TOWARDS A MORE UNITED & PROSPEROUS UNION OF COMOROS Systematic Country Diagnostic ABBREVIATIONS & ACRONYMS i CPIA Country Policy and Institutional Assessment
 CSOs Civil Society Organizations DeMPA Debt Management Performance Assessment DPO Development Policy Operation
 ECP Economic Citizenship Program EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone EU European Union
 FDI Foreign Direct Investment
 GDP Gross Domestic Product GNI Gross National Income
 HCI Human Capital Index HDI Human Development Index ICT Information and Communication Technologies
 IDA International Development Association
 IFC International Finance Corporation
 IMF International Monetary Fund
 INRAPE National Institute for Research on Agriculture, Fisheries, and the Environment LICs Low-income Countries MDGs Millennium Development Goals
 MIDA Migration for Development in Africa MSME Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises
 NGOs Non-profit Organizations PEFA Public Expenditure and Financial Accountability
 PPP Public/Private Partnerships
 R&D Research and Development
 SADC Southern African Development Community SDGs Sustainable Development Goals SOEs State-Owned Enterprises SSA Sub-Saharan Africa TFP Total Factor Productivity
 WDI World Development Indicators WTTC World Travel & Tourism Council ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank members of the Comoros Country Team from all Global Practices of the World Bank and the International Finance Corporation, as well as the many stakeholders in Comoros (government authorities, think tanks, academia, and civil society organizations, other development partners), who have contributed to the preparation of this document in a strong collaborative process (see Annex 1). We are grateful for their inputs, knowledge and advice. This report has been prepared by a team led by Carolin Geginat (Program Leader EFI, AFSC2) and Jose Luis Diaz Sanchez (Country Economist, GMTA4). Marco Ranzani (Poverty Economist, GPV01), and Neelam Verjee (Social Development Specialist, GTFSA) were core team members and important background work for this report was conducted by Nadia Belhaj Hassine Belghith (Senior Poverty Economist, GPV01). The team gratefully acknowledges the overall guidance of Mark Lundell (Country Director, AFCS2), Mathew Verghis (Practice Manager, GMTA4), Magnus Lindelow (Practice Manager, GHN01), Rasit Pertev (Resident Representative, AFMKM), Antoissi Said Ali Said (Operations Officer, AFMKM), Thomas Buckley (Country Program Coordinator, AFCMZ), Raymond Bourdeaux (Program Leader SD, AFCS2) and Peter Holland (Program Leader HD, AFCS2). The table below identifies the full list of team members who have provided written inputs to the SCD. The team would like to thank the peer reviewers Alexis Sienaert (Senior Economist, CROCR), Robert Swinkels (Senior Economist, GPV07), Rafael Munoz Moreno (Program Leader, LCC5C) and Johannes Hoogeveen (Lead Economist, GPV06) for their very helpful comments. Finally, we would also like to thank Joana Mota (consultant) for excellent research assistance and Cybil Maradza for designing the final document. iii SECTOR OR THEME SCD TEAM MEMBERS Social Protection Andrea Vermehren Health and Gender Voahirana Hanitriniala Rajoela, Tazeen Hasan Education Peter Holland Poverty Marco Ranzani, Djibril Ndoye Macro Jose Luis Diaz Sanchez, Shireen Mahdi, Natasha Sharma Financial Sector Brinda Devi Dabysing, Nicholas Timothy Smith, Julian Casal Transport Papa Mamadou Fall, Atsushi Iimi Private Sector and Trade Yannick Saleman, Eneida Fernandes, Lorenzo Bertolini, Claire Hollweg Agriculture Ashesh Prasann Fishery Xavier Vincent, Maminiaina Rasamoelina, Julien Million Energy Jan Friedrich Kappen, Ewa Katarzyna Klimowicz Governance Tiago Carneiro Peixoto, Heriniaina Mikaela Andrianasy, Helene Grandvoinnet ICT Tim Kelly, Isabella Maria Linnea Hayward Jobs Andrea Vermehren, Julia Rachel Ravelosoa, Federica Ricaldi, Marco Ranzani, Arvo Kuddo Fragility Neelam Verjee Social Development Jana El-Horr Water Chris Heymans, Nicholas Kudakwashe Tandi DRM Ana Campos Garcia Environment &Natural Resources Maminiaina Solonirina Rasamoelina IFC Kailash Sharma Ramnauth, Ugo Amoretti iv CONTENTS 1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1 2 INTRODUCTION 23 3 MEET COMOROS - SETTING THE SCENE 26 Geography and Society 27 The Political Setting 29 The Structure of the Economy 31 Introduction to the macro-economic context 34 Progress on the Millennium and Sustainable Development Goals 37 4 IDENTITY & INSTITUTIONS IN COMOROS 38 Limited State Reach 41 Sources of Resilience 46 5 POVERTY & SHARED PROSPERITY IN COMOROS 49 Comoros’ Performance on the Twin Goals 50 Poverty 50 Drivers of Poverty Reduction and rising Inequality since 2004 56 6 UNDERSTANDING COMOROS’ LOW GROWTH PERFORMANCE 67 What would it take for Comoros to escape its low-growth equilibrium? 70 The Capital Contribution 71 The Labor and Human Capital Contribution 78 Total Factor Productivity Growth 82 Entry points to raising productivity in agriculture and fisheries 85 Entry points for improving the potential of the tourism industry 86 7 RISKS TO THE SUSTAINABILITY OF GROWTH & POVERTY REDUCTION 88 Economic risks 89 Environmental risks 93 Political and social risks 96 8 PATHWAYS & PRIORITIZATION 100 Annex 1 Description of indicators used for the Prioritization Table 117 Annex 2 Results of consultations for the SCD 119 v Contents Annex 3 Historical Timeline Comoros 123 Annex 4 Progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals in Comoros 124 Annex 5 Decomposition of Urban-Rural Inequality 127 Annex 6 Decomposition of consumption growth 128 Annex 7 Inequality decomposition 129 Annex 8 The Effect of Remittances on Labor Force Participation 131 Annex 9 A profile of the formal private sector in Comoros 137 Annex 10 Statistical capacity summary 138 BIBLIOGRAPHY 143 IMAGE REFERENCES 148 LIST OF FIGURES vi Figure 1: Factor Contribution to Potential GDP growth 3 Figure 2: Total per capita wealth, Comoros and Comparators (panel a) and type (panel b) 8 Figure 3: Summary of how the pathways interact 13 Figure 4: Demographic trends, Comoros and comparators 28 Figure 5: Size of the agricultural sector, Comoros and comparators 32 Figure 6: Labor productivity 35 Figure 7: Inflation, Comoros and comparators 36 Figure 8: Countries classified as fragile by the World Bank group by CPIA rating 39 Figure 9: Remittances, Comoros and comparators 43 Figure 10: Poverty Incidence indicators by regions and between comparators 51 Figure 11: Poverty Indicators for Comoros 52 Figure 12: Portrait of life in Comoros by income and location 52 Figure 13: Progress in inequality and shared prosperity for Comoros 53 Figure 14: Inequality by region and island in Comoros 54 Figure 15: Welfare dimensions and indicators of the method 55 Figure 16: Multidimensional deprivation indicators by region and Island for Comoros 55 Figure 17: Destination of remittances 56 Figure 18: Multi-dimensional poverty indicators for Comoros 57 Figure 19: Accessibility to basic infrastructure 58 Figure 20: Demographic structure Comoros 59 Figure 21: Government expenditures on health and education, Comoros and Comparators 61 Figure 22: Health and well-being indicators 1, Comoros and comparators 62 Figure 23: Learning Gap 63 Figure 24: Health and well-being indicators 2, Comoros and comparators 65 Figure 25: Impact of political stability on growth 68 Figure 26: Demand side drivers of GDP growth 69 Figure 27: Supply side and sectoral drivers of GDP growth for Comoros 70 Figure 28: Investment and Capital Accumulation 72 Figure 29: FDI and private investment, Comoros and Comparators 75 Figure 30: Governance indicators and Business climate 76 Figure 31: Electricity costs, Comoros and comparators 77 Figure 32: Port tariffs in Comoros’ two main ports (Moroni and Mutsamudu) are five times higher than in vi Contents Mauritius and three time higher than in Mombasa 78 Figure 33: Migration trends and human capital for Comoros 79 Figure 34: Labor force and Unemployment by age 80 Figure 35: Human Capital in Comoros 81 Figure 36: Mobile sector Comoros and comparators 84 Figure 37: Transport costs in Comoros 84 Figure 38: Trade Balance, Comoros and comparators 89 Figure 39: Current expenditures covered by tax revenues 91 Figure 40: Wealth Indicators 94 Figure 41: Renewable internal freshwater resources per capita (thousand cubic meters) 94 Figure 42. Comoros is among the countries that are most vulnerable to climate change, but least prepared to deal with it 96 Figure 43: Health expenditures 98 Figure 44: Summary of how the pathways interact 107 Figure 45: Location of firms by region 136 LIST OF TABLES vii Table 1: Key binding constraints and prioritization 22 Table 2: Comoros and comparator countries 25 Table 3: Changes to the Constitution as per the Referendum of July 30, 2018 31 Table 4: Selected macroeconomic indicators 36 Table 5: The Human Capital Index and its components by income groups 62 Table 6: Summary of pathways and binding constraints 107 Table 7: Key binding constraints and prioritizations 116 Table 8: Unconditional Decomposition of Urban-Rural Inequality of Real Monthly Per capita Consumption 127 Table 9: Decomposition of consumption growth 128 Table 10: Inequality decomposition 130 Table 11: Individual Characteristics by Household Remittance Recipient Status 132 Table 12: Effect of Remittances on Labor Force Participation 133 Table 13: Post-diagnostic Mean Differences and Variance Ratios for Nearest Neighbor and Propensity Score Matching Estimators; Individual Level 134 Table 14: Post-diagnostic Mean Differences and Variance Ratios for Nearest Neighbor and Propensity Score Matching Estimators; Household Level 135 Table 15: Island-level Distribution of Agricultural Value Chains 137 Table 16: Detailed Scoring Matrix of the SPI for Comoros 139 LIST OF BOXES vii Box 1: Comoros as a tourism destination 33 Box 2: The Grand Marriage 40 Box 3: Comoros’ Economic Citizenship Program 45 Box 4: What constitutes human capital and how to measure it? 63 Box 5: Areas of reform of tax policy and tax administration 71 Box 6: Comoros’ land regime 74 Box 7: SOE performance – the example of the telecom sector in Comoros 83 Box 8: Risks to financial stability originating from SNPSF 91 vii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1 1. Executive Summary Comoros, sometimes called the “perfumed cope with the absence of the State by relying islands” because of its fragrant beauty, on traditional governance structures and their is an archipelago located on the ancient own financing sponsored by the diaspora. As a trade routes of the Indian Ocean. This result, local observers of Comoros refer to the island nation is home to 800,000 inhabitants, country at times as a “confederation of villages” densely populated over a total territory of no rather than a nation state. more than 1,800 square kilometers, located between the shores of Tanzania, Mozambique Comoros’ economy is undiversified and and Madagascar. Comoros’ cultural heritage among the most food-import dependent in descends from Africa, the Middle East and the world. Commerce (mostly of an informal Europe and 98 percent of the population nature) and public services account for half adhere to a form of Sunni Islam. Its population of the economy. Another thirty percent are is predominantly young due to high (albeit generated by agriculture produced on small slowly declining) fertility rates. Women play family owned farms and destined mainly an important role in society due to matrilineal for home-consumption. Despite this strong traditions but tend to exercise their voice in presence of the agricultural sector in the the background of the Comorian household Comorian economy, the country meets most rather than in the public square. Historically, of its food needs through imports. Close to emigration has always been an important part 40 percent of all imports are food imports. of society, with one third of the population Weak connectivity between the three islands living outside of the country today. Emigres translates into high transport costs. This and have close ties to their home communities lack of other supporting infrastructure (like and send remittances averaging 13 percent warehousing, cold storage etc.) limits the of the annual GDP in the last decade, making ability of higher productivity zones to supply Comoros one of the highest remittance- growing urban markets at prices that can recipient nations in Sub-Saharan Africa. compete with those of imports. Politically, Comoros has experienced Comoros’ development performance since protracted political instability since gaining 1975 has been shaped by three defining independence in 1975. Although conflict in characteristics:¹ First, the country has a the Comoros has generally been low-intensity, challenging economic geography, in that the with clashes rarely resulting in more than five smallness, remoteness, and inaccessibility of deaths, the country has experienced recurring its territory has led Comoros to suffer, like political instability, including 21 successful other small islands, from the challenges of and attempted military coups, and various diseconomies of scale, highly concentrated secession attempts by some of the islands. markets, lack of competition, and high costs of Mercenaries have played a role in the political living due to high transport and trading costs. setting of various governments. Since 1975, Second, political fragility and the weakness of Comoros has had five different constitutions. formal institutions have exacerbated these by All these factors together have made it fragmenting an already small country further, difficult for formal institutions to take root and as the central state, the islands, and local establish their legitimacy. Local communities communities offer competing governance ¹ As a result of these three characteristics, Comoros is compared throughout this SCD to other small-island states of similar income, that share some level of fragility and remittance dependence. See Chapter 2 for a full list of comparator countries. 2 1. Executive Summary structures to the population that often impede Figure 1: Factor Contribution to Potential productive collaboration. Third, remittances GDP growth have contributed to deepening a consumption 4 driven growth trajectory and uneven progress 3 towards shared prosperity by raising many 2 Comorians out of poverty while leaving those behind who cannot rely on diaspora networks. 1 0 These characteristics have resulted in a low growth-moderate poverty paradox. In an -1 environment of stagnating GDP per capita -2 growth and political and institutional fragility, the 1991-1995 1996-2000 2001-2005 2006-2010 2011-2017 country has achieved a reduction in poverty rates TFP contribution Labor contribution that compares well with those of other lower- Capital contribution Potential GDP growth middle income countries. Despite its consistently Source: Staff calculations using Comoros’ revised national accounts weak growth performance, Comoros is today a and WDI lower-middle income country (GNI per capita of 1,280 dollars in 2017, atlas method). As this analysis will show, this paradox is to a large force participation (see Figure 1). The capital degree explained by the significant remittance contribution to growth has been limited flows from Comoros’ growing diaspora. Close to due to a dearth of savings and investment. four out of ten households receive remittances Productivity growth has been nearly absent and those households that do benefit from – even negative in some years. remittances are on average 11 percentage points less likely to be poor than those that cannot rely National savings and investment rates in on transfers from a family member. However, Comoros have been consistently low with as remittance flows are highly localized in one adverse effects on growth. Gross national of the three islands, they have also deepened savings rates in Comoros have averaged 5.9 existing disparities. percent of GDP since the beginning of the century, half the average in Sub-Saharan Africa. Growth Public savings and investment are constrained by low domestic revenue mobilization and a After significant volatility in the first decades budget tilted towards consumption. Revenue after independence, Comoros’ growth collection in Comoros is very low at an performance stabilized at the beginning of the average of 7 percent of GDP for the period 2000s in a persistent low-growth equilibrium. 2000-2017. Weak revenue administration Since then, the average real growth rate of and policy coupled with a low level of formal GDP per capita was 0.3 percent as the low economic activity restrict the revenue base pace of growth of the economy could not and contribute to the weak domestic revenue keep up with high fertility rates. Growth was performance. The large wage bill leaves very predominantly consumption-driven from the little room for spending on items such as demand side, fueled by remittances flowing social services and education or infrastructure in from the diaspora. From the supply side, projects. A high reliance on volatile flows of labor was the main contributor to growth, but external revenues represents a challenge below its potential because of a very low labor for medium term budgetary planning and 3 1. Executive Summary undermines the momentum for structural but they are badly managed, and risk being reforms. In the last 10 years, foreign grants squandered. Comoros is endowed with fertile have oscillated between 27 and 51 percent volcanic soil, good precipitation, beautiful of total revenues. scenery and an economic fishing zone 70 times the size of its land mass. It also used to Comoros has been unable to establish an have extensive forest cover. Its landscapes, environment of trust that would encourage topography and history, could make Comoros private investment. Political instability has a prime location for tourism. But weak public been a significant deterrent for investment in management capacity and the earnings Comoros. In addition, the general investment pressures of communities that rely on climate in terms of supporting infrastructure fisheries and agriculture for their livelihoods and regulations is weak; the rule of law is have led to a gradual depletion of natural often not respected putting in question the assets. Since 1990, Comoros has lost one enforceability of contracts. The financial system percent of its forest cover to agricultural land (except for some micro-finance institutions) is every four years. And as forest disappeared not trusted because of political interference increasing erosion has led to a deterioration and a justice system that is more supportive of of soil fertility. Renewable internal freshwater non-paying creditors than lending institutions. resources are under extreme stress and the Public sector led utilities deliver expensive maritime ecosystem is under threat from services of weak quality and represent a overfishing of a variety of species. burden on public finances, crowding out the space for more efficient capital investments As a very small open economy with limited that could give private sector activity a boost. exports and a large trade deficit, Comoros is vulnerable to external shocks. Comoros The human capital contribution to growth is export capacity is limited and concentrated in constrained by weak health and education just three products: cloves, ylang-ylang and conditions and the economy is struggling to vanilla. Export revenues are less than half the create jobs. Comoros has one of the lowest import expenditure in agriculture. The deficit female labor force participation rates in the in the trade of goods and services averaged 19 region and unemployment among the youth – percent of GDP over 2011-2017 and is offset by and especially first-time job seekers – is high. buoyant remittances (estimated at 12 percent As investment in Comoros wavers, so does of GDP over 2011-2017). Large external grants private sector activity, resulting in an economy (estimated at 8 percent of GDP over 2011-2017), struggling to provide economic opportunities have helped contain the current account deficit and jobs for its population. As a result, emigration (3.2 percent of GDP on average over 2011- has grown three-fold in the last 25 years, with 2017). The Comorian Franc has been pegged a growing share of women leaving the country. to the French Franc since shortly after its And as emigres send remittances to their families independence, and then the Euro since 1999 back home, this discourages at times the labor (currently at KMF 490 per Euro), which has contribution of family members in Comoros. The helped the Central Bank maintain low levels of productivity of those active in the labor market inflation and adequate levels of foreign reserves. is constrained by the education and health Since the introduction of the peg to the Euro, the conditions that exist in Comoros today. Comorian franc has occasionally deviated from its medium-term fundamentals, combining Comoros is not leveraging its resource periods of overvaluation (e.g. 1995-1999) with potential. Natural assets abound in Comoros, periods of undervaluation (e.g. 2002-2005). 4 1. Executive Summary Despite progress in poverty alleviation, large parts of the population remain vulnerable. compared to less than 20 percent among Poverty and Inclusion households with no children. Poverty is high among those working in agriculture and Comoros has achieved poverty rates significantly lower among wage employees, comparable with those of richer countries in especially in the service sector and industry its income group, but regional disparities exist. and trade. Fewer than 10 percent of the poor Six out of ten Comorians can be considered work in the public sector. Primary education non-poor at the international poverty line alone is not enough to increase poor people’s for lower-middle income countries (USD 3.2 opportunities for moving out of poverty. per day) and only two out of ten Comorians There is a considerable poverty gap between live in extreme poverty. Chances to escape households whose head has secondary or poverty in Comoros are high. One fourth of all upper education and households whose poor in Comoros could move out of poverty heads have no or only primary education. if their income was raised by just USD 0.7 per day. However, the average disguises poverty Progress towards shared prosperity has differences across islands and across the rural been modest. While the average per capita and urban divide. Those living in Anjouan and consumption increased by about 30 percent Mohéli are 8 and 6 percent more likely to live between 2004 and 2014, the average in poverty than those living in Grande Comore. consumption of the poor and the bottom 40 The poverty incidence is lowest in Moroni - the percent of the population only grew by about main city of Grande Comore and capital of the 4 percent and 15.5 percent respectively. At Union of Comoros. 44.9, the GINI coefficient for Comoros is slightly higher than for Sub-Saharan Africa (42.3) and Despite clear geographic disparities, the significantly higher than for structural peers main drivers of poverty in Comoros are (32.9). Disparities are most pronounced in family size and the sector of employment rural areas and Anjouan, where income (not and educational attainment of the head time) related underemployment is high.² To of household. Poverty among households halve extreme poverty by 2030, Comorian consistently increases with the number households at the bottom of the distribution of children, reaching 70 percent among will have to post a consumption growth twice households with five or more children, as fast as the average. By contrast, should 5 1. Executive Summary the extent to which the poor benefit from but due to their localized nature they are also economic growth keep the same pace as exacerbating regional imbalances. Most of was observed in the past, extreme poverty in the incoming remittances accrue to Grande Comoros will decline only modestly from 18 Comore (about 84 percent), as the central percent in 2014 to about 15 percent by 2030. historical purpose of remittances is to finance the high expenses related to organizing the Despite progress on measures of monetary Grand Marriage (see Box 1 in Chapter 3 on this and non-monetary poverty, two thirds of the tradition), a tradition that is most common on population remain vulnerable to deprivation. the central island of the Union of the Comoros. Considering the non-monetary aspects of poverty progress has been made with improved Risks to Sustainability of Growth access to schooling and living conditions, but and Poverty Reduction access to basic services remains a challenge. The incidence of deprivation – as measured Comoros faces economic, social and by the proportion of the population deprived environmental risks to the sustainability in at least a third of relevant dimensions of of growth and progress towards shared wellbeing, such as consumption and measures prosperity. A continuous structural imbalance of multi-dimensional poverty - declined from between domestic resource mobilization and 85 to 75 percent between 2004 and 2014. current spending undermines the ability to Poor segments of the Comoros’ population undertake growth-enhancing investments and are experiencing high deprivation in several provide basic services to alleviate poverty. A dimensions of well-being, including first and high vulnerability to climate change – paired foremost in access to electricity and efficient with poor adaptation capacity - results in cooking fuels, followed by sanitation and assets a physical vulnerability of populations and ownership. Mohéli and Anjouan are facing the undermines the main sector of production, highest levels of deprivation, while households agriculture. Social protection in Comoros in Grande Comore seem to be better off. depends nearly exclusively on remittances, a mechanism that has displayed significant Inequalities between islands have contributed resilience in recent decades but benefits only to a sense of imbalance and perceptions of some groups within the population. High rates of inequity that may have played into political youth unemployment (in 2014, one of two young instability in the past. Intergenerational Comorians of working age were unemployed) persistence of poverty and inequality is represent not only an underutilized asset for predominantly driven by individuals’ region growth but means that this demographic can (i.e. island) of birth. Inequalities and disparities also represent a social risk in the presence of between the islands can also be seen in increased illegal activity (in the form of narcotics terms of development indicators and uneven trafficking and smuggling of migrants) and the provision of services—for instance, the rate of growing influence of more hardline clerics access to electricity varies from 65 percent in amidst increasing global connectivity. Grande Comore, to 50 percent in Anjouan, and 20 percent in Mohéli. Remittance flows have Political instability remains a concern for contributed significantly to poverty reduction, both the sustainability of growth as well as ² About one fourth of the workforce suffers from income-related underemployment (as opposed to time-related underemployment which is low in Comoros), with the highest rate of under-employment in Anjouan. 6 1. Executive Summary for national and social cohesion. Pervasive productive and natural asset wealth, political instability has been in part a factor which has been on the decline because of tension and mistrust between the islands. of a weak track record of investment and Despite their common socio-linguistic identity preservation (see Figure 2). Comoros per and the unifying force of Islam, imbalances capita wealth – as measured by the World between the islands have deepened divides. Bank’s 2018 Wealth of Nations report - has They peaked during the 1997 attempts by been on the decline since 1995.⁴ In the same Anjouan and Mohéli to secede from the Union, period, global wealth grew by 66 percent. In and again by Anjouan in 2007.³ A national 2014, the gap in wealth per capita between reconciliation agreement in 2001—the Fomboni Comoros and other lower middle-income Agreement—introduced the “tournante” countries was greatest in human capital, system of a rotating presidency between but it is in productive capital where the gap the islands, which has helped to pave the between Comoros and other lower middle- way for successive peaceful and democratic income countries has been growing the handovers since 2002. A referendum on July most since the beginning of the millennium. 30, 2018, gave the government the green While natural capital has seen a slight light to once again reconstitute the country’s increase due to an expansion of protected political arrangements (see Table 2 in Chapter natural areas, the wealth generation ability 3 for details on constitutional changes of forests and cropland has been on the prompted by the referendum). decline. Net foreign assets have also been on decline as current account deficits have A significant risk to sustainability stems been quite large and persistent in the last from the depletion of Comoros’ human, 20 years. ³ In 1997 the islands of Anjouan and Mohéli both declared independence. Mohéli, which had already unsuccessfully claimed independence in 1991, rejoined the Republic of Comoros in 1998, following mediation by the African Union. Anjouan remained independent until the national reconciliation agreement (Accords de Fomboni) was signed in February 2001. A new secessionist attempts from Anjouan occurred in 2007, when Mohamed Bacar refused to leave office after reaching his constitutional term limit. This prompted the intervention of a military force led by the African Union to remove him from power. ⁴ The Wealth of Nations’ measures use a balance sheet approach to the health of an economy by capturing a country’s wealth across four pillars of wealth generation: produced, human, natural and net foreign assets. Produced capital and urban land measures machinery, buildings, equipment, and residential and nonresidential urban land, measured at market prices. Human capital is measured as the discounted value of earnings over a person’s lifetime. Natural capital includes energy (oil, gas, hard and soft coal) and minerals, agricultural land (cropland and pastureland), forests (timber and some nontimber forest products), and terrestrial protected areas. Natural capital is measured as the discounted sum of the value of the rents generated over the lifetime of the asset. Net foreign assets denote the sum of the cross-border assets and liabilities held by country’s residents. These include, for example, foreign direct investment and reserve assets. Negative net foreign assets suggest that cross-border liabilities exceed cross-border assets. For example, debt outstanding with abroad might be exceeding foreign direct investment coming in significantly. 7 1. Executive Summary Figure 2: Total per capita wealth, Comoros and Comparators (panel a) and type (panel b) a. Total per capita wealth (constant 2014 USD) b. Total per capita wealth - Comoros 30,000 12,000 25,000 10,000 8,000 20,000 6,000 15,000 4,000 10,000 2,000 5,000 0 - -2,000 1995 2000 2005 2010 2014 1995 2000 2005 2010 2014 Lower middle income country Comoros Natural capital per capita Produced capital per capita Net foreign assets per capita Human capital per capita Source: World Bank Wealth of Nations Identity and Institutions The State’s inability to establish an equal and robust presence across its territory 40 years of political conflict motivated by the reinforces reliance on traditional structures. search for a national identity and separatist They are likely to supersede formal institutions movements at the island level have weakened in terms of moral authority and represent an formal institutions in Comoros and decreased entry point by which to address development citizens’ trust in public policy. The main point deficits and perceptions of marginalization. of reference for most Comorians remains their Community organizations fund services village of origin. In the presence of these for their villages and communities through strong localized structures, the formal state remittances from members of the diaspora finds it difficult to establish itself. The weakness who remain connected to their village of of formal institutions, highly restricted state origin. Informal institutions and structures reach and presence, and contested authority, are rooted in traditional local power and contribute to a lack of continuity in policy benefit from greater credibility and legitimacy making, all of which profoundly impact among the population. Strengthening linkages Comoros’ ability to attract investment and between these parallel systems of governance deliver services to its citizens. The inability of while also ensuring that community-based the formal state to deliver quality services in organizations continue to influence their own a manner that is perceived as inclusive and development decisions and interventions is fair, impacts both its legitimacy and its ability a means by which to help to shore up the to mediate conflicts, as is common in fragile legitimacy of the formal state. However, as countries (highlighted in the 2018 joint World the World Development Report 2011 on Bank-UN publication Pathways for Peace Conflict, Security and Development points report). Finally, as remittances have provided out, the process of transforming institutions is a social safety net for those who receive them, slow, and can take a generation if not more. A they may have decreased the State’s incentive recalibration of government policies to deliver to raise domestic revenues and invest them services in partnership with local institutions, into public services. together with measures to support lagging 8 1. Executive Summary regions, could offer an avenue for Comoros have to be overcome to unlock the pathways. to capitalize on its strengths and enhance the Finally, recognizing the significant institutional welfare of its people. challenges that will have to be tackled to credibly address these constraints, the SCD To lift Comoros out of its low-growth makes a proposal on how to confront the equilibrium and achieve sustained poverty foundational challenge of Comoros’ Identity and reduction with greater shared prosperity Institutions. However, significant knowledge this SCD proposes that Comoros embarks on gaps regarding the deeper social dynamics of three pathways - overcoming the investment Comoros remain and will have to be filled in gap, raising human capital and protecting and the coming years to support Comoros address leveraging natural resources. The SCD further some of its deep-seated fragility. identifies the main constraints that would Pathway 1 Overcoming the investment gap Comoros’ investment needs are significant. for investors in Comoros. Low capacity At on average 16.7 percent of GDP, total macro-economic management, including investment has been respectively 4.6 and intransparent and erratic budget decisions, 7 percentage points short of the average and a tendency to spend on wages rather than for Sub-Saharan Africa and structural peer investments have limited the Government’s countries since the beginning of the century. ability to make public investments and Foreign direct investment averaged slightly mobilize domestic revenues. Investment by more than 1 percent in the last decade. A private actors in central sectors like agriculture protracted dearth of investment combined is discouraged by a weak rule of law, a weak with rapid population growth has led to a financial system and an onerous business decline of Comoros productive capital per environment, which raises doubts whether capita, low levels of human capital and a slow returns on investments can be realized. In depletion of its natural capital. According to addition, in an environment where the State the World Bank’s Wealth of Nations report the provides few services, the population is left productive capital per capita of Comoros has with prioritizing consumption spending over halved between 1995 and 2018 and is now half investment, as they shoulder education and that of other lower middle and Sub-Saharan health expenses themselves. African countries. Years of low levels of investment have A lack of trust in the credibility and capacity of undermined Comoros’ growth performance formal institutions is at the core of Comoros’ and have led to rising inequities. Since 2001, low investment dilemma. Investors locally investments’ contribution to growth has been and from abroad (including the diaspora) seek low and at times negative. Weak private sector predictability and reliability when they make development and job creation are a corollary investments as the benefits of those tend to of this weak track record of low investment, accrue only after several years. Like in other resulting in turn in low levels of labor demand countries, political instability and a weak and one of the lowest labor force participation rule of law have been the biggest deterrents rates in Sub-Saharan Africa, another brake 9 1. Executive Summary on growth. Public investments in inter- and Low investment in basic service delivery intra-island connectivity as well as other undermines an already fragile social contract core infrastructure services like electricity between the islands. Infrastructure and basic and water treatment should be prioritized services in health and education provision to raise productivity in core existing sectors have become uneven across the islands and like agriculture, services and commerce risk aggravating an already existing sense of and create the conditions for expanding disconnect between the islands. Inequities fuel the manufacturing and tourism. Weak transport desire of each island to assert its financial interests services currently segment surplus production when in power, perpetuating the politicization of basins from growing urban markets. Lack of resource allocation. Local communities make up public investment has also resulted in thin for the absence of the State and become more service delivery and rising inequities. Lack of and more self-reliant. Schools and streets are built access to basic services such as piped water with diaspora funds leading to not always efficient facilities, electricity, a health center or markets allocation of private resources and a gradual is one of the strongest predictors of poverty in privatization of important social services. But as Comoros. Weak public service delivery has led local coping mechanisms differ within the Union to a privatization of health services. Comoros of the Comoros, not all communities manage to is one of the countries with the highest share cope to the same extent. Inequities have risen of out-of-pocket health expenditures in the especially vis-à-vis and within Anjouan, as the world, where every day an estimated 35 main coping mechanism – remittances – does Comorians fall back into poverty because of not accrue to this island the same way it does to health payments. Grande Comore and Mohéli. Pathway 2 Raising Comoros’ human capital Human capital in Comoros today is falling 31 out of 100 children grow up stunted due short of its potential. Among the different to chronic nutrition inadequacies and a lack types of assets and capital that a country of focus on early childhood development.⁵ possesses – productive, human and natural – Finally, as stunting is most common among human capital is where Comoros lags farthest the poor in Comoros, it aggravates existing behind other lower-middle income countries. inequalities if left unaddressed. Children in Comoros can expect to complete 8.4 years of schooling by age 18, 2 years less Raising Comoros’ human capital is key for than their peers in other lower-middle income accelerating growth and reducing poverty. countries. And when years of schooling are Investing in human capital is an imperative adjusted for quality of learning, this is only for growth and poverty reduction. Given the equivalent to 5.3 years. Girls get significantly human capital conditions that currently exist less education than boys and adolescent in Comoros, a child born today will only be pregnancies are two to three-times as 41 percent as productive as she could be if common as in aspirational peer countries. she had enjoyed complete education and ⁵ Stunting is an important proxy as it reflects on the overall health environment in a country and compromises the long- term potential of individuals to contribute productively to the development of a country. 10 1. Executive Summary health. Investing in human capital requires capital is one of the first things to suffer when the immediate attention of policymakers things fall apart. Protracted conflict and fragility as the growth benefits of human capital can prevent whole generations from realizing investments tend to accrue with a generation’s their potential or lead them to leave the country, lag. Investments made in the youth of today, taking their talents elsewhere. will only create a more productive workforce once they join the labor market. On the other Investments in human capital also have hand, investments in human capital have the potential of ushering in a demographic the advantage of being less costly than growth dividend. At 4.2 births per woman investments in physical capital. And while in 2014, Comoros has only just initiated its these investments are made, additional demographic transition. High fertility rates and investments in physical capital under the first population growth pose a significant burden pathway can have a more immediate impact on households as the number of dependents on growth and pave the way for the next living in poor households in Comoros is generation by creating job opportunities for high.⁷ As one of the most densely populated when they are ready to enter the labor market. countries in the world,⁸ high fertility also increases land pressures which can undermine Human capital supports other sources of growth the sustainability of growth.⁹ Lowering and inclusion. Human capital complements dependency ratios not only alleviates earning physical capital in the production process and pressures in poor households, it can also raise is an important input to technological innovation the potential for savings which supports growth and long-run growth.⁶ Human capital also further.¹⁰ Human capital investments can fosters social capital. Surveys done around the help bring the demographic dividend about: world have found that more educated people raising the quality and quantity of education, are more trusting of others. This type of social especially, for women, has been shown to capital is in turn associated with higher economic decrease fertility rates both by delaying growth. Conversely, failing to protect human first-time pregnancies and by raising the capital undermines social cohesion. Human opportunity costs of child-bearing.¹¹ ⁶ Putnam, Leonardi, and Nanetti (1993); Helliwell and Putnam (1995); Keefer and Knack (1997). ⁷ The bottom 40 percent of households in Comoros have on average 3.5 children more than the top 30 percent and have significantly higher dependency ratios. ⁸ Despite net emigration, Comoros is one of the most densely populated countries in the world 25th, with 328 people on average living on a square kilometer. ⁹ Jayne, Chamberlin, and Headey (2014) ¹⁰ Globally, it has been found that a 1 per cent fall in the dependency rate is associated with a 0.75 percentage point fall in headcount poverty and increase of one percentage point in the share of the working population will boost economic growth by between 1.1 and 2.0 percentage points (Cruz and Amer (2016). ¹¹ Following declines in infant and child mortality, a subsequent decline in fertility will increase the share of the working- age population. With fewer dependents and more people at work, growth per person will be accelerated, even when the output per person of working age remains constant (Bloom and Williamson 1997a) Second, a decline in fertility might lead to an increase in female labor-force participation, further boosting the pro-growth effect. Not only will the share of the working-age population increase, the economically active labor force would increase even more, raising the output per person of working age. Third, with fewer children, families (and the state) will have the opportunity to spend more per child on their welfare and education. As these children come of working age, and enter the workforce, the productivity of the workforce will increase—a result of the increase in health and educational attainment. In this way, the demographic transition is associated with an increase in the productivity of the workforce, which can be described as the ‘skills effect’ of the demographic transition. 11 1. Executive Summary Pathway 3 Protecting and leveraging Comoros’ natural resource base Natural resources are at the center of an over-exploitation of many species. Tourism livelihoods and economic activity in Comoros. remains largely untapped, also because of a Comorians live off their natural resource base. weak environment for attracting investment Approximately 39 percent of Comoros’ GDP is – which the first pathway, if unlocked, could generated in activities for which land, sea and help address. nature are important inputs. At 31.6 percent of total GDP (2011-2017), of which 7.5 percent of Greater productivity of the resource-based GDP account for fisheries, Comoros’ economy economy provides opportunities for poverty is more dominated by agriculture than any reduction. Comoros meets an exorbitant share comparator country or group. An additional of its food needs through imports (39.4 percent 44 percent of GDP is generated by light agro- of all merchandise imports versus 18.7 percent industry, which depends on agricultural output. in Sub-Saharan Africa). This high dependence Finally, while small by comparison but of on imported food makes the country vulnerable great potential, the tourism sector contributes to price shocks, places a burden on Comoros’ another 3.4 percent of GDP to the economy. growth potential by discouraging private 38 percent of employment is generated by investment in the agricultural sector, and burdens agriculture and fisheries and 50 percent of the its foreign exchange reserves. It also exposes poor find their livelihoods in these two sectors. consumers to food insecurity – as recently happened in 2008¹²- and constitutes a missed Growth in natural resource related sectors opportunity for poverty reduction and higher has been stagnant and below potential. economic growth through import substitution. Despite traditionally being the main drivers Food staples have been shown to offer larger of growth in Comoros, the agricultural and growth multipliers and greater poverty to growth fisheries sectors are of very low productivity elasticities than an equal amount of productivity compared to peer countries. Land expansion growth in cash crops (Diao et al. 2012), because and the hours spent by farmers toiling on they are currently being produced by most rural these land plots are already at their potential households and because productivity in these in Comoros. Low productivity is the result of commodities is still very low. soil degradation, increased water scarcity, outdated farming practices, lack of improved Comoros’ natural resource base needs greater outputs and the absence of value chains. At sea, protection as it is increasingly vulnerable and fishermen fish at subsistence level because of exposed to frequent and costly shocks. Due safety issues, a lack of specialized services to its location and topography Comoros is and cold storage. As a result, foreigners are among the most climate vulnerable countries the main users of Comoros’ generous fishing in the world. In addition, population pressures grounds and often illegally which has led to have led to deforestation and an erosion of the ¹² Following a long period during which food staples were abundantly available in global markets and international prices were low and stable, extreme volatility has returned. Since 2008, international prices of rice, wheat, and maize have fluctuated sharply, at times reaching levels not seen in decades. Because Comoros imports a large share of its food consumption needs, the country was particularly exposed to the instability in global food markets. 12 1. Executive Summary quality of agricultural land. Rising sea levels have repeatedly or are not enforced, investors lose raised salinity levels of the ground water. Fishing heart. Therefore, worldwide investment rates grounds are unprotected from illegal fishing and are higher in countries where political stability risk exploitation. One out of two Comorians has and strong institutions prevail.¹³ If Comoros been affected by some natural disaster since manages to unlock the first pathway of closing 2005. Natural disasters adversely affect the the investment gap, unlocking the other two economy on the order of 1-3 percent of GDP pathways will be easier because they will have every year. As losses are most pronounced in more investment funds to support them. Which Anjouan where agriculture dominates, these does not mean that they should not receive losses also tend to aggravate inequities. attention already today. Investments in human capital only pay off a generation later, so starting Figure 3 summarizes visually how the today is important. And, as investment rates go foundations of Identity and Institutions up, Comoros currently very low domestic labor and the pathways interact and positively demand will increase, raising the opportunity affect each other. Strengthening the two costs of not getting more and better education. fundamental factors of Identity and Institutions As the level of human capital in Comoros rises will be key to Comoros’ development going higher skills will support innovation in services forward. They not only are the foundations but also in established sectors like agriculture of social capital and greater political stability, and fisheries. This can help lift the productivity but also have a profound impact on Comoros’ of these sectors, making them in turn more ability to attract investment both from within attractive to investors. Protecting the natural Comoros and the outside. As investments resources that are the foundation of these take time they require predictability to allow sectors should be a priority already today as investors to plan and gauge the risks associated many natural resources take a long time to with their investments. When rules change regenerate once they have been depleted. Figure 3: Summary of how the pathways interact ... a better educated workforce has the Better managed natural resources can PATHWAY 3 skills to improve the management of support health outcomes (e.g. through Protecting Natural natural resources better nutrition and cleaner water) Resources Better managed natural resources PATHWAY 2 create investment opportunities Raising Human Capital ... as the environment for investment Better human capital supports improves, economic opportunities social capital improve and investment in human PATHWAY 1 Closing the capital becomes more attractive Investment Gap ... generate an environment of predictability and trust which is key to investment THE FUNDAMENTALS OF IDENTITY AND INSTITUTIONS ¹³ Bénassy-Quéré et al. (2007) ; Acemoglu et al. (2001); Alesina and Perotti (1996); Besley (1995); Svensson (1998); Barro (1998); Schneider et al. (1985). 13 1. Executive Summary Key Constraints and Prioritization Comoros has one of the least transparent budgets in the world and parliamentary To unlock the three pathways, several key oversight is often bypassed. Involving binding constraints must be removed. From local communities through participatory a long list of required reforms presented in budgeting could support improvements this report, we identify the 12 most critical in the quality of basic service provision and binding constraints to the three pathways that build trust with local communities. As part we consider having both (i) a stronger effect of better macro-economic management on growth potential and (ii) a larger impact more transparency should also be on poverty alleviation and greater social created around the performance of the inclusion. Other criteria such as spillovers, most important State-Owned Enterprises preconditions, and time horizon of reforms (SOEs) in the country. Progress on all these were also considered. These are discussed fronts would help build trust with private in turn below. In addition, Table 1 proposes a investors at home and abroad and could prioritization of these key binding constraints help raise private investment rates. based on a measure of urgency of reform. The methodology for calculating this measure is • Expand domestic revenue mobilization. detailed in Chapter 8. The deeper the red of the A significant transformation of revenue bars, the greater is the urgency for Comoros administration and policies is needed to to tackle the respective binding constraint. lessen the dependence on volatile budget funding from abroad and create more Overcoming the investment gap. To unlock fiscal space for public investment. In the this pathway attention will have to be paid to short run this should be achieved, ideally, four key areas of reform: through a combination of measures that simultaneously promote: i) enforcement In the short run: of tax policies, ii) facilitation of tax compliance, and iii) trust in government • Improve macro-economic management spending. These include: to build trust with investors. Closing the investment gap should start with higher • Enforcement: Improve the land rates of the budget being allocated to register and taxpayers’ registration, public investment. To be able to do this with increase SOEs’ compliance with its existing revenue stream, the Comorian their fiscal obligations, reduce firms’ government must improve its wage bill informality, increase interoperability management, resist pressures to increase between the revenues and customs public sector employment and improve the administrations, and continue the efficiency of existing spending. Improved reduction of customs’ unjustified and macro-economic management also means discretionary exemptions. that the budgetary process must become more realistic and predictable and that • Facilitation: Promote the simplification debt financing be anchored in a medium- of tax and customs rate structures, term fiscal framework. Currently, budget while streamlining procedures to proposals often lack realism. Submitting reduce the transactions associated them to greater public scrutiny could with tax payment. Efforts should also support a more credible budgetary process. be deployed to roll out tax morale 14 1. Executive Summary programs and consider the use of In the medium term: low-end technologies to support tax compliance (e.g. SMS tax reminder, • Improve financial sector intermediation. mobile payments). Comoros’ financial sector is weak and needs to be supported by putting in place • Improve Trust: Adopt policies that the requisite financial sector infrastructure promote visible links between so that it can fulfill its role of channeling government spending and delivery of savings into credit for investments, while public goods and services. These efforts, also supporting access to financial services to be carried out particularly at the local for a greater share of the population. level may include initiatives such as: i) Resolving the liquidity and insolvency local tax contributions earmarked to crisis of the systemically important postal community-driven projects, ii) central bank, SNPSF, will be of fundamental government transfers that incentivize importance in the short-term. Addressing adoption of participatory budgeting the weakness of the financial sector will practices and local tax mobilization, also require tackling the ability of courts and iii) periodical budget meetings to enforce debt payments, which has been or “assemblies” that review tax at the root of rising Non-Performing Loans contributions and local investments. (NPLs) in the system. A more transparent fiscal policy would help gain citizens and investors’ trust • Create an enabling business environment. of property rights. Comoros’ performance To attract investment, investors must trust on international business climate rankings that the private returns on investment can suggests that special attention must also be realized. In the context of a small be paid to the environment for contract domestic market – where returns are enforcement, paying taxes, business entry already constrained by diseconomies of and exit, investor protection and electricity. scale - this can only happen by creating An investment code less prone to adhoc a more business friendly investment tax and customs exemptions would climate and ensuring greater protection support fair competition. International 15 1. Executive Summary trade agreements could be used as • Reduce stunting: The solution lies external anchors supporting the business largely in getting the right nutrients environment reform agenda.¹⁴ Under an to the population in the early years of improved business environment that life, when the foundations for human would favor entrepreneurship and the potential are laid. This involves not performance of existing firms, all sectors only having access to a nutritious diet, would benefit. it also involves educating mothers and families. Community-based platforms Raising Human Capital. Key areas of reform for nutrition education and promotion under this pathway are: are widely recognized as important strategies to deliver key maternal and In the short run: child survival interventions.¹⁵ A full spectrum of promotive, preventive, and • Reduce infant and child mortality. The curative interventions can be delivered largest drivers of infant and child mortality via community platform and have the in Comoros are preventable communicable substantial potential to improve nutrition diseases such as diarrhea and pneumonia, outcomes among difficult to reach despite a high usage of health care services populations.¹⁶ Further, high coverage of by mothers and their children. Therefore, high impact nutrition interventions need addressing this health challenge requires to be stepped up (including provision actions on the supply-side of the quality of improved water services) to support of care. Three policy areas should be this agenda and counter the relatively prioritized. First, more training of staff in high rates of stunting that exist among health facilities is needed so that cases the poorest. In the long run, improved can be diagnosed in an accurate and nutrition will boost labor productivity. timely fashion. Second, facilities need to be equipped with the right materials and In the medium-term: medicines. Third, a robust referral system is currently missing, such that complicated • Improve the quality of education . cases can receive the higher-level care Better educational attainment of new needed. Underpinning all of this is the need cohorts entering the labor force is for better data in the hands of policymakers needed. Policies required to attain such that level of quality is better known, improved education attainment are and support can be optimally targeted in three-fold: i) an increased focus on an evidence-based way. learning, by systematically measuring ¹⁴ During the second semester of 2017, Comoros confirmed its membership in three international organizations, including the Southern Africa Development Community, the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) and the African Import-Export Bank. Besides, the process of accession to the WTO is progressing as Comoros continues with sustained and constructive engagement in this process as they approach the final stages prior to WTO membership. ¹⁵ Haines A, Sanders D, Lehmann U, et al. Achieving child survival goals: potential contribution of community health workers. Lancet 2007; 369: 2121–31 ¹⁶ GHWA. Global experience of community health workers for delivery of health-related millennium development goals: a systematic review, country case studies, and recommendations for integration into national health systems. Geneva: Global Health Workforce Alliance, 2010. 16 1. Executive Summary learning outcomes, and communicating In the short-term: results to schools; ii) paying greater attention to teachers, the most important • Improve water management. Better water factor driving student learning; and iii) management in terms of quantity and transforming schools into spaces worthy quality is needed to ensure that Comoros’ of the children they serve. Comoros is very low per capita water endowment is the regional laggard with respect to the not squandered. This should range from percentage of schools that have gender- revisiting or designing water extraction separate toilets, with only 11 percent of and service delivery policies to specific schools having such basic facilities, as technical initiatives such as encouraging compared to the regional average of over rain harvesting, more generally water 60 percent. conservation and reducing pollution of sources, as well as ensuring more efficient • Close the educational gender gap. The urban water usage, while pricing water country needs to systematically remove more economically. Improving the quality the barriers and push factors that result of water provided will also help address in large populations of out of school the challenges of nutrition deficiencies girls. Policies that will do so exist on the and stunting identified under the second supply side and the demand side. Aside pathway. In many countries, partnering with from infrastructure actions as above, communities and local units of government, other supply-side policies that will help including putting resources under the direct retain girls in school include recruiting control of community groups, has led to more female role models in schools (as the efficient delivery of basic services, and, teachers and directors), making schools when sustained, measurable reductions in safer (through e.g. robust grievance poverty. Considering the binding constraints redress mechanisms, actions that address identified for Comoros, a community driven the power dynamic between teachers approach in water management would: (1) and students, fostering more active fill institutional and capacity voids left by school councils). On the demand-side, incomplete decentralization especially given policy areas around reducing the direct the diversity of management arrangements costs of school (through e.g. scholarships, between the different islands; (2) devolve tuition waiver programs, and vouchers), decision making on services and on issues reducing the indirect costs (through such as watershed protection to farmers e.g. uniforms, school supplies, personal themselves; (3) reduce the operational costs hygiene supplies), and facilitating safe of infrastructure through responsive asset school transport will all help keep girls – management at the local level; (4) provide a and boys – in school longer. local, accessible home for dispute resolution among water users and between them and Protecting and leveraging Comoros’ natural authorities; and (5) reduce transaction costs resource base. Priority reforms under this for compliance with water resources and pathway include: water services regulations.¹⁷ ¹⁷ A community driven approach has been tested in Mutsamudu (the second largest city in the country located on Anjouan island) with the establishment of a watershed management committee. Among other things this improved community and particularly women’s formal participation in water resources and water services planning and management (UN, 2018). 17 1. Executive Summary • Reform agriculture. Yield-enhancing • Develop a sustainable management investments in climate smart technologies approach for fisheries. To limit depletion (CSA), inputs, and sustainable land of the fish stock in Comorian waters, and, and water management practices can especially, depletion of species in the deliver both productivity gains and coastal areas that are of value to the eco- build resilience to environmental risks. system, fisheries management must focus The transfer of off-the-shelf resilient on increasing the economic benefits of and biofortified varieties of the main fishing for local communities. This can be food crops – maize, cassava, bananas achieved by reducing post-harvest losses – from regional centers of excellence and increasing value-addition through (RCoE) could enhance adaptation investment in adequate infrastructure for and food security without requiring artisanal fisheries (e.g. landing sites, cold duplicative financial and human resource storage, ice-machines, etc.). Fisheries co- investments in agricultural R&D. Coupled management, an approach tested in other with the scale-up of practices like low- countries, holds promise for Comoros. till agriculture, agroforestry, sustainable Co-management involves communities soil fertility management, and rainwater in the decision making-process, increases harvesting, strategic investments in ownership and supports the application and CSA dissemination have the potential enforcement of the management measures to transform Comorian agriculture and adopted.²⁰ Samoa is a good example of an place it on a sustainable growth path.¹⁸ island state like Comoros which has adopted Community-level rural development a community-based approach to subsistence centers can help accelerate behavior fishery management. 44 percent of Samoa’s change and adoption of CSA technologies approximately 230 coastal villages have and practices.¹⁹ village fishery management plans today.²¹ ¹⁸ Other CSA technologies adaptable to Comoros include small-scale irrigation, terraces, contour bunds, grass bunds, rehabilitation of degraded micro-watersheds, woodlots. ¹⁹ One example of a community level rural development center are farmer field schools championed by the FAO. A Farmer Field School (FFS) brings together a group of farmers, livestock herders or fisherfolk, to learn on how to shift towards more sustainable production practices, by better understanding complex agro-ecosystems and by enhancing ecosystem services. A FFS group meets regularly during a production cycle, setting up experimentation and engaging in hands-on learning to improve skills and knowledge that will help adapt practices to their specific context. The FFS empowers individuals and groups to move towards more sustainable practices and improve livelihoods. ²⁰ Fisheries co-management is flexible and cooperative management of the aquatic resources is performed by the user groups and the government. In this arrangement, both the community and the government are involved during the decision making, implementation and enforcement processes (Sen and Nielsen, 1996). ²¹ Co-management activities in Comoros have already started under the World Bank’s Coastal Resources Co-management for sustainable livelihood project, where 17 co-management agreements were signed with communities on Grande Comore, Mohéli and Anjouan, with the objective to improve human and institutional capacity development, design and implement fisheries management plans. 18 1. Executive Summary Better water management is needed to ensure that Comoros’ very low per capita water endowment is not squandered. In the medium-term: In the medium term, the interdependence between forested areas, agricultural land • Strengthen disaster risk management. and coastal zones in Comoros will require an Building resilience to climatic shocks integrated approach for policy-making with requires taking a comprehensive close collaboration between the different disaster risk-management approach that sectors (water, agriculture, fisheries, forest, encompasses detailed risk assessments, energy, etc.). strengthening the legal framework and institutional capacity and the development In the long term: of a national disaster risk management plan prioritizing critical areas. Enhanced • Reform land tenure. The current overlap disaster risk knowledge will allow of three land regimes prevents land from Comoros to improve land use planning, being sold and rented out and limits as well as relocation and protection farmers ability to collateralize their land to programs for the population living in risk obtain access to financing. The absence of prone areas. To build resilience at the a land registry coupled with an inefficient community level, combining on-going and corrupt court system leave many efforts on social protection and adaptive land conflicts at stalemate undermining safety nets with investments in effective the ability of owners to invest. Reforming early warning systems and community land tenure tends to be a lengthy and disaster preparedness would contribute politically charged process but could to save lives and reduce the impact of be catalytic for land productivity by disasters shocks on the poor. eventually allowing for the concentration 19 1. Executive Summary of land and incentivizing investment in the particularly those who currently seek a adoption of modern inputs and farming greater voice in society, such as academics, techniques and water management. A local NGOs, trade unions, associations, clear land tenure system would also private sector representatives, women, support the environment for investment and youth groups, will be essential and will and private sector development more help to open channels of communication generally.²² Last, the lack of land tenure for non-traditional voices. An important security binds poor families to the land aspect of this is to elevate the voices of they cultivate and limits their abilities women, who hold informal power within to complement their on-farm with off- communities and are increasingly involved farm earnings because they must fear in the public sphere through women’s dispossession if they distance themselves associations and organizations, but find from their land. Because of its very long- their roles circumscribed by religious and term nature – both in terms of winning social norms. support for it and its implementation - this reform area is not included in the • Strengthen the capacity of key formal list of priorities in Table 1 above, but institutions. To build up trust in the central because of its significant catalytic effect state and its formal institutions, steps for development it is mentioned here. towards instituting greater transparency, oversight, and accountability mechanisms To strengthen the foundational factors of need to be taken. Examples include Identity and Institutions the following two increasing transparency of and consultation main constraints must be tackled: on the budget with Parliament, publication of the financial accounts of the most • Support citizen and community important state-owned enterprises, and participation. Reform efforts will have to be greater transparency regarding public supported by a proactive engagement with procurement contracts (an issue that was the inclusion of local communities across widely raised in private sector consultations traditional divides. A natural entry point is to – see Annex 2). These efforts also need leverage the existence of community-based to be paired with measures to reinforce organizations and village associations that citizen engagement and provide citizens take decisions related to development with opportunities to comment on law interventions, and collectively decide on proposals etc. Only when citizens feel that how to spend the funds remitted from the their voice is being heard will they trust the diaspora. These associations have deep central state. Ultimately, instituting these knowledge of local context and have the type of feedback mechanisms will facilitate authority and credibility by which to take the improvement of quality and delivery and carry out decisions. Opening the spaces of services by the central state. Last, the in which people can engage in dialogue knowledge base for evidence-based and express their thoughts and ideas- decision making needs to be improved by ²² Greater land tenure security can be achieved if land administration services are strengthened to undertake participatory titling in production basins. This process would consist of consensual demarcation, multi-stakeholder land recognition committees that facilitate a small-scale cadaster census, and land use planning. 20 1. Executive Summary addressing the weaknesses of the statistics • Service Delivery Indicators. To assess system. A general absence of information what it would take to improve the health to inform the design, implementation, and education outcomes, a proper monitoring, and evaluation of policies measurement of the quality of services of and to produce evidence-based service health and education services is needed. delivery generates inefficiencies and incoherence (see Annex 10 for an inventory • Agricultural census. The first and last of current data gaps). agricultural census in Comoros was conducted in 2004. Consequently, it is Knowledge and Analytical Gaps difficult to plan, monitor and evaluate investment projects at present. • Interaction between traditional and local governance networks. An improved • Country Environmental Assessment. understanding of inter and intra-community Lack of data related to the environmental dynamics, their reach and legitimacy, sector is significant and where data is dynamics related to inclusion and exclusion available it is either outdated or suffers is needed to develop an understanding of from inconsistencies. To inform policy- how to move from the existing situation making, the country’s natural capital of reliance on informal institutions to a values (especially water, fisheries and decentralized structure that also helps coastal resources, forestry and protected to reinforce the authority, legitimacy, and areas) need to be thoroughly assessed reach of the central government. so that the continuous loss in forests, soil fertility, water, biodiversity, fisheries • Drivers of labor productivity by sectors. are no longer economically invisible but Analytical work on the differences across are fully considered to inform policy sector productivity is lacking. Such a development. study would benefit from improved data collection on employment and firm • Land reform. A better understanding of the performance by subsectors. constraints for land reform and its effect on the economy would allow policy makers • Role of political connections in market take more informed decisions to unlock distortions. A better understanding of the potential of this important production the relationship between Comorian factor and to increase its productivity. businesses and the government and how this affects resource misallocation • Urban development. There is currently is needed (typically through privileges in a lack of analytical work focusing on terms of commercial protection, rules and the challenges stemming from slowly regulations, and access to finance). increasing urbanization. 21 22 Table 1: Key binding constraints and prioritization Pathway Key Key Fragile Performance of Comoros compared to worst-performing fragile country & best-performing aspirational peer binding Performance constraints Indicator 1. Executive Summary 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Aspirational Overcoming the Strenghten macro- Wage bill as % of current expenditure Togo (72%) Comoros Fiji (32%) investment gap economic management (WDI, 2011-2017) (51% Ranking in the Open Budget Survey Yemen (0) Comoros Fiji (41) (0-100) (8) Increase domestic Tax and Customs revenue as % of GDP Micronesia Comoros Fiji (24%) revenue mobilization (WDI, 2011-2017) (6,6%) (7.1%) Support financial sector Domestic Credit to Private Sector (% Congo, DR Comoros Fiji (81,5%) intermediation GDP) (WDI, average 2011-2017) (5,6%) (13,9%) Create a supportive Base of Doing Business Score (Doing Somalia (20,4) Comoros Fiji (63,8) business environment Business, 2019) (48,7) Raising Human Capital Reduce infant and child Probability of survival to age 5 Chad (0,88) Comoros Tonga (0,98) mortality (HCI, 2018) (0,93) Reduce stunting Fraction of kids under 5 not stunted Burundi (0,44) Comoros (0,69) Tonga (0,92) Improve quality of Learning adjusted years of school (HCI) South Sudan (2,3) Comoros (5,3) Tonga (6,5) education Close the educational School enrollment, female secondary Mali (27,7) Comoros Samoa (83,3) gender gap (WDI, 2011-2017) (45,8) Protecting and Improve water Renewal internal fresh water resources, Djibouti (0,3) Comoros Fiji (28,6) leveraging natural management total (billion cubi meters) (1,2) resources Reform agriculture Average yield of cereals, fruits Burundi (38,582) Comoros Tonga (88,152) and vegetables (hg/ha) (44,497) (FAOSTAT, 2011-2017) Protect fishing grounds Fisheries current score 0-100 (Yale Guinea-Bissau Comoros Tonga (76,86) Environmental Performance Index) (36,45) (57,81) Manage disasters better Readiness indicator of the ND-GAIN Central Africa Comoros Cabo Verde (0,48) Matrix (2014) Republic (0,17) (0,32) Identity and institutions Strengthen capacity of Government Effectiveness Percentile Somalia (0) Comoros Samoa (70,7) formal institutions Rank (WGI, average 2011-2017) (2,8) Support citizen Voice Accountability Percentile Rank Eritrea (1) Comoros Cabo Verde (76,1) participation (WGI, average 2000-2017) (36,5) INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION 23 2. Introduction 1. This Systematic Country Diagnostic social dynamics that drive growth and poverty (SCD) – the first for the country - takes outcomes in Comoros. stock of Comoros’ development progress since the early 2000s and reflects on the 3. To move from analysis to a prioritization of constraints and opportunities that the policy actions, the SCD applies a three-step country encounters on that path. The report process: In a first step, the SCD identifies three provides elements to answer three main main pathways that are currently blocked, yet, questions: (1) What are the main constraints hold the biggest promise for stronger growth, hampering output and productivity growth? more equitable poverty reduction, and for (2) What are the critical factors that determine strengthening social cohesion and reinforcing poverty reduction and inclusion? and (3) How state-society linkages, an important aspect of sustainable are the current trends in growth Comoros development story. In a second step, and inclusion? As the SCD investigates these the SCD identifies reform areas that could questions it identifies three main pathways unlock the three pathways. Finally, these which if followed could accelerate progress policy actions are prioritized by a few criteria towards the World Bank’s twin goals of that are spelled out in Chapter 8. poverty reduction and shared prosperity. 4. The report also identifies two important 2. To identify policy areas in which the country development filters that need to be applied faces the greatest challenges in advancing when analyzing the way forward: Identity and toward the World Bank’s twin goals of Institutions. These filters are motivated by the poverty reduction and shared prosperity, significant social, political, and governance this SCD relies on a few analytical tools. A challenges that Comoros faces. At a social benchmarking exercise involving close to level, Comoros struggles to maintain a 1,000 indicators was undertaken to compare sense of national identity and cohesion, with the performance of Comoros with other small- adverse consequences for growth and equity. island states that share the core characteristics Evidence from other small island states and of income, fragility and remittances (see Table fragile contexts suggests that countries that 2). Where Comoros’ performance diverged have enjoyed development progress share significantly from its peers, a deeper analysis the common features of strong and inclusive of the relevant issues was undertaken. This governance structures that can help foster a sectoral analysis was imbedded in the context sense of social cohesion. This allows these of a growth decomposition and a detailed countries to build more robust and resilient analysis of poverty and shared prosperity formal state institutions that can ensure dynamics. New analysis of the labor market long-term policy making and continuity, and the role of remittances for poverty and enables them to overcome some of the reduction was undertaken for this SCD as both diseconomies of scale associated with their these topics emerged as important knowledge small size, as highlighted in both Pathways gaps during the conceptualization of the for Peace and the World Development document. A Risk and Resilience Assessment Report 2011 on Conflict, Security and complements the quantitative analysis and Development.²³ Considering their example, provides important context regarding the Comoros’ development path will hinge on ²³ Pathways for Peace (2018); World Development Report (2011) 24 2. Introduction its ability to strengthen its sense of national common interest of growth and shared identity –effectively uniting and ensuring prosperity. Chapter 4 discusses the relevance inclusion and representation of its multiple of these two filters, Chapter 8 proposes how overlapping power centers to support the they could be supported. Table 2: Comoros and comparator countries Country Population Small CPIA* Island GNI per Poverty Gap Real GDP Personal Type of (millions) States < 3.2 State capita, at growth remittances comparator (i.e. fragile) Atlas USD 3.2 (annual) received (% method (most recent (average of Nominal (current value) 2011-2017) GDP) US$) (2017) (2017) Cabo Verde 0.546 x x 2,990 8 2.2 12.9 Aspirational peer Tonga 0.108 x x 4,010 1.9 1.8 25.9 Aspirational peer Fiji 0.906 x x 4,970 2.9 3.2 3.7 Aspirational peer Samoa 0.196 x x 4,100 1.7 2.4 17.6 Aspirational peer Comoros 0.814 x x x 1,280 15.4 2.9 13 Sao Tome and 0.204 x x x 1,770 26.8 4.4 5.8 Structural peer Principe Solomon 0.611 x x x 1,920 21.4 4.6 1.2 Structural peer Islands Timor-Leste 1.296 x x 1,790 26.2 -0.9 4.2 Structural peer *Country Policy and Institutional Assessment (World Bank) 5. The rest of this document is organized as 7 discusses the economic, political, social and follows: Chapter 3 introduces Comoros to the environmental risks to the sustainability of growth reader. Chapter 4 discusses the social capital and poverty reduction. Finally, Chapter 8 presents of Comoros, its role for fragility and resilience. a way forward and a prioritization of policy actions Chapter 5 presents an overview of recent poverty that have the potential of supporting Comoros on and shared prosperity trends. Chapter 6 describes its development path towards stronger growth the growth performance of Comoros. Chapter and greater shared prosperity. 25 MEET COMOROS - SETTING THE SCENE 26 3. Meet Comoros - Setting The Scene Geography and Society and others. The official languages spoken today are Arabic, French, and Shikomori 6. Comoros is a volcanic archipelago off the (derived from the Bantu language family). 98 coast of East Africa that historically constituted percent of the population adheres to a form of an important trading post for Arab, European, Sunni Islam deriving from the Shafi’i tradition. Persian, and African merchants and traders As per a newly passed referendum, the new from the 15th century onwards. It stretches constitution makes it explicit that Sunni Islam, across four islands—Grande Comore, Mohéli, rather than Islam, is the state religion. Anjouan, and Mayotte, the latter of which remains under French administration. About 8. Comoros has yet to reap a demographic half of the population lives on the largest dividend. The population of around 800,000 island, Grande Comore, which is also home to is young (with 54 percent under the age of the union capital Moroni. The volcanic islands 20) and largely rural (at two-thirds of the have been called the “perfumed islands” for population). At around 4.3 children per woman, their fragrant plant life and are known for their Comoros falls in the group of countries where scenic beauty. At the heart of a triangle between the fertility transition²⁴ has been initiated Tanzania, Mozambique and Madagascar, but fertility rates remain so high that they Comoros is considered the second triangle of adversely affect growth and poverty (see reef biodiversity in the world, after Indonesia. Figure 4). Over the last 15 years, population Comoros has about 1,800 square kilometers growth averaged 2.4 percent per year, below of land; off-shore it controls an Exclusive the average for SSA and other low-income Economic Zone (EEZ) of 160,000 km^2 or 70 countries, but well above that of structural and times the size of the country’s land area. aspirational peers. Demographic projections indicate that the total population of Comoros 7. Comoros population make-up has been will increase by 50 percent and that the size shaped by a history of multiple migrations. of the labor force will double over the next 15 The country’s complex ethnic make-up is the years, posing a major challenge in terms of result of multiple waves of migration—from employment creation, poverty reduction and Indonesia, East Africa, Melanesia, Polynesia, coping with the additional pressures placed the Arabian Gulf, Persia, Europe, Madagascar, on limited land and natural resources.²⁵ ²⁴ Based on their status in the fertility transition, Guengant (2017) identifies five groups of countries in Sub-Saharan Africa: Fertility transition complete (or close to completion). In these countries the TFR is less than three per woman in 2010- 15. These countries include: Mauritius, the Seychelles, Cape Verde, South Africa and Botswana. Fertility transitions underway: In these countries the TFR is in the 3-4 range. These countries include Lesotho, Djibouti, Swaziland and Namibia (representing 0.7 per cent of the SSA population). Fertility transitions initiated: Here the TFR is in the 4-5 range. This group consists of 20 countries, including Comoros. Slow and irregular transitions: In these countries, the TFR is in the 5-6 range. These 12 countries are: Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea, South Sudan, Senegal, Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia, Burkina Faso, Nigeria, Gambia and Uganda. Very slow and/or incipient fertility transitions: The seven countries in this group—Burundi, The Democratic Republic of the Congo, Angola, Chad, Mali, Somalia and Niger - have TFRs at over 6 per woman. ²⁵ Despite net emigration, Comoros is one of the most densely populated countries in the world (25th), with 328 people on average living on a square kilometer. 27 3. Meet Comoros - Setting The Scene Figure 4: Demographic trends, Comoros and comparators Fertility rate, total (births per woman) 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Lower middle income Comoros Small states Cabo Verde Source: WDI 9. The role of women in Comoros’ society rights, which tend to go to their husbands, is complex. While Comorian society is maternal uncles, or brothers. matrilineal, giving women an important role in society in terms of asset ownership,²⁶ gender 10. Young Comorians have limited educational inequalities in Comoros are entrenched. The options, scarce opportunities in the formal primary school completion rate for women sector, little social mobility, and few avenues is lower than that for men (70 percent vs. for political voice and expression. High rates of 90 percent) and literacy rates are higher for unemployment have contributed to frustration women (at 77.3 percent vs. 69.7 percent for among the youth and helped to drive outward men). Women’s participation in the labor force migration. In 2014, one in two young Comorians of is half that of men. Despite gender equality working age was unemployed. Only 3 percent of being enshrined in the Constitution, women youth have found fixed employment in the formal are under-represented in the civil service, sector, in a context of a severely constrained where a gender-biased patronage system private sector, while 80 percent have secured a works against them.²⁷ Although, women source of livelihood in the informal sector. The key generally inherit land and houses according source of formal employment in the country—the to custom, they do not always have usufruct civil service—is saturated. ²⁶ Although, even if according to custom and granted by favorable laws, women have access to property, they do not always have the use rights of these assets. According to article 82 of the Family Code Comorian custom dictates that, each girl is entitled, at the time of her marriage, to receive a house from her parents. In principle, these assets available to women can be used as collateral and, therefore, could promote their access to credit and finance. However, in practice, assets tend to go to their husbands, maternal uncles or their brothers. A poor land registration system and matrilineal system which affirms the indivisibility and inalienability of the land, limits in practice women’s ability to use their own land to access bank loans. ²⁷ Despite having ratified the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women, Comoros continues to suffer from underrepresentation of women in all spheres of socio-economic activities, including national (3 percent) and local politics, in administration, and in the legal and judiciary profession judiciary. 28 3. Meet Comoros - Setting The Scene The Political Setting numerous constitutional amendments. These have alternated between greater centralization 11. Since gaining independence in 1975, the and greater autonomy for the islands. Before country has experienced tension between the referendum of July 30, 2018, the constitution the challenge of building a strong and in place had dated from 2001 and came about cohesive nation state, and the regional push as a result of a reconciliation agreement – the for autonomy at the island level. This has Fomboni Agreement – following the separatist acted as a recurrent source of instability in the crisis of 1997-1998, when the islands of Anjouan Comoros and the absence of a strong sense of and Mohéli declared their independence from nationhood and national unity has exacerbated Comoros. To meet the aspirations of Anjouan, the salience of this tension as a factor of and to a lesser extent Mohéli, a high degree the country’s history of persistent political of island autonomy was introduced by means upheaval. Comoros declared independence of a system called “tournante”, which rotates from France in 1975, having put the decision the presidency among the four islands in to a referendum. In Mayotte, however, 64 turn—Grande Comore, Anjouan, Mohéli, and percent opted to remain with France, which Mayotte.²⁹ paved the way for the colonial power to retain control of the island as a French territory. 13. Since the introduction of the “tournante” Since independence, the country has seen system under the 2001 constitution, Comoros 21 successful and attempted military coups, has experienced three relatively smooth two of which resulted in the assassination of transitions of presidential power. It is widely the-then president. Mercenaries have played accepted that the “tournante” has been a role in the political trajectory; aiding coup essential to holding the country together. attempts and deposing presidents.²⁸ The However, there are views among the Comorian country also experienced multiple inter-island political elite, especially on Grande Comore, confrontations and separatist threats from that the “tournante” creates undesirable the islands of Anjouan and Mohéli. That said, discontinuities in policies and practice and it conflict in Comoros has generally been low- is “undemocratic” in the sense that it departs intensity, with clashes rarely resulting in more from the principle of each vote having equal than five deaths. weight. Over a fifteen-year cycle, Mohéli, with the smallest share of the total population, will 12. Efforts to address persistent tensions have the same chance to elect a President amongst the islands with respect to power as Grand Comore, with a population almost sharing and government revenues have led ten times larger. On the other hand, there is a to multiple revisions of the constitution and sense that if elections were open to all based constitutional arrangements. Since 1975, the on ordinary universal suffrage, it is unlikely that country has enacted five constitutions and there would ever be a President from Anjouan ²⁸ These mercenaries were in close contact with France, and especially its secret services. Involved in several coups d’état in Africa, Bob Denard, nicknamed “the White Sultan of Comoros,” played a key role in the archipelago’s political instability. He had a continuous presence in the country under President Abdallah (1978–1989), when he created and managed the Garde Présidentielle. ²⁹ Mayotte has been a French overseas department since 2011 following a referendum in 2009. Thus, Mayotte does not partake in the “tournante”, given that it remains under French jurisdiction. Relations between Comoros and France remain fragile, as Comoros continues to claim Mayotte as part of its territory. 29 3. Meet Comoros - Setting The Scene and virtually impossible that there would ever the budget,³² and the ability of the executive be a President from Mohéli. branch to overrule ratified legislation. 14. Incomplete efforts to implement the 15. The country currently stands at a decentralization of power envisioned under political crossroads. A referendum on the 2001 constitution have hampered the July 30, 2018, gave the government the emergence of a unified nation state by green light to once again reconstitute the sharpening the disconnect between the country’s political arrangements (see Table central state and the islands. Many laws 3). It follows a national dialogue conference required to implement the constitution— (Assises Nationales) in February 2018 that specifically regarding budget expenditures recommended changes to the Constitution.³³ and devolving functions—have yet to be The proposed changes allow an incumbent enacted. The formula for sharing state president to re-stand for office and hold two revenues with the islands has not been fully consecutive five-year terms. The changes respected,³⁰ and financial transfers from the also abolish the Constitutional Court and center are often negotiated on an ad hoc transfer its responsibilities to the Supreme basis. This can reinforce a sense of mistrust Court, whose members are appointed by and play into perceptions of neglect and the President. Thus, while the limits of the marginalization of the islands.³¹ Further, the tournante system are clear with regards to legislature and judiciary are struggling to long-term policy continuity, these changes provide the requisite checks and balances will also have the effect of frustrating the over the executive branch of government, ambitions of the political elite of Anjouan, the with a divided parliament, scarce oversight of island next in line to take on the presidency.³⁴ ³⁰ It was only respected under international oversight, during the transition period after the 2001 Constitution came into force. ³¹ Geographical barriers and limited opportunities for the population to interact beyond their physical territory have been additional factors perpetuating a localized sense of identity across the islands. The education system does not effectively consolidate common values and shared reference points among all Comorians; the youth have few occasions on which to engage with their peers from other islands, while elites pursue higher education and training opportunities outside of the Comoros. ³² The 2018 budget has not been formally voted on and no loi de rectification budgétaire was adopted this year. Comoros scores 8 out of 100 points on the Open Budget Index. ³³ The conference was organized to draw lessons from a comprehensive diagnosis of the country after more than 40 years of independence and to elaborate new arrangements for the future. Some political leaders and intellectuals refused to participate in the Conference, claiming instrumentalization by the organizers of the Assises Nationales in favor of President Assoumani and his supporters. The process was also contested by the governor of Anjouan. A few debates were also organized within Anjouan and Mohéli, in an attempt to qualify the process as “the Assises of Grande Comore.” ³⁴ President Assoumani has argued that the former system hindered long-term planning; however, the opposition has countered that the move will broaden the powers of the executive and the president, as the amendment to the constitution will eliminate the post of vice-presidents and substantially dilute the powers of governors on the three islands. 30 3. Meet Comoros - Setting The Scene Table 3: Changes to the Constitution as per the Referendum of July 30, 2018 2001 CONSTITUTION35 2018 CONSTITUTION Preamble: Islam is the official religion of the state. Preamble: Sunni Islam is the official religion of the State. Article 97: Sunni Islam of the Shafi’i tradition governs worship and social life. Article 7: Each island is autonomous. The Union of Article 1: The Union of the Comoros is a Unitary State and the Comoros is a Federal State and the Union and the the competences for the islands have been diminished. islands each have their respective competences. Article 13: The Presidency rotates among the islands Article 52: The Presidency continues to rotate among through the tournante system and each president the islands through the tournante system. Each island would have to wait ten years for the cycle to return to is now permitted to renew their mandate and hold the their island to be eligible for a second term. Presidency for two consecutive terms provided that the incumbent wins the subsequent elections. Article 14: Each island has its own elected Vice- Article 58: The posts of elected Vice-President has President. The VP of the island currently holding the been eliminated and the Minister Premier will be the Presidency will be the acting president. acting president. Article 36-40: The Constitutional Court is the highest Article 96: The Supreme Court is the highest court court in the land on constitutional matters and Judges in the land - including on constitutional matters. A are appointed by different political authorities (Union Chamber of the Constitutional Court has been created President, President of Parliament, and Island Governors). within the Supreme Court. The Judges of the Chamber are nominated by Presidential Decree. Next Presidential election scheduled for 2021 Next Presidential election scheduled for 2019 The Structure of the Economy 17. Agriculture is Comoros’ largest employer and second-largest sector (after services). 16.Comoros’ economy is undiversified and It also accounts for most land-use. Between among the most food import-dependent in 2011 and 2017, the sector’s share of the the world. The economy remains structured GDP averaged 31.6 percent, high above the on a narrow export base built around the average of structural peers (15.7 percent) production of vanilla, ylang ylang (ylang- and the average of Sub Saharan Africa (23.7 ylang’s aromatic oil is used in the perfume percent) (see Figure 5). The bulk of agricultural industry), and cloves. The economy is production comes from small family-owned and characterized by informality, and faces operated farms that produce a range of food significant challenges related to competition crops destined mainly for home consumption, and diversification (see Annex 9 for a including maize, cassava, bananas, taro, sweet distribution of economic activity by islands). potato, and coconut. Commercial agriculture ³⁵ As of further amendments from 2009 and 2013. 31 3. Meet Comoros - Setting The Scene is underdeveloped and revolves around the ylang. Like in comparator countries, the livestock production of three high-value crops destined sub-sector in Comoros is extremely small with for export, namely, vanilla, cloves, and ylang- less than one poultry bird per capita.³⁶ Figure 5: Size of the agricultural sector, Comoros and comparators Agriculture, value added (% of GDP) (2011-2017) 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Comoros Comoros Fragile Tonga Timor- Structural Aspirational São Fiji Small Cabo Samoa (2001- STates Leste Peers Peers Tomé & Island Verde 2010) Principe States SSA Average 80th Percentile Lower middle income 20th Percentile Lower middle income Source: Staff calculations using WDI 18. Fisheries accounts for 24 percent of the there are many underexploited resources in agricultural GDP (or 7.5 of total GDP) and the country, including lobsters, cephalopods employs directly and indirectly an estimated (octopus), sea cucumber and bivalve mollusks. 8,500 people or 4.2 percent of the labor force, thus providing an important source 19. Fishing rights granted to foreign vessels of livelihood for poor families.³⁸ Comoros’ have historically generated significant Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of 160,000 government revenues, but governance km^2 straddles the important tuna fishing failures have brought this revenue stream to a grounds at the mouth of the Mozambique halt. Tuna is fished predominantly by countries Channel. Many workers are women involved from outside the region and no landing takes in gleaning, processing and marketing. place in Comoros. Hence, the benefits to However, fisheries in Comoros are almost the Comorian economy consist largely of entirely artisanal. The domestic fleet, due to payments to the Government for access of their small size and limited equipment, lacks foreign vessels to national waters. In the past, the capability to harvest offshore resources. fees paid to the Government for access of Although most of the coastal waters are foreign fishing vessels to the Comorian waters heavily exploited, particularly for high value amounted to approximately US$1.3 million demersal species (e.g. snapper, grouper, etc.), per year or 0.7 percent of total government ³⁶ 0.67 in Comoros, 0.72 in Timor-Leste, and 1.15 in Sao Tome & Principe (only Solomon Islands is lower, at 0.4). ³⁷ Fishers households – both full-time fishers and subsistence fishers who alternate between agricultural work and fishing – make up a significant proportion of the households below the poverty level (i.e. 40 percent of inhabitants in Grande Comore and 70 percent in Anjouan). 32 3. Meet Comoros - Setting The Scene revenues in 2017, half of which comes from a about a sixth of the whole sector value added. Sustainable Fisheries Partnership Agreement Although the construction sector’s share in the of the European Union for tuna and tuna-like Comoros’ economic activity has represented species. However, in 2017 this revenue stream only around 2 percent in the last decade. ended when Comoros was sanctioned by the EU for non-compliance with fighting illegal, 21. The tertiary sector is led by commerce and unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing. public-sector services. Services contribute the most to economic activity in Comoros. It 20. The secondary sector in Comoros is represented 56.3 percent of GDP on average small and dominated by agroindustry and over 2011-2017 with commerce and public- construction activities. At 12.2 percent of GDP sector services accounting for around half of over 2011-2017, the secondary sector’s share value added. Commerce is dominated by simple in the economy remains below structural retail commerce, most often informal. Other peers (17.0 percent) and well below the SSA important subsectors include transport, financial average (23.7 percent). Light agroindustry is activities, telecommunications and hotel and predominant with the production of essential restaurant services. At 3.4 percent of GDP in 2017, oil and spices currently emerging. Construction the tourism sector remains underdeveloped is the second highest subsector representing relative to its potential (see Box 1).³⁸ Box 1: Comoros as a tourism destination Each of the three islands has its own unique attractions. Grande Comore is a scenic volcanic island dominated by Mount Karthala (2,361 meters), one of the world’s most active volcanoes. Moroni’s port offers a sense of the island’s history and Arab-Swahili heritage. The main market resembles a small version of Zanzibar’s famous Stone Town before its rehabilitation - urban restoration activities could potentially transform this asset into a strong tourism attraction. The coastline is fringed with white sand beaches such as Galawa and Maloudja, as well as coral reefs that offer world-class scuba diving and snorkeling opportunities. Lac Salé is a deep salt-water lake formed in a steep-sided volcanic crater. Mohéli, the smallest island of the archipelago, offers pristine beaches such as Nioumachoua, Moimbasa, Sambia, and Itsamia. The natural environment plays host to endemic and emblematic marine fauna such dugongs, humpback whales, and sea turtles. Local communities hope to transform the island into an ecotourism destination. Anjouan is called “l’île aux parfums” because of the ylang-ylang tree plantations. The landscape consists of mangroves, mountains, lakes, and plantations. The city of Mutsamudu has the most important medina of the islands, as well as a citadel. Of the three islands, the greatest amount of tourism development has taken place on the largest island, Grande Comore - particularly in the capital city of Moroni. However, the destination Comoros lives in expectation of a development of its tourism like their golden ages in the 90s. This was greatly led by the resort Galawa Maloudja Beach (350 rooms), managed by the South African group Sun International and closed in 2001 which targeted a clientele of South African tourists subject to the restrictions of anti-apartheid measures. ³⁸ World Travel and Tourism Council (2018) 33 3. Meet Comoros - Setting The Scene 22. Labor productivity in Comoros appears average aspirational peer and lower-middle to be low, particularly in the agriculture and income country (see Figure 6).³⁹ Even though construction sectors. A proper analysis of labor productivity appears to be poor across labor productivity across sectors is hampered sectors, the agricultural and construction by uncertainties surrounding the collection sectors present the lowest productivity of sectoral employment data, but available levels. Further research in the drivers of low data suggests that labor productivity labor productivity level is needed and will be is comparable to the labor productivity undertaken once a new household survey is observed in structural peer countries and in available (currently under preparation with Sub-Saharan Africa, but significantly below the the support of the World Bank). Without large support from external donors, the overall fiscal deficit would have been most of the time in the two-digits range. Introduction to the macro- deficit would have been most of the time in economic context the two-digits range. The large share of the wage bill in the budget (more than 60 percent 23. Comoros fiscal balance has remained of domestically generated revenue over largely under control in recent years but the last decade) leaves very little room for remains highly dependent on grants. Over spending on items such as social services and the period 2011-2017, total revenues (at 17.2 education or infrastructure projects. Comoros percent of GDP) outweighed total expenditures fiscal balance may also have been more under (15.6 percent of GDP) generating on average a control because of the very limited access of positive fiscal balance of 1.6 percent of GDP. Comoros to financial markets (either domestic Without large and continuous support from or international). Comoros’ risk of debt distress external donors (on average 7.9 percent of has been assessed as moderate by the latest GDP between 2011 and 2017), the overall fiscal WB-IMF joint debt sustainability analyses. ³⁹ A recent comparative study suggests that Comoros was among the seven SSA countries that experienced the most stagnating labor productivity relative to the United States since the 1970s (Calderon et al. 2018). 34 3. Meet Comoros - Setting The Scene Figure 6: Labor productivity a. Output per worker by sector (2014) b. Total output per worker - Comoros and comparators (2017) 4,000,000 25,000 3,500,000 Constant Comorian Francs 20,000 3,000,000 (base 2007) 2,500,000 15,000 2,000,000 1,500,000 10,000 1,000,000 5,000 500,000 - 0 Mining & Utilities Manufacturing Construction Aspirational Lower middle Trade Transport Other Tertiary Comoros Structural peers peers income SSA Agriculture Output per worker (GDP constant 2010 US $) Output per worker (GDP constant 2011 international $ in PPP) Source: Panel a: Staff calculations using Comoros’ revised national accounts and EESIC 2014. Panel b: ILO 24. The external sector relies on private (see Figure 7). The Comorian Franc has been remittances and external grants. Comoros pegged to the French Franc since shortly export capacity is limited and concentrated after its independence, and then the Euro in just three products: cloves, ylang-ylang since 1999 (currently at KMF 490 per Euro). and vanilla (90 percent of exports). Despite Its currency is guaranteed by the French being a world leader in vanilla (6% of world treasury. While the agreement implies a de production) and ylang-ylang (70 % of world facto surrender of independent monetary production), export revenues are less than policy in Comoros, the general conditions half the import expenditure in agriculture.⁴⁰ under this agreement have helped the The deficit in the trade of goods and services Central Bank maintain low levels of inflation averaged 19 percent of GDP over 2011-2017 (especially when compared to structural significantly surpassing that of structural peers and Sub Saharan Africa countries) peers (3.5 percent of GDP). This large trade and adequate levels of foreign reserves (8.1 deficit is off-set by buoyant remittances months of imports). Price administration (estimated at 12 percent of GDP over 2011- policy for staple goods (e.g. rice) are weakly 2017) and the current account deficit is enforced and most likely have no significant financed mostly by external grants, which are effect on inflation rates. estimated at 8 percent of GDP over 2011-2017. 26. The peg with the Euro has not produced 25. Thanks mostly to a monetary policy a sustained overvaluation and is unlikely to anchored in an agreement between the have been the source of low growth. Since Central Bank of Comoros and France, the introduction of the peg to the Euro, the inflation rates have been relatively stable Comorian franc has occasionally deviated and low compared with structural peers from its medium-term fundamentals (IMF, 35 3. Meet Comoros - Setting The Scene 2009, IMF 2014, 2016, and 2018), combining However, in the absence of a sustained periods of overvaluation (e.g. 1995-1999) overvaluation in this century, Comoros’ low with periods of undervaluation (e.g. 2002- level of competitiveness is unlikely to have 2005). For other countries, pegging has at been the result of the peg. The currency peg times been found to increase the credibility limits, however, the ability of the Comorian of monetary policy and lower inflation rates government to adjust to external shocks via at the expense of a loss in competitiveness. the exchange rate.⁴¹ ⁴² Figure 7: Inflation, Comoros and comparators Inflation, consumer prices (annual %) (2011-2017) 10 8 6 4 2 0 Principe Solomon Islands (2001-2011) Small Island Fragile States Sao Tome and Structural Peers Timor-Leste Comoros Fiji States Tonga Aspirational Peers Samoa Cabo Verde Comoros -2 80th Percentile Lower middle income 20th Percentile Lower middle income SSA Average Source: Staff calculations using WDI Table 4: Selected macroeconomic indicators 2015 2016 2017 GDP (millions current local currency) 438,331 455,546 466,312 GDP (millions current US$) 988.2 1024.3 1068.1 GNI per capita for Comoros (Atlas method, US$) 1120 930 1280 GDP growth 1.1 2.3 2.7 Fiscal balance (% GDP) 2.6 -4.2 0.4 Total Revenues and Grants (% GDP) 18.8 14.1 17.4 Total Expenditures (% GDP) 16.2 18.3 17.0 Debt (% GDP) 14.4 16.7 17.6 Tax revenues (GDP) 6.6 7.9 9.5 ⁴¹ Edwards and Levy-Yeyati (2005). ⁴² Given the current modest fiscal space and the limited room for expenditure cuts (investment expenditures, usually downsized in difficult times, represent only a small proportion of total expenditures), a fiscal adjustment is highly challenging. 36 3. Meet Comoros - Setting The Scene 2015 2016 2017 Current account (% GDP) 0.4 -4.9 -2.7 Trade Balance (% GDP) -17.1 -15.6 -16.9 Imports (%GDP) 27.0 26.2 28.5 Exports (% GDP) 9.9 10.7 11.6 Personal remittances received (% GDP) 13.6 12.8 13.0 Domestic credit to private sector (% of GDP) 16.1 16.0 16.7 GDP shares expenditure side (% GDP) Consumption 103.1 99.8 99.4 Gross fixed investment 14.0 15.8 17.5 Net exports -17.1 -15.6 -16.9 GDP sectoral shares supply side (% GDP) Agriculture 31.3 31.0 31.4 Industry 11.9 12.2 12.9 Services 56.8 56.8 55.7 Progress on the Millennium and lagged. As of 2015, less than 40 percent of Sustainable Development Goals the population had access to basic sanitation and hygiene services. 27. By 2015, progress on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) was mostly 28. Comoros presents mixed results so positive and encouraging. Among the most far on progress towards the Sustainable important MDGs reached were the ones Development Goals (SDGs) (see Annex 3 on linked to access to improved water (although Comoros’ progress on the SDGs). Since 2000, continuous access to improved water is significant progress was made on several fronts, limited to less than 13 percent of Comorians) including notably the reduction in maternal and (MDG7) and to the incidence of malaria children mortality ratios (SDG3), the increase (MDG6), which is close to being eliminated in access to electricity (SDG7), and the rise in Comoros. Important improvements in the of internet users and net ODA flows (SDG17). fight against extreme poverty and hunger Results on economic growth have been (MDG1), primary completion rates (MDG2), disappointing, youth unemployment remains maternal health (MDG5), infant mortality at very high levels (SDG8), and forest areas (MDG4), education gender parity (MDG3), and continue to decrease (SDG15). Lack of data access to internet (MDG8) were also secured, constitutes a major challenge for measuring however for the MDG5 and MDG4, structural progress towards the SDGs. Comoros is among peers did better than Comoros. Access to the 44 countries currently not included in the improved sanitation (also MDG7) was far from SDG Index and Dashboards due to insufficient being reached, although structural peers also data availability (27% of the values are missing). 37 IDENTITY & INSTITUTIONS IN COMOROS⁴³ ⁴³ This section uses the World Bank’s Risk and Resilience Assessment 2018 as a key input. 38 4. Identity & Institutions in Comoros 29. Weak formal institutions and governance most available governance indicators have structures are at the core of Comoros’ never risen above the 30th percentile of classification as a fragile country by the World countries rated, with particularly low scores on Bank since 2006 (see Figure 8). Comoros is government effectiveness, regulatory quality among the 31 countries currently classified and the rule of law. These weak governance as fragile by the World Bank. The assessment outcomes are rooted in societal structures of its institutions and policies consistently that go beyond inter-island tensions, where perform below the benchmark for lower- formal institutions contend with a legitimacy middle income countries and structural peers. deficit in the absence of an effective state Since the early 2000s, Comoros’ rankings on presence through the country. Figure 8: Countries classified as fragile by the World Bank group by CPIA rating IDA eligible countries classified as in fragile situation by the World Bank in 2017, grouped by the harmonized Country Policy and Institutional Assessment (CPIA) rating Afghanistan, Chad, 12 Rep. Congo, Gambia, Burundi, Guinea-Bissau, Dem. Rep. Congo, 10 Haiti, Kiribati, Djibouti, Mozambique, Myammar, Cote d’Ivoire, Marshall Islands, 8 Eritrea, Solomon Islands, Togo Kosovo, Micronesia, Somalia, Liberia, Fed, Tuvalu, 6 South Sudan, Mali Comoros Syria Central African Rep., 4 Yemen, Sudan 2 0 <2 2 < x < 2.5 2.5 < x < 3 3 < x < 3.2 > 3.2 Weaker institutions Stronger institutions 30. To understand the complexity of social society ( milanantsi ) in the Comoros are organization in the Comoros, one must look anchored in a vertical customary system based beyond its formal institutions and consider on the values of honor and prestige, and on the the multiple hierarchies around which society dominant role of the elders. The hierarchical is structured. Comorian society has developed norms (yezi) that govern society are largely oral unique forms of social and political organization and apply on the basis of group affiliation and based on tradition, religion, and culture—some identification (i.e., kinship, community, youth, aspects of which pre-date the arrival of Islam women, elders). ⁴⁴ to the islands, and others that have adapted to incorporate elements of the faith. Historically, 31. The village (mdji) is the basic geographic the traditional and informal rules that govern unit of identification in the Comoros and holds ⁴⁴ Ben Ali, Roubani, and Saïd (2011) 39 4. Identity & Institutions in Comoros the community together.⁴⁵ It is the basis for centrality of the village means that Comoros the multiple forms of societal organization is sometimes referred to as “a confederation of (social stratification, territorial organization, villages”,⁴⁷ rather than a cohesive nation-state. and religious hierarchy) and is the source of This sense of localized identity is underpinned Comorians’ sense of belonging, trust, and by a territorial hierarchy that developed identity. Exclusion from the community is the between cities and villages according to their harshest form of social sanction. A sense of history of population settlement.⁴⁸ Villages belonging to and identifying with a particular from the most prestigious lineages are at village has historically been sustained by various the top of the territorial hierarchy, and those social institutions such as the Grand Marriage that were originally populated with slaves or (anda), which is at the heart of intra-community their descendants are at the bottom and are cohesion and regulates every dimension generally marginalized.⁴⁹ This has helped fuel of society in the Comoros (see Box 2).⁴⁶ The an urban-rural divide. Box 2: The Grand Marriage Imported by migrants from East Africa, the Grand Marriage (as opposed to the Petit Marriage) is a rite of passage by which to gain the exalted status of a Notable (Homme accompli). This process entails several ceremonies (which culminate in the Grand Marriage) and features expensive and ostentatious gifts that are shared with the community and effectively boost the social status of the individual, his family, and village. Historically, the oldest son and daughter of families were expected to perform a Grand Marriage, but this has since been adapted to include any and all children who opt to undergo the process. The effect has been to increase the expenses associated with this ritual and has seen the growing monetarization of what had previously been considered a primarily social exchange. A Grand Marriage connects individuals via a deeply entrenched network of mutual social obligation. It represents a collective commitment of two families. Historically, it is an alliance that can only exist between members of the same village or city, and from the same social standing. This custom of the Grand Marriage is a common feature of the archipelago, though it holds more power in Grande Comore and Mohéli, than in Anjouan, where it has gradually declined in prominence. Source: World Bank Risk and Resilience Assessment 2018. ⁴⁵ This varies from one island to another. Anjouan is presented as more individualistic, with social obligation being much less than in Grande Comore and Mohéli. ⁴⁶ Ben Ali and Mgomri (2013); Blanchy (2013); Walker, Le Guennec-Coppens, and Mery (2002) ⁴⁷ Interview with Mohamed Mchangama, President of the FCC, May 14, 2018, Moroni. ⁴⁸ Villages are classified into four different categories: mdji wa yezi (villages of power), mdji mhuu (big villages), mdji ndze (rural villages) and itreya (peripheral villages inhabited by fishermen and the descendants of slaves). ⁴⁹ Blanchy (2004). 40 4. Identity & Institutions in Comoros 32. The centrality of the village and informal state and local centers of informal self- institutions inform citizens’ relations with governance. In 2015, the first ever local the formal state. Unlike local traditional elections in the country took place as part of governance systems, which are based on a the decentralization process initiated by the combination of religion and custom and are 2001 Constitutional agreement and enacted in deeply rooted in local norms and values, formal 2011.⁵¹ However, there are several challenges state institutions are still widely perceived as with communes, including inadequate human being imports. This has created two systems resourcing and financing as budget transfers wherein informal, traditional systems of from the central state are often not received, governance run parallel to formal ones. Unlike and there are no revenues from local taxation. the formal system, which is premised on the The main challenge comes from the design concept of individual rights, the informal of communes, which has not sufficiently system is founded in community and kinship accounted for the local social and political networks, a philosophy that extends to public context and has both fueled new tensions institutions: The inhabitants of the territory on between villages and reinforced some which the institution is established believe historical rivalries between villages.⁵² ⁵³ that the community should administer it, and that its management should benefit Limited State Reach the community—and provide employment for community members. Notables exert 34. The legitimacy deficit of formal institutions pressure on government authorities to has meant that the state has limited influence recruitment and promotions and effectiveness and presence outside of Moroni are generally consulted ahead of nomination and restricted service delivery reach. Little decisions.⁵⁰ As such, the functioning of the attention has been paid to the accountability of state is largely structured around kinship the state vis-à-vis citizens, or to maintaining the networks, generational groups, and territorial social compact between state and citizens. The allegiances. Ultimately this compromises the disconnect between the state and citizens is functionality of the public administration and exacerbated by the scarcity of state-delivered the management of state-owned enterprises services that has placed the burden of service (SOEs). delivery on alternative providers. Meanwhile, social accountability mechanisms—such as 33. A decentralization process that has not citizens’ independent monitoring of public fully aligned the creation of communes actions—are underdeveloped, while the with traditional sphere of influence of the legislature’s weak functioning and an absence village, appears to have deepened the of transparency in public affairs further sense of disconnect between the central constrain social accountability. ⁵⁰ M'Sa Ali (2006). ⁵¹ Some functions of the islands, like the civil registry and primary education, have since been transferred to the communes together with some civil servants. Other functions that should also be transferred from the islands to the communes include environment, basic health, sport, and urban planning. ⁵² Ben Ali, Roubani, and Saïd (2011). For instance, some villages obstructed the construction of their Commune’s town hall because it was planned in a competing village. However, there are some exceptions to this competitive logic, such as in the case of the commune of Moroni, where neighboring villages agreed to participate. ⁵³ Blanchy (2011). 41 4. Identity & Institutions in Comoros 35. The politicization of the public The role of outsiders – remittances administration compounds poor state reach and aid dependence and weak institutions. The various island administrations have further contributed 36. Migration is a key feature of Comoros’ to the inflated civil service. Civil service society, with an estimated one-third of the recruitment has usually increased in the lead population living abroad, primarily in France. ⁵⁶ up to elections. Anjouan fields the highest Relative to its population, Comorians are one of number of civil servants in the Comoros—as the largest African diasporas.⁵⁷ Since 1990, net a product of political patronage under the- emigration has grown at nearly twice the speed then ruler of that island, President Bacar, as the population overall, providing some relief and a “reconciliation recruitment” following from the pressures of high population growth. the 2007 secession attempt. It is also the The number of Comorian emigrants has almost island on which civil servants’ salaries are the tripled over the last thirty years. Historically, highest. The distribution of positions in the Comorians often emigrated for political and administration to political allies has bloated commercial reasons, but today emigration the Comoros’s civil service and created an mostly happens for economic reasons and unsustainable wage bill.⁵⁴ Public servants women constitute an increasing proportion of have limited training, and there is often a the total number of emigres. mismatch between the job and the skill set. Even though many are well educated,⁵⁵ the 37. Remittances from the diaspora represent administrative elite lacks a uniting belief a substantial source of revenue for families regarding the purpose of the state and in Comoros, much of which goes towards how it should be managed. High turnover consumption, rather than investment. Gross rates, absenteeism, and scarce resources private remittances constituted 13 percent undermine morale, as well as capacity and of GDP in 2017, making Comoros one of accountability. The public administration the highest remittance-recipient nation also suffers from bureaucratic competition in Sub-Saharan Africa and among small between departments over the capture of island states (see Figure 9 ). Between 70- state resources and development projects. 90 percent⁵⁸ of total remittances are used ⁵⁴ In the last decade, more than 60 percent of domestically generated revenues were allocated to the wage bill. Recent limitations on recruitment in the civil service have been partly bypassed by the short-term hiring of young interns who can represent up to 40 percent of employees (Union des Comores, 2017). ⁵⁵ Rose and Gowthaman (2015) ⁵⁶ Comorian migrations initially resulted from land dispossession, slavery, and repression (Madagascar invasions in the 18th century, then French colonization). It has also served as a way to escape the rigidities of the social order or to accumulate economic resources to realize the Grand Marriage. The main triggers of migration include political instability and violence, limited opportunities for high-level education, scarce employment opportunities, and difficult access to land. Young Comorians first emigrated from Comoros to Muslim countries, such as Yemen or Egypt, and mostly to Zanzibar but also toward Madagascar during colonial rule. Following violence against the Comorian diaspora in Zanzibar (1964) and Madagascar (1976), emigration was directed toward France, where most of the Comorian diaspora now lives. ⁵⁷ According to estimates by the United Nations Population Division, in 2017 there were about 116,000 Comorian emigrants worldwide compared with 40,000 in 1990. This remarkable expansion in emigration, particularly since 2000, has outpaced population growth. Relative to population, the stock of emigrants has expanded from 9.7 percent in 1990 to 14.3 percent in 2017. The main destinations of Comorian emigrants are Mayotte, France, and Madagascar with a slight change in preferences, whereby metropolitan France that was the top destination in 1990 has recently been passed by Mayotte with some 58,000 Comorians living there as of 2017. ⁵⁸ World Bank (2017a) 42 4. Identity & Institutions in Comoros for consumption purposes,⁵⁹ and serve as a political influence in Comoros. Representing safety net to Comorians, mostly to cover their about 25 percent of the electorate, its inclusion health, education, and food expenses. The in the electoral process would have tremendous diaspora also invests in social infrastructure implications for political dynamics and could and construction projects, such as building strengthen the demand for government mosques, schools, health services, roads, accountability. Initially planned for the 2016 community centers, and local media. elections, the vote of the French diaspora was eventually not allowed for “technical reasons.” 38. The diaspora is a key development actor, Nevertheless, members of the diaspora influence and a factor of social change and influence family members who remain in Comoros and at the village level. Remittances are largely help to finance political campaigns. During channeled according to village allegiances and the 2016 elections, for example, most of the are the main source of funding for services, filling presidential candidates started their campaign some of the gaps left by the state.⁶⁰ Although the in France, where they established support diaspora is not yet allowed to vote, it has a strong committees in various cities. Figure 9: Remittances, Comoros and comparators Personal remittances, received (% of GDP) (2011-2017) 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Small Island Tonga Samoa Aspirational Peers (2001-2011) Cabo Verde Comoros Fragile States Comoros States Sao Tome and Principe Fiji Structural Peers Solomon Islands Timor-Leste 80th Percentile Lower middle income 20th Percentile Lower middle income SSA Average Source: Staff calculations using WDI ⁵⁹ A central historical purpose of remittances is to finance the high expenses related to organizing the Grand Marriage and other socially binding events of Comorian society, such as funerals (Blanchy, 2014). ⁶⁰ Several co-development programs involving organizations from the Comorian diaspora were introduced, especially in France. Government and donors are trying to promote the establishment of financial instruments to better channel remittances toward development purposes. However, this endeavor has come up against the imperative and force of prevailing social dynamics and familial and territorial allegiances and is complicated by the general lack of trust in the Comorian state. 43 4. Identity & Institutions in Comoros 39. Comoros is heavily dependent on donors erratic diplomatic relationship. However, and development partners. In the last 15 tensions remain contained, as the Comorian years, net official development assistance authorities are reluctant to jeopardize their averaged about 10 percent of GDP. This relationship with their key bilateral partner. percentage is close to the total tax revenues in France has regularly financed arrears in civil 2017 (9.5 percent of GDP) and is high compared service salaries and is an important partner to the Sub-Saharan average (4 percent of in sectors such as education and water. The GDP), but below structural peers average countries also have a strong relationship (24 percent of GDP). There are currently based on the number of Comorians living about 30 development partners active in in France; as the host country of the largest the country. Multilateral partners include the segment of the diaspora, France has an African Development Bank, the UN, the EU, interest in containing migration. The former the WBG, and the Islamic Development Bank. colonial power views Comoros’ strategic The key bilateral partners are France, China, development plan as the way by which to and Japan. The weak state means that donors contain outmigration, and plans to triple often drive the design and implementation of its aid⁶² going forward, particularly given public policies. However, aid coordination is the recent tumult in Mayotte.⁶³ In 2017, for weak, and the effectiveness of development the first time in years, a Franco-Comorian aid remains a concern, given the complex commission was convened to consolidate operating conditions. The predictability of the partnership between the two countries the budget has decreased further in recent regarding the country’s development. years with the increased role played by Gulf countries (in particular Saudi Arabia and 41. Comoros has strong ties to the Gulf, United Arab Emirates) which provide budget a continuation of precolonial history of support often in the form of ad-hoc and one- migration and trade with Gulf countries. off payments.⁶¹ Since precolonial times, relations with the Gulf have revolved around trade and 40. France has retained a strong post- commercial exchange, as well as that of independence influence in the affairs knowledge and expertise. Hundreds of of the Comoros. The contested status of students from Comoros have been educated Mayotte, now a department of France but in Gulf countries,⁶⁴ especially in Saudi Arabia, still claimed by the Comoros as part of its and the Gulf states are increasingly stepping territory, has resulted in a tumultuous and up development efforts in the Comoros, ⁶¹ For instance, in 2015, Saudi Arabia provided a budget support equal to about 25 percent of total revenues and to around half of revenues excluding grants. ⁶² An amount of €135 million had been scheduled in the 2015–20 partnership agreement between France and the Comoros (France Diplomatie 2018). ⁶³ In early 2018, inhabitants of Mayotte organized a blockage of the island to compel the French government to take action on the migration issue and more generally to increase its efforts to improve the island’s development. During this crisis, the government of the Comoros stopped the return of its citizens expelled from Mayotte, increasing diplomatic tensions with France. It is estimated that more than 10,000 people are turned back from Mayotte to the Comoros each year. ⁶⁴ Ali, Roubani, and Saïd (2011) ⁶⁵ Qatar and Saudi Arabia provided one-off budget grants to pay government salaries and finance other expenses. Oman is also providing grants to the Comorian army. Arab investors (al-Marwan) took over a French company to manage the port of Moroni. Kuwaiti investors created the Banque Fédérale de Commerce in 2009. 44 4. Identity & Institutions in Comoros particularly for roads and infrastructure.⁶⁵ The attracted much attention when it emerged “economic citizenship program”–involving the that large sums of money deriving from this sale of Comorian citizenship and passports scheme had been siphoned off and were to individuals from Saudi Arabia and Kuwait– unaccounted for (see Box 3).⁶⁶ Box 3: Comoros' Economic Citizenship Program Comoros’ Economic Citizenship Program (ECP) started when the government struck a deal with the United Arab Emirates in 2008 to offer Comorian citizenship to stateless Bidoon people living in the Gulf. It offered Gulf governments a means of identifying these people without giving them local citizenship. In exchange Comoros received a fee for each passport issued. Comoros implemented the ECP mainly between 2010 and 2012, which gave a significant boost to non-tax revenues. Indeed, in 2012 (the more dynamic year of the program) the ECP at least doubled government revenues from non-tax sources. The program however declined steeply in 2013 following the imposition of tighter controls in response to earlier irregularities. Comoros parliament is currently investigating complaints of corruption and procedures not being followed. The Comoros government received over USD4,500 for each citizenship issued, according to government documents from 2012. The Emirati government estimated that the number of Bidoon within the country ranged from 20,000 to 100,000. Currently at least 40,000 of these people carry Comorian passports. However, the citizenships and passports were also being sold to non-Bidoon people, sometimes at much higher prices, according to investigators in Comoros. Comorian passports are of value because they offer citizenship with no tax obligations, allow the opening of bank accounts In Gulf States and facilitate visa-free travel through the Gulf and to many major business hubs globally. 42. An important dimension of the country’s under President Dhoinine (from Mohéli), relations with Gulf states are Sunni–Shi’a when Saudi Arabia established an embassy tensions between Saudi Arabia and Iran, in Moroni and provided a US$40 million which have come to impact the Comoros. grant to the Comoros.⁶⁸ More recently, as The country has historically had stronger tensions between Saudi Arabia and Iran have links to Sunni Arab nations than to Iran, but heated up, the Comoros took sides in that strengthened its ties to that country under confrontation and cut diplomatic ties with President Sambi (from Anjouan), who studied Iran and Qatar in 2016. These geopolitical in Iran.⁶⁷ This trend was progressively reversed rivalries have to some degree played out ⁶⁶ More than 48,000 passports were sold instead of the 4,000 initially planned in the agreement. Former Presidents Sambi and Dhoinine are being sued in relation to this program (Jeune Afrique 2018). ⁶⁷ Sambi, who studied in Iran, signed a defense agreement with Tehran and allowed various foundations to operate in the Comoros. Iran provided support in sectors such as agriculture, fisheries, and health. This period was also marked by the development of Shi'ism in the Comoros, especially on Anjouan, Sambi’s native island. ⁶⁸ Bayle (2016) 45 4. Identity & Institutions in Comoros in the confrontation between the political of solidarity and constitutes a safety net for opponents, with President Assoumani (from Comorians. However, these social networks Grand Comore) seeking support from Saudi tend to be composed by members of the same Arabia, and former President Sambi aligned social strata, with many (often the poorest) with Iran. excluded from such communities. Sources of Resilience 45. The traditional institutions that are anchored in the customary system are the 43. Despite the challenge that these first port of call in the case of community features represent to economic growth and conflicts and play a critical role in dispute development prospects in the Comoros, resolution. Bilateral negotiations, mediation, the country can also draw on key sources of arbitration, or judgment are all key means by resilience. These can help mitigate risks and which to manage disputes.⁷⁰ The objective represent important entry points by which to is to preserve social peace within the reinforce social cohesion, and better connect the community. Where necessary, cases are parallel systems of governance to strengthen sent to the state justice system to be heard, state-society relations and the legitimacy and whether through the cadi (local Muslim judge) reach of the formal state and its institutions. or the modern tribunal. The Collège des Sages, an organization that gathers retired Religious Institutions Notables and is recognized by the state, also plays an active role in mediating social 44. Traditional and religious institutions conflicts between communities, and between mediate conflict and mitigate extreme the state and citizens. Additionally, informal behavior. The customary system, together arrangements can help to maintain social with Islam, anchors the country’s complex cohesion—for instance, with regards to land social organization and is the key driver of tenure. A series of oral agreements related to social cohesion in the Comoros. Customary land management have in some cases helped regulation and Islam are closely knit and have a to decrease the risk of unequal access to land. strong influence on individuals’ daily behavior. Youth are socialized via age–class organization Communities (hirimu), where personal discipline is learned alongside respect for the elderly and for social 46. Social dynamics are very strong at the hierarchy.⁶⁹ Hirimu organization also helps to village level and help fill the gap left by consolidate allegiances to the group and the the state. Villages in the Comoros do not village community. At the same time, youth rely on the state and instead act as service are socialized through the Koranic schools and providers to the population. Led by village the mosques, where the community gathers associations and funded by the diaspora and regularly. The Friday mosque—one per town through contributions from local communities, or village—assumes a significant unifying role. traditional expenses related to community Learning and sharing common values within rituals (such as the Grand Marriage and funerals) these various social networks creates a sense are now channeled in part to investments in ⁶⁹ Ali, Roubani, and Saïd (2011) ⁷⁰ Ali, Roubani, and Saïd (2011) 46 4. Identity & Institutions in Comoros schools, mosques, health dispensaries, as curriculum common to all schools in the well as towards roads, water, and electricity country. In the health sector, public sector infrastructure. Villages often finance the doctors have opened private medical recruitment of staff to operate basic health practices where their earning power is tripled, and education services. A clear example of the but which contributes to absenteeism and a important role of the village in public services deterioration in healthcare at public hospitals. is in civil safety. First responses to hazards always come from within communities,⁷¹ as Women state services are either unable to intervene or arrive too late to provide support. Another 48. Women represent a reference point and a example is the management of common source of trust in Comorian society. They hold pool resources.⁷² For example, the creation of informal power within communities. Although the Mohéli marine park in 2001 came about the traditional system tends to exclude women because of negotiations with local villages from decision-making at the local level, and and civil society organizations. The multi- women are forbidden access to the public stakeholder governance ensures ownership squares where men make decisions regarding by the community and helps to enforce village affairs,⁷³ their approval is often essential regulations and protects natural resources. In to cement decisions made in these male- Karthala park, the involvement of villages has dominated village assemblies. They are at the resulted in communities controlling poaching forefront of social change and are supported and holding the perpetrators to account. by the diaspora, which pushes the boundaries with regards to traditional assumptions on 47. Where community-based organizations gender. For instance, attempts to enforce the and informal structures have stepped into Grand Marriage on women who were born in or the breach left by the state, they often lack socialized in France tend to become a source enough oversight and regulation. The de facto of family tension; as such, family pressure to privatization of service delivery is not overseen partake in these ceremonies is declining for by a central agency and does not benefit from those in the diaspora.⁷⁴ In 2004, 21.5 percent a national planning process. As such, it can of the households’ heads were women. This lead to duplication of services, inappropriate proportion increased to 27.8 percent in 2014. It or insufficient recruitment of technical staff for is also worth noting that diaspora remittances schools and clinics, and further limit access for tend to be sent more to women than men. the poor. Other unanticipated consequences include the creation of alternative and 49. Women are increasingly involved in the unregulated curricula across the crop of public sphere. Female associations are very private schools that have sprung up in the dynamic at the local level, and several women’s absence of sufficient public schools, which organizations have emerged at the national impedes the establishment of a qualitative level to oppose discriminatory practices against ⁷¹ This organization is based on Comorian society’s tradition of volunteering. Assisting and rescuing are social obligations that can lead to being banished from the community if they are not respected. ⁷² Hauzer, Dearden, and Murray (2013). ⁷³ A new trend has developed in the diaspora in France where women, thanks to their important financial contributions, are allowed to participate in Notable assemblies (Blanchy and Lallemand, 2011). ⁷⁴ Abdillahi (2012) 47 4. Identity & Institutions in Comoros women and advocate for their empowerment. ineffective public institutions in providing Businesswomen have organized themselves basic services to communities. Comoros has through the development of associations extensive experience with community-driven and groups such as Association des Femme development (CDD) projects, which can help d’Affaires Comoriennes or Entreprendre au to build social cohesion, reduce poverty, Féminin aux Comores (EFOI-COM). Similarly, mitigate factors of fragility, and promote cross-party political platforms have been human capital development. In the fisheries established to raise women’s voice in the and agriculture sectors, these projects political sphere, where they play an active have focused on improving livelihoods and role—especially during electoral campaigns. employment generation. Although they have However, although women are very active reported positive impacts, it is unclear if they at the grassroots level, they occupy a less can be replicated or extended, and as such, it prominent role in higher-level political or would be important to explore the potential economic fora. Women represent only about of such approaches beyond livelihoods, 2 percent of elected members of Parliament. and to ensure transparent and equitable service delivery.⁷⁶ Studies across multiple Civil society organizations CDD projects have shown that infrastructure and public works led by communities are 50. Community-based associations have built at comparatively lower costs and that blossomed in villages in the field of local these investments deliver positive effects on development. Created by young, educated material welfare.⁷⁷ At the national level, civil Comorians, those associations are dynamic, society organizations have also emerged in involved in various sectors, and promote a different sectors, such as education, health, vision of their communities’ development.⁷⁵ the environment, water, and gender and The Comorian diaspora significantly human rights.⁷⁸ They have not yet succeeded contributes to the development of these in establishing national federations or inter- highly localized community associations. island networks. Even though there is no Some associations, such as 2Mains, were institutionalized dialogue with the state, first created in France and later registered civil society organizations are often involved in the Comoros. They provide technical in designing government strategies and expertise and tend to fill the gap left by making laws.   ⁷⁵ Mohan (2002) ⁷⁶ Casey, Katherine. Radical Decentralization: Does Community Driven Development Work? Stanford Graduate School of Business, Working Paper 3598. September 2017, p. 12. Available at https://www.gsb.stanford.edu/faculty-research/ working-papers/radical-decentralization-does-community-driven-development-work; Wong (2012) ⁷⁷ Wong, Susan and Scott Guggenheim. Community-Driven Development: Myths and Realities. World Bank Group Policy Research Working Paper 8435. May 2018. Available at https:/ /collaboration.worldbank.org/content/sites/ collaboration-for-development/en/groups/community-driven-development-global-solutions-group/documents. entry.html/2018/06/18/community-drivendev-haJ4.html ⁷⁸ Most of those associations rely heavily on voluntary work and generally suffer from a lack of capacity. They remain highly dependent on external financing. 48 POVERTY AND SHARED PROSPERITY IN COMOROS⁷⁹ ⁷⁹ This section is based on the World Bank’s Poverty Assessment 2017. 49 5. Poverty and Shared Prosperity in Comoros Je dirais qu'il faut vraiment chercher à régler les problèmes quotidiens d'un comorien (avoir quelque chose à manger, accéder à l'eau potable et à l'électricité normale) dans tout le pays et insister que les jeunes dans le monde de l'entreprise aient plus faim de pouvoir et visent plus haut.⁸⁰ Comoros’ Performance on the (growth effect) with no redistribution effects, Twin Goals i.e. inequality increased. The same pattern was observed at the national as well as rural- Poverty⁸¹ urban and islands. 51. Compared to other Sub-Saharan and other 52. Chances to escape poverty are high in fragile countries, Comorians are less likely to Comoros, both by international and national be poor (see Figure 10). As of 2014, four out of measurement standards. The average ten Comorians could be considered poor and consumption level of a poor Comorian is two out of ten lived in extreme poverty.⁸² ⁸³This around 85 percent of the $3.2 per day (2011 number puts Comoros significantly ahead PPP) international poverty line compared to of other fragile countries and the average 86 percent in other lower-middle income for Sub-Saharan Africa and is comparable countries, 68 percent of other SSA countries to poverty outcomes for the average lower- and 87 percent for aspirational peers. One middle income country. Progress in reducing fourth of the poor in Comoros currently live poverty in Comoros since 2004 has been right below the national poverty line and could modest. During the period 2004-14, poverty move out of poverty if their income would responded sluggishly to economic growth: a increase by around KMF 167 per capita per 1 percent increase in consumption reduced day (US$ 0.7, 2011 PPP). However, there is also poverty headcount by only 0.7 percent and a good ten percent of the population who are this response was entirely driven by an at risk of falling below the national poverty line increase in mean household consumption in the event of unexpected economic shocks. ⁸⁰ Quote from respondent to a Facebook online consultation on what Comorians consider the biggest obstacles to their country’s development: “I would say that one has to really try to solve the daily problems of Comorians in the whole country (something to eat, drinkable water and normal electricity) and to insist that young people in the private sector have more hunger for power and set themselves higher goals.” ⁸¹ As it is typically the case in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), the EESIC 2014 uses consumption as the key welfare measure to analyze poverty. This consumption aggregate comprises food consumption, including food produced by households themselves, as well as expenditures on a range of nonfood goods and services (e.g., clothing, utilities, transportation, communication, health, education, housing-related expenditures and imputed rent, etc.). However, the consumption aggregate does not include expenditures on larger consumer durable items (such as cars, TVs, computers, etc.), nor does it include expenditures on ceremonies (marriage, funerals, etc.). To the extent that better-off households devote a larger proportion of their total consumption to durable goods, this omission creates certain biases and underestimates real consumption among wealthier families. This is less important for poverty analysis, where the focus lies on the bottom-end of the distribution, but it can have a significant impact on estimated inequality. ⁸² Individuals are considered extremely poor if they cannot afford to buy enough food to meet the minimum nutritional requirements of 2,200 kilocalories (Kcal) per person per day. ⁸³ Both the national and the international poverty line of US$3.2 per capita per day suggest that roughly four out of ten Comorians today can be considered poor. 50 5. Poverty and Shared Prosperity in Comoros 53. Important poverty differences exist across capital of the Union - where only 36.5 percent islands and across the rural and urban divide of the population live under the national (see Figure 11 and Figure 12). The reduction in poverty line, compared to roughly 45 percent the poverty headcount was achieved in both in Anjouan and Mohéli. Reflecting differences in rural and urban areas, but poverty remains economic activity (rural agriculture dominates significantly lower in urban zones. Those living in Anjouan and Mohéli, services dominate in the in Anjouan and Mohéli are 8 and 6 percent urban centers and Grand Comore) across the more likely to live in poverty than those living in islands, the incidence of poverty is estimated Grande Comore. The poverty incidence is lowest at 49.9 percent in rural versus 31 percent in in Moroni - the main city of Grande Comore and urban areas. Figure 10: Poverty Incidence indicators by regions and between comparators a. Poverty and Extreme Poverty Incidence in 2014 b. International Poverty Estimates in Comoros and (%) - national poverty line comparators in 2014 (%) 45 42.4 Samoa 1.7 40 Tonga 8.9 35 Fiji 14.1 30 Sao Tome and Principe 26.8 23.5 35.0 25 Cabo Verde 20 16.7 Comoros 38.1 15 Solomon Islands 58.8 8.9 10 Timor-Leste 73.2 5 0 Lower Middle Income 43.7 Poverty Extreme Poverty Severity of Sub-Saharan Africa 66.3 headcount poverty gap poverty headcount (P1) (P2) 0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 Sources: Panel a: EESIC 2014, Panel b: WDI.⁸⁴ ⁸⁴ The poverty lines used are based on the cost-of-basic-needs approach. The EESIC 2014 food poverty line (KMF 16,711 per capita per month) is based on the cost of a food basket that delivers 2,200 calories per person per day (given consumption patterns in a reference population). The basic needs poverty line (KMF 25,341 per capita per month) adds an allowance for basic non-food necessities to the food poverty line. The basic needs headcount poverty rate (or as used in the text, poverty rate) measures the proportion of the population whose monthly (price-adjusted) total household consumption per person is below the basic needs poverty line. The extreme headcount poverty rate (used in the text as extreme poverty rate) measures the proportion of the population whose monthly (price-adjusted) total household consumption per person is below the food poverty line. 51 5. Poverty and Shared Prosperity in Comoros Figure 11: Poverty Indicators for Comoros a. Poverty Incidence by Area (%) b. Poverty Incidence by Island (%) 60 50 46.6 44.9 49.9 45 50 39.8 40 36.5 40 35 31.0 30 30 25 20 20 15 10 10 5 0 0 Rural Urban Moroni Rest of Grande Anjouan Mohéli Comore Source: EESIC 2014. 54. Despite clear geographic disparities, and industry and trade. Fewer than 10 percent family size, the sector of employment and of the poor work in government and public educational attainments are the main factors administrations. Primary education alone that set the poor apart from the non-poor. is not enough to increase poor people’s Poverty among households consistently opportunities for moving out of poverty. increases with the number of children, There is a considerable poverty gap between reaching 70 percent among households households whose head has secondary or with five or more children, compared to less upper education and households whose than 20 percent among households with no heads have no or only primary education. children. Three fourth of the poor are self- There is no significant relationship between employed and over half of them depend on the gender of the household’s head and agriculture for their livelihoods. Poverty in economic welfare of the household. Finally, a Comoros is significantly lower among wage history of internal migration is associated with employees, especially in the service sector better poverty outcomes. Figure 12: Portrait of life in Comoros by income and location The average person living in poverty in Comoros compared to a non-poor person: Lives in a rural area rather than in the city Is less likely to have received secondary or tertiary education. Lives in Anjouan or Mohéli rather than Grande Lives in a household with 6 rather than 4 children and a Comore Island. greater number of dependents (children under the age of 15). Lives in a household whose head works in agriculture rather than in commerce or services. Has less access to infrastructure services. The head of the household is as likely to be female Is more likely to come from a family with no history of or male. internal migration. 52 5. Poverty and Shared Prosperity in Comoros Poverty headcount by location (2014) groups in Comoros. While the average per capita consumption increased by about 30 50 45 percent between 2004 and 2014, the average 40 consumption of the poor and the bottom 40 35 percent of the population only grew by about 4 30 25 percent and 15.5 percent respectively. Therefore, 20 despite the improvements witnessed in poverty 15 levels, the share of overall consumption that 10 5 accrued to the bottom 40 increased by only 0 1.92% points over the period 2004-2014. At 44.9, Moroni Rest of Grande Anjouan Mohéli Comore the Gini index for Comoros is slightly higher than Poor Extremely Poor the SSA average of 42.3, but significantly higher Source: EESIC 2014 than for structural peers (average of 32.9).⁸⁵ Disparities are most pronounced in rural areas Shared Prosperity and Inequality and Anjouan, where income (not time) related underemployment is high.⁸⁶ To halve extreme 55. Since 2014, little progress was made poverty by 2030, Comorian households at the towards shared prosperity and inequality has bottom of the distribution will have to post twice been on the rise (see Figure 13). The growth the consumption growth that the average posts. incidence curve for 2004–2014, which shows the By contrast, the poor benefit from economic percentage change in average consumption for growth according to the same pattern as before, each percentile of the distribution, is upwardly extreme poverty in Comoros will decline only sloped, indicating higher consumption growth modestly from 18 percent in 2014 to about 15 amongst the richer and better off population percent by 2030. Figure 13: Progress in inequality and shared prosperity for Comoros a. Progress towards shared prosperity (%) b. Growth Incidence, Comoros (2004-2014) Congo, Dem. Rep. (2004-2012) 10 Uganda (2009-2012) 8 Tanzania (2007-2011) 6 Congo, Rep. (2005-2011) Togo (2011-2015) 4 Comoros (2004-2014) 2 Cameroon (2007-2014) 0 Mauritius (2006-2012) -2 Rwanda (2010-2013) Senegal (2005-2011) -4 -2% 0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 0 20 40 60 80 100 Growth rate by percentile Growth rate in mean Source: EESIC 2014 ⁸⁵ Data are 2011-2017 averages from the Find my Friends WB’s tool using WDI data. ⁸⁶ About one fourth of the workforce suffers from income-related underemployment (as opposed to time-related underemployment which is low in Comoros), with the highest rate of under-employment in Anjouan. 53 5. Poverty and Shared Prosperity in Comoros 56. Inequalities between rural and urban conditions have improved (see Figure 14). areas are large and are mainly driven Multi-dimensional poverty incidence (MPI) by significant differences in returns to estimates improved by 12 percentage points households’ endowments (see Annex 5). between 2004 and 2014, as households Urban households are better off than their rural experienced considerable improvements counterparts because they have smaller family in their housing conditions and modern sizes, more assets, particularly communication amenities such as television sets and means means and generators, better access to of communication. Ownership of means of employment in commerce and manufacturing, transportation and livestock improved as as well as public administration, and higher well. However, deprivation levels remained access to basic services and infrastructure, pronounced and even increased in the areas mainly electricity, safe drinking water, markets of access to cooking fuel, electricity, sanitation and schools. However, even though urban and water. Between 2004 and 2014 access to households enjoy higher endowments, rural- safe drinking water slightly improved at the urban inequality is mainly explained by the national level and in rural areas but deteriorated higher reward of these characteristics in the in urban zones. Some progress was made with urban sector. Differences in returns to assets respect to access to improved sanitation, but and access to basic infrastructure explain the traditional/unimproved sanitation facilities largest portion of the inequality gap between remain the most common feature. The use of rural and urban poor households. electricity as a source of energy for cooking has remained marginal and the use of wood and Non-monetary aspects of poverty charcoal for cooking increased among urban and rural households. Significant achievements 57. Considering the non-monetary aspects were made on the human development front, of poverty, access to infrastructure services with a remarkable expansion in education remains an important constraint for the enrollment, particularly enrollment in upper poor, while access to schooling and living secondary and tertiary levels. Figure 14: Inequality by region and island in Comoros a. Gini coefficient by region b. Gini coefficient by island 47 60 46 46 49 50 45 42 42 45 40 40 44 30 43 43 20 42 10 41 40 0 Comoros Urban Rural Moroni Rest of Grande Anjouan Mohéli Comore Source: Panel a: EIM 2004, Panel b: EESIC 2014 54 5. Poverty and Shared Prosperity in Comoros 58. Despite progress on measures of monetary and 2014 (see Figure 16). Poor segments of the and non-monetary poverty, two thirds of the Comoros’ population are experiencing high population remain vulnerable to deprivation. deprivations in several dimensions of well- The incidence of deprivation – as measured being, including first and foremost in access to by the proportion of the population deprived electricity and efficient cooking fuels, followed in at least a third of relevant dimensions of by sanitation and assets ownership. Mohéli wellbeing (see Figure 15), such as consumption and Anjouan are facing the highest levels and measures of multi-dimensional poverty - of deprivation, while households in Grande declined from 85 to 75 percent between 2004 Comore seem to be better off. Figure 15: Welfare dimensions and indicators of the method Schooling achievement School attendance Dwelling Floor Dwelling Roof Dwelling Wall No Sleeping rooms HH Water Sanitation Electricity Cooking fuel Consumption Agricultural assets Non-agricultural assets Education Housing Conditions Access to Basic Services Living Standard Assets (1/5) (1/5) (1/5) (1/5) Ownership (1/5) Five Welfare Dimensions Figure 16: Multidimensional deprivation indicators by region and Island for Comoros a. Urban-rural divide b. Region-islands divide 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 National Urban Rural Moroni Rest of Grande Anjouan Comore 2004 2014 2004 2014 Source: Panel a: EIM 2004, Panel b: EESIC 2014 55 5. Poverty and Shared Prosperity in Comoros Drivers of Poverty Reduction and transportation means, and higher educational rising Inequality since 2004 attainments. Remittances contributed significantly to asset acquisition and to raising 59. Poverty reduction between 2004 and household’s living standards and consumption 2014 was to a large degree the result of (see Annex 8). In 2014, close to 40 percent of an expansion of assets ownership among Comorian households received remittances. poor households, which was fueled by The amounts sent represented on average 22 remittances (see Figure 17 and Annex 5 for percent of recipient revenues. Remittances a decomposition of consumption growth increased per capita consumption by about 22 by income groups). Increased household percent and reduced the likelihood of being consumption led to a significant improvement poor by about 11 percentage points. Estimates in household endowments. Especially, the also show that remittances had a stronger poorest experienced the expansion of asset impact on consumption levels among less ownership, especially in communication and affluent households.⁸⁷ Figure 17: Destination of remittances a. Per capita remittances/consumption ratio b. Main purpose stated for remitting money in among recipient households (in %) percentage of total amounts sent (2014) 10 Deciles of income distribution 9 Other family Associations/ 8 support: 16% Mutual insurance schemes: 5% 7 6 Investment: 4% 5 4 Studies: 7% 3 Other family 2 support & assistance: 68% 1 0 10 20 30 40 Source: EESIC 2014 60. Remittances flows explain the significant and Mohéli is 11 and 15 percent, respectively, variation in poverty outcomes across the vs. 17 percent in Grande Comore. These different islands. The highly localized nature differences are the result of important cultural of remittances from the diaspora perpetuates differences between the three islands. A disparities. Most of the incoming remittances central historical purpose of remittances accrue to Grande Comore (about 84 percent), is to finance the high expenses related to with the remainder going mainly to Anjouan. organizing the Grand Marriage, a tradition The average boost in consumption accruing to that is more common in Grande Comore and remittance receiving households in Anjouan Mohéli, than in Anjouan. ⁸⁷ This effect is statistically significant at the 1 percent level of confidence. Remittances increase consumption by 31.7 percent, while the effect is 11.5 percentage points lower (20.2 percent) among more affluent households. 56 5. Poverty and Shared Prosperity in Comoros 61. Educational advances had a relatively small more pronounced structural transformation of positive effect on consumption levels for the the economy and a more generalized shortage poor. Between 2004 and 2014, Comorians’ of employment opportunities the positive effect access to education improved considerably. The on poverty has been limited (see for Annex 8 bottom 40 percent benefitted significantly more for a description of Comoros’ labor market). from the increase in enrollment in primary, lower This pattern also explains the increasing secondary and tertiary education, whereas the divide between rural and urban households as top 30 percent experienced a disproportionally the former have less access to employment larger increase in enrollment in upper secondary opportunities in these two sectors. education. Yet, the richest segments of the population were more successful in reaping the 63. Similarly, modest improvements in access to gains of improved access to education as they basic services did little to improve the life of the were able to access formal and more productive poor. Despite some progress in access to basic jobs. Although the poor moved out of agriculture services, over three quarters of the Comorian into manufacturing and commerce, where (multidimensional) poor remain deprived in access returns increased over time, they remain largely to electricity, efficient cooking fuels such as gas, employed in informal and low-skilled jobs, and kerosene or charcoal, and improved sanitation (see the increase in returns is from a low base. Figure 16 and Figure 19). The middle-class and the most affluent Comorian households benefitted 62. A shortage of employment opportunities the most from improvements in access to basic and only limited structural transformation have services, which together with ownership of assets meant that little poverty reduction occurred account for the largest share of multidimensional because of shifts in employment patterns. poverty. Due to the initially very low level of access, Those who were poor in 2004 were most likely limited access to basic services (such as access to be non-poor by 2014, if they had moved out of to water facilities, electricity, health centers and agriculture into commerce, and a lesser extent markets) continues to be a strong predictor of the service sector. However, in the absence of a being poor in Comoros. Figure 18: Multi-dimensional poverty indicators for Comoros Comoros: Changes in multi-dimensional poverty (in %) between 2004 and 2014 Consumption Non-agricultural Assets Agricultural Assets Cooking Fuel Electricity Sanitation Water No Sleeping Rooms Dwelling Roof Dwelling Wall Dwelling Floor School Attendance Schooling Achievement -20.0 -10.0 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 Source: JMP, 2015. 57 5. Poverty and Shared Prosperity in Comoros Figure 19: Accessibility to basic infrastructure a. Comoros: Access levels for infrastructure in b. % Access: Basic Sanitation (2011-2017) 2014 (as % of population) 70 120 100 60 80 50 60 40 40 20 30 0 20 Small Island Samoa Fiji Tonga Aspirational Peers Sao Tome and Principe Solomon Islands Timor-Leste Structural Peers (2001-2011) States Cabo Verde Fragile States Comoros Comoros 10 0 Access to Access to Access piped water electricity to markets SSA Average 20th Percentile Lower middle income Poor Non-poor 80th Percentile Lower middle income Source: JMP, 2015. Source: Staff calculations using WDI 64. Between 2004 and 2014, one of the most to 6.3 individuals, while the size of those from important drivers of poverty reduction in the top 30 percent declined from 4.6 to 3.8 Comoros were reductions in family size, individuals (see Figure 20). Rural households however, the impact could have been larger are larger compared to urban ones, but if fertility had fallen at a faster pace. Fertility both have diminished, rural households’ size rates remain high (around 4.3 per woman), declining from 6.1 individuals in 2004 to 5.4 in which result in households of significant 2014, and urban households’ size decreasing size but varying across income levels and from 5.5 individuals in 2004 to 4.5 in 2014. geographical areas. Poor households in The demographic structure of Comoros’ Comoros are typically larger in size, with households experienced a slight increase an average of 6 members compared to in the dependency ratio (i.e. the proportion an average of 4 members in non-poor of children and older family members to households and have more children.⁸⁸ working-age adults). A similar trend is found Between 20054 and 2014, the family size for across all households, no matter their urban/ households at the bottom 40 percent of the rural origin or their income. Dependency ratios consumption distribution went down from 7.3 are highest among the poor. ⁸⁸ Bigger family size translates into lower consumption levels and higher poverty, because a larger number of children and dependents threatens the ability of poor households to cover basic food needs. On the other hand, poor households often tend to have more children as an insurance strategy against infant mortality, trapping them in a vicious cycle of poverty. 58 5. Poverty and Shared Prosperity in Comoros Figure 20: Demographic structure Comoros a. Household's size, 2004-2014 b. Households' demographic structure, 2004-2014 (number of individuals) (share of individuals within Comoros' households) 5.9 Comoros 5 73 72 66 69 64 60 5.5 59 53 Urban 56 4.5 61 6.1 Rural 5.4 29 27 24 22 21 19 25 24 18 16 7.1 Bottom 40% 15 14 13 12 16 16 18 17 6.3 11 12 2004 2014 2004 2014 2004 2014 2004 2014 2004 2014 4.6 Top 30% 3.8 Comoros Urban Rural Bottom Top 0 2 4 6 8 40% 30% 2004 2014 Children under 5 Children 5 to 15 Adults Sources: Panel a: EIM 2004, Panel b: EESIC 2014. 65. Despite evident disparities in the result of existing social policies, the structure distribution of welfare between socio- of the labor market and its requirements, demographic groups and geographic and the heavy dependency on transfers and regions, most of the existing inequalities in remittances of some households. Comoros are within groups. A decomposition of inequality by household attributes suggests 66. Intergenerational persistence of poverty that 7 percent of inequality of per capita and inequality is predominately driven by consumption is attributable to the educational an individual’s region of birth. Around one- attainment of the household head, 5 percent fifth of total inequality in consumption is to the difference in households’ demographic due to unequal opportunities associated composition and another 5 percent to the with observed Comoros households’ sector of employment of the head of household circumstances. This is quite a sizeable (see Annex 6). Inequalities between urban and share compared to other SSA countries.⁸⁹ rural locations explain another 3 percent of the Inequalities of opportunities are significantly overall inequality, while disparities between higher in rural areas and are driven by the Comoros’ islands only have a marginal individual’s region of birth, indicating the contribution. Explanations of remaining large role played by birthplaces in shaping inequalities lie within groups and might be the opportunities. The importance of local ⁸⁹ Almost 19 percent of consumption inequality in Comoros can be attributed to unequal opportunities. Such a share is quite significant compared with SSA standards, where inequality of opportunity’s share is estimated at 12 percent in Ghana, 15 percent in Ivory Coast, 19 percent in Tanzania and 21 percent in Madagascar. However, the share of Comoros unequal opportunities within the consumption inequality remains lower than the levels observed in Latin America, where the opportunity shares of consumption inequality have been found to range between 24 percent in Colombia to 39 percent in Panama. 59 5. Poverty and Shared Prosperity in Comoros community’s characteristics in explaining Weak human capital and high the disparities in terms of the distribution of fertility rates as drivers of poverty returns and inequalities of opportunity may reflect past historical political instability 68. Poverty and equity outcomes in Comoros and the effects of localized concentration are also the result of low levels of public of political power and economic resources. investments in education and health services. This finding can also explain why a history of A country’s average income per capita and internal migration (see Figure 12) tends to be its investment in human capital are highly associated with less poverty. correlated, which reflects a two-way causality: human capital contributes to the production of 67. Inequality would be higher in Comoros if output, but richer countries can also invest more it were not for fiscal policy,⁹⁰ but Comoros in their children. Poverty is a function of both remains a country with high post-fiscal the average level of income and how income income inequality. In-kind spending accounts is distributed among households. In practice, for over 90 percent of the total inequality it is poorer children in whom investment tends reduction from fiscal activity and 90 percent to be most deficient, and thus this is the group of these in-kind fiscal expenditures are most likely to benefit from an increase in targeted to education.⁹¹ The administration human capital investment. As a share of GDP and delivery of the public health system investments in health and education are low (excluding national referral hospitals) and the in Comoros compared to other countries (see public education system (excluding tertiary Figure 21) with the wage bill absorbing a large education) are delegated to the islands; portion of Government’s spending in the two funding for these expenditures comes from sectors. Costs for services are often absorbed non-designated transfers from the Union fiscal through out-of-pocket expenditures at the authority.⁹² The positive impact of health and household level, resulting in especially low education expenditures from in-kind health access to health services by the poor.⁹³ Where and education services on inequality by island poorer households are recipients of remittances is highest on the island with the lowest initial they use them to purchase education and health inequality (Mohéli). care for their children. ⁹⁰ The analysis of the incidence of fiscal policy in the Comoros Poverty Assessment finds that fiscal policy in the form of direct and indirect taxes, and in-kind spending on health and education services, leads to a reduction of Comoros’ Gini coefficient by approximately 3.3 points (World Bank, 2017a). The analysis is based on a Commitment Equity (CEQ) Assessment, which compares pre- and post-fiscal income distributions, using ESSIC 2014 data and budget reporting for the same year. In-kind transfers of education and health services have the largest impact on inequality. The impact of direct and indirect taxes is mixed. Overall, when excluding in-kind transfers, fiscal policy increases the poverty headcount, while most of the poor households are net payers into the fiscal system. ⁹¹ See World Bank (2015). ⁹² See World Bank (2015). ⁹³ World Bank. Assistance technique sur demande pour l’amélioration de la prestation de services (2016). 60 5. Poverty and Shared Prosperity in Comoros Figure 21: Government expenditures on health and education, Comoros and Comparators a. Government Expenditure on education as % of b. Government expenditure on health as % of GDP GDP (2011-2017) (2011-2017) 8 5 7 6 4 5 3 4 3 2 2 1 1 0 0 (2001-2010) and Principe Small island states Solomon Islands Small island states Structural Peers and Principe (2001-2010) Sao Tome Cabo Verde Comoros Aspirational Peers Fiji Fragile States Samoa Cabo Verde Aspirational Peers Structural Peers Sao Tome Tonga Fragile States Fiji Comoros Timor-Leste Comoros Comoros Timor-Leste 80th Percentile Lower middle income SSA Average 80th Percentile Lower middle income SSA Average 20th Percentile Lower middle income 20th Percentile Lower middle income Source: Staff calculations using WDI. 69. Comoros’ human capital lags that of middle income country (0.48). In comparison other lower-middle income countries which with lower-middle income countries, Comoros compromises the earnings potential of the lags most on the number of expected years next generation (see Table 5). In 2018, the of schooling (8.4 vs. 10.4 years), adult survival World Bank launched its Human Capital project rates (78 vs. 81 percent) and the fraction of and the Human Capital Index (HCI) which children that are not considered stunted (69 measures the amount of human capital that a vs. 73 percent).⁹⁴ Infant and child mortality child born today can expect to attain by age 18 rates in Comoros have continuously improved, (see Box 4 on the methodology of the index). at respectively 57 and 67 per 1,000 live births, With an aggregate index score of 0.41 Comoros but infant and child mortality remain high by performs better than the average low-income lower-middle income country standards and country (0.38) but below the average of lower- compared to structural peers (see Figure 22). ⁹⁴ Stunting measures the share of children who are unusually small for their age. It is broadly accepted as a proxy for the prenatal, infant, and early childhood health environment, and it summarizes the risks to good health that children are likely to experience in their early years—with important consequences for health and well-being in adulthood. 61 5. Poverty and Shared Prosperity in Comoros Figure 22: Health and well-being indicators 1, Comoros and comparators Mortality rate, infant (per 1,000 live births) (2011-2017) 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Small island states (2001-2010) Fragile States Structural Peers and Principe Comoros Timor-Leste Sao Tome Solomon Islands Cabo Verde Fiji Aspirational Peers Samoa Tonga Comoros 80th Percentile Lower middle income 20th Percentile Lower middle income SSA Average Source: Staff calculations using WDI. Table 5: The Human Capital Index and its components by income groups INDICATOR COMOROS LOW LOWER UPPER HIGH INCOME MIDDLE MIDDLE INCOME INCOME INCOME HCI Component 1: Survival Probability of Survival to Age 5 0.931 0.929 0.961 0.983 0.995 HCI Component 2: School Expected Years of School 8.4 7.8 10.4 11.7 13.3 Harmonized Test Scores 392 363 391 428 506 HCI Component 3: Health Survival Rate from Age 15-60 0.778 0.745 0.807 0.863 0.923 Fraction of Children Under 5 Not Stunted 0.689 0.658 0.730 0.869 0.935 Human Capital Index (HCI) 0.41 0.38 0.48 0.58 0.74 70. Despite important progress on school rates remain below those of aspirational enrollment, Comorian children today spend peers’ (91 percent on average)⁹⁵ and at 8.5 too little time in school and learn even less. years of expected years of learning, children Since 2000, enrollment rates in secondary in Comoros spend 2 years less in school education have doubled from about 35 than children in other lower-middle income percent to nearly 70 percent. Yet, enrollment countries. In addition, increased schooling ⁹⁶ Filmer et al. (2018) 62 5. Poverty and Shared Prosperity in Comoros does not always translate into more learning.⁹⁶ a result, when years of schooling are adjusted Only 30 percent of students in 5th grade for quality of learning, Comorian children achieve basic competencies according to today only spent an expected 5.3 years in PASEC, the regional learning assessment. As school (see Figure 23). Figure 23: Learning Gap Learning adjusted expected years of school 15 expected years of school Learning adjusted 10 Learning Gap 5 COMOROS 0 0 5 10 15 Expected years of school Source: WB’s Human Capital Index 2018 Box 4: What constitutes human capital and how to measure it? In 2018, the Word Bank launched its Human Capital project. Based on the current state of academic evidence on the relationship between human capital and growth and poverty a new measure was constructed – the Human Capital Index (HCI) - that conveys the expected productivity of the next generation of workers based on education and health outcomes in a country today. The HCI is higher on average in rich countries than in poor countries and ranges from around 0.3 to around 0.9. The units of the HCI have the same interpretation as the components measured in terms of relative productivity. Comoros has an HCI of 0.41. A score of 0.41 means that if current education and health conditions in Comoros persist, a child born ⁹⁶ Increasing class sizes, weak teacher training and monitoring and a lack of operational financing are driving low educational efficiency and outcomes. A sectoral diagnostique (« RESEN ») conducted by the Ministry of Education, together with donors, revealed serious limitations in: teacher professional development (pre-service, and in-service), the monitoring of teacher performance, and the assessment of learning of students. There is also a shortage in financing of operating costs for schools, especially with regards to materials for teaching. Finally, average class size in primary education was estimated at 31 in 2017, and as low as 14 at the secondary level, resulting in a degree of inefficiency in schools, as teachers are not used to their full capacity at the secondary level. ⁹⁷ Per recent self-reported data, only 37 percent of 15-19 year olds could read. This is less than half of the regional average (77 percent) and places Comoros well below Chad, Niger, and Mali, let alone comparators like Cape Verde. In terms of curricular hours assigned to education, Comoros only has about 630 hours programmed at the primary level. This is at the low end of the distribution. 63 5. Poverty and Shared Prosperity in Comoros today will be only 41 percent as productive as she could have been if she enjoyed complete education and full health. The HCI is made up of five indicators: the probability of survival to age 5, a child’s expected years of schooling, a harmonized test scores as a measure of the quality of learning, adult survival rate (fraction of 15-year olds that will survive to age 60), and the proportion children who are not stunted. The components of the HCI are combined into a single index by first converting them into contributions to productivity. Multiplying these contributions to productivity gives the overall HCI. The HCI summarizes how productive children born today will be as members of the future workforce, given the risks to education and health summarized in the components. The HCI is measured in units of productivity relative to a benchmark corresponding to complete education and full health. The connection between each indicator and productivity is as follows: • Probability of survival: Children who do not survive childhood never become productive adults. As a result, expected productivity as a future worker of a child born today is reduced by a factor equal to the survival rate, relative to the benchmark where all children survive. • Years and quality of education: The relative productivity interpretation of education indicators is anchored in the large empirical literature measuring the returns to education at the individual level. A rough consensus from this literature is that an additional year of school raises earnings by about 8 percent. This evidence can be used to convert differences in learning-adjusted years of school across countries into differences in worker productivity. For example, compared with a benchmark where all children obtain a full 14 years of school by age 18, a child who obtains only 9 years of education can expect to be 40 percent less productive as an adult (a gap of 5 years of education, multiplied by 8 percent per year). • Health outcomes as proxied by stunting: People are more productive when they are healthier. The economic literature often uses proxy indicators for health, such as adult height. This is because adult height can be measured directly and reflects the accumulation of shocks to health through childhood and adolescence. Stunting serves as an indicator for the prenatal, infant, and early childhood health environments, summarizing the risks to good health that children born today are likely to experience in their early years, with important consequences for health and well-being in adulthood. Available evidence suggests that an improvement in health that reduces stunting by 10.2 percentage points will lead to an improvement in worker productivity of 3.5 percent. Source: World Bank’s Human Capital Index’s methodology. 64 5. Poverty and Shared Prosperity in Comoros 71. There is a clear gender gap in educational nutrition inadequacies. 31 out of 100 children attainment. In Comoros, completion rates for growing up in Comoros are stunted and, hence, girls in education lag those of boys. Primary at risk of cognitive and physical limitations that school completion rates for boys versus girls can last a lifetime and undermine the long- are in the range of 90 versus 70 percent. Early term potential not only of the individual but marriage and adolescent pregnancies might society as a whole. The proportion of severely be one reason for girls’ low completion rates. stunted children reaches 19.4 percent in rural Adolescent pregnancies are more frequent in areas, compared to 17.2 percent in urban Comoros than in other small island states and areas. While health outcomes are relatively two to three-times higher than in aspirational equally distributed undernutrition outcomes peer countries (except for Cabo Verde). (low birthweight, stunted, underweight and While the legal minimum age of marriage wasted) are concentrated among the worse- for men and women is 18, the Family Code off and particularly the first quintile of the gives judges the right to allow girls and boys income distribution. These poor results are to marry earlier based on serious and valid in part explained by the absence of nutrition grounds, with the mutual consent of the interventions and a low rate of exclusive future spouse. breastfeeding (at 12% in 2012 and on decreasing trend during the last five years). And, although, 72. Poor results on stunting, especially among the rate of oral rehydration is increasing, it the rural poor, suggest the existence of chronic remains under 60%. Figure 24: Health and well-being indicators 2, Comoros and comparators a. Prevalence of severe wasting, weight for height b. Exclusive breastfeeding (% of children under 5) (2011-2017) (% of children under 6 months) (2011-2017) 5 90 4.5 80 4 70 3.5 60 3 50 2.5 2 40 1.5 30 1 20 0.5 10 0 0 Small island states Fragile States Tonga Structural Peers and Principe and Principe Structural Peers Small island states Fragile States Comoros Aspirational Peers Timor-Leste Sao Tome Solomon Islands Sao Tome Samoa Timor-Leste Aspirational Peers Tonga Comoros 80th Percentile Lower middle income SSA Average 80th Percentile Lower middle income SSA Average 20th Percentile Lower middle income 20th Percentile Lower middle income Source: Staff calculations using WDI. 73. Stunting in childhood is associated with development, leading to lower cognitive adverse outcomes throughout the life cycle. and socioemotional skills, lower levels of Undernourishment and diseases that cause educational attainment, and hence lower stunting have been shown to impair brain incomes. Health problems in terms of non- 65 5. Poverty and Shared Prosperity in Comoros communicable diseases are more likely in time: In 1995, 60 percent of reported that later life, leading to increased health care would like to have fewer children, by 2012 this costs. The relatively low adult survival rates number had gone down to 50 percent. In 2012, observed in Comoros may be a result of this men in Comoros aspired to have on average difficult early start and of a health delivery 5.7 children, women 5.3. service model that prioritizes those who can pay for health care out of their own pocket. 75. Fertility rates are more likely to come down by closing the gender education gap and 74. High fertility rates are another driver raising women’s labour force participation. of poverty but scaling up family planning The number of children that women desire efforts in Comoros might face cultural tends to vary significantly by the education barriers. At 32.3 percent, the unmet need for status of the woman: in Comoros, women contraception (in percent of married women without any education state a desired number at reproductive age) is higher than the Sub- of children of 6.1 versus 4.7 for women with Saharan average (24.9 percent). Family secondary education. Global evidence planning programs have been found to be suggests that keeping girls longer in school successful in countries where the desired might be a bigger driver for adjusting fertility number of children is markedly lower than the preferences than family planning efforts. Also, observed number of children.⁹⁸ In Comoros, at 33 percent of the working age population, however, the desired number of children – as women’s participation in the labour force is one reported by both men and women - is higher of the lowest in the region. As women engage than the observed number of 4.3 children in the labour market, the opportunity costs of per woman in 2012. This finding is consistent having children rise, which usually leads to across income groups and has grown over lower fertility rates. ⁹⁸ Fertility has generally been found to be responsive to the implementation of family planning in the developing world (de Silva and Tenreyro, 2017). Using DHS data on exposure to family planning messages, a significant, negative association between the fertility change and exposure to family planning messages after controlling for other covariates has been found, suggesting that the delay in the implementation of the family planning programs in Africa largely explains the delayed decline in fertility in the region. 66 UNDERSTANDING COMOROS' LOW GROWTH PERFORMANCE 67 6. Understanding Comoros' Low Growth Performance Premièrement, la hausse du chômage. Pourtant les diplômés sont là, mais le problème est que les Comores ne possèdent pas des grands débouchés dans tous les secteurs. Deuxièmement, le manque des infrastructures que se soient routières, portuaires ou touristiques. Par ailleurs, le pays demeure encore riche dans tous les domaines. Il est n'est pas exploité. Il est vierge.”⁹⁹ 76. Post-independence, Comoros’ economic in the early 2000s, the number of political growth pattern was initially characterized by crises has reduced, which has tempered the high volatility, a situation which stabilized volatility of growth pattern, but consistent after 2001 at a low level. Comoros’ declaration with growth experiences of other politically of independence in 1975 was followed by fragile countries, growth stabilized at a low repeated socio-political tensions, including level (see Figure 25).¹⁰¹ Over the period 2001 to unconstitutional changes in government. 2017, the average real growth rate of GDP per Periods of political instability have been capita was 0.3, also highlighting that the pace associated with a contraction in growth.¹⁰⁰ of growth of the economy has been unable to Following the adoption of a new constitution significantly outpace population growth. Figure 25: Impact of political stability on growth a. Comoros GDP growth (annual %), 1981-2017 b. GDP per capita growth (%): Averages for non- fragile and fragile countries 12.0 5 Non-fragile Fragile 10.0 4 Greater island 8.0 autonomy and 3 6.0 "tournante" 4.0 introduced in 2011 2 2.0 1 0.0 0 -2.0 -1 -4.0 -2 -6.0 -8.0 -3 1981 1987 1993 1999 2005 2011 2017 1961 1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 Source: WDI ⁹⁹ Quote from respondent to a Facebook online consultation: “First, rising unemployment. People have degrees, but the problem is that Comoros does not have many work opportunities in many sectors. Second, the lack of infrastructure, be it roads, ports or tourism. Third, bad governance in the country; with that I mean the nepotism keeps growing. Beyond that, the country remains rich in many areas, it remains unused, it is still virgin.” ¹⁰⁰A background paper written for this report (De Filho and Diaz-Sanchez, 2018) finds that political instability tends to affect negatively per capita GDP growth and that the impact is stronger in fragile-low income countries. ¹⁰¹ There is an ample literature documenting the negative effects of political instability on a wide range of macroeconomic variables including, among others, GDP growth, private investment, and inflation. Alesina et al. (1996) use data on 113 countries from 1950 to 1982 to show that GDP growth is significantly lower in countries and time periods with a high propensity of government collapse. Aisen and Veiga (2013) find that higher degrees of political instability lead to lower economic growth by lowering the rates of productivity growth and, to a smaller degree, physical and human capital accumulation. 68 6. Understanding Comoros' Low Growth Performance 77. From the demand side, growth has percent of GDP between 2011 and 2017 and largely been driven by private consumption, are high compared to the average of SSA (4.9 reflecting high levels of transfers from abroad percent) and structural peers (5.0 percent) and (see Figure 26). Since 2001, consumption to other comparator countries (e.g. fragile and represents the main contributor to growth. small islands states with 7.7 and 7.0 percent, Although public consumption also increased, respectively). Investments’ contribution to it was private consumption that drove growth has been low, negative sometimes, economic growth fueled by remittances. and volatile. In 2017, FDI represented less Remittances have been growing - in absolute than 1 percent of GDP, well below structural terms and as a proportion of GDP - in the peers (5.4 percent over 2011-2017). Net exports last couple of decades. Received personal contributed negatively to growth in most of remittances represented on average 12 the years since 2001. Figure 26: Demand side drivers of GDP growth a. Comoros: Contribution to GDP growth - b. Comoros: Private and Public Consumption demand side (annual growth) 10 9 08 7 06 5 04 3 02 1 00 -1 -02 -04 -3 Structural Peers Small Island States Sao Tome and Principe Fragile States (2001-2010) Solomon Islands Timor-Leste Comoros Comoros Cabo Verde Aspirational Peers -06 -08 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Investment Net exports Real Private consumption (annual growth) (2011-2017) Consumption GDP growth Real Public consumption (annual growth) (2011-2017) Source: Staff calculations using revised national accounts. 78. From the supply side, labor has Overall, TFP growth has been negligible and traditionally been the main contributor to for some years even negative. growth (see Figure 27). In Comoros, working age population growth has been by the major 79. The sectoral contribution to growth is contributor to economic growth in each year starting to change in favor of the services sector. for the last quarter of the century. Low levels Growth in Comoros has traditionally been led by of capital growth have contributed very little agriculture, however in recent years services to economic growth and have generated a have played a more important role, suggesting low level of productivity gains in the economy, a beginning structural transformation of worryingly compromising future growth. Comoros’ economy. Between 2001 and 69 6. Understanding Comoros' Low Growth Performance 2017 the service sector grew annually by decreased by almost 20 percentage points 2.6 percent on average (although, below (it accounted for 57 percent in 2004 against structural peers) and was by far the main 38 percent in 2014), whereas employment contributor to growth. Between 2004 and in all other sectors (industry and services) 2014, employment in the agricultural sector has grown. Figure 27: Supply side and sectoral drivers of GDP growth for Comoros a. Comros: Factor Contribution to Potential b. Sectoral contribution to growth (in %) GDP growth 4 5 3 4 2 3 1 2 0 1 -1 0 -2 -1 1991-1995 1996-2000 2001-2005 2006-2010 2011-2017 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 TFP contribution Labour contribution Capital contribution Potential GDP growth Agriculture Industry Services Source: Staff calculations using Comoros’ revised national accounts and WDI What would it take for Comoros had growth rates above 10 percent but only to escape its low-growth for 3 or 4 consecutive years (in the 2000s, equilibrium? at the end of 1980s, and at the beginning of the 1970s, respectively). Assuming a real GDP 80. The Comorian Government has set itself growth rate of 4 percent, which is consistent the ambitious goal of “emergence” by 2030, with the average growth observed for Sub- which it hopes to achieve through an annual Saharan Africa and for structural peers in real GDP growth rate of 6 percent.¹⁰² However, the past decade, Comoros would have to simulations suggest that “emergence”, if either increase its labor force by 4.2 percent defined as reaching middle income status, annually (compared to an average of 2.8 in will require a far more ambitious growth the last 10 years), or accumulate capital at 6.9 target than 6 percent. To reach middle percent annually (compared to an average income status by 2030, Comoros real GDP of 3.6 in the last 10 years), or raise its total would have to grow at 12 percent every factor productivity annually by 1 percent. The year, a growth rate that no country could following section discusses what currently ever sustain for more than a couple of years. stands in the way to any of these factors For instance, China, Thailand, and Malaysia contributing more to growth. ¹⁰² The government has recently updated its “Accelerated growth strategy for sustainable development” or revised SCA2D (Commissariat Général au Plan, 2018) that aims to support its 2030’s objectives. The plan focusses on key infrastructures in the areas of energy, transport (specially roads), and health. 70 6. Understanding Comoros' Low Growth Performance The Capital Contribution a budget composition that is heavily tilted towards consumption (i.e. recurrent spending 81. Years of low public and private on wages). Available resources to step up public investment rates have hampered the capital investment are constrained by low revenue accumulation in Comoros and affected collection (Box 5). Domestic revenues in Comoros connectivity within and across islands (see averaged 17.2 percent of GDP over 2011-2017, a Figure 28). Over 2011-2017, total investment much lower percentage compared to structural in Comoros represented 16.1 percent of GDP. comparators (45.3 percent) and below the This percentage was far below the one for average of Sub Saharan countries (22.5 percent). structural peers (22.9 percent) and for the A wage bill that consumes 69.3 percent of tax average of Sub Saharan Africa (23.1 percent). revenues (over 2011-2017), higher than most of Around a third of total investment is public structural and aspirational peers, gives little room (5 percent), and only 11 percent is private for investment. Further, the investment budget is investment, very far from the average of Sub typically cut in times of scarcity to accommodate Saharan Africa (20.8 percent). As a result, the recurrent spending needs, as occurred most capital stock in Comoros is very low compared recently in 2014 when the domestic investment to other structural and aspirational peers. budget contracted by 58 percent.¹⁰³ Finally, repeated forced changes in governments have 82. Public savings and investment are resulted in a constant interruption and a lack of constrained by low domestic revenues and continuity in investments projects.¹⁰⁴ Box 5: Areas of reform of tax policy and tax administration Important progress in terms of reforms and performance has been made in the customs area. However, the Tax Directorate (AGID) is lagging. Among the main challenges facing by the AGID are: (i) address the issue of the lack of standardization of accounting practices; (ii) create incentives to influence the behavior of public enterprises vis-à-vis their tax obligations; (iii) increase the very low rate of registration of taxpayers and taxable areas; (iv) fight against the predominance of cash transactions; (v) work to address the problem of low interoperability of revenue management systems (the case of customs, banks, and the Tax Identification Number); and (vi) increase the reliability of the land registry. Concerning the custom administration, an important area of reform is to fully implement Sydonia Word in the aim to activate the necessary modules to obtain a good administration of the value and risk management. In recent years there has been an uncontrolled proliferation of exemptions, a revision of exonerations should be at the core of the new investment code. Indeed, the current ¹⁰³ There is not an analogous response of the investment budget in boom times. This asymmetry is also found for other countries and regions in the world (see for instance Gavin and Perotti (1997) for the case of Latin America and Dessus, Diaz-Sanchez, and Varoudakis (2016) for the case of WAEMU countries). ¹⁰⁴ Weak government capacity and poor medium-term planning affected the execution ratio of the public investment program, which remained at around 45 percent in recent years. 71 6. Understanding Comoros' Low Growth Performance investment code presents important issues that should be addressed including: a lack of transparency, significant discretionary authority, risk of abuses, unequal treatment across firms, unpredictability, high costs in terms of fiscal and customs revenues. The World Bank provided analytical and technical support for a new investment code in Comoros. The draft law has not been yet submitted by the government to the Parliament. Reforming indirect taxation presents some risks, but it would help reduce exonerations and will be key in the WTO accession process. Compared to the consumption tax, the VAT offers additional fraud opportunities through the creation of fictitious VAT credits. This results in a risk of revenue losses and distortions of competition between fraudulent operators and civic operators. Consequently, introducing the VAT in a low value-added economy could seem risky. However, the collect of more than two thirds of the VAT receipts in customs strongly limits the risk of revenue loss. In addition, the introduction of the VAT removes a major cause of the proliferation of exemptions. Finally, the VAT implementation is one of the conditions currently being negotiated between the government and the WTO for the Comoros’ accession to the WTO. Any tax reform will not be successful without better relations between the State and firms. Thus, the accumulation of arrears constitutes a factor of opacity of the government’s relation with the telecommunications company, which is the largest tax collector in the country. Similarly, the State should renounce to the discretion in the tax deadlines. Finally, clear rules should be respected for the application of tax procedures; for example, the plans for the controls must be defined according to criteria drawn from a risk analysis; and the quality of the controls must be key in the aim of reducing fraud behavior. Figure 28: Investment and Capital Accumulation a. Investment (share of Nominal GDP) (2011-2017) b. Real Public and private stock per capita, 2015 (211 PPP$-adjusted), thousands 40 Comoros 35 30 25 São Tomé and 20 Principe 15 10 5 Fiji 0 and Principe Small Island States Structural Peers Fragile States (2001-2010) Cabo Verde Sao Tome Aspirational Peers Solomon Islands Fiji Comoros Timor-Leste Comoros Cabo Verde 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 80th Percentile Lower middle income SSA Average Real per capita private capital stock 20th Percentile Lower middle income Real per capita government capital stock Source: First panel: Staff calculations using WDI. Second panel: IMF database on capital stock. 72 6. Understanding Comoros' Low Growth Performance 83. Political instability and a weak rule of 85. High asset impairment in the banking law harm private sector investment. Political system threatens the stability of the financial instability not only affects the continuity of sector and limits the availability of credit public investment, it also undermines the to the private sector. Even though private confidence of private investors. Foreign and credit to GDP has increased substantially domestic private investment in Comoros has from 5.7 percent in 2007 to 16.6 percent in been low. At an average of 0.9 percent of GDP 2017, this remains low compared to peer over the period 2011-2017 Comoros attracted countries and the increase happened mainly foreign direct investment at levels far below in short-term loans to individuals.¹⁰⁶ Credit for those of structural peers (5.4 percent) and Sub investment is very limited and is backed by Saharan Africa (5.9 percent). A weak respect either immovable collateral, salary pledges or for the rule of law and very low ratings on gold.¹⁰⁷ Non-performing loans (NPLs) are high other governance indicators - such as voice and increasing (23.6 percent in 2017) with banks and accountability, government effectiveness, unable to resolve bad debts through the justice and control of corruption – are discouraging for system.¹⁰⁸ The absence of a collateral registry private investors in Comoros and from abroad. for movable assets negatively impacts small and medium sized firms who do not possess 84. Domestically, private investment is also the requisite immovable collateral for a loan constrained by the weak mobilization of to be securitized using immovable assets. private savings and a weak financial sector. Consequently, Comorians rely on microfinance Gross private savings represented 4 percent institutions (MFIs) with the largest MFI’s total of GDP on average over 2011-2017, far below outstanding loans representing more than a the average for Sub Saharan Africa (13.6 third of credit to the economy. percent) or other fragile states (11.2 percent). Similarly, at 13.9 percent of GDP, domestic 86. Beyond banking and microfinance, other credit has been at least 10 percentage points financial services are underdeveloped in below structural peers and the average for Comoros. Mobile money has yet to take off Sub-Saharan Africa in recent years (2011- and insurance, pensions, and capital markets 2017).¹⁰⁵ With just 136 bank accounts per 1,000 sectors are small, emerging, and unregulated. adults Comoros lags significantly behind the Modern payments platforms such as an penetration rates for peers but falls even Automated Transfer System (ATS) and a behind the average for Sub-Saharan Africa national switch are inexistent which impede the (332) and low-income countries (186). development of mobile banking and payments ¹⁰⁵ The uptake of banking services remains low (9 percent of the population has a bank account), mainly because of lack of trust in the banking sector, but also because Comoros is an economy with a high informal sector content and a poor population, which lacks discretionary income that could be saved for future use and investments deemed viable by banks. ¹⁰⁶ Among aspirational peers, Fiji has the highest share of private credit to GDP at 90.9%, followed by Samoa at 81.1%, Cabo Verde at 62.4% and Tonga at 41% (WDI, 2017). ¹⁰⁷ In the context of high levels of NPLs and weak bank profitability, lender risk aversion has increased leading to structural excess liquity of 38 percent in the system. ¹⁰⁸ A few well-connected debtors in Comoros’ undiversified economic structure account for a large share of the NPL stock. A considerable portion of NPLs represent legacy loans that turned sour during the vanilla sector crisis of the early 2000s and remain unresolved, along with other loans that are yet to be written off by holding institutions. 73 6. Understanding Comoros' Low Growth Performance as well as other forms of non-cash payments economies, below the average for South that underlie the necessary foundations for the Saharan Africa (see Figure 30). In the period emergence of digital finance and ultimately 2011-2017 the country has been consistently financial inclusion. Given the importance in the 15th percentile on the Worldwide of trade finance and remittances for the Governance indicator of “regulatory quality” development of Comoros, correspondent for private sector development, performing banking relationships (CBR) between Comoros worse than structural peers. Property rights banks and MFIs and their partners in other are unclear and difficult to enforce. Land is jurisdictions needs to be strengthened. privately owned in Comoros through three co-existing systems: ancestral practices 87. Private investment is further dimmed regulated under a traditional land allocation because private returns on investment inherited through matrilineal lines, an Islamic are highly uncertain as property rights in law that equates ownership with land use Comoros are not protected, the investment and a modern one, which is based on private climate is onerous and government policies ownership. These conflicting systems have in are unpredictable. The 2019 Doing Business the past generated conflicts and are a source Report ranked Comoros 164 out of 189 of uncertainty for investors (see Box 6). Box 6: Comoros’ land regime Lack of clarity over tenure in Comoros results from the coexistence of three parallel and contradictory legal systems. The traditional system is largely based on manyahuli, a system of immovable property inherited through matrilineal lines and predicated on the inability to divide, and inalienability of, property. Under Islamic law introduced during the time of the Sultans, land belongs to whoever puts it to productive use, and transfers are made via cultivating the soil. Colonization introduced the modern law, which is based on private and domanial (state) ownerships. Currently, the legitimacy of the law inherited from the French remains weak, and Comorians continue to refer first to customary and Islamic laws to resolve their disputes. Few people register title deeds, and these are seldom put on the market, while several owners can claim the same piece of land on the basis of the different legal systems. This fuels low-level contestations over land, including between those considered native to an island and immigrants; between large-scale land owners and villages on the same island; and between neighboring villages over boundary delineations. That said, actual violent conflict related to land has rarely erupted in Comoros. Deficits in the institutional structure can also exacerbate tensions over land. Many land cases can wait for several years (in some cases, more than 20) before being heard in court. The absence of a land registry also makes it nearly impossible to track land transactions, leaving many conflicts over land in a stalemate. As a result, disputes are often dealt with on an ad hoc basis through informal or formal arrangements. In Moroni, for instance, private owners who were unable to enforce justice decisions have reached a compromise with the people living illegally on their land: They are allowed to stay on the condition that they pay rent and do not build permanent houses. 74 6. Understanding Comoros' Low Growth Performance Unequal access to land has worsened income disparities and fuels internal migration. In Anjouan, just 20 families control 40 percent of the arable land. This imbalance is worsened by a number of factors: Poor families using their land as collateral for microfinance loans in Anjouan have been dispossessed of their lands when they are unable to repay the loans, which are often set at punitively high interest rates. The land is then auctioned and bought by the richest families. Also, in Anjouan, poor families seize land and rapidly cultivate it in order to be the first to claim ownership of it. As in Mohéli, the lack of land tenure security and fear of dispossession can prevent owners from renting or lending their land, which leads to an increase in landless peasants and a decrease in cultivated lands. The impoverishment of peasants has contributed to an increase in migration to urban areas, to Grande Comore, or to Mayotte. Source: World Bank Risk and Resilience Assessment 2018 Figure 29: FDI and private investment, Comoros and Comparators a. Foreign direct investment, net inflows b. Private Investment (% of GDP), most recent (% of GDP average 2011-2017) value (2011-2017) 9 35 8 30 7 6 25 5 20 4 15 3 10 2 1 5 0 0 Small Island Sao Tome and Principe Small Island Fiji Solomon Islands Aspirational Peers Samoa Tonga (2001-2011) Aspirational Peers (2001-2011) Sao Tome and Principe Cabo Verde States Structural Peers Fragile States Timor-Leste Comoros Comoros Cabo Verde States Comoros Structural Peers Fragile States Comoros SSA Average 20th Percentile Lower middle income SSA Average 20th Percentile Lower middle income 80th Percentile Lower middle income 80th Percentile Lower middle income Source: Staff calculations using Comoros’ revised national accounts and WDI. 88. The potential of the diaspora to help language or a similar cultural background generate foreign direct investment is eases communication and facilitates better constrained. Diasporas abroad are an understanding of transport documents, important reservoir of knowledge about procedures, and regulations. According trade and investment opportunities. to responses in diaspora focus groups in Migrants can help origin-country exporters France, there are currently several obstacles find appropriate distributors and buyers, to attracting diaspora investment, such as: (i) improve their knowledge of the market, inadequate infrastructure; (ii) lack of trust; (iii) and comply with government requirements absence of institutions that engage with the and market standards. Sharing the same diaspora for investing in projects; (iv) lack of 75 6. Understanding Comoros' Low Growth Performance business development support for projects; (v) is often lacking, and discretionary application cost of financing and lack of access to financial prevails. Efforts to combat corruption have products; and (vi) lack of skilled labor. experienced significant setbacks. An anti- corruption commission was created in 2011, 89. A weak justice system and rampant and an anti-corruption strategy adopted in 2012. corruption make it unlikely that property The government empowered the commission rights can be enforced. Comoros has one of by giving its officers the legal powers to the weakest contract enforcement regimes investigate perceived corruption cases, and to in the world, ranking 180 out of 190 countries prepare and submit those cases to the judiciary worldwide as measured by the World Bank’s and, indeed, by 2013 15 such cases had been Doing Business report. The judiciary is perceived submitted. However, three months after the new as corrupt and co-exists with informal justice President took office in 2016 the Anti-Corruption institutions. Enforcement of existing legislation Commission was dissolved. Figure 30: Governance indicators and Business climate a. World Governance Indicators - b. Ranking of Doing Business 2019, all indicators 2017 percentile rating Regulatory Dealing with Construction Permits 43 85 Quality 70 Registering Property 114 80 114 Trading across Boarders 118 Control of 60 Political corruption Stability and 134 40 Getting Credit 124 Absence of 155 20 Violence/ Getting Electricity 139 0 Terrorism 165 Protecting Minority Investors 149 116 Starting a Business 164 Rule of law Voice and 131 accountability Overall 164 168 Resolving Insolvency 168 Government 77 Effectiveness Paying Taxes 168 45 Enforcing Contracts 179 Comoros Timor-Leste Lower middle income São Tomé Solomon Islands Cabo Verde Comoros Source: World Bank, Doing Business 2019 90. Weak and expensive provision of suffers from constant interruptions.¹⁰⁹ Power infrastructure services – especially electricity supply in 2016 in the capital Moroni ranged - is a major deterrent for investors. Although from 12-20 hours per day, but the rest of the electricity access is higher compared to Sub islands only received about 6 hours of daily Saharan Africa average (Grande Comore and electricity service, with many localities at the Anjouan, the biggest islands, have 65 and periphery of the grid only receiving a few hours 50 percent access rates compared with 38 of power per week. Even though the quality percent for the SSA average), the system of electricity service improved since 2016, this ¹⁰⁹ More on this in section 5, Drivers of Poverty Reduction and rising Inequality since 2004. 76 6. Understanding Comoros' Low Growth Performance progress was coupled with a high increase in Figure 31: Electricity costs, Comoros and tariffs (the cost of service for the capital almost comparators doubled). Besides, a sharp service deterioration started in 2019. Low reliability and quality Cost of electricity (US $ per kWh billed) and high costs discourage private sector Comoros 0.61 investments. For instance, it makes it more Cabo Verde 0.51 difficult to invest in cold storage for perishable Rwanda 0.43 Senegal 0.35 agricultural products at farm gate and ports in Mauritania 0.34 the aim of accessing output markets. The weak Burkina Faso 0.34 Madagascar 0.32 performance of the sector is also reflected in a Seychelles 0.32 low ranking on the indicator Getting Electricity Benin 0.26 of the 2019 Doing Business (Comoros at the 139 Gabon 0.24 Mauritius 0.21 out of 190 countries). Cameroon 0.16 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 91. The performance of the electricity company MAMWE is indicative of challenges Source: Trimble et al. (2016). that undermine the provision of public services. Comoros also has the second be found in the transport sector. While the highest per unit operations and maintenance density of paved roads (412 km per thousand (O&M) and fuel costs in the SSA region after km²) in Comoros is impressive compared to Liberia (where electricity costs 0.66 cents a Sub-Saharan Africa average of 31, lack of per kWh billed) (see Figure 31). This high adequate funding for its rehabilitation and cost reflects in part the economics of a maintenance has left the road network in small system whose generation is almost poor conditions and the first mile of transport exclusively based on expensive imported from agricultural fields is often hampered diesel oil. Lack of strategic planning and weak due to poor conditions of feeder roads. In commercial and financial management are 2018, 22.3 percent of national roads were other drivers of weak performance. At end- in poor condition. Expenditure efficiency is 2016, an estimated 54 percent of MAMWE a serious concern as limited budgets are electricity production was never billed and 79 often directed towards the extension of the percent was collected. As a result of decades already dense road network at the expense of erratic management, the Comorian power of the more pressing rehabilitation needs sector represents a very substantial burden and the improvement of rural connectivity.¹¹⁰ on public finances. It is expected that in 2017, Airports play an important part in the budgetary transfers to support MAMWE will country’s transport infrastructure as almost be above US$6.5 million, representing about all inter-island passenger traffic is done by 8 percent of tax revenues. air despite air routes being four to five times more expensive than sea routes. Lack of 92. Other important infrastructure gaps that scheduled sea passenger transport leaves discourage private sector investment can Comorians with little choice. Comoros’ ¹¹⁰ While a road database has been established, a lack of regular, systematic updates impedes the implementation of asset management in the sector. ¹¹¹ For example, port infrastructure and equipment are not compatible with the type of vessels that are operating between the islands. For passengers, port facilities are not adequate for the sizes of ships used for this activity. 77 6. Understanding Comoros' Low Growth Performance port infrastructure does not meet minimal resulting in high transport costs of goods and standards regarding safety requirements as passengers.¹¹¹ well as ports operations and management, Figure 32: Port tariffs in Comoros’ two main ports (Moroni and Mutsamudu) are five times higher than in Mauritius and three time higher than in Mombasa a. Comparison of port tariffs (US/TEU) b. Road network condition of the 3 islands 60 60% 50 50% 40 40% 30 30% 20 20% 10 10% 0 0% Moroni Anjouan Port-Louis Port-Louis Mombasa Good Fair Poor Very Poor (Mutsamudu) (import/ (Transhipment) export) Grande Comore Anjouan Mohéli Source: Panel a: Direction Portuaire (MTBS, 2014). Panel b: PADDST 2014. The Labor and Human Capital twice as likely to participate in the labor Contribution force. Including discouraged work seekers in the labor market increases the labor force 93. Comoros’ labor contribution to growth is participation rate by ten percentage points: constrained by a low labor force participation there were about 42,000 discouraged work and high levels of outward emigration (see seekers in Comoros in 2014 – more than Figure 33). Only 42.7 percent of the working twice the number of actively searching age population (average over 2011-2017) are unemployed which stood at about 15,000 currently participating in the labor force, people. Unemployment is primarily an issue which is lower than in structural peer countries of access to the labor market.¹¹² In 2014, 80.3 (average of 56.5 percent) and substantially percent of Comoros’ unemployed were first- lower than in Sub-Saharan Africa (average of time job seekers. The number of emigrants 67.3 percent). The labor force participation is living outside Comoros has more than tripled especially low for women, with men almost during the last 25 years. ¹¹² The majority of employed individuals live on the island of Grande Comore. Employment in Comoros is characterized by predominantly own-account workers. More than 60 percent of the employed work for themselves and 93 percent of people work in firms employing ten people or less. Women, in particular, tend to be own account workers with more than two thirds of women working in this way compared to about 56 percent of men. This is coupled with women being substantially more likely to be self-employed than men, with 64 percent of women being self-employed and only 46 percent of men. 78 6. Understanding Comoros' Low Growth Performance Figure 33: Migration trends and human capital for Comoros a. Evolution of total migrant stock by sex b. Institutional sector of employment by education from Comoros (% of labor force) 2015 Public administration 2010 Public or para-public enterprise 2005 Formal private sector 1995 Informal private sector 1990 Household 0 50 100 150 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Total Female Male No education Primary Secondary Superior Source: EESIC 2014. 94. Constrained labor demand due to a lack opportunities available for those with higher of private sector activity appears to be the levels of human capital. Measures to address main driver of a low labor contribution to structural bottlenecks to private sector growth growth. Comoros is an economy struggling are key to a better absorption of skilled and to provide economic opportunities. Most low-skilled workers into the labor market. economic activity in Comoros continues to be Constraints to private investment growth (that informal and employs low skilled workers.¹¹³ As is directly linked to private sector growth) are younger cohorts become more educated they described below. are struggling to find employment. The formal private and the public sector have the highest 95. Labor supply in Comoros is also demand for skills, but neither is growing (see constrained as women hesitate to join Figure 34). The public sector – where the the labor force due to cultural and legal highest returns to education can be earned - restrictions.¹¹⁶ Labor market data for Comoros is increasingly saturated and the formal private not only shows a statistically significant lower sector is too small to provide employment for labor force participation for women than for the remaining skilled job entrants.¹¹⁴ The highest men, it also clearly shows that there is an proportions of tertiary educated individuals for earnings premium for married men and a both genders are found amongst the narrowly marriage penalty for women (see Annex 8). unemployed,¹¹⁵ suggesting a lack of economic The average wage increases from 1.67 USD ¹¹³ In 2014, informal production units (UPI) accounted for 73% of all production units in Comoros. Most workers in the informal sector are uneducated; only 7 percent have attended secondary school. ¹¹⁴ The formal private sector absorbs only 2 percent of the labor force versus 19 percent for the public sector. ¹¹⁵ Education levels are highest among the unemployed population for both men and women, with an average of 5.85 years for women and 6.77 years for men. ¹¹⁶ See Milazzo and Goldstein (2017) on how formal constraints and social norms are important factors that contribute to the persistence of gender gaps. 79 6. Understanding Comoros' Low Growth Performance to 1.73 USD for single versus married men, limit women’s economic choices. Further, the respectively. By contrast, married women Family Code stipulates that a married woman earn 1.45 USD on average which is less than cannot get a job in the same way as a married the average for single women which is 1.64 man because professional and career choices USD. This female marriage penalty is likely to of a married woman “must not jeopardize the be rooted in the cultural and legal structure interests and the stability of her family”.¹¹⁸ High of Comoros. The Comorian 2005 Family levels of female emigration suggest that Code provides that a married woman cannot women are responding to these labor market choose where to live in the same way as a circumstances by leaving on a permanent married man.¹¹⁷ This kind of restriction can basis to seek economic opportunities abroad. Figure 34: Labor force and Unemployment by age a. Labor force by education and age (%) in 2014 b. ILO-unemployment and broad-unemployment rates by age (%) 75+ 75+ 65-74 65-74 55-64 55-64 45-54 45-54 35-44 35-44 25-34 25-34 15-24 15-24 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 No education Primary Secondary Superior ILO unemployment Broad unemployment Source: Panel a: EESIC 2014. Panel b: EESIC 2014. 96. Finally, there also appears to be a small form of remittances from a migrant worker. It adverse effect of remittances on labor could also be the result of workers considering supply. As a form of additional non-labor wages of their migrant family members abroad income for households, remittances can lower as their own reservation wage. As migrant labor force participation by individuals living in networks grow, the costs associated with remittance-receiving households. This could migrating fall, which can make the wage abroad be due to individuals feeling less pressured to a more important benchmark domestically. An participate in the domestic economy and earn analysis undertaken for this SCD (see Annex a wage, since they are receiving income in the 9) finds that there is a statistically significant, ¹¹⁷ According to the World Bank’s Women, Business and the Law report, in Sub-Saharan Africa, only 17 economies imposed this type of restriction on women’s mobility in 2017. ¹¹⁸ Only 19 of all the 189 economies covered by Women, Business and the Law limit women’s professional choices in this way. 80 6. Understanding Comoros' Low Growth Performance although small, negative effect of receiving Figure 35: Human Capital in Comoros remittances on labor force participation. The effects on labor market participation are larger Human capital index versus GDP per capita at the household level than at the individual 1 level, indicating that migration and remittance 0.9 of income are decisions taken jointly by all 0.8 Human capital index members of the household rather than by 0.7 0.6 individuals alone.¹¹⁹ 0.5 0.4 97. Independently of how high or low the 0.3 labor participation in an economy is, the 0.2 COMOROS 0.1 human capital of the average person working 0 is another important driver of a country’s 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Log Real GDP per capita at PPP growth performance. Comoros’ human capital Source: Trimble et al. (2016). is in line with its GDP per capita level (see Figure 35). New research (Collin and Weil, 2018) for If investments in its human capital were 157 countries (including Comoros) suggests to be in line with those made by countries that increasing investment in human capital that score in the 75th percentile of HCI (e.g. would not only help alleviate poverty but Seychelles, Malta), Comoros’ like other lower could also give growth a boost. Investments income countries’ GDP per capita could get in human capital also have the advantage that a boost of up to 25 percent by 2050 (Collin they tend to be relatively cheap compared and Weil, 2018). A further growth dividend to investments in physical capital. However, might accrue from secondary effects of the growth effects of investments in human investments in human capital. For example, capital tend to materialize later because a natural expectation would be that raising human capital investments tend to be made quality and quantity of education, particularly into the work force of the future rather than of women, would reduce fertility both by the one of today. raising the opportunity cost of children and increasing women’s control over their 98. Comoros’ human capital investment own childbearing. Lower fertility would in of today constitutes a significant break turn impact future dependency ratios in a on future productivity. According to the manner that further increased income per World Bank’s Human Capital Index (HCI) – capita and lower poverty (Canning and that was introduced in the last chapter - a Raja, 2015). Higher human capital could child born in the Comoros today will only be also result in higher productivity growth, 41 percent as productive when she grows through education’s effect on innovation, up as she would be if Comoros performed management quality, and adaptation to better on education and health indicators. changing economic circumstances. ¹¹⁹ Although the effect of remittances on labor force participation is generally statistically significant, the effect is very small. Individuals in remittance receiving households are only 2.1 percentage points less likely to participate in the narrow labor force and they are not statistically significantly less likely to participate in the broad labor force. Households receiving remittances, however, have a statistically lower share of individuals participating in the labor market than households not receiving remittances: the narrow household labor force participation rate is on average 5.1 percentage points lower for recipient households, and the broad labor force participation is on average 4.0 percentage points lower. 81 6. Understanding Comoros' Low Growth Performance Total Factor Productivity Growth 100. Another drag on total factor productivity results from a misallocation 99. Comoros’ ability to generate total factor of resources in the economy due to productivity growth through innovation and inefficient government spending and the technology spill-overs is compromised by weak governance of SOEs (see Box 7 ). the country’s inability to attract foreign direct Government spending’s efficiency is low, investment, low human capital and its limited especially in the areas of infrastructure and integration into global value chains and an education. The “government effectiveness” untapped diaspora.¹²⁰ Assessing Comoros’ indicator from the World Governance ability for innovation is a difficult task as traditional Indicators, that measures perceptions of the benchmarking for the country does not exist, quality of public services and the quality of but it is reasonable to assume that it is low. R&D the civil service, places Comoros far behind budgets either in the government, SOEs or in structural comparators. Most sectors in the private firms are almost non-existent. A dearth of economy - industry, agriculture, transport, foreign direct investment and a lack of integration land-line communication, international into global value chains deprives Comoros of two trade, banking, and non-banking financial important sources of innovation and technology services - are subject to extensive state spill-overs. Diaspora communities can also make directives, and in many cases, dominated a unique contribution to the development of their by poorly governed SOEs. The inefficiencies home countries through beneficial transfers in associated with SOEs (e.g., corruption, the form of technological and entrepreneurial patronage, nepotism, and asset-stripping) know-how. International experience shows that have led to prohibitively high infrastructure to fully tap this potential, governments and other costs, distort the market, undermine stakeholders need to develop and strength the efficient allocation of resources, and linkages between the diaspora members and undermine the creation of an efficient and their countries of origin.¹²¹ competitive corporate sector.¹²² ¹²⁰ See World Bank (2017d) for a study on how important technology adoption and innovation are for Africa’s future. ¹²¹ The Migration for Development in Africa (MIDA) - a program implemented by the International Organization of Migration – has been involved in several projects on how to use the expertise and knowledge of diaspora members. Many of these projects starts with increased dialogue and knowledge sharing. For example, the MIDA Great Lakes project involves missions, workshops, and roundtables to facilitate the exchange of knowledge between institutions in Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and Rwanda with the diaspora in Belgium. Other countries have implemented specific programs to benefit from technical diaspora knowledge and experience acquired abroad. For instance, countries such as Japan, the Republic of Korea, and Taiwan have promoted the return of foreign-educated students or established networks of knowledge exchange with them. Other countries rely on temporary or virtual return through extended visits or electronic communication in professional fields. For example, qualified health Ghanaian diaspora living in the European Union returned temporarily to hospitals and medical training institutions in their homeland through a MIDA Ghana Health Project. Similarly, University lecturers from Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and Rwanda were invited to collaborate in the development and teaching of courses in their countries of origin. ¹²² See more on productivity and resource misallocation in Sub Saharan African in Calderon et al. (2018). 82 6. Understanding Comoros' Low Growth Performance Box 7: SOE performance – the example of the telecom sector in Comoros The telecom sector in Comoros was controlled until recently by state-run monopolist Comores Telecom (CT), as at least two prior attempts at bringing private commercial operators to the sector had failed. The first, aimed at bringing in a second operator in 1994, was dropped when the licensee failed to pay the license fee; the second, seeking to privatize the incumbent operator CT, failed in 2014 when the initiative was stopped by the National Assembly over potential job losses. As a result, the Comorian telecom sector remained a monopoly, characterized by a poor and expensive service. The International Development Association’s grant to the Government of the Union of Comoros under the fourth phase of the Regional Communications Infrastructure Program (RCIP-4 – P119213), which runs from November 2013 to December 2019, provided US$ 22M and helped the government to liberalize the market by introducing a second operator, chosen through competitive tender. The program leveraged over US$90 million in license fees and private-sector led infrastructure investments, thus illustrating the potential for mobilizing private financing even in the context of a fragile small-island economy such as Comoros. A consortium led by Telma, a privately-owned operator in Madagascar, paid some US$16m for a full-service license in December 2015 and launched services one year later. Within six months, it significantly expanded its user base, and currently provides a modern and efficient service to a quarter of a growing market of mobile broadband service subscribers. In response, CT has regularly restricted the interconnectivity with Telma Comoros, forcing customers to use international calls; has used its political influence to pressure the regulator, ANRTIC, into obliging Telma Comoros to raise its prices to match those of CT; and the customs department into seeking payment of duties and charges on equipment that was exempt per the license conditions. The reaction of the incumbent operator is highly detrimental to the development of the telecom sector in Comoros, as well as that of those sectors and outcomes that telecoms enable, such as mobile money transfers, access to finance and information, and, ultimately, inclusion. IFC is about to finalize a $16M funding with Telma Comoros. The business plan of Telma Comoros faces challenges as CT has refused to share network infrastructure and regularly restricts interconnectivity. This is a clear situation where regulatory and competition interference is restricting service delivery and a strong impediment to private sector investment and growth. A level playing field of liberalized digital services in Comoros could substantially improve services from the current 33 per cent unique subscriber basis, accelerate 3G and 4G penetration currently standing at less than 1 per cent, and further increase access to digital services (e.g. mobile money transfers) and information platforms, connecting Comoros to the world and promoting inclusion across the Comorian society. 83 6. Understanding Comoros' Low Growth Performance Figure 36: Mobile sector Comoros and comparators Price of a monthly basket of mobile services, 2014, in USD and as % of GDP per capita 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Mauritius Marshall Islands Burundi Trinidad Barbados Suriname Arigua Grenada Guyana St. Lucia Solomon Islands Guinea-Bisau Singapore Maldives Seychelles S.Kitts & Neves Jamaica Dominica Tonga Timor-Leste St. Vincent Fiji Samoa Micronesia Vanuatu Sao Tome & Principe Cabo Verde Kirobut Belize Haiti Papua New Guinea COMOROS As % of GDP per capita US$ Source: Trimble et al. (2016). 101. Like for other small island states and in terms of time lost due to lengthy port diseconomies of scale represent a drag on the processes). Aerian transport remains costly and not economy and are exacerbated by weak transport fully reliable, limiting movement of tourists across connectivity (see Figure 37).¹²³ The challenges islands and hindering investment in the sector. A of diseconomies of scale in Comoros are great recent transport analysis undertaken by the World and living costs are high due to high transport Bank finds that the weak transport infrastructure and trading costs. Accessing Comoros’ largest translates into high average transport costs, higher market (Moroni) is costly, especially for transport of than in other African countries (representing merchandise from Anjouan and Mohéli (including 7 percent of average consumption versus 5 high maritime transport costs and port services, percent in Sub-Saharan Africa).¹²⁴ Figure 37: Transport costs in Comoros a. Transport costs between regional centers in 2014 b. Households proportion of income spent on transportation 10 Average 8 6.7% % of transport expenses 6 Grand Comore 4 2 0 Mutsamudu Wanani Bambao Hambou Dembeni Foumbouni Koimbani Mbeni Mitsamihouli Tsoudjini Ouani Sima Domoni Nioumakele Fomboni Moumachoua Moroni Grande Comore Anjouan Mohéli Land Maritime Air Source: World Bank (2019) ¹²³ Elbadawi et al. (2006) study the influence of geography on access to export markets and to input supplies in African countries. ¹²⁴ World Bank (2019) 84 6. Understanding Comoros' Low Growth Performance 102. Finally, a cultural environment and high cost of improved inputs, lack of land that discourages entrepreneurship and tenure security and the resulting low use of competition may also be contributing to production credit, an unproductive agricultural low productivity growth. A legacy of weak labor force and natural resource degradation economic governance and political instability which has been affecting soil quality. has accentuated the cultural and political Cooperatives are nascent, and older producer divide across the islands and within the islands. associations have been unable to link farmers The resultant isolation has strengthened the to the credit market and consolidate high non-competitiveness-enhancing interests quality output consistently, leading to high of a narrow community (cultural needs) and transaction costs, weak forward and backward weakened attention to productive investments linkages along the value chain, and little or no for a broader, common good to the Comorian value addition. Relatively higher productivity society. The culture of entrepreneurship that zones in Mohéli and Anjouan are hampered has emerged is predominantly informal and by low intra and inter-island connectivity, focused solely on simple trade/commerce segmenting farmers in surplus production with little exposure to corporate culture or areas from growing urban markets.¹²⁷ Water modern practices of business organization scarcity is also increasingly a concern for and management. agricultural productivity.¹²⁸ Entry points to raising productivity 104. Innovation in agriculture requires more in agriculture and fisheries targeted financial and technical support. Underinvestment in foundational public goods 103. Agricultural productivity in Comoros is in agriculture – advisory and extension services, lower than in many other developing countries technology transfer and dissemination, and with similar agro-climatic conditions. Two provision of market information – has led to traditional drivers of agricultural productivity low access to knowledge of modern crop have reached their limits: a) land expansion is and livestock production techniques among reaching its limits with Comoros witnessing Comorian farmers. Equipping the recently already one of the fastest rates of deforestation established agriculture advisory and extension in Africa, especially in Anjouan;¹²⁵ b) under- system (CRDEs) with the human, physical and employment¹²⁶ – which has been found to be financial resources to rapidly demonstrate a contributor to low agricultural productivity and disseminate climate smart agriculture in other parts of Sub-Saharan Africa – is low at (CSA) technologies, multiply seeds, and around 5 percent. Low agricultural productivity conduct artificial insemination and vaccination in Comoros can be mainly attributed to use of campaigns, among other activities, is a critical outdated farming practices, limited availability investment for the successful implementation ¹²⁵ In Anjouan, the annual deforestation rate was 8 percent between 1995 and 2014. Between 2000 and 2005, the annual deforestation rate in Comoros was 7.4 percent, the highest in Africa (UN, 2007). (“Forest Data: Comoros Deforestation Rates and Related Forestry Figures” n.d.) ¹²⁶ Less than 5 percent of workers in agriculture are in a state of time-related underemployment. ¹²⁷ Only 20-30 percent of the most important agricultural products make it to the market in Comoros and that 25-50 percent of agriculture prices reflect transport costs (World Bank, 2019). ¹²⁸ At the 2014 launch of the National Adaptation Program, the then Minister of Production, Energy and Environment warned that increased precipitation brought risk of a reduction of water resources and a deterioration of agricultural productivity from 3 to 4%. 85 6. Understanding Comoros' Low Growth Performance of projects aimed at raising crop and livestock (INRAPE) is underfunded and understaffed, productivity. Reorienting public investments which explains its poor record in generating towards community-level rural development improved technologies adapted to the needs centers is critical for accelerating behavior of Comorian producers. A monopolistic state change and adoption of CSA technologies marketing agency has been granted exclusive and practices. rights to import and distribute rice, without having been given the financial resources 105. Productivity of the fisheries sector is needed to carry out these functions. hampered by supporting infrastructure and Agricultural policies in Comoros have varied weak management of fishing rights. While the over the years in terms of focus and approach, sustainable level of annual fishing is estimated but a common feature has been a recurring to be 33,000 tons, average annual production reliance on special initiatives, programs, and is estimated to be 16,000 tons. Various factors projects to provide immediate solutions to contribute to these low production levels. pressing crises. Agricultural policies have The embryonic network of cool storage tended to change frequently with changes in suffers from absence of regular energy and political leadership. maintenance. Landing sites rarely benefit from amenities. Specialized services remain Entry points for improving the limited for shipbuilding and ship repair, and potential of the tourism industry for small fishing equipment bunkering. State support to the sector remains limited despite 107. Comoros’ potential in tourism remains the existence of various sector institutions for largely unexploited. Islands with similar management, monitoring and safety at sea, characteristic have proven that their sanitary control, research and training. Budget development of the tourism sector can drive and staff cuts, lack of clarity in the allocation economic development. The World Travel & of resources among the islands, but also poor Tourism Council (WTTC)¹³⁰ estimates that the planning affect response capabilities. Safety tourism sector directly accounted for only 3.4 at sea is one of the priorities of communities percent of GDP in 2017, compared to structural and administration, dozens of people are lost peers such as Sao Tomé (10.8 percent) and at sea every year. Solomon Islands (4.3 percent) and far below other small islands in the region such as 106. The public institutions working on Mauritius (7.4 percent) and Seychelles (26.4 agriculture and fisheries in Comoros are percent) and aspirational peers (13 percent). fragmented, inadequately staffed, and The country was dealt a major blow when a poorly managed.¹²⁹ Responsibility for key South African consortium abandoned in 2001 functions is distributed across multiple the flagship Galawa Hotel. Several attempts ministries and agencies, making it difficult to to revive the hotel have since failed. Since forge an overall vision for the development of then, leisure tourism has been on a steep the sector. The National Institute for Research decline, falling from 13,069 in 2000 to 2,497 on Agriculture, Fisheries, and the Environment in 2011.¹³¹ Currently, most international arrivals ¹²⁹ See Goyal and Nash (2017) for a study on public spending for increasing agricultural productivity in Africa. ¹³⁰ World Travel and Tourism Council (2008) ¹³¹ More recent datasets do not disaggregate leisure tourism from family tourism, which is the biggest source of air traffic to Comoros. 86 6. Understanding Comoros' Low Growth Performance are members of the Comorian diaspora who ships and simplifying visa administrative come to visit friends and relatives between procedures. Accessibility and connectivity to the months of July and September for the long-haul and domestic air must be improved. traditional wedding season. The quality of accommodation and reception capacity, improving quality of tourist services 108. Comorian tourism suffers from an and availability of professional inbound important image deficit (specially from tour operators, improving training capacity, political instability) and strong competition increasing visibility on the international market from immediate neighbors (Mauritius, Zanzibar Comoros also must actively address its image and Madagascar). These challenges will only of a high-risk country with significant political be managed if important internal obstacles to instability. As the current air traffic consists tourism are overcome to allow more capital mainly of the Comorian diaspora, growth must (domestic or FDI) to flow to this sector.¹³² be sought through prospecting increased These include: strengthening the institutional tourism which has dropped over the years, and regulatory framework, improving the leading to a limitation of available flights and port infrastructure to accommodate cruise the high cost of air transport fares. ¹³² In aspirational countries such as Fiji and Cape Verde, FDI played a key role in the development of the tourism sector (World bank, 2018a) 87 RISKS TO THE SUSTAINABILITY OF GROWTH & POVERTY REDUCTION IN COMOROS 88 7. Risks to Sustainability of Growth and Poverty Reduction in Comoros 109. Achieving continued progress also peers (3.5 percent of GDP) (see Figure 38) and depends on managing the risk factors that is offset by buoyant remittances estimated at 12 affect economic, environmental, political and percent of GDP over 2011-2017. Large external social sustainability. However, Comoros is grants (estimated at 8 percent of GDP over 2011- struggling with addressing many of the risks in 2017), have helped contain the current account these three areas. Economic risks arise mainly deficit (3.2 percent of GDP on average over 2011- due to Comoros’ large trade deficit and import 2017). With 50 percent of domestic revenues dependence, its small domestic revenue coming from customs and international trade, base, weak macro-economic management government finances are vulnerable to changes capacity and the depletion of its asset base. in the exchange rate and price shocks (with the Environmental risks are great due to Comoros’ latter shocks particularly large).¹³⁴ A stronger high vulnerability to climate change and its weak and more diversified export base is critical for mitigation capacity. Social risks are growing Comoros to mitigate external shocks. due to very low rates of public investment in basic services, rising youth unemployment Figure 38: Trade Balance, Comoros and and an overreliance on remittances as a social comparators safety net, which is deepening social inequities due to the localized nature of remittances. Trade Balance (share of Nominal GDP) (2011-2017) Together with new political risks these factors 40 risk undermining further already weak levels 30 of social cohesion. This section discusses how 20 these risks could derail Comoros’ achieving 10 higher growth levels and more sustained 0 poverty reduction and shared prosperity. -10 -20 Economic risks -30 -40 Structural Peers Small Island Fragile States (2001-2010) Timor-Leste Fiji Solomon Islands Aspirational Peers States Cabo Verde Sao Tome and Principe Comoros Comoros 110. As a very small open economy with limited exports and a large trade deficit, Comoros is vulnerable to external shocks. Comoros’ export capacity is limited and concentrated in just three products. Imports are concentrated in energy Source: Staff calculations using the IMF WEO (mostly fuel oil) and vital agricultural products, with food imports representing close to 40 111. A continuous structural imbalance percent of total merchandise imports in average between domestic resource mobilization since 2011, one of the highest food import rates in and current spending undermines the the world.¹³³ The deficit in the trade of goods and Government’s ability to undertake growth services averaged 19 percent of GDP over 2011- enhancing investments and provide basic 2017 significantly surpassing that of structural services to alleviate poverty. Although some ¹³³ In terms of volume, Comoros currently imports nearly 70 percent of its food requirements, with diet staples like rice, vegetables, fruit juice, chicken and beef among the top commodity imports. ¹³⁴ In recent years, oil and food prices fluctuations have been large and affected customs and international trade revenues. Crude oil ($/bbl) went from 104 ($/bbl) in 2011 to 53 ($/bbl) in 2017. The WB Commodity Market Outlook’s nominal price index (2010=100) for “Food” went from 123 in 2011 to 91 in 2017. 89 7. Risks to Sustainability of Growth and Poverty Reduction in Comoros tax administration measures¹³⁵ took place in lower than structural peers but much higher recent years, tax revenue collection remains than the SSA average. Without this large very low at an average of 7.1 percent of GDP and continuous external support, the overall for the period 2011-2017, compared with the fiscal balance would have been most of the average for Sub-Saharan Africa (15.9 percent time in the two-digits range. Episodic one- of GDP) and with the average of structural off budget support grants are often large peers (15.4). A low level of economic activity (for instance, a grant received from Saudi coupled with different regimes of exonerations Arabia in 2015 was equal to 4.1 percent of and a large informal sector restricts the tax GDP). Sporadic by nature, they are a source base and contributes to the weak domestic of significant volatility of external financing revenue performance. An inefficient revenue flows, which makes medium term budgeting administration, both at the general tax and challenging. In 2017 the government was customs administration levels, aggravates expecting a much larger budget support the situation further. The large share of the grant than the amount that it finally received, wage bill in the budget (more than 60 percent which adversely affected expenditure plans. of domestically generated revenue over the These large one-off budget supports also last decade, well above the average of Sub- have the potential of delaying structural Saharan Africa countries) leaves very little room reforms by diminishing the political will to for spending on items such as social services enact policy reform. Indeed, most of these and education or infrastructure projects.¹³⁶ grants help maintains current expenditures Tax revenues only cover 73.4 percent of levels and then, necessary and sometimes current expenditures (average over 2011-2017), painful reforms are delayed or avoided. compared to a higher coverage in structural and aspirational peers (see Figure 39). 113. Opaque and poorly governed SOEs expose the government to significant contingent 112. A high reliance on volatile flows of liability risks, especially in the context of a external revenues represents a challenge weak debt management capacity. Contingent for medium term budgetary planning and liabilities associated with relatively large SOEs undermines the momentum for structural represent an important risk reinforced by weak reforms. In the last 10 years, excluding the management and governance and a lack of 2013 HIPC budgetary support, foreign grants transparency. No regular annual reports are have oscillated between 3 and 9 percent of produced, and audits are almost inexistent. GDP or 27 and 51 percent of total revenues, Besides, there is not a proper registry of the ¹³⁵ The implementation of SYDONIA ++, and more recently the first steps in the implementation of SYDONIA WORLD, improved considerably the custom administration efficiency. Decrease in discretionary customs exonerations have also boosted tax revenues since last year. ¹³⁶ The government has taken steps to improve the effectiveness of public administration, but much remains to be done. There were 11,000 civil servants at the time of the census in 2010, and recruitment has continued ever since. Obstacles to reform include the overlapping and often disjointed responsibilities between the Union and Island authorities, the role of political patronage in civil service recruitment, and the lack of alternative employment opportunities, all of which create strong vested interests in the status quo and opposition to reform. A unified computerized civil service roster was established, and development of integrated civil service and wage management software was undertaken. administration (cadres organiques), an updated version of which was adopted by Parliament in 2010 but has not being fully implemented so far. The remaining challenges include regularizing mismatches between the database and the reality on the ground, as they render the civil service roster an ineffective management tool. 90 7. Risks to Sustainability of Growth and Poverty Reduction in Comoros SOEs’ debts to the government or vice versa, The serious recapitalization need that the which contributes to the overall very low debt SNPSF is currently facing is a good example management performance in the country.¹³⁷ of a materialization of this risk (see Box 8). Figure 39: Current expenditures covered by tax revenues Tax revenues (% Current Expenditures) Timor-Leste Solomon Islands Samoa Fiji Sao Tome and Principe Cabo Verde Comoros 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Source: WDI Box 8: Risks to financial stability originating from SNPSF The Société Nationale des Postes et Services Financiers (SNPSF), wholly owned by the Comorian state, is a systemically important financial institution. It is the second largest collector of deposits (21 percent of the sector) due to its exclusive collection of civil servants’ salaries. SNPSF also hosts government and SOE accounts and provides its clients with short-term loans (the majority being overdrafts) and saving instruments. SNPSF has faced major operational difficulties for many years. Its operating expenses consistently exceed its net income and the bank has been loss-making for more than a decade (accumulated losses reached KMF 7.5 billion – USD 18.3 million – in 2017) and as of October 2018, it had an asset shortfall of KMF 6.2 billion (USD 14.3 million). This situation is partly due to a high proportion of doubtful exposures on both loan and overdraft portfolios worth KMF 5 billion (52% of total exposure), of which KMF 1.8 million is not covered by provisions. SNPSF faced serious liquidity issues during the first semester of 2018, resulting from large deposit withdrawals and the launch of significant loan activity in early 2018 (worth KMF 1.7 billion); all loan activity excluding overdrafts, was suspended by BCC in July 2018. Its liquidity challenge was temporarily resolved by the release of the first tranche ¹³⁷ Debt management performance is very weak according to the last Debt Management Performance Assessment (DeMPA). Most of the 14 debt performance indicators in the 2016 DeMPA indicates a very low management debt performance (the lowest rating over a four-point rating scale). The follow-up of arrears is deficient, and the stock is significant (especially for domestic arrears). 91 7. Risks to Sustainability of Growth and Poverty Reduction in Comoros (KMF 1 billion of 3.5 billion available) of BCC’s three-year rescue plan, using funds from BCC’s statutory advance facility to recapitalize SNPSF. Despite this, the situation remains fragile. The audited accounts have not been certified for the last four years due to several discrepancies between the banking system and the general ledger. To clean up SNPSF’s financial position and make it fully functional, it would require an injection of a minimum of KMF 7.5 billion (USD 17.3 million) based on the October 2018 balance sheets. Considering SNPSF’s dire financial situation, the significant adverse impact that a disorderly liquidation could have on the Comorian economy, the authorities plans to restructure it. It is vital that SNPSF adopts and implements a realistic and ambitious restructuring plan, with strong organizational reforms (i.e., separation of postal and financial activities and a new governance framework with limited staff) and implements a new business model, potentially focused on the delivery of financial services exclusively to individuals (including digital payments). 114. Finally, Comoros risks further depleting low investment rates. Net foreign assets have its asset base which undermines sustained decreased as the external balance has been long-term economic growth and poverty strongly negative for the past 20 years. In reduction. According to the World Bank’s 2014, the gap in wealth per capita between 2018 Wealth of Nations report, Comoros Comoros and other lower middle-income per capita wealth has been on the decline countries was greatest in human capital, since 1995. ¹³⁸ In the same period, global but it is in productive capital where the gap wealth grew by 66 percent (see Figure 40). between Comoros and other lower middle- This decline in Comoros total wealth has income countries has been growing the most happened predominantly because of a 50 since the beginning of the millennium. While percent decline of its productive capital and natural capital has seen a slight increase due a more than 90 percent decline of its ability to an expansion of protected natural areas, to generate net foreign assets. Productive the wealth generation ability of forests and capital has been on the decline because of cropland has been on the decline. ¹³⁸ The Wealth of Nations’ measures use a balance sheet approach to the health of an economy by capturing a country’s wealth across four pillars of wealth generation: produced, human, natural and net foreign assets. Produced capital and urban land measures machinery, buildings, equipment, and residential and nonresidential urban land, measured at market prices. Human capital is measured as the discounted value of earnings over a person’s lifetime. Natural capital includes energy (oil, gas, hard and soft coal) and minerals, agricultural land (cropland and pastureland), forests (timber and some nontimber forest products), and terrestrial protected areas. Natural capital is measured as the discounted sum of the value of the rents generated over the lifetime of the asset. Net foreign assets denote the sum of the cross-border assets and liabilities held by country’s residents. These include, for example, foreign direct investment and reserve assets. Negative net foreign assets suggest that cross-border liabilities exceed cross-border assets. For example, debt outstanding with abroad might be exceeding foreign direct investment coming in significantly. 92 7. Risks to Sustainability of Growth and Poverty Reduction in Comoros Environmental risks and 1951 triggered a massive Comorian emigration to Madagascar. Since 2005, 115. Comoros is exposed to a wide nearly half of Comoros’s population has range of natural hazards of two kinds: (i) been affected by a natural disaster. The hydrometeorological outbursts such as 2012 floods affected infrastructures and tropical storms, floods, and sea level rise; food security, with farmers losing almost 80 and (ii) geophysical occurrences such percent of their crops. In 2005, the eruption as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and of the Karthala volcano affected 245,000 landslides. In 2005, the World Bank report¹³⁹ people. Overall, direct losses caused by on natural disaster “hotspots” estimated that natural hazards in Comoros are estimated 59 percent of Comoros’s land area is exposed to be US$5.7 million each year. ¹⁴⁰ This is to natural disaster risks (at least two hazards) equivalent to 0.9 of Comoros GDP and 2.8 and that 54.2 percent of the population lives in percent of the Government’s annual budget at-risk areas. Rural populations are particularly in 2017. The simulation also shows that exposed. Natural hazards have historically losses would be highest in Anjouan, which had dire consequences on the archipelago’s experiences nearly 80% of the average development. Devastating cyclones in 1949 annual losses for the three perils combined. ¹³⁹ Dilley et al. (2005) ¹⁴⁰ World Bank (2017c) 93 7. Risks to Sustainability of Growth and Poverty Reduction in Comoros Figure 40: Wealth Indicators a. Total wealth per capita (constant 2014 US$) b. Per capita wealth - Comoros 30,000 12,000 25,000 10,000 8,000 20,000 6,000 15,000 4,000 10,000 2,000 5,000 0 0 -2,000 1995 2000 2005 2010 2014 1995 2000 2005 2010 2014 Comoros Lower middle income Natural capital per capita Human capital per capita Low income Sub-Saharan Africa Produced capital per capita Net foreign assets per capita Source: World Bank Wealth of Nations 116. A major source of Comoros’ environmental will result in the displacement of at least 10% degradation is anthropic pressure. The country of the population.¹⁴²The agricultural sector, is one of the most densely populated in Africa, which is largely rainfed, is highly vulnerable which leads to intense exploitation of natural to climate change, since rising temperatures resources. The country’s forest cover dropped have increased salinity levels of ground water from 26.3 percent in 1990 to 19.9 percent in in recent years and adversely affect crop 2015, suggesting that the country has been growth cycles. losing on average a quarter of a percentage point of forest cover every year. Even in protected areas, the rate of deforestation Figure 41: Renewable internal freshwater is very high due to the growing demand for resources per capita (thousand cubic meters) wood and agricultural land. Deforestation is a World major source of erosion which increases the runoff and leads to flooding, thus reducing Last developed countries soil fertility and agricultural yields further. (UN classification) Environmental degradation has been linked to Sub-Saharan Africa weak state capacity to enforce regulation and Mauritius to control the illegal use of mangroves, sea sand, and poaching. Comoros is particularly Comoros vulnerable to the effects of global warming, Cabo Verde such as increased storms and rising sea levels. It has been estimated that along the coastline 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 an expected 20 cm rise in sea level by 2050¹⁴¹ Source: World Bank. ¹⁴¹ NAPA (2006) ¹⁴² PRGS (2010) 94 7. Risks to Sustainability of Growth and Poverty Reduction in Comoros 117. Improved management is key and effective interventions for emergencies. to overcome a poor water resources Along with the actions articulated in the NDC, endowment, especially with climate change Comoros has developed a rich environment- affecting water stress levels putting pressure related legal framework, including the National on production and domestic use. Together Environmental Policy (NEP), the National with 16 other countries, Comoros ranks first Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) and the in the world for water stress (withdrawals as a legal Framework for the Environment as well percentage of available water resources). All as specific Conservation Actions Plans and a sectors- agriculture, industry and domestic Foundation dedicated to fund environmental use – have the highest water stress ranking activities. However, the effectiveness of (extremely high stress) used by the World these tools suffers from several institutional Resources Institute Aqueduct.¹⁴³ Because of its inefficiencies. Weak cross-sector coordination size and its population density, the country has and the proliferation of committees have very low per capita water resources compared led to confusion in coordination role and to the SSA or world averages (see Figure 41). responsibilities. In addition, low resources and Most rivers do not carry water throughout the lack of up to date environment-related data year and the largest island Grande Comore is and information have played in the overall groundwater dependent. Climate change is limited knowledge of climate change risks likely to exacerbate these issues. Although and adaptation opportunities, including its all sectors are impacted by climate change, economic and social impact on the lives and agriculture is the most exposed economic livelihoods of the Comorians. As a result, the activity. It accounts for 47 percent of water country remains among the most vulnerable withdrawals and water shortages are slowly countries to climate change risks, while being becoming one of the binding agro-ecological one of the least prepared to deal with it (see constraints on the island. Available water for Figure 42). domestic use would also be affected, which could worsen an already low access to 119. Agriculture, the mainstay of the improved drinking water (currently limited to economy, is the sector most affected by less than 13 percent of Comorians, see also climate change. Endowed with fertile volcanic section 5).¹⁴⁴ soil, abundant land and good precipitation, the economy of Comoros has traditionally been 118. Comoros has made adaptation and dominated by agriculture. Agriculture also mitigation a priority in its 2015 Nationally accounts for 47 percent of water withdrawals Determined Contributions (NDC) as part and water shortages are slowly becoming one of the Paris Agreement, however, capacity of the binding agro-ecological constraints weaknesses hamper the ability of the on the island. Rising sea levels have raised country to respond to climate change related salinity levels of ground water in recent years. shocks. Comoros’ NDC lists actions to adapt Accelerated soil erosion due to deforestation to climate change and increase resilience to has increased runoff and led to flooding, natural disasters, including relocation and reducing soil fertility and agricultural yields protection programs for the population living further. Water security is an urgent issue on at-risk areas as well as early-warning systems all three islands – Grand Comore, Anjouan and ¹⁴³ Gassert et al. (2013) ¹⁴⁴ The Environmental Performance Index ranks Comoros at the 160th place out of 180 on the water and sanitation indicator. 95 7. Risks to Sustainability of Growth and Poverty Reduction in Comoros Mohéli – which not only affects the health and Figure 42: Comoros is among the well-being of Comorians but could also impact countries that are most vulnerable to agriculture. Climate change is deepening climate change, but least prepared to the risks for agriculture also because rising deal with it temperatures adversely affect crop growth cycles. 120. Most of coastal fisheries are under .6 heavy pressure with very limited potential .5 WSM for expansion. Comoros ranks 53 out of 180 COM FJI on the Fisheries Stock indicator of the Yale MUS Vulnerability .4 Environmental Index and 82 out of 180 on its Regional Marine Trophic Index (RMI), .3 suggesting that selective overfishing of certain .2 species is a greater problem for Comoros than over-fishing in general.¹⁴⁶ At the regional level, .1 40% of the stocks that have been assessed by 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Readiness the SWIOFC are considered over-exploited Source: World Bank.¹⁴⁵ (SWIOFC, 2018). Offshore fisheries for tuna and tuna-like species are currently predominantly island level, has acted as a recurrent source exploited by foreign fleets, resulting in of instability in the Comoros. The latest effort low levels of local and national economic to revise the constitution to recentralize benefits, are an exception with potential for power to create a more effective governance the development of domestic production. system and ensure policy continuity has Near shore high-value fisheries (lobster, sea been controversial. It can potentially upset cucumber, etc.) are commonly overexploited the existing delicate equilibrium between but with potential for rapid improvement if islands that has helped foster an extended adequate management system is developing, period of stability in the Comoros. Following including through co-management with the referendum, new elections are scheduled coastal communities. to take place with a year. Dates have yet to be confirmed, with an expectation that polls Political and social risks will be held in March or April 2019. There is likelihood of political turmoil in the run up to 121. The tension between the challenge of the polls. Amidst an atmosphere of heightened building a strong and cohesive nation state, distrust, with historical grievances brought to and the regional push for autonomy at the the fore following the polarizing referendum, ¹⁴⁵ The ND-GAIN Matrix illustrates the comparative resilience of countries. The vertical axis shows the score of vulnerability and the horizontal axis shows the readiness score. A high vulnerability score and low readiness score place Comoros in the upper-left quadrant of the ND-GAIN Matrix, meaning it has both a great need for investment and innovations to improve readiness and a great urgency for action. ¹⁴⁷ The fish stock status indicator captures the percentage of fish stocks caught within a country’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) that are overexploited or collapsed. The RMTI measures the extent to which the fishing sector has exploited larger, high-level species and is increasingly catching smaller, lower-level species, negatively impacting ecosystem health. A lower ranking on both indices is associated with a better relative performance. 96 7. Risks to Sustainability of Growth and Poverty Reduction in Comoros there is also the risk of violence ahead of, retirement fund for old-age, disability and during, and after the elections. Anjouan has death of civil servants and private sector already seen a spike in tensions and street employees, currently provides pensions to protests, which prompted intervention by the 10% of the population of over 65 years old. military in mid-October 2018. The Social Security Fund for the protection of employees against occupational 122. Low levels of spending in the social diseases and accidents at work covers less sectors – particularly in health – result than 6% of assets in Grand Comore. A health in high private expenditures that, in turn, mutual provided coverage to 3.3% of the put families at greater risk of entering population in 2012.¹⁴⁹ A targeted cash-for- poverty. Public health expenditures as a work program has been rolled out in 69 of share of overall health expenditures are the poorest villages in the country, reaching below those observed in structural peer about 5,000 families. countries (13.4 percent compared to 52.3 percent, respectively) (see Figure 43). As 124. Remittances mitigate social risks, but a result,¹⁴⁷ three fourth of health financing they are geographically localized, and is borne by households, through out-of- over-reliance risks aggravating existing pocket expenditures. It is estimated that inequalities. By insuring households against these expenditures result in an increase in negative economic shocks, large amounts the poverty rate by 5 percent, or an additional of remittances can reduce the government’s 12,826 people a year.¹⁴⁸ In other words, on incentive to maintain fiscal policy discipline average, 35 Comorians fall into poverty and use public funds for investment and social daily because of health payments. For those service delivery.¹⁵⁰ Also, remittances might at already poor, aside from deepening their some point dwindle. With some concern that state of poverty, it also results in low access reliance on remittances is not sustainable in to health services. the long term, given that the third-generation gross remittances amounting about a quarter 123. Social protection systems that would of GDP, this demographic wields substantial protect the poor, such as social safety financial influence. There is evidence that nets, are limited in Comoros. Existing social Comorians living in France have a weaker sense protection schemes cover only a small part of connection to Comoros and greater financial of the population (less than 10 percent) obligations than have previous generations. and are not targeted toward the poor. The Government’s initiatives to strengthen the link ¹⁴⁷ The (2015) Public Expenditure Review (PER) and other sources have identified a number of challenges in the health system in Comoros, including: (a) low levels of health expenditure financed by the state in general ($ 3 per inhabitant); (b) high levels of expenditure on the salaries of health workers in relation to operating costs such as medical equipment, medicines and training; (c) the heavy reliance on user charges (user fees) to cover the costs of operating deficits resulting from very high levels of costs "out of pocket" or direct payments and private expenditure; and (d) differences in the distribution of funds between the central and island police and the allocation of financial and human resources between the islands. ¹⁴⁸ Haazen and Rajoela (2016) ¹⁴⁹ There is also a military retirement and a mutual fund for old-age, disability benefits and medical coverage for military personnel and their families. ¹⁵⁰ Chami et al. (2008) 97 7. Risks to Sustainability of Growth and Poverty Reduction in Comoros with the diaspora by creating a greater sense could sustain remittances and progressively of connection from this community to home encourage investments further.¹⁵¹ Figure 43: Health expenditures a. Domestic private health expenditure b. Current health expenditure per capita (% of current health expenditure ( (2011-2017) (current US$) (2011-2017) 90 600 80 500 70 60 400 50 300 40 30 200 20 100 10 0 0 (2001-2010) Fragile States Small Island Structural Peers Small Island Structural Peers Comoros Fiji and Principe States Cabo Verde Aspirational Peers Sao Tome Tonga Samoa Solomon Islands States Samoa Tonga Aspirational Peers Fiji Fragile States and Principe (2001-2010) Cabo Verde Solomon Islands Comoros Timor-Leste Sao Tome Timor-Leste Comoros Comoros 80th Percentile Lower middle income SSA Average 80th Percentile Lower middle income SSA Average 20th Percentile Lower middle income 20th Percentile Lower middle income Source: Staff calculations using IMF data. 125. Finally, social risks could emanate in cohesion. Particularly in Grande Comore, the future from a growing group of young remittances may also constitute a disincentive under- and unemployed Comorians. High for youth to participate in the labor market, rates of employment have contributed to as they receive regular financing from the frustration among the youth and helped to diaspora;¹⁵² meanwhile, cultural bias against drive outward migration. The number of doing petty and manual jobs acts as a further Comorians living outside the country has barrier to entry. Agriculture is increasingly more than tripled over the last 25 years. In less attractive to young rural Comorians who addition, young people increasingly attach tend to migrate to urban areas, and currently themselves to political elites or figures of represents 25 percent of youth employment. authority in the hope that they can attain social mobility and secure resources. All in all, the 126. The risk of a rise in radicalization to multiple frustrations constitute a risk for social violent extremism is heightened in the ¹⁵¹ Remittances have been boosted in Cabo Verde by legal and policy innovations designed specifically for the diaspora. Cabo Verde established a ministry for Diaspora Affairs and passed legislation to enable the diaspora to vote in national elections. Furthermore, to encourage emigrants to invest in real estate, for example, fiscal and administration fees have been waived or reduced. In addition, emigrants are also eligible for any of the investment incentives in place that benefit foreign investors, including sector specific investments in tourism and renewable energy (Resende- Santos, 2015). Such measures (along with political stability and general perception of good governance) are allowing remittances to be channeled to investments opportunities, particularly in the tourism sector, where 17 percent of small tourist businesses are owned by former emigrants (World Bank, 2018a). ¹⁵² Per month, remittances can represent more (even twice) than the average salary. 98 7. Risks to Sustainability of Growth and Poverty Reduction in Comoros current charged environment, which has improvement, and formal sector employment, seen intensified repression of minority Shi’a and play into the hands of groups seeking to groups and Christians. The return of students exploit this sense of dislocation. educated abroad and exposed to foreign ideas and influences is on the rise, while foreign 127. Other emerging risks relate to narcotics nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) trafficking, the smuggling of migrants, and that fill the gap left by the state in terms of maritime piracy.¹⁵³ Groups (said to be from service provision—especially in education and Anjouan¹⁵⁴) are smuggling narcotics—and a health—have also imported some hardline drug known as chimique—across borders, views. A new generation of theologians, from the ports of Zanzibar and Dar es Salaam trained abroad, is also challenging both the to Mayotte via the Comoros. These groups traditionally tolerant strands of Islam practiced are also allegedly involved in smuggling in Comoros and the legitimacy of customary migrants to Mayotte through Anjouan.¹⁵⁵They institutions. It may also deepen the frustration make use of the weak surveillance capacity at felt by the large youth demographic at the fact borders and entry points and take advantage of limited opportunities for education, self- of corruption in the Comorian administration. ¹⁵³ MF (2010) ¹⁵⁴ INL (2009) ¹⁵⁵ As of interviews conducted in country in preparation of the 2018 Risk and Resilience Assessment. 99 PATHWAYS & PRIORITIZATION 100 8. Pathways & Prioritization 128. This chapter builds on the evidence of the SCD. But tackling any of the reform areas presented in previous chapters and puts identified by this SCD will require thoughtful forward three inter-connected pathways that consideration and inclusion of the interests and would help Comoros achieve sustainable incentives of actors at the central, island, and growth and shared prosperity. These local community levels, to broker a solution pathways have been selected based on the that unites different stakeholders behind a impact they have on lifting Comoros out of its national vision, rather than undermines an low-growth equilibrium as well as addressing already fragile concept of national identity. some of the increasing inequities observed in Chapter 5 that could weaken social cohesion 130. Similarly, institutional strengthening further. The resulting pathways are discussed must be part of all reform efforts to ensure below together with the main policy reforms sustainability of reforms, as years of political that will be required to unlock them. instability have undermined and weakened the capacity of formal institutions. Regional 129. In tackling these pathways, it has imbalances and spatial inequalities have fed been important to carefully consider the into a sense of mistrust between the islands foundational importance of Identity and and the center. Meanwhile, perceptions Institutions, laid out in Chapter 4. Comoros’ of marginalization and inequality – both social and historical make-up has had an between islands and within villages – in part important impact on the country’s development because of the country’s history of population trajectory to date. The country is still struggling settlement and complex social hierarchies, with uniting behind a sense of national identity, have strengthened a sense of local identity which – when found - could strengthen the at the expense of national unity. In this way, effectiveness of policy-making and reinforce institutional strengthening can also bolster a national and social cohesion. Identifying which sense of national identity across islands and stakeholders will have the incentives to take the between villages and help to reinforce state- lead on specific priorities is beyond the scope society linkages. Pathways Pathway 1 Overcoming the investment gap 131. Comoros’ investment needs are with rapid population growth has led to a significant. At on average 16.7 percent of GDP decline of Comoros productive capital per total investment has been respectively 4.6 capita, low levels of human capital and a slow and 7 percentage points short of the average depletion of its natural capital. According to for Sub-Saharan Africa and structural peer the World Bank’s Wealth of Nations report the countries since the beginning of the century. productive capital per capita of Comoros has Foreign direct investment averaged slightly halved between 1995 and 2018 and is now half more than 1 percent in the last decade. A that of other lower middle and Sub-Saharan protracted dearth of investment combined African countries. 101 8. Pathways & Prioritization Investments in inter- and intra-island connectivity should be prioritized 132. A lack of trust in the credibility and 133. Years of low levels of investment have capacity of formal institutions is at the undermined Comoros’ growth performance core of Comoros’ low investment dilemma. and have led to rising inequities. Since 2001, Investors locally and from abroad (including investments’ contribution to growth has been the diaspora) seek predictability and reliability low and at times negative. Weak private sector when they make investments as the benefits of development and job creation are a corollary those tend to accrue only after several years. of this weak track record of low investment, Like in other countries political instability and resulting in turn in low levels of labor demand a weak rule of law have been the biggest and one of the lowest labor force participation deterrents for investors in Comoros. Low rates in Sub-Saharan Africa, another brake capacity macro-economic management, on growth. Public investments in inter- and including intransparent and erratic budget intra-island connectivity as well as other decisions, and a tendency to spend on core infrastructure services like electricity wages rather than investments have limited and water treatment should be prioritized the Government’s ability to make public to raise productivity in agriculture, services investments and mobilize domestic revenues. and commerce and create the conditions for Investment by private actors in central sectors expanding manufacturing and tourism. Weak like agriculture is discouraged by a weak rule transport services currently segment surplus of law, a weak financial system and an onerous production basins from growing urban markets. business environment, which raises doubts Lack of public investment has also resulted in whether returns on investments can be thin service delivery and rising inequities. Lack appropriated. In addition, in an environment of access to basic services such as piped water where the State provides few services, the facilities, electricity, a health center or markets population is left with prioritizing consumption is one of the strongest predictors of poverty in spending over investment, as they shoulder Comoros. Weak public service delivery has led education and health expenses themselves. to a privatization of health services. Comoros 102 8. Pathways & Prioritization is one of the countries with the highest share in power, perpetuating the politicization of of out-of-pocket health expenditures in the resource allocation. Local communities make world, where every day an estimated 35 up for the absence of the State and become Comorians fall back into poverty because of more and more self-reliant. Schools and health payments. streets are built with diaspora funds leading to not always efficient allocation of private 134. Low investment in basic service delivery resources and a gradual privatization of undermines an already fragile social important social services. But as local coping contract between the islands. Infrastructure mechanisms differ within the Union of the and basic services in health and education Comoros, not all communities manage to provision have become uneven across the cope to the same extent. Inequities have islands and risk aggravating an already risen vis-à-vis and within Anjouan, as the main existing sense of disconnect between the coping mechanism – remittances – does not islands. Inequities fuel the desire of each accrue to this island the same way it does to island to assert its financial interests when Grande Comore and Mohéli. Pathway 2 Raising Comoros’ human capital 135. Human capital in Comoros today is 136. Raising Comoros’ human capital is falling short of its potential. Among the key for accelerating growth and reducing different types of assets and capital that a poverty. Investing in human capital is an country possesses – productive, human and imperative for growth and poverty reduction. natural – human capital is where Comoros lags Given the human capital conditions that farthest other lower-middle income countries. currently exist in Comoros, a child born Children in Comoros can expect to complete today will only be 41 percent as productive 8.4 years of schooling by age 18, 2 years less as she could be if she had enjoyed complete than their peers in other lower-middle income education and health. Investing in human countries. And when years of schooling are capital requires the immediate attention adjusted for quality of learning, this is only of policymakers as the growth benefits of equivalent to 5.3 years. Girls get significantly human capital investments tend to accrue less education than boys and adolescent with a generation’s lag. Investments made pregnancies are two to three-times as in the youth of today, will only create a more common as in aspirational peer countries. productive workforce once they join the labor 31 out of 100 children grow up stunted due market. On the other hand, investments in to chronic nutrition inadequacies and a lack human capital have the advantage of being of focus on early childhood development.¹⁵⁶ less costly than investments in physical Finally, as stunting is most common among capital. And while these investments are the poor in Comoros, it aggravates existing made, additional investments in physical inequalities if left unaddressed. capital under the first pathway can have a ¹⁵⁶ Stunting is an important proxy as it reflects on the overall health environment in a country and compromises the long-term potential of individuals to contribute productively to the development of a country. 103 8. Pathways & Prioritization more immediate impact on growth and pave 138. Investments in human capital also have the way for the next generation by creating the potential of ushering in a demographic job opportunities for when they are ready to growth dividend. At 4.2 births per woman enter the labor market. in 2014, Comoros has only just initiated its demographic transition. High fertility rates 137. Human capital supports other sources and population growth pose a significant of growth and inclusion. Human capital burden on households as the number of complements physical capital in the dependents living in poor households in production process and is an important input Comoros is high.¹⁵⁸ As one of the most to technological innovation and long-run densely populated countries in the world,¹⁵⁹ growth. Human capital also fosters social high fertility also increases land pressures capital. Surveys done around the world have which can undermine the sustainability of found that more educated people are more growth.¹⁶⁰ Lowering dependency ratios not trusting of others. This type of social capital only alleviates earning pressures in poor is in turn associated with higher economic households, it can also raise the potential growth.¹⁵⁷ Conversely, failing to protect for savings which supports growth further.¹⁶¹ human capital undermines social cohesion. Human capital investments can help bring Human capital is one of the first things to the demographic dividend about: raising the suffer when things fall apart. Protracted quality and quantity of education, especially, conflict and fragility can prevent whole for women, has been shown to decrease generations from realizing their potential or fertility rates both by delaying first-time lead them to leave the country, taking their pregnancies and by raising the opportunity talents elsewhere. costs of child-bearing.¹⁶² ¹⁵⁷ Putnam, Leonardi, and Nanetti (1993); Helliwell and Putnam (1995); Keefer and Knack (1997). ¹⁵⁸ The bottom 40 percent of households in Comoros have on average 3.5 children more than the top 30 percent and have significantly higher dependency ratios. ¹⁵⁹ Despite net emigration, Comoros is one of the most densely populated countries in the world 25th, with 328 people on average living on a square kilometer. ¹⁶⁰ Jayne, Chamberlin, and Headey (2014) ¹⁶¹ Globally, it has been found that a 1 per cent fall in the dependency rate is associated with a 0.75 percentage point fall in headcount poverty and increase of one percentage point in the share of the working population will boost economic growth by between 1.1 and 2.0 percentage points (World Bank 2016, Marcio Cruz S. Amer Ahmed 2016). ¹⁶² Following declines in infant and child mortality, a subsequent decline in fertility will increase the share of the working-age population. With fewer dependents and more people at work, growth per person will be accelerated, even when the output per person of working age remains constant (Bloom and Williamson 1997a) Second, a decline in fertility might lead to an increase in female labor-force participation, further boosting the pro-growth effect. Not only will the share of the working-age population increase, the economically active labor force would increase even more, raising the output per person of working age. Third, with fewer children, families (and the state) will have the opportunity to spend more per child on their welfare and education. As these children come of working age, and enter the workforce, the productivity of the workforce will increase—a result of the increase in health and educational attainment. In this way, the demographic transition is associated with an increase in the productivity of the workforce, which can be described as the ‘skills effect’ of the demographic transition. 104 8. Pathways & Prioritization Pathway 3 Protecting and leveraging Comoros’ natural resource base 139. Natural resources are at the center and often illegally which has led to an of livelihoods and economic activity in over-exploitation of many species. Tourism Comoros. An approximate 39 percent of remains largely untapped, also because of a Comoros’ GDP are generated in activities weak environment for attracting investment for which land, sea and nature are important – which the first pathway, if unlocked, could inputs. Endowed with fertile volcanic soil, help address. good precipitation, beautiful scenery and an economic fishing zone 70 times the size of 141. Greater productivity of the resource- its land mass Comorians live of their natural based economy provides opportunities resource base. At 31.6 percent of total GDP for poverty reduction. Comoros meets an (2011-2017), of which 7.5 percent of GDP exorbitant share of its food needs through account for fisheries, Comoros’ economy imports (39.4 percent of all merchandise is more dominated by agriculture than any imports versus 18.7 percent in Sub-Saharan comparator country or group. An additional Africa). This high dependence on imported 4 percent of GDP is generated by light agro- food makes the country vulnerable to price industry, which depend on agricultural shocks, places a burden on Comoros’ growth output. Finally, while small by comparison potential by discouraging private investment but of great potential, the tourism sector in the agricultural sector and burdens its contributes another 3.4 percent of GDP to foreign exchange reserves. It also exposes the economy. 38 percent of employment is consumers to food insecurity – as recently generated by agriculture and fisheries and happened in 2008¹⁶³- and constitutes a 50 percent of the poor find their livelihoods missed opportunity for poverty reduction in these two sectors. and higher economic growth through import substitution. Food staples have been shown 140. Growth in natural resource related to offer larger growth multipliers and greater sectors has been stagnant and below poverty to growth elasticities than an equal potential. Despite traditionally leading amount of productivity growth in cash crops Comoros’ growth performance, the (Diao et al. 2012), because they are currently agricultural and fisheries sectors are of being produced by most rural households and very low productivity compared to peer because productivity in these commodities countries. Land expansion and the hours is still very low. spent by farmers toiling on these land plots are already at their potential in Comoros. Low 142. Comoros’ natural resource base needs productivity is the result of soil degradation, greater protection as it is increasingly increased water scarcity, outdated farming vulnerable and exposed to frequent and practices, lack of improved outputs and the costly shocks. Due to its location and absence of value chains. At sea, fishermen topography Comoros is among the most fish at subsistence level because of safety climate vulnerable countries in the world. In issues, a lack of specialized services and cold addition, population pressures have led to storage. As a result, foreigners are the main deforestation and an erosion of the quality of users of Comoros’ generous fishing grounds agricultural land. Rising sea levels have raised 105 8. Pathways & Prioritization salinity levels of the ground water. Fishing or are not enforced, investors loose heart. grounds are unprotected from illegal fishing Therefore, worldwide investment rates are and risk exploitation with adverse effects on higher in countries where political stability the health of the marine ecosystem.¹⁶⁴ One and strong institutions prevail.¹⁶⁵ If Comoros out of two Comorians has been affected by manages to unlock the first pathway of some natural disaster since 2005. Natural closing the investment gap, unlocking the disasters adversely affect the economy in other two pathways will be easier because the order of 1-3 percent of GDP every year. they will have more investment funds to As losses are most pronounced in Anjouan support them. Which does not mean that where agriculture dominates, these losses they should not receive attention already also tend to aggravate inequities. today. Investments in human capital only pay off a generation later, so starting today 143. Figure 44 summarizes visually how is important. And, as investment rates go the foundations of Identity and Institutions up, Comoros currently very low domestic and the pathways interact and positively labor demand will increase, raising the affect each other. Strengthening the two opportunity costs of not getting more and fundamental factors of Identity and Institutions better education. As the level of human will be key to Comoros’ development going capital in Comoros rises higher skills will forward. They not only are the foundations support innovation in services but also in of social capital and greater political established sectors like agriculture and stability, but also have a profound impact fisheries. This can help lift the productivity on Comoros’ ability to attract investment of these sectors, making them in turn more both from within Comoros and the outside. attractive to investors. Protecting the natural As investments take time they require resources that are the foundation of these predictability to allow investors to plan sectors should be a priority already today as and gauge the risks associated with their many natural resources take a long time to investments. When rules change repeatedly regenerate once they have been depleted. ¹⁶⁴ Comoros ranks 65 out of 180 on the Fisheries indicator of the Yale Environmental index, which is composed of a fish stock status indicator (53/180) and a regional marine trophic index (82/180). The fish stock status indicator captures the percentage of fish stocks caught within a country’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) that are overexploited or collapsed. The RMTI measures the extent to which the fishing sector has exploited larger, high-level species and is increasingly catching smaller, lower-level species, negatively impacting ecosystem health. A lower ranking on both indices is associated with a better relative performance. ¹⁶⁵ Bénassy-Quéré et al. (2007); Acemoglu et al. (2001); Alesina and Perotti (1996); Besley (1995); Svensson (1998); Barro (1998); Schneider et al. (1985). 106 8. Pathways & Prioritization Figure 44: Summary of how the pathways interact ... a better educated workforce has the Better managed natural resources can PATHWAY 3 skills to improve the management of support health outcomes (e.g. through Protecting Natural natural resources better nutrition and cleaner water) Resources Better managed natural resources PATHWAY 2 create investment opportunities Raising Human Capital ... as the environment for investment Better human capital supporters improves, economic opportunities im- social capital prove and investment in human capital PATHWAY 1 Closing the becomes more attractive Investment Gap ... generate an environment of predictability and trust which is key to investment THE FUNDAMENTALS OF IDENTITY AND INSTITUTIONS Key Constraints and Prioritization poverty alleviation and greater social inclusion. Other criteria such as spillovers, preconditions, 144. To unlock the three pathways, several key and time horizon of reforms were also binding constraints must be removed. From considered. Table 6 summarizes the arguments a long list of required reforms presented in on how removing these key binding constraints chapters 4 to 6, we identify the 12 most critical to the three pathways can support Comoros’ binding constraints to the three pathways that growth potential and serve as a catalyst for we consider having both (i) a stronger effect further poverty reduction and greater inclusion. on growth potential and (ii) a larger impact on These key constraints are discussed below. Table 6: Summary of pathways and binding constraints Pathways ... removing key ... that will ... that will Supporting can be binding constraints, spur growth by... reduce poverty and literature unlocked by... such as... inequities by... evidence... Overcoming Strengthen Building trust with Changing the budget World Bank (2015); the investment macro- foreign investors and composition in Gavin and Perotti (1997); gap economic other external partners favor of investment Dessus, Diaz-Sanchez, management that can finance expenditures to provide and Varoudakis (2016); growth-enhancing basic services that Alesina (1996) investment reach the poor Increase Reducing dependence Reducing dependence World Bank (2015) domestic on external donor on remittances for revenue flows to finance growth financing of basic mobilization enhancing public service provision expenditures 107 8. Pathways & Prioritization Pathways ... removing key ... that will ... that will Supporting can be binding constraints, spur growth by... reduce poverty and literature unlocked by... such as... inequities by... evidence... Overcoming Support Mobilizing more Giving households better World Bank (2015); the investment financial sector savings and channeling access to financing that World Bank (2017a), gap intermediation savings effectively into can help them smooth their World Bank (2014) investments consumption during shocks Create a Encouraging investment Spurring job creation World Bank (2015); supportive and entrepreneurship, through greater private Alesina and Perotti business which can raise the sector dynamism. This (1996); Besley (1995) environment productivity of the can raise labor income private sector and lessen dependence on transfers Raising Reduce infant Raising the productivity Lowering fertility Bloom and Williamson Human and child of future generations preferences downwards (1997a); (Layne, Capital mortality as more children born which results in smaller Chamberlin, and grow into productive dependency ratios, Headey (2014); Silva et adults. As more children which are associated al. (2016) survive, fertility rates with reduced poverty in and dependency ratios Comoros usually fall, and savings rates go up which gives growth a boost Reduce stunting Increasing the Benefitting World Bank (2017a); productivity of disproportionately the World Bank (2014) Comoros’ workforce. poor who are most Stunting reflects affected by stunting the accumulation of shocks to health during childhood and adolescence. Improve quality Raising the productivity Raising the returns on Filmer et al. (2018); of education of individuals and education of the individual World Bank (2014) facilitating investment and increasing labor in higher-skilled income (while lessening the economic activity dependence on transfers) Close the Keeping girls longer in Raising the income Milazzo and Goldstein educational school increases their of women, which will (2017); World Bank gender gap chances to join the labor improve both their (2004) force. A greater insertion children’s and their own of women into the labor access to health and force has a positive impact education on long-term growth Protecting and Improve water Supporting agricultural Improving the quality of UNDP (2015); Gassert et leveraging management productivity water provided to the al. (2013); World Bank natural poor which will improve (2018) resources health outcomes such as stunting 108 8. Pathways & Prioritization Pathways ... removing key ... that will ... that will Supporting can be binding constraints, spur growth by... reduce poverty and literature unlocked by... such as... inequities by... evidence... Protecting and Reform Increasing Increasing the income World Bank (2014); leveraging agriculture competitiveness of rural households that Goyal and Nash (2017); natural in the agricultural can be used for better World Bank (2019) resources sector boosting the nutrition, health and agroindustry and education potentially rising import-substitution Protect fishing Strengthening the Assuring a more stable World Bank (2014) grounds capacity to exploit revenue source of sustainably marine fishing households resources Manage Protecting the already Protecting the Dilley et al. (2005); disasters better limited productive livelihoods of poor rural World Bank (2017c); capital of Comoros populations which are NAPA (2006); PRGS most exposed to natural (2010); World Bank hazards (2018) 145. Overcoming the investment gap. To unlock budgets in the world and parliamentary this pathway attention will have to be paid to oversight is often bypassed. Involving four key areas of reform: local communities through participatory budgeting could support improvements In the short run: in the quality of basic service provision and build trust with local communities. As part • Improve macro-economic management of better macro-economic management to build trust with investors. Closing the more transparency should also be created investment gap should start with higher around the performance of the most rates of the budget being allocated to important SOEs in the country. Progress on public investment. To be able to do this with all these fronts would help build trust with its existing revenue stream, the Comorian private investors at home and abroad and government must improve its wage bill could help raise private investment rates. management, resist pressures to increase public sector employment and improve the • Expand domestic revenue mobilization. efficiency of existing spending. Improved A significant transformation of revenue macro-economic management also means administration and policies is needed to that the budgetary process must become lessen the dependence on volatile budget more realistic and predictable and that funding from abroad and create more fiscal debt financing be anchored in a medium- space for public investment. In the short run term fiscal framework. Currently, budget this should be achieved, ideally, through a proposals often lack realism. Submitting combination of measures that simultaneously them to greater public scrutiny could promote: i) enforcement of tax policies, ii) support a more credible budgetary process. facilitation of tax compliance, and iii) trust in Comoros has one of the least transparent government spending. These include: 109 8. Pathways & Prioritization • Enforcement: Improve the land needs to be supported by putting in register and taxpayers’ registration, place the requisite financial sector increase SOEs’ compliance with infrastructure so that it can fulfill its role their fiscal obligations, reduce firm’s of channeling savings into credit for informality, increase interoperability investments, while also supporting access between the revenues and customs to financial services for a greater share administrations, and continue the of the population. Resolving the liquidity reduction of customs’ unjustified and and insolvency crisis of the systemically discretionary exemptions. important postal bank SNPSF will be of fundamental importance in the short- • Facilitation: Promote the simplification term. Addressing the weakness of the of tax and customs rate structure, financial sector will also require tackling while streamlining procedures to the ability of courts to enforce debt reduce the transaction associated payments, which has been at the root of with tax payment. Efforts should also rising NPLs in the system. be deployed to roll out tax morale programs and consider the use of • Create an enabling business environment. low-end technologies to support tax To attract investment, investors must trust compliance (e.g. SMS tax reminder, that the private returns on investment can mobile payments). also be appropriated. In the context of a small domestic market – where returns • Improve Trust: Adopt policies that are already constrained by diseconomies promote visible links between of scale - this can only happen by creating government spending and delivery a more business friendly investment of public goods and services. These climate and ensuring greater protection efforts, to be carried out particularly at of property rights. Comoros’ performance the local level may include initiatives on international business climate rankings such as: i) local tax contributions suggests that special attention must earmarked to community-driven be paid to the environment for contract projects, ii) central government transfers enforcement, paying taxes, business entry that incentivize adoption of participatory and exit, investor protection and electricity. budgeting practices and local tax An investment code less prone to adhoc tax mobilization, and iii) periodical budget and custom exonerations would support fair meetings “assemblies” that review tax competition. International trade agreements contributions and local investments. could be used as external anchors supporting the business environment In the medium term: reform agenda.¹⁶⁶ Under an improved business environment that would favor • Improve financial sector intermediation. entrepreneurship and the performance of Comoros’ financial sector is weak and existing firms, all sectors would benefit. ¹⁶⁶ During the second semester of 2017, Comoros confirmed its membership in three international organizations, including the Southern Africa Development Community, the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) and the African Import- Export Bank. Besides, the process of accession to the WTO is progressing as Comoros continues with sustained and constructive engagement in this process as they approach the final stages prior to WTO membership. 110 8. Pathways & Prioritization 146. Raising Human Capital. Key areas of maternal and child survival interventions.¹⁶⁷ reform under this pathway are: A full spectrum of promotive, preventive, and curative interventions can be delivered In the short run: via community platform and have the substantial potential to improve nutrition • Reduce infant and child mortality. outcomes among difficult to reach The largest drivers of infant and child populations.¹⁶⁸ Further, high coverage of mortality in Comoros are preventable high impact nutrition interventions need communicable diseases such as diarrhea to be stepped up (including provision of and pneumonia, despite a high usage improved water services) to support this of health care services by mothers and agenda and counter the relatively high their children. Therefore, addressing this rates of stunting that exist among the health challenge requires actions on the poorest. In the long run, improved nutrition supply-side of the quality of care. Three will boost labor productivity. policy areas should be prioritized. First, more training of staff in health facilities is In the medium-term: needed so that cases can be diagnosed in an accurate and timely fashion. • Improve the quality of education. Better Second, facilities need to be equipped educational attainment of new cohorts with the right materials and medicines. entering the labor force is needed. Policies Third, a robust referral system is currently required to attain improved education missing, such that complicated cases can attainment are three-fold: i) an increased receive the higher-level care needed. focus on learning, by systematically Underpinning all of this is the need for measuring learning outcomes, and better data in the hands of policymakers communicating results to schools; ii) such that level of quality is better known, paying greater attention to teachers, the and support can be optimally targeted in most important factor driving student an evidence-based wad. learning; and iii) transforming schools into spaces worthy of the children they serve. • Reduce stunting: The solution lies largely Comoros is the regional laggard with in getting the right nutrients to the respect to the percentage of schools that population in the early years of life, when have gender-separate toilets, with only the foundations for human potential are 11 percent of schools having such basic laid. This involves not only having access to facilities, as compared to the regional a nutritious diet, it also involves educating average of over 60 percent. mothers and families. Community- based platforms for nutrition education • Close the educational gender gap. The and promotion are widely recognized country needs to systematically remove as important strategies to deliver key the barriers and push factors that result ¹⁶⁷ Haines et al. (2007). ¹⁶⁸ GHWA. Global experience of community health workers for delivery of health-related millennium development goals: a systematic review, country case studies, and recommendations for integration into national health systems. Geneva: Global Health Workforce Alliance, 2010. 111 8. Pathways & Prioritization in large populations of out of school more economically. Improving the quality girls. Policies that will do so exist on the of water provided will also help address supply side and the demand side. Aside the challenges of nutrition deficiencies from infrastructure actions as above, and stunting identified under the second other supply-side policies that will help pathway. In many countries, partnering with retain girls in school include recruiting communities and local units of government, more female role models in schools (as including putting resources under the direct teachers and directors), making schools control of community groups, has led to safer (through e.g. robust grievance the efficient delivery of basic services, and, redress mechanisms, actions that address when sustained, measurable reductions the power dynamic between teachers in poverty. Considering the binding and students, fostering more active constraints identified in the Comoros, school councils). On the demand-side, a community driven approach in water policy areas around reducing the direct management would: (1) fill institutional costs of school (through e.g. scholarships, and capacity voids left by incomplete tuition waiver programs, and vouchers), decentralization especially given the reducing the indirect costs (through diversity of management arrangements e.g. uniforms, school supplies, personal between the different islands; (2) devolve hygiene supplies), and facilitating safe decision making on services and on issues school transport will all help keep girls – such as watershed protection by farmers and boys – in school longer. themselves; (3) reduce the operational costs of infrastructure through responsive asset 147. Protecting and leveraging Comoros’ management at the local level; (4) provide a natural resource base. Priority reforms under local, accessible home for dispute resolution this pathway include: among water users and between them and authorities; and (5) reduce transaction costs In the short-term: for compliance with water resources and water services regulations.¹⁶⁹ • Improve water management. Better water management in terms of quantity and • Reform agriculture. Yield-enhancing quality is needed to ensure that Comoros’ investments in climate smart technologies very low per capita water endowment is (CSA), inputs, and sustainable land and water not squandered. This should range from management practices can deliver both revisiting or designing water extraction productivity gains and build resilience to and service delivery policies to specific environmental risks. The transfer of off-the- technical initiatives such as encouraging shelf resilient and biofortified varieties of the rain harvesting, more generally water main food crops – maize, cassava, bananas conservation and reducing pollution of – from regional centers of excellence (RCoE) sources, as well as ensuring more efficient could enhance adaptation and food security urban water usage, while pricing water without requiring duplicative financial and ¹⁶⁹ A community driven approach has been tested in Mutsamudu (the second largest city in the country located on Anjouan island) with the establishment of a watershed management committee. Among other things this improved community and particularly women’s formal participation in water resources and water services planning and management (UN, 2018). 112 8. Pathways & Prioritization human resource investments in agricultural of the management measures adopted.¹⁷² R&D. Coupled with the scale-up of practices Samoa is a good example of an island like low-till agriculture, agroforestry, state like Comoros which has adopted sustainable soil fertility management, and a community-based approach to rainwater harvesting, strategic investments subsistence fishery management. 44 in CSA dissemination have the potential to percent of Samoa’s approximately 230 transform Comorian agriculture and place it coastal villages have village fishery on a sustainable growth path.¹⁷⁰ Community- management plans today.¹⁷³ level rural development centers can help accelerate behavior change and adoption In the medium-term: of CSA technologies and practices.¹⁷¹ • Strengthen disaster risk management. • Develop a sustainable management Building resilience to climatic shocks approach for fisheries. To limit depletion requires taking a comprehensive of the fish stock in Comorian waters, disaster risk-management approach that and, especially, depletion of species in encompasses detailed risk assessments, the coastal areas and that are of value to strengthening the legal framework and the eco-system, fisheries management institutional capacity and the development must focus on increasing the economic of a national disaster risk management benefits of fishing for local communities. plan prioritizing critical areas. Enhanced This can be achieved by reducing post- disaster risk knowledge will allow Comoros harvest losses and increasing value- to improve land use planning, as well as addition through investment in adequate relocation and protection programs for the infrastructure for artisanal fisheries (e.g. population living in risk prone areas. To build landing sites, cold storage, ice-machines, resilience at the community level combining etc.). Fisheries co-management, an on-going efforts on social protection and approach tested in other countries, holds adaptive safety nets with investments promise for Comoros. Co-management in effective early warning systems and involves communities in the decision community disaster preparedness would making-process, increases ownership and contribute to save lives and reduce the supports the application and enforcement impact of disasters shocks on the poor. ⁷⁰ Other CSA technologies adaptable to Comoros include small-scale irrigation, terraces, contour bunds, grass bunds, rehabilitation of degraded micro-watersheds, woodlots. ¹⁷¹ One example of a community level rural development center are farmer field schools championed by the FAO. A Farmer Field School (FFS) brings together a group of farmers, livestock herders or fisherfolk, to learn on how to shift towards more sustainable production practices, by better understanding complex agro-ecosystems and by enhancing ecosystem services. A FFS group meets regularly during a production cycle, setting up experimentation and engaging in hands-on learning to improve skills and knowledge that will help adapt practices to their specific context. The FFS empowers individuals and groups to move towards more sustainable practices and improve livelihoods. ¹⁷² Fisheries co-management is flexible and cooperative management of the aquatic resources is performed by the user groups and the government. In this arrangement, both the community and the government are involved during the decision making, implementation and enforcement processes (Sen and Nielsen, 1996). ¹⁷³ Co-management activities in Comoros have already started under the World Bank’s Coastal Resources Co- management for sustainable livelihood project, where 17 co-management agreements were signed with communities on Grande Comore, Mohéli and Anjouan, with the objective to improve human and institutional capacity development, design and implement fisheries management plans. 113 8. Pathways & Prioritization In the medium term, the interdependence priorities in Table 7 below, but because between forested areas, agricultural land of its significant catalytic effect for and coastal zones in Comoros will require an development it is mentioned here. integrated approach for policy-making with close collaboration between the different Finally, two core constraints must be tackled sectors (water, agriculture, fisheries, forest, to strengthen the foundational factors of energy, etc.). Identity and Institutions: In the long term: • Support citizen and community participation. Reform efforts will have to • Reform land tenure. The current overlap be supported by a proactive engagement of three land regimes prevents land from with the inclusion of local communities being sold and rented out and limits across traditional divides. A natural farmers ability to collateralize their land to entry point is to leverage the existence obtain access to financing. The absence of of community-based organizations and a land registry coupled with an inefficient village associations that take decisions and corrupt court system leave many related to development interventions, and land conflicts at stalemate undermining collectively decide on how to spend the the ability of owners to invest. Reforming funds remitted from the diaspora. These land tenure tends to be a lengthy and associations have deep knowledge of politically charged process but could local context and have the authority and be catalytic for land productivity by credibility by which to take and carry eventually allowing for the concentration out decisions. Opening the spaces in of land and incentivizing investment in the which people can engage in dialogue adoption of modern inputs and farming and express their thoughts and ideas- techniques and water management. A particularly those who currently seek a clear land tenure system would also greater voice in society, such as academics, support the environment for investment local NGOs, trade unions, associations, and private sector development more private sector representatives, women, generally.¹⁷⁴ Last, the lack of land tenure and youth groups, will be essential and will security binds poor families to the land help to open channels of communication they cultivate and limits their abilities for non-traditional voices. An important to complement their on-farm with off- aspect of this is to elevate the voices of farm earnings because they must fear women, who hold informal power within dispossession if they distance themselves communities and are increasingly involved from their land. Because of its very long- in the public sphere through women’s term nature – both in terms of winning associations and organizations, but find support for it and its implementation - this their roles circumscribed by religious and reform area is not included in the list of social norms. ¹⁷⁴ Greater land tenure security can be achieved if land administration services are strengthened to undertake participatory titling in production basins. This process would consist of consensual demarcation, multi-stakeholder land recognition committees that facilitate a small-scale cadaster census, and land use planning. 114 8. Pathways & Prioritization • Strengthen the capacity of key 148. Table 7 proposes a prioritization of formal institutions. To build up trust the different key constraints identified by in the central state and its formal this SCD based on a measure of urgency institutions, steps towards instituting of reform estimated as Comoros relative greater transparency, oversight, and distance to the frontier of the best accountability mechanisms need to performing aspirational peer. To establish be taken. Examples include increasing the “distance to the aspirational peer” we transparency of and consultation on use a version of a methodology used already the budget with Parliament, publication for the Colombia and Chile SCD. Within a of the financial accounts of the most ranking of zero to one, we compare the important state-owned enterprises, value of Comoros’s performance today on and greater transparency regarding selected indicators that can signal progress public procurement contracts (an issue in the policy areas identified to the value of that was widely raised in private sector its peers for each of the key indicators. The consultations – see Annex 2). These efforts value of the best performing aspirational also need to be paired with measures to peer is set as the “target” value, and that reinforce citizen engagement and provide of the least performing fragile country is citizens with opportunities to comment set as an indication of the minimum value on law proposals etc. Only when citizens attainable for each indicator. Comoros’s feel that their voice is being heard will they position in the ranking is then calculated trust the central state. Ultimately, instituting using the following equation: these type of feedback mechanisms will vi,co - vi,wf facilitate the improvement of quality and delivery of services by the central state. Last, Sj = vi,bp - vi,wf , Sj = [0,1] the knowledge base for evidence-based decision making needs to be improved by Where vi,co is the value of Comoros for indicator addressing the weaknesses of the statistics i; vi,wf the value of the worst fragile country for system. A general absence of information i; and vi,bp the value of the best performing to inform the design, implementation, aspirational peer for i. In this setting, the monitoring, and evaluation of policies further is Comoros’s value from that of the and to produce evidence-based service best performing aspirational peer for a given delivery generates inefficiencies and indicator i – or the lowest is Comoros’s score Sj incoherence (see Annex 11 for an inventory in the ranking - the higher the level of urgency of current data gaps).¹⁷⁵ to reform. ¹⁷⁵ World Bank (2014) 115 116 Table 7: Key binding constraints and prioritizations Pathway Key Key Fragile Performance of Comoros compared to worst-performing fragile country & best-performing aspirational peer binding Performance constraints Indicator 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Aspirational 8. Pathways & Prioritization Overcoming the Strenghten macro- Wage bill as % of current expenditure Togo (72%) Comoros Fiji (32%) investment gap economic management (WDI, 2011-2017) (51% Ranking in the Open Budget Survey Yemen (0) Comoros Fiji (41) (0-100) (8) Increase domestic Tax and Customs revenue as % of GDP Micronesia Comoros Fiji (24%) revenue mobilization (WDI, 2011-2017) (6,6%) (7.1%) Support financial sector Domestic Credit to Private Sector (% Congo, DR Comoros Fiji (81,5%) intermediation GDP) (WDI, average 2011-2017) (5,6%) (13,9%) Create a supportive Base of Doing Business Score (Doing Somalia (20,4) Comoros Fiji (63,8) business environment Business, 2019) (48,7) Raising Human Capital Reduce infant and child Probability of survival to age 5 Chad (0,88) Comoros Tonga (0,98) mortality (HCI, 2018) (0,93) Reduce stunting Fraction of kids under 5 not stunted Burundi (0,44) Comoros (0,69) Tonga (0,92) Improve quality of Learning adjusted years of school (HCI) South Sudan (2,3) Comoros (5,3) Tonga (6,5) education Close the educational School enrollment, female secondary Mali (27,7) Comoros Samoa (83,3) gender gap (WDI, 2011-2017) (45,8) Protecting and Improve water Renewal internal fresh water resources, Djibouti (0,3) Comoros Fiji (28,6) leveraging natural management total (billion cubi meters) (1,2) resources Reform agriculture Average yield of cereals, fruits Burundi (38,582) Comoros Tonga (88,152) and vegetables (hg/ha) (44,497) (FAOSTAT, 2011-2017) Protect fishing grounds Fisheries current score 0-100 (Yale Guinea-Bissau Comoros Tonga (76,86) Environmental Performance Index) (36,45) (57,81) Manage disasters better Readiness indicator of the ND-GAIN Central Africa Comoros Cabo Verde (0,48) Matrix (2014) Republic (0,17) (0,32) Identity and institutions Strengthen capacity of Government Effectiveness Percentile Somalia (0) Comoros Samoa (70,7) formal institutions Rank (WGI, average 2011-2017) (2,8) Support citizen Voice Accountability Percentile Rank Eritrea (1) Comoros Cabo Verde (76,1) participation (WGI, average 2000-2017) (36,5) Annex 1 ANNEXES Annex 1: Description of indicators used for the Prioritization Table PERFORMANCE INDICATOR DESCRIPTION SOURCE Wage bill Compensation of employees (all payments in cash, as World Development (% current expenditures) well as in kind in return for services rendered to the Indicators (average government) as percentage of general government 2011-2017) current final consumption expenditure. Ranking in the The Index assigns countries covered by the Open The Open Budget Open Budget Index Budget Survey a transparency score on a 100-point scale Survey (2017) using a subset of questions that assess the amount and timeliness of budget information that governments make publicly available in eight key budget documents in accordance with international good practice standards. Tax and Customs Revenue Total compulsory transfers to the central government for World Development (% of GDP public purposes as percentage of GDP. Indicators (average 2011-2017) Domestic Credit to Private Financial resources provided to the private sector World Development Sector (% GDP) by financial corporations that establish a claim for Indicators (average repayment as percentage of GDP. 2011-2017) Ease of Doing Business Score The score captures the gap between an economy’s Doing Business current performance and a measure of best regulatory (2019) practice set in Doing Business 2015. Probability of Survival to Calculated for the HCI by subtracting the under-5 Human Capital Age 5 mortality rate (retrieved from the UN Interagency Group Index (2018) for Child Mortality Estimates) from 1. Fraction of Kids under 5 Not Calculated for the HCI by subtracting stunting rates Human Capital stunted (retrieved from the UNICEF-WHO-World Bank Joint Index (2018) Malnutrition Estimates) from 1. Learning Adjusted Years Calculated for the HCI by multiplying the estimates of Human Capital of School expected years of school by the ratio of most recent Index (2018) harmonized attainment on the TIMSS. School Enrollment, Female Ratio of female children of official secondary school age World Development Secondary who are enrolled in secondary school to the population Indicators (average of the corresponding official secondary school age. 2011-2017) Renewable Internal Fresh Internal renewable resources (internal river flows and World Development Water Resources, total (billion groundwater from rainfall) in the country. Indicators (average cubic meters) 2011-2017) Average yield of Cereals, Simple average of Cereal Yields, Fresh Fruit yields and FAOSTAT (average Fruits and Vegetables (hg/ha) Vegetables yields. 2011-2017) 117 Annex 1 PERFORMANCE INDICATOR DESCRIPTION SOURCE Fisheries - Current Score Overall combined score of: fish stock status and regional Yale Environmental 0-100 marine trophic index (RMTI). Fish Stock Status is based Performance Index on an assessment of the percentage of fish stocks (2018) caught within a country’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) that are overexploited or collapsed; RTMI is a measure of the mean trophic level of fish caught by a country, which represents the overall health of the ecosystem. Readiness indicator of the The “ND-GAIN Matrix” illustrates the comparative ability ND-GAIN Matrix ND-GAIN Matrix (2014) of countries to undertake adaptive actions to increase its (2014) resilience to climate. The Readiness indicator measures to what degree a country is prepared to deal with climatic and environmental changes. Government Effectiveness: The indicator captures perceptions of the quality of public World Government Percentile Rank services, the quality of the civil service and the degree of Indicators (average its independence from political pressures, the quality of 2000-2017) policy formulation and implementation, and the credibility of the government's commitment to such policies. Percentile rank indicates the country's rank among all countries covered by the aggregate indicator, with 0 corresponding to lowest rank, and 100 to highest rank. Voice and Accountability: The indicator captures perceptions of the extent to which World Government Percentile Rank a country's citizens are able to participate in selecting Indicators (average their government, as well as freedom of expression, 2000-2017) freedom of association, and a free media. Percentile rank defined as the previous. 118 Annex 2 Annex 2: Results of consultations for the SCD 1 Comoros first SCD consultations (September 18-22, 2017) Workshops were held during the week of environment, budget issues, finances and September 18 that were aimed at (i) presenting general state of the economy. the SCD process and get first reactions from the audience, (ii) framing the SCD in the World What we heard/learned: Bank country engagement and (iii) explaining the IDA cycle and the IDA18 portfolio. The The main discussion points and suggestions workshops have also been an opportunity for for the Bank’s consideration raised by the the government to present their development participants during the consultation week can strategy for the Comoros “Emergence 2030”. be summarized as follows: Consultations were held with: • Isolation and fragmentation: The isolated situation of Comoros’ geography • the Central Bank coupled with limited means of transport among the islands makes living in • the Minister of Economy and Finance and Comoros very expensive and constrains key personnel from the same Ministry and economic activities. The country’s import other ministries dependence is one of the highest in the world. Government revenues originate • key stakeholders from the government, predominantly from import taxes, placing private sector representatives, Civil a high cost on local businesses. Reforms Society Organizations (CSOs), Chambers of to the investment code and customs Commerce and other donor organizations. procedures and efficiency are needed to lessen the burden on the private • the main development partners in the sector and to bring the country in line Comoros, who are key counterparts in with government objectives of regional this scoping phase thanks to the variety integration in SADC and COMESA as well of perspectives and knowledge they have as WTO requirements. on development issues for the country; • Private sector participation: The private • other private sector representatives and sector is interested in an enhanced and the civil society, who suggested a number more regular dialogue with government of big constraints and opportunities for on key issues. Access to credit, lack of development that Comoros should seize long-term financing and high electricity to reduce extreme poverty and promote costs were raised among the most more inclusive growth; important constraints. Several participants also raised the adverse effect that a weak • the IMF who extensively briefed the contract enforcement environment has on Bank team on the macro economic economic activity. 119 Annex 2 • Governance: Inefficiencies in the legal significant levels of remittances back framework and justice system undermine home which serve as social safety nets trust and affect local as well as foreign and for consumption, rather than for investors negatively and dampen productive investment. entrepreneurial activity in the country. The announcement of the public consultations • Jobs, skills and its gender dimension: High and of the SCD process were published in levels of informality and unemployment – the World Bank Comoros web page: https:/ / especially among the youth - are important consultations.worldbank.org/consultation/ preoccupations for the Comoros, with its systematic-country-diagnostic-scd- rapid population growth and high age economic-and-social-situation-comoros. dependency ratio. Participants voiced concerns regarding a skills mismatch that Consultations continued online - including marks the labor market. Girls are not always on social media (Twitter and Facebook) until given enough chances and support in both October 30th to allow for greater participation. education and employment. As of the beginning October the page “Banque Mondiale Afrique” on Facebook had already • Diaspora: All participants suggested that reached 61,112 people (number of unique people the Bank should try to analyze better the who saw the FB post on the consultation), 14,291 phenomenon of diaspora, as they send Likes, 113 Comments, 82 Shares. 2 Comoros SCD second round of consultations (May 14-18, 2018)¹⁷⁶ Workshops were held during the week Poverty Assessment was also presented at of May 14 that aimed at (i) presenting the the event. preliminary results of the Comoros SCD to the authorities and other stakeholders, (ii) obtain Consultations were held with: reactions and comments on the preliminary results and collect additional information to • Representatives of the financial sector improve certain parts of the story line. A WB • Parliament (Vice-president of the team preparing the next risk and resilience Parliament and other deputies) assessment also joined the discussions. • Consumer association • Researchers (university professor, Presentation of preliminary results of Comoros SCD: President of National Center for Research, and President of “Conseil de Sages”) The SCD consultation started in May 14 with • Representatives of private sector a presentation to government authorities and • Civil Society Organizations other stakeholders of the preliminary results • University students (a group of students of the Comoros SCD. The recently completed in economics) ¹⁷⁶ The meeting with the youth was held on May 23, 2018. 120 Annex 2 What we heard/learned: sector is almost inexistent. Finally, it was argued that low labor participation is not The main discussion points and suggestions equivalent to low work in Comoros since a for the Bank’s consideration raised by the large part of the work is carried out for the participants during the consultation week can community (without monetary retribution) be summarized as follows: and much of the work is in fact a non- monetary exchange of services between • On financial constraints: There is little family members/friends. financing for long run projects, one of the reasons being the very low long-term • On land: Villages must first agree before savings. Another factor mentioned by investors could acquire land to start their participants is the lack of trust of banks business. Land is most of the time not on the potential borrowers. Many times, registered. This is mainly explained by the the borrowed money is used in something fact that people think they will have to pay else that was not agreed in the initial property taxes (even though there are not contract (e.g. in Grand marriages). The such a tax in Comoros) and they don’t see effective interest rate is much higher the need to do it because informal rules than the official maximum interest rate are more important than Comorian law in discouraging potential borrowers. this area. • On total investment and local investment: • On remittances: It was reported that there Villages raise funds to construct social is a big pressure to send remittances infrastructures (Mosques, roads, schools). because migrants must give back what Official total investment in Comoros is they received from their community. It then highly undervalued. was mentioned that most of remittances are used to build a house for the migrants’ • On labor participation: We learned that daughters, health services, education the drivers of the low participation rate related expenses, and for Grand marriages. are different across islands. For instance, No so much is left for private sector in Grand Comore, only white-collar jobs projects. The diaspora seems worried to seem to be valorized by society. Thus, send money to set up a business because the primary sector is especially affected of lack of trust on how funds would be by this cultural feature. In addition, this used. One important worry expressed by negative effect on labor participation meeting participants was the sustainability is amplified by remittances (that drives of remittances flows. Indeed, given reservation wages up). Interestingly, the current policies (not very migrant- university students mentioned that the friendly) in Europe, emigrations rates could religious factor explains only little of the decrease. Also, they highlighted the fact low labor participation (instead of the that the offspring of emigrants will be much strong role played by religion in MENA less likely to send remittances to Comoros. countries). Participants however pointed Besides, the university students mentioned out that the low labor participation rate is that increasingly, after graduation, the also due to low labor demand in all three students in foreign countries come back islands. Indeed, for instance the productive to Comoros. 121 Annex 2 • On human capital: The public service an important issue (importantly affecting does not have (most of the time) civil the financial sector, for instance). Besides, servants with the required skills. Many the coexistence of the Comorian law with participants mentioned the absence of an Islamic and traditional law make things entry exam as one of the causes. Besides, more complex (e.g. for land sells). there is no stability of the heads of SOEs and ministries (most change every time • On domestic firms and procurement a new government arrives). In the private contracts: Foreign firms are preferred sector, there is a lack of skills in many for the biggest contracts (especially for sectors and areas, including in the firm’s large infrastructure projects). This can management. This is happening even be explained by the low expertise and though there is a large number of students capacity of national firms. Consequently, at the university (around 12-14 thousand). development banks in Comoros work mostly with foreign firms. • On some cultural differences across islands: In Grand Comore, obtaining social • On the tourism sector constraints: status within the village is a priority. The Participants mentioned the low access to “notables” has a predominant role in the tourism sites as one of the main constraints villages’ decisions. In this island there is to the development of the sector. Lack of a great group solidarity and the group qualified staff was also mentioned (e.g. seem to become more important than professional guides), together with the the individual. Anjouan doesn’t share absence of catering schools and little logistic these features and seem to have a more materials (e.g. there isn’t a tourism brochure). entrepreneurial spirit. • On the aviculture industry constraints: • On rule of law: Participants emphasized The industry is having difficulties to get a that the non-respect of the rule of law continue supply of inputs such as maize was one of the main constraints to (as the current crisis of eggs production economic development in Comoros. They shows). Besides, the lack of proper pointed out that often ministerial rulings slaughter facilities was also mentioned or decrees have more power than laws. as a main constraint for the development The low trust in the judiciary system is of the industry 122 Annex 3 Annex 3: Historical Timeline Comoros 1974 Three of the islands making up Comoros vote for independence from France, but a fourth island, Mayotte, votes to stay with France. 1975 Comoros unilaterally declares independence, with Ahmed Abdallah as president, who is deposed the same year in a coup and replaced by Prince Said Mohammed Jaffar. 1976 Jaffar is replaced by Ali Soilih, who tries to turn the country into a secular, socialist republic. 1978 Soilih is toppled and killed by mercenaries led by Denard, who restores Abdallah to power. 1989 Abdallah is assassinated by presidential guard under command of French mercenary Denard, who stages a coup. France intervenes and Denard leaves islands. 1990 Said Mohamed Djohar elected president. 1995 Djohar is removed in a coup attempt led by Denard. French troops intervene, Denard surrenders. 1996 Mohamed Abdulkarim Taki elected president, drafts a constitution that extends the authority of the president and establishes Islam as the basis of law. 1997 The islands of Anjouan and Mohéli declare independence from Comoros. Troops from the island of Grande Comore land in Anjouan to try to prevent its secession but are routed. 1998 President Taki dies, apparently of heart attack, and is replaced by an acting president, Tadjidine Ben Said Massounde, pending elections. 1999 Massounde signs an autonomy agreement in Madagascar, but the delegates from Anjouan and Mohéli refuse to follow suit, saying they must first consult their people, thereby prompting violent demonstrations in Grande Comore against people of Anjouan origins. 2001 Massounde ousted in a coup led by the chief of the General Staff, Colonel Azali Assoumani. Azali Assoumani says the country will return to civilian rule in 2002 after new institutions of government had been set up. He also declares he would not stand for election. A "military committee" seizes power in the island of Anjouan with aim of rejoining Comoros. Anjouan suffers from numerous failed coup attempts trying to counter reunification efforts. Voters back a new constitution that will keep the three islands as one country but will grant each one of them greater autonomy. 2002 Azali Assoumani named president of reunited Comoros. 2003 Leaders of semi-autonomous islands reach a power-sharing deal, paving the way for elections. 2006 Ahmed Abdallah Mohamed Sambi, from Anjouan wins federal presidential elections. 2007 The African Union sends troops to help keep the peace in June's elections after Anjouan president Mohamed Bacar refuses to stand down. The crisis escalates when Anjouan holds local elections in defiance of the federal government and the African Union. Mohamed Bacar is inaugurated as Anjouan's president. The African Union starts a navy blockade around the island. 2008 Comorian and AU troops land on Anjouan and recapture it, defeating the separatists. 2009 The island of Mayotte votes to fully integrate with France. The government of Comoros, which lays claim to the island, terms the referendum null and void. 2010 Ikililou Dhoinine wins presidential elections and takes office in May 2011. 2016 Azali Assoumani wins presidential elections after main contender refused to recognize Assoumani’s victory. The Constitutional Court ordered a partial re-run that saw Assoumani’s victory. 2018 A referendum was held seeking ratification of amendments to the Constitution and resulted in a change of the presidential rotation rules. This resulted in riots by armed protesters in Anjouan and exchanges of gunfire over several days. Military reinforcements were sent in and the Governor of Anjouan was arrested. 123 Annex 4 Annex 4: Progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals in Comoros GOAL NO.1: POVERTY 2000 2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Poverty headcount ratio at $1.90 a day .. .. .. .. .. 18.1 .. .. .. .. (2011 PPP) (% of population) Poverty headcount ratio at national .. .. .. .. .. .. 42 .. .. .. poverty lines (% of population) Urban poverty headcount ratio at national .. .. .. .. .. .. 42 .. .. .. poverty lines (% of urban population) GOAL NO.2: ZERO HUNGER Prevalence of undernourishment .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. (% of population) Prevalence of underweight, weight for age 25 .. .. .. 16.9 .. .. .. .. .. (% of children under 5) Prevalence of wasting, weight for height 13.3 .. .. .. 11.1 .. .. .. .. .. (% of children under 5) GOAL NO.3: GOOD HEALTH & WELL-BEING Immunization, measles 70 67 72 79 85 85 86 90 90 90 (% of children ages 12-23 months) Maternal mortality ratio (modeled 499 436 388 376 365 354 344 355 .. .. estimate, per 100,000 live births) Mortality rate, neonatal 40.9 40.1 36.9 36.2 35.4 34.7 34.3 33.1 32.3 31.7 (per 1,000 live births) Mortality rate, under-5 101.1 97.4 85.3 82.7 80.4 77.9 75.5 73.2 71.1 69 (per 1,000 live births) GOAL NO.4: QUALITY EDUCATION Literacy rate, adult total ( 68.5 .. .. .. 49.2 .. .. .. .. .. % of people ages 15 and above) Lower secondary completion rate, total .. .. .. .. .. 45.3 48.3 .. .. .. (% of relevant age group) School enrollment, tertiary (% gross) 1.5 .. 5.8 8 8.7 8.8 9 .. .. .. GOAL NO.5: GENDER EQUALITY Nondiscrimination clause mentions .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. gender in the constitution (1=yes; 0=no) Proportion of seats held by women in .. 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 6.1 national parliaments (%) 124 Annex 4 GOAL NO.6: CLEAN WATER & SANITATION 2000 2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 People using basic sanitation services 26.8 29.4 32 32.5 33.1 33.6 34.1 34.2 .. .. (% of population) People using basic drinking water services 86.4 85.4 84.4 84.2 84.1 83.9 83.7 83.7 .. .. (% of population) GOAL NO.7: AFFORDABLE & CLEAN ENERGY Access to electricity (% of population) 39.6 51.6 63.1 65.6 69.3 70.5 72.9 75.4 77.8 .. Access to electricity, rural 29.9 42.9 56 58.7 61.4 64.1 66.8 69.5 72.2 .. (% of rural population) Access to electricity, urban 65.3 72.8 81.4 83.2 85.1 86.7 88.5 90.3 92.1 .. (% of urban population) GOAL NO.8: DECENT WORK & ECONOMIC GROWTH GDP growth (annual %) 10.8 2.8 3,8 4.1 3,2 4,5 2.1 1,1 2.3 2.7 Unemployment, total .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. (% of total labor force) (national estimate) Unemployment, total (% of total labor 4.6 4.5 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.3 4.3 force) (modeled ILO estimate) Unemployment, youth total 10 10 9.9 9.9 9.9 9.9 9.9 9.9 9.9 10 (% of total labor force ages 15-24) (modeled ILO estimate) GOAL NO.9: INDUSTRY, INNOVATION, & INFRASTRUCTURE Investment in telecoms with private .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. participation (current US$) New business density (new registrations .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. per 1,000 people ages 15-64) GOAL NO.10: REDUCED INEQUALITY Personal remittances, received (% of GDP) 8,3 9.8 10.9 11.2 10.9 11.5 13.6 12.8 13.0 GOAL NO.11: SUSTAINABLE CITIES & COMMUNITES Urban population (% of total) 28.1 27.9 28 28 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.5 28.6 28.8 Urban population growth (annual %) 2.4 2.3 2.6 2.7 2.7 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.7 2.9 Population living in slums 65.4 68.9 .. .. .. .. 69.6 69.9 .. .. (% of urban population) 125 Annex 4 GOAL NO.12: RESPONSIBLE 2000 2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 CONSUMPTION & PRODUCTION Renewable electricity output 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 .. .. .. (% of total electricity output) Renewable energy consumption 48.3 44.3 46.4 47.8 48 44.1 46.6 45.3 .. .. (% of total final energy consumption) Water productivity, total (constant .. .. .. .. .. .. 59.2 .. .. .. 2010 US$ GDP per cubic meter of total freshwater withdrawal) GOAL NO.13: CLIMATE ACTION PM2.5 air pollution, mean annual exposure 21.1 20.4 16.8 17.3 17.3 17.5 17.1 19 19.1 .. (micrograms per cubic meter) PM2.5 air pollution, population exposed to 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 .. levels exceeding WHO guideline value (% of total) CO2 emissions (kg per PPP $ of GDP) 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 .. .. .. Terrestrial and marine protected areas (% .. 0 .. .. .. .. 2.4 .. 0.1 0.1 of total territorial area) GOAL NO.14: LIFE BELOW WATER Aquaculture production (metric tons) .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Capture fisheries production (metric tons) 12003 10738 63447 38180 36296 43732 9255 12674 16407 .. Total fisheries production (metric tons) 12003 10738 63447 38180 36296 43732 9255 12674 16407 .. GOAL NO.15: LIFE ON LAND Forest area (% of land area) 24.2 22.6 21 20.7 20.5 20.3 20.1 19.9 .. .. GOAL NO.16: PEACE & JUSTICE STRONG INSTITUTIONS Tax revenue (% of GDP) .. .. 6.7 6.5 6.9 7.1 7.0 6.6 7.9 9.5 Overall level of statistical capacity .. 56.7 50 50 41.1 43.3 40 42.2 34.4 30 (scale 0 - 100) GOAL NO.17: PARTNERSHIPS TO ACHIEVE THE GOAL Individuals using the Internet 0.3 2 5.1 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 7.9 .. (% of population) Net official development assistance and 2E+07 2E+07 7E+08 6E+07 1E+09 8E+07 7E+07 7E+07 5E+07 .. official aid received (current US$) 126 Annex 5 Annex 5: Decomposition of Urban-Rural Inequality Table 8: Unconditional Decomposition of Urban-Rural Inequality of Real Monthly Per capita Consumption LOWEST PERCENTILE MIDDLE PERCENTILE TOP PERCENTILE 0.402*** 0.367*** 0.333*** Total Gap [0.046] [0.038] [0.064] 0.088* 0.163*** 0.099** Total Endowments [0.047] [0.037] [0.050] 0.021 0.056*** 0.048*** Human capital [0.019] [0.014] [0.015] 0.129*** 0.151*** 0.094*** Demographic composition [0.021] [0.018] [0.015] 0.031* 0.044*** 0.039* Sector of employment [0.018] [0.014] [0.020] 0.064*** 0.033* 0.001 Assets ownership [0.025] [0.018] [0.019] 0.007 0.070*** 0.088*** Access basic Services [0.030] [0.022] [0.033] -0.147*** -0.173*** -0.126*** Geographic characteristics [0.033] [0.025] [0.027] 0.314*** 0.204*** 0.235*** Total Returns [0.061] [0.045] [0.077] -0.008 -0.057 -0.071 Human capital [0.058] [0.043] [0.061] -0.363** -0.481*** 0.464*** Demographic composition [0.161] [0.118] [0.166] -0.123** -0.138*** -0.128 Sector of employment [0.061] [0.045] [0.084] 0.185** 0.017 -0.072 Assets ownership [0.078] [0.058] [0.079] -0.794** 0.163 -0.249 Access basic Services [0.372] [0.273] [0.566] 0.335*** 0.588*** 0.523*** Geographic characteristics [0.106] [0.078] [0.109] Note: Numbers in brackets are bootstrap standard deviations based on 100 replications. * Significant at the 10 percent level; ** significant at the 5 percent level; *** significant at the 1 percent level. Source: EESIC 2014 and World Bank staff calculations. 127 Annex 6 Annex 6: Decomposition of consumption growth To explore the basic factors behind the expansion of assets ownership, mainly means observed decline in poverty, changes in of transportation and communication, and consumption have been decomposed into to a lesser extent agricultural land. The two components. One component is due to improvements in endowments were coupled improvements in personal characteristics or with an increase of the returns to their economic endowments (for example, increased education activity—essentially nonagricultural businesses. levels, ownership of assets, and access to While households’ engagements in business employment opportunities and basic services), activities seem to have declined over time, and the other component that is attributable to particularly among the poorest groups, the gains changes in the returns to those characteristics from households’ businesses, essentially non- (for example, the returns to education, land farming activity, appear to have increased quite productivity, returns to business, and so forth). significantly, particularly for the three lowest deciles. Returns to land seem to have also These two components are further decomposed improved over time, though less significantly to identify the specific attributes that contribute to for the poorest. The improvement in returns to the changes in consumption. The decomposition community infrastructure indicates a higher is applied at each decile of the consumption positive influence of access to local markets distribution to understand the patterns of the and roads on households’ living standards in changes for the different welfare groups. recent years. The demographic structure of households seems to have improved, resulting The table 9 underlines an improvement of from the reduction of their sizes and numbers households’ endowments for all the population of children, but these appear to be a continuing groups, but the improvements are more constraint on household well-being as their significant for the poorest 30 percent. The negative impact on households’ returns appear increase in endowments is driven by a significant to have increased. Table 9: Decomposition of comsuption growth POOR MIDDLE CLASS RICHEST Total 0.118*** 0.226*** 0.269*** Endowments 0.412*** 0.280*** 0.249*** Demographic. Structure 0.082*** 0.156*** 0.146*** Human capital -0.293*** 0.071*** 0.057** Employment sector 0.031* 0.004 0.005 Assets 0.115*** 0.039*** 0.051*** Access basic services 0.013 0.029* 0.022 Returns -0.293*** -0.055 0.020 Demographic. Structure -0.775*** -0.260* -0.286* Human capital -0.242*** -0.157*** -0.083* Employment sector 0.056* 0.023 0.039 Assets 0.119** 0.034 -0.006 Access basic services -0.059 0.090* 0.102* Source: EIM 2004 and EESIC 2014. Note: The poor are in the lowest two deciles; middle class individuals are in the fifth decile, and the richest ones are in the top decile. 128 Annex 7 Annex 7: Inequality decomposition The static decomposition of inequality enables to explore how the differences in households’ characteristics affect the level of inequality and provides important clues for understanding the underlying structure of real per capita consumption distribution in Comoros. The decomposition follows the approach of Cowell and Jenkins (1995) and consists of separating total inequality in the distribution of consumption into inequality between the different household groups in each partition, IBetw, and the remaining within-group inequality, IWithin. As the most commonly decomposed measures in the inequality literature come from the General Entropy class, mean log deviation (Theil_L) and the Theil_T indices in real per capita monthly consumption expenditure are used to identify the contribution of between- group differentials to total inequality. The General Entropy inequality measures allow total inequality to be equal to IBetw + IWithin and the amount of inequality explained by households attributes (or group of attributes) is measured by IBetw/ITotal, where between and within group inequalities are defined, respectively, for Theil_L and Theil_T indices as [∑ [∑ k k j IBetw= f log j=1 j IWithin= f GE0 j=1 j IBetw= [∑ k f j=1 j log IWithin= [∑ k v GE1 j=1 j j with fj the population share, vj the consumption share, and μj the mean consumption of k k subgroup j; μ total mean consumption, GE0 Theil_L index, and GE1 Theil_T index of subgroup j. n y n y y with: Theil_L=1/n∑i =1 log y and Theil_L=1/n∑i =1 y log yi i i Yi is real monthly per capita consumption expenditure for household i and y ̅ is mean real monthly per capita consumption expenditure. 129 Annex 7 Table 10: Inequality decomposition NATIONAL RURAL ANJOUAN Share of inequality explained by (%) Share of inequality explained by (%) Share of inequality explained by (%) Theil-L Theil-T Theil-L Theil-T Theil-L Theil-T Education of head 6.52*** 7.11*** 6.29* 7.1 8.60*** 9.82*** (0.01) (0.02) (0.03) (0.04) (0.02) (0.02) Gender of head 0.02 0.02 0.31 0.29 0.4 0.4 (0.00) (0.00) (0.01) (0.01) (0.01) (0.01) Age of head 1.04 1.03 1.51 1.46 1.86 1.93 (0.01) (0.01) (0.01) (0.01) (0.02) (0.02) Activity stat. of head 2.04* 1.84** 4.66** 3.85** 5.27* 4.94** (0.01) (0.01) (0.02) (0.01) (0.02) (0.02) Empl. sector of head 4.65*** 4.83*** 5.41* 5.78 14.60*** 15.80*** (0.01) (0.01) (0.03) (0.03) (0.03) (0.03) Family type 5.06*** 5.59*** 4.38** 4.80** 4.29* 4.97* (0.01) (0.01) (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) Urban/rural status 3.33** 3.33** 12.60*** 13.60*** (0.01) (0.01) (0.03) (0.03) Regional location 0.28 0.27 1.76 1.67 (0.00) (0.00) (0.01) (0.01) * Significant at the 10 percent level; ** significant at the 5 percent level; *** significant at the 1 percent level. Numbers in parentheses are boot- strap standard deviations based on 100 replications. Source: EESIC 2014. World Bank staff calculations 130 Annex 8 Annex 8: The Effect of Remittances on Labor Force Participation Labor force participation in the Comoros is low, households (16 percent) than those in non- and the proportion of discouraged workers recipient households (14 percent). Recipient is high. Coupled with this is the fact that the households are also mostly clustered on the Comoros is one of the three highest remittance- islands of Ngazidja and Ndouani, with 98 percent recipient nations in Sub-Saharan Africa, with net of recipient households residing here. Non- private remittances making up approximately recipient households, however, are significantly 13 percent of Comorian GDP in 2017. This share more prevalent on the island of Ndouani (42 nearly doubled in the time between 2004 and percent), with significantly fewer non-recipient 2014 (World Bank, 2017), raising the question of households on the island of Ngazidja (27 percent). whether remittance income could potentially impact on labor force participation. As a form of The table below indicates that remittance additional non-labor income for households, it recipient status is not randomly assigned, and has been suggested that remittances can lower as such, careful consideration should be given labor force participation from those individuals in to the method used to estimate the effects remittance-receiving households (Cox-Edwards of remittances on labor force participation. and Rodríguez-Oreggia, 2009). This could be due Following the method proposed by Cox-Edwards to individuals feeling less pressured to participate and Rodríguez-Oreggia (2009), nearest neighbor in the domestic economy and earn a wage, estimators were used to estimate the effect since they are receiving income in the form of of remittances on both individual labor force remittances from a migrant worker. participation, as well as the share of household labor force participation. A brief overview of the differences in characteristics by household remittance Nearest neighbor matching is a type of recipient status is shown in Table 11, below. As propensity score matching used to match can be seen clearly, non-recipient households observations from a treatment group tend to have statistically significantly higher labor (remittance recipients) and a control group force participation (in both the broad and narrow (remittance non-recipients) who, given their sense) than remittance-receiving households. underlying characteristics, are closest in Individuals in non-recipient households are predicted probability of receiving the treatment. significantly younger than individuals residing in In practice, a probit model is run to model the recipient households, but this may be explained likelihood of receiving remittances conditioned by the fact that it is the younger members of the on a number of covariates. Thereafter, the labor force who migrate for work and remit back probability of receiving remittances, conditional to support older family members. Households on the individual observation’s characteristics is receiving remittances seem to be slightly smaller predicted, and those predicted probabilities are than those not receiving remittances, however, used to match observations with roughly equal this difference is not statistically significant. likelihood of receiving remittances. The effect of remittances on labor force participation can Those individuals from remittance-receiving then be estimated by calculating the difference households also seem to be slightly more between average labor force participation in the educated than those from non-recipient treatment group and the average labor force households: significantly more individuals have participation in the matched control group. some form of higher education in recipient- Mathematically, this is given by: 131 Annex 8 [ | E Y1i Di = 1 ] - E[Y0i|Di =0] where Y1i is the labor force participation rate observations in the matched control group for those observations in the treatment group (i.e. those not receiving remittances). Di is (i.e. those receiving remittances), and Y0i is a dummy indicating whether observation i the labor force participation rate for those received the treatment or not. Table 11: Individual Characteristics by Household Remittance Recipient Status RECIPIENT HOUSEHOLD NON-RECIPIENT HOUSEHOLD p-VALUE Narrow LFP 0.43 0.46 0.00 *** Broad LFP 0.51 0.56 0.00 *** Age 33.82 31.25 0.00 *** Married 0.45 0.47 0.97 Household Size 5.67 6.00 0.16 Rural 0.52 0.55 0.00 *** Education No schooling 0.33 0.32 0.11 Primary 0.26 0.29 0.00 *** Secondary 0.25 0.25 0.00 *** Higher 0.16 0.14 0.00 *** 1.00 1.00 Island Moroni 0.24 0.25 0.99 Grande Comore 0.38 0.27 0.00 *** Anjouan 0.36 0.42 0.00 *** Mohéli 0.02 0.05 0.00 *** 1.00 1.00 Source: EESIC, 2014 Notes: Adjusted using sampling weights; *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 Table 11 can inform the covariates chosen to labor force participation, the outcome variable explain the likelihood of an individual living in of interest was the individual labor force a household that received remittance income. participation – a variable which takes on 1 if These covariates included age (as well as a the individual is in the labor force, and 0 if not. quadratic in age), education level, a dummy variable for marital status, island of residence, At the household level, very similar variables overall household labor participation were used, including the age (and age rate (narrow or broad, depending on the squared) of the household head, the share of specification of interest) and share of children the household in different age and education in the home. When calculating the effect on categories, the composition of the family unit 132 Annex 8 within the household, and the island on which Table 12, below, gives the results of the nearest the household is located. In this model, the neighbor estimator at both the individual and outcome variable of interest was created the household level, for both the narrow and by dividing the number of individuals in a broad labor force as estimated from the 2014 household who are active participants in the EESIC data. The average treatment effect on the labor market by the number of individuals in treated was estimated rather than the average the household who are of working age. This treatment effect in the population, since those is then a measure of the proportion of the receiving remittances are highly unlikely to be household participating in the labor market. a random sample from the population. Table 12: Effect of Remittances on Labor Force Participation NARROW LABOR FORCE BROAD LABOR FORCE N Coefficient N Coefficient Individual level 8955 -0.0206*** 8955 -0.0019 (0.0014) (0.0014) Household level 3129 -0.0508*** 3129 -0.0404*** (0.0009) (0.0008) Source: EESIC, 2014 Notes: Standard errors in parentheses; adjusted using sampling weights; *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 Although the effect of remittances on labor A robustness check was run using standard force participation is generally statistically propensity score matching techniques as significant, the effect is very small. Individuals well, however, nearest neighbor matching in remittance receiving households are only provided a more balanced match. Thus, 2.1 percentage points less likely to participate nearest neighbor matching estimates in the narrow labor force and they are not were chosen for estimating the effects statistically significantly less likely to participate of remittances in this investigation. Mean in the broad labor force. Households receiving differences and variance ratios describing remittances, however, have a statistically the balancing for matched observations are lower share of individuals participating in the presented in Tables 13 and 14 for individuals labor market than households not receiving and households, respectively. It should also remittances: the narrow household labor force be noted that the data available for running participation rate is on average 5.1 percentage this investigation does not include non- points lower for recipient households, and the cash remittances, and as such, the overall broad labor force participation is on average effect on labor market participation may be 4.0 percentage points lower. underestimated in this case. 133 Annex 8 Table 13: Post-diagnostic Mean Differences and Variance Ratios for Nearest Neighbor and Propensity Score Matching Estimators; Individual Level NARROW LABOR FORCE BROAD LABOR FORCE Propensity Score Nearest Neighbour Propensity Score Nearest Neighbour Matching Matching Matching Matching Mean Variance Mean Variance Mean Variance Mean Variance difference ratio difference ratio difference ratio difference ratio Age 0.01 1.03 0.02 1.06 0.01 1.03 0.02 1.06 Age squared 0.02 1.00 0.03 1.09 0.02 1.00 0.03 1.09 Married 0.06 1.00 -0.01 1.00 0.06 1.00 0.00 1.00 Rural 0.44 1.19 0.00 1.00 0.44 1.19 0.00 1.00 Share 0-7 0.08 1.27 0.01 1.07 0.08 1.27 0.00 1.06 Share 8-14 0.03 1.13 0.00 1.08 0.03 1.13 0.00 1.09 Household LFPR -0.01 1.02 -0.02 1.16 -0.01 1.02 -0.01 1.15 EDUCATION (NO SCHOOLING AS BASE) Primary education 0.03 1.05 0.00 1.00 0.03 1.05 0.00 1.00 Secondary -0.04 0.96 0.00 1.00 -0.04 0.96 0.00 1.00 education Higher education -0.13 0.83 0.00 1.00 -0.13 0.83 0.00 1.00 ISLAND (MORONI AS BASE) Grande Comore 0.07 1.04 0.00 1.00 0.07 1.04 0.00 1.00 Anjouan 0.25 1.26 0.00 1.00 0.25 1.26 0.00 1.00 Mohéli -0.28 0.26 0.00 1.00 -0.28 0.26 0.00 1.00 Sources: EESIC, 2014 134 Annex 8 Table 14: Post-diagnostic Mean Differences and Variance Ratios for Nearest Neighbor and Propensity Score Matching Estimators; Household Level NARROW LABOR FORCE BROAD LABOR FORCE Propensity Score Nearest Neighbour Propensity Score Nearest Neighbour Matching Matching Matching Matching Mean Variance Mean Variance Mean Variance Mean Variance difference ratio difference ratio difference ratio difference ratio Age of Head 0.09 0.85 0.05 1.07 0.09 0.85 0.05 1.07 Age of Head 0.05 0.84 0.06 1.10 0.05 0.84 0.06 1.10 Squared Rural 0.67 1.30 0.00 1.00 -0.03 1.30 0.00 1.00 Female Head -0.10 0.92 0.00 1.00 0.67 0.92 0.00 1.00 Share Female -0.03 0.74 0.04 1.20 -0.10 0.74 0.04 1.20 (15-64) AGE SHARES OF HOUSEHOLD (SHARE 15-64 OMITTED) Share 0-7 0.10 0.87 -0.04 0.97 0.10 0.87 -0.04 0.97 Share 8-14 0.04 1.14 -0.05 1.08 0.04 1.14 -0.05 1.08 Share 65+ 0.03 0.72 0.13 1.51 0.03 0.72 0.13 1.51 EDUCATION (NO SCHOOLING SHARE AS BASE) Share Primary 0.16 1.01 -0.03 0.98 0.16 1.01 -0.03 0.98 Share Secondary -0.07 0.73 0.01 1.10 -0.07 0.73 0.01 1.10 Share Higher -0.19 0.67 0.04 1.03 -0.19 0.67 0.04 1.03 HOUSEHOLD COMPOSITION (SINGLE, NO CHILDREN OMITTED) Single parents -0.05 0.86 0.00 1.00 -0.05 0.86 0.00 1.00 Couple, no -0.10 0.82 0.00 1.00 -0.10 0.82 0.00 1.00 children Couple, children 0.23 1.01 -0.03 1.01 0.23 1.01 -0.03 1.01 Elderly (65+) -0.03 0.94 0.01 1.02 -0.03 0.94 0.01 1.02 MARITAL STATUS OF HOUSEHOLD HEAD (SINGLE AS BASE) Married 0.22 0.75 -0.03 1.05 0.22 0.75 -0.03 1.05 Widowed/ -0.13 0.76 0.02 1.04 -0.13 0.76 0.02 1.04 Divorced ISLAND (MORONI AS BASE) Grande Comore 0.19 1.09 0.00 1.00 0.19 1.09 0.00 1.00 Anjouan 0.24 1.24 0.00 1.00 0.24 1.24 0.00 1.00 Mohéli -0.25 0.38 0.00 1.00 -0.25 0.38 0.00 1.00 135 Annex 9 Annex 9: A profile of the formal private sector in Comoros The formal private sector of Comoros “taxe professionnelle unique, TPU” (unic comprises about 1,300 to 1,400 micro-, small- professional tax); and medium-size enterprises (MSME)¹⁷⁷ and employs about 50,000 people in Comoros. • a small enterprise employs from 4 to 25 While there is no official definition of MSME people, has an annual turnover of less in the country, L'Union des Chambres de than 60 million KMF and an investment Commerce, d'Industrie et d'Agriculture (UCCIA) not exceeding 20 million KMF. Its taxation defines the different categories of firms based regime is ruled by the “Service de la on the criteria of annual turnover, number of Fiscalité des Entreprises, SFE”; employees and the size of investments made, as follows: • a medium enterprise employs from 26 to 200 people, has an annual turnover of less • a micro enterprise employs 1 to 3, has than 4 billion KMF and an investment not an annual turnover of less than 5 million exceeding 1 billion KMF. Its taxation regime KMF and an investment not exceeding is ruled by the “Service de la Fiscalité des 3 million KMF. Its taxation regime is the Entreprises, SFE”; Figure 45: Location of firms by region Number of firms by island (in thousands) Mohéli: 9% Anjouan: 35% Grande Comore: 56% LOCATION FIRMS PERCENTAGE Anjouan 457 35% Mohéli 122 9% Grande Comore 741 56% Total 1320 100% ¹⁷⁷ Most reliable data and information sources are UCCIA, INSEED and tax authorities’ data bases 136 Annex 9 Table 15: Island-level Distribution of Agricultural Value Chains NATIONAL GRAND ANJOUAN MOHÉLI COMORE Cloves Output, 2017 (vol.) 3,600 MT Production 5% 80% 15% Output, 2016 (val.) $43M Growers <100 10,000+ 1,000 – 2,000 Growers 11,000 – 12,000 Producer Org. 5 Vanilla Output, 2017 (vol.) 35 MT Production 80% NA 20% Output, 2016 (val.) $9.7m Growers 4,300 300 400 Growers 5,000 Curers 3-6 1–3 1–3 Cooperatives >3 Exporters 3 Ylang-Ylang Output, 2017 (vol.) 45 MT Production 22.22% 66.66% 11.11% Output, 2016 (val.) $7.1m Growers 50-100 1000-3000 100 Growers 1,150 – 3,200 500 Cooperatives >18 Distillers 3 100 Milk Output 24.8m lt. Production 2% 97% 1% Dairy farmers 4,140 Dairy Farmers 100 4000 40 Dairy cows 9,450 Dairy cows 9,000 300 150 Cooperatives >1 Poultry meat Output 76 MT Production* 75% 25% NA Broilers 16,000 Broilers 12,000 4,000 NA Eggs Output 72,000 – 80,000 Production* 50% 40% 10% Layers 155 Layers 40,000 – 25,000 – 7,000 Semi-industrial 50,000 30,000 units several thousand Semi-industrial 60 80 15 Backyard poultry units Fruits Output >5,000 MT Intermediate Highest Lowest (Top 3 – bananas, avocados, mangoes) Vegetables (Top 3 Output >8,000 MT Intermediate Highest Lowest – peppers, tomato, onions) Note: Production estimates refer to island share of annual national output, by volume. Production* is an estimate based on number of animals 137 Annex 10 Annex 10: Statistical capacity summary Comoros scored 32.55 out of 100 for 2016 In terms of Dissemination Practices on the Bank’s recently developed Statistical and Openness (DPO) that assesses the Performance Index (SPI), which measures a dissemination capacity of national statistical country’s statistical performance around four systems, Comoros received a score of 0. dimensions. There is no website available for the National Statistical Office of Comoros. The sub-score The first dimension, Methodology, Standards can improve significantly if Comoros develops and Classifications (MSC), reviews whether a website that could ideally provide a list of countries follow internationally recommended surveys and microdata sets (mNADA), and methodology and standards in collecting and metadata. The website could also be used producing data. Comoros gained a score of to share an advance release calendar, develop 20.83 in this dimension. The country could and provide a data portal with access to time capture its national economy more accurately series data in a reusable format and conduct by adapting the national accounts to SNA 2008 a user satisfaction survey. and adopting the annual chain linking method for both the national accounts and CPI base The fourth dimension, Availability of Key year. Also, Comoros could further improve its Indicators (AKI), checks the availability of selected score by following the international standards core indicators in the international organizations on employment status, and classification of and databases. We prepared the country score national industry; and by adopting the latest using World Development Indicators database government finance statistics manual and as of March 2017. Comoros received a score non-cash recording basis for consolidated of 58.33 with data for 2016. The score shows central government accounting. that Comoros has the latest available data on child immunization, child mortality rate, primary The Censuses and Surveys (CS) section completion rates, adult literacy rate, water and examines whether countries have conducted sanitation, and national accounts. However, major censuses and surveys in internationally more recent data on undernourishment, recommended form and frequency. Comoros unemployment, and poverty are missing. received a score of 20.00 in this dimension. No information was available to confirm The total score of 32.55 indicates that there that a business/ establishment census was is a significant need for improvement of the conducted. Information was also unavailable statistical system in all areas; methodology, to confirm if any agriculture surveys, labor standards and classification, dissemination force surveys or business/ establishment capacity and openness, and newly-endorsed surveys were conducted independently as Sustainable Development Goals, to properly recommended internationally. The score for inform evidence-based decision-making this section can be improved by collecting the process as well as monitoring and evaluating above mentioned key surveys. the development progress in coming years. 138 Annex 10 Table 16: Detailed Scoring Matrix of the SPI for Comoros METHODOLOGY, STANDARDS & CLASSIFICATIONS # INDICATOR SCORE 1 SCORE 0.5 SCORE 0 WEIGHT WEIGHTED SCORE 1 System of National SNA2008/ESA 2010 SNA1993/QNA Manual Otherwise 1 0 Accounts in use 2001/ ESA 1995 2 National Accounts Annual chain linking Within past 10 years Otherwise 1 0 base year 3 Classification of Latest version is adopted Previous version is used Otherwise 1 0 national industry (ISIC Rev 4, NACE Rev 2 or a (ISIC Rev 3, NACE Rev 1 or a compatible classification) compatible classification) 4 CPI base year Annual chain linking Within past 10 years Otherwise 1 0 5 Classification Follow Classification of N.A. Otherwise 1 1 of household Individual Consumption by consumption Purpose (COICOP) Follow International 6 Classification Labour Organization, N.A. Otherwise 1 0 of status of International Classification employment of Status in Employment (ICSE-93) 7 Central Consolidated central Consolidated central Otherwise 1 0 government government accounting government accounting accounting status follows noncash recording follows cash recording basis basis 8 Compilation of Follow the latest Previous version is used Otherwise 1 0 government Government Finance (GFSM 2001) finance statistics Statistical Manual (2014) 9 Compilation of Follow the latest Monetary N.A. Otherwise 1 1 monetary and and Finance Statistics financial statistics Manual (2000) or Monetary and Finance Statistics: Compilation Guide (2008) 10 SDDS/e-GDDS Subscribing to IMF SDDS Subscribing to IMF Otherwise 1 0.5 subscription standards e-GDDS standards 11 CRVS 1 0 12 Business Process 1 0 (GSBPM) Maximum category score: 12 2.5 MSC Country Score = Weighted Score / Maximum Category Score X 100 20.83 Country Score: 20.83 139 Annex 10 CENSUSES AND SURVEYS - CENSUSES # INDICATOR SCORE 1 SCORE 0.5 SCORE 0 WEIGHT WEIGHTED SCORE 1 Population & Population census done Population census done Otherwise 1 0.5 Housing census within last 10 years within last 20 years 2 Agriculture census Agriculture census done Agriculture census done Otherwise 1 0.5 within last 10 years within last 20 years 3 Business/ Business/establishment Business/establishment Otherwise 1 0 establishment census done within last 10 census done within last census years 20 years CENSUSES AND SURVEYS - SURVEYS # INDICATOR SCORE 1 SCORE 0.6 SCORE 0.3 SCORE 0 WEIGHT WEIGHTED SCORE 4 Household Survey 3 or more 2 household 1 household None 1 0.3 on income/ household surveys surveys done survey done within consumption/ done within past 10 within past 10 within past 10 past 10 expenditure/ years; years; years; years budget/ Integrated Survey 5 Agriculture survey 3 or more 2 agriculture 1 agriculture None 1 0 agriculture surveys surveys done survey done within done within past 10 within past 10 within past 10 past 10 years; years; years; years 6 Labor Force Survey 3 or more labor 2 labor force 1 labor force None 1 0 force surveys done surveys done survey done within within past 10 within past 10 within past 10 past 10 years; years; years; years 7 Health/ 3 or more health 2 health surveys 1 health survey None 1 0.3 Demographic surveys done done within past done within past within survey within past 10 10 years; 10 years; past 10 years; years 8 Business/ 3 or more 2 business/ 1 business/ None 1 0 establishment business/ establishment establishment within survey establishment surveys done survey done past 10 surveys done within past 10 within past 10 years within past 10 years; years; years; 5 0.6 Maximum category score: 8 8 1.6 CS Country Score = Weighted Score / Maximum Category Score X 100 20.00 Country Score: 20.00 140 Annex 10 DISSEMINATION PRACTICES AND OPENNESS - 1. DISSEMINATION CAPACITY OF NSO # INDICATOR SCORE 1 SCORE 0 WEIGHT WEIGHTED SCORE 1 NSO has an Advance Release Calendar and it is published Yes No 1 0 2 NSO has a listing of surveys and microdata sets (or NADA) Yes No 1 0 3 NSO has a data portal Yes No 1 0 4 Time series indicators are available for download in reusable Yes No 1 0 format for free 5 Metadata is available providing definition, methodology, Yes No 1 0 standards or classifications for existing data series 6 NSO has conducted a user satisfaction survey Yes No 1 0 7 Geospatial data available on NSO website Yes No 1 0 Maximum score for sub-category: 7 7 0 DISSEMINATION PRACTICES AND OPENNESS - 2. OPENNESS OF DATA # INDICATOR SCORE WEIGHT WEIGHTED SCORE 8 Open Data Inventory: na ODIN ODB Score: Score/100: na na Maximum score for sub-category: 0 7 Maximum category score: 7 0 DPO Country Score = Weighted Score/ Maximum Category Score X 100 0.00 Country Score: 0.00 141 Annex 10 AVAILABILITY OF KEY INDICATORS # INDICATOR SCORE 1 - DATA AVAILABLE SCORE 0 WEIGHT WEIGHTED FOR THE LATEST 3 YEARS SCORE 1 Poverty headcount ratio at national poverty lines Yes No 1 0 (% of population) 2 Mortality rate, under-5 (per 1,000 live births) Yes No 1 1 3 Immunization, measles Yes No 1 1 (% of children ages 12-23 months) 4 Primary completion rate, total Yes No 1 1 (% of relevant age group) 5 Literacy rate, adult total Yes No 1 1 (% of people ages 15 and above) 6 Improved water source Yes No 1 1 (% of population with access) 7 Unemployment, total (% of total labor force) Yes No 1 0 (national estimate) 8 Manufacturing, value added (% of GDP) Yes No 1 0 9 Gross capital formation (% of GDP) Yes No 1 1 10 Inflation, GDP deflator (annual %) Yes No 1 1 11 Net trade in goods and services (BoP, current US$) Yes No 1 0 12 Prevalence of undernourishment (% of population) Yes No 1 0 Maximum category score: 12 12 7 Maximum category score: 7 58.33 Availability of Key Indicators Country Score = Weighted Country Score/ Maximum Category Score X 100 Country Score: 58.33 Total SPI score 32.55 142 Bibliography BIBLIOGRAPHY Abdillahi, Youssouf. 2012 “La diaspora de la Grande Comore à Marseille et son apport sur le développement de l’île.” Doctoral dissertation, Université de la Réunion Acemoglu, Daron, Simon Johnson, and James A. 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