from coral reefs uses best manage- 82 The Marine Aquarium Fish Council 83 ment practices and is ecologically sustainable, lection-to-consumer operations and one or two socially beneficial, and economically viable. It is captive propagation facilities to field-test pro- currently envisioned that the MAFC will begin posed guidelines and protocols. As part of these with a nine-member board. Board members will pilot certifications, the MAFC is proposing to hold represent environmental organizations; aquari- a workshop in late 1997 or early 1998 to vet the um fish exporters, importers, and retailers; and proposed protocol in more detail among a wide public aquariums. In addition, the MAFC will range of stakeholders. Given that the majority of have an advisory board to permit broader partic- aquarium fish collection in the world is undertak- ipation and guidance on a wide range of issues. en in the Pacific, the current proposal is to hold the workshop in the Philippines or Hawaii. The Concern and Role of the WWF Over the next few months, several issues require close examination and resolution. These The WWF's goal is coral reef conservation. Thus, include: we have tried to facilitate the collaboration of a * How much will certification cost and how diverse set of organizations to develop guide- will the costs be covered? How can certifi- lines and criteria for how environmental certifi- cation be equally feasible for small collec- cation could be used as a tool for the industry tors, larger collectors and wholesalers, and and conservationists to accomplish five things: captive propagation firms? * Acknowledge by means of an independent * What is realistic for reef monitoring? What certification process those industry partici- are best practices for cost-effective reef pants who are already using best practices for monitoring programs? the collection and handling of marine fish * How can the MAFC best collaborate with and also help maintain important livelihoods existing certification and permitting pro- for thousands of fishers in coastal areas. grams in different parts of the world? * Reduce substantially the use of destructive * Can the MAFC develop a logo and a con- fishing practices by use of market forces to sumer preference that will help industry encourage consumers to request environ- achieve a price premium for certified fish? mental certification. * What can be learned from the MAFC initia- * Develop a logo that would be credible in the tive (and vice versa) that is relevant to eyes of the consumer. Such credibility is potential certification for the live food fish possible only if it is substantiated by a certi- trade and food fish in general? fication process that is sufficiently indepen- dent of industry. Recommendations for Assistance * Reduce the chance that cumbersome regula- tions or outright bans might be implement- Reef managers and scientists: Identification and ed by government agencies as a political design of cost-effective monitoring programs solution that would not necessarily achieve that could be applicable in reef areas under a the desired conservation results. variety of circumstances. * Promote a healthy trade in aquarium fish Nongovernmental organizations and academic (and other marine organisms) as a means to institutions: Identification or strengthening of enhance conservation of coral reefs and also existing monitoring capacity (for collection and serve as an important venue for awareness handling practices) that local institutions have building among aquarium hobbyists and or are willing to develop in order to keep certifi- the general public. cation costs down, particularly where there are no formal efforts under way. Current Situation The World Bank and policymakers: Continued support of the concept of independent certifica- Over the next few months, the MAFC plans to tion as a tool for conservation. Continued involve- undertake pilot certifications of five or six reef col- ment of the World Bank through Market 84 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management Transformation Initiatives (forest and marine) and Note its expected participation in the MAFC as a mem- ber of the MAFC advisory group. Facilitation of 1. A partial list of collaborating organizations includes: more exchanges and dialog to share best practices American Marine Life Dealers Association (AmfA), for sustainable fishing and ways to use indepen- Ocean Voice International-Canada Aquarium for Wildlife Conservation, WCS Ornamental Fish Industry dent certification as a tool for reef conservation. (OFI) Ltd.-UK American Zoo and Aquarium Association Availability of technical assistance funds and (AZA) Pet Industry Joint Advisory Council (PIJAC), small- to medium-scale investment capital for col- Flora and Fauna International (FFI)-UK, The Nature lector associations and exporters in client coun- Conservancy (TNC), National Aquarium in Baltimore tries who are interested in participating in inde- (NAIB), World Wildlife Fund (WWF), and New England pendent certification. Aquarium. Discussion Stephen Colwell, Coral Reef Alliance: One of killing areas of disease-that come from a natur- the things that always plagues me, and when I al source. And rather, in our screening we are discuss with people from other countries comes finding that the marine environment is producing up, is if all of the facts laid out about bio- some of the most exquisite toxins-and all anti- prospecting are true, which is to say there is no cancer drugs are by definition toxins-that you up-front payment-a 20-30 year payoff- you're have ever seen. We're dealing with materials talking about pharmacophore development where the classic "angel on the head of a pin" rather than drug development, so that the con- doesn't even come close. I've seen materials in the nection of royalties is low and there are only a lab that at 10-12 molar (and bear in mind that certain number of pharmaceutical companies Avogadro's number is 10-23, which means that are cooperating. Are we really setting for- you've got a very small amount) kill cells stone, ward an incentive for conservation? Not doubt- cold dead. They will not be drugs, but they will ing at all that there is a value there for humani- be leads to drugs. And I'm afraid that, as empha- ty, and for the potential drugs that may come sized, this is not a conservation aspect that one out, but for those source countries, how con- can point to. Ultimately it will be. But at this vincing an argument is that when, again, they're moment the question that Mr. Colwell asked is looking at putting food on the table tonight. Or quite valid. This does not put something on the even tourism, where the payoff they can see is table. But let me give you an example in the ter- an immediate future? restrial sphere. Inbio, in Costa Rica, started with a different premise. And that was if they know Pat Colin: In essence there is very little incen- what [the] flora and fauna are, and they know tive for conservation coming out of this kind of they can go back and get it, they can sell that work initially. I wish there was more but there information to pharmaceutical houses (for exam- isn't. ple, to Merck at $1.1 million). In the marine envi- ronment, we're still at the stage of not knowing David Newman: I would second what Pat says how many things are there, where they are, or in practice. We're using conservationist methods what they can do. So we're a very long way at to collect, but as Pat carefully put it, something looking at it as a conservation aspect, but as a that isn't screened, you don't know what's there. resource aspect it's immense. Perhaps the statistic I gave earlier, which may have skated by- if you look at the drugs that are Carl Gustaf Lundin, World Bank: I am with the currently in the armamentarium of the physician, Blue team of the Environment Department of there were 60 percent of them in the three major the World Bank. We produced a book called 85 86 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management Marine Biotechnology in Developing Countries a international trade across countries, and the WTO couple of years ago. And we tried to go through is pretty much pro-trade. I don't know to what a broad range, including some of the topics we extent environment is sinking into the WTO orga- talked about here, and how one can go about nization? To what extent does your convention looking at marine resources in different ways; deal with WTO in terms of the legalities of global that's available in the bookstore. We also trade in endangered species and other marine arranged a conference in the Asia-Pacific Region, products? My second question is that WTO, in its in Thailand, called Marine Biotechnology and former incarnation as GATT, ruled in favor of the Asia-Pacific region. So we have tried to, at Mexico in the famous tuna-dolphin case against least, get the ball rolling a little bit on these top- the U.S. I'm sure cases are going to come up in the ics, although I must admit in terms of our port- future, and I want to know if your convention is folio, it has been very weak until now, and is def- planning to deal with such situations, or how initely not something that we can take much GATT or WTO will deal with such situations in credit for. In any event, I wanted to perhaps the future? switch to Daniel Pelicier and ask him a question. Something that sometimes troubles me is the James Armstrong: The CITES convention is for- fact that we actually have to wait quite a long mally linked now with the WTO's. We have actu- time before we extract fish or other marine ally a formal observer status on the Trade and organisms until they would replenish. If we take Environment Committee of the WTO, which is a a country like Mauritius, which has some exten- committee that's formed with representative par- sive reefs, how many people could live the way ties to the WTO meeting to discuss issues like the you do? What are the types of numbers we're shrimp-dolphin issue which is before them at the looking at? Are we looking at an order of mag- moment. I must say, however, that historically nitude of 10 different groups that could do this? CITES has been considered outside of the main Or are we looking at a group of a hundred, or trade commodity activities of the WTO-being would we be looking at a group of 1,000? seen historically as a convention that has dealt mainly with megafauna-African fauna such as Daniel Pelicier: The area I prospect myself, elephants, ivory trade, et cetera. It's in recent working alone, is less than 10 kilometers of the years where CITES has actually moved to look at coast. So you know the size of my island [inaudi- significantly traded commodities like fish, fish- ble]-this is not even 5 percent of the coast. My ery species, and timber-that the WTO has interest in working there is to take care of my approached CITES to see that we could get fish-I don't want them to be transported imme- together and resolve any of the problems or diately after capture. The more you stress a fish incompatibilities that there might be. I must say the less it will live in an aquarium. My method that one of the great incompatibilities that exist in of catching is really as simple as that-just take this trade and environment debate which is rag- care of the fish properly and really don't stress it, ing currently, and is focused in Geneva with the and I will not have any problem. If I go and agencies like WTO, and issues like the shrimp- work elsewhere, I have to transport them and dolphin case which is before it at the moment, is I've had no success doing that. But a place for the complete polarity of language that we use in people to work, if they want to install them- our various professions. The trade community selves-away from my area [laughter]-they talks in ways-using the same terms that we can start in their area and do the same. All might use in CITES, but mean completely differ- around the island is fishable. ent things. For example, in CITES a quota of an Appendix 1 species (sometimes we allow trade Audience question: My question is addressed to in Appendix 1 species under strict quotas) for Mr. James Armstrong on the issue of trade and CITES, a quota therefore, is a trade-facilitating environment. We all know that the World Trade mechanism. To the trade community a quota is a Organization is the main body that regulates negative restriction on trade. It is challenging for Discussion 87 the two agencies to communicate when we use exporting countries-consumer and developing the same language but it means completely dif- countries. But there's also this issue of perhaps a ferent things. And so the agenda for our conven- stricter domestic measure that you're referring tion and WTO is to work closely together so we to in the case of potentially the U.S. making a can at least understand each other and move on decision not to allow the import of species that over those problems. In last 25 years, and CITES are on, say, Appendix 2 of CITES, and for which will be 25 years old next month [November, the convention says the trade is allowable, and 19971, there has never been an action considered in fact facilitated. If the exporting country has incompatible with the WTO, or the old GATT done its nondetriment finding and through that arrangements. It doesn't mean that there could- nondetriment finding is stating as a sovereign n't be in the future-and certainly some of the nation allowed to trade, and that trade is sus- issues recently at the last Conference of Parties tainable or not detrimental to the survival of that meeting in Harari, particularly the elephant deci- taxon that's been traded. And we can talk very sions there, may well raise some concerns by briefly about stricter domestic measures in a party states to the convention, and we could see moment. But just to give you the background to ourselves having some interesting discussions the program of work that the convention is with the WTO over that. involved in, in its legislative project, unlike any other convention that I'm aware of, and I'm not Alexander Stone, Reef Keeper International: aware of any convention having undertaken a Mr. Armstrong, you mentioned in your com- study of national legislation requirements to ments that CITES now is committed to an action implement its convention. But some five years plan, which has as one of its planks, the promo- ago, concerned as we were in this old conven- tion, facilitation, and encouragement of national tion, that many parties did not have the neces- legislation, where it is perceived to be needed. sary national legislation to even implement the Obviously, the context we're talking about is basic requirements of the convention they were national legislation in the producing country. a signatory to, the parties to the convention My question has to do with whether CITES feels undertook a study-an assessment of the status that it has a mandate or a responsibility to try of the national legislation in all of the parties and do the same thing with regards to the con- that were signatories to the convention. As of sumer countries. I am very concerned, for exam- this year we have done 125 assessments out of ple, that in the United States we have effectively the 142 parties, and we're concluding that study shut down coral collection in all U.S. marine now over the next two years-in time for the areas, but we're probably one of the top two or eleventh meeting of the Conference of Parties- three coral importers in the world. I think it's an that will be held in Indonesia in November, extremely hypocritical situation at best. And 1999. By that time we should have had all of the even though the USA is a big industrialized countries considered. What we looked at was country and has a quadrillion NGOs in it, maybe what were the basic requirements to be included we ought to be able to clean up our own act. in the national legislation to enable implementa- Still, that is not to say that in these types of situ- tion? We found, in fact, that there were only four ations CITES assistance wouldn't be a big help. basic requirements.. that a scientific authority So my question is whether CITES feels it has a has to make. The second thing is that it has to mandate or a jurisdiction to address the situa- have the power of seizure of illegally collected tion in consumer countries? Again, as somebody material. It has to have the ability to prosecute said: if people didn't buy drugs, there wouldn't those seizures, and I have forgotten the fourth be any drug dealers. one actually, but it relates also to this prosecu- tion power. Remarkably, we have found that James Armstrong: There are two elements to most or many countries-particularly in regions this question which need to be discussed. One is like Africa and Asia-fell into what we call cate- national legislation in both the importing and gory 2 and 3-the third category being that none 88 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management of those four elements were included in their be seen in the convention as a worry and a con- legislation. Many parties sit in that state at the cern, because if trade is truly sustainable-if the moment, unfortunately. Very few sit in the first exports are truly sustainable from a developing category of having adequate legislation to facili- country-then to have an importing country put tate the convention. And so this is really one of a stricter measure in place precludes any benefit the issues I have been speaking to this week flowing back into conservation programs in with the World Bank-that we should be getting those countries. And so these are tricky issues at together as a convention with groups, funding an international level that are being discussed in agencies like the World Bank, so that we can our convention at the moment. actually see how we can enhance these pro- grams with national legislation and build capac- Jan Post, World Bank: I had an earlier question ity in these countries that require it. So that's that basically, Pat Colin has already answered. happening both at the consumer country level, And this was almost the same as what Stephen and we're doing it across the board, we're not Colwell had asked-what is bioprospecting just looking at the exporting countries-and going to do for the preservation of reefs? If I you'd be surprised at some of the countries who understand you correctly, you say that we find are very developed and have enacted inade- some promising compound, we unravel the quate legislation. A number of countries in the E. chemical structure in the laboratory, we synthe- C., for example, are in category 3, which is pret- size it so that we're not in the long term depen- ty deplorable. And incredibly, we actually have dent upon some kind of restriction and other a power within our convention to bring about things in developing countries. Walter Adey the prevention of trade-we have sanction pow- says if we can't unravel the biological or chemi- ers. In fact, the parties are so concerned now cal structure, we can make a mesocosm and we about some of these countries who-despite the start cultivating an organism. There's a third efforts of the parties to upgrade their legisla- example to my knowledge, which is in the tion-have resisted undertaking that, and these Bahamas, where they actually have a plantation parties will be subject to sanctions in which all of gorgonians which would probably require too trade with that country will be prevented. How much of a mesocosm to be ecologically sustain- that sits with the WTO of course, will be inter- able and economically viable. There I can see esting. The second point, then, is despite what- these organisms can actually contribute to con- ever might be allowed under the convention, the servation because those people will not want convention also allows full parties to take their waters to the polluted and it provides stricter domestic measures. And so in the case of $600,000 dollars worth of royalties to the country the U.S., it might choose not to allow the import of the Bahamas, and it provides a sustainable of coral, because it believes-despite what the income to the fisherman. Is this a correct picture? sovereign nations exporting those coral might be And if so, what are the possibilities? Do you see saying-that is not in the interest of the species much scope for this last example to expand to concerned. We can go into a wonderful debate other areas of the world? about how you can determine a nondetriment finding on coral that's harvested destructively. David Newman: Yes, in fact I didn't mention Can such a thing exist? Is it completely incom- the [Pseudopterogorgial plantation in the patible? There are countries, currently, in our Bahamas, which Bill Fenical at the Scripps convention that impose stricter domestic mea- Institution of Oceanography set up with the sures; Australia has stricter domestic mea- Bahamian government. That actually is a rather sures-it has a stricter domestic measure policy entertaining one, because the material it pro- in relation to certain imports that it will not duces is the active component of Max Factor's allow, despite those exports being allowed Resilience-antiwrinkle cream. And it is in fact under the convention. The E.C. commonly an anti-inflamatory that is not a human-use restricts the imports of species. In fact, this can pharmaceutical. If you want to call it a human- Discussion 89 use cosmetical, you can. And Bill set up an excel- Jaspamide/Jasplakinolide. So yes, there are lent operation in the Bahamas. That was a com- examples of conservation that have been quite pound that came to fruition in something like successful, but it's the long-term discovery that two years from its discovery. The agents we're basically means-if you're looking for a phar- talking about are very much longer-term than maceutical-you first have to discover it, then that, but you have a very valid point. There are you have to show it is of use, then you have to two other areas where conservation systems are look to see how you can work with it. In the case being used quite well. In the case of of Bill Fenical's work with Pseudopterogorgia, it Halichondrin B, where I mentioned we collect- was much faster because it was not a human-use ed 1 metric ton. Because of time, I didn't add pharmaceutical. Though it did, in fact, get FDA part of the $300,000 dollars we put into New approval, but there was no necessity. You could Zealand-and New Zealand matched it-went go from discovery to use in something under into in-sea aquaculture of that organism, and it three years. is now happily producing Halichondrin B and other constituents (which we're looking at) at 10 Barbara Ornitz, Shellman and Ornitz: I do a meters [depth] in Wellington harbor, rather than lot of talking to schools and all sorts of groups 100 meters off of the Kaikoura shelf. There's yet of people about coral reefs and why they're a third: Bryo-statin, which was my lead-off important. One of the issues that really "rings" example. I mentioned that there are only three with people is this pharmaceutical use. Almost colonies that we know of in the world that pro- everyone has someone in their family, friends, duce this material. The U.S. government has put or relatives who have got a problem with can- over one million dollars into a very successful cer or some other disease. So my question is, if in-sea and on-land aquaculture of the particular we're talking about sustainable bioprospecting, producing organism Bugula neritina in conjunc- what do you know, panel, about education tion with a small biotech company in that's being used? What tools are we using California-and they have successfully pro- to reach the consumer public to cause the duced this material and are continuing to pro- public to say: "Let's exercise the caution, let's duce it both in-sea and on land. I will take issue take care of these reefs, because they may solve with Walter, you can culture many examples of a problem that I have or someone in my family marine fauna, but unless you start with a pro- has-we need to preserve them for future ducing culture-that is, a material that produces generations?" the agent of interest, your chances of actually making what there is on the reef are pretty slim. Walter Adey: What I would suggest, without In fact, I would say that they are almost vanish- answering David's question, because I think ingly small. A good example of this is when Dr. the answer is in the question itself-Yes, Colin, at my request, did a survey of a material absolutely correct, there are varieties, and some known as Dorypleres splendens. It also is known of them have the compounds and some of them as Jaspis spp.-depending on the taxonomist- don't. I don't think that takes away the value of because we were very interested in a material mesocosm production one little bit. But what I known by two names: Jaspamide and would suggest as an answer to how bio- Jasplakinolide. We looked at 37 different exam- prospecting helps conservation today, what I ples of this, culled from a variety of sources from would point out, for example, is that not so the Pacific, four of them produced the material long ago the FCC sold off frequencies- tele- of interest. The other 33 are genetically, morpo- vision frequencies, radio frequencies-for very logically, photographically, and any other way large sums of money. These are even more you would like to look at identical. If you set up abstract than the organisms on the reef. To me, a mesocosm, with one of those 33, you do not get coral reefs are genetic resources; they don't Jaspamide/Jasplakinolide. If you set it up with need to be any more than genetic resources. To one of the other four you may get look at them as physical production facilities 90 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management makes no sense-from looking at their ecology. Summary: Michael Rubino: Ive been asked to But looking at them as genetic resources, that's give a quick summary, and some suggested an entirely different matter. What is wrong themes for tomorrow's discussion for this panel. with an intergovernment approach that joins Today, we've gotten a brief update on regulatory with industry and says: "Industry, do you ever approaches to these issues, and the importance want to get these compounds-which we all of complementary national programs. We've also know are going to be so valuable in the future? heard about the elements of a certification pro- Then you will join with us and parcel out these gram, or a marked-driven approach-in this case genetic resources." for the aquarium reef trade. Issues of costs, mon- Providing these considerable sums of money itoring, collaboration arrangements, and third right up front, and down the road, and provid- party certification. We've also heard about and ing conservation at the same time. To directly discussed the relationship between bioprospect- answer your question, you're absolutely right. ing and conservafion. As we see more and more The American public, the public around the marine or reef bioprospecting types of activity, world would be saying: "We worry more about the implementation issues include things like health than anything." We have a literal health sharing of benefits, and how do we go from rare boom in this country right now. It should not be organisms compounds to large-scale production, hard to sell that to our government-that coral and still advance the conservation agenda? reef genetic resources should be treated like air- Suggested themes for tomorrow-just two of waves. Why not? them and they're really related: What types of key pilot projects, demonstration projects, or David Newman: In answer to the young lady's commercial projects would you suggest need to question, there's actually a large amount of liter- be launched to gamer lessons learned, to work ature. There are a significant number of videos- out the practical details, in effect, to show how one was put out on a program called "How Do it's done in each one of these three areas: regula- They Do That?" We were profiled in that-that tory, market-driven (or certification), and was over the taxol story which, as a woman, you research and development? And then, because would definitely appreciate as the first anti- we're here under the auspices of the World Bank ovarian drug with any real working activity Group, those of us who work within the Bank against resistant ovarian cancer. The answer is are quite interested in how can the World Bank that we do try. The problem is that scientists are Group-through its partnerships with NGOs, usually very, very stiff-cut-and-dried-and we and other stakeholders, through its loans to gov- don't answer the question, "What is the next ernments, through its investments in the private cure?" We go off into realms of science. We're sector-how can we work with you to advance usually, probably our own worst enemy. So if this agenda, through these pilot projects, there are people out there who are willing to demonstration projects, and commercial pro- translate our science into something that the jects? So, many thanks to the conference orga- general public will say "Please send money", nizers, thank you to the panelists and discus- we'll be more than happy to take the money. sants, thank you for all of your questions, and Thank you. we look forward to your discussion tomorrow. PANEL THREE ............. .. -o . ..... MARINE PROTECTED AREAS Session Chair. Jan Post, World Bank The Relationship of Tourism-Related Revenue Generation to Coral Reef Conservation Donald E. Hawkins The George Washington University In order to appreciate the potential contribu- The distinction between nature-based tourism tion of tourism to conservation, the econom- and ecotourism can be somewhat ambiguous ic significance of the tourism industry as a and certainly confusing to those with limited whole must be understood. Travel and tourism exposure to this segment of the tourism industry. is the world's fastest growing economic activity. Generally, ecotourism is considered a subset Travel and tourism now drives over 10 percent within the nature-based tourism market and is of global GDP, consumer spending, and capital characterized by a dedication to small-scale investment in 1997, and is projected to do the development and strict conservation objectives. same in 2007, according to the World Travel and Nature-based tourism is defined less rigidly and Tourism Council and the WEFA Group, as encompasses more types of development and described in table 1. activities, but also maintains a commitment to Unfortunately, accurately determining eco- sustainability through the mitigation of negative tourism's (or coral reef-related travel) segment ecological and social impacts. of the world travel and tourism market is prob- For the purposes of discussing a link between lematic because of various methodological prob- tourism and conservation, the critical distinction lems, not the least of which is the varying defin- to be made is not between nature-based tourism itions of nature-based tourism and ecotourism and ecotourism, but between sustainable that abound in the international travel industry. tourism and mass tourism. Important benefits to conservation can be achieved by using sustain- able tourism to: Table 1. Economic impact of travel and tourism on the * Provide a source of financing for parks and global economy, 1997 (estimated) and 2007 (projected) conservation (percent of world) * Serve as an economic justification for park protection Measure 1997 2007 * Offer local people economically sound and sustainable alternatives to natural resource GDP US$ 3.3 trillion US$ 6.3 trillion depletion or destruction contribution (10.7) (10.9) *Promote conservation and build support Consumer US$ 2.1 trillion US$ 4.0 trillion with commercial constituencies spending (10.9) (11.2) * Create an impetus for private conservation Capital US$ 801 billion US$ 1.6 trillion efforts (Brandon 1996, p. 1). investment (11.8) (11.8) Sustainable tourism development in coastal Source: World Travel and Tourism Council, London, 1997. areas will only provide these types of conserva- 93 94 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunitiesfor Sustainable Management tion benefits if certain conditions are met: First, of their tourism industries. While the revenue- the natural attractions of the region must be capturing mechanisms summarized below are competitive with those of other international generally self-explanatory, each has advantages destinations; second, protected area authorities and disadvantages that are worth discussing. must exist that are capable of implementing con- User fees are a popular instrument for cap- servation policies and managing tourism turing revenue and particularly relevant in the impacts; and third, long-term financial support discussion of tourism in parks and protected for protected area management must be areas because they are deemed equitable (only ensured. Obviously, this third condition for suc- those who use a site pay the fee) and the link cess-guaranteeing long-term financing for between tourist use and conservation can be coral reef conservation-is the focus of this clearly demonstrated. A contentiously debated panel. Let us first review revenue sources relat- issue relating to user fees is the appropriate level ed to the tourism sector. of the fee to be charged. Numerous studies of parks and protected areas worldwide have Revenue-Generating Mechanisms demonstrated that, in the vast majority of cases, fees are too low to cover the costs associated Governments have traditionally targeted the with tourist use of natural resources. User fees tourism sector as a source of revenue. Only have increased (often with a two-tiered system recently, however, has tourism been used by some in place to keep fees low for nationals and high- countries to generate revenues dedicated to con- er for international visitors), but government serving the natural areas that are the foundation and industry concerns regarding the negative impact of fee levels on tourist arrivals continue to limit the economic contributions of user fees Table 2. Mechanisms to capture tourism revenues to conservation despite evidence that most tourists are willing to pay substantially higher User fees are charged to people who use an area or facili- fees than those currently in place. ty. Examples include admission to parks or monuments, Hotel and airport taxes are another widely fees charged to divers, special fees for accommodations, used method of collecting revenue from trophy and hunting fees, or even special fees for rescue tourism. One problem with these types of services (in the case of mountaineering). levies in terms of conservation financing is that Concession fees are charged to individuals or groups they are applied in a broad manner-to busi- licensed to provide services to visitors at selected sites. ness visitors, domestic travelers, and students, Common types of services include food, lodging, trans- as well as nature-based tourists-making the portation, guide services, and retail stores. visible link between the tax and conservation extremely weak. Creating a tangible connection Sales and royalties are a percentage of earnings from between a tax and conservation is critical as activities or products of a site tourists visit. Examples are naturebas tourist reamor willinto pa sales and royalties from books, photographs or postcards, highrees orits whe the believ their films, or pharmaceutical products made at or from prod- m eyswil make ade tribution toeon ucts at the site.wll make a drect contrbuton to con- servation of the areas they are visiting. Another Taxation of goods and services used by tourists are a problem associated specifically with hotel taxes, common way to generate revenue. Hotel, food, and airport particularly with respect to nature-based or eco- taxes are among the most common. tourism development, is that small-scale accom- Donations can be solicited from tourists for special pro- modation initiatives, such as community-based jects or routine maintenance. Examples include restora- lodges and home stay programs, often have tion of historic buildings, archeological excavation, problems complying with the collection and improved species protection or habitat purchase, or com- reporting regulations of such taxes. This can munity development activities such as schools or clinics. discourage local entrepreneurial initiatives that Source: Adapted from Brandon 1996, p. 8. are critical to distributing the benefits of The Relationship of Tourism-Related Revenue Generation to Coral Reef Conservation 95 Figure 1. Relationship of revenue-generating options to reef conservation System integration Sustainable activities Geographic scales Coastal zone management Research Ports & waterways Global Education Marine protected areas Regional Recreation Resort development National Diving/snorkeling Heritage protection Area Fishing Land uses Local Reef products Infrastructure Human settlements Revenue-generating options tourism within communities (Brandon 1996, pp. which affect reef conservation in a variety of 9-11). geographic scales, as presented in figure 1. Finally, concessions and royalties have the Any strategy to increase revenues for reef potential to raise significant amounts of money at conservation will have to take into account spe- well-known and highly visited sites because of the cific measures to assure that reef-related activi- enormous demand for goods and services. The ties (particularly scuba diving and snorkeling) economic potential of these instruments has not will be conducted in a sustainable manner, as been realized in most cases because governments encouraged by the Coral Reef Alliance. Most rarely auction off the licensing of concessions at important, there is a need for a systems integra- their true market values. Ultimately, the real tion approach that relates marine, coastal, and problem with concessions and royalties, as with land uses to coral reef impacts. With decentral- all the revenue-capturing mechanisms discussed ization coupled with privatization of govern- above, is that they are only tools by which gov- mental functions, it appears to me that the emer- ernments can generate funds from tourism. gence of a sustainable tourism movement Translating tourism revenues into actual conser- worldwide will be an important mechanism for vation funding is another matter entirely and rep- private sector direct funding or collateral sup- resents a number of extremely difficult challenges. port for providing the revenues and best prac- So how can the seemingly intractable dilem- tices needed for coral reef conservation. ma of ensuring long-term conservation financing be addressed? There are no easy answers. We Reference need to relate the revenue-generating options discussed briefly above with a more comprehen- Brandon, Katrina. 1996. "Ecotourism and sive understanding of the complex and overlap- Conservation: A Review of Key Issues," Environment ping marine, coastal, and terres-trial systems Department Paper 033, World Bank, Washington, D.C. Permanent No-Take Zones: A Minimum Standard for Effective Marine Protected Areas Callum M. Roberts University of York F ishing is a major force of change in marine divide between sustainable harvest and local ecosystems. It leads to loss of diversity and extinction. habitat damage and has been recognized as one of the major threats to the biological integri- Importance of No-Take Marine Reserves ty of marine habitats worldwide (Ginsburg 1994, Dayton and others 1995, NRC 1995, Roberts It is a remarkable fact that the majority of marine 1995a, Safina 1995). Fishing is reaching farther protected areas offer no protection whatever and farther across the exparnse of the seas. This from fishing. For example, only 0.14 percent of growing influence leaves few refuges of wild and the combined area of California's 104 marine untouched habitat. The eagles, bears, and buffa- protected areas have been closed to all fishing lo of coral reefs are vanishing as surely as they (McArdle 1997). This is tantamount to declaring have from much of North America. open season on all the wildlife within our terres- trial protected areas. If such hunting were Fishing: A Growing Threat allowed, could we really justify calling them to Marine Biodiversity protected? For just this reason, most marine pro- tected areas don't yet deserve the name, even if Take the Caribbean, for example. My own existing regulations were fully implemented. research over the last three years has document- They still lack one of the most vital forms of pro- ed the loss of some of the largest, most spectac- tection we can offer. ular fish species from huge areas of their former No-take marine reserves provide an extreme- ranges: species like the tiger grouper, yellowfin ly effective means of addressing the fishing grouper, and midnight parrot fish. Reefs are problem, particularly for coral reef habitats. A being stripped of large vertebrate species in the large and rapidly growing body of literature way the Americas lost their megafauna when confirms that if you protect reef fish stocks, then people first colonized 11,000 years ago. Like the fish live longer and grow larger (PDT 1990, Pleistocene overkill, this loss is not being Roberts and Polunin 1991, Dugan and Davis accomplished through systematic and bloody 1993, Rowley 1994, Bohnsack 1996). Research slaughter. Nor is it a consequence of the greedy also shows that over time reserves come to sup- expansion of industrialized fishing. Rather it is port populations of species with life history a creeping loss accumulating through the grad- characteristics that render them highly vulnera- ual spread and intensification of traditional ble to overfishing in the unselective fisheries fishing methods, pushing populations of the characteristic of coral reefs: long life, slow most vulnerable species across the narrow growth, late reproduction, low population den- 96 Permanent No-Take Zones 97 sity, and ease of capture (Polunin and Roberts best course will depend on local circumstances, 1993, Roberts 1995b, Russ and Alcala 1996). Even but I think that no-take status should feature in relatively lightly fished areas, differences in somewhere in all initial proposals. catchability and life history mean that the most vulnerable species will still be severely overex- Improving Compliance with No-Take Status ploited (Roberts 1997). I have become convinced that no-take marine reserves offer the only real No-take regulations are easier to enforce, in hope of preventing local and even global extinc- principle, than complex systems of rules govern- tion of large numbers of species that are intense- ing what can and cannot be fished. Bitter experi- ly harvested by unselective mean. ence shows that getting regulations to stick Preventing fishing has the added advantage requires more than just legislation; it needs long- of preventing habitat damage by fishing gear. term education and policing. This costs money, Reef conservationists' concerns are rightly and to be effective, protected areas must swiftly focused on the most destructive means, such as become self-financing to stand a chance of suc-7 dynamite, cyanide, and drive net fishing (Rubec cess. In the Caribbean, there are now numerous 1986, McAllister 1998). But almost any gear can examples of successful reserves where financing cause damage, and where fishing effort is high has been based on user fees levied on tourists reserves can offer important respite from their (Hooten and Hatziolos 1995). cumulative impacts. We are only just beginning Once established, the benefits of a no-take to appreciate the threat posed to many inverte- area for tourism begin immediately with the brate species by fishing gear damage (Dayton removal of fishers and build up rapidly as stocks and others 1995). For species that release eggs of large and exciting fish grow. From a fisher's and sperm directly into open water, reproduc- perspective a no-take zone is a mixed blessing. It tive success may depend critically on population carries an immediate cost in the form of lost fish- density. Density can be easily reduced by fishing ing grounds with only the prospect of better gear below levels necessary for successful fertil- times ahead. The economic benefits that no-take ization of eggs. areas can provide to fisheries are expected to be The problem of overfishing is so widespread substantial and accrue through export of eggs that the existence of at least one no-take zone and larvae from protected stocks to fishing should be considered an essential minimum grounds and emigration of adults from reserves standard for marine protected areas. There is a (Bohnsack 1996). However, these benefits will paradox here. While the effectiveness of a pro- take time. Models suggest fishers are likely to tected area will be greatly enhanced by the incur losses over a minimum term of three to incorporation of such an area, proposing no-take five years, until stocks build up sufficiently for status has been repeatedly demonstrated to be benefits to feed through into fish landings one of the greatest impediments to creating a (Sladek Nowlis and Roberts 1997). In many coral protected area. For an eloquent example you reef areas the contrast between the rapidly need look no further than the Florida Keys growing prosperity of the tourist industry and National Marine Sanctuary (Bohnsack 1997). the increased hardship suffered by fishers may Inclusion in the preferred management plan of cause such severe social conflict as to undermine no-take reserves covering 6 percent of the Keys a protected area before it has time to become provoked intense controversy. Minority interest effective. Such has been the case in St. Lucia, groups eventually pared them down to a mere where a change in government led to reevalua- half percent, enough remaining to establish a tion and near collapse of an ambitious and time- principle but not enough to safeguard biodiver- ly management initiative: the Soufriere Marine sity in the Keys. The dilemma for those seeking Management Area (George 1996). Forty percent to establish protected areas is whether to press of this area consists of no-take reserves, and the for no-take status at the time of establishment or short-term cost to subsistence fishers, although to drop it in the hope of achieving it later. The little in monetary terms, has proved hard for 98 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management them to bear. For a subsistence fisher the initial 1996), then interaction distances will be even cost of creating no-take areas may make all the shorter. The existence of short interaction dis- difference between just getting by and not get- tances has several implications. The first is that ting by at all. to interact effectively, reserves must be estab- The Caribbean model for self-financing pro- lished in dense networks, much denser than the tected areas channels all the money from tourist present sparse and scattered distribution charac- user fees directly into running costs. Perhaps a teristic for most of the world's oceans. The better model would be to charge more and chan- depressing fact is that the miserable half a per- nel some revenue into a fund to provide devel- cent of the seas currently declared protected is opment assistance to fishermen losing out in the utterly insufficient to safeguard marine biodi- short term through no-take area creation. In this versity (particularly as hardly any of this area is way fishers would have a greater stake in the no-take). success of tourism, would suffer less while fish Two other implications of short interaction stocks build up, and would have a greater incen- distances among reefs offer more encourage- tive to abide by no-take regulations. Surveys ment for conservation. International cooperation suggest that tourists would be willing to pay in marine resource management is essential to substantially more toward parks than the mod- the creation of effective networks. Until now est fees they currently pay (Allan Smith and Tom such networking has scarcely been attempted, van't Hof, personal communications). The prob- perhaps because people have been put off by the lems in St. Lucia appear to have been solved for apparent difficulty of deciding who should be the time being through an offer of government partner states in management coalitions. Surface compensation to fishers. Development funds current patterns impose direction and distance channeled from users via the protected area constraints on connectivity of living marine might provide a more enduring solution. resources, and mapping current flows allows management partners to be readily identified. Networking No-Take Reserves A further obstacle to creating management networks has been a perception that the more For coral reef areas, almost no marine reserve is states you add, the less likely you are to reach too small to benefit from no-take status. In St. agreement on substantive issues. Short interac- Lucia we have found a reserve measuring a bare tion distances imply that the numbers of partner 150 by 175 meters, which has supported a states necessary for any given nation will actual- remarkable buildup in fish stocks compared ly be rather small and lie well within practical with adjacent unprotected reefs (Roberts and bounds. Even for a region as politically diverse Hawkins 1997). Of course, marine species have as the Caribbean I found the average number of very open populations, with local replenishment partner states (upstream and downstream) to often depending on reproduction elsewhere. range between just four and seven. What I am Consequently, populations in small reserves advocating is a shift away from thinking in cannot be self-sustaining. To offer any hope of terms of vast regional management coalitions to maintaining viable populations of the large a system of smaller groupings of nations con- species threatened by overfishing, reserves must cerned more intimately with ensuring mutual interact with others in networks spanning success in natural resource protection. Such regions. Recent work I have done exploring con- groupings will overlap one another but could be nectivity patterns in the Caribbean suggests that embedded within broader international coali- interaction distances among reefs are relatively tions that agree on guiding principles for man- short, of the order of 100 to 200 kilometers, agement. However, their more limited member- although some reefs interact over much longer ship would be better suited to tackling the distances (Roberts, forthcoming). If larvae details of local agreements. behave in ways that increase local retention, and A final consequence of short interaction dis- recent work suggests that many do (Boehlert tances among reefs is that establishing reserves Permanent No-Take Zones 99 need not be seen as altruistic act only creating Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 50: 2029-42. distant beneficiaries far downstream. Instead, it George, S. 1996. "A Review of the Creation, means that reserves should provide local bene- Implementation and Initial Operation of the fits too. Since most efforts to establish no-take Soufriere Marine Management Area." reserves stand or fall on the perception of local Department of Fisheries, St. Lucia. benefits, this is welcome news. Ginsburg, R. N., ed. 1994. "Proceedings of the Colloquium on Global Aspects of Coral Acknowledgments Reefs: Health, Hazards and History, 1993." Rosenstiel School of Marine and My work in St. Lucia has been in collaboration Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, with the Department of Fisheries and the Florida. Soufriere Marine Management Area. My sincere Hooten, A. J., and M. E. Hatziolos. 1995. thanks to the many people within both organi- Sustainable Financing Mechanisms for Coral zations who have assisted and facilitated these Reef Conservation. Proceedings of a work- studies. Thanks also to Scuba St. Lucia for their shop. Environmentally Sustainable generous support of fieldwork. The United Development Proceedings Series No. 9. States Agency for International Development, Washington, D.C.: World Bank. the United Kingdom's Darwin Initiative, and the McAllister, D. E. 1988. "Environmental, Natural Environment Research Council have Economic and Social Costs of Coral Reef funded research in St. Lucia. The ideas within Destruction in the Philippines." Galaxea 7: this paper have benefited from discussions with 161-78. many people. Particular thanks are due to McArdle, D. A., ed. 1997. California Marine Michael Allard, Bill Ballantine, Jim Bohnsack, Protected Areas. La Jolla, Calif.: University of Sarah George, Julie Hawkins, Tom van't Hof, California. Josh Sladek Nowlis, Sue Wells, Kai Wulf, and NRC (National Research Council). 1995. Horace Walters. "Understanding Marine Biodiversity: A Research Agenda for the Nation." References Committee on Biological Diversity in Marine Systems, National Academy Press, Boehlert, G.W. 1996. "Larval Dispersal and Washington, D.C. Survival in Tropical Reef Fishes." In N. V. C. PDT (Plan Development Team). 1990. "The Polunin and C. M. Roberts, eds., Reef Potential of Marine Fishery Reserves for Reef Fisheries. London: Chapman & Hall. Fish Management in the U.S. Southern Bohnsack, J. A. 1996. "Maintenance and Atlantic." NOAA Technical Memorandum Recovery of Reef Fishery Productivity." In NMFS-SEFC-261. N. V. C. Polunin and C. M. Roberts, eds. Polunin, N. V. C., and C. M. Roberts. 1993. Reef Fisheries. London: Chapman & Hall. "Greater Biomass and Value of Target Coral Bohnsack, J. A. 1997. "Consensus Development Reef Fishes in Two Small Caribbean Marine and the Use of Marine Reserves in the Reserves." Marine Ecology Progress Series 100: Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary." 167-76. Proceedings of the Eighth International Coral Roberts, C. M. 1995a. "Effects of Fishing on the Reef Symposium, Panama, 1996. Ecosystem Structure of Coral Reefs." Dayton, P. K., S. F. Thrush, M. T. Agardy, and Conservation Biology 9: 65-91. R.J. Hofman. 1995. "Environmental Effects of . 1995b. "Rapid Build-up of Fish Biomass Marine Fishing. Aquatic Conservation: Marine in a Caribbean Marine Reserve." Conservation and Freshwater Ecosystems. 5: 2-28. Biology 9: 815-26. Dugan, J. E., and G. E. Davis. 1993. Roberts, C. M. 1997. "Ecological Advice for the "Applications of Marine Refugia to Coastal Global Fisheries Crisis." Trends in Ecology and Fisheries Management." Canadian Journal of Evolution 12: 35-8. 100 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management Roberts, C. M. Forthcoming. "Connectivity and Cyanide on Coral Reefs and Marine Fishes in Management of Caribbean Coral Reefs." the Philippines." In J. L. MacLean, L. B. Science. Dizon, and L. V. Hosillos, eds., The First Roberts, C. M., and J. P. Hawkins. 1997. "How Asian Fisheries Forum. Manila: Asian Fisheries Small Can a Marine Reserve Be and Still Be Society. Effective?" Coral Reefs 16: 150. Russ, G. R., and A. C. Alcala. 1996. "Marine Roberts, C. M., and N. V. C. Polunin. 1991. "Are Reserves: Rates and Patterns of Recovery Marine Reserves Effective in Management of and Decline of Large Predatory Fish." Reef Fisheries?" Reviews in Fish Biology and Ecological Applications 6: 947-61. Fisheries 1: 65-91. Safina, C. 1995. "The World's Imperiled Fish." Rowley, R. J. 1994. "Case Studies and Reviews: Scientific American 273: 46-53. Marine Reserves in Fisheries Management." Sladek Nowlis, J., and C. M. Roberts. 1997. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater "Theoretical Approaches to Marine Reserve Ecosystems 4: 233-54. Design." Proceedings of the Eighth International Rubec, P. J. 1986. "The Effects of Sodium Coral Reef Symposium, Panama, 1996. Tropical Marine Reserves Should Encompass Spawning Aggregation Sites R. E. Johannes R. E. Johannes Pty. Ltd. M any coral reef food fishes aggregate in ly in the Indo-Pacific, have recognized and acted large numbers at specific locations, upon the need to locate, characterize, and pro- seasons, and moon phases in order to tect them. The problem is almost certainly accel- spawn. Such fishes include groupers, snappers, erating, not only because the fishing pressure of emperors, jacks, mullets, bonefish, rabbitfish, growing populations, but also because of the and others. A variety of such species will often ease with which fishermen can relocate aggrega- spawn at common sites. tions today with global positioning systems, and These aggregations are prime targets for fish- the targeting of spawning aggregations by the ers, who often take large catches from them. In billion-dollar-and-fast-expanding live reef food consequence, a number of them have been fish trade centered in China. wiped out, along with the fisheries they sup- The most widely discussed marine conserva- ported. This is best documented for groupers tion measure in shallow tropical waters is the but is by no means limited to them. In the west- marine reserve. Proponents often assert that the ern Atlantic, grouper aggregations with a histo- most important function of marine reserves is to ry of heavy fishing pressure have disappeared in protect spawning stock biomass and ensure Puerto Rico, St. Thomas, Florida, and the recruitment to fished areas by means of larval Dominican Republic, along with the fisheries dispersal. Clearly, for that reason, the bound- they supported. In addition, marked declines in aries of such reserves should, wherever practi- aggregations size have been noted in Belize, cal, encompass spawning aggregation sites. Bermuda, and elsewhere in the region. Moreover, the presence of an important spawn- Although statistics on grouper stocks in the ing aggregation site would in some cases be jus- Pacific are scant, groupers have been virtually tification in itself for the establishment of a eliminated by overfishing in at least five loca- marine reserve. Such, for example, is the main tions within Palau, the Cook Islands, the Society reason for the Palauan government's declaring Islands, the Tuamotus, and on the Great Barrier Ngerumekaol a marine reserve. Reef. At three of these locations fishing over There is little evidence in the literature, how- spawning aggregations has been specifically ever, indicating that spawning aggregation sites implicated. It may also have been a contributing were given any consideration when the bound- factor in the other two. aries of most marine reserves were drawn. Badly It is very likely that a great many other aggre- needed, therefore, are: gations of groupers and other species have been * Efforts to locate and characterize spawning eliminated without written record because of the aggregation sites. slowness with which marine biologists, especial- * Spawning aggregations and associated sites 101 102 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management are very poorly documented except for por- be sought when searching for and charac- tions of the western Atlantic and certain terizing these sites. Pacific Islands. The Great Barrier Reef is an example of an important reef area where Protection of Important Spawning very little has been recorded concerning the Aggregation Sites timing and location of such aggregations, let alone efforts made to protect them. Those who plan to establish or redefine a marine * Fishers often know far more about the loca- reserve in nearshore tropical waters should ensure tion and timing of spawning aggregations that it is located, if possible, so as to protect impor- than researchers. Indeed more than 20 dif- tant spawning aggregations. Other means of pro- ferent researchers have acknowledged in tection include closing spawning grounds or clos- their publications that it was fishers who ing fishing for important species during the enabled them to locate the spawning aggre- spawning season. Most of the few examples of gations that they subsequently studied. For such protection of nearshore tropical spawning this reason the assistance of fishers should aggregations are found in the western Atlantic. The Role of Marine Protected Areas in Coral Reef Conservation Tundi Agardy Conservation International M k farine protected areas (MPAs) serve demonstrate how integrated coastal man- myriad roles in conserving coral reef agement may actually be achieved, and biological diversity, creating opportu- starting points for scaling up conservation nities for sustainable use and stewardship, and so that it approaches ecosystem scales that promoting effective management of reef are appropriate to these vast systems. We resources. Specifically, these objectives include, haven't done a very good job of learning among other things: from existing MPA efforts, and we rarely * Protecting reef habitats from dynamite fish- harness the knowledge we have in order to ing, cyanide fishing, and other destructive scale up our protection and sustainable use. extractive industries And unless we do so, and address the con- @ Developing ecotourism that minimizes text in which these minute islands of pro- environmental costs and maximizes eco- tection sit, our investments will prove use- nomic benefits less over time. * Providing a means for more effective fish- * We tend to establish MPAs where they are eries management needed least: in relatively pristine areas * Providing sites for research that have few user conflicts and that are an * Finding means for involving local commu- "easy sell" to the donor community. Though nities in management and promoting stew- I recognize that we must be realistic and ardship look for conservation opportunities wher- * Increasing the perceived value of reef areas in ever they may occur, we are doing the seas the minds of decisionmakers and investors. and their biodiversity a great disservice in These are worthy targets for conservation, staying away from the problem areas. and MPAs serve as invaluable tools for achieving Establishing MPAs in relatively trouble- them. In fact, in some areas MPAs may be the free areas may make conservationists and only feasible method for dealing with the com- their supporters feel good about their plex suite of problems affecting reef areas today. work, but inevitably this squanders pre- However, it may be that many of our coral cious resources. It also allows decisionmak- reef conservation investments that rely on estab- ers to feel as if they have adequately lishment of MPAs are at risk-in other words, addressed marine conservation issues, and we may in fact be investing poorly. This is for will eventually lead to a potentially disas- two reasons: trous complacency. * We tend to treat MPAs as end points instead Broadly speaking, one can view the impetus of starting points-starting points to for establishing MPAs as being of three kinds: (a) 103 104 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management proactive conservation, in which individual opposed to the easy places that are biologically MPAs or MPA networks are established to pro- rich but relatively intact; (b) efforts to establish tect relatively pristine, representative habitats or marine protected areas in biologically important "hot spots" of biodiversity; (b) interactive con- places that are currently outside the geographic servation, in which MPAs are established to scope of what most conservation groups consid- resolve user conflicts and promote stewardship er priority areas (for example, west Africa, parts or wise use of ocean space and resources; or (c) of Latin America such as the Abrolhos reef of reactive conservation, in which MPAs are estab- Brazil, and Micronesia); and (c) efforts to move lished to help degraded ecosystems recover up from small-scale MPA conservation to scales from overexploitation and misuse. Networks of that are appropriate to the ecosystem (for exam- marine protected areas are most commonly ple, national or regional scales). planned and implemented with proactive con- In the developing world, government agen- servation in mind-but personally I believe cies must be involved-but should not be relied MPAs have greatest value in mitigating existing upon to play the lead role in establishing MPAs. negative impacts on ecosystems and on the Most governments don't have the institutional human communities that rely on them. framework or capacity to plan or manage MPAs. The benefits provided by MPAs, when they Parastatal organizations that have representa- are planned correctly and implemented effec- tion from traditional government sectors (for tively, go well beyond their usefulness in con- example, ministries of parks, wildlife, fisheries, serving coral reef resources and biodiversity on- and tourism) are a tried and true means to effec- site: MPAs can provide salient examples of how tive management of MPAs, and such multiparty to effectively integrate management, use science groups can keep interagency disputes to a mini- as a basis for policy, and involve stakeholders in mum. Nongovernmental organizations often the management process. Through their demon- play a vital role as honest brokers and can in stration role, MPAs give us concrete, testable some cases be relied upon to oversee manage- models for how we ought to be practicing ment or monitoring of an MPA. Academic insti- marine conservation at even larger scales: tutions and research agencies within govern- national, regional, and even global. This addi- ment also play a vital role in MPA planning, tional value of MPAs is often overlooked by though in management their roles are usually those who would judge the effectiveness of any superseded by organizations established specif- single MPA merely by how well it protects the ically to oversee the operation of the MPA. Last, habitats and species within its boundaries. bilaterals and multilaterals can play crucial roles There is without question great need for uti- in providing additional support and incentives lizing MPAs fully in all their possible roles, and for MPA establishment. for creating such demonstration models. We are International agreements such as the losing marine biological diversity, irreversibly Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and effecting coastal habitats, and lowering the qual- the multilateral agreements under the Commis- ity of human life in coastal communities every sion on Sustainable Development (CSD) can be second. This has consequences not only for harnessed to add even greater support for MPA ocean advocates and coastal peoples themselves, efforts, but these international forums provide but indeed for the entire biosphere. Sadly, we are countries with little guidance as to where, when, destroying the worlds' oceans even as we come and how to initiate marine conservation mea- to appreciate their importance. sures. My fear is that countries that are obligat- Three areas come to mind as deserving par- ed to establish MPAs, or other management ticular support from multilaterals: (a) efforts to measures under such treaties, will do so in establish individual MPAs or networks of MPAs places where they are least needed: areas that in places where coral reef conservation is inher- are largely unthreatened and remote. ently difficult-that is, where user conflicts exist One of the great failures of marine conserva- and degradation is already occurring, as tion is that conservation groups and decision- The Role of Marine Protected Areas in Coral Reef Conservation 105 makers rarely work to identify root causes of graphic areas, such as marine protected areas conservation problems in areas that they deem (including biosphere reserves), microenterprise worthy of conservation attention. Most typically, projects, community-based ecotourism, land the types of conservation projects undertaken in management projects, and so forth. It will also a particular place will reflect the interests and have to embrace, or at the very least work in capacities of the lead institution, not the reality of synergy with, the larger policy elements. These what is needed to fix the problem. Conservation broad-based policy elements are the ships that resources are often wasted when management the field projects act to anchor. Conservation action and protection are piecemeal. organizations can and must work to gain maxi- In order to be truly strategic, conservation ini- mum leverage from intemational conventions tiatives in priority areas will thus have to address such as CBD, Law of the Sea (LOS), and the CSD the most important root causes of degradation agreements, and should work to build up capac- and biodiversity loss. Once root causes and their ity for regionally coordinated work. There will drivers are identified, those tools most effective be additional opportunities to work with indus- in addressing these causes should be chosen try to develop best practice guidelines and from the conservation toolbox that is available. incentive measures for sustainable use, at either Some of these tools will be local-scale initiatives local scales or greater. In all these initiatives, such as marine protected areas and microenter- however, it will be necessary to explicitly link prise projects. Others will be larger in scale, the anchors to the ships-creating lines where involving advocacy, education, and work toward none exist and increasing their potential to bringing about changes in policies. leverage influence in either direction. The World Yet it is not enough to choose appropriate Bank and other multilaterals can continue to tools and use them. In order to be most effective, support local-scale MPA and other projects in marine initiatives should be undertaken in a coral reef s around the world, but they will be synergistic and integrated way. A metaphor for most effective only if they promote the estab- this is borrowed from marine navigation, lishment of MPAs in areas under threat, support involving ships, their anchors, and the lines that efforts to scale up from the site-specific to the connect the two. Any strategic reef conservation regional, and work to ensure that regional and effort will have to have site-specific elements global policies are conducive to effective and that act as conservation anchors in priority geo- efficacious marine conservation. The Reefs at Cancuin: A Social Laboratory Juan E. Bezaury Creel Amigos de Sian Kaian A. C ack in the early 1970s a group of notable named the Mesoamerican Caribbean Reef islanders from Isla Mujeres, Quintana System, which originates at Isla Contoy, Roo, noticed that the local reefs were Quintana Roo, and follows the coast through rapidly deteriorating. This was due mainly to Belize and Guatemala to the Bay Islands in overfishing and the increased use generated by Honduras. The two most northerly polygons of the incipient development of the federally the park are located within the Northern financed tourist city of Cancuin. These islanders Quintana Roo Patch Reefs Subprovince; Isla persuaded the Secretariat of Industry and Mujeres has patch reefs mainly at Manchones, Commerce, which had the responsibility of fish- and Punta Cancun has patch reefs at Cuevones eries management, to create a "marine flora and and Chitales and a rocky "shelf edge" about 1.5 fauna refuge" named Costa Occidental de Isla meters high at a depth of 60 to 75 feet that con- Mujeres, Punta Cancun y Nizuc. The presiden- centrates fish and contains various dive sites. tial decree was published February 7, 1973, spec- The third polygon of Punta Cancuin is located at ifying that no fisheries, no waste disposal, and the northernmost portion of the Northern no use of explosives could take place within the Quintana Roo Shallow Fringing Reefs Sub- three specific areas, or polygons (figure 1). province, presenting a complex reef crest system Over 20 years passed, and Cancun became a (locally known as the first, second, and third touristic giant of over 20,000 hotel rooms, receiv- barriers), and it contains the only spur and ing close to 2,000,000 visitors a year and sup- groove formations in this subprovince (and the porting a city of over 350,000 people where northernmost in the Mesoamerican system). nothing had existed less than a generation Although each and every area is ecologically before. As to the foresight that created the unique, the social uniqueness of this area is far refuge, it was clearly a typical case of the "paper more important, since one can find richer and park" syndrome. Because of the public's consis- better developed reef ecosystems south of tent outcry, federal, state, and municipal author- Cancun, but certainly no richer and more ities tried to regulate the highly abused reef diverse interaction between man and the reefs. areas; however, it was "discovered" that the old Tourist activities are diverse within the area. presidential decree dealt only with fisheries and The Costa Occidental de Isla Mujeres polygon is pollution and lacked teeth to control tourism, by mainly a snorkeling destination with some now the main destructive factor. scuba diving activities. It presents many con- Costa Occidental de Isla Mujeres, Punta trasts. For example, small, local operators, most Cancun y Nizuc, is located almost on the north- of them organized in tourist cooperatives, are ernmost portion of what has recently been the vast majority of stakeholders in this polygon. 106 The Reefs at Cancun: A Social Laboratory 107 They provide for the low-cost end of the tourist As can be deduced from the activities demand based in Isla Mujeres and are basically described above, there is no lack of creativity in self-employed ex-fishermen who own a boat or finding new and innovative ways of placing two. On the other side of the scale there are the ordinary couch potatoes in direct contact with Cancuin-based businesses that take tourists from the reefs. The impact of all these activities on the Cancun to Isla Mujeres on various tours, includ- first barrier has been devastating for most corals ing a state-of-the-art tourist submarine that vis- and sponges, but nevertheless, there still exists its artificial reefs, reef diving, snorkeling/day- enough fish life to sustain the place as a tourist at-the beach/ shopping, "lobster by candlelight" attraction. or "pirate night" dinners on a ship, and a multi- As for the original presidential decree, pro- ple variety of what can be generically termed hibiting fishing within the polygons, presently "booze cruises," which at some point include no lobster and very few large edible fish can be flippers, a mask, and a snorkel. readily observed within the area. Local fisher- Punta Cancun's activities are run by medium- men continue to fish these areas early in the sized to large operators who provide mostly scuba morning before tourists arrive. Additionally, diving trips and two nonsubmersible fish observa- pollution from the great concentration of motor- tion vessels that seat people on the ship's keel. boats has become apparent, and at least in two Punta Nizuc contains what we believe is the sites-El Garrafon and the first barrier of Punta single most intensely used reef in the world. Nizuc-reef damage seems to be irreversible. This small portion of the polygon, located in the In 1995 the Subcommittee for the Protection first barrier, is no more than 400 meters long and of Nichupte Lagoon (a coordinating forum that 100 meters wide, or 4 hectares in total area. This includes national, state, and local governmnent; section of reef receives an average of 1,700 visi- stakeholders; academics; and nongovernmental tors a day, resulting in over 600,000 visitors a year on 358 double-seated waverunners and 29 Figure 1. Costa Occidental de Isla Mujeres, Puerta large vessels. This situation arises from an Cancun y Nizuc unique Canctinean touristic product named the Jungle Tour, a visitor activity with a high impact. It consists of minifleets of five double-seater I waverunners that follow a leading vessel I around Nichupte Lagoon, past a mangrove channel, and out to sea; they tie down west of the first barrier of Nizuc, where the tourists snorkel before going back to the marina. Jungle tours account for 80 percent of the visitors to this polygon; the other 20 percent gain access to the . ............ . .... . ... reef using the larger vessels. Most of these ves- sels are used as bases for snorkeling activities, but the largest company has anchored a plat- form by the first barrier, complete with bath- rooms and lockers, a restaurant and bar, a di vee / shop, a souvenir shop, and a sun deck. This / facility is used as a way station for vessels' called the Reef Express that run back and forth from the marina to the platform each hour. The plat- form is also used as the boarding station for four nonsubmersible fish observation vessels. The I [ latest permit application describes an underwa- ter motorcycle for individual use. l ' __ 108 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunitiesfor Sustainable Management organizations) created a Technical Council for over into other areas, where they cannot be as Reefs that worked towards the recategorization easily controlled by park staff. To achieve this, of the refuge as a national park. These efforts trails would need to be designed and construct- resulted in the publication by the Secretariat of ed using rosaries of buoys and unorthodox park Environment, Natural Resources, and Fisheries practices-such as fish feeding-would need to on July 19, 1996, of the Presidential Decree for be continued, for such places to remain attrac- the Park, with three redefined polygons and a tive to unsophisticated snorkelers. The better- total area of 8,673 hectares. The designated area trained and supposedly more "conscious" scuba includes extensive sea grass communities along divers with more sophisticated tastes would be with the reefs. allowed to spread out as administrative man- By July 24, 1996, through an agreement agement capacity increases. In short, certain between the federal government and most of the parts of the reef should be managed as "sacrifi- participants of the Technical Council for Reefs, cial reefs" in order to protect others, because of the park's Planning Council was formed. That the high demand of reef visits generated by same day, a trust fund was established by an Cancun as a valid conservation strategy. agreement signed between the federal govern- Second, the financial sustainability of the ment and the tour operators, in which the latter park needs to be further defined, since not all would voluntarily deposit a "maintenance fee" touristic operators have been diligent in deposit- for the park. A park director with 11 staff mem- ing their voluntary maintenance fees for the bers established an office with three patrol ves- park, resulting in only a 50 percent compliance sels and minimum equipment, serving to inte- rate. At this point, we should analyze the park's grate the first effort for operating the park. A potential for income generation. management plan is being developed, along It has been estimated that close to 1,000,000 with regulations for park use. people a year visit all three of the park's poly- Although the park is well on its way to gons. The legal entrance fee for all Mexican pro- becoming an effective vehicle for natural tected areas is around US$2.75 per person, which resource protection and sustainable use of reef means that a theoretical $2,750,000 could be col- resources, some points need further clarification. lected just from entrance fees. By law, these funds First, the issue of environmental sustainabili- need to be collected and sent to the Secretariat of ty needs to be addressed within a larger context. Public Financing, since a mechanism for recycling Some areas of the park are beyond their carrying operating funds generated within protected areas capacity and are being overused. On the other has not yet been implemented, but one is still hand, the overuse of these areas has prevented being actively sought. This is one of the main rea- damage to adjacent sites that receive little or no sons why the voluntary trust fund model was use (for example, the second and third barriers chosen to finance the park. in Nizuc). An interesting phenomenon was fore- In this model the number of usable seats for seen and later observed with the creation of the the total number of vessels was first determined park and the enforcement of access to Nizuc (5,227 seats on 589 vessels). A seat cost factor only by permit-holding vessels. The ex-pirates was determined to reach a collection goal for overflowed the park and went with their jungle 1997 of $285,000. This factor was differentiated tours farther south, generating the establish- by activity: a higher factor for the most prof- ment of the Puerto Morelos Reef National Park a itable activities, lower factors for inexpensive year after the one in Cancun was created, to con- activities, and the use of the park for nonreef- trol this overflow. related activities and to cooperative members. My personal opinion is that the heavily used The seat cost factor, per number of seats each areas should be managed in such a way that tour operator had in its vessels, was the amount deterioration does not go further or expand to to deposit monthly in the trust fund, using two other areas, in order to keep activities concen- trade associations-one for the Cancun opera- trated within a site and not allow them to spill tors and the others for those from Isla Mujeres. The Reefs at Cancgn: A Social Laboratory 109 The amount collected through this model, on its collective interest, such as a collection model first year of application (that is, if fully paid that would allow the government to verify because of its voluntary nature), is equivalent to their taxable base (like the full collection an average of $0.285 per user, or 10 percent of model). On the other hand, there is an abysmal the legal entrance fee. difference between the financial capacities of Thus, it is obvious that the potential of the tour operators from Cancunh and those from Isla park for generating income lies somewhere in Mujeres. Nevertheless, they are the first line of between these scenarios. Choosing the full col- contact with the visitors, and their cooperation lection model implies enforcement and adminis- and participation-since they are important trative costs of diminishing return, and that the stakeholders-are basic necessities for the park has the potential to generate resources not park's well-being. only for its upkeep, but also for management of The economic impact of the park on the com- other areas with less demand from tourists. This munities of Canciun and Isla Mujeres is yet to be is also true for other national parks in the region, determined, but an area that is used by one out such as Cozumel Reefs and Isla Contoy, where of every two visitors must certainly play a sig- tour operators have voluntarily participated in nificant role in the local economy. On the other financing programs that charge less than the hand, the potential for the creation of environ- legal entrance fees, and produce visible manage- mental awareness concerning coral reefs and ment effects from the money spent. their importance is very high, and programs Nevertheless, tour operators have been very should be implemented to make the best of this active in opposing the application of legal fees. potential. The tour operators in Cancun and Isla The renewed experiment is less than a year Mujeres are fierce competitors in a very com- and a half old, but it has already generated a petitive market. Because of the diversified stream of new lines of thought and action on nature of their services, they have difficulty in participatory protected area management in agreeing among themselves on many of the Mexico. Turning a paper park into a real one is important issues related to park management no easy task. Time will tell us if we are able to (including the use of the Punta Nizuc platform, balance the need to protect the environment which has become a critical issue). Exceptions with everyday economic necessities. But isn't exist for those issues that directly threaten their that what sustainable development is all about? Entrepreneurial Marine Protected Areas: Small-Scale, Commercially Supported Coral Reef Protected Areas Stephen Colwell The Coral ReefAlliance M k f arine protected areas (MPAs) are wide- 1996, Sobel 1993). The Global Representative ly acknowledged as having great System of Marine Protected Areas (GRSMPA) potential for protecting coral reef habi- proposed by the World Conservation Union tats and related marine life. Despite this poten- (IUCN), the World Bank, and others is an ambi- tial, many MPAs in coral reef areas lack suffi- tious program to create a worldwide network of cient funding and management and therefore do primarily large-scale MPAs that would ultimate- not provide any real protection. This paper ly protect 10 percent of all marine and coastal explores the current involvement of dive resorts areas (Kelleher and others 1995). A global repre- in the creation and management of MPAs and sentative system of MPAs would provide suggests that, in some circumstances, dive unprecedented protection for marine habitats resorts, which have a vested economic interest in and inhabitants, thus the efforts to create this promoting abundant marine life, can become the system deserve enthusiastic, global support. primary stewards of small-scale, commercially Unfortunately, like most ambitious projects, supported MPAs in coral reef areas. implementation of the GRSMPA poses a number of substantial political, legal, and management Background challenges: a global system of large-scale MPAs would require agreement among many conflict- There is no single, ideal model for creating pro- ing resource stakeholders, vast amounts of tected areas for coral reefs. While important financing and capacity building, and decades of management principles have been identified for development to become fully operational years, (Kenchington and Hudson 1984) and (Kelleher 1996). guidelines created for establishing marine pro- A simultaneous and complementary approach tected areas (MPAs)(Kelleher and Kenchington to the GRSMPA is to create a network of widely 1991), the actual structure of a successful MPA is dispersed small reserves in addition to the large highly dependent upon a variety of local biolog- reserves (Jameson and others 1995). Small-scale ical, geographic, social, political, and economic MPAs may be especially appropriate in coral factors (Kelleher and others 1995). In certain reef areas, where nearby reefs can be managed instances, small-scale, commercially supported by local communities and nongovernmental MPAs may provide the best form of protection organizations (NGOs) (Alcala 1995, White and for coral reef areas. others 1994). In addition to community-based MPAs are widely acknowledged as having MPAs, in certain circumstances dive resorts or great potential for protecting coral reef habitats similar commercial entities can act as the prima- and related marine life (Eichbaum and others ry stewards of coral reef resources as managers 110 Entrepreneurial Marine Protected Areas 111 of small-scale MPAs. The key to the success of Dive Resorts and MPAs this approach is to acknowledge dive resorts or other commercial entities as full partners in the Dive resorts in a number of coral reef areas planning and management of the MPAs, not just already serve as de facto stewards of local as potential sources of revenue to support the marine resources. MPAs have proved to be effec- MPA. The lessons of community-based manage- tive tourist attractions (Agardy 1991); the ment strategies for coral reef areas apply equal- increased marine life found in MPAs is a magnet ly well to commercially supported MPA efforts: for scuba divers, snorkelers, glass-bottom without substantial input of all key stakeholders boaters, and other marine enthusiasts. There are in defining issues, selecting management strate- a number of examples where resorts have gies, and implementing management measures, become active participants in the management the best-laid plans for MPA management will of existing MPAs or the moving forces behind fail (White and others 1994). the creation of new MPAs: At the El Nido Resort, Palawan, Philippines, frequent use of the sur- Entrepreneurial MPAs rounding area by the resort's diving boats (staffed by deputized rangers) has proved to be In this paper, small-scale, commercially sup- the most effective method of enforcing the local ported MPAs will be referred to as entrepre- restrictions on destructive fishing practices. The neurial MPAs to distinguish them from other Sandy Bay/West End Reserve, in Roatan, small-scale MPAs established by governments, Honduras, was started in 1991 and financially community groups, or NGOs. Entrepreneurial supported for four years by one local resort; MPAs cannot provide the comprehensive pro- local NGOs, other hotels, and dive operations tection ultimately required on a global level, but have joined to expand the scope of the reserve. they may perform several valuable functions The Kungkungan Bay Resort, Lembeh Straits, including: Indonesia, is in the early stage of creating an - Protecting discrete areas that serve as MPA, but it has already been successful in refuges for threatened marine life attracting government support for dismantling • Building local capacity in MPA management an enormous fish trap that was decimating the * Acting as test cases for MPA management local marine life, and thus reducing the area's techniques attractiveness for marine tourists (Colwell forth- - Building public awareness of and support coming). In each case, the resort owners and for MPAs managers determined that protecting the local * Providing core areas for larger, slower- coral reefs was the best way to protect the long- developing MPAs. term financial viability of their resorts. Entrepreneurial MPAs have the advantage of using existing commercial infrastructure (such Strategy for Creating a Network of Small- as boats and communications equipment) and Scale Entrepreneurial MPAs management structures, making it possible to create these small-scale MPAs more quickly and While tourism is often cited for its potential to to institute management regimes more easily fund MPAs (Kelleher and others 1995) there is than with large-scale MPAs. Thus, entrepreneur- very little focus on the potential of a commercial ial MPAs may have a better chance of providing enterprise to be the primary manager of marine the success stories that planners and managers resources. Scientists, conservationists, govern- need in order to convince a broader audience of ments, and local communities all have their own the value of MPAs. The ultimate goal of this reasons for hesitating to surrender control of an approach is to create an expanded network of MPA to a commercial entity: there is great poten- small, locally run MPAs that use tourism or tial for abuse of power by a resort or other com- other commercial support to achieve long-term mercial entity that has profit as its primary economic and environmental sustainability. motive and does not answer to a public con- 112 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management stituency. Nonetheless, the demonstrated poten- * Build a network of small-scale MPA opera- tial of resorts to serve the public good through tors to share experiences and form a possi- MPAs while pursuing private goals seems to jus- ble basis for joint marketing of MPA resorts. tify exploration of whether more functional * Evaluate the progress of each MPA and MPAs can be created and managed by private share lessons with potential local partners enterprises. While it is essential to guard against in other communities that might consider surrendering too much authority to commercial establishing their own protected areas. entities, this must be balanced by efforts to cre- It should be stressed that the entrepreneur- ate a framework where the management poten- ial MPA approach is not intended to compete tial of commercial partners is utilized. As with with either GRSMPA or community-based any partnership, choosing the right partners and efforts to build MPAs. In fact, integration with creating a working relationship that explores other MPA programs and networks will be crit- and incorporates the interests of all parties is the ical to the success of this program. Further, this best guarantee of success. CORAL (the Coral strategy will work only in limited circum- Reef Alliance, a nonprofit conservation organi- stances. Most notably, it will work only in coral zation in the United States) is instituting a pilot reef areas that have sufficient marine resources program to promote small-scale coral reef MPAs and are accessible enough to attract a steady, in developing countries. One element of this paying clientele of scuba divers and snorkelers program is focused on entrepreneurial MPAs. to help offset the costs of the MPA (Colwell The basic plan is to work with dive resorts, sci- 1995). The selection of entrepreneurial MPA entists, educators, governments, conservation- sites would be primarily market-driven rather ists, and experts in MPA and community-based than based on the priorities developed for the management to: GRSMPA. Nonetheless, even the best-financed * Develop educational materials on MPA cre- entrepreneurial MPA will need to adhere to ation and management designed for dive most of the management principles recom- resorts and similar commercial enterprises. mended by the GRSMPA as well as develop * Use networks of scientists, NGOs, govern- local community support if it hopes to be sus- ments, the tourism industry, and others to tainable in the long run. identify opportunities for creating small- There are a number of other potential prob- scale, sustainable marine protected areas lems with small-scale MPAs (whether commu- with local commercial partners. nity or commercially based) such as concern * Determine with each local partner the need that the area they protect may be too small to for technical and material assistance and provide real benefits in preserving biodiversity. provide necessary training and consultation Although small-scale projects may not provide to increase local capacity. the same total ecosystem protection offered by a * Establish a clearinghouse for information on large-scale MPA, many countries have small materials needed by commercial partners to reefs only, therefore regional or national admin- create and manage MPAs (from mooring istration of these MPAs is less practical (Alcala buoys to communications equipment). 1995), and even very small coral reef reserves * Provide microloans of $3,000 to $15,000 per (from 1 to 3 square kilometers) have been suc- year from a Coral Reef Conservation Fund cessful in increasing the abundance and size of to support entrepreneurial MPAs. A parallel fish and other marine life (Roberts 1994). From microgrant program will support commu- a management perspective, the most successful nity-based management of small-scale coral MPAs in developing countries have been small- reef protected areas. The fund would be cre- scale projects that include local stakeholder ated and replenished by grants, contribu- input and accountability (White and others tions from CORAL members, other private 1994, Alcala 1995). donors, and the dive/tourism industry, as Ultimately, for entrepreneurial MPAs to be well as by repayment of microloans. truly successful they must be a part of a more Entrepreneurial Marine Protected Areas 113 integrated management approach that takes References into account causes and effects outside the MPAs' boundaries; entrepreneurial MPAs must Agardy, M. T. 1990. "Integrating Tourism in be tied into a network that includes traditional, Multiple Use Planning for Coastal and national, and international coastal and marine Marine Protected Areas." Woods Hole, Mass. managers. The initial step, however, is to help Alcala, A. 1995. "Protective Management of create enough entrepreneurial MPAs so that the Small Coral Reef Areas." In Final Report, the basic models can be tested and improved. International Coral Reef Initiative Workshop, Many entrepreneurial MPAs will not fit the Dumaguete City, Philippines. GRSMPA criteria for model MPAs; but rather Colwell, S. D. 1995. "Ecotourism, Scuba Diving than waiting until an ideal MPA can be created, and Coral Reefs." In Final Report, the it may be more effective to create MPAs that International Coral Reef Initiative Workshop, can achieve local objectives for marine conser- Dumaguete City, Philippines. vation (Kelleher 1996). As long as funding and . Forthcoming. "Entrepreneurial expertise are not being drained from other Conservation: Private Sector Management of MPA projects, the entrepreneurial MPA Small-Scale, Coral Reef Marine Protected approach offers a chance to increase the num- Areas." In Proceedings of the 8th Global ber and variety of MPAs at a fairly low cost. Biodiversity Forum Workshop on Incentives, Variations on the entrepreneurial MPA strategy, Private Sector Partnerships and the Marine such as co-management of the MPA with a local and Coastal Environment. Montreal, Canada. NGO, or the creation of new community-based Eichbaum, W. M., M. P Crosby, M. T. Agardy, dive resorts, expand the potential benefits of and S. A. Laskin. 1996. "The Role of Marine this approach. and Coastal Protected Areas in the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Biolog- Conclusion ical Diversity." Oceanography 9, 1: 60-70. Jameson, S. C., J. W. McManus, and M. D. Flexible and creative approaches to MPA man- Spalding. 1995. "State of the Reefs: Regional agement are needed in order to approach the and Global Perspectives." International Coral goal of protecting at least 10 percent of the Reef Initiative Executive Secretariat world's marine and coastal areas. A network of Background Paper. Washington, D.C. small-scale, commercially supported MPAs Kelleher, G. G. 1996. "A Global Representative would provide a useful complement to the System of Marine Protected Areas." Marine GRSMPA. In certain circumstances, private and Coastal Workshop, IUCN World enterprises, such as dive resorts, may be able to Conservation Congress, Montreal. provide the financial resources and manage- Kelleher, G. G., C. Bleakley, and S. Wells, eds. ment capacity to create and operate small-scale 1995. "A Global Representative System of MPAs, particularly in coral reef areas. Many of Marine Protected Areas." The Great Barrier these entrepreneurial MPAs will suffer from the Reef Marine Park Authority, the World Bank. lack of the careful research and planning that and the World Conservation Union (IUCN), are recommended for the establishment of Washington, D.C. MPAs in the GRSMPA. On the other hand, some Kelleher, G. G., and R. A. Kenchington. 1991. of these smaller, entrepreneurial MPAs will "Guidelines for Establishing Marine achieve their potential, mature more quickly Protected Areas." IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. than large MPAs, help develop local capacity, Kenchington, R. A., and B. E. T. Hudson, eds. and provide some of the success stories and 1991. Coral Reef Management Handbook. lessons in MPA management needed to make Jakarta, Indonesia: UNESCO. the goal of increased marine and coastal area Roberts, C. M. 1994. "Marine Reserves: A Brief protection a reality. Guide for Decision Makers and Users." UN Global Conference on Sustainable 114 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management Development of Small Island Developing White, A. T., L. Z. Hale, Y. Reynard, and L. States, Barbados. Cortesi, eds. 1994. Collaborative and Sobel, J. 1993. "Conserving biological diversity Community-based Management of Coral Reefs: through Marine Protected Areas: A Global Lessons from Experience. West Hartford, Challenge. Oceanus 36:19-26. Conn.: Kumarian Press. Various Factors in Coral Reef Protection in Jamaica and the Role of the South Coast Conservation Foundation Peter Espeut South Coast Conservation Foundation In Jamaica, the main threat to coral reefs is systems, possibly through a system of riverine nutrient pollution leading to eutrophication of protected areas. nearshore waters. These nutrients are not gen- The third major threat to coral in Jamaica erated within the marine space, but are land- comes from overfishing and destructive fishing based in origin: from sewage and agricultural practices, which must be distinguished, although and domestic runoff in the watersheds. Also, a they are related. Jamaican waters are the most significant amount of nutrient pollution can be overfished in the Caribbean because fishing traced either to ships that discharge near protect- effort-in terms of number of fish, number of ed reefs or from sources upstream in the marine boats, number of traps, and mesh size-is just too current. The second main threat to Jamaican coral high. Practices that were innocuous in earlier reefs is sedimentation caused by soil erosion and years, with smaller numbers of fishers, led to deforestation in the watersheds above the reefs overexploitation of fish resources when the num- (an exogenous source). The reefs get buried in ber of fishers increased. Layoffs in the private sediment, and even slight particle suspensions and public sector over the last 30 years have led significantly reduce light for photosynthesis by to significant increases in fishing pressure, as dis- the symbiotic algae inside the coral polyps. placed workers invest their severance pay in fish- The boundaries of marine protected areas or ing boats and equipment. Clearly, alternatives to marine management areas do not usually con- fishing have to be identified. There has been little tain enough of the watershed for the main success in this direction, as the Jamaican economy threats to the health of coral reefs to be man- has been under pressure and few efforts at diver- aged. Therefore, in my view, both approaches sification have been competitive. are inadequate for the problems coral reefs face In Jamaica, destructive fishing practices such in Jamaica. This is likely to be so elsewhere. as dynamiting and drag netting (such as beach The whole watershed approach to coral man- seines and trawl nets) contribute to overfishing, agement (and marine management in general) is but they also destroy habitats, reducing the total to be preferred. In islands, especially small capacity of the system to produce, and these prac- islands, this approach is quite feasible, and is tices result in declines in total catch over time. being tried in Jamaica and elsewhere. In larger It is now a cliche that coral reef management islands and continental systems, this may be is not the management of corals, but of the unworkable, as the watersheds are too extensive actions of people. The people whose actions have to be included in marine protected areas. In a negative impact on coral reefs may be near the these cases, efforts need to be made to reduce reefs in the marine space or they may be miles nutrient discharge throughout the large river- away in a forest or on a farm. Some culturally 115 116 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management acceptable framework must be found within which human impacts on marine resources, Table 1. Membership of the PBFMC including coral reefs, can be managed. Type Total The government of Jamaica, through the nat- Eight artisanal fisher organizations (2 each) 16 ural Resources Conservation Authority (NRCA), Two fisher cooperatives (1 each) 2 intends to declare 15 parks and protected areas The umbrella group of fishers' co-ops 2 on land and sea by the end of the decade. The Two sportfishing organizations (1 each) 2 NRCA does not intend to manage any of these, The NRCA 1 but will delegate the management to non- The government Fisheries Department 1 governmental organizations (NGOs) and com- munity-based organizations (CBOs). The NRCA The government Port Authority 1 has already begun doing so, delegating the man- The government Infrastructure Development Agency 1 agement of the Montego Bay Marine Park to the The government Co-operative Development Agency 1 Montego Bay Marine Park Trust, and the man- The Jamaica Coast Guard 1 agement of the Blue/John Crow Mountain The Jamaica police 2 National Park to the Jamaica Conservation and The SCCF 2 Development Trust. The South Coast Conservation Foundation (SCCF) expects to be delegated the management of the Portland Bight Area-200 square miles of since. It has 32 members representing all of the land and 550 square miles of marine space. It is stakeholders in the fisheries, as given in table 1. a multi-use area, with two ports, eight fisheries The membership agrees that the present com- landing sites, and several industrial entities, position adequately represents the stakeholders including two power installations, a feed mill, a in the fishery. bauxite-alumina plant, and two sugar estates. At Over the last two years, the PBFMC has the same time it contains Jamaica's largest agreed on a set of fisheries management regula- remaining mangrove stands, the most important tions (with penalties for breaches) to apply with- turtle nesting sites, many important coral reefs in the PBSDA. These are currently before its and sea grass beds, the last remaining iguanas, member organizations for ratification. After con- and more than 150 square miles of bird habitat. sensus has been reached, the final draft will be The waters in Portland Bight support about sent to the Minister of the Environment for sign- 4,000 fishers (about 25 percent of Jamaica's fish- ing into law. The proposed penalties include a ers). The protected area is named the Portland ban on drag nets, minimum mesh sizes for nets Bight Sustainable Development Area (PBSDA) and traps, a series of eight fish sanctuaries, a ban and should be declared late in 1997; delegation on the use of scuba and hookah gear for fishing, should follow soon after. and a system of limited entry of new fishers into The SCCF is an environment and develop- the PBSDA. ment NGO dedicated to implementing the prin- Several conflicts between resource users ciple of co-management, where all stakeholders within Portland Bight have been resolved in the collaborate to set management policies and PBSDA. Most notable has been the damage to oversee their implementation and enforcement. seven fishers' nets by a tug and barge carrying The intention is that the PBSDA should be man- fuel from the oil refinery in Kingston to one of aged through a series of resource management the power plants in Portland Bight. The council councils, each consisting of representatives of was able to obtain redress from the petroleum the stakeholders in that resource. company for the fishers. One such entity, the Portland Bight Fisheries The PBSDA is currently preparing regulations Management Council (PBFMC), is already in for the management of the coral reefs, turtles, existence. It had its first meeting on Petitions manatees, and coral cays within the PBSDA. It is Day (June 29) 1997, and has met monthly ever also making preparations for implementing the fisheries management regulations it has drafted. Various Factors in Coral Reef Protection in Jamaica 117 For the first few years, the PBSDA will not be ing difficulty, snorkeling tours, picnics on the financially self-sufficient, as capital expendi- coral cays, and tours of the sugar estate. This is a tures, it is hoped, will be funded through grants. major part of the SCCF development program in The plans for sustained funding of the PBSDA in the PBSDA, as it not only will provide revenue terms of recurrent expenditure include user fees for management but will also provide employ- (approximately 10 percent of total recurrent ment for local people, which will contribute to budget), nature tourism (30 percent), merchan- raising the standard of living of the community dizing (30 percent), and the income from a trust (which is quite low, on average). fund (30 percent) that has been established. This cutting-edge effort needs to be support- The nature tourism efforts will include an ed financially and with technical advice, and ecoheritage trail, two mangrove tours, a salt must be continually evaluated. Possibly the marsh tour, two bird-watching walks of differ- World Bank might be interested in helping. GREEN GLOBE: The Tourism Industry and Sustainability Carolyn Hill GREEN GLOBE Americas, World Travel &S Tourism Council A s concluded at the Earth Summit in Rio, * Will continue to be a dominant develop- ,,A,sustainable development is the global ment force in the 21st century. priority, and all parts of society- Local communities and countries with few governmental, intergovernmental, nongovern- other comparative industrial advantages look to mental, private, and public-are responsible for tourism as the source of foreign revenue. Private their actions regarding sustainability. The pri- sector resources for development far outweigh vate sector, especially the travel and tourism other financial flows into developing countries industry, is an essential component of sustain- (for example, over US$260 billion flowed from able development. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and There is no getting around the fact that Development economies to developing coun- tourism is huge. Already touted as the world's tries in 1995, compared with US$56 billion in largest industry, tourism is expected to double official development assistance). over the next 10 to 15 years, moving nearly 1 bil- Because of its size and scope, the tourism lion international visitors per year and generat- industry faces inherent environmental chal- ing more than 100 million new jobs. The lenges, such as: tourism industry: * It is resource intensive and congestive. * Profoundly influences the environment, * It has effects on local populations. especially through the use of resources, * It depends on infrastructure whose devel- trading patterns, and marketing that creates opment is often out of the tourism indus- consumer demand. try's hands. * Provides direct and indirect employment * Tourists increasingly venture into formerly for 212 million people, one in every nine remote regions and fragile ecosystems. workers worldwide; by 2005 it is expected * Tourism's greatest impact is felt in marine to provide nearly 340 million jobs. and coastal environments-already at risk * Is responsible for 10.9 percent of direct and from disproportionately high urban sprawl, indirect world gross domestic product nonsustainable consumptive patterns, (GDP), generating more than US$3.4 trillion industrial and chemical wastes and pollu- of gross output. tion, and extractive industries such as off- * Generates up to 30 percent of investment, shore oil and gas, sand mining, and fisheries. GDP, and jobs in tourism-dependent Humans need water, and this is reflected in regions like the Caribbean. tourism patterns. For example: * Accounts for 11.4 percent of all consumer * Cruise ship tourism is the fastest-growing spending. part of the industry. 118 GREEN GLOBE 119 * Island destinations receive the most tourist * Marine life is being destroyed by boats and arrivals (for example, the Caribbean, the souvenir hunters. Pacific, the Indian Ocean, the Mediterranean, * Development runs unregulated and and the Atlantic). The Coral Reef Alliance unchecked in many parts of the world. tells us that: * Indigenous cultures are struggling to main- * One hundred thousand divers visit the tain their identities and integrity, and nation- Caymans per year, and "Stingray City" al parks are being trampled to oblivion. generates US$1 million per year. The tourism industry has not always been * Three thousand retail dive centers train sensitive to its impact on the environment. It has over 800,000 scuba divers each year. really only been since the Rio Earth Summit in * Divers spend approximately $1.8 billion 1992 that the industry has acknowledged the dollars in the Caribbean each year. fact that a clean, healthy environment is the core * GREEN GLOBE figures show that: of its business, and that the tourism industry * Four million visitors take part each year plays a unique and leading role in sustainable in whale watching in the USA and development and the implementation of Canada, 375,000 in Australia and New Agenda 21. Zealand. The World Travel & Tourism Council, a glob- * In Europe over 200,000 whale-watching al coalition of industry chief executives, is com- holidays are sold each year, and 150,000 mitted to sustainable tourism as one of the four people visit Ireland each year to watch principal tenets of its Millennium Vision. The dolphins. mechanisms that WTTC has developed to bring * And the World Conservation Union (IUCN) the sustainable tourism vision into reality are: tells us that the majority of resort-based * The Agenda 21 for the Travel and Tourism tourism concentrates around marine and Industry coastal environments, and is booming in * Eco-Nett, the European Community Asia. Network for environmental travel and Beaches are the primary destination for 30 tourism percent of Costa Rica's and 37 percent of * GREEN GLOBE, a systematic, comprehen- Mexico's visitors. The Galapagos Islands are the sive, environmental management program major tourist attraction in Ecuador; the seaside is for companies and destinations. the most popular destination for holiday travel- As demonstrated by the actions outlined ers in the United Kingdom; and many big city above, the tourism industry is taking on more tourism destinations are coastal, such as Sydney, responsibility for safeguarding natural, cultural, San Francisco, Miami, and New York. and historical heritage while at the same time The sheer numbers of tourists create a major contributing to economic growth and develop- socioeconomic phenomenon in coastal destina- ment. Innovative environment and tourism pro- tions. For example, 100 million visitors join the grams such as GREEN GLOBE are springing up 170 million Caribbean residents each year; 100 in many countries. While GREEN GLOBE is cer- million vacationers summer along with the tainly not the only environmental initiative in Mediterranean's 230 million coastal inhabitants. the travel and tourism industry, it is the only We have already begun to witness the destruc- program that: tion caused by unregulated and excessive * Provides a systematic approach to improv- tourism: ing environmental practices for companies Beaches are being closed because of toxic of any size, in any sector effluent from hotels and resorts (the * Offers a comprehensive destination man- Surfrider Foundation says that 3,500 beach- agement program es were closed in 1995 because of pollution * Demonstrates the tourism industry's commit- and toxicity levels that made it dangerous ment to the environment through a universal to swim). brand that is central to public awareness 120 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management * Supports existing ad hoc environmental * Be willing to go "out of the box." programs and efforts. * Exchange of technologies, information, and GREEN GLOBE is a vehicle through which resources. the travel and tourism industry can move * Internationally accepted standards or crite- toward sustainability. However, GREEN GLOBE ria. (GREEN GLOBE has recently formal- faces great challenges, many of which reflect the ized a partnership with SGS / ISO 14000, challenges faced by other sectors. To move the world's largest independent certifica- toward a new paradigm of sustainability tion and accreditation firm. GREEN requires: GLOBE and SGS have recently established * Appropriate and enlightened policy and environmental criteria for the tourism regulation. industry, and SGS will take the responsibil- * Open communication and dialogue between ity of certifying and monitoring. all sectors. * Education at all levels. GREEN GLOBE Members and Destinations * Financial support and incentives from, and for, all sectors. The World Travel & Tourism Council is commit- * Development of partnerships and alliances, ted to overcoming these challenges, and move particularly among sectors and industries the tourism industry toward sustainability as that have not previously collaborated. part of its Millennium Vision. We welcome ideas • A change in attitude: and support from our global partners in all sec- * Take responsibility for our individual tors in order to achieve this goal. actions. Environmental Responsibility and Tourism on Tropical Islands Richard C. Murphy Jean-Michel Cousteau Institute he diving industry in many tropical areas In attempting to minimize the impact of the T has made great strides inprotecting coral resort on the environment, I have used the reefs by creating boat moorings, banning metaphor of a coral reef's functional characteris- spearfishing, and educating divers about coral tics to guide the environmental systems we have reef protection. Comparable advances have not implemented. A reef ecosystem runs on solar been made in the development and operation of power, without the luxury of stored energy resorts and other coastal facilities. Energy and reserves. The reef is relatively efficient in the uti- water conservation programs are seldom lization of essential materials, such as nutrients, employed. When sewage is treated, very little recycling at both the micro level (corals-zooxan- attention is given to reducing the resultant nutri- thellae) and at the macro level (detritivore and ent impact on reefs. Recycling and waste man- bacterial remineralization of organic matter). agement programs are rarely implemented, and Biodiversity is important where a greater variety pesticides and other toxic products are common- of species provide alternate and redundant eco- ly used. On a broader scale, mangroves are often logical functions. And finally, ecological connec- cut; coastlines are altered, increasing suspended tions between diverse species contribute to an sediment loads; landscape biodiversity is integrated, and presumably sustainable, whole. reduced; and local food self-sufficiency is sel- dom considered. Energy In light of the many ecological connections between the terrestrial and marine environ- The resort uses the sun's energy to heat water. We ments, it is obvious that effective protection and have no air conditioning and have installed management of coral reefs must address these thatched roofs that breathe, high ceilings, and on-land issues. louvered walls. The shade provided by natural vegetation also helps to cool the air. Although we An Experiment in Responsible Development currently utilize inexpensive city power, an eval- uation of diesel generator versus photovoltaics The Jean-Michel Cousteau Fiji Islands Resort com- has proved that photovoltaic power has advan- prises 20 individual housing units, called bures, a tages because the true cost of diesel power gener- restaurant/bar, conference area, and dive opera- ation was three times the cost of the diesel itself. tion. The resort is located at the end of a peninsula This added cost was due to maintenance expens- on the island of Vanua Levu in the Fiji Islands. On es, generator replacement, fuel transport charges, the seaward side of this peninsula is a fringing reef and cleanup costs from unavoidable spills. and inside the bay are patch reefs of varying sizes. 121 122 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management Efficiency and Recycling reduced the number of larvae by a factor of 50. We have also eliminated other breeding sites by By the end of the year, the resort will be using cleaning up discarded containers, cutting up constructed wetlands to treat our wastewater. open coconuts, and filling tree stumps where We are doing this for the following reasons: water stands. Finally, we introduced mosquito * To treat sewage parasitoids, which are selective predators on * To reduce nutrient leaching onto the reef mosquito larvae only. * To provide nutrient-rich water for irrigating The previous owners of this property had cut the landscape and fruit trees. almost all the mangroves and then, some years We compost, or use for animal food, 80 per- later when the ecological function of the man- cent of our garbage, recycle paper and metal, groves was lost, were faced with severe shore- and have reduced packaging materials and con- line erosion. Today, we solicit the help of our tainers previously destined for a dump by 70 guests to bring back seedlings during organized percent. Our initial attempts at recycling were nature tours to intact mangrove systems. We quite a challenge because the volume of now have over 90 mangrove trees in various wastepaper was so small that the recycling com- stages of growth. As soon as they begin to stabi- pany, which is located on another island, was lize the erosion problem, we will be able to unwilling to work with us. This has been remove the existing unsightly cement barriers. resolved by encouraging other resorts and busi- The fruits and some vegetables of our edible nesses in the local town to combine wastepaper. landscaping are irrigated with recycled water, This effort has not only solved our problem but enabling us to make use of what would other- has also stimulated community-wide interest in wise be a pollutant. In this way nutrients, in the recycling, which had not existed before. food served to guests, pass through them and into the sewage, which is then treated, enabling Biodiversity the nutrients or fertilizer to be returned to the plants to begin another cycle. We have designed a functional landscape The resort does not exist alone in the region where diversity is not only aesthetically and cooperates with the local human communi- appealing, but productive as well. Our "edible ty as much as it is integrated into the adjacent landscaping" provides fruit for the kitchen, ecological communities. Our staff biologist flowers for decorating guest rooms, (which also organizes programs with local schools, which attract pollinators for the nearby gardens), bring classes to the resort on field trips twice shade for cooling, and a more diverse habitat to each month. We offer slide shows, guide them attract a variety of birds and insects, which through our educational CD-ROM on coral serve as pest predators. reefs, host beach or mangrove walks, or pre- sent a live audiovisual dive adventure. The Integrated Systems uplink program involves a diver and videogra- pher on the reef, outfitted with a communica- Pesticide use has been reduced by 90 percent tions system that enables the divers to speak through an integrated pest management system. and hear and transmit images to an audience in In addition to the benefits from a greater diver- the resort's lounge. Through a walkie-talkie, the sity of pest predators, breeding habitats for mos- audience can communicate with the divers. quitoes have been reduced. We have converted This live, two-way communication system has temporary puddles, which were the major proved an extremely effective way to share the breeding grounds for mosquitoes, into perma- wonders of the reef with our nondiving guests nent ponds and have filled the ponds with and local school groups. In addition, our biolo- indigenous biota from local streams. Simply gist regularly visits schools, villages, and town altering this hydrological feature and creating a council meetings to discuss local coral reef more ecologically complex ecosystem has issues. Environmental Responsibility and Tourism on Tropical Islands 123 This outreach effort has been critical in estab- environmental message. Critical to this has been lishing a local marine reserve. We also monitor our on-site staff biologist, who not only provides the reefs, participating in Reef Check, the Global the guests with an interpretation of the natural Coral Reef Monitoring Network, and ICLARM's environment but also ensures that they under- Global Database. Many of our more experienced stand the resort is trying to operate in the most divers have responded well to the ICLARM pro- environmentally sound manner possible. We gram, and it serves as an important focal point emphasize our use of the free services of nature for discussions on reef ecology and management. as a means of saving money and integrating our- The Jean-Michel Cousteau Fiji Islands Resort selves with the natural environment: "Terrestrial has hosted a few scientists, and we are building vegetation and mangroves are living machines a small dormitory and wet and dry lab for stu- which provide shade for cooling and coastal dents and researchers to study our reefs. Our protection. Edible landscaping gives us a pleas- most recent guests included a team from ing environment as well as food. Constructed Australia and the United States, which took core wetlands convert waste into a resource (nutrient samples from large Porites colonies to measure rich water for irrigation) and minimize nutrient carbon and oxygen isotopes as indicators of tem- impact on the reef. Biodiversity and integrated perature and salinity, which are indicative of pest management help us control mosquitoes past climatic conditions. Select corals were without toxic chemicals." stained for future sampling to provide data on We hope this modest experiment in what I contemporary climate change. call "applied ecology" will serve as a model Although the resort, like any other, is dedi- whereby others can learn from our successes cated to recreation and relaxation, we have and avoid our mistakes in developing their own infused all our activities with an educational or environmental programs. Discussion Bob Johannes, R.E. Johannes Pty LTD: I have the thousands and several other important food been studying spawning aggregations of reef fish did also. The point I'm making is that there fish for some years, and recently, I and a group are certain locations where a lot of different reef of colleagues have been studying grouper fish spawn-often at the same season, and fish- spawning aggregations in Palau. During those ermen have capitalized on this fact for centuries studies I have scoured the literature, and to my in some cases. There's a lot to capitalize on for great amazement, although one reads in virtual- managers and researchers, and yet rather few of ly every review on the value of marine protected us have done so. And I think it's most unfortu- areas in the tropics that the primary value is the nate that particularly from the Indo Pacific there protection of spawning stock biomass-that is virtually no evidence, except in Palau-and phrase is used over and over again-I find vir- maybe one case I can think of in the tually no evidence outside the Caribbean and Philippines-that anybody's paid any attention Bermuda, and even there on a limited extent, to this phenomenon. Particularly since there are that people who are designing marine protected predictable places where it occurs. Because a lot areas are paying any attention whatsoever to the of important fish choose these same spots, to existence of spawning aggregation sites. pay no attention to them when you're designing Now for those of you who are not aware, let marine reserves-drawing the boundaries does- me explain briefly what they are: A great many n't make much sense to me, and since this kind reef fish, particularly larger ones over about 25 of information I'm giving you has, in fact, been centimeters aggregate at very specific locations in the literature for over a decade, I'm [inaudi- and times-times in terms of moon phase and in ble] when it suddenly occurs to me that nobody terms of season-in order to spawn. In Palau, has been paying attention to it. the three groupers that we studied (the three most important [commercially] there) all Richard Kenchington: I'd like to take that one spawned (aggregated in large numbers to up-I applauded Bob's comment about data- spawn) at the same locations, the same moon free management this morning, and one of the phases, and in overlapping seasons. Moreover, things that we did with advice from Bob was to we observed during our studies the spawning of zone a couple of reefs [inaudible] on the basis of more than 50 other species of fish there. Now their anecdotal spawning site importance. some of those fish spawn in small numbers all Judging by the squeals we had from the fisher- along the reef, and they just happen to be there; men, I suspect that we hit the right target. The but others, including the most important single problem, of course, is one of enforcement. My species of food fish in Palau, spawned there by overall summary on that is that it does seem to 124 Discussion 125 take now about 20 years to get a human genera- suffering-they have done it a long time-then tion of attitude change. We are now getting fish- you don't find that increase in social conflict that ing industry people, particularly the younger I talked about in St. Lucia to such an extent. The ones, saying that they want this sort of thing to trouble is that throughout large areas of the happen. Twenty years ago they would have world, there is now tourism and impoverished killed us over the exercise. fisherman very close together. That's when I think compensation programs will prove to be a Herman Cesar, World Bank: I'd like to ask a mechanism of getting people over that hump. In question of self-financing marine parks. It seems other cases, such as parts of the Philippines that if Callum is right-that it takes three to five where they've been establishing these no-take years before you actually see the real increase in areas, there are other ways of motivating a com- fish yields in the surrounding areas-you have a munity to tighten their belt even more over that real management problem in actually starting short-term hump than compensation, and I can't with it in the sense that you need to give alter- give you any new answers of how to compen- native income generation, or money, or whatev- sate. er, to the fisherman in that specific time frame. So if you develop a project, you need to do Jan Post: I think that's really the big question-is something in that time frame. Your tourists how to compensate the fishers for the benefits won't come too soon because they like to come forgone for not fishing. It's not so much a matter more when the bigger fish are there as well. So of money. Studies have shown that the willing- I'd like some of the speakers to give some ideas ness to pay in the ecotourism business is tremen- of how you want to address that intermediate dous, and probably from an economic point of period in which you have established the no- view, a live grouper on a reef in the Caribbean is take zone, but the fisherman haven't benefited worth a lot more than on somebody's plate. It's a yet, and how do you take that and make the matter of how we make this mechanism work, fisherman better off in the interim period so that and we're actually working in the World Bank to they will agree to the no-take some in the first try and solve this problem. place? Teri Marsh, NOAA/National Marine Fisheries Callum Roberts: It's a credit to fishermen in Service: I have a question for Juan Bezaury. many parts of the world that they have gone We've heard from some of the other panelists along with the establishment of no-take reserves concerns that we're not good at ecosystem con- without having any form of compensation, other servation-we need to learn from our successes than the promises of managers and scientists and our failures in certain other marine protect- that things will get better sometime down the ed areas. There are a number of paper parks line. Now I think that the only reason why given lack of effective management and the they've been willing to do this is because they importance of the connection between the land can very much relate to that kind of manage- and the sea. I'm wondering about the Great ment. They understand that if you do protect Meso-American Reef Initiative. It seems like it things then they can reproduce and that repro- could be a very exciting proposal, and if you ductive output will somehow benefit them could just comment on your perspective of its through increased catches down the line. There potential for addressing those concerns and are very few cases that I know of where people being a successful, and maybe self-financing, have done a process of compensating fisherman marine park? to begin with in reserve creation. I think that where there is not the obvious contrast between Juan Bezaury: The idea behind this initiative is those who are getting much, much better off to have a globally important ecosystem-large very quickly from tourism and those who are enough to be globally important, but small suffering as fisherman. Fishermen are used to enough to be manageable-and to try to manage 126 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management it. This is using the coral reef as the charismatic putting in fish aggregating devices-is to buy a microfauna as a pretext for this because you little time to get you over that period where set- can't protect coral reefs by themselves. Coral ting up no-take zones is providing you with no reefs are part of the coastal system, so you are net benefit. In fact, you're into losses. So if there speaking about an integrated coastal manage- are alternative areas which are not being ment project for the four-country region. That exploited in a place, then it can buy you the nec- might sound like much, but it's no more than essary time to get over the most difficult time 800 to 1,000 kilometers long. So the whole idea is just after [no-take zone] establishment. So there to get the region to cooperate in doing this. For is a good reason for trying to exploit different instance, Guatemala has almost no reef, but they parts of the fisheries sector in places where play a very important part in this system since they're not exported to any great extent. they are the largest watershed-it's in the Montagua system. So if you don't take them into Jeremy Woodley, University of the West Indies: account, they might not have reefs, but Belizian I wanted to mention a small example of another reefs will suffer from the stress created in this way to compensate fisherman in the establish- watershed. So the whole idea is to get a large ment of a protected area. An example from ecosystem, but small enough to prove that coop- Discovery Bay in Jamaica, where the protected eration can manage. On the other side we have area is a fisheries reserve with little potential for the advantage of a low population, and a lot of tourism. But thanks to the generosity of a local tourist potential. So I think the table is set for a industry, there is funding to support the estab- project that can show success. And one of the lishment of this reserve, and fishermen and rela- things you have in demonstrating the project is tives of the fisherman are employed in to show success so that others can take the patrolling the site. lessons learned from that project. John McManus, ICLARM: I'm following up Sandy Zicus, Consultant: I'm a science and something that Steve Colwell brought up, which environmental education consultant. I'm not sure was the idea of looking for resorts and so forth if there is an answer to this question, but as I'm that have a stake in an area, and helping them. I listening to people talking, and I'm hearing about think that's an excellent idea, but it may be more alternative ways of making a living-cutting excellent than people think, because what that down on the fishing and increasing tourism and means is you have a wonderful opportunity to bringing in more money that way, or shifting the start turning around some of the attitudes of the reef fishing to the pelagic fishing, it seems like tourist resort owners. In crowded coastal areas, we're ignoring the fact that we've still got the where you have a tourist operation, and where basic problem that people need to eat. We're not you set up a marine protected area, you're creat- lowering the number of people, we're not lower- ing a resource conflict. A crowded coastal area ing the amount of food that needs to be produced generally has full use of its resources. People fish and consumed. So I'm just wondering if you have everywhere that there are fish and it is worth- any ideas on this; it's one thing to say we can shift while fishing. And those places that are worth- it from here to there, but are we going to be over- while fishing are generally the places you want fishing the pelagic areas? If people are going to be tourists to go. It's also the places where you want earning their money through tourism rather than to put in the marine protected area. So the resort fishing, they're going to have to purchase food owners have to be turning some of the profit back from somewhere, and where is that going to to the village somehow, and there's a number of come from? mechanisms to do this. And if there's a marine protected area that goes in, and if there's going to Callum Roberts: What shifting fisheries from be any successful, peaceful way of maintaining it one sector can do -for example, the inshore reef with respect to the village, the village has to have fisheries to off-shore plastic fisheries, such as decided to put it in, not a resort owner. The other Discussion 127 problem with the tourist resorts, in general, is that the kind of things you're talking about, such as if they're right next to the coral, very, very few treatment of sewage, it's an alternative that will tourist resorts have any sewage processing. The work. One of the things that wasn't discussed idea of the septic tank has spread throughout the here that's very important is the IUCN/World world. The idea of emptying the septic tank has Bank/ Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority not. And so after a year or two, most resorts will initiative on the Global Representative System be directly polluting their coral reef-the coral of Marine Protected Areas, and we don't have will turn green. And most resort owners don't time to discuss it here, but that's another net- seem to understand this. So we do find the occa- work where people working together can share sional opportunity that when resort owners says, ideas and, I think, can hopefully create more of "Well, how can I fix my reef?" The first thing we these successful things in different parks. say is, "Well, it's going to die anyway if you don't do something about this, and you're going to Summary: Jan Post: Our task ahead is daunting, always have trouble with people poaching and so to say the least, and not even unique to the forth, because you put in the reserve as opposed marine environment. I'm an ecologist and I also to the villagers." I know Steve has thought about follow the terrestrial debate. Most of the issues in this, perhaps he has some other ideas? the terrestrial biodiversity preservation initiatives are the same as here. We've talked about this for Stephen Colwell: You're absolutely right, John, the last 40-45 years or so. I think what we should there's no way to go through and have it be try to do here, and the next stage in this process, imposed by a resort, and I wouldn't propose is the breakout session, and to limit ourselves- that. But where you have people like Richard not forgetting that there's much more to the Kenchington, sitting to my left, and a number of issue-limit ourselves to a few main themes, and other people have looked at-what are the come up with recommendations. And I invite all essential qualities of good MPAs? In a number of you to have your input tomorrow afternoon to of cases you can find those characteristics in an try and come up with something that is really area where you have tourist resorts. It doesn't useful and practically implementable. It has real- mean there isn't a conflict-you're right, there ly amazed me here in this institution-in the will be. But if you can use the basic criteria to World Bank- that often, money is not the issue. look at how you would manage it, and you can Money is around. Money is around for conserva- use the existing capacity, you have a much bet- tion, and money is around, lately, for marine con- ter chance of creating something successful- servation in much larger quantities, because there because it's market-driven. We could go out and is a real focus now on marine conservation-peo- set up as many MPAs as we want, but unless ple are waking up. It's just a matter of writing it there is a funding mechanism, they're going up into something that the higher-ups can deal nowhere, and that's been proven all over the with, which fits within a bureaucratic structure, world. So I don't at all propose that as the over- and is understandable to the layman. And that all solution, but in certain cases where you do will probably be our biggest challenge for the have a sustainable market, and you can enforce next day. Thank you. PANEL FOUR MARINE INFORMATION AND EDUCATION Session Chair: Marea E Hatziolos, World Bank fl _ X § % g l o :^:§§Rl v ^ m § § § ,,, m ,., < .~~~~~~MNOMI.S . ^....$...XX... <.;o 'tt ReefBase: Status and Plans J. W McManus International Centerfor Living Aquatic Resources Management (ICLARM) R eefBase is a global database on coral reefs Background and their resources that serves as the offi- cial database of the Global Coral Reef It is widely believed that many, if not most, of Monitoring Network. It is a joint project of the the coral reefs of the world are in various states International Center for Living Aquatic of degradation (UNEP/IUCN 1988, Wilkinson Resources (ICLARM), the World Conservation 1992, Ginsburg 1994, Jameson and others 1995, Monitoring Centre (WCMC), and the University Maragos and others 1996, Eakin and others of Rhode Island. Its major activities are the 1997). This decline in the quality of reef extraction of data from existing publications and resources has serious consequences for tens of the production of standardized digital maps of millions of dependent people, particularly those the world's coral reefs. Increasingly, ReefBase who fish on coral reefs (McManus 1996, 1997). has become a host system for data from prior However, it has been difficult to assess the and ongoing field data collection activities. extent of the degradation and its effects with any Objectives include the investigation, definition, reasonable degree of certainty. Indeed, even the and analysis of coral reef ecosystem health at locations and global coverage of coral reefs are global, regional, and national levels. The poorly known (Pennisi 1997). Recent debates on ReefBase Aquanaut System involves training the global warming issue have clearly demon- scuba divers to collect ecological information strated that effective, long-term action on the about coral reef health through an international part of the governments and intergovernmental certification system. The Rapid Assessment of bodies of the world must be based on high- Management Parameters (RAMP) system is an quality scientific evidence and analysis (see integration of field protocol and database struc- Knowlton, these proceedings, pp. 183-87). ture aimed at social, cultural, and economic The development and implementation of analyses relevant to coral reef uses. Ongoing management strategies for specific reefs has ReefBase activities include the estimation of often been inhibited by the difficulty of gaining coral reef fish harvest and coral reef area and, in access to relevant information. Most coral reefs collaboration with the World Resources are in developing countries, and most of the pol- Institute, the determination of probable levels of icymakers and managers tasked with protecting reef degradation by country. ReefBase is coral reefs have little access to major coral reef released annually on CD-ROM. The current ver- publications because of a paucity of reasonable sion, ReefBase 2.0, has information on over 7,000 libraries in these countries. In cases where useful coral reefs and serves as a vital tool for facilitat- biophysical and socioeconomic information has ing coral reef management at all scales. been gathered for a particular reef, this informa- 131 132 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management tion has often deteriorated in filing cabinets, Reef Initiative (ICRI) held in the Philippines in been lost on unreadable computer media, or mid-1995. been reported in publications with little or no The ICRI resulted in a "Framework for distribution in the countries from which the data Action," which was endorsed by acclamation ini- originated. tially by representatives of 39 countries, and later ReefBase is a project for which a primary through regional workshops by at least 85 coun- objective is to consolidate and distribute infor- tries. Others involved in the development of the mation on the coral reefs of the world through a framework included the World Conservation user-friendly database to a wide audience. It Union (IUCN) and major funding agencies such directly addresses the need for information on as the World Bank and the Asian Development the status of coral reefs and their dependent Bank. Among the priority actions called for in the peoples, and facilitates coral reef management at framework were the strengthening of efforts to local, national, regional, and global scales. provide for the dissemination of information to facilitate reef management. History ReefBase 1.0 was released in mid-1996 (McManus and Ablan 1996), and was followed The idea for ReefBase was a response in 1988 to a year later by ReefBase 2.0 (McManus and requests from the media for information on the Ablan 1997). global status of coral reefs (McManus and Ablan 1996, 1997). While very useful and relatively Coverage well substantiated information existed for rates of loss of the world's rain forests, no such infor- ReefBase 2.0 contains information on over 7,000 mation was available for coral reefs. In 1992, coral reefs, including ecological information on ReefBase was a priority topic in an international corals and fish communities for 2,700 reefs, coral workshop on coral reef research needs held at reef fisheries and mariculture activities for 2,500 the Australian Institute of Marine Science reefs, reports of stresses affecting 2,000 reefs, (Munro and Munro 1994, Froese 1994). The pro- dive tourism information for 850 reefs, and ject was initiated with two years of funding from descriptions of management practices and legis- the European Commission beginning in late lation for 500 marine protected areas. The 196 1993. It involved ICLARM in database design standard digital maps from the WCMC maps and implementation, and the World include most of the charted reefs of the world in Conservation Monitoring Centre in digitizing global, regional, and subregional maps, and maps of coral reefs from around the world. many selected reefs in detail. Linked to particu- Initial planning efforts included international lar coral reef records are 883 aerial, underwater, workshops in the United Kingdom and and terrestrial photographs of reefs, showing Luxembourg, and a planning meeting on socioe- their uses and misuses. Indexes include infor- conomic aspects at the University of Rhode mation on over 1,600 coral reef experts, monitor- Island in 1994. ing programs, and institutions involved in coral By early 1995, the database had progressed reef research. A dictionary defines 191 terms enough to produce major inputs for the "State related to coral reef studies. The reference sec- of the Reefs Report" (Jameson and others 1995). tion includes over 6,500 references on coral reefs These included maps showing the locations of from conference proceedings, technical reports, most of the shallow reefs of the world, and sev- and informal articles. eral point maps illustrating the distributions of Nearly half of the structure of the database is major sources of reef degradation, including devoted to the Rapid Assessment of Parameters blast fishing, cyanide fishing, coral bleaching, (RAMP) system. The RAMP system was devel- sedimentation, and pollution. The report oped to provide an integrated system for the col- served as the background document for the lection, storage, and retrieval of information on global workshop of the International Coral the cultural, sociological, legal, and economic ReefBase: Status and Plans 133 factors affecting people associated with coral Facilitating Current Management reefs. The system was designed primarily by Dr. Richard Pollnac of the University of Rhode ReefBase is designed to make optimal use of the Island. The variables are linked in a hierarchical vast body of information that has been or is system and chosen so as to facilitate multivariate being gathered on coral reefs around the world. analyses of factors relevant to management deci- Needs addressed by ReefBase include data sions regarding the reefs. archaeology, archiving, repatriation, distribu- Because charted reefs tend to be those that tion, standardization, meta-analysis, and gap represent hazards to navigation, they generally identification. omit the large areas of coralline ecosystem exist- Data archaeology is the locating and reintro- ing below 10 meters depth scattered across the duction to science of data sets from previous shelves and subsurface sea mounts of the trop- research efforts. ReefBase provides a focal point ics. In order to estimate the extent and location for data archaeological efforts, including, for of these areas, Dr. Joanie Kleypas of the example, the digitization of data from mimeo- National Center for Atmospheric Research graphed reports from the 1970s and earlier. All determined where reef corals were likely to data in ReefBase are archived on CD-ROM. The grow around the world, based on a variety of reproduction in hundreds of copies and continu- environmental parameters (Kleypas 1995, 1997). al upgrading to new software and hardware One of the resulting REEFHAB maps (the most requirements helps to ensure continued accessi- conservative) is available in ReefBase 2.0 as a bility in terms of decades. global map into which the user can zoom for A major problem in past studies of coral reefs greater detail. has been related to the fact that much of the The ECOPATH system is a standardized research on reefs has been accomplished by approach to ecosystem modeling that permits expatriates. The resulting data and reports have the calculation of a wide range of useful ecosys- often been relatively inaccessible to researchers tem parameters and facilitates meta-analytical from the developing country with jurisdiction studies leading to generalizations about ecosys- over the reefs. ReefBase provides such tem structure and dynamics. At least five researchers with access to this data in a very coral reefs around the world have been modeled usable, quantitative, and standardized form. using the system. The current version of the The combined distribution of data via CD-ROM model, ECOPATH 3.0, is included on the and Internet far exceeds the original data distri- ReefBase CD-ROM as a tool for coral reef bution for most of the included studies, in which researchers. Included as well are the parameters data were usually confined to a few diskettes, to allow the researcher to reconstruct and exper- disk drives, computer tapes, and reports of very iment with each of the published ECOPATH limited circulation. models of coral reefs. Standardization is approached in two ways in ReefBase. First, researchers read through all Distribution reports, converting data into standard units wherever possible, while screening for probable Approximately 500 copies of the ReefBase CD- reporting errors. In some cases, substantial data ROM are distributed each year. About half of sets are recalculated from raw data. Second, these are donated to developing country ReefBase as a project is involved with the stan- research institutions, and the others are sold at dardization of methodologies for collecting cost. In addition to the CD-ROMs, several key data. This activity was a response to numerous tables from ReefBase have been made accessible requests for guidance on what type of data through the Internet. More of the database will ReefBase needed from people planning trips to be put onto the Internet as software advances coral reefs. This led to the development of the facilitate the conversion to Internet-compatible ReefBase Aquanaut Survey Method (McManus formats. and others 1997) described below, and the 134 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management RAMP protocol described above. ReefBase per- Framework for Action of the International Coral sonnel are routinely consulted by groups devel- Reef Initiative. The locations of reefs compiled oping reef-sampling standards. The presence of and carefully verified in ReefBase provided a the database tends to encourage the develop- basis for the calibration of the REEFHAB model ment and widespread acceptance of data-collect- described above, which in turn plays a major ing standards. Standardization, the quantitative role in discussions concerning the role of the nature of the database, and features built into oceans in global warming. ReefBase has provid- the system to produce data tables from user- ed information for recent reports summarizing friendly queries all contribute to the acquisition the status of coral reefs (Maragos and others of information through meta-analysis. These 1996, McManus 1997, Eakin and others 1997). features also facilitate the identification of criti- These in turn provide a basis for the prioritiza- cal data gaps and needs, thus providing a basis tion of funding for coral reef conservation. for prioritizing research efforts and preventing redundant research. Reef Ecosystem Health Studies ReefBase has an "encyclopedic aspect," in which it provides information about individual Ecological studies of coral reefs began prior to reefs to those who would develop improved 1800, and became particularly prominent after management strategies or conduct further the first publication of Charles Darwin's para- research. In many cases, existing data on a reef digmatic study on reefs (Darwin 1851). are relatively inaccessible to reef managers. For However, most coral reef research has been example, a manager concerned that a recent focused on basic concerns such as niche interac- construction project may be damaging a coral tions and the description of general biogeo- reef through siltation may not be aware of stud- chemical cycling. Applied and strategic research ies showing that high levels of silt from defor- has focused principally on fisheries (Munro estation were present long before the construc- 1983, Johannes 1981, Munro and Williams 1985, tion project. ReefBase makes this type of infor- Polunin and Roberts 1996, McManus 1997), and mation available, including quantitative data specific degradative problems such as sedimen- about the problem whenever possible. Without tation and organic pollution (Johannes 1975, this information, managers must either com- Johannes and Hatcher 1986). mission new studies or base their decisions on Recent concern about the global environment inferences from factors such as the presence of has led to the rise of the field of ecosystem deforested hillsides. In all such cases, the lack health, which focuses specifically on the status of access to prior studies limits understanding of ecosystems with respect to human use and of trends over time, thereby lowering the cer- management (Rapport and others 1981, tainty of management predictions. Where pre- Costanza and others 1992). This field is con- vious studies exist, ReefBase makes the data cemed with managing ecosystems from a holis- accessible to those who must evaluate trends tic, pragmatic view, analogous to that of modern affecting the reef as a basis for informed man- medical practice. A good definition of a state of agement. Because of the early stage of research ecosystem health is "one whose parameters do on coral reef ecosystem health, analysis of not vary outside predetermined limits from a trends in variables such as hard coral cover is predetermined level within a given period of often the only reliable indicator of the state of a time" (Jakarta Mandate 1997). given reef and of the need for corrective man- The relevance of the holistic, health approach agement action. to the management of coral reefs can be seen in The "summary aspect" of ReefBase is equally the recent debates concerning coral reef degra- important. The maps of reefs and of stresses dation in Jamaica. Hughes (1994) reported that affecting reefs produced by ReefBase for the coral cover in coral reefs of northern Jamaica "State of the Reefs" report (Jameson and others had declined from mean values of greater than 1995) strongly influenced those developing the 50 percent to current values of less than 5 per- ReefBase: Status and Plans 135 cent over the previous decade. This change was passive activity of summarizing existing reports. explained principally in terms of: Coral reef studies have involved researchers * The reduction of populations of herbivo- with substantially different objectives using a rous fish through overfishing very wide variety of approaches. Data needed * The destructive effect of a hurricane for reef health analyses should cover a limited * The proliferation of macroalgae range of variables and be gathered under a lim- * The subsequent proliferation of herbivo- ited number of standards. Thus, ReefBase has rous sea urchins been active in collaborating in the implementa- * The rapid decline of sea urchin populations tion of the Global Coral Reef Monitoring * The dominance of reef substrate by Network (GCRMN). It has also produced the macroalgae, which prevents the settlement ReefBase Aquanaut Method described above, of corals. which permits nonspecialists as well as scien- Some of the assumptions of the explanation tists to gather data compatible with the standard were later challenged. In particular, some methods of the GCRMN. researchers have suggested that fisheries may have had less to do with the overgrowth by Current and Future Activities algae than organic pollution from the highly populated coastline of Jamaica (for example, The continual development of ReefBase involves Hodgson 1994, Ogden 1994). The general feasi- the conduct of associated research projects bility of the Hughes conclusions, as well as the designed to generate new information from a alternative explanations, highlights the need for variety of data sources. Research associated management-oriented studies of coral reefs to with ReefBase 3.0 (to be distributed in July 1998) treat the system holistically. Thus, a coral reef includes country-level estimates of coral reef ecosystem health approach is warranted. fish production, coralline area, and coral reef The ecological components of ReefBase have degradation. been designed specifically to facilitate progress Past estimates of global, regional, and nation- in coral reef ecosystem health by providing a al fish production from coral reefs have general- basis for the identification of the predetermined ly been based on estimates of reef area multi- levels and limits called for in the Jakarta plied by catch rates per unit of area (Munro and Mandate. An example is the recent analysis of Thompson 1973, Smith 1978, Munro 1996). Fish 205 well-studied reef slopes showing that 40 statistics reported to and by the United Nations percent is a reasonable expected value for hard Food and Agriculture Organization (U.N. FAO) coral cover on reef slopes among a given (large) have often involved general categories, such as set of reefs (McManus and Ablan forthcoming). "grouper," which do not indicate the catch by As data matrices in ReefBase are filled in over species and give little other indication of the time, increasing efforts will be directed toward habitat source. ReefBase is currently weighting applying multivariate analysis to the develop- the reported categories by proportion expected ment of functions relating variables to healthy from reefs, to arrive at estimates of coral reef fish versus degraded coral reefs. Ultimately, parsi- production at global, regional, and national monious sets of variables will be recommended scales. A set of regional experts is reviewing the for monitoring and use in the identification of weightings and they are being adjusted as reefs under stress, based on such functions. This appropriate. The resulting estimates will be use- will also greatly facilitate the development of ful in a variety of policy decisions concerning corrective action plans, the evaluation of their fishery production and coral reef management. effectiveness, and the implementation of adap- The REEFHAB model described above pro- tive management (McManus and others 1988). vides estimates of reef area geographically The need for blocks of "solid" data (non- around the world. However, the assignment of sparse matrices-those with more data than these coralline areas of the ocean shelf to indi- missing values) necessitates action beyond the vidual countries requires analysis within the 136 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management framework of the International Law of the Sea. Condusions This process is ongoing, and will result in esti- mations of reef area by country based on the pre- ReefBase is far more than a traditional database. dictions of the model and the estimation of shelf It is a set of research initiatives designed to facil- area of responsibility of each country. itate the evaluation and management of coral A major objective of ReefBase is to provide a reefs. It is an effective means of data archaeolo- basis for the assessment of coral reef degrada- gy, archiving, repatriating, standardizing, and tion by country and region. Doing so empirical- distributing that facilitates a wide range of coral ly requires very large amounts of data, because reef investigation, including meta-analysis of the extreme variability of coral reefs and of across sets of coral reefs. More important, it is a the types of studies currently available to pro- physical end product of the efforts of coral reef vide the data. Thus, reliable empirical predic- scientists, managers, and users around the tions are expected to be possible only after a few world that returns information in value-added more years of research (depending on levels of form. This physical entity then serves as a rally- funding, the activity levels of the GCRMN and ing point for enhanced, targeted efforts in the Aquanaut program, and other factors). conservation and management of coral reefs. However, the 2,000 reefs for which stresses have been reported do provide a basis for calibrating Note and refining models designed to determine the likelihood of stress problems on large scales. This is ICLARM Contribution Number 1417. Thus ReefBase is collaborating with the World Resources Institute in the development of a Acknowledgments global situation report based on factors such as distances from population centers, fishing pres- I thank all those who have made ReefBase possi- sure, likely levels of sedimentation, and other ble, in particular M. D. Spalding, L. A. B. Mefiez, variables. The variables are interrelated in a Jr., B. M. Vallejo, Jr., C. F. Cabote, M. C. A. Ablan, Geographic Information System (GIS) and M. L. G. Gorospe, K. P. K. Reyes, S. G. Vergara, I. adjusted with respect to known stress reports. D. Uy, G. U. Coronado, M. L. D. Palomares, R. The procedure incorporates multiple consulta- Pollnac, J. Kleypas, Z. N. Alojado, P. Ziegler, L. tions with regional and tropical experts. Halmarick, H. R. Montes, Jr., C. J. Cabalang, M. The growth of the GCRMN is being accom- Edwards, C. Ravilious, J. Rhind, A. Lee, I. panied by a rising concern for the establishment Wheeldon, A. Grenfell, S. Hirsh, J. Hughes, S. of regional and national databases. All aspects of Frade, J. Rogers, M. Noordeloos, J. L. Munro, S. ReefBase are provided in the public domain, Wells, D. Pauly, R. Froese, M. J. Williams, P. including the structure and code. ReefBase Gardiner, and R. Luxmoore. ReefBase has been makes these available to minimize the labor and sponsored by the European Commission, cost involved in establishing new databases. Government of the Netherlands, U.S. Agency for Advice and training in database development International Development, the Swedish Inter- are also available from ReefBase. national Development Authority, and ICLARM A recent effort within ReefBase is the devel- Core Funds from various donors. Funding for the opment of a set of recommended standards for development of the ReefBase Aquanaut System the processing of satellite imagery for inclusion was provided by the Wmslow Foundation. in the database. With assistance from the govern- ment of the Netherlands, ReefBase is reviewing Bibliography and testing existing analytical approaches for inclusion. The resulting product will incorporate Costanza, R., B. G. Norton, and B. D. Haskell. the suggestions and contributions of a set of 1992. Ecosystem Health: New Goalsfor remote sensing experts from around the world. Environmental Management. Washington, D.C.: Island Press. ReefBase: Status and Plans 137 Darwin, C. 1851. Geological Observations on Coral Production since the Last Glacial Reefs, Volcanic Islands, and on South America. Maximum." Paleoceanography 12(4): 533-45. London: Smith Elder and Company. Maragos, J. E., M. P. Crosby, and J. W. Eakin, C. M., J. W. McManus, M. D. Spalding, McManus. 1996. "Coral Reefs and and S. C. Jameson. 1997. "Coral Reef Status Biodiversity: A Critical and Threatened around the World: Where Are We and Where Relationship." Oceanography 9(1): 83-99. Do We Go from Here?" Proceedings of the McManus, J. W. 1996. "Social and Economic Eighth International Coral Reef Symposium, 1: Aspects of Reef Fisheries and Their 277-282. Management." In N. Polunin and C. Roberts Froese, R. 1994. "ReefBase: A Global Database eds., Coral Reef Fisheries. New York: of Coral Reef Systems and Their Resources." Chapman and Hall. In: Munro, J. L, and P. E. Munro. 1994. (eds.), McManus, J. W. 1997. "Tropical Marine "The Management of Coral Reef Resource Fisheries and the Future of Coral Reefs: A Systems." ICLARM Conference Proceedings. Brief Review with Emphasis on Southeast 44: 52-63. Asia." Coral Reefs 16, Suppl.: S121-S127. Ginsburg, R. N. (compiler). 1994. "Proceedings McManus, J. W., and M. C. Ablan, eds. 1996. of the Colloquium on Global Aspects of ReefBase: A Global Database of Coral Reefs and Coral Reefs: Health, Hazards, and History,. Their Resources. User's Guide. Metro Manila, 1993." Rosenstiel School of Marine and Philippines. ICLARM. Atmospheric Science, University of Miami. McManus J. W. and M. C. Ablan, eds.) 1997. Hodgson G. 1994. (letter). Science 266: 1930-1. ReefBase 2.0: A Global Database of Coral Reefs Hughes, T. 1994. "Catastrophes, Phase Shifts, and Their Resources. User's Guide. Metro and Large-Scale Degradation of a Caribbean Manila, Philippines. ICLARM. Coral Reef." Science 265: 1547-1551. McManus, J. W., and M. C. Ablan, M. Jakarta Mandate, 1997. Convention on Forthcoming. "ReefBase: a Global Database Biological Diversity, First Meeting of Experts, of Coral Reefs and Their Resources." March 1997, p. 26. McManus, J. W., M. C. Ablan, S. G. Vergara, L. Jameson, S. C., J. W. McManus and M. D. A. B. Meniez, B. M. Vallejo, K. P. Kesner, M. Spalding. 1995. "State of the Reefs: Regional G. Gorospe, and L. Halimarick. 1997. The and Global Perspectives." International Coral ReefBase Aquanaut Survey Manual. Metro Reef Initiative (ICRI) Secretariat Background Manila, Philippines. ICLARM. Paper, U.S. Department of State. Washington, McManus, J. W., E. M. Ferrer, and W. L. D.C. Campos. 1988. "A Village-Level Approach to Johannes, R. E. 1975. "Pollution and Coastal Adaptive Management and Resource Degradation of Coral Reef Communities." In Assessment (CAMRA)." Proceedings of the E. J. F. Wood and R. E. Johannes, eds. Elsevier Sixth International Coral Reef Symposium, Oceanogr. 12: 13-51. 2:381-386. * . 1981. Words of the Lagoon. Berkeley, Munro, J. L. 1996. "The Scope of Coral Reef Calif.: University of California Press. Fisheries and Their Management." In N. Johannes, R. E., and B. G. Hatcher, B.G. 1986. Polunin and C. Roberts, eds., Coral Reef "Shallow Tropical Marine Environments." In Fisheries. New York: Chapman and Hall. Soule, ed. Conservation Biology: The Science of New York. Scarcity and Diversity. Sunderland, Mass.: Munro, J. L., ed. 1983. "Caribbean Coral Reef Sinauer Associates, Inc. Fishery Resources." ICLARM Studies and Kleypas, J. A. 1995. "A Diagnostic Model for Reviews 7, Metro Manila, Philippines: Predicting Global Reef Distribution." In 0. ICLARM. Belwood, H. Choat, and N. Saxena, eds., Munro, J. L, and P. E. Munro, eds.. 1994. "The PACON Intl. and James Cook University. Management of Coral Reef Resource Systems." Kleypas, J. A. 1997. "Modeled Estimates of ICLARM Conference Proceedings, 44. Global Reef Habitat and Carbonate Munro J. L., and R. Thompson, R. 1973. "The 138 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management Biology, Ecology, Exploitation and Pennisi, E. 1997. "Brighter Prospects for the Management of Caribbean Reef Fishes." Part World's Coral Reefs?" Science 277: 491-3. II. The Jamaican fishing industry, the area Rapport, D. J., H. A. Regier, and C. Thorpe. investigated, the objectives and methodology 1981. "Diagnosis, Prognosis and Treatment of of the ODA/UWI Fisheries Ecology Project. Ecosystems under Stress." In G. W. Barrett Res. Rep. Zool. Dept. Univ. West Indies. 3. 44. and R. Rosenberg, eds., Stress Effects on Munro, J. L, and P. E. Munro, eds. 1994. "The Natural Ecosystems. New York: Wiley. Management of Coral Reef Resource Smith S. V. 1978. "Coral Reef Area and the Systems." ICLARM Conference Proceedings Contributions of Reefs to Processes and 44, 129. Resources of the World's Oceans." Nature Munro, J. L. ed. 1983. "Caribbean Coral Reef 273: 225-26. Fishery Resources." ICLARM Studies and UNEP/IUCN. 1988. Coral Reefs of the World. Reviews 7, Metro Manila, Philippines, (vols. 1-3). Gland, Switzerland, and ICLARM. Cambridge, United Kingdom. K./UNEP, Munro, J. L., and D. McB. Williams. 1985. Nairobi, Kenya, IUCN. "Assessment and Management of Coral Reef Wilkinson, C. R. 1992. "Coral Reefs of the Fisheries: Biological, Environmental And World Are Facing Widespread Devastation: Socio-Economic Aspects." Proceedings of the Can We Prevent This through Sustainable Fifth International Coral Reef Symposium. Management Practices?" Proceedings of the 543-578. Seventh International Coral Reef Symposium, Ogden, J. C. 1994. (Letter). Science 266: 1931. 1: 1121. Coral Reefs: Harbingers of Global Change? Phillip Dustan University of Charleston, South Carolina, on behalf of the Cousteau Society Evolution produces a veryfew new species every (zooxanthellae), that increase the retention of million years. If we are to assume that nature can limiting nutrients, primarily nitrogen and phos- cope with ourfeverish developments, it is probable phorus. Reef corals are functionally both ani- that mankind would be submitted to the fate of the mals and plants. Ironically, the same intricate dinosaurs. Destruction is quick and easy. patterns of survival that have developed over an Construction is slow and difficult. immense span of evolutionary time make the -J. Y. Cousteau, 1973 reef vulnerable to changes in environmental conditions, especially temperature, sediment, C oral reefs form in the tropical, equatorial and nutrient concentrations. waters of the world's oceans and are the Anthropogenic stresses are thought to be con- marine analogs of tropical rain forests. tributing to the decline in coral reef ecosystems, They are the oldest, most diverse and produc- notably in the Caribbean and the western tive ecosystems in the sea. Coral reefs are a Atlantic. Driven by the engine of ever-increasing reservoir for much of the ocean's biodiversity, human population, more and more land has been providing an estimated 10 percent of the world's converted from its natural state. Generally, terres- fisheries, and their productivity fuels intense trial ecosystems tend to be conservative and biogeochemical activity linking them to the export little in the way of nutrients, carbon, and global carbon cycle. Complex reef structures sediments. But, agriculture, urbanization, and house some of nature's most amazing creatures deforestation reduce the capacity of terrestrial while protecting miles of coastline from the full ecosystems to trap and retain materials. fury of the sea. Development has altered the ecological character- Coral reefs develop to their greatest expres- istic of watersheds, overloading rivers with sedi- sion in clear tropical waters under extremely ments, and nutrients, and adding toxic chemicals. nutrient-poor conditions. Abundant solar ener- Simple runoff has become an effluent that can gy fuels photosynthetic activity, which is trans- have a significant deleterious influence on water ferred to the food web by a host of grazing her- quality. The addition of fertilizers, organic car- bivores (animals that eat plants). This lush bon, and urban and commercial dumping further development of reefs under extreme oligotroph- enriches the watershed's effluent as it flows into ic conditions created a "paradox of reef" among the sea. When these ecological variables pass scientists until the role of symbiosis was fully some threshold, the species composition of the recognized. Now we know that the high pro- reef community becomes reorganized. ductivity of reefs results from the evolution of The addition of sediments or nutrients trig- many symbiotic associations, mainly coral-algal gers a set of ecological processes that alter the 139 140 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management selective pressures facing corals. In disturbed effective sediment dams that prevent corals areas, increased loading of sediments and nutri- from clearing sediment off their surface, slowly ents often co-occur, making it difficult to isolate suffocating the live tissue. This process, termed their individual effects. Generally, increased sed- edge damage, is a functional disease and iment and nutrient loading favor the growth of appears to be a significant source of coral tissue macroalgae over corals. Suspended sediments mortality. Additionally, any lesion increases sus- reduce light levels to the corals and coat their ceptibility to opportunistic pathogens that can soft tissue surfaces. Algae strip nutrients from kill a colony in less than 1/100 of the time it the water column, quickly enabling them to takes to grow. In the Florida Keys in 1974, I grow faster than stony corals. observed the process on reefs that had increased Excess sediment, coarse or fine, smothers amounts of fine sedimentation. The condition coral tissue, impeding diffusive gas exchange became much more prevalent after the mass through the tissues while also reducing the mortality of Diadema antillarum greatly reduced amount of light available for photosynthesis. levels of herbivory. Today, throughout the Since corals work best when their surfaces are Florida Keys and the Bahamas, almost anything sediment-free, their metabolic efficiency dimin- that lives on hard substrate is being overgrown ishes. Energy spent on housekeeping is not by algae. It is abundant, almost metastatic, on available for prey capture, growth, or reproduc- the outer reefs of Key Largo. Molasses Reef, the tion. As the sediment load increases, the tissues most heavily visited reef in the world, has thick cannot maintain their status and tissue death ruglike algal mats, while Carysfort Reef has occurs. Microbes quickly claim the freshly mats with finer filaments. Both types of algal exposed skeleton, which is followed by a succes- communities trap sediments and the finer par- sional process ending with an algal turf or ticulate organic snow, which shade, smother, macroalgal community. Tissue losses increase and rather quickly kill coral tissue. when, through fishing and collecting, levels of The reefs in many parts of the Caribbean and herbivory are reduced or at least altered. Such western Atlantic are showing signs of decreas- reefs change from coral gardens to algal-covered ing vitality; coral cover is decreasing while algae rocks, in precisely the type of trend that is one of are increasing. Coral regeneration is slowing, the key problems facing coral reef ecosystems in and the increased levels of algal biomass may the Caribbean and western Atlantic today. be, in part, responsible for reduced levels of Curiously, luxuriant reefs can be found natu- coral larvae settlement. Signs of stress appear rally in areas with high sediment loading, such most evident on coastal reefs near population as could be found near the mouths of tropical centers. In the Florida Keys, one of the most dra- rivers along the north coast of Jamaica. The dif- matic sites, I am frequently asked which single ference is that these reefs developed under these factor is responsible, sediments or nutrients? My conditions rather than being subject to dramatic perspective is that the factor may actually be the environmental shifts after becoming established. accumulation of a series of nested stresses that Reef corals that have developed under one set of are as local as the fisherman; as regional as the conditions may not possess the necessary flexi- landowner, sugarcane field, or village; and as bility in their physiology or genetic makeup to global as deforestation in Amazonia, the ozone cope with the added stress of rapid environmen- hole, and the greenhouse effect. Each factor com- tal change. pounds the rest, a synergy leading toward death The death rate of coral tissue from sediment for the reef. necrosis increases when algae grow in close Locating the sources of increased levels of proximity to corals. Macroalgae can shade coral nutrients and sediments, and other stressors, has tissue, causing bleaching and eventually tissue proved as elusive as defining the nested levels of necrosis. Large algal colonies can also abrade the stress. In the Florida Keys, the effluent of cities, soft coral tissue as they wave in the surge. towns, farms, a watershed too vast to control, Microalgal filaments at the edge of corals form slowly bleeds into the sea through canals, rivers, Coral Reefs: Harbingers of Global Change? 141 and coastal bays. The origin can. be either a form the core of biodiversity. The most elaborate steady and well-defined point source stream or ecosystems tend to be found in places that are an effluent that seeps from the land with each old, benign, predictable, and frequently rich in rainfall. Both push sediments, nutrients, and solar energy. These ecosystems are very profi- contaminants into the sea. More of it upwells cient at elemental recycling, so that the living from injected sewage; some leaches from shal- portions of the habitat are richer in nutrients low septic tanks, urban lawns, agricultural than their surrounding soils or seas. Both reefs lands, or vacant lots. Some washes into the sea and rain forests develop to their highest expres- along the west and east coasts of Florida, the sions in habitats that seemingly cannot support Everglades, the Mississippi, and lands that are luxuriant growth. The soil of rain forests is farther downstream. Bits and pieces from a dif- extremely poor, and the clear, warm tropical seas fuse array of sources contribute to a pervasive that bathe reefs have nutrient levels at or below level of adverse stress for the reef. the minimum level of detection. In this case, The changes we are witnessing in reefs are more is not always necessarily better. echoes of the increased levels of harmful algal Human civilization is undergoing an blooms in coastal waters, beach closings, and the unprecedented population expansion coupled general global decline in fisheries. The impact of with an economy driven by consumption and man is extending into the seas. Watershed efflu- profit, as opposed to efficiency and recycling. ent, runoff from increasingly urbanized land- Humans treat biological resources like agricul- scapes, an unprecedented manipulation by tural systems in which net production is maxi- humans, is thought to be responsible for mized rather than managed for sustainable increased levels of nutrients and sediments, but yields. Such systems are inherently unstable. the definitive data are not yet in. The data are elu- They require a constant input of nutrients, very sive because reef community metabolism has little of which are sequestered in the standing evolved to rapidly take up and sequester the very stock, or "body," of the ecosystem. They grow at nutrients signal we are trying to detect. Increases the expense of other systems and greatly in algal biomass are thought to reflect increased increase the entropy of surrounding areas. But nutrients but do not constitute proof. Carbonate since the earth is finite, this approach cannot sediments are almost as hard to follow, so at this continue without increasingly severe degrada- time we are left with correlation rather than tion of the biosphere. causality. It is my belief that the declining vitality One long-range vision for the future of of reefs is a metric for the health of the oceans, humanity suggests that the incorporation of the analogous to the coal miner's canary in the cage. logic of natural systems into our mode of living They are the fragile harbingers of change warn- might, perhaps, enable civilization to persist as ing us of declining oceanic health. long as coral reefs and rain forests. Given Coral reefs, rain forests, and human civiliza- humanity's commerce-driven dominance of tion are the three most complex communities on ecosystems, the environmental and long-term earth. The first two are the most productive nat- costs of economic activities need to be reflected ural communities, while humanity, is rapidly in market prices. We must change our present encroaching on the entire planet. Reefs are the practices, lest we leave only our wastes for oldest, having existed since there were organ- future generations. isms with skeletons in the sea. Modern coral The very first diving expedition of Calypso reefs date from about 250 million years before was to the Red Sea, beginning the modern study the present. Like rain forests, these communities of coral reefs using the Aqualung. It was there have evolved an ecological logic that allows that Jacques Cousteau became astounded and them to flourish and persist on a planet that is entranced by the splendor and the extravagant forever changing. beauty of the coral world. In time, his concern Over enormous spans of evolutionary time, grew for the careless destruction that our very sophisticated relationships emerge and unchecked technological development is spread- 142 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management ing into the oceans. His legacy to us is a greater al/technological ecology focused on both understanding and appreciation for the marvels remediation and an end to pollution of the of life. seas, and develop new environmental man- agement techniques integrating ecology, Recommendations for the World Bank economics, technology, and social sciences ("Ecotechnie") with the goal of significantly Recognizing that coral reefs may be indicators of reducing pollution in coastal areas, remedi- oceanic health and that their decline may fore- ating ecological harm, protecting human bode the decline of the oceans, the World Bank health, and enhancing human welfare. should assume a leadership role in the global * Expand support for small-scale projects conservation of coral reefs for a sustainable designed to eliminate destructive fishing future by undertaking the following: (such as the use of cyanide and dynamite), * Establish an international interdisciplinary implement reef surveys and monitoring working group composed of scientific, tech- activities, and protect reefs from physical nical, and policy experts to ascertain the harm. Work at the national and internation- state of knowledge of coral reef ecosystems al level to address fisheries that exploit chil- and make recommendations concerning dren, and implement certification programs their sustainable future. for aquarium fish to ensure they are caught • Establish collaborations with international in a nonharmful manner. Explore the use of space agencies to develop a global capabili- microcredit loans for small-scale entrepre- ty to map and monitor the distribution of neurial activities to promote the sustainable coral reef communities, to ascertain their use of coral reef resources. health and identify potential hazards to * Ensure that the knowledge and means for their future. management are transferred to tropical - Support a climate of stimulation for existing developing nations where most of the activities and fund scientific programs on world's reefs are located, and assist in the health and vitality of coral reef ecosys- developing the capacity of local communi- tems, and support efforts to implement sus- ties to manage and use these resources in a tainable fisheries practices at all levels. sustainable manner. * Recognize the dynamics of population * Support the establishment of marine pro- growth in coastal areas and focus attention tected areas and particularly sensitive sea on protecting the ecology of the land-sea areas (PSSAs) to ensure the conservation of margin and watersheds of coastlines and marine biodiversity. rivers. Address land-based sources of * Support the full implementation of the Jakarta marine pollution, including nutrient and Mandate on Marine and Coastal Biodiversity, chemical inputs, soil erosion, and forest and and the development of a Protocol on Marine agriculture practices. Biodiversity Conservation to the Convention * Support the development of an industri- on Biological Diversity. The Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network: Communities, Governments, and Scientists Working Together for Sustainable Management of Coral Reefs Clive Wilkinson Global Coral ReefMonitoring Network Bernard Salvat GCRMN Scientific and TechnicalAdvisory Committee T he declining status and health of coral to implement a global program of reef monitor- reefs around the world stimulated the for- ing. The GCRMN will function as an association mation of the Global Coral Reef Monitor- of independent networks (or nodes), within ing Network (GCRMN), a component of the regions based on the UNEP Regional Seas International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI). Programme. The size and composition of nodes will depend on the number of countries, geo- Formation of the GCRMN graphical range, distance, language, culture, religions, and political affiliations. Central coor- The GCRMN was established under sponsor- dination will diminish to a role of preparing ship by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic reports and assisting in funding nodes. Commission of UNESCO (IOC), the United Regional nodes will identify major stakehold- Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and er groups to train and involve in local area mon- the World Conservation Union (IUCN) and is itoring, as well as conducting country-wide co-hosted by the Australian Institute of Marine monitoring. Specific emphasis will be placed on Science (AIMS) in Townsville and the Inter- involving fisher cooperatives, women's organi- national Center for Living Aquatic Resources zations, and schools. The objectives of the moni- Management (ICLARM) in Manila. toring are twofold: to gather data on the status The GCRMN commenced in March 1996, and trends in coral reefs, and to raise awareness when the IOC appointed a coordinator using amongst all stakeholders, as well as decision- U.S. State Department funds. The GCRMN is makers, on the current rates of reef destruction governed by the sponsors, hosts and ICRI form- and causes. These objectives feed directly into ing the Management Group. Advice is provided the ICRI programs of integrated management by a widely representative GCRMN Scientific and capacity building. and Technical Advisory Committee (STAC), with the chair sitting on the Management Group. The GCRMN Regions and Nodes first major task was to produce a "Strategic Plan," which is available at this meeting. Regions and nodes will be effectively indepen- dent with their own budgets and reporting, coor- GCRMN Strategies dinated through a central office, usually the UNEP regional office. Nodes will be staffed by a The GCRMN will develop partnerships with coordinator and staff able to train in biophysical local users and other stakeholders, government and socioeconomic monitoring, plus be responsi- departments, scientists, and resource managers ble for in-country monitoring. Each node will 143 144 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management produce annual reef status reports, based on data (EPHE/CRIOBE) station on Moorea, assist- from participating countries, and ensure the ed by the government of French Polynesia wide dissemination of reports. The regions are: and Universite Francaise du Pacifique, to * Middle East. Countries bordering the Red Sea include the Cook Islands, Tokelau, Niue, and the Persian Gulf, which held their first Wallis, and Futuna; Northwest Pacific- ICRI Regional Workshop in September 1997. based at the University of Guam and the * Western Indian Ocean and Eastern African Guam Coastal Management Program and States. The ICRI Regional Workshop in the incorporating Palau, the Federated States of Seychelles, April 1996, recommended a Micronesia, and the Northern Marianas; Western Indian Ocean node to assist Central Pacific-based in the Marine Comoros, Madagascar, Mauritius, Reunion, Studies Center, University of the South Seychelles, based in Mauritius and support- Pacific, in Suva, Fiji, and including ed by the Indian Ocean Commission; and American Samoa, Samoa, and Tonga; an Eastern African node assisting Kenya, Pacific Atoll-based in the USP Atoll Mozambique, Tanzania, South Africa (and Research Unit in Kiribati for the Marshall possibly Eritrea, Somalia) hosted by the Islands, Nauru, and Tuvalu; Melanesian Kenya Marine Fisheries Research Institute High Islands-for New Caledonia, Papua in Mombasa. New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, * South Asia. One node for India, the Vanuatu, and Australia, hosted probably at Maldives, Sri Lanka (Bangladesh, Pakistan) ICLARM in Honiara. was designated at the Maldives ICRI * Caribbean and Tropical Americas. There will Regional Workshop, November 1995. The be many nodes based on the expertise with- node is supported by the Department for in the CARICOMP network of interacting International Development, UK, and hosted marine institutes, with some coordination at ITJCN and SACEP in Colombo, with through the UNEP regional offices in Jamaica. Jason Rubens appointed as the interim regional coordinator. GCRMN Program and Progress * East Asian Seas. Five countries (Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and * Planning. Initial interagency support has Thailand) will be independent nodes. One been obtained to establish the GCRMN and node is planned for Cambodia, Myanmar, fund coordination. The Strategic Plan, and Vietnam; another node is envisaged for Biophysical ManuaL and Protocols are North Asia, with the Okinawa Coral Reef being distributed. A manual of social, cul- Conservation and Research Center of Japan tural, and economic parameters is currently assisting China, the Republic of Korea, and being drafted. The GCRMN Pilot Monitor- Hong Kong (China). These were decided at ing Project is under way with more than 50 two ICRI regional workshops-Bali, March institutes or individuals signifying interest. 1996, and Okinawa, February 1997. A manual for tourist and volunteer divers is * Pacific. Six nodes will serve the countries being planned by the East-West Center in and states within the South Pacific Regional Hawaii, to include existing projects like Environrment Programme (SPREP). These Aquanaut and Reef Check. were decided at the GCRMN meeting in Fiji * Negotiation. More than 80 governments par- in July 1997. The nodes are Hawaiian-for ticipated in the six ICRI Regional Work- Hawaii, U.S. Line, U.S. Phoenix and Wake shops; most requested participation in the Islands, based at the University of Hawaii, GCRMN. These workshops determined the the East-West Center, and the Bishop problems for their coral reefs and established Museum; Polynesian-at the Ecole Pratique action priorities. Many scientists and des Hautes Etudes/Centre de Recherches resource managers participated and are will- Insulaires et Observatoire de l'Environment ing to assist. The Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network 145 * Node formation. Approximately 16 nodes in * That which can be controlled by communi- four regions have been formed around ties (localized overfishing; damaging fish- strong centers; approximately 12 remain to ing; overharvesting of sand and rock; be designated. Coordinators have been immediate pollution by sediment, sewage, selected for most nodes and funding is agricultural and small industrial effluents) assured for the establishment of the South * Large-scale impacts imposed on reefs from Asian node, and five independent country outside the system (catchment area pollu- nodes in Southeast Asia will seek their own tion, oil and large-scale industrial pollution, funding. Funding proposals are being global climate change and sea level rise). developed for the others. The GCRMN is focused on the first-assist- * Training. Initial training has started in the ing communities in developing awareness of the Western Indian Ocean, South Asia, problems facing coral reefs and educating users Southeast Asia, and the Pacific. Full training about the connections between human activities should commence within nine months in and reef damage. The impacts listed below that most regions. Likewise the socioeconomic are directly controllable by local communities manual will be simultaneously tested in all are marked ($). Solutions to some of these are regions. treated in detail elsewhere in these proceedings. * Devolution. The next step, after country * Sediment pollution: monitoring has started, is to train and * Deforestation ($) involve communities in monitoring their * Stripping of mangroves ($) resources, with the view toward developing * Coastal and catchment development ($) local management plans. * Poor agricultural practices: * Reporting. The GCRMN will produce two * Dredging for mariculture ponds ($) reports (results of pilot and initial regional * Dredging for ports monitoring, and assessments by expert sci- * Land reclamation entists and resource managers) for the * Dumping of spoils at sea International Year of the Ocean and present- * Mining in the catchment area ed at ITMEMS, an international coral reef * Coastal mining (for example, tin dredging) management conference in November 1998. * Nutrient pollution: A major status report will be presented at the * Runoff from deared land ($) International Coral Reef Symposium in Bali, * Sewage wastes ($) 2000. Specific reports by communities and * Agricultural wastes and fertilizers ($) countries should commence by June 1998. * Intensive animal husbandry ($) * Over to ICRI. GCRMN country and commu- * Intensive mariculture, such as shrimp nity activities will constitute the basis to ponds ($) achieve ICRI goals of integrated manage- * Wastes from food and paper industries ment and capacity building. * Overfishing: * With fine mesh traps and nets ($) Specific Anthropogenic Problems * Fishing with spearguns ($) and Solutions * Commercial fishing with compressed 'air ($) The ultimate cause of coral reef degradation * Destructive fishing-nets and trawlers($) derives from greater use of resources by increas- * Cyanide fishing ($) ing populations, which are driven to overex- * Poison, such as bleach ($) ploitation by poverty and a lack of control over * Muro ami fishing ($) these resources. Solutions to these problems * Blast, or dynamite ($) operate at a larger scale than the GCRMN; but * Anchor damage ($) we intend to assist in tackling the direct causes * Engineering: building of groins, harbors, of most coral reef degradation. In this paper, we and walls; building of airports, ports, consider two levels of anthropogenic damage: marinas. 146 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management Sediment and nutrient pollution can be con- reliance on wild-caught fish must be reduced by trolled by integrated management of watersheds improved mariculture and cage culture, using directed by local populations and assisted by larvae and juveniles caught in traps or nets or on central government. Many developmental and artificial reefs. agricultural practices can be managed to reduce Above all are the major efforts required to sediment loss, such as clearing land during the reduce population growth, combat poverty, pro- dry season, green tillage, building bund walls vide alternative employment, ensure that local around coastal developments. Nutrients can be people have greater control over their resources, reduced by the target application of fertilizer, use and improve information, awareness, and edu- of sewage wastes in agriculture, installation of cation into the causes of problems and possible basic sewage treatment for towns and agricultur- solutions. This will require some funding, but at al industries, sustainable stocking rates for graz- low levels (for example, US$3 million to 5 mil- ing. The development of crops requiring less fer- lion) across the globe. The GCRMN is specifical- tilizer is needed for coastal communities. ly targeted at providing communities with the Combating overfishing and damaging fish- information and understanding necessary to ing practices will require coordinated action to take greater control of these resources, but by reduce poverty by providing alternative pursuing the goals, the GCRMN will form net- employment through industries like tourism. works and provide them with some tools to Fishers are usually the poorest of the poor. The tackle the larger problems. Marine Information Management and Environmental Education Janine M H. Selendy HORIZON Communications T o effectively and expeditiously protect growing practice of bioprospecting and neces- and preserve coral reefs, marine informa- sary precautions to avoid hurting the reefs and tion and environmental education efforts showing how environmentally friendly bio- must be undertaken, reaching people through- prospecting is benefiting local communities out the world to heighten awareness of prob- without harming the reefs; (2) to heighten public lems and dangers and to provide answers: solu- appreciation of the beauty and complexity of tions that can be and are being undertaken from these extraordinary ecosystems and of the inter- environmentally sound fishing and extraction dependence of man and coral reefs; and (3) to practices to controls on trade and tourism. To provide examples of successful reef protection help achieve this goal, on the 15th of October, and management practices. HORIZON Communications, a not-for-profit The many problems confronting the reefs will international research, film production, and be played against the story of efforts to protect development organization based at Harvard and preserve these fecund oases of biodiversity. and Yale Universities in the United States, is The media coverage will reach people through- launching its CORAL REEF ODYSSEY: QUEST out the world. FOR SURVIVAL project. This effort, consisting Environmental education needs to be cultur- of television programs, books, and other multi- ally and politically sensitive and to reach chil- media materials, is designed to help increase dren as well as adults. Television and all media public understanding of the importance of coral available in a region should be employed, along reefs, of the threats to their survival, and of the with hands-on training of local people who are efforts that can be and are being undertaken to or can be involved in protective measures. protect them. Whenever possible, local participation in the HORIZON is embarking on a new symbiot- media coverage itself should be factored into ic relationship between research and the media. information packages. This can be done without The ODYSSEY, will take audiences on a research much extra expense by adding segments pro- expedition through the major coral reef ecosys- duced by and with local individuals depicting tems of the world with a group of dedicated their situations. Adding material to existing marine biologists led by Dr. Walter Adey, educational videos can be achieved using sim- Director of the Marine Systems Laboratory of ple camcorders. In order to make their additions the Smithsonian Institution. The quest will be to the productions particularly effective, inte- threefold: (1) to find new organisms which may gration of their segments into the body of exist- be a source of future medicines and other bio- ing tapes should be done. This can be achieved chemical products, both addressing the newly by providing them with special edits of the 147 148 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management ODYSSEY, for example, in which blank sections Uneducated Consumers are left into which they can cut a segment pro- duced locally. In regions where they do not Tourism is a rapidly growing industry through- have access to cameras and video equipment, out the coral reef areas of the world. Uncontrolled the equipment and training could be provided, or inadequately controlled tourism is resulting in adding to learning skills and direct involvement coral reef destruction, often by unwary divers in preservation efforts. HORIZON has had a who mean no harm. Education and controls are long experience in creating documentaries com- essential. In Bonaire, a wonderfully successful posed of detachable segments which can be coral reef preservation effort, and an excellent seen in sequence or can be worked into news example of effective ecotourism, is working and programs, reaching audiences not only through has been under way for more than 20 years. major broadcasters such as PBS, but also Videos are employed to teach divers the do's and appearing in whole or part in major news pro- don'ts before they can receive their diving per- grams on ABC in the United States and in mits. The production of the ODYSSEY will com- Burkina Faso, China, Germany, Lebanon, mence this month with filming of the Bonaire Mexico, Pakistan, Peru, Poland, Thailand, and effort, induding how this ecotourism effort came other countries. about and why the ecotourism effort is so suc- The World Bank can benefit fisheries and cessful, not only in terms of protecting the reefs, coral reefs around the world by encouraging but also in economic terms. research, education, and environmentally sound Environmental education and marine infor- consumer demand. It can play a very meaning- mation management need to address boaters, ful and effective role by incorporating, as part of pleasure fishing, reef treasure hunters, amateur the Bank's long-range ecological objectives, sup- and professional archeologists, other explorers, port for education, disseminating knowledge of and pleasure divers. There is vital interdepen- successful models of conservation with prof- dency between fisheries and coral reefs about itable development. Thus, the Bank can help which not many people seem to be aware. Time provide a foundation of knowledge on which magazine of August 11, 1975, provides a good people can act. What better resource to focus on example of how major media coverage can help. than coral reefs, where the stakes are so high and Its article on fisheries draws attention to their the promising initiatives so compelling. fragility, helping to increase public awareness of The fact that the diversity of coral reef life has fish losses from excessive catches. The article great scientific and economic potential needs to presents startling facts about fish popular be spread in environmental education. The work among chefs in the United States, such as the of Dr. William Fenical of the Scripps Institution orange roughy. They grow extremely slowly, live of Oceanography serves as such a model, repre- for more than 100 years, and take 25 years to senting the promise of medicines from coral reef reach sexual maturity. The consumer sitting in a organisms and of market incentives. In the restaurant may never have thought about the Bahamas, successful bioprospecting work begun fact that consuming an orange roughy was under Dr. Fenical is under way. There a treelike encouraging overfishing and depletion. gorgonian, Pseudopterogorgia elisabethae, is being Time offered a section on "What Consumers harvested by local fishermen who carefully cut Can Do," providing lists of what is OK to eat only a few branches from the gorgonian, which sparingly and what is not OK to eat. For exam- then regenerates. Substances derived from the ple, the grouper, a resident reef fish which is eas- branches are used by a major cosmetic company ily caught, is being targeted in many tropical and are being studied for use of its powerful waters. They are most often taken at a crucial anti-inflarnmatory properties. The Bahamian point in their life cycle-when they gather by government is receiving hundreds of thousands the thousands to spawn. Time reports: "In some of dollars in export taxes from this resource. places, fishermen have wiped out nearly an entire generation of reproducing adults in just a Marine Information Management and Environmental Education 149 few seasons." Many have heard of a single that illegal taking of fish and destruction of coral grouper commanding a price of $10,000 in reefs is theft. It is theft from local communities Southeast Asia, where the economic boom is and from their livelihoods, theft from the inter- generating wealth that is too often encouraging dependent species that are hurt or killed: theft plundering of such resources. Mass education is from our global capital. When the message gets needed to alert people to the consequences. out that our global capital is being lost to pirates Grouper in the Caribbean are facing imminent on the coast of Indonesia, people will wake up danger, according to some marine scientists. and realize that it affects them, whether halfway They are concerned that there will be uncon- around the world or on the Indonesian coast. It trolled poaching of grouper during their forth- puts the situation in a perspective that everyone coming spawning season, wiping them out. This can relate to. Hence, it generates action. situation needs attention. Media can alert people Similarly, it is important that the World Bank and inform them about actions they can take, take into account not only local and regional such as avoiding catching and consuming considerations when financing a development, grouper. but also global capital. Will the development cause depletion of global capital? Will the devel- Recommendations for Future Actions opment harm or destroy global capital with pol- lutants? Will the development have negative 1. Sustainable Practices and Private Entrepreneurs long-term consequences on our global capital? The Bank's new "outplacement" policy begun People who are drawn into poisoning and dyna- by President Wolfensohn benefits both the Bank miting for fish need to be educated about altema- staff who can expand their knowledge and expe- tives. Daniel Pelicier of Mauritius provides an rience and the organization with which they are excellent example of environmentally friendly collaborating. It could be made more liberal aquarium collection, in both his techniques and with time and Bank resources. his reasoning. By sharing knowledge of his approach in the media, he will heighten aware- 3. Reef Managers ness of how one can make immediate money while providing for long-term availability of The World Bank and other entities could help resources. with the establishment and operation of training programs with education and certification of 2. Bank Staff and Policymakers coral reef managers, using media to illustrate problems and best practices. There needs to be Media can help alert people to illegal and harm- more power of enforcement than now exists in ful fishing and extractive practices and can be many areas, and stronger infrastructure from very effective in bringing about major policy which to work. Effective education programs decisions. If the world knows about what is incorporating visual material for coral reef being done, the force of the public can make the reserve managers can help to effectively and difference. For instance, it could be tremendous- quickly generate an understanding of the long- ly helpful for the media to bring to attention the term consequences of failure to enforce the con- loss of fisheries and coral reefs along the heavily trols over poaching or other harmful activities. A populated coasts of Indonesia. Professor Paul striking example of conservation enforcement Dayton of the Scripps Institution of Oceanogra- was presented in the Economist of September 20, phy says that 112 million Indonesians living 1997, one I am not advocating: In order to help along the seaboard depend on fish. "Pirates the black rhinos in Zimbabwe, their national have destroyed their entire resource." Can pirat- parks "are protected by a new and fiercer force. ing be stopped? It may go on if there is not If guards and game rangers come across any- enough of a public outcry. That outcry comes body who might be a poacher, they now have from knowledge of the cause. People recognize the right to shoot first and ask questions later." 150 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management The Economist states, "Its effect was immedi- as weakened conditions due to toxins and ate-and salutary." increased algal blooms leading to newly emerg- ing viruses and death. Scientists, fishermen, and 4. Educators coral reef communities can all play an essential role by sharing knowledge of spawning and Educators in various fields should incorporate breeding grounds, knowledge of crucial times an understanding and appreciation of the biodi- for corals and fish, such as fertility cycles, breed- versity of coral reefs and of the interdependent ing grounds needing protection, and symbiotic relationships of fisheries and coral reefs, man- relationships between various species of fish groves, and sea grasses. Symbiotic relationships and corals. To provide an understanding of showing caring, understanding, and mutual long-term consequences, this information then protection and support provide striking exam- needs to be made widely available through all ples which can be effectively incorporated into multimedia forms, reaching into even the small- education and marine information management est community. programs. The images and stories of symbiotic To further facilitate local and regional coral anemones and clown fish, gobies and pistol reef protection efforts, HORIZON, in collabora- shrimp, symbiosis crabs on sea feathers, porce- tion with the United Nations Environment lain crabs with their delicate translucent plank- Programme, Development Programme, ton nets, and many other magnificent examples Population Fund, UNICEF, the International will make people better understand the com- Development Research Centre of Canada, and Harvard and Yale Universities, will be sharing plexities of coral reefs. Interdisciplinary studies solutions in easily accessible case studies on its need to be fostered to increase understanding of "Solutions Site" on the HORIZON Web page. We coastal related influences on coral reefs such as welcome participation in this site, for which case agricultural runoffs, sewage, and industrial studies will be checked for applicability and fea- processes that cause pollutants. sibility by HORIZON's Scientific Review Board, Coral Reef Advisory Board, and other experts. 5. Scientists The information will be made available in newsletters and other means as well as on the Members of the scientific community can build Internet. Please visit HORIZON's Web page for on knowledge of interconnected influences more information on the CORAL REEF causing reef degradation and destruction such ODYSSEY: http://www.yale.edu/horizon and to share your ideas with us in our guest book. Discussion Stephen Colwell, Coral Reef Alliance: There John McManus: Thank you, Steve. You have are dozens, actually hundreds, of organizations broadened the picture-that was extremely that are not here today, all of whom have par- important. We're also very supportive of ticipated in getting out the very information we ReefCheck-a very successful move to get a lot are talking about [the International Year of the of people in the water in a hurry to get some sort Reef], and the reason I'm saying this is that of immediate feedback about coral reefs, but there's often people who are saying, "We need also to get a lot of people involved in looking at to create this or that." A lot of it is out there, a coral reefs. There's going to be a press confer- lot of it is done. It's important to tap into that so ence [October, 16, 1997], in Hong Kong about that we don't spend all of our time creating, the initial results. I was actually one of the peo- and we put a lot of resources into distribution. ple on the first ReefCheck. They have the advan- There are exhibits, like the Smithsonian tage that you can train somebody in three hours Tropical Research Institute's, Nuestros Arecifes, and get them in the water, and gather some sort which is going through the Caribbean; there are of information. And we have just agreed that NOAA's programs this year, which they have ReefCheck will be seen as some sort of a two- done for "52 Stories," which has been picked level thing. After ReefCheck-if people want to up by newspapers around the world; there are go through three or four days training at the Web sites. In fact, if you look at the Aquanaut program, then that becomes stage International Year of the Reef Web site, you can two. There's a number of other volunteer pro- see hundreds of people in over 50 countries grams around the world that we're very happy have set these things up. And you should tap about including the reef program with fish into those, particularly since 1998 is the Year of watching, so there's lot of things going on the Ocean. We really have a chance to use this around the world. momentum. I was taking a shuttle to the air- port in New York, and had the cab driver say, Silvia Earle: I wanted to quickly respond to "Oh, coral reefs, aren't they really in trouble? something that Janine [Selendy] was alluding to, Really bad things are happening in Indonesia, which I guess you could sum up with just refer- right? " It's out there-we can build on it, par- ring to the distillation of this Black Sea ticularly with all the resources that the panel Conference, which was a curious mix of religion, and other people have developed, I think we environment, scientists, economists. It was real- have an obligation right now to carry this ly something-the idea being trying to pull peo- momentum through to 1998. ple together from various disciplines that nor- mally don't talk to one another, and to see if we L5I 152 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management could find the common ground. I had the fun of Clive Wilkinson: Thank you very much for that trying to come up with some of the essence of comment, and I'd like to talk with you afterward what it was all about. And it seemed to me that about that. Certainly in areas where I'm familiar, you could say that some of the things you learn the local priest is a very important person in the as a little kid about "doing to others what you community to get the message across about con- would have them do unto you"-this is the ethic servation of protecting reefs. And we're hoping that we grow up with no matter what culture we in the year 2000, at the International Coral Reef come from. And no matter what culture we Symposium, to hold a special symposium on the come from there are certain guidelines for living, role of religion in conserving coral reefs, and I've such as "thou shalt not kill, and thou shalt not been talking to Graham Kelleher about that, so steal." And as you were saying, Janine, about please talk to me later. theft of things that go beyond taking things from one another's backyard. In a sense, this is our Barbara Ornitz, Sheilman and Omitz: I want to backyard, but we haven't yet quite extended the address this to Jack [Sobel] and to Phillip ethic to an environmental ethic of "thou shout [Dustan], because we had a meeting about this not kill the environment upon which you and the other day. When we talk about the power of your neighbors depend. You shall not steal from one, we-each of us in this room sitting in the future generations by killing the environ- Washington, D.C., today-can do something, ment upon which we all depend." And I think and I want wanted to let you know, and ask Jack that is one of the things at the end of this discus- and Phillip how they feel about this? There are sion, whatever else we go away with, if we can some letters on my exhibit table that deal with come together with a new ethic of caring, a new three pieces of legislation-resolutions that are understanding that the Napoleon wrasse even now sitting in the Senate and Congress. It's the if it's worth $10,000, once as a gourmet feast-if first time that we've had, in principle, the pro- left in the ocean as a part of that system can be posal for stewardship for coral reefs that our worth $10,000 month after month-a priceless Congress is looking at. My question-the letters value. In fact, you can't put a price tag on its are out there. Each one of us can sign one of value as part of the system-what it generates in these letters; we can send it to our senators, we income, but also what it generates in terms of can send it to our congressmen, and we can say, the health which we cannot replace. "We are exercising our power to ask you to sup- port reefs." One of the resolutions deals with Richard Jordan, Inter-Faith Partnership, UNEP just a general stewardship call. The second reso- Regional Office, North America: I, too, was on lution deals with cyanide and dynamite fishing the Black Sea, and I mentioned a term in practices as we have been talking so much about Japanese: Mottainai, which means "humble in this conference. And the third deals with sense of awe," and that certainly was put forth funding-for projects for science and monitor- very well in the videos. But what I would like to ing, community work-which we have also do in building upon what Clive [Wilkinson] and been talking about. So I guess my question Jack [Sobel] mentioned, in building on your would be: these are beginnings, but we-each of partnerships and outreach to other organiza- us-can take the step to sign onto these letters tions and networks, please include the religions. and send them on, and I would ask the panel Religions are extremely good at developing and members, particularly Jack and Phillip, if you spreading this idea of the humble sense of awe, would endorse that, or if you have comments and I can certainly tell you that the Inter-Faith about that, and then I would urge you to please Partnership at UNEP, which has existed for 10 pick up these letters and send them in. years, will certainly disseminate the results of this conference, and will perhaps help you in Phillip Dustan: I think, unequivocally, I endorse doing that. Thank you. that, and I know the people I have spoken to within the Cousteau Society endorse the idea. Discussion 153 I'm going to take the letter back and take it to my Alexander Stone, Reef Keeper International: I child's preschool and get the little kids to write would just put two things on the table for con- letters, too, because my son wants to form an sideration at your work. One with regards to earth-saver's club. public awareness: we think it's real important to I'd like to make one other comment about undertake focused awareness efforts that reach this that hasn't really come up-here we are at coastal user groups. And by that I mean the the World Bank-the value of the world's eco- owners and managers of the reef that have out- logical goods and services, the kinds of things falls that are dumping the sewage into the water. that reefs do for us has been valued at $33 tril- How do we target, or create public awareness lion. That should make any banker take notice. efforts so we make sure we are getting the right And that's stuff we don't have to pay the world message to that kind of a person? Or to the cab to do; it just does it for us. So maybe somewhere driver in the U. S. Virgin Islands that asks me: that should find its way into this educational "Well, what's the big deal with those rocks that process. It is an extremely conservative figure. out there?" or the maid in Cozumel that tells me her family has lived in Cozumel for generations, Marea Hatziolos: We have used that figure to and never has had the chance to look at a coral try and educate our own senior management. reef. How do we get to them? That's question, or point number 1. Point number 2 has to do with Jack Sobel: If I could just also comment on reef monitoring efforts. Particularly, I am that-a couple of thoughts. First of all, we addressing this to Clive [Wilkinson] and to John [Center for Marine Conservation] certainly [McManus]: [inaudible].. we want to connect endorse that. We think that taking personal with you. And somehow we have spent a year action, whether you're a government person, wanting to connect, and we're still not touching. whether you're an NGO representative, whether So I'm saying, let's develop some sort of a you're a scientist, whether you're a fisher-is process to do that, because time continues to roll really important. When I first came to long and our reef monitoring efforts are growing Washington, D.C., I worked on "the Hill" [the and so are yours, and we don't want them to be U.S. Capitol], and the one thing that the Hill too divergent for too long. Thanks. really convinced me of is that democracy does work if people participate. And writing letters Clive Wilkinson: I think the point is the power and contacting your representatives and govern- of one. I have salary until next February. John ment makes an enormous difference. The other [McManus] is running out of money. We need a thought I have is that, in an international setting few more 'ones" to make a team. But one thing like this, I think it's still worth supporting that, you said about communication-I want to make but we shouldn't forget that there's a lot of peo- one point; it is an anecdote that Jim Porter from ple here who are not Americans, but there are the University of Georgia made. He was appear- similar [issues]-the same role of letter writing ing before the Congress, or the Senate or some and individual participation is important. And committee, and he had his best scientific presen- because there's a fair number of people here tations-graphs, histograms, pie diagrams-the who in one way or another are leaders in various lot. And they nodded [fell asleep]. And then he communities, it's not just important to take per- showed some before and after photographs. sonal action in terms of writing your own letter, "Gee, it's that bad? We didn't realize it was that but you have much greater impact if people go bad!"... So, we've got to learn to communicate. beyond that and encourage others, particularly when they have opportunities to speak publidy John McManus: Yes, I'll just quickly add to that. in open forums, to encourage other people to do What we've been doing with other groups is that that. I think you can really multiply your we've been putting a bit of the onus on the other impact-in not only taking individual action, group, because especially initially, we had to be but also encouraging others to do the same. very cautious not to look like a threat to other 154 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management groups. There were some groups that were ner- Zealand and elsewhere-makes a point of wher- vous, so we've been more responsive than we ever he goes, and I've traveled with him some have been aggressive toward getting information. and seen him do this-to talk with to everybody. The other problem is that there is only one of me, And he, too, points out taxi drivers, because and Sheila Vergara, who is our team leader is out they talk to a lot of people. And it's the one-to- there, and her job is to figure out what we do at one thing of talking to taxi drivers; he doesn't what time, and who actually puts it in, so please limit it to there, he also he spends a fair amount communicate directly with her if you have any of time in bars, and in bars he also reaches out to trouble getting responses back from me. the bartender, and the person sitting next to him. And I think that is another way-there are a lot Jack Sobel: It also sounds like, perhaps, taxi dri- of constituencies. And the point I made earlier vers are a particularly important constituency about who are the stakeholders? Everyone is a for us to reach out to [laughter]. I say that partly stakeholder in coral reef conservation. Some of in joking, but the Reverend Bill Ballentine, for them realize it already; some of them don't. And people who have worked on no-take marine I think we need to reach out to a much broader reserves, has been one of the most forceful and and much more diverse group of people than we effective advocates for reserves-in New have so far been successful in reaching out to. PANEL FIVE ECONOMIC VALUATION OF CORAL REEFS Session Chair. Maritta Koch-Weser, World Bank Economic Values of Coral Reefs: What Are the Issues? John A. Dixon World Bank O ur concerns for the inherent values of called the rain forests of the sea, and they face coral reefs-both biological and eco- many of the same problems that rain forests nomic-are central to their conservation face. We talk about the values associated with and use. There has been much discussion at this healthy rain forests and the importance of sus- workshop about the importance and values that tainable management and protection, yet we see people assign to coral reefs. However, at the the same widespread use of destructive prac- same time we see that coral reefs are being tices and lack of resources for management. destroyed around the world and that reefs are not being managed in a sustainable manner. Valuing the Known If something is recognized for its beauty, its biological richness, its opportunities to provide A major problem, both for tropical rain forest's goods and services to individuals and societies, and for coral reefs, is that we tend to place val- why is the same resource not being better man- ues on what we can easily identify or see. The aged? Earlier this week I had a visit from unknown is often assigned a value of zero- Matthew Wright from Jamaica, who is doing hence market forces reflect that portion of the some very useful work on the Negril coral reef goods and services that we can identify and can system in his country. He discussed the analysis buy or sell. However, for both the rain forest and being done on the importance of the reefs to the the coral reefs, there may be important values tourism industry and the Jamaican economy, that we do not even know about yet, or ecosys- and yet there is no money from the government tem services that are only incompletely under- for protection and management stood. Why is this? Why do we see this dichoto- A useful theoretical construct is a concept my-on the one hand, the widespread expres- called total economic value (TEV). This is a sim- sion of interest in coral reefs and their conserva- ple heuristic device stating that the total value of tion and protection, and, at the same time, the any resource is composed of different compo- lack of resources to provide even minimum lev- nents, and some of these components are easy to els of management? identify and value, and others are either Part of the explanation for this state of affairs unknown or very intangible. As seen in figure 1, is the difference between economic values and the components of TEV range from very con- monetary prices, and understanding that peo- crete and marketable use values (on the left ple and governments are often responding to side), to uses that are more indirect, to values monetary price signals. Economics can help associated with mere existence of the resource or explain this dichotomy. Coral reefs have been the possibility of leaving it for one's children. All 157 158 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management Figure 1. Total economic value of coral reef ecosystems Total economic value Use values Nonuse values Direct use values Indirect use values Option value Existence value Bequest value Consumptive uses * Storm surge protection * Viewing * Biodiversity * Biodiversity * Coral mining * Fish nursery area * Recreational use * Recreational * Recreational * Shell collection * Food chain amenities amenities * Fishing Nonconsumptive uses * Scuba diving * Recreation of these values are real; it is just that some are frequently driven by market forces and the easier to measure and monetize, while others are desire to obtain a private financial return, these much more difficult. The direct use values on the uses are the easiest to value. Some of these uses left side tend to be monetized and included in are destructive: for example, the collection of most calculations about the "economics" of coral shells or mining of coral to produce lime. Other reefs; the harder-to-quantify values on the right uses are nondestructive: recreational benefits are often ignored. The sum of all of these values can also be included in the calculation and may is called the total economic value, and this num- be an important form of nonconsumptive use. ber is an economic measure, as opposed to a In different situations, one form of direct use financial measure. may be more important than another. For exam- ple, Herman Cesar discusses some very interest- Components of Value ing results from Indonesia, where the direct use values of coral reefs-for fishing, lime produc- Think about coral reefs and their economic tion, the collection of shells, and other things-is analysis: most analyses of coral reefs focus on a considerable. These are all examples of con- very small set of these values-frequently on sumptive, direct uses, and he estimates the the values associated with direct use of the reef financial returns to the individuals involved in and associated economic activities. These are each activity. In other locations, nonconsump- called direct use values and may be either con- tive uses are very important. Sport diving, a sumptive uses (such as collecting corals, shells, growing industry worldwide, is a nonconsump- or reef fish) or nonconsumptive uses (such as tive use of coral reefs and their associated habi- recreation-snorkeling or diving-or sailing). tat. Certain areas of Indonesia are developing In this case, the term nonconsumptive merely into well-known scuba-diving destinations. means that one can use the resource without Nonconsumptive uses have the attraction of destroying it; the difference is between observ- allowing many individuals to enjoy the same ing reef fish as a scuba diver and catching and resource and, with proper management, leave eating the same fish! In general, direct use val- the resource healthy and productive. ues-consumptive and nonconsumptive-are In addition to direct use values, there are a unfairly easy to quantify, and we have learned a number of other use values associated with coral great deal about how to place monetary values reefs. Indirect use values, the second component on these uses. In fact, since direct use values are of the TEV calculation, are important ecosystem Economic Values of Coral Reefs: What Are the Issues? 159 values associated with healthy coral reefs. These WWF uses a panda, or the Cousteau Society include the following: the role of reefs in protect- uses the dolphin, as symbols. Perhaps some ing coastal areas in times of storrns; coral reefs other species (such as a rattlesnake or sea grass acting as a nursery area for reef fish, and healthy beds) is in fact more important ecologically, but reefs serving as part of the food chain for a wider it is not as likely to be as useful in raising money! range of sea creatures, including the pelagics. The nonuse values on the right side of figure 1 Many of these uses have been discussed here and include pure existence values and bequest val- are well known from the literature. ues. These represent the willingness to pay by Most of these indirect uses, however, are usu- individuals or societies to maintain a resource ally not easily valued. Markets do not exist for for the future, either just so they know it is there, most ecosystem services. Estimates have been even if they don't plan to use it (existence value) made for some of these, however. One can value or to leave the resource to their children or the catch of reef fish or other fish dependent on grandchildren (bequest values). Since these val- the reef. If the cause-effect link can be estab- ues are nonuse values, they involve no present- lished, the calculation of monetary values is not day consumption of the resource, and are there- very difficult. But what about the protective fore the most difficult to measure and value. value of a reef in terms of coastal storm protec- Usually some form of survey technique is used tion? Economic values for this service can be cal- to identify and quantify nonuse values. These culated but usually are not included in any values can be considerable, however, and are analysis of the "value" of a coral reef. important in both rich and poor societies. Consequently, most indirect use values are The components of this whole suite of val- ignored when decisionmakers consider alterna- ues-from direct use, both consumptive and tive uses for coral reefs. non-consumptive, all the way to existence and The third type of values listed in figure 1 are bequest values-are all important and form part option values, which are often difficult to mea- of the total social valuation of coral reefs. Note, sure. The concept of an option value is relatively however, that these values do not necessarily straightforward: I want to protect this coral reef say anything about the inherent or intrinsic bio- so that I may have the option to use it in the logical value of coral reef ecosystems as such. future. I do not know if I will or will not use it, Economics is a social science that is anthro- but it is worth something to me to protect it and pocentric and places values based on people's consequently I am willing to pay some amount uses (and perceptions) of any resource. of money to retain this potential future use. Economic analysis does not do a good job of Option values can then be thought of as a form valuing biodiversity per se. of deferred-use value. Nevertheless, the economic information con- Many nongovernmental organizations have tained in a total economic value calculation can been very effective in capitalizing on these feel- be very powerful in making the case to decision- ings and mobilizing donations based on the makers and others responsible for allocating willingness of individuals to pay for this option financial resources that the benefits of protect- value. Save the humpback whale! Protect coral ing and managing coral reefs in a sustainable reefs! Or what have you. It helps, of course, if manner are substantial. And since the TEV whatever you are trying to raise money for is approach captures both the easily identified attractive. Fortunately for coral reefs, they are financial returns from direct uses of the reefs, as beautiful and the phase "rain forest of the sea" is well as the more difficult and often nonmarket- as much a marketing ploy as a scientific state- ed values associated with indirect uses, option ment. Public information (TV specials, museum values, and nonuse values, it reminds the deci- and aquarium exhibits, the activities of the sionmaker that much more total value is pro- Cousteau Society) are all very important in rais- duced by healthy coral reefs than just those lim- ing public awareness and thereby helping to cre- ited uses that can be easily valued using market ate this option value. It's no coincidence that the prices and market transactions. 160 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management Minding Our Ps and Qs mental economics is that of externalities. Externalities are quite simple: they occur when The major problem in valuing coral reefs relates an action that one takes has an effect on some- to identifying what are the various components one else, and the affected person is not part of of value, and what monetary prices to assign to the decisionmaking system. This leads directly them. Since economics is based on individuals' to the second concept, the divergence between expressions of value, the results are usually very individual perceptions of value and societal per- site-specific, and one has to be very cautious ceptions. For example, in the Philippines, some about generalizing results from one study to fishermen use dynamite for blast fishing, which other, very different locations. also destroys the reef, thereby harming others A recent article by Bob Costanza and col- who depend on the reef via artisinal fishing or leagues on the value of the worlds' ecosystems recreational diving. The blast fishing imposes an included a "value" for the world's coral reefs externality on the other users of the same reefs. (Costanza and others 1997). The estimate illus- But because the others are not part of the man- trates the danger in using the "benefit transfer" agement process, they don't have an input into approach whereby values determined in one the decision to use blast fishing or an alternative study are applied to other locations. In the measure, some of which may be much less Costanza study the estimate of the global value destructive to the reef. Because of the existence of coral reefs was made by taking a per hectare of externalities, there is a divergence between estimate of various use values (the P, or price) private benefits and costs, and social benefits and multiplying it times the global area of coral and costs. Simply put, the search for private reefs (the Q, or quantity). In this case the Q was financial gains by the blast fisherman imposes 62 million hectares of coral reefs, and the total P much larger costs on society. This divergence was some $6,075 per hectare. Of this, fully half between private and social perspectives is the was attributed to recreational use: US$3,008/ fundamental reason why we see so many per- hectare/year. (The other large item was distur- verse and destructive actions being taken in the bance regulation, worth $2,750/hectare/year.) use of the world's coral reefs. The result of this exercise was a very large esti- The existence of externalities is a pervasive mate of the economic value of the world's coral problem in the management of coral reefs. reefs-a total of $375 billion per year. Obviously Herman Cesar, in his presentation on valuing there are locations (such as well-known dive coral reefs in Indonesia, talks about precisely destinations like the Caymans, Bonaire, or the this issue. He has carefully identified, in the case Red Sea) where high levels of revenues from of Indonesian coral reefs, who benefits and who recreational use are generated. Many of the loses by each use or threat to the coral reefs. By world's coral reefs, however, are remote and lit- quantifying the economic numbers involved, tle visited and do not generate this level of use and the number of persons involved in each (and economic value). Although flawed, this activity, he is able to point out those uses that type of analysis does help to raise awareness generate large amounts of private benefits for a that there are values associated with healthy few individuals and also impose larger social coral reef ecosystems. The danger is that any costs on Indonesia because of externalities. By economic estimates ultimately have to pass close identifying these numbers, it is possible to dis- scrutiny from the Treasury or Ministry of cuss realistic management interventions. In Planning if the results are to be believed and some cases the private financial benefits are very resources allocated for coral reef protection. large (for example, the live fish trade in species What can economists do, therefore, to make like the Napoleon wrasse for the Hong Kong estimates that recognize the range of values Chinese seafood restaurant market). The num- associated with coral reefs and are also believ- ber of individuals involved are few; their private able? Here it is important to introduce two con- gain is large. In other cases, such as coral reef cepts. Once concept central to much of environ- mining to produce lime, the number of individ- Economic Values of Coral Reefs: What Are the Issues? 161 uals involved is large but the per-person return mined by how people perceive the various ben- is small. Each problem presents a different man- efits and costs. Consequently, those coral reef agement challenge. areas that are heavily visited for recreation, or Second, the existence of externalities relates have an active fishing population living around to the issue of property rights and who has them, will appear to have much higher values rights to use coral reefs. In many traditional soci- than remote systems. But we also know that the eties, reefs were part of the community-man- remote areas may be extremely important for aged resource base. In Hawaii, for example, the the health of the entire worldwide coral reef traditional land management unit was called the ecosystem. ahupua'a, which was a slice of land that went Accordingly, one has to be careful not to con- from the top of the mountain down to the edge fuse prices with true value. Economists can do a of the coral reef. Thus the individual or group good job on estimating the prices and economic who owned the ahupua'a owned an entire func- returns from different uses. However, as econo- tioning ecosystem, a self-contained economic mists, we probably do a pretty poor job on esti- and environmental unit. Any externalities were mating the ultimate values-and this is precise- thereby internalized, and the land managers ly where scientific information is crucial for realized that actions taken in the upper water- effective conservation and management of coral shed (such as agricultural production or log- reef systems. Conservation of some parts of a ging) would have an affect both on the water reef system can be easily justified on economic quality on the taro fields in the lower watershed grounds-for example, one can market recre- well as in the coral reef and the coastal fish ational uses. Other reefs, however, may be ponds. Since all impacts were contained within remote and inaccessible, or buffeted by storm the system (with clearly defined integrated surge on the windward side of islands, and are property rights), decisions were made taking not good for recreational diving. This does not these impacts into account and thereby balanc- mean that they do not have values. But these ing any tradeoffs involved. values may be more difficult to estimate using The Hawaiian ahupua'a system is the ideal the traditional tools of economic analysis. world; it very rarely exists today. Usually exter- There are a few important lessons to keep in nalities are present, and they lead to the results mind when using economic analysis to estimate that we observe: mismanagement, overuse, the economic values of coral reefs: needless destruction of precious resources. * Coral reef ecosystems normally contain per- vasive externalities. There is often no formal Some Final Cautions connection between those taking an action and those affected by that action. This has to Economics has a very important role to play in be recognized, because it explains most of making the case for improved management and the observed management failures. All too conservation of coral reefs. Perhaps most impor- often, "win-win" management solutions are tant, economic analysis helps to get some of the not being followed because the same man- numbers on the table. Often these numbers are agement options are seen as "lose-win" large and they are useful in getting attention. from an individual perspective - I lose so However, be careful in using and presenting that others can gain. This situation is exacer- these results. Always explain to the minister of bated by weak or unclear property rights. planning or finance that the values that are iden- And given the open-access nature of most tified are largely related to direct use of the coral coastal areas, it is politically very hard to reef-both consumptive and nonconsumptive assign property rights to a coral reef to any uses-and may also include a few indirect use individual or group. values. * Prices are often lacking or hard to measure Because of the nature of economic analysis, for many of the goods or services provided these values are anthropocentric and are deter- by healthy coral reefs. Economists can do a 162 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management pretty good job of estimating values for weak property rights. It is therefore an some uses of coral reefs; for many others appropriate, legitimate area for intervention (especially indirect uses and nonuse val- on the part of governments as representa- ues), however, it is much more difficult. tives of society. Therefore the three Ps are Economics has done a great deal in the last needed: Planning, Pricing and Policies. few years, and there are many more exam- Unfortunately, without them we will see ples of economic analyses of coral reef continued destruction of much of this ecosystems. A number of these have been unique, valuable and precious resource. presented at this conference. However, because of pervasive externalities, and val- uation problems, markets often fail. Coral Reference reefs are like terrestrial protected areas. If left to market forces alone, most of the Costanza, Robert, and others. 1997. "The Value world's reefs and protected areas will be of the World's Ecosystem Services and destroyed because of the externalities and Natural Capital." Nature 387- 253-60. Indonesian Coral Reefs: A Precious but Threatened Resource Herman Cesar World Bank C oral reefs and their associated marine life wastelands over the last 20 years. Figure 1 constitute one of the greatest natural trea- shows this deterioration as measured by the sures of Indonesia.1 Both their quality maximum depth of live corals in four islands in and their quantity are impressive: Indonesia is Jakarta Bay. located at the center of the world's coral reef The five main man-made threats leading to diversity, and, with some 75,000 square kilome- coral reef deterioration in Indonesia, are: ters of coral, it holds approximately one-eighth * Poison fishing, in which cyanide is squirted of the world's coral reefs.2 Coral reefs form the on coral heads to stun and capture live core of their livelihood for hunelreds of thou- aquarium and food fish, but killing coral sands of Indonesian subsistence fishers, and are heads in the process a source of food security in times of agricultural * Blastfishing, whereby small bombs are deto- hardship. They also provide a natural barrier nated in shallow reef areas, killing targeted against wave erosion, thereby protecting coastal dwellings, agricultural land, and tourism beach- es. They are a potential source of foreign Figur 1. Temporal and spatial comparison of maximum exchange from divers and other marine tourists depth of living coral reefs for four islands in Jakarta Bay In addition, because of their unique biodiversity, 12 they are of great interest to scientists, students, pharmaceutical companies, and others. These 10 - - and many other functions give coral reefs an _ important and growing value. 8 Despite this, the quality of coral reefs in 6 6 Indonesia is declining rapidly. Even remote reefs in unpopulated areas are not free from man- 4__ induced deterioration. Anthropogenic (man- made) threats range from destructive fishery 2 _ practices to pollution, and from dredging to tourism-related damages. At the moment, only 0 - 29 percent of Indonesian reefs are in good con- Onrus Kelor Ubi B. Air B. dition (that is, with more than 50 percent of live (2.8km) (3.5km) (4.9km) (8.5km) coral cover). In Ambon Bay and near the Thousand Islands, off the coast of Jakarta, once- Source:Tomascik and others 1993; references to primary data are given pristine reefs have been transformed into dead in the article. 163 164 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management schools of fish, but also killing larvae, juve- struction and tourism potential. High-cost sce- niles, and corals narios are indicative of sites with high tourism * Coral mining, in which corals are collected potential and coastal protection value. Low-cost and smashed for house construction and scenarios are indicative of sites with low tourism lime production and coastal protection value. * Sedimentation and pollution, as a result of log- Some of the most important values of coral ging, erosion, untreated sewage, and indus- reefs, such as those to future generations and trial discharges, which smother and kill the intrinsic values, cannot be quantified. However, corals since the economic benefits from reef destruction * Overfishing, which does not destroy corals are often used to justify continuation of these but reduces abundance and diversity of fish destructive practices, quantifying the costs asso- and invertebrates. ciated with coral reef degradation is important in making a balanced assessment of the benefits Private Gains versus Social Costs and costs of various threats. The analysis is main- ly based on observable data such as the value of Powerful economic forces are driving the the decline of fish catch or expenditures by hotels observed destructive patterns of coral reef use, on groins to temporarily prevent beach erosion. often rendering short-term economic profits, Total costs should thus be interpreted as rough sometimes very large, to selected individuals. estimates of the lower range of true costs associ- Measures for coral reef protection are often pre- ated with reef destruction. The numbers in table sumed to conflict with economic development, 1 are generated on the basis of available data, and are said to require a sacrifice of economic using hypothetical examples of sites subject to growth. However, this study shows that this per- one individual threat. ception stems mainly from a failure to recognize Table 1 clearly points out the devastating eco- the magnitude of costs to the present and future nomic consequences of a policy of inaction. In economy resulting from reef degradation. Table 1 fact, for none of the threats do the short-term shows estimates of the benefits to individuals benefits even approach the long-term costs and losses to society from each square kilometer (using a 10 percent discount rate and a 25-year of coral reef destruction, providing an economic time horizon).3 For example, coral mining is esti- rationale for preventive or remedial efforts. For mated to yield net benefits to individuals of coastal protection and tourism losses, we have US$121,000 per square kilometer of reef (in net given both "high" and a "low" scenario esti- present value terms), while causing net losses to mates, depending on the types of coastal con- society of US$93,600 in fisheries value, Table 1. Total net benefits and losses due to threats of coral reefs (present value; 10 percent discount rate; 25 year time span; in US$; per ki2) Net benefits to individuals Net losses to society Total net Total net Coastal losses Threat/function benefits Fishery protection Tourism Others* (quantifiable) Poison fishing 33 40 0 3-436 n.q. 43-476 Blast fishing 15 86 9-139 3-482 n.q. 98-761 Coral mining 121 94 12-260 3-482 >67.0** 176-903 Sediment/logging 98 81 _ 192 n.q. 273 Sediment/urban n.q. n.q. n.q. n.q. n.q. n.q. Overfishing 39 109 _ n.q. n.q. 109 Ranges indicate sites of low and high value in terms of tourism potential and coastal protection value. n.q. = nonquantifiable * 'Others' includes loss of food security and biodiversity loss (nonquantifiable). ** Forest damage due to collection of wood for lime processing is estimated at US$67,000. Indonesian Coral Reefs: A Precious but Threatened Resource 165 US$12,000 to US$260,000 in coastal protection Table 2. Costs and benefits of all remaining value, US$2,900 to US$481,900 in tourism value, Tablesian benefis fiall anir US$67,000 in forest damage, and unknown costs Indonesian large-scale poison fishing and their due to lost food security and biodiversity. sustainable alternative Sometimes, the differences are even larger. For (25-year horizon; 10% discount rate; in US$1,000 blast fishing in a high-value scenario, the costs Present Sustainable are estimated to be more than 50 times higher (with cyanide) (with hook & line) than the benefits. Note that in the low-value sites, the largest cost to society is forgone fishery Direct costs/benefits income, while in the high-value sites, coastal Salectcoupenefits protection and tourism form the largest losses. Sales of grouper 475 5 680.8 Obviously, costs and benefits are very site-spe- Boat, fuel1.2 04. cific, and numbers will vary, depending on local yane 79.2 204.2 circumstances. ~~~~Cyanide 6.3 0.0 circumstances. Scuba/hookah 15.8 0.0 Major Threats Side-payment 31.7 0.0 (6.7% of sales) Poison Fishing Subtotal (direct) 241.2 475.5 359.0 680.8 With Hong Kong, China, restaurant prices as Indirectcosts/benefits high as US$60 to US$180 per kilo for certain Coastal protection 0.0 0.0 types of groupers and Napoleon wrasse, the Forgone tourism 280.2 0.0 wild-caught live fish trade has a gold rush-like Hospital, mortality n.q. 0.0 character. Though Indonesia has only recently Biodiversity, etc. n.q. 0.0 become involved in cyanide fishing, it is now the Subtotal (indirect) 280.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 single largest single supplier of these fish for the Asian food market, holding more than 50 percent Total costs/benefits 521.4 475.5 359.0 680.8 of the total share (Johannes and Riepen 1995) and a total value estimated at some US$200 million Net benefit to society -46.0 321.8 per year. Both in the restaurant retail business and in the older aquarium fishery, cyanide is nearly exclusively used as the "cost-effective" way of harvesting live fish. If current catch rates Australia and elsewhere, are also presented. continue, the live-caught restaurant fish business Note that even in the absence of any alternative, will probably collapse economically in about the large-scale poison fishery creates a net quan- four years (Johannes and Riepen 1995), as rapid- tifiable loss to Indonesia of US$46 million over ly decreasing stocks in Indonesia will make four years. On the other hand, a sustainable remoter Pacific islands and Papua New Guinea hook-and-line fisheries option could create for- fishing grounds more profitable. eign exchange for the country, jobs for an esti- Large-scale poison-fishing vessels operate in mated 10,000 Indonesian fishers for many years remote and unpopulated areas of Indonesia, to come, and net benefits of some US$321.8 mil- leaving behind a mosaic of coral destruction. lion (in present value terms). Table 2 shows estimates of costs and benefits of these operations for the whole of Indonesia, Blast Fishing under the assumption that this business will become economically nonviable in four years Though forbidden in Indonesia and elsewhere, because of a decline in catch rates. Rough esti- and despite the inherent dangers, homemade mates of a sustainable alternative in the form of bombs are still a very popular fishing gear used hook-and-line live-grouper fishery, as used in to catch schools of reef fish and small pelagics 166 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management Figure 2. Net present value of blast fishing to individuals and associated losses to society per square kilometer of reef 100 Loss of coastal Loss of tourism protection 0 Net private benefits from___ -100 - blast fishing _ _ ~~~~~~~sustainable -200 fishery income- -300 -400 -500 and thereby "earn money the easy way." In the forests, which furnish wood used for lime burn- past, the explosive charge came from World War ing. The external economic costs of this logging II bombs, though fertilizers and illegally pur- are estimated at some US$67,000 per square kilo- chased dynamite, often from civil engineering meter of coral flat mined, as much as the total projects, are currently used. The explosion shat- rent that all the miners get for this area. Coral ters the stony corals and kills fish and inverte- mining used to be very widespread in Bali, brates in a large surrounding area. Over time, where some hotels are now paying high prices blast fishing damages the whole reef and there- (over US$100,000 a year) to mitigate the result- by destroys the resource base of many subsis- ing beach erosion. Hotel-chain managers have tence fishers. The analysis, shown in table 1, learned from this and state that the status of illustrates that the costs in terms of forgone sus- coral reefs is currently a decisive criterion in site tainable fishery income alone are nearly six selection for new resorts. Mining activity is still times as high as the short-term gains from blast practiced on other islands with large tourist fishing (US$86,000 versus US$15,000). The other potential, such as Lombok, where total net costs losses to society, in terms of forgone coastal pro- to society are estimated to be 7.5 times higher tection and tourism, are even higher in areas than the net benefits to individuals. with high tourist potential or considerable coastal construction. These losses are estimated Sedimentation and Pollution at US$193,000 and US$482,000 respectively, as illustrated in figure 2. Sedimentation, both from urban areas and from logging activities, smothers corals as it prevents Coral Mining them from capturing sun light and plankton- their primary sources of energy and nutrition. Corals have long been used for building materi- Pollution, from both agrochemicals and indus- al and for the production of lime, as well as in trial discharges, can also kill corals. These prob- the ornamental coral trade. The lime is often lems are particularly acute close to estuaries of used as plaster or mixed with cement to reduce rivers and urban centers. Figure 3 shows the cor- costs for private dwellings and local administra- relation between live coral cover and distance tive offices. Coral mining not only destroys reef from land for islands near Jakarta. For urban- flats, and thereby its coastal protection function, induced sedimentation, no economic costs have but leads indirectly to logging of secondary been calculated: typically they vary dramatical- Indonesian Coral Reefs: A Precious but Threatened Resource 167 Figure 3. Relationship between live coral cover damage coral reefs, mainly through a reduction and distance from land in fish diversity. It also decreases the value of corals to recreational divers, who are eager to 50 see both large predators and an abundance of 0 small, colorful fish. For the cost-benefit calcula- 2 40 tion of overfishing, we have abstracted from for- > gone tourist revenues and only estimated the 30 ' 30 > e / loss in rent from the fishery at "open access" O5 * * compared with the "maximum sustainable - 20 * yield." The present value of this loss per square 0 kilometer is US$ 70,000, as given in table 1. This means that on average, coral reef fisheries could 0 produce an additional US$70,000 in net present 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 value per square kilometer of reef if effective Distance from land (km) management was introduced. In general, the necessary reduction in effort to avoid overfishing and achieve optimal sustain- ly with the site, and reduction of discharges able yields is on the order of 60 percent often has many other economic benefits (such as (McManus and others 1992). Alternative income sanitary improvements and disease control), generation, for instance in ecotourism, could be making the costs to corals probably minor. one way of bringing about this reduction in Estimates by Hodgson and Dixon (1988) for log- effort. Besides lowering the total effort, fisheries ging-induced sedimentation damage to a coral management efforts should also focus on the reef in Philippines showed costs 2.8 times high- creation of sanctuaries and the establishment of er than the associated benefits. closed seasons. Figure 4 shows the dramatic dif- ference in yield between a three-year harvesting Overfishing cycle and a one-year harvesting cycle for moth- er-of-pearl shells (trochus) in Maluku. Note that Though not necessarily as destructive as the the three-year closed seasons ending in 1978 other threats described above, overfishing does gave an average yield of 3,400 kilograms, or Figure 4. Yield of trochus (mother-of-pearl) in Noloth (Central Maluku) in 1969-1992 (per kilogram) 5000 3-year cycle 1-year cycle 4000 3000 _ - * 2000__ lE *_* 1000-_ lE I M |; 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 Year 168 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management more than 1,100 kilograms per year. In the annu- mining. However, if we look at the private ben- al collection pattem followed since 1987, the efits per stakeholder (person/boat/company), average yield per year is just over 400 kilograms. poison fishing and logging-induced sedimenta- Transfer of fishing rights to local communities, tion have by far the highest private incentives, as well as reintroduction of traditional rights, ranging from US$2 million per company in the such as the sasisasi system in Maluku, are other case of logging to over US$ 0.4 million per boat effective ways of dealing with overfishing and in the case of poison fishing (in present value destructive fishing practices. terms). Side-payments are also particularly high, very roughly estimated at some approximately Balancing Winners and Losers US$0.3 million to US$1.5 million for some receivers of large payments. On the other Given the high societal costs created by these extreme, coral mining is a very marginal activity threats, the question arises as to why the threat for the families involved, though the side-pay- exists in the first place. Two stakeholder issues ments are not negligible. seem to be of critical importance: the size of the Some major caveats apply with respect to stakes per person, and the location of the individ- table 3: the stakes per person are calculated on ual causing the threat relative to the location of the basis of man-years. For mining, where fam- the threat itself. With respect to the first point, the ilies are involved nearly full-time with this size of the stakes per person, table 3 shows the activity, this approach represents rather well the private benefits that accrue to the various groups real stakes per person. But in the case of blast of stakeholders as well as to each of the per- fishing, where many subsistence fishermen use sons/families/boats/companies involved. The bombs occasionally, the actual stakes involved total amount of benefit is equal to the value pre- per person are much lower than the net present sented in table 1. The column marked 'Others' value figure of US$7,300 given in table 3. For presents the payments to third persons, some- instance, if blast fishermen use bombs only once times referred to as 'political rents'. a month, rather than every day, the stakes in net Note that the net benefits per square kilome- present value are less than US$300 per person. ter to individuals seem to be highest for coral A similar story holds for poison fishing, where Table 3. Net benefits to individuals: totals and amount per stakeholder (present value; 10% discount rate; 25 y. time-span; in 100 US$; per km2) Threat/individual Fishermen Miners, loggers Others (payments) Totals per km2 Poison fishing 29 4 33 (467 per boat) (317-1585 per boat) Blast fishing 15 - n.q. 15 (7 per fisher) Mining - 67 54 121 (1.4 per family) (18-54 per person) Sediment/logging - 98 n.q. 98 (1,990 per company) Overfishing 39 - 39 (0.2 per fisher) Ranges indicate sites of low and high value in terms of tourism potential and coastal protection value. n.q. - non quantifiable Indonesian Coral Reefs: A Precious but Threatened Resource 169 The insider-versus-outsider issue and the size Table 4. Size of economic stake and location of the stakes per person are highlighted in a two- of stakeholder by-two matrix presented in table 4. The boxes in the matrix refer to the specific threats, such as Sizel ofBeconomicistaks poison fishing in the "big" and "outsider" box. Small Big Note that these are general tendencies, and there will inevitably be site-specific circumstances t: Coral mining, that form exceptions to this framework. blasting, Sediment _ overfishing integrated coastal . = local threat- zone management Designing Appropriate Policy Responses 3 based approach In Jakarta, local stakeholder consultations are not very useful. If the stakes are small and there Cyanide, is one dominant threat, such as coral mining in NO . vrfshing 9logging some locations on West Lombok, integrated local threat- national threat- coastal zone management (ICZM) may not be * o based approach. based approach based approach necessary: a very direct approach, such as a small-scale alternative income generation pro- ject, might be the easiest way to resolve the threat. If there are multiple threats, ICZM will be the preferred solution, although outsider threats divers are often recruited for short periods of have to be dealt with separately. Based on these time only, a fact that results in significant over- features, the following three general types of estimation of the real stakes per diver. At the management approaches are defined. same time, the overall picture that incentives differ dramatically per threat remains valid, and Local Threat-Based Approach types of management interventions differ accordingly. In the case of urban sedimentation, If the dominant threat(s) or threats in a specific especially when some large industries are site fall under the categories "small-insider" or involved, the stakes are probably high, though "small-outsider," a local threat-based approach we have not been able to estimate specific is probably appropriate. This typically takes stakes per person for this situation. the form of community-based management. For the second point, the location of the indi- Examples are villages with a combination of viduals causing the threat, it is crucially impor- overfishing and some blast fishing. Appropriate tant to distinguish between stakeholders living options include alternative income generation in the area where the threat is posed (insiders) activities, enforcement of anti-explosives regula- versus stakeholders coming from elsewhere tion, and establishment of cooperatives or other (outsiders). For instance, in the case of large- types of fishermen groups. Re-introduction of scale poison fishing operations, the captain and traditional common property resource manage- his crew are outsiders, as is also often the case ment (for example, the sasi system in Maluku) is with logging-induced sedimentation. Overfish- another possibility. In some situations provincial ing, on the other hand, can come from both local regulations need to be adjusted to allow for com- fishermen (insiders) as well as from outside fish- mon property resource management. In cases ermen. Population pressure and open-access like coral mining, ad hoc solutions might be problems, respectively, are often responsible for appropriate. An example is one village in Bali this situation. Mining and blast fishing are typi- that stopped coral mining completely after a cally activities carried out by the local popula- local hotel offered employment as gardeners to tion, though large-scale explosives fishery oper- all the mining families. ations do exist (Erdmann 1995). 170 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management National Threat-Based Approach big, such as large-scale poison fishing and log- ging operations, a national threat-based In situations where the categorization "big-out- approach is called for. With large stakeholders sider" applies for the main threat or threats in a that are mostly insiders, integrated coastal zone specific location, action at the national level is management will be optimal. When the stakes required. The clearest example is large-scale poi- are small, a local threat-based approach would son fishing operations, which often take place in give the most immediate results, typically in the remote and unpopulated areas. Strong initiatives form of community-based management, assist- at the highest national levels, involving the navy ed by appropriate property rights legislation and the police, are the only way to stop this and enforcement. threat, as local and provincial officials are power- less in the face of these operations. Likewise, sed- Notes imentation from large-scale logging and mining operations can only be dealt with nationally, as it 1. This paper, authored by Herman Cesar, Carl Gustaf is at that level that the concessions are negotiated. Lundin, Sofia Bettencourt and John Dixon, was repro- duced courtesy of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Ambio 26 (6), Sept. 1997. Integrated Coastal Zone Management 2. The coral area of Indonesia is commonly estimated at 50,000 to 100,000 square kilometers. When sites cope primarily with "big-insider" sit- 3. Some claim that a lower discount rate than the uations, or if the site is confronted with an array opportunity cost of capital is called for, given the inter- of different threats that cannot be dealt with sep- generational character of the problem, However, this arately, ICZM seems appropriate. This is, for would not qualitatively change the results. Note that a 10 percent discount rate does not imply that all stakeholders instance, the case in Manado, with a large, thriv- will have this rate of time preference; the discount rate is ing dive tourism industry that is more and more only used for the welfare economic analysis. endangered by a variety of threats, from sewage to poison fishing. Other examples might include References Jakarta Bay and Ambon Bay, also with a variety of threats related to urbanization and population. Cesar, H. 1996. "Economic Analysis of Indonesian Coral Reefs." World Bank Conclusions Environment Department Paper, Environ- ment Economic Series. Agriculture Oper- Coral reefs are a precious resource, with a vari- ations, Country Department III, East Asia and ety of functions, such as subsistence fishery, Pacific Region and Environment Department. coastal protection, tourism, and biodiversity. Washington, D.C. The Indonesian reefs are being rapidly Erdmann M. 1995. "The ABC Guide to Coral destroyed by a number of different threats, espe- Reef Fisheries in Southwest Sulawesi, cially poison fishing, blast fishing, coral mining, Indonesia." NAGA: The ICLARM Quarterly. sedimentation and pollution, and overfishing. Erdmann, M.V., and L. Pet-Soede. 1996. "How The private benefits to individuals involved Fresh Is Too Fresh: The Live Reef Food Fish in these destructive practices are often consider- Trade in Eastern Indonesia." NAGA: The able. However, the costs to society are much larg- ICLARM Quarterly. er, up to a factor of 50 times higher in the case of Hodgson, G., and J. A. Dixon, 1988. "Logging blast fishing in tourist areas. The divergence versus Fishing and Tourism in Palawan: An between private benefits and social costs implies Environmental and Economic Analysis." a highly inefficient outcome that calls for deci- Occasional Paper No. 7. East-West Envir- sive government action to stop these threats. onment and Policy Institute, Hawaii. The policy response to be used differs with Hutomo M. 1987. "Coral Fish Resources and the type of threat. In cases where the immediate Their Relation to Reef Condition: Some Case stakeholders are outsiders and the stakes are Studies in Indonesian Waters." Coral Reef Indonesian Coral Reefs: A Precious but Threatened Resource 171 Management in Southeast Asia, 29: 67-81. ment Studies and Monograph Series No. 9. Johannes, R. E., and M. Piepen., 1995. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Environmental, Economic, and Social Impli- Tomascik, T., Suharsono, and A. J. Mah., 1993. cations of the Live Reef Fish Trade in the Asia and "Case Histories: A Historical Perspective of Western Pacific. Jakarta: The Nature Conser- the Natural and Anthropogenic Impacts in vancy, Jakarta. the Indonesian Archipelago, with a Focus on McManus, J. W. 1994. "The Spratley Islands: A the Kepulauan Seribu, Java Sea." Proceedings Marine Park?" Ambio 23: 181-86. of the Colloquium on Global Aspects of Coral Post, J. C., and C. G. Lundin, eds. 1996. Reefs: Health Hazards and History. University of Guidelines for Integrated Coastal Zone Manage- Miami, Florida ment. Environrentally Sustainable Develop- Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of Coral Reef Management and Protection: A Least-Cost Model for the Developing Tropics Richard Huber World Bank T he primary research question that is being policy interventions, though it is not yet capable asked by this project is: "What is the most of developing an optimized set of interventions. cost-effective means for achieving a given In the prototype model, cost-effectiveness is level of coral reef health?" The research asks a derived in three steps. First, a baseline is estab- supplementary question that recognizes the lished by developing annual forecasts of eco- operational realities of applying such analyses nomic activity and implied pollutant levels for in the developing tropics. Notably, the research 60 years and, on the basis of the pollutant levels addresses the question: "How can the limited and oceanographic and biotic conditions, devel- ecological data available in developing coun- oping annual forecasts of coral reef health. The tries be used most efficiently in identifying measure of coral reef health is coral reef abun- least-cost solutions?" dance, the percentage of the reef covered by live Many coral reef areas in the tropics are dete- coral. Second, the total cost (as a present value) riorating under heavy pressure from human and of a policy intervention is derived, along with economic activities. There are many practical annual pollutant levels and coral reef abundance issues in devising cost-effective policy interven- after the policy intervention is in place. Finally, tions to manage and protect coral reefs. There is the cost-effectiveness is estimated on an annual also a key conceptual barrier: a lack of quantita- basis, taking into account improvements in reef tive models to facilitate a comprehensive eco- health over the entire period, but giving greater nomic and ecological analysis of the effects of weight to early effects. The measure of cost- economic activity on coral reefs. This lack has effectiveness is the unit cost of the impact of the made it difficult to develop a ranking of policy intervention (the cost of a 1 percent increase in and investment interventions by cost-effective- coral reef health). ness, and thus to develop least-cost plans to Preliminary estimates of unit costs have been manage and protect coral reefs. The central focus prepared for 10 policy interventions, using data of this research is to develop a least-cost model loosely based on Montego Bay, Jamaica. In this of coral reef management and protection. case of a poor reef with potential for improve- A key output of this model will be an opti- ment, the key factors believed to be responsible mized cost function, relating marginal costs of reef for deterioration of the reef are sediment and conservation to coral reef quality. The cost func- nutrient loads. The most cost-effective interven- tion can be used to identify a set of least-cost inter- tion is a sewage outfall and pump station that ventions for any given target of coral reef quality. takes the sediment beyond the reef edge. Other A prototype model is developed that is capa- case studies include the south coast of Cuaracao ble of measuring the cost-effectiveness of single and the Maldives. 172 Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of Coral Reef Management and Protection 173 The dissemination strategy focuses on in- Westmacott, and Danielle Hirsch. 1995. country workshops and seminars for user "Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of Coral Reef groups and stakeholders, government agencies, Management and Protection: A Case Study and private and nongovernmental organizations of Curacao." World Bank, Latin America and involved in coastal zone management. It also the Caribbean, Country Department III, includes activities to foster cooperation among Washington, DC. countries on coordinated environmental poli- Westmacott, Susie, Frank Rijsberman, and cies, strategies, and action plans in the coastal Richard Huber. 1996. "Cost-Effectiveness zone, and to provide a consultation mechanism Analysis of Coral Reef Management and for formulating, strengthening, harmonizing, Protection: A Case Study of the Maldives." and enforcing environmental laws and regula- World Bank, Latin America and the tions. Workshops were held in Montego Bay, Caribbean, Country Department III, Jamaica, in November 1995 and March 1997, and Washington, D.C. in Curacao in November 1995 and April 1996. This study is complemented by another Marine System Valuation: An Application research project, Marine Resource Valuation: An to Coral Reefs in the Developing Tropics Application to Coral Reefs in the Developing Tropics (ref. no. 681-05), which is deriving This project is working to develop improved improved estimates of coral reef benefits to be methods for deriving estimates of coral reef ben- used in conjunction with the cost function. efits. Such estimates can be used in conjunction with the cost function being developed in a Responsibility related study (Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of Coral Reef Management and Protection, ref. no. Latin America and the Caribbean, Country 680-08) to help in identifying an optimal set of Department III, Environment and Urban interventions for improving coral reef health. Development Division-Richard M. Huber The project adapts and refines existing valua- (Internet address rhuber@worldbank.org). With tion methods so that they take account of the key H. Jack Ruitenbeek, H. Jack Ruitenbeek characteristics of coral reefs and derive more Consulting; Frank Rijsberman, Resource Analysis; accurate estimates of coral reef benefits for and Steven Dollar and Mark Ridgely, University selected sites. To keep the analysis tractable, the of Hawaii. The Netherlands Environment study focuses on three methods for valuing the Consultant Trust Fund, the Norway Consultant benefits: direct use valuation, contingent valua- Trust Fund, and the Swedish Consultant Trust tion, and marine system biodiversity valuation. Fund are contributing funding for the research. The study will apply and refine each of these valuation methods and then develop a synthe- Reports sized benefits function. It will also identify appropriate policy and institutional reforms for Huber, Richard, Jack Ruitenbeek, Steve Dollar, improving the capture of resource values associ- Mark Ridgely, Frank Rijsberman, and ated with coral reefs in developing countries, Subodh Mathur. 1996. "A Least-Cost Model and the potential role of the World Bank and for Coral Reef Management and Protection, other development assistance agencies in help- Phase I: A Prototype Model." World Bank, ing to effect these reforms. Latin America and the Caribbean, Country The study applies direct use valuation to pro- Department III, Washington, D.C. vide a baseline analysis of the direct use benefits Resource Analysis. 1995. "Costs Model for accruing to the coral reefs at Curacao and Waste Water Treatment, CORAL." World Montego Bay, Jamaica. Well-established tech- Bank, Latin America and the Caribbean, niques are available for estimating easily quan- Country Department III, Washington, D.C. tifiable values associated with direct consump- Rijsberman, Frank, Richard Huber, Susie tive and nonconsumptive uses of reefs (such as 174 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management tourism, demersal fisheries, and mariculture). Responsibility The study will use contingent valuation to mon- etize amenity and other noninstrumental uses Latin America and the Caribbean, Country for the coral reef site in Montego Bay, Jamaica. Department III, Environment and Urban The project's work on marine system biodi- Development Division-Richard M. Huber versity valuation will be more involved. It will (Internet address rhuber@worldbank.org. With require identifying appropriate physical or bio- H. Jack Ruitenbeek, H. Jack Ruitenbeek physical indicators in marine systems to which Consulting; Daniel M. Putterman; Clive Spash, economic values might be attached, and appro- Cambridge University; Nick Hanley, British priate, quantifiable indicators of biodiversity. It University of Stirling, Scotland; and Montego also will require identifying appropriate meth- Bay Marine Park Trust. The Netherlands ods for marine system valuation, based on meth- Environment Consultant Trust Fund is con- ods used for terrestrial systems, and for imput- tributing funding for the research. ing values to natural products. Once the study has identified potential methods for marine bio- Completion date: December 1999. diversity valuation, it will evaluate them for pol- icy relevance, methodological soundness, opera- Report tional tractability, and data availability. Up to three of the methods will then be subjected to a Huber, Richard M., H. Jack Ruitenbeek, and preliminary field test. Daniel M. Putterman. 1997. "Marine The dissemination strategy will focus on in- Resource Valuation: An Application to Coral country workshops and seminars targeting Reefs in the Developing Tropics." World those involved in coastal zone management. The Bank, Latin America and the Caribbean, workshops will provide training in conducting Country Department III, Washington, DC. the contingent valuation survey and in analyz- ing and collecting data. Discussion A s we move toward the discussion, let me throughout the world, and we're beginning to add a few of my own questions to maybe see some results. The challenge is similar, there's fuel the discussion we're going to have. a time clock taking away-on ozone as on coral Going from local examples, like Indonesia, reefs. We need to turn this around in a few years Bonaire, or Jamaica, to the global scene, how does or else we shall have lost immensely. the world community value coral reefs? This is Now, with the CFCs, there is a recognition really an interesting question, because it seems that the phaseout requires industrial restructur- that in some environmental scenes, we get from ing. People were building the wrong refrigera- economic evaluation to action quite significantly. tors and air conditioning systems using the Take biodiversity: the GEF movement as one wrong gases, and you had to help them remod- example, and in other cases we seem to have a el their production line. Now coral reefs and harder time. So my question to you is-and I'll marine issues facing very similar issues. They illustrate it very briefly, and then we'll move also have industries that, in a sense, drive them. toward the discussion-why is it that not all envi- There are industries that build fishing boats in ronmental needs are treated equally? Some of the certain numbers-and they sort of push into the reasons, of course have to do with understand- market. There is of course the tourism, and there ing, but I submit there are other reasons. And you are the land-based sources of marine pollution. may find this a bit absurd, but I'm saying let's Those industries also need looking at. It's not look at CFCs-at ozone depletion, and why did just the nature of what's being produced, but the ozone depletion get such attention, and why do quantities that are wrong. But you have an entire we have less of the same quality of attention production system that is built on this and you when it comes to coral reef and marine issues? have an entire, very large group of people that Let's look very briefly at some of the parallels have bought this equipment-borrowed from as I would see them. We're dealing with global the banks, and need to pay back their loans. And commons. Nations cannot go it alone, and we're unless there is some solution for them, unless dealing with something where people-in the they go fishing, they have a very hard time get- ozone case even more so than in the marine ting out of something which-they will real real- case-had their doubts about science and was it ize-in the long run is unsustainable. So my real? Was it really relevant to us? But we got question is: Why, in your further discussions, somewhere. The Montreal Protocol is one of the not apply some of these positive parallels-like few, albeit small, first successes where the world the Montreal Protocol, to the marine discussion community got together, found what the prob- and see what is driving the degradation in this lem is, found a way to start addressing it particular case? 175 176 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management So to sum up my question, Is there a reason point with a couple of things that are easy to to discuss what is the magnitude of phaseout of measure, you might actually make a stronger the wrong marine practices? Is there a reason to point to the minister of finance than if you try to discuss similar strategies as has been found in measure everything. And I agree with what John other cases? And if so, you may find it worth- says-what you do with the others, you say: while to discuss some of this now, or in your "These are other functions that are extremely afternoon sessions. With that let me open for important, but are very difficult to quantify, to discussion. monetize." Sometimes you can already make your point by just one or two functions and mea- Charlotte de Fontaubert, Center for suring them. A minister of finance is interested International Environmental Law: I have a in tourism dollars; is interested in fisheries question for both John Dixon and Herman Cesar because that is often related to social stability of about valuation of coral reef. Herman, I couldn't coastal communities; is interested in coastal pro- help but notice the big question marks in your tection because if that is destroyed that often cost-benefit analysis with regards to intrinsic costs a lot of money for next budget in order for value, biodiversity value, and the food security the government to restore that. So those are very value. Whilst I'm sympathetic to the fickle concrete things that he can think of in terms of nature of measuring nonuse values and option his own budget line items Biodiversity, intrinsic values, my question is, By not integrating these values, and all kinds of other things-which I values, are you not missing a whole set of argu- really believe are much more important-might ments that you could use with policymakers in not be the type of things that would help a lot in order to give them an extra incentive to take convincing the minister. So that's why you remedial action? sometimes need to pick out a couple of functions that are easy to measure and that already make John Dixon: Charlotte, you point out a very the point. important dimension of the problem. As Herman said: what we frequently have to do is John Dixon: Remember that the people we are start with the most concrete and most directly trying to convince are intelligent people, but they measurable impacts, partly because you have a are skeptical too. Look at these values assigned better chance, frankly, of convincing the minister to 62 million hectares of coral reef worldwide by of finance in the five minutes you have that it's Costanza. Disturbance regulation: $2,750 per an issue. I think you should always point out the hectare per year; waste treatment: $58; biological other dimensions of value and say we know that control: $5; food production: $220, recreation: these are very important, and we do have stud- $3,000. Added together you get a big number ies in other settings which indicate some of the quickly-over $6,000 dollars per hectare. When magnitude of some of these values. But separate you multiply that times 62 million hectares you out those values that are quite concrete, and that get a very big number-over $370 billion per you can measure. For the other values, we put year. But you're talking to the minister of plan- them in qualitatively, or sometimes quantitative- ning in Indonesia, or the Philippines, and he ly. Remember you've got to convince someone looks at these numbers and says: "Do you really who's got a lot of demands on their time and think we're getting the magnitude of benefits? attention, and on their budget. And so we start We have thousands of hectares of reefs that are with those uses and values that are the easiest to not even visited or used at all. And you say we're communicate, but always recognizing that these getting recreational benefits-how do you know are only part of the whole. that?" If you're going to make an economic argu- ment, make one that's reasonable and sound, Herman Cesar The question is, Where do you and base it on realistic data. Herman Cesar tried stop? There are a lot of functions that we are very to do this in Indonesia, where he looked at actu- bad in measuring. And if you can make your al use values, actual practices, and gave a range Discussion 177 of values. You can make up big numbers easily, in making a case for increased resources for and they will just as quickly be dismissed and coral reef management. then you lose your whole argument. So start with estimates that are local, concrete and add Mary Kasha, Student, New College of Florida: the other dimensions as appropriate. I have a question about the economic value of ecotourism. Yesterday we had a panel speak to Bill Kiene, Smithsonian Institution: This ques- us on the various merits of ecotourism as a tool tion is probably more directed to education than for conservation. Today, Mr. Dustin showed us an economist, but it is something I've wanted to some of the damages in the Florida Keys that ask an economist. As a marine scientist I have have resulted from that type of tourism. Given studied a lot the movement of biological and that this is a use that's only renewable if we geological products through reef ecosystems. properly managed it, I wanted to ask the panel And in doing so, you have direct analogies that what they thought of the economic value of this relate to economies. I've used some of that to try type of tourism, and whether it was applicable and understand the way these materials function to all regions, or whether it was region-specific? in an ecosystem, and also used it in presentations to try and describe reefs to people. The question Richard Huber: The three countries-Costa is: Is there a potential, tangible value in using Rica, Belize, and Dominica-which are really economic models-not only to try and under- making a go of this ecotourism, utilizing marine stand how coral reefs work and understand ecosystems are definitely sharing the benefits, some of the problems they are undergoing-but and I think it's one of the several-bioprospect- also potentially use the way coral reefs function ing is another new one that has come on the hori- as a way to understand the way economies work, zon like ecotourism-which are giving us more and potentially use this to communicate the apparent economic reasons for preserving these value of reefs to finance ministers, or CEOs, or ecosystems. the general public as well? Dwight Shellman, Shellman and Ornitz: I John Dixon: Economy and ecology come from would like to interject something that has been the same root, Eco, and they are obviously linked. dawning on me through this whole series of Getting information-whether you use a fancy seminar speakers. The actual improvement of model or a very simple model- is not really the the ability of economists like the panelists, to issue. It's trying to present it clearly. If you think identify externalities-I think there's a missing about the issue of stakeholders-of the private element, and I would like to engage with other and social perspectives-and the externalities disciplines in maybe exploring it. But the prob- that exist and present the situation in a straight- lem that I see is that if we continue to permit forward manner, it can be very powerful. When externalities to remain external, this will contin- you go in and the minister of finance asks, "How ue to be a public policy discussion. Mr. Cesar's important, how valuable are our coral reefs?" overlay makes an excellent point, and that is, and you say, "Very valuable," that doesn't get one way to deal with these externalities is to you very far. If you say: "Mr. Minister, there are internalize them. And the discipline that is miss- ten thousand jobs in this area dependent on ing here is the legal discipline. direct use, indirect use, consumptive/noncon- If you look at the people taking the losses-if sumptive uses, these are threatened," these num- an American trial lawyer, or an ambulance chas- bers strike home. er would look at that scenario, what you would And remember: don't confuse measures of see in many cases is a clientele who has sus- economic value with intrinsic, ultimate values- tained a damage of huge magnitude. And prob- that's a separate issue. We're economists, we ably, some participants in creating that damage, look at a subcomponent of the whole, although which would likely be American or multination- it's an important one and can be very powerful al corporations who are buying products, that 178 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management would have deep pockets that would be avail- World Bank-is to include longer-range plan- able to reimburse the losers. And I would sug- ning. These may be costs to you, maybe not gest that one way to connect the linkage here of today, but sometime in the not too distant future. internalizing what are now externalities, is to find a case where the taking-that is, demon- Maritta Koch-Weser: Just as a clarification, strated by those externalities from some popula- when you say "cost to you," do you mean indi- tion is actually charged back to a corporation to vidual governments, or do you mean the global where it either shows up in their balance sheet community? as a real liability, or as a contingent liability, or as reflected in their insurance policies. So I throw Richard Huber: I would say both. that out as something that I would be happy to explore with others, but I think the state of eco- Audience question: I'm a marine biologist. I've nomic science is improving very rapidly. been reading this work of Dr. Dixon and many others. My question is related to certain obser- Vaughan Davidson: He's right. The first part of vations reported here from Jamaica, also my life I was a CPA with Arthur Andersen, Indonesia. It seems to me that there's a lot of involved in audits on a global basis. The last four information, scientific data is coming into this years I've been on sabbatical. I have a founda- calculation. I think that's the right thing, that tion. I'm a trustee with a couple of other people. without that without proper, accurate scientific What I see here is that no one's accruing these data it is not possible to valuate a resource, in costs at the front end. The numbers of plain pre- fact, in economic terms. My question is that how sent value-they don't work in this kind of trans- far, and in what way is the data, which has been action. Anytime you play with present value, reported on sedimentation (in the Indonesian you bring in a number-it's going to be almost case) in pollution (in Jamaica) has been accumu- zero so many years out. The cost that your creat- lated, gathered. Is there any closer interaction, or ing or occurring the moment you [inaudible] into are the economics just based on published the river-it's over. So you've got to stop it at the data-whether it is related to the economic front. The cost should be accrued in total up activity or based on previous data-whether the front, because there's no plan to cover it. What I scientific data is related to the economic activity would contend is like he indicated, we've got to in terms of time and space. I have also noted accrue the expenses to match the revenue, other- that contingent valuation and other methods wise as a value analysis it's bogus. You're not have been used to come to certain valuations. matching costs and expenses. And all the finan- Economic value, particularly in the case of the cial statements in the world play with costs and Jamaican waters, Montego Bay-how far has expenses and revenue matched up. That's how contingent valuation have considered to be, in the market works, that's how the valuation economic terms, really reliable? works. This case is the first time I've ever seen- sitting here this morning-you're not matching John Dixon: Many issues were raised by the costs. You've got bogus numbers. Somebody's previous speakers-a number of them will be missing a big piece here. It's amazing. discussed in more detail in the afternoon ses- sion. Basically, the economic analysis presented Richard Huber: The question, of course, is the here included costs and benefits as they value to whom? Not just spatially according to occurred-this is the correct way to do it, and it various countries, but in terms of generations was done correctly. I want to respond to into generational value. And it seems to me that Maritta's original question. If we could mobilize that part of the exercise-of being able to the world community to control CFCs, why not increase sophistication of the ability to make for coral reefs? There are parallels-both are these kinds of evaluations is, and part of the global commons. But the big difference is the charge to economic institutions such as the number of actors involved for CFCs where you Discussion 179 have a dozen producers worldwicle. And you gaining now and how much, and it also comes can pay them off, because it doesn't affect any- back to Maritta's point. Maybe it is wrong that thing. Whether I make a foam cup using a CFC there are all these fishing boats, but they are or something else doesn't matter because I get there, and these people are paying off their the product I want. Whether my refrigerator debts, and you damn well take that into uses CFCs or more ozone friendly product account in your analysis if you want to get to a doesn't matter-I get the service I want. But system that makes everyone better off, and when you're dealing with coral reefs, you've that's the only way to change something. That got people who are living, existing off of their gives an idea of what you have to do for which management-catching fish, mining the coral. people for your management plan. So I see And as Herman Cesar very clearly pointed out those as the two key issues, and whether every- in his study, the magnitude of benefits to indi- thing is taken into account or not, that is, to me, viduals can be very high. And so the manage- a much less relevant point. ment challenges are much harder. A global effort may well be needed, but it's a lot more Richard Huber: Relative to empirical data- difficult to affect ten thousand Indonesian coral absolutely-if we don't have empirical data, if miners, or a million artisanal fisherman than it we're not going in with good data that the coral is to negotiate with twelve producers of CFCs reef biologists [usel- the transects, the species worldwide. diversity, the abundance and percent recruit- ment-what we're doing is just folklore; it's Herman Cesar: The reason for economic analy- worthless. So most of the modeling that we've sis or economic valuation as I see it is two. One been talking about is basically gathering signifi- is to show some numbers and show that cant information from local stakeholders, and destructive practices often, from a true eco- coral reef biologists, putting this together into an nomic point of view, don't make sense. And if economic model. And without that, for example you look at the impact of John Dixon and Greg in Montego Bay [Jamaica], we had a wealth of Hodgson's study on Palawan in the Philippines data-the Nature Conservancy had recently that was done in 1988, in the Philippines the done a rapid ecological appraisal. Rolf Bak, one impact of this study-in terms of actually hav- of the world-renowned coral reef experts, in ing shifted some of the political agenda and the Curacao has spent his life specifically looking at political will-is still enormous. All of the those reefs, so we've had volumes of data, and NGOs there still talk about the study, not that's extremely important if any of this is going because the numbers were correct, but because to be meaningful. it was so instrumental in trying to get a very Is contingent valuation reliable? That's a simple point across. And secondly, the reason is good question. It's a really useful tool; I'm glad to actually look at the individual stakeholders we have it. There's a lot of skeptics out there. I and what is driving the system, and that is cru- think we can continue to refine it, and it will be cial information if you want to go to an actual very valuable for us in the future for valuing the management plan. You want to know who is benefits of marine ecosystems. SUMMARY Hard Decisions and Hard Science: Research Needs for Coral Reef Management Nancy Knowlton Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute T he proceedings of the International Coral In order to defend reefs economically, the mar- Reef Symposia provide illuminating snap- ginal costs of reducing stress on reefs must be shots of how coral reef professionals less than the marginal benefits associated with spend their time. Of the 179 papers from so doing. Calculating the economic costs of the Miami meetings published in 1977, less than treating sewage, not fishing, or not building are 5 percent explicitly focused on the role of man fairly straightforward, and have been used for or management.1 Twenty years and five sym- years to support policies that are detrimental to posia later, over 25 percent of the 318 papers reefs. More recently, economic analyses of the published for the Panama meetings addressed benefits associated with maintaining or improv- these themes.2 This enormous growth reflects ing the health of reefs have made important the belated recognition that reefs worldwide are strides.5 To use such analyses, however, we in trouble.3 Although this crisis provides no must make biological as well as economic cause for celebration, coral reef science will ben- assumptions. For example, we can estimate the efit from the attention that management issues economic costs of improving water quality or receive-more informative remote sensing, the economic benefits of increasing coral cover, development of coral culturing techniques, and but we also need to understand the biological otherwise undoable manipulative experiments relationship between water quality and coral (known as marine protected areas) are but a cover to determine if an increase in income from few examples that emerged from the Panama tourism will cover the costs of water treatment meetings. facilities (figure 1). While it is tempting to Is reef science, then, just a parasite of man- assume simple biological relationships, such agement? To be sure, most of the problems reefs assumptions are rarely if ever justified. face come down to the problem of managing people rather than corals.4 Nevertheless, I will Thresholds and the Precautionary Principle argue here that many crucial pieces of informa- tion are missing, and that any politically unpop- Humans preferentially think of the world in lin- ular but necessary measure is doomed without ear terms: if changing the thermostat setting by good science to support it. five notches changes the temperature by five degrees, we expect 10 notches to result in a 10- Models for Reef Management: How degree change. Nevertheless, "the straw that the Simple Becomes Complex breaks the camel's back" is also a well known phrase. The camel teaches two important The Intersection of Biology and Economics lessons: the effect of any single straw cannot be 183 184 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management Figure 1. Interrelationship between economic and biological analyses % coral cover B Water quality $ Benefit C A -o - - - - - -- $ Cost CD B - A' Stress Note: Gaining support for reef-friendly policies. Improving the status of reefs typically involves demonstrating that the cost of reducing stress on reefs is justified by the benefits associated with improved coral cover. For example, should a community invest in wastewater treatment in order to improve water quality, in order to to enhance coral growth, in order to increase tourism? To decide, one must know the economic cost of achieving different levels of water quality (small graph to right), the economic benefits from tourism from improving coral growth (small graph to left), as well as the biological relationship between water quality (or stress generally) and coral cover (main graph). predicted from the effect of the previous straw, and the resulting replacement of corals by algae and simply removing the back-breaking straw have persisted well beyond our initial expecta- does not solve the problem of the crippled camel. tions, for reasons that remain unclear.9 The biological world (and for that matter the The implications of these basic realities physical world, such as climate) is dominated by should make managers and the public nervous such nonlinear relationships and their resulting for several reasons. First, removing a stress does thresholds and multiple stable states (figure 2).6 not automatically lead to recovery, so that dam- The history of reefs on the north coast of Jamaica age once done is often not readily undone. provides a vivid example of what can go wrong Second, even if one has perfect information when we ignore this fact. These reefs have been about the present (that is, where one is on the severely overfished for centuries, but until curve of figure 2), not all stress is under human recently the corals themselves looked quite control. Synergy between natural acute distur- healthy.7 Those of us doing our PhDs during the bances and chronic human stress makes living 1970s recognized and regretted the absence of on the precipice an extremely risky strategy. grouper and snapper but did not worry about Finally, it is not easy to tell scientifically where the future of the staghom coral Acorpora or the on the curve one currently sits. We know that so star coral Montastraea. We were wrong to be called pristine reefs with their prehuman com- complacent, for overfishing almost certainly ponent of large predators and herbivores no prevented normal recovery from two natural longer exist,10 but when does the relationship disturbances in the 1980s: a major hurricane and between overfishing plus eutrophication versus the demise of a dominant sea urchin herbivore reef health reach a critical point? Simply moni- because of disease.8 Low densities of urchins toring the abundance of corals is unlikely to pro- Hard Decisions and Hard Science: Research Needs for Coral Reef Management 185 Figure 2. Threshold effects "Pristine" Many oceanic Pacific reefs Jamaica pre-1 980, ^=~ ~ -/- Bonaire now? ' %\_ _ = s e. Collapse Most Caribbean reefs Ca C2 ' Poisoned and blasted reef: C'' Jamaica post-1980 Stress Note: The relationship between reef stress and coral cover is typically nonlinear. Consequently, coral cover is often a relatively insensitive measure of stress for many reefs, and a small increase in stress level can result in a large decline in reef health. Moreover, the response of reefs to increas- ing stress (thick "collapse"line) is not necessarily the same as the response to decreasing stress (thin "recovery" line), so subsequent recovery is often more prolonged than initial collapse. tect us from disaster, since once the corals them- reef builders such as Montastraea and Acropora selves start to collapse in numbers the game may looks far from secure. Moreover, it takes time for well be over. Thus the precautionary princi- the entire process to play itself out, so that we plell-stay away from the precipice-is as already owe an "extinction debt" of unknown relevant to the management of coral reefs as it is size because of past reef destruction. to the design of bridges. Unfortunately, we know vastly more about the physics underlying Lessons of the Ozone Hole bridge safety than about the biology underlying reef safety. The Montreal Protocol provides a striking, even if imperfect, example of what can be achieved in Ecological Externalities environmental protection when parties agree. Why have we as a planet responded to the threat The theory of metapopulations provides sober- of ozone depletion, but failed to protect reefs ing albeit preliminary indications of what might (and natural resources generally)? Clearly the be in store. Stated simply, organisms persist scale of the potential threat to health, the limited thanks to a patchwork of environments, to which number of producers of ozone-depleting chemi- they recruit and from which they go extinct. If cals, and the relatively modest per person cost of you substantially reduce the number of patches, reducing their use are a big part of the explana- then the number of species will automatically tion. But the role of science cannot be underesti- decline. One clear prediction of these models is mated. Models and eventually data clearly iden- that species that are ecological dominants but tified the nature of the threat and what was need- poor recruiters will be particularly hard hit. As ed to mitigate it; in the absence of this informa- a consequence, the future of major Caribbean tion, I would argue, no action would have been 186 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management Figure 3. The effect of ecological externalities "Protected reef" 10 ef 100% reefs healthy regionally o 10% reefs healthy regionally C. Stress Note: Even excellent local protection from overfishing and eutrophication may not be enough to protect reefs if they are imbedded in regionally cat- astrophic reef loss. taken. We may be reaching a similar point in cli- but they apparently bear repeating. There are mate change policy. currently no plans to include the role of scientif- Marine scientists have recently argued that ic research in the inaugural International Tropical no-take marine reserves need to be increased Marine Ecosystems Management Symposium from the current 0.25 percent to 20 percent of (R. Kenchington, personal communication.), and ocean surface area. They are almost certainly a summary document for the Global Coral Reef right, but we currently lack the numbers to sup- Monitoring Network states that "we know suffi- port such an estimate. Without such support, cient about the biology, geology and physics of costly proposals will be dismissed as the eco- coral reefs to implement sustainable manage- logical equivalent of "voodoo economics," even ment." How can this be true, when, for example, taking the precautionary principle into account. we cannot reliably discriminate coral species, The shrinkage of marine reserves within the estimate the dispersal distances of their larvae, Florida Keys Marine Sanctuary from the 10 per- calculate the densities needed for successful cent originally proposed to the 0.5 percent even- spawning, or identify their important tually enacted is a clear example of this point. pathogens? Coral reefs will be the real losers if Doing something now is clearly much, much cross-fertilization between science and manage- better than doing nothing, so this is not an argu- ment falls victim to short-sighted rivalry ment for inaction. But we should also be wary between research and other needs. of fooling ourselves with success stories that buy time but are ultimately doomed to failure. Acknowledgments Hard decisions require hard science, and successful long-term management without it is Marea Hatziolos, Anthony Hooten, and Jeremy an illusion. Jackson made many helpful suggestions, and Almost all of these points have been made the Smithsonian Institution has supported my before in the context of coral reef management, research on coral reefs for many years. Hard Decisions and Hard Science: Research Needs for Coral Reef Management 187 References 10. Jackson, J. B. C. 1997. cited above. 11. Freestone, David, and Ellen Hey, 1995. The 1. Taylor, D. L., ed. 1977. Proceedings: Third Precautionary Principle and International Law: The Challenge International Coral Reef Symposium, Miami. Rosenstiel of Implementation (International Environmental Law and School of Marine and Atmospheric Science. Policy Series, vol. 31.) Kiuwer Law International. 2. Lessios, H. A., and I. G. Macintyre.1997. Proceedings 12. Roberts, C. M. 1997. "Connectivity and Manage- of the Eighth International Coral Reef Symposium, Balboa, ment of Caribbean Coral Reefs." Science 278: 1454-7. Panama: Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute. 13. Nee, S., and R. M. May. 1992. "Dynamics of 3. Wilkinson, C. R. 1992. "Coral Reefs Are Facing Metapopulations: Habitat Destruction and Competitive Widespread Devastation: Can We Prevent This through Coexistence." Journal of Animal Ecology 61: 37-40. Sustainable Management Practices?" Proceedings of the 14. Tilman, D., R. M. May, C. L. Lehman, and M. A. Seventh International Coral Reef Symposium, 1: 11-21. Nowak.1994. "Habitat Destruction and the Extinction Ginsburg, R. N., ed. 1994. Proceedings of the Colloquium on Debt." Nature 371: 65-6. Global Aspects of Coral Reefs: Health, Hazards and History, 15. UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme). 1993. Miami: Rosenstiel School of Marine and 1996. Handbook for the International Treaties for the Atmospheric Science. Protection of the Ozone Layer: The Vienna Convention (1985), 4. Meffe, G., and C. R. Carroll. 1994. Principles of The Montreal Protocol (1987). Nariobi, Kenya: Ozone Conservation Biology. Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Press. Secretariat, United Nations Environmental Programme. 5. Cesar, Herman. 1996. "Economic Analysis of 16. - 1996. Handbookfor the International Treaties Indonesian Coral Reefs." World Bank Environmental for the Protection of the Ozone Layer: The Vienna Convention Department Paper, Environmental Economic Series. (1985). Cited above. Agricultural Operations, Country Department III, East 17. Maby, N., S. Hall, C. Smith, and S. Gupta. 1997. Asia and Pacific Region and Environment Department, Argument in the Greenhouse: The International Economics of Washington, D.C. Controlling Global Warning. Global Environment Change 6. May, R. M. 1977. "Thresholds and Breakpoints in Series. New York: Routledge. Ecosystems with a Multiplicity of Stable States." Nature 18. Schmidt, K. F. 1997. " 'No-take' Zones Spark 269: 471-77. Knowlton, N. 1992. "Thresholds and Fisheries Debate." Science 277: 489-91. Multiple Stable States in Coral Reef Community 19. Ogden, J. C. 1997. "Marine Managers Look Dynamics. American Zoology 32: 674-82. Upstream for Connections." Science 278: 1414-5. 7. Jackson, J. B. C. 1997. "Reefs since Columbus." 20. Jackson, J. B. C. 1995. "The Role of Science in Coral Proceedings of the Eighth International Coral Reef Symposium Reef Conservation and Management." In Partnership 1: 97-105. Building and Framework Development: Report of the ICRI 8. Hughes, T. P. 1994. "Catastrophes, Phase Shifts, Workshop. Dumaguete City, Philippines. and Large-Scale Degradation of a Caribbean Coral Reef." 21. Wilkinson, C., and Salvat, B. 1998. "The Global Science 265: 1547-51. Coral Reef Monitoring Network: Reversing the Decline 9. Lessios, H. A. 1995. "Diadema antillarum 10 Years of the World's Reefs." In M. E. Hatziolos and others, eds., after Mass Mortality: Still Rare, Despite Help from a Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Competitor." Proceedings of the Royal Society, London B Management. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. 259: 331-7. Summary and Recommendations Marea E Hatziolos World Bank F rom the papers and discussions presented ing dependent coastal populations. at the two and one half day conference and * Alternative uses that are low-impact, pro- recorded in these proceedings, several key ductivity enhancing, and nonpolluting or points emerge. These are listed below and form disruptive of complex food webs and the basis for the recommendations that follow, species interactions need to be identified. which were adopted by the plenary. * Conditions contributing to environmental degradation, overharvesting, and the decline * Coral reefs are under increasing stress of reefs worldwide will be difficult to control around the world. under scenarios of growing demand for reef * In many cases, the sources of stress and products and habitat loss fueled by increas- impacts on reefs are known. ing population growth and development - However, the etiology of a growing number activity in coastal areas, and rapid expansion of diseases and pathologies now being of tourism and its associated impacts on reported in corals is not widely understood, coastal and marine environments. highlighting the need for more research to * Solutions to these conservation and man- unravel the complex interactive effects agement problems will need to incorporate between natural and anthropogenic forms effective science, robust economic analysis, of stress and their effects on coral reefs. and sound policies and laws. Participatory * The tight recycling of nutrients and low net actions grounded in the cultural and social primary productivity of reef ecosystems reality of local people who depend on and limits the biomass available for harvesting benefit directly from coral reefs must be and sustained fishery yields. part of the solution. Creating political will, * The inability of scientists to predict with through communication and environmental any certainty where the critical thresholds education, will be essential in mobilizing of resilience to stress lie along the continu- and sustaining conservation efforts. um of human-induced and natural distur- The overall consensus of the meeting is that bances, make it inherently difficult to man- time is running out. Tremendous challenges lie age reefs sustainably. ahead, yet the problems are not intractable. In * This calls for a conservative approach and the course of our deliberations, concrete actions application of the precautionary principle were identified in each of the major themes we in developing management plans for coral addressed. Because of the large number of spe- reefs. Options for consumptive use are cific recommended actions and issues, confer- increasingly limited in the context of grow- ence recommendations are presented in their 188 Summary and Recommendations 189 entirety in appendix A; however, a summary of * Develop a portfolio of environmentally the recommendations are grouped thematically sound enterprises linked to coral reef below. organisms (such as food fish, aquarium fish, corals, invertebrates, bioprospecting, Destructive Fishing Practices tourism) * Maintain options open to bioprospecting to * Step up enforcement by governments, complement near-term income generation, aided by external organizations, in areas and identify benefit arrangements for affected by illegal practices national and local communities at the outset. * Inventory key spawning habitat and fish aggregation sites MPAs * Incorporate these into the design of marine protected areas * Incorporate no-take fishery reserves into * Introduce seasonal closing of sites (MPAs) protected area planning and management coupled with seasonal bans at markets as standard practice in the design of MPA * Form alliances with the private sector for sites and networks sustainable alternatives to reef-destructive * Provide for the local capture of entry and practices, including mariculture and marine user fees for MPA management through ecotourism [involve NGOs, private sector, trust funds or other arrangements for cost donor agencies] recovery (specifically, no general funds) * Invest in technology for mariculture of * Small to medium MPAs should be designed high-demand species (Napoleon wrasse, and developed within the context of larger coral trout) ICZM programs when possible * Catalog sustainable mariculture options * In MPA design, zoning should also be con- and best practices for coral reef areas sidered with the following approaches: * Actively support legislative reform and * Relief mechanisms (rotation) for areas infrastructure for cyanide-free certification experiencing heavy use should be incor- programs and other destructive forms of porated into zoning patterns for reef use fishing * Ensure remote protection of spawning * Emphasize community-based education aggregation sites and training * Ensure benefits or alternative compensation * Promote the recognition or establishment of for fishers who participate in no-take users' rights by governments, and the reserves or MPA establishment awareness of those rights. * Promote education programs for fishers and tourists. Promote shared conservation Illegal and Sustainable Trade in Reef Products efforts with full involvement of local peo- versus Certified Trade and Sustainable ple, private sector, and NGOs. Bioprospecting Marine Information and Education * Support independent certification linked to market incentives, best management prac- * Expose decisionmakers to coral reef experi- tices, and conservation of coral reefs ences * Assist with marketing of environmentally * Target youth education sound products * Build environmental education into project * Facilitate participation of all stakeholders planning and execution including local community monitoring of * Convene a group to determine state of the coral reef ecosystem health, and strengthen knowledge of coral reefs-in other words, incentives for all participants to adopt best pointed fact finding for coral reefs practices * Inventory and link with various resources 190 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management to coordinate funding opportunities to knowledge for informed management advance education in coral reefs decisions Target messages to specific audiences, and * Employ a dual-track approach, that is, factor the media into projects and events. incorporate immediate concern of local con- stituencies (governments, local people) Economic Valuation with justifiable economic arguments * Improve educational outreach to influence * Expand economic analysis for coral reefs, behavior of policymakers and consumers. based on pilot studies in Indonesia, to other These recommendations highlight many of regions of the world the actions that we need to take to slow and * Improve the incorporation of use and non- reverse our negative human impacts, and effec- use values into economic arguments. tively manage those we accurately identify as Economics captures only a part of the reali- sustainable. If implemented, these actions can ty. Enhance global concern for long-term have profound effects on the way we perceive future and intrinsic values that are difficult and interact with the marine environment, and to express in economic terms the fundamental dependence of humanity on the * Interpret and disseminate scientific informa- health of our blue planet. The challenge before us tion to a wide audience; incorporate it into lies in turning these recommendations into spe- GIS and other data management systems cific actions and, through partnerships, maximiz- * Improve access to existing studies and ing effectiveness in their implementation. Epilogue Ismail Serageldin World Bank A 11 good things must come to an end. So needed on three broad fronts: public education, ,,A,.be it with this conference that has gath- scientific monitoring, and projects to change the ered so many from different parts of the destructive patterns of socioeconomic activities world, united by a common concern for coral in coastal zones and to extend and affirm pro- reefs and by a common intent to act in defense of tected zones and marine parks. Above all, such the wondrous habitats and all the beautiful, exot- actions must involve the local communities and ic, and even strange creatures that inhabit them. respond to their needs, in an alternative and So what will we say we have accomplished? environmentally benign way. The combination What will we dedicate ourselves to achieve? of science, economics, law, and participatory The scientific evidence is in. There are no actions grounded in the cultural and social real- pristine reefs anywhere. The unsustainable har- ity of peoples is the way for this sustainable vesting of fish is destroying marine fisheries and development to take place-development that reefs. The condition is becoming critical. By the will meet the aspirations of the poor and the year 2008-only 10 years from now-the world destitute around the world, and maintain eco- population will have exceeded 6 billion people, logical integrity of coral reefs, their associated with 4.5 billion, 75 percent-living in coastal marine habitats, and the complex ecosystems areas, many of whom have few options for their they represent. health and welfare. As our population contin- As a partner to ICRI, and as a leader in ues to grow and move into the coastal zone, we addressing issues of sustainable development, can no longer afford to only observe, define the the World Bank must play an important role in problems facing coral reefs, and prescribe their meeting this challenge. So, on behalf of the solutions. We must act. We must issue a call to World Bank, I pledge to you that my colleagues arms, to alert the world of the monstrous condi- and I will do our utmost to incorporate the fol- tion of the world's reefs and the frightening pace lowing 10 actions into our operations: of degradation. 1. Develop a portfolio of environmentally The recommendations of this conference sound enterprises linked to coral reef organisms stress the need for effective action. As a collec- (such as food fish, aquarium fish, corals, inverte- tive group-managers, scientists, economists, brates, bioprospecting, and tourism), and build lawyers, entrepreneurs, and businesses-we environmental education into project planning now have a responsibility to establish partner- and execution. ships, to set concrete goals for each of the most 2. Expose decisionmakers to coral reef experi- pressing thematic challenges, and to systemati- ences. Through the World Bank's new project- cally work toward their achievement. Action is related activities, a concerted effort will be made 191 192 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management to ensure that the decisionmakers involved will reform and capacity building for cyanide-free be exposed-either first-hand or through specif- certification programs. ic educational materials relevant to them-in 7. Develop an alliance with the private sector clearly understanding coral reef resources and for sustainable options to destructive practices, the issues surrounding them. Furthermore, the such as mariculture and ecotourism that channels media will, to the extent possible, be invited into consumer willingness to pay into effective marine these project activities and events. We will try to conservation programs. We would try to pilot one develop a series of contributions to case studies or two such efforts within the next 18 months, of global interest. including support for research and monitoring to 3. Reinforce partnerships with governments, ensure that conservation objectives are being met NGOs, and local communities (through initia- along with revenue generation. tives like the Critical Ecosystem Partnership 8. Build on and expand efforts now under Fund, the Global 200 Ecoregions, and debt for way in the Bank's "Marine Market Transforma- nature swaps) in developing action plans for the tion Initiative" to create the necessary policy protection of critical marine ecosystems in each environment and incentive structure for greater major coral reef region of the world. markets in nondestructive reef-based goods and 4. Facilitate the establishment of three new services. MPAs as part of project-related activity in World 9. Support the continuation of ICRI with Bank-financed efforts in the coming 18 months. assistance for development at the regional levels. Selection and management of these sites would 10. Continue support of scientific research take into account the best available information through CoralBase and its contribution to the on fish spawning and aggregation sites and the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network. productivity of reefs within a region to ensure There are many other recommendations that that critical habitats are included and protected require action and coordination. Thus, a chal- in MPA designation. We would also encourage lenge is before all partners to take up these rec- that user fees for MPAs should go to trust funds ommendations and to act. Furthermore, it is for the management of those MPAs specifically, incumbent upon us to support and encourage and not to general funds. The Bank would also our actions collectively and to keep track of our work with its partners to try to ensure that ben- progress toward sustainability and effective efits or alternative compensation is established management of these critical resources. These for fishers who participate in no-take reserves or and other actions, in tandem with the ICRI MPA establishment. Framework for Action, should be presented in 5. Facilitate participation of all stakeholders, the form of a scorecard that can be used as a including local community monitoring of coral means to measure our progress toward the goals reef ecosystem health, and strengthen incentives we espouse. These proceedings represent a first for all participants to adopt best practices. step toward that end. Let us continue the chal- 6. Invest in technology for mariculture of lenge at the next international forum, the species in high demand (for example, grouper International Tropical Marine Ecosystems and coral trout) working in collaboration with Management Symposium (ITMEMS), as we others, such as donor agencies, universities, and work toward achieving our goal in the next mil- research organizations, to develop an appropri- lennium and on behalf of our children. Coral ate list of such species. And working with its reefs, with their beauty, splendor, and the rich- partners, the World Bank will support legislative ness they bestow upon us, deserve no less. APPENDIXES Appendix A Conference Recommendations T he following recommendations were 2. Alliance with private sector for sustainable developed during the breakout sessions options to destructive practices, such as on Friday, October 10, 1997, by each of the mariculture and ecotourism [NGOs, private thematic working groups. sector, donor agencies]. 3. Invest in technology for mariculture of high Destructive Fishing Practices demand species (Napoleon wrasse, coral trout) [donor agencies, universities, research Key Recommendations organizations]. 1. Inventory key spawning habitat sites. Illegal and Sustainable Trade in Reef Products 2. Regional organizations/governments versus Certified Trade and Sustainable incorporate into marine protected sites sea- Bioprospecting sonal closing of sites coupled with seasonal bans at markets. Catalog of sustainable mar- Comprehensive Ecosystem Management iculture options for coral reef areas. 3. Criteria for site selection: 1. Develop portfolio of environmentally sound i. Social, technical, and ecological feasibilities enterprises linked to coral reef organisms ii. Regional organizations [SPC, SEAFDEC, (for example, food fish, aquarium fish, corals, ICLARM]. invertebrates, bioprospecting, tourism) 4. Promote the recognition or establishment of 2. Facilitate participation of all stakeholders, users' rights by governments, and the aware- including local community monitoring of ness of those rights. coral reef ecosystem health, and strengthen 5. Community-based education and training incentives for all participants to adopt best [NGOs]. Monitor harmful trade of coral practices reefs by country. 3. Assist with marketing of environmentally 6. Donor agencies to support legislative reform sound products and infrastructure for cyanide-free certifica- 4. Support independent certification linked to tion programs. market incentives, best management prac- tices, and conservation coral reef ecosystems. Other Recommended Measures Noted Marine Protected Areas 1. Need for governments in areas affected by illegal practices to step up enforcement 1. In designing a network of protected areas, [aided by external organizations]. no-take zones should be considered stan- 195 196 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management dard in any preliminary MPA proposal. addition to science, economics and law) 2. Fishers should be off-set for not fishing- vii. Simple methods for information dessimi- system of MPAs preferable. nation to developing countries (for example, 3. The integrated approach to implement a posters, banners-such as the Smithsonian wider context of MPA (ICZM) design is the display in the exhibit area) preferred approach. viii. Match medium with technological 4. Opportunistic approach acceptable; capacity in information dissemination in MPA design, zoning should also be con- sidered with the following approach: 4. Recommendations i. Relief mechanisms for areas experiencing i. Short term constant use should be provided (rotation) a. Expose decisionmakers to coral reef expe- ii. Remote protection of spawning aggrega- riences tion sites b. Endorse congressional legislation for spe- iii. Education programs for fishers and cific conservation of coral reefs tourists c. Convene a group to determine state of the iv. Promote shared conservation efforts with knowledge of coral reefs-in other words, private sector, NGOs, full involvement of pointed fact finding for coral reefs local people d. Inventory and link with various resources v. Fees for MPAs should go to trust funds for to coordinate funding opportunities to for- management of those MPAs (that is, no gen- ward education in coral reefs eral funds). ii. Intermediate a. Improved audience research to target Marine Information and Education messages to specific audiences b. Illuminate consumer options (for exam- 1. Issues/challenges ple, consuming aquaculture-raised fish as i. Inability to network on a global basis opposed to reef fishes) ii. Uneven technological capability world- iii. Longer-term actions wide a. Target youth education iii. No global constituency for coral reefs b. Integrated and Interdisciplinary iv. No way to coordinate costs for media approaches in education coverage and dissemination c. Media factored into projects and events for 2. Information Gathering tools in contributing to case studies i. Processes in place such as ReefBase, d. Incorporate coral reef monitoring into GCRMN, and ReefCheck to specifically NASA's Mission to Planet Earth (in particu- gather data on coral in good shape lar water penetration and high-resolution ii. Community-based ecological monitoring capability for remote sensing) iii. Information archaeology and coordina- e. International role/ project for an education tion of past and disparate data sources on network coral reefs f. Keeping ecotourism as an important 3. Information Dessimination media tool i. Integrate ecological information with eco- g. Build environmental education into pro- nomic information for decisionmakers ject planning and execution. ii. Training teachers iii. Partnering with religions worldwide in Economic Valuation forwarding education for coral reefs iv. Target youth education 1. More effective education and information v. No clearinghouse 10 to 20 years for atti- dissemination tude change; loose leaf binders are useful i. More of educational outreach to influence tools for updating educational materials behavior of policymakers and consumers vi. Add education as an equal partner (in (Jacques-Yves Cousteau and Rachel Carlson) Appendix A: Conference Recommendations 197 ii. Translate research results into common 3. Tailor economic information to users language and disseminate scientific infor- i. Immediate concern to local groups (gov- mation, GIS ernments, local people)-justifiable econom- 2. Develop management systems ic arguments i. Better use of existing studies and knowl- ii. Global concern for long-term future and edge in management decisions intrinsic values that are difficult to express in ii. Approach coral reefs as systems, not as economic terms individual sites. Not all reefs are created iii. Economics captures only a part of the equal total reality-more in the case of a eucalyp- iii. Sacrificial lamb system-allow for cross- tus plantation than of a rain forest; more in transfers the case of aquaculture than a pristine coral iv. Most of the most destructive uses are reef. managerially preventable Appendix B International Coral Reef Initiative Regional Summaries Washington, D. C. October 9-11, 1997 South Pacific A coastal management handbook for Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and India is close to com- ICRI activities in the South Pacific have centred pletion. Management of tourism and maricul- on the Pacific Year of the Coral Reef (PYOCR) ture for sustainable use of coral reefs is a priori- campaign. ty in the region. Issues of inadequate coordina- PYCOR focuses on outreach and awareness tion of coastal management coral mining, over- activities geared to the local community and cul- fishing, and, to a lesser extent, destructive fish- tural needs of the countries involved in the cam- ing practices are still evident in the area. paign with a "Pacific Way" theme. PYCOR has been coordinated by the South Western Indian Ocean Pacific Environment Programme (SPREP) based in Apia, Western Samoa, with activities including: ICRI activities growing in number and impor- * art and poster competitions tance-now nine countries actively involved in * video production ICRI in the region. * a youth music CD Coordination of activities is through the * curriculum development UNEP office in Nairobi. A heavy focus is on * a major protected areas conference. monitoring with activities including: * the establishment of two monitoring nodes South Asia in Kenya and Tanzania * implementation of a pilot project in coral Focal point for coordination of action is the reef rapid assessment technology (both bio- South Asia Cooperative Environment physical and socioeconomic) developed by Programme (SACEP) based in Colombo, Sri UNEP/UNDP Lanka. * preparation for a remote sensing imagery Focus for activities includes: workshop for reefs and mangroves * revision of existing environmental legisla- * the preparation of a report on the status of tion reefs in the region. * capacity building including the develop- ment of training program outlines Middle East * monitoring including the establishment of a presence by the Global Coral Reef Impetus for ICRI action has been the regional Monitoring Network (GCRMN) with train- coordinating meeting held in Aqaba, Jordan, in ing and database linkages to ReefBase. September 1997. Attended by Israel, Jordan, the 198 Appendix B: International Coral Reef Initiative Regional Summaries 199 Arab Republic of Egypt, Djibouti, Yemen, and have been developed but are yet to be widely Oman with facilitation from Australia and the implemented. UNEP is working with CARl- United States. COMP to develop a monitoring manual. Major focuses for ICRI activity in the region are: Coordination of monitoring activity also involves * ICZM, particularly in terms of coastal devel- the GCRMN. Species recovery and management opment and tourism issues programs have been developed for: * Capacity building centering on the develop- * Turtles ment of an ICRI coordination system and * Manatees training in coastal and marine protected area * Conch and spiny lobsters management The field of capacity building offers chal- * Monitoring with emphasis on the establish- lenges and opportunities. Particular effort is ment of nodes for the Global Coral Reef being applied to multilingual presentation of Monitoring Network. materials, information technology systems, and school curriculum development. Latin America and the Caribbean East Asian Seas Regional coordination is through the Jamaica office of the UNEP Regional Seas Program. The effort is coordinated from the UNEP office in The major focuses for action relate to: Bangkok. An ICRI action plan has been developed * Coordination among the many countries, but it lacks an overarching protocol to bind it to political and administrative systems, and the participating 10 countries. Existing arrange- differing languages of the region. ments for ratification of projects and programs * Actions arising from the Cartegena hinder timely implementation of strategies. A Convention including: major emphasis has been placed on land-based * land-based sources of pollution sources of marine pollution issues, with a major * oil pollution workshop held this year in Australia. Training * protection of wildlife manuals for coral reef protected area manage- Integrated coastal management guidelines ment have been developed but require revision. Appendix C Selected Educational Materials Pertaining to Coral Reefs (as of November 1997) Barbara J. Ornitz, compiler Australian Institute of Marine Science. 1997. Ryan, Tim. 1990. Issues in Conservation Pollution. Survey Manual for Tropical Marine Resources, Wet Paper. Ashmore, Australia. 2nd edition. Townsville, Australia. Bortesch, James, and Brenda Maxwell. 1997. Texts for Use in Spanish-Speaking Coral Reef Systems and Ecology Lecture Notes. Countries/Commonwealths Florida Science Institute. Palm Bay, Florida. Coral Forest. 1996. The Coral Forest: Diversity of Autoridad de Desperdicios Solidos. Undated. Life on the Coral Reef. Teacher's Guide. San La naturaleza recicla y maneja correctamente lo Francisco. gue genera. La Comision Estatal de Elecciones. Great Barrier Reef Aquarium Volunteers San Juan, Puerto Rico. Association of Townsville, Inc. 1996. Sea Colegio Sea Grant & Colegio Universitario de Works: Resources for Primary Schools. Humacao. 1991-92. Centro De Educacion Townsville, QLD, Australia: March. Marina. Humacao, Puerto Rico. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. 1988. Departamento de Recursos Naturales. Undated. Project Reef-Ed. Townsville, QLD, Australia. Aquatic project WILD, en espanol y adaptado para Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. 1996. Puerto Rico. Programa Educacion en Recursos Seaworks, Resources for Primary Schools. Acuaticos. Puerta de Tierra, San Juan. Townsville, QLD, Australia. NOAA Office of Sea Grant. 1983. Estuary: an Maxwell, Brenda. Undated. Environmental Ecosystem and a Resource-A Reading Guide for Problem Solving through Water Quality Grades 9-12. South Slough Sanctuary. Monitoring Curriculum, third edition. Florida Procter & Gamble. 1993. Planet Patrol. The Science Institute. Palm Bay, Florida (Video Procter & Gamble Company. Cincinnati, and CD available as well). Ohio. Moffat, Bob. 1993. WaterWise: Water Resource Programa Sea Grant De la Universidad de Management and Conservation. DPI and Wet Puerto Rico. 1988. Los Quitones de Puerto Paper. Ashmore, Queensland. Rico. Regime de Humacao. UPR-E1-33. Moffat, Bob. 1995. Marine Environment Students Programa de Colegio Sea Grant. 1994. Un Mar Manual. Wet Paper Publications. de Creaciones. UPR-RUM. Mayaguez, Puerto Queensland, Australia. Rico. UPRSG E-58. Rogers, Caroline, and others. 1994. Coral Reef United States Environmental Protection Agency. Monitoring Manual for the Caribbean and 1993. Usted Puede Ayudar a Detener la Marea Western Atlantic. Virgin Islands National de Basura, Guia. Office of Water. EPA842- Park. St. John, USVI: June. B-93-003 200 Appendix C: Selected Educational Materials Pertaining to Coral Reefs 201 World Wildlife Fund. 1987. Guia Para El Films/Videos Profeso-Manual De Los Arrecifes Coralinos. Washington, D.C. Brevard Community College. Living Rock in World Wildlife Fund and RARE, Inc. 1986. Coral Crystal Seas. Palm Bay, Florida. Reefs/Arrecifes Coralinos. Earth Communications Office. 1997. Hidden City and Other Spots. Van Nuys, California. Appendix D World Wildlife Fund and Coral Reef Conservation Sue Wells World Wildlife Fund T he World Wildlife Fund (WWF) has had a * The reduction-and elimination where fea- long history of involvement in coral reef sible-of marine pollution from land, atmos- conservation work. A review in 1992 (Wells pheric, and marine sources and Price 1992) revealed that it was then involved * The introduction of integrated coastal man- with, or had recently completed, some 40 coral agement (ICM) as an underlying principle in reef projects. Since then many other projects have all marine and coastal conservation activities been supported and developed. Other WWF worldwide. activities also indirectly benefit reefs, such as the Guiding principles for meeting the five objec- promotion of policies and international treaties tives include: relating to the marine environment and the * Developing and promoting sustainable encouragement of sustainable fisheries manage- practices that will both meet human needs ment. Three of WWF's major regional programs and conserve biodiversity and ecological (Latin America/Caribbean, Asia/ Pacific, and processes Africa/Madagascar) have played major roles, as * Fostering the concept of stewardship for have the efforts of many of the WWF national both coastal waters and the open oceans organizations and associate organizations. * Building local capacity and empowering WWF's coral reef work is carried out as part communities to protect and manage their of its overall marine program, which is aimed at marine and coastal resources maintaining the biodiversity and productivity of * Creating social and economic incentives for marine and coastal systems. Five closely linked conservation and sustainable use objectives have been identified as the basis of the * Implementing a precautionary approach. program: The five objectives are being achieved through * The establishment of a global network of a diverse range of activities, including site-based ecologically representative, well-managed projects (for example, assistance with the estab- marine protected areas (MPAs) designed to lishment and management of MPAs, education conserve critical ecosystems and areas of and public awareness work, policy initiatives, high biological diversity and lobbying efforts through regional and inter- * The protection of threatened marine species national agreements (such as the, United Nations and those of special conservation concem Law of the Sea Convention, the Regional Seas * The introduction of measures to ensure that Convention, the Convention on Biological fishing is carried out in a sustainable man- Diversity, and various fisheries agreements). To ner, in order to conserve genetic, species, coordinate these activities, a WWF Marine and ecosystem diversity Advisory Group was formed in 1990, comprising 202 Appendix D: World Wildlife Fund and Coral Reef Conservation 203 about 50 individuals from around the network Management of Reef Fisheries involved in marine work. This group meets annu- ally to review progress, identify priorities for The WWF Endangered Seas Campaign, estab- future work, and develop ideas and plans for lished in 1995 specifically to address WWF's increasing the marine program's effectiveness. Its fisheries concerns, provides leadership and current priority is to revise the WWF Marine direction for fisheries management work Strategy, which will be published as a joint policy throughout the network. The campaign has booklet with the World Conservation Union three specific targets, all of which relate to reef (IUCN) in June 1998, as part of a series of activi- fisheries: ties to be undertaken during the United Nations * The development of effective recovery plans International Year of the Ocean. for key threatened species (such as sharks) * The creation of social and economic incen- WWF's Current Involvement in Reef tives for sustainable fishing (certification Conservation schemes such as the Marine Stewardship Council and the Marine Aquarium Fish Information on WWF's current reef-related pro- Council (the latter being supported through jects is summarized in Annex 1. Countries in WWF-US ), and environmentally appropri- which one or more major WWF-supported coral ate subsidies) reef projects are under way include Kenya, * The elimination of destructive fishing prac- Tanzania, Mozambique, the Philippines, tices (such as the South-east Asia anti- Indonesia, Malaysia, Hong Kong (China), Japan, cyanide fishing campaign) and reduction in Mexico, Nicaragua, Belize, and Ecuador. The by-catch. majority of these projects are carried out in asso- ciation with local NGOs and government agen- Integrated Coastal Management cies, and often in collaboration with other inter- national agencies. The WWF Marine Program is currently consider- ing how it can further promote ICM as an essen- Marine Protected Areas tial management framework, building on its existing MPA and coastal management projects. There is considerable variety in both the type of The ICM approach will be used to address cli- MPA that WWF is working with (in terms of mate change issues (in collaboration with WWF's size, budget, and objectives) and in the role that Climate Change Campaign) and tourism (in col- it plays (such as funding, research, education, or laboration with WWF offices currently develop- management). A recent WWF workshop on ing a new initiative on this topic), both of which MPAs, however, revealed common issues and have a bearing on coral reefs. The WWF Climate problems, and these will be reviewed in a WWF Change Campaign has already commissioned a discussion document being prepared for publi- report, and subsequently prepared an issue cation in March 1998. This will include a sum- paper, on the effect of dimate change on coral mary of WWF's current work with MPAs, a reefs. ICM work carried out through WWF will review of current topical issues relating to be assessed, and it is hoped that existing projects MPAs, including consideration of the applica- can be strengthened and new ones developed tion of the IUCN protected area categories in the that will demonstrate ICM in practice. marine environment, and case studies of WWF projects. Part of the project will be to identify tar- Pollution gets for MPA work for the marine program in general, and more specifically for the next phase Pollution work that relates to coral reefs includes of the Endangered Seas Campaign (see below), the work of WWF-UK, WWF-Australia, and sev- where the use of "no-fishing areas" will be pro- eral other national organizations with the ship- moted as a fishery management tool. ping and oil and gas industries, and with the International Maritime Organization, to reduce 204 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management and eliminate pollution from oil and hydrocar- and Dr. Robert Ginsburg, and has participated in bons from shipping, and to promote the estab- IYOR activities in Germany and Switzerland. lishment of Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas. Future Reef-Related Work Public Awareness and Education WWF's regional programs and many of its coun- WWF-Malaysia has prepared a marine educa- try offices have identified marine conservation tion kit in collaboration with the Department of as an emerging issue of high priority, and new Fisheries and the Ministry of Education as a marine staff posts have been created in many teaching resource for use in primary and sec- offices. The marine strategy will continue to pro- ondary schools. The kit has four units (coral vide the direction for this work. Since all five reefs, managroves, seashores, and oceans and components of the strategy are essential for the seas), and includes fact sheets, indoor and out- sustainable management of coral reefs, a sepa- door activities, a poster, and worksheets. Ten rate campaign on coral reefs is unlikely to be thousand copies have been produced in Malay launched in the immediate future. However, it is and 2,000 in English. Regional workshops are hoped that reef-related activities can be being held to train teachers in the use of the kit, increased and that there will be growing collab- and to explain how to incorporate it into the oration with other regional and international school syllabus. A public awareness kit on the reef initiatives. marine environment has also been produced by One way in which reef conservation and WWF-Indonesia, including a variety of items management efforts could be strengthened is relating to coral reefs, such as booklets for chil- through the WWF 2000 Living Planet dren in Bahasa, Indonesia. Campaign, a new campaign to mark the last 1,000 days of this century and to encourage Survey and Research Work worldwide action for conservation. One of its goals has direct relevance to coral reefs: the con- Several WWF projects carried out in coral reef servation of a representative selection of the regions involve survey work and monitoring world's most outstanding and distinctive bio- (for example, production of a monitoring manu- logical regions, or ecoregions, (referred to as the al in Spanish for the Caribbean). Research work Global 200). About 60 of these ecoregions are has also been supported, such as WWF-UK's marine, and of these 25 contain coral reefs. funding of the Chagos Expedition in 1996. WWF has projects under way in over half of these areas, and many other organizations are Direct Involvement in the International Year involved in the others. The WWF marine pro- of the Reef (IYOR) gram will be promoting further work in these areas, both directly and indirectly. Several publications have been produced carry- The International Year of the Oceans (IYO) ing the IYOR logo, including a Marine Update will be a major focus of WWF's work in 1998, on coral reefs by WWF- UK (1997), and an issue and will provide a further vehicle for promotion paper and summary on climate change and of coral reef activities. Two IYO events are coral reefs by the WWF Climate Change planned in association with IUCN: an IYO Campaign (1997). WWF-Japan and WWF- launch in January, and publication of a joint Indonesia played an active role in Reef Check, WWF/IUCN marine policy booklet. Many of and other WWF staff have participated in the activities will be spearheaded by the national IYOR committees (such as those in Endangered Seas Campaign and the Living WWF-Malaysia and WWF-Tanzania). The Marine Planet Campaign, and the potential for linking Program Coordinator at WWF International has some of these events with EXPO '98 is currently worked on the promotion of IYOR globally in being investigated. association with IUCN, the Coral Reef Alliance, Appendix D: World Wildlife Fund and Coral Reef Conservation 205 References WWF Climate Change Campaign. 1997. "Issue Summary of Coral Reefs and Climate Wells, S. M., and A. R. G. Price., 1992. "Coral Change." Washington, D.C. Reefs-Valuable but Vulnerable." A WWF WWF-UK 1997. "Coral Reefs: Valuable but International Discussion Paper, WWF Vulnerable." Marine Update (IYOR special). International, Gland, Switzerland. WWF-UK, Godalming. Appendix E World Wildlife Fund Projects Involving Coral Reefs International/Endangered Seas Campaign WWF-Malaysia Marine Aquarium Fish Council-WWF-US and Active member of Malaysia's IYOR committee, other organizations Marine Education Kit prepared for schools (see above). Preparation of "Marine Park Island Marine Stewardship Council-WWF Endangered Conceptual Plan for Peninsular Malaysia," and Seas Campaign assistance with its implementation, has involved work related to tourism, reef survey, pollution, Impact of climate change on reefs-issue sum- and carrying capacity in marine parks (P. Pulau, mary put out by WWF P. Redang, P. Tioman). Climate Change Campaign WWF-Japan Asia/ Pacific Program Shiraho project: 1997 coral reef campaign to raise SE Asia Campaign for Coral Reef Protection and funds for a research and education center; work Sustainable Fishing with the local community to build local efforts to Project on live reef fish trade and cyanide protect this reef. fishing with WWF-Hong Kong, WWF- Indonesia, TRAFFIC Southeast Asia, KKP- WWF-Hong Kong Philippines, The Nature Conservancy (TNC), and other regional collaborators. Hoi Ha Wan Marine Park-establishment of a marine studies and visitor center. WWF-Indochina program office (Vietnam) WWF-Indonesia Collaborative project on Coastal and Marine Environmental Management in the South China Kepulauan Seribu Marine National Park-envi- Sea; phase 2 of an Asian Development Bank-fund- ronmental education and awareness raising, ed program will be starting shortly and will cover establishment of an information and training the coastal areas from Cambodia to Vietnam, fol- center, support to home-based business. lowing on from earlier survey work in this region, supported by WWF. WWF's role in phase 2 will Take Bone Rate National Park-preparation of involve providing technical advice for the estab- draft management plan, funding for giant clam lishment of MPAs within an ICM framework. hatchery. 206 Appendix E: World Wildlife Fund Projects Involving Coral Reefs 207 Mafia Island Marine Park, Tanzania-establish- Aru Tenggara Marine Reserve-research on tra- ment and management of park, including com- ditional sasi system, public awareness, turtle munity work, controls on dynamite fishing, pro- protection. vision of equipment, and so forth. Teluk Cenderawasih National Marine Park- Menai Bay community-based project, Zanzibar- assistance with management plan development local community work (provision of radios, and implementation, research and survey work. establishment of village committees), training of Review of status of marine aquarium fish, government staff. corals, and curio trade in Indonesia, in collabo- ration with TNC. Kiunga Marine Reserve, Kenya-involvement of local communities in reserve management. WWF-Philippines Madagascar-sorne support for conservation National Marine Conservation and Education work at Toliara, identification of marine conser- Programme KKP, Philippines. vation priorities. Tubbataha National Marine Park-training of Proposal for European Union-funded regional dive masters, photo exhibition. program on ICM and community-based man- agement. El Nido Marine Park. WWF-UK Turtle Islands transboundary marine park. Support to 1996 Chagos Expedition. Anti-cyanide fishing work-training in non- damaging methods. Latin America/ Caribbean Training in Geographic Information Systems at WWF-LAC program (WWF-US) Subic Bay facility. Utria Sound National Park, Colombia. WWF-South Pacific ENCORE project, Eastern Caribbean (with Involvement in Fiji's Pacific Year of the Reef USAID): community-based coastal management activities (public awareness and workshops on projects in Dominica and St. Lucia, including coral exploitation-funding needed to continue MPA management and training, and public coral exploitation work). awareness. Program outline in preparation for coral reef PROARCA, Central America: WWF-US, with and lagoon complexes of the southwest Pacific TNC, University of Rhode Island, funded by US- proposal for European Union-funded program AID; includes coral reef sites in Nicaragua on ICM and community-based management. (Miskitia Cayes), Honduras, Guatemala and Belize (Gulf of Honduras), and Panama. Africa and Madagascar (Bocas del Chico). WWF-Africa and Madagascar Caribbean Coral Reef Initiative: projects in the Dominican Republic (volunteer coral reef moni- Bazaruto National Park, Mozambique estab- toring and trainer's guide prepared in Spanish) lishment and management of park. and Haiti (Les Arcadins Marine Park). 208 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management WWF- Mexico Program Office WWF- Canada Banco Chinchorro Biosphere Reserve-commu- Development of a marine program in Cuba with nity work to help implement reserve. several reef-related activities. Sian Ka'an Biosphere Reserve-establishment TRAFFIC and management (input from WWF finished). TRAFFIC East Asia: survey of pet shops for live FUDENA, Venezuela corals and turtles in Japan. Contributing to national IYOR activities. TRAFFIC Southeast Asia: analysis of hard coral trade in Indonesia. Identification of regional priorities for marine ecosystems, including reefs in the Southern TRAFFIC India: study of trade in marine Caribbean. species, focusing on sharks and turtles but including other species. Coral reef monitoring program. TRAFFIC Oceania: monitoring and investigat- Fundacion Natura, Ecuador ing vertebrate and invertebrate fisheries in the South Pacific and Australia. Galapagos Marine Park. TRAFFIC USA: study of the U.S. role in interna- WWF-UK tional trade in hard corals, in cooperation with U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service. Support to projects in British dependent territo- ries (Anguilla, Montserrat, Turks, and Caicos). TRAFFIC Europe: study of Indonesian marine products imported into the European Union. Technical assistance provided for the designa- tion of a particularly sensitive sea area in Cuba. Appendix F Coral Reef Conservation in the Wider Caribbean through Integrated Coastal Area Management, Marine Protected Areas, and Partnerships with the Tourism Sector Alessandra Vanzella-Khouri United Nations Environment Programme, Kingston, Jamaica H aving recognized the need for coopera- The mission of the SPAW protocol is to pro- tion in the protection and management tect, preserve, and manage in a sustainable way: of coastal and marine resources, the * Areas that require protection to safeguard governments of the wider Caribbean established their special value the Caribbean Environment Program (CEP), one * Threatened or endangered species of flora of the Regional Seas Programs of the United and fauna Nations Environment Program (UNEP) more * Species-with the objective of preventing than two decades ago. them from becoming endangered or In 1983, the governments adopted the legal threatened. framework for CEP, the Convention for the The SPAW protocol stresses the importance of Protection and Development of the Marine protecting habitat as an effective method of pro- Environment of the Wider Caribbean (Cartagena tecting listed species. Protection is focused on Convention), which has been in force since 1986 fragile and vulnerable ecosystems as a whole, and is currently supported by two protocols: the rather than on individual species. Cooperation to Combat Oil Spills (1983) and the The governments of the region identified the Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW Catagena Convention and its SPAW Protocol as 1990). A third protocol on land-based sources a vehicle to assist with the implementation of the and activities of marine pollution is currently Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and under negotiation and is expected to be adopted requested that the CEP develop a cooperation by the end of 1998. program with the CBD to coordinate and sup- The SPAW protocol is arguably the most com- port activities of mutual interest and avoid any prehensive regional wildlife protection treaty in duplication. As a result, a memorandum of the world and certainly the most comprehensive cooperation was recently signed by both secre- of its kind (Freestone 1990). In addition to the for- tariats. mal annexing requirements, which include The CBD, the Cartagena Convention, and its ecosystems and groups of species, and the insti- two protocols are comprehensive in scope and tutional structure that it establishes, the SPAW congruent in most of their provisions. The few provisions on environmental impact assessment, elements unique to each instrument are never- planning and management regimes, and buffer theless mutually supporting as they contribute zones, as well as the range of protection mea- towards the overall common objectives of both sures it envisages (including species recovery treaties. The Cartagena Convention and its pro- plans), reflect much of the best modern thinking tocols provide, in many instances, more concrete on wildlife protection and management. and specific guidance to implement the strong 209 210 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management and broader obligations of the CBD at the tected areas has been initiated, and technical regional level. In particular, the obligations con- assistance will be provided to specific MPAs. tained in the SPAW Protocol: * Regional guidelines and national recovery * Manage the components of biodiversity on plans for sea turtles, manatees, and other an ecosystem basis species of regional concerns have been * Establish and manage protected areas developed, and assistance is provided for * Establish protection programs for endan- implementation. gered and threatened species of wildlife * Common methods for coral reef monitoring * Manage wildlife to prevent species from are currently under development, and assis- becoming threatened or endangered with tance will be provided to countries for extinction. implementation, as well as for participation To address the common coastal and marine and coordination with the Global Coral Reef environmental problems in the region in an inte- Monitoring Network. grated way-through the application of the * Strengthening of information management Cartagena Convention and its protocols-the systems for coastal and marine environmen- CEP's major activities provide assistance to gar- tal resources among the countries of the ments in the following areas: region, including global databases and infor- * Establishment and enforcement of measures mation systems. necessary to prevent, reduce, and control In addition, as a followup to the Regional marine pollution and implementation of the Agenda for Action of the International Coral Global Program of Action (GPA) for the Reef Initiative (ICRI) adopted in Montego Bay, Protection of the Marine Environment from Jamaica, in August 1995 and as the ICRI contact Land-based Activities. Inventories of land- point for the wider Caribbean, the CEP is imple- based sources of marine pollution have been menting a USAID / UNEP-funded regional pro- completed in 26 countries of the wider ject to address coastal degradation resulting Caribbean, and activities on pollution con- from tourism. This regional project is promoting trol are being developed, as well as promo- best management practices for coastal tourism tion of best management practices. through the implementation of pilot demonstra- * Development of integrated planning and tion projects and the development of a regional management of coastal and marine areas. plan of action outlining recommended policies Common guidelines for the region on inte- for sustainable tourism in the region. grated coastal area management have been Furthermore, a training program is being imple- developed, and assistance is being provided mented for the private and public sectors to systematically to countries with the devel- reduce the negative impacts of tourism activities opment of integrated coastal area manage- on coastal ecosystems, particularly concerning ment plans. solid and wastewater management, design and 3) Establishment and management of protect- siting of tourist facilities, and integrated coastal ed areas. Some 250 marine protected areas management practices. This initiative was (MPAs) have been established or proposed developed in an effort to involve all relevant sec- in the wider Caribbean. Regional guidelines tors related to tourism (private, public, and non- for the selection, identification, establish- governmental organizations) in the sustainable ment, and management of protected areas management of the natural environment on have been developed, and assistance is pro- which tourism is based in the wider Caribbean. vided to countries for their application. A A literature review and report was recently comprehensive training program for train- conducted as part of the project to determine the ers and managers of protected areas has nature and causes of coastal degradation result- been developed, as well as a database of ing from tourism. Based on an analysis of factors marine protected areas. The process of such as the significance, scale, and frequency of development of a network of marine pro- impact, ecosystem linkages, and cost (such as Appendix F: Coral Reef Conservation in the Wider Caribbean 211 lost revenue or rehabilitation costs), the report In the area of facility operations, and the pro- listed the most detrimental practices related to vision of services (including recreation), the tourism in the coastal zone as physical changes application of best management practices should or damage to habitats, sewage disposal, and be supported by the development of the related solid waste disposal. management systems; that is, environmental However, a third major source of impact is the policies, appropriate purchasing policies, and nonconstruction element of the industry, such as environmental management and monitoring sys- recreational activities, which are often linked tems, staff training, and assigning the responsi- with major facilities like hotels or marinas, but bility of the program to a senior member. Areas may also occur apart from such fixed operational of operation for which past practices have been bases. The recreational activities include: identified include waste management, water * Scuba diving and snorkeling usage, energy usage, facilities maintenance, * Yachting recreation, and public/ social interaction. * Motorboating, water skiing, jet skiing A number of best management practices have * Sport fishing been tried in many hotels and operations in the * Mountain biking. wider Caribbean. The most widely most prac- While the above practices are directly attrib- tices include: utable to the tourist industry, there are a number * Erosion and sediment control (U.S. Virgin of sectors and activities that are indirectly linked Islands, British Virgin Islands, Jamaica, to the tourist industry that also contribute to Dominican Republic, and Barbados) coastal resource degradation. These include * Selective purchasing to reduce packaging overfishing, harvest of reef materials for curio (several countries) items, overharvest of trees and plants (such as * Low-flush toilets and low-flow shower thatch palm or Lignum vitae) for craft and con- heads (several countries) struction purposes, and speculative land devel- * Reuse of gray water for irrigation (several opment. countries) Tourism impacts on coastal resources are far * Energy conservation (most countries). from uniform. First, the coastal zone is a com- To achieve environmental best management plex of interlinked ecosystems, with different practices for tourism requires coordinated sensitivities and vulnerabilites, and therefore approaches, information sharing, available different abilities to withstand stress. Second, instruction materials, and incentives for the sec- the stresses produced by tourism are not exerted tor to invest in the idea. Several regional and uniformly across systems, or even over the life- international organizations have embarked on time of projects, facilities, or activities. programs to improve the environmental prac- Any framework to promote best management tices in hotels. It is the goal of the USAID/UNEP practices in tourism should be able to address the project to contribute to these efforts in support systemic problems (public sector planning, inad- of rational use and conservation of coastal zone equacy of essential services, and social issues) as and resources in the wider Caribbean region. well as the more direct issues of site design, man- agement, and regulation. As such, any effort to develop a coordinated approach to deal with Reference coastal zone management must access resources from-and coordinate the actions of-non- 1. Freestone. 1990. International Journal of Estuarine and tourism interests in the public sector. Coastal Law, vol. 5(4). Appendix G Conference Participants Walter Adey Eric-Invald Ask Museum of Natural History FMC Food Ingredients Division Smithsonian Institution c/o FMC Marine Colloids Inc. Washington, DC USA Mandaue City, Cebu Philippines Tel: (202) 357-1860 Tel: (63 32) 345-0196 Fax: (202) 357-3037 Fax: (63 32) 346-1182 Email: Adey.Walter@nmnh.si.edu John Baldwin, ICRI Secretariat Tundi Agardy Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority Senior Director PO Box 1379 Conservation International Townsville, Queensland 4812 Australia 2501 M Street, NW Tel: 61-77-500743 Washington, DC 20037 USA Fax: 61-77-242264 Tel: (202) 973-2203 E-mail: J.Baldwin@gbrmpa.gov.au Fax: (202) 887-0193 Email: t.agardy@conservation.org Celso S. Barrientos Supervisory Physical Scientist Daniel Akaka National Oceanic and Atmospheric U.S. Senator Administration United States Senate NOAA/NESDIS - E/RA3 Washington, DC 20510 USA Camp Springs, MD 20746 USA Tel: (202) 224-6361 Tel: (301) 763-8102 Fax: (202) 22402126 Fax: (301) 763-8020 James Armstrong Lisa Barnett Deputy Secretary General Development Officer Convention on International Trade in Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora 900 Jefferson Drive Tel: (41 22) 979-9127 Suite 2207 MRC 435 Fax: (41 22) 979-9061 Washington, DC 20560 USA Email: armstroj@unep.ch Tel: 202-633-9473 Fax: 202-786-2819 E-mail: lbamett.stridc@si.edu 212 Appendix G: Conference Participants 213 Steven Bartimo Jennifer Bossard Student Research Assistant, ENVGC University of Maryland World Bank P.O. Box 18 1818 H Street, NW Solomons, MD 20688 USA Washington, DC 20433 USA Tel: 410-326-6632 Tel: 202-458-2685 E-mail: bartimo@cbl-umces.edu E-mail: JBossard@Worldbank.org Heather Benway Kay Briggs National Sea Grant Fellow Marine Biologist NOAA Office of Global Programs QuanTech 1100 Wayne Avenue 1911 N. Fort Myer Drive Suite 1210 Arlington, VA 22201 USA Silver Spring, MD 20910 USA Tel: (703) 312-7800 Tel: 301-427-2089 ext. 504 Fax: 301-427-2082 Lauretta Burke E-mail: benway@ogp.noaa.gov Environmental and GIS Analyst World Resources Institute Barbara Best 1709 New York Avenue, NW AAAS Science Diplomacy Fellow Washington, DC 20006 USA US Agency for International Development Tel: 202-662-2593 1300 Pennsylvania Avenue E-mail: Lauretta@wri.org Washington, DC 20523-3800 USA Tel: (202) 712-0553 Kerstin Canby Fax: (202) 216-3174 ENVDR World Bank Sofia U. Bettencourt 1818 H Street, NW Natural Resources Economist Washington, DC 20433 USA World Bank Tel: (202) 473-1407 1818 H Street, NW Fax: (202) 477-0565 Washington, DC 20433 USA Email: kcanby@worldbank.org Tel: (202) 458-2554 Fax: (202) 522-1674 Eduardo 0. Castro Email: sbettencourt@worldbank.org Atache, Economic Section Embassy of the Philippines Juan Bezaury 1600 Massachusetts Avenue, NW Amigos de Sian Ka'an Washington, DC 20036 USA Tel: (52 98) 87 30 80 Tel: 202-467-9317 Fax: (52 98) 84 95 83 Fax: 202-467-9417 Email: sian@cancun.rce.com.mx Herman Cesar Jerry Bisson Environmental Economist Biodiversity Team Leader World Bank USAID 1818 H Street, NW 1300 Pennsylvania Ave. Washington, DC 20433 USA Washington, DC, USA Tel: (202) 458-5759 Tel: 202-712-4178 Fax: (202) 522-1664 Fax: 202-216-3174 Email: hcesar@worldbank.org E-mail: JBisson@USAID.gov 214 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunitiesfor Sustainable Management Candace Coen Richard Curry George Washington University Science Coordinator 1010 25th Street, NW, #801 Biscayne National Park/ National Park Service Washington, DC 20037 USA P.O. Box 1369 Tel: 202-337-6851 Homestead, Fl 33090-1369 USA E-mail: Candace@gwis2.circ.gwu.edu Tel: (305)230-1144 Fax: (305)230-1190 Patric L. Colin E-mail: BISC_Science@nps.gov Coral Reef Research Foundation P.O. Box 1765 Ariel Cuschnir Koror, Palay 96940 Consultant Tel: (680) 488-5255 Unigroup International-Environmental Consultants Fax: (680) 488-5513 4365 Farm House Lane Email: crrf@palaunet.com Fairfax, VA 22032 USA Tel: (703) 425-8260 Stephen Colwell Executive Director Albert Daley Coral Reef Alliance Executive Director 64 Shattuck Square, Suite 220 Environmental Foundation of Jamaica Berkeley, CA 94704 USA 7 Trinidad Terrace Tel: (510) 848-0110 Kingston, 20 Jamaica Fax: 510) 848-3720 Tel: 876-960-1732/3 Email: CoralReefA@aol.com Fax: 876-960-1731 E-mail: efjja.@toj.com David Craven Geographic Information Specialist Jonathan C. Day Development Alternatives, Inc. Regional Manager 7250 Woodmont Avenue Northern Region Suite 200 Queensland Department of Environment Bethesda, MD 20814 USA P.O. Box 5391 Tel: 301 215 7028 Townsville, Queensland 4810 Australia Fax: 301 718 7968 Tel: (61 77) 225-310 E-mail: david_craven@dai.com Fax: (61 77) 225-311 Michael Crosby Michael DeAlessi National Research Coordinator Coordinator National Oceanic and Atmospheric Center for Private Conservation Administration 1001 Connecticut Ave, NW SSMC-4, Rm 10541 Suite 1250 Silver Spring, MD 20910 USA Washington, DC 20036 USA Tel: (301) 713-3155 Tel: 202-331-1010 Fax: (301) 713-4012 Fax: 202-785-7815 Email: mcrosby@coasts.nos.noaa.gov E-mail: dealessi@cei.org Caras Dean Intern Coast Alliance Washington, DC 20016 USA Tel: (202) 895-4585 Appendix G: Conference Participants 215 Jan DeJamette Nancy Dobbin Research Scientist Dobbin & Associates University of Maryland 304 Springwood Court, NE Dept. of Microbiology Suite 100 8380 Greensboro Drive #2 Vienna, VA 22180 USA McLean, VA 22102 USA Tel: 703-255-1170 Tel: 703-356-3116 E-mail: JD89@umail.umd.edu Philip Dustan Department of Biology Yula Del Gallo University of Charleston Student Charleston D.C. 29424 USA The George Washington University Tel: (803) 953-8086 Washington, DC 20004 USA Fax: (803) 953-5453 Tel: (202) 728-9037 Email: PDustan@zeus.cofc.edu Katherine C. Delhotal Sylvia Earle Economist President USAID (Contractor) Deep Ocean Research and Exploration 1331 Pennsylvania Ave. NW Oakland, CA 94619 USA # 1425 Tel: (510) 530-9388 Washington, DC 20004 USA Fax: (301) 530-3660 Tel: 202-661-5808 Fax: 202-661-5890 Sheila Einsweiler E-mail: kdelhota@esds.cdie.org Senior Wildlife Inspector U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service John Dixon 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, Rm 500 Principal Environmental Economist Arlington, VA 22203 USA World Bank Tel: (703) 358-1949 1818 H Street, NW Fax: (703) 358-2271 Washington, DC 20433 USA Tel: (202) 473-8594 Habib EL-Habr Fax: (202) 477-0565 Interim Coordinator Email: jdixon@worldbank.org UNEP UN Building Rili Djohani Bankok, 10200 Thailand Deputy Director Tel: 66-2-2881860 Coastal and Marine Program, Asia/ Pacific Fax: 66-2-267-8008 Director, Coastal and Marine Program, Indonesia E-mail: habr.unesacp@un.org The Nature Conservancy Jl.Radio IV/5 Peter Espeut Kebayoran Baru Executive Director Jakarta 12001 Indonesia South Coast Conservation Foundation Tel: (62 21) 720-6484 91 A Old Hope Road Fax: (62 21) 724-5092 Kingston 6 Jamaica Tel: (876) 927-4047 James Dobbin Fax: (876) 927-3754 Dobbin International, Inc. Email: pespeut@infochan.com 527 Maple Ave, East Vienna, VA 22180 USA Tel: (703) 255-1170 Fax: (703) 255-0754 216 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management Bill Faries Janet Gibson Consultant National Project Advisor GEF Secretariat UNDP/GEF CZM Project Belize 2111 Jeff Davis Highway United Nations Development Programme #1013-5 Belize City Belize Arlington, VA 22202 USA Tel: (501 2) 357 39 Tel: 202-458-9274 Fax: (501 2) 357 38 E-mail: wfaries@worldbank.org Steve Gittings Martin Fodor Sanctuary Manager Environmental Specialist Flower Gardens Banks National Marine World Bank Sanctuary 1818 H Street, NW NOAA/FGBNMS Washington, DC 20433 USA 216 W. 26th Street, Suite 104 Tel: (202) 473-9131 Bryan, TX 77803 USA Fax: (202) 477-0568 Tel: 409-779-2705 Email: MFodor@worldbank.org Fax: 409-779-2334 E-mail: sgittings@ocean.nos.noaa.gov Karen Font Editorial Staff, Environment Edmund Green National Geographic Society Marine Programme Development Officer 1145 17th Street, NW World Conservation Monitoring Centre Washington, DC 20008 USA 219 Huntingdon Road Tel: 202-857-7196 Cambridge, CB3 ODL UK Fax: 202-828-6695 Tel: 44 1223 277314 E-mail: Kfont@ngs.org Fax: 44 1223 277136 E-mail: ed.green@wcmc.org.uk Maureen Flynn Senior Edit Cartographer Juan C. Godoy National Geographic Society Co-Director Washington, DC 20036 USA PFA/CCAD-UE Tel: (202) 775-7855 Los Angeles Calle 62 Oeste 12 Panama Fax: (202) 429-5704 Tel: (507) 236-8186 Fax: (507) 236-3966 Anna Marija Frankic Office of Senator Akata Gina Green US Senate Director, Caribbean Region Washington, DC 20510 USA The Nature Conservancy Tel: (202) 224-6361 1815 N. Lynn St. Fax: (202) 22402126 Arlington, VA USA Tel: (703) 841-4865 Rex Garcia Fax: (703) 841-4880 Statistical Assistant United Nations - ECLAC 1825 K Street NW Washington, DC 20006 USA Tel: (202) 955-5613 Fax: (202) 296-0826 Appendix G: Conference Participants 217 George Grice Indu Hewawasam Senior Assistant Secretary Environmental Specialist Ocean Sciences and Living Marine Resources World Bank Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission 1818 H. Street, NW- J-3097 UNESCO Washington, DC 20433 USA 1 Rue Miollis Tel: 202-473-5559 Paris, CEDEX 15 France E-mail: IHewawasam@Worldbank.org Tel: 33.1.4568.4189 Fax: 33.1.4568.5812 Carolyn Hill E-mail: GGrice@unesco.org EcoSource 814 W. Diamond Ave Gracia Gu-Fang Gaithersburg, MD 20878 USA George Washington University Tel: (410) 263-2128 Tourism and Hospitality Management Fax: (410) 268-0923 Washington, DC 20052 USA Email: ecosource@podi.com Tel: (202) 887-5251 Don Hinrichsen Lynne Zeitlin Hale Consultant Associate Director United Nations Coastal Resources Center 235 East 53rd Street Graduate School of Oceanography Apt. 3C University of Rhode Island New York, NY 10022 USA Narragansett, RI 02882 USA Tel: 212-223-5842 Tel: 401-792-6112 Fax: 212-207-3888 Fax: 401-789-4670 E-mail: lzhale@gsosunl.gso.uri.edu Gene Holder Munson Foundation Marea E. Hatziolos 2900 M Street, NW Coastal/Wetland Specialist Washington, DC 20007 USA World Bank Tel: (202) 298-7874 1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20433 USA David Holtz Tel: (202) 478-5779 Director Fax: (202) 477-0568 Florida Keys Field Office Email: mhatziolos@worldbank.org Center for Marine Conservation 513 Fleming Street #14 Donald Hawkins Key West, FL 33040 USA Director Tel: 305-295-3370 International Institute of Tourism Studies, Fax: 305-295-3371 George Washington University E-mail: DHoltz@cenmarine.com School of Business and Public Management 710 21st Street, NW Anthony J. Hooten Washington, DC 20052 USA Consultant Tel: (202) 994-7087 AJH Environmental Services Fax: (202) 994-1420 4005 Glenridge Street E-mail: dhawk@gwis2.circ.gwu.edu Kensington, MD 20895-3708 USA Tel: (301) 942-8839 Fax: (301) 942-8839 E-mail: Environmental_Services@Compuserve.com 218 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management Akemi Horiguchi Sunil K. Khanna Policy Analyst Vice President NAC International/PCI Tata Energy and Resources Institute 1101 Connecticut Ave., NW 1600 Wilson Blvd. Suite 1200 Arlington, VA 22209 USA Washington, DC USA Tel: (703) 841-1136 Tel: 202-828-2435 Fax: 202-828-2324 William Kiene E-mail: akemi-horiguchi@nacintl.com Coordinator Year of the Ocean Richard M. Huber National Museum of Natural History Environmentai Economist EG-13 MRC-125 World Bank Washington, DC 20560 USA 1818 H Street, NW Tel: 202-357-2309 Washington, DC 20433 USA Fax: 202-786-2832 Tel: (202) 473-8581 E-mail: kiene@nmnh.si.edu Fax: (202) 696-7393 Email: rhuberl@worldbank.org Maritta Koch-Weser Chief Eliot Hurwitz Environment and Natural Resources Division National Oceanic and Atmospheric Latin America and the Caribbean Region Administration World Bank 14th & Constitution, NW 1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20230 USA Washington, DC 20433 USA Tel: 202-482-1846 Tel: (202) 473-3286 Fax: 202-482-2663 Fax: (202) 522-1664 E-mail: ehurwitz@noaa.gov Email: mkochweser@worldbank.org Bob Johannes Nancy Knowlton R.E. Johannes Pty Ltd. Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute 8 Tyndall Court Naos Island Marine Laboratory Bonnet Hill, Tasmania 7053 Australia APO-AA, 34002-0948 Tel: (62 36) 229-8064 Tel: 011-507-228-4303 Fax: (61 36) 229-8066 Fax: 011-507-228-0516 Email: bobjoh@netspace.net.au Email: KNOWLTON@naos.si.edu Ken Kassem Rhonda Kranz University of Alabama Program Manager Department of Geography Ecological Society of America Tuscaloosa, AL 35401 USA 2010 Massachusetts Ave, N.W. Tel: (205)366-9743 Washington, D.C. 20036 USA Tel: (202) 833-8748 Richard Kenchington Fax: (202) 833-8775 Executive Director Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority Coalter Lathrop PO Box 791 NOAA/MNFS Canbera, ACT 2601 Australia 1206 T Street, NW Tel: 61-262-247-02 Washington, DC 20009 USA Fax: 61-6-247-5761 Tel: 301-713-2319 ext. 133 E-mail: r.kenchington@gbrmpa.gov.au Fax: 301-713-0376 E-mail: coalter.lathrop@noaa.gov Appendix G: Conference Participants 219 Michael Leuthner Solomon Makoloweka Embassy of the Marshall Islands Program Coordinator 4400 Massachusetts Avenue, NW Tanga Coastal Zone Conservation and Washington, DC 20016 Development Programme Tel: 202-865-4619 P.O. Box 5036 E-mail: kickin@rocketmail.com Tanga Tanzania Tel: (255 53) 47463 Michele Lemay Fax: (255-53) 47465 Inter-American Development Bank Email: tangacoast@twiga.com 1300 New York Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20577 USA Sergio Marchisio Tel: (202) 623-1838 Professor Fax: (202) 623-1315 National Research Council E-mail: MicheleL@IADB.org Corso Vittorio Emanuele II, 251 Rome, 00186 Italy Olof Linden Tel: 0039.6.6893009 Coordinator Fax: 0039.6.68308307 SAREC E-mail: marchisio@iasi.rm.cnr.it Department of Zoology Stockholm Sweden Robin G. Marinos Tel: (46 8) 16 40 29 Marine Specialist Fax: (46 8) 16 77 15 c/o Munson Foundation Tegelberg Str. 4 Stephen Lintner Stadtbergen, 86391 Germany Prinicipal Environmental Specialist Tel: (202) 298-7879 World Bank Fax: (202) 625-6204 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, DC 20433 USA Teri Marsh Tel: (202) 473-2508 Sea Grant Fellow Fax: (202) 477-0568 Office of Protected Resources E-mail: SLintner@Worldbank.org NOAA/NMFS 1315 East-West Highway Engelke Lynn-Steven Silver Spring, MD 20910 USA Education Consultant Tel: 301-713-2319 x. 140 Smithsonian Institute Fax: 301-713-0376 Smithsonian Office of Education E-mail: Teri.Marsh@NOAA.gov A-I Building 1163 MRC 402 Washington, DC 20560 USA Amy Matthews-Amos Tel: 202-357-3050 Program Director Fax: 202-357-4908 Marine Conservation Biology Institute E-mail: Engelkel@SOE.si.edu 205 N. Edgewood Street Arlington, VA 22201 USA Nancy MacKinnon Tel: (703) 276-1434 The Nature Conservancy Fax: (703) 276-1528 1 Sutter Street #308 San Francisco, CA 94104 USA Tel: (415) 362-2011 Fax: (415) 902-9930 Email: 71134.2772@compuserve.com 220 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management Christopher Mattia Sitoo Mukerji President, Innovative Cyber Solutions Director P.O. Box 18 Office of Science and Technology Solomons, MD 20688 USA Organization of American States Tel: 301-510-6925 1889 F Street, NW, Office 270-J Fax: 410-721-5247 Washington, DC 20006 USA E-mail: mattia@smbcinc.com Tel: 202-458-3368 Fax: 202-458-3167 John W. McManus E-mail: smukerji@oas.org Reefbase Project Leader International Center for Living Aquatic Peter Mumby Resources Management Research Fellow Geography MCPO Box 2631, University of Sheffield 0718 Makati City Philippines Sheffield, S102TW UK Tel: (63 2) 818-0466 Tel: (44 114) 222-7970 Fax: (63 2) 816-3183 Fax: (44 114) 279-7912 Email: J.McManus@cgnet.com Richard Murphy Yolanda Membreno Jean Michel Cousteau Institute Third Secretary, Embassy of Honduras Email: RMurphyO00@aol.com 3007 Tilden Street, NW POD 4-M Abdulla Naseer Washington, DC 20008 USA Marine Researcher Tel: 202-966-7702/08 Ministry of Fisheries and Agriculture Fax: 202-966-9751 White Waves/ H E-mail: embhondu@ix.netcom.com Male Republic of Maldives Marshall Meyers Tel: (960) 323 28 Pet Industry Joint Advisory Council Fax: (960) 32 25 09 1220 19th Street, NW Washington, DC 20036 USA Ken Newcomb Tel: (202) 466-8270 ENVDR Fax: (202) 293-4377 World Bank 1818 H Street, NW Jon Moore Washington, DC 20433 USA President Tel: (202) 473-6010 Chesapeake Marine Aquaria Society Fax: (202) 477-0565 5187 B Bennett E-mail: KNewcomb@Worldbank.org Andrews AFB, MD 20762 USA Tel: 301-599-1756 David Newman E-mail: JMoore@Digizen.net National Cancer Institute Bethesda, MD 20814 USA Judith Moore Tel: (301) 846-5387 World Bank Fax: (301) 846-6178 1818 H Street, N.W. Email: Newman@dtpax2.ncifcrf.gov Washington, DC 20433 USA Tel: (202) 458-4578 jmoorel@worldbank.org Appendix G: Conference Participants 221 Jennifer Newton Brady Phillips Sea Grant Fellow Constituent Affairs Officer Congressman Sam Farr Sanctuary and Reserves Division 1117 Longworth House Office Building NOAA Washington, DC 20515 USA 1305 East-West Highway, N/ORM-2 Tel: 202-225-2861 Silver Spring, MD 20910 USA Fax: 202-225-6791 Tel: 301-713-3141 ext. 169 E-mail: jen.newton@mail.house.gov Fax: 301-713-0404 E-mail: bphillips@ocean.nos.noaa.gov Agneta Nilsson United Nations Environment Programme Eleanor Phillips Water Branch Fisheries Officer P.O. Box 30552 Department of Fisheries Nairobi Kenya Nassau Bahamas Tel: (254 2) 62 23 09 Tel: (242) 393-2965 Fax: (254-2) 62 27 88 Fax: (242) 393-2751 John C. Ogden Jan Post Director Senior Environmental Affairs Specialist Florida Institute of Oceanography World Bank University of South Florida 1818 H Street, NW 830 First Street South Washington, DC 20433 USA St. Petersburg, FL 33701 USA Tel: (202) 473-3400 Tel: 813-893-9100 Fax: (202) 477-0568 Fax: 813-893-9109 Email: jpost@worldbank.org E-mail: jogden@seas.marine.usf.edu Vaughan R. Pratt David Orrukem President Minister (DCM) International Marinelife Alliance - Philippines Palaun Embassy 36 Sta. Catalina cor. Stella Maris St. 1150 18th Street, NW Bo. Kapitolyo, Pasig City, Metro Manila Washington, DC 20036 USA Philippines 1600 Tel: (202) 452-6814 Tel: (63 2) 633-5687, 631-4940 Fax: (202) 452-6281 Fax: (63 2) 631-9251 Email: Imaphil@mnl.sequel.net Daniel Pelicier Flic en Flac Ernesto Quintero Morcellement Anna Mauritius Research Scientist, Oceanix Biosciences Tel/Fax: (230) 453-8109 7170 Standard Drive Hanover, MD 21076 USA Michael Philley Tel: 410-712-4410 Team Leader Fax: 410-712-4412 Water and Coastal Resources E-mail: EQI@umail.umd.edu US Agency for International Development Ronald Regan Building Washington, DC 20523-3801 USA Tel: (202) 712-1679 Fax: (202) 216-3174 222 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management Raymond A. Rasamoelina Michael Rubino Counselor Project Officer Embassy of Madagascar International Finance Corporation 2374 Massachusetts Avenue, NW 2121 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20008 USA Washington, DC 20433 USA Tel: (202) 265-5525 Tel: (202) 473-2891 Fax: (202) 265-3034 Fax: (202) 974-4349 Email: mrubino@ifc.org Devin Reese AAAS Science, Engineering, Diplomacy Fellow Bernard Salvat USAID Professor USAID/G/ENV E.P.M.E. Perpignan France Universite Ronald Reagan Building, Room 3.08 Perpignan, 66860 France Washington, DC 20523-3800 USA Tel: 33-4-68662055 Tel: 202 712-0546 Fax: 202 216-3174 Francine Salvat E-mail: dereese@usaid.gov Biologist E.P.M.E. Perpignan France Universite Ralf Reichert Perpignan, 66860 France Founding CEO Tel: 33-4-68662055 Hope For Tomorrow Foundation 12000 Bobwhite Drive Richard Schwabacher Catharpin, VA 20143 USA The Cousteau Society Tel: (703) 754-4871 2104 Pickwick Lane Fax: (703) 754-2976 Alexandria, VA 22307 USA Tel: (703) 660-8683 Jamie Resor Fax: (703) 660-6239 World Wildlife Fund 1250 24th Street, NW Kenneth P. Sebens Washington, D.C. 20037 USA University of Maryland Tel: (202)778-9766 Department of Zoology Fax: (202) 861-8324 1200 Zoology-Psychology Building Email: Jamie.Resor@wwfus.org College Park, MD 207412-4415 USA Tel: 301-405-7978 Thomas Rhodes Fax: 301-314-9358 Water Resources Advisor Global Environment Center, USAID Janine Selendy USAID / G / ENV / ENR, Ronald Reagan Building Chairperson and Executive Producer Washington, DC 20523-3800 USA Horizon Communications Tel: (202) 712-5373 Yale University Department of Biology Fax: (202) 216-3174 New Haven, CT 06520-8103 USA Tel: (203) 432-6266, (617) 547-8932 Callum Roberts Fax: (203) 432-6161 University of York Email: jselendy@aol.com York, YO1 SDD UK Tel: (44 19) 04 434 066 Fax: (44 19) 04 432 998 Email: crlO@york.ac.uk Appendix G: Conference Participants 223 Ismail Serageldin Alexander Stone Vice President, ESSD Director World Bank Reefkeeper International 1818 H Street, NW 2809 Bird Avenue Washington, DC 20433 USA Suite 162 Tel: 202-473-5690 Miami, FL 33133 175 USA Fax: 202-473-3112 Tel: 305-358-4600 E-mail: ISerageldin@Worldbank.org Fax: 305-358-3030 E-mail: Reefkeeper@earthlink.net Ivar Serejski Senior Agricultural Extension Specialist Alan Strong World Bank Oceanographer 1818 H Street, NW National Oceanic and Atmospheric Washington, DC 20433 USA Administration/NESDIS/ORAD Tel: (202) 458-1278 NOAA Science Center Fax: (202) 522-1778 Suitland, MD 20233 USA iserejski@worldbank.org Tel: (301) 763-8102 Fax: (301) 763-8108 Brooke Shearer Special Advisor Carolina Suau Dept. of Interior, USG Local Agenda 21 Coordinator 1849 C Street, NW Calvia City Council, Mallorca-Spain Washington, DC USA Government Tel: 202-208-3724 Can Vich 29 Fax: 202-208-1873 Calvia, 07184 Spain Tel: 34-71-139100 David Slade Fax: 34-71-139148 Law Offices of David C. Slade, Esq. E-mail: calvia@bitel.es 1221 Roundtree Lane Bowie, MD 20715 USA Boyce Thorne-Miller Tel: (301) 464-6473 Senior Scientist SeaWeb Jack Sobel 1731 Connecticut Ave., NW Director Washington, DC 20009 USA Ecosystem Protection Tel: 202-483-9570 Center for Marine Conservation E-mail: oceans@igc.apc.org 1725 DeSales Street, NW, Suite 600 Washington, DC 20036 USA Asamnew G. Tzada Tel: (202) 429-5609 Economic Officer Fax: (202) 872-0619 Embassy of Eritrea Email: jsobel@cenmarine.com 1708 New Hampshire Ave, NW Washington, DC 20009 USA Jay Steine Tel: 202-319-1991 Verner Liipfert Fax: 202-319-1304 701 13th Street, NW E-mail: Asamnew@eritreaembassy.org Washington, DC 20005 USA Tel: (202) 371-6176 Fax: (202) 371-6279 224 Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management Mark Valentine Matthew Wright Program Officer Post-Graduate David and Lucile Packard Foundation Cambridge University 300 Second Street 1 Great House Mews Suite 200 Kingston, 6 Jamaica Los Altos, CA 94022 USA Tel: 809-977-2832 Tel: 650-948-7658 E-mail: rwright@colis.com Fax: 650-948-5793 E-mail: m.valentine@packfound.org David Younkman Vice President, Resources, Shiela Vergara Latin America and Caribbean Region Research Associate The Nature Conservancy ICLARM 1815 North Lynn Street Bloomindale Building 205 Salcedo Street Arlington, VA 22209 USA Makati, 1229 Philippines Tel: 703-841-4867 Tel: 63-281-80466 Fax: 703-841-4100 Fax: 632-8163183 E-mail: DYounkman@TNC.org E-mail: S.vergara@cgnet.com Michele Zador John Walch Environmental Specialist The Aquatic Wildlife Company Development Alternatives 15042 N. Moon Valley Dr. 2032 Belmont Road, NW Phoenix, AZ 85022 USA Washington, DC 20009 USA Tel: (602) 548-8697 E-mail: Michele_Zador@dai.com Fax: (602) 862-9061 Email: AquaWildAZ@aol.com Jose Zertuche Universidad Autonoma de Baja California Clive R. Wilkinson Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanologicas Coordinator Km. 103 Carr. Tijuana Ensenada Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network Ensenada, B.C., Mexico C.P. 22800 Mexico Australian Institute of Marine Science Tel: (52 61) 74 46 01 ext. 113 Townsville MC, QLD 4810 Australia Fax: (52 61) 74 49 43 Tel: (61 77) 78 93 72 Email: 74054.1065@compuserve.com Fax: (61.77) 72 58 52 Email: C.Wilkinson@aims.gov.au Laura Zertuche Food Engineer Henry Wolcott SEP President Km. 103 Carr. 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