PROGRAM COORDINATION FOR THE WORLD BANK CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES www.worldbank.org/cleanair Patrick Bultynck Chantal Reliquet Sr. Urban Transport Economist Sr. Urban Specialist The World Bank, Africa Region The World Bank, Africa Region pbultynck@worldbank.org creliquet@worldbank.org THE WORLD BANK GRATEFULLY ACKNOWLEDGES THE FINANCIAL CONTRIBUTION AND SUPPORT FROM: ENERGY SECTOR MANAGEMENT ASSISTANCE PROGRAMME http://www.esmap.org Dominique Lallement Programme Manager ESMAP dlallement@worldbank.org THE COOPERATION AND SUPPORT FROM: Eleodoro Mayorga-Alba, Technical Advisor Lead Petroleum Economist The World Bank, COPCO emayorgaalba@worldbank.org AFRICACLEAN http://africaclean.sn Foreword T his is one of four documents of a series presenting the results of studies, workshops and action plans recently undertaken for four sub-Saharan African countries (Ethiopia, Mali, Mauritania and Tanzania) on the elimination of lead in gasoline. This document describes the work realized in Tanzania. These four countries have the particularity of being oil importing countries without local refining capability. The transition to unleaded gasoline should therefore theoretically be easier to implement in such a context than in oil-producing or oil-refining countries. Several technical issues (such as the definition of specifications) and regulatory issues must however be resolved in order to eliminate lead from gasoline in these countries. This is precisely the goal of the studies realized in these four oil-importing countries. These studies and workshops are financed by The Energy Sector Management Assistance Programme (ESMAP) which plays a decisive role towards the transfer of technology and knowl- edge in energy sector management to governments of developing countries and of economies in transition. By bringing its own resources and expertise, ESMAP strengthens the partnership of the Clean Air Initiative in sub-Saharan African Cities. This ESMAP contribution also allows for reaching the goal set during the Dakar conference of June 2001: the complete elimination of leaded gasoline in sub-Saharan Africa as soon as pos- sible, at the latest by 2005. Dominique Lallement Inger Andersen Programme Manager Sector Manager Energy Sector Management Assistance Programme Water and Urban Development World Bank World Bank Africa Region CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES Copyright İ 2003 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printing December 2003 ESMAP Reports are published to communicate the results of ESMAP's work to the development community with the least possible delay. The typescript of the paper therefore has not been prepared in accordance with the proce- dures appropriate to formal documents. Some sources cited in this paper may be informal documents that are not readily available. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author(s) and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, or its affiliated organizations, or to members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsibility whatsoever for any consequence of their use. The Bound- aries, colors, denominations, other information shown on any map in this volume do not imply on the part of the World Bank Group any judgment on the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Papers in the ESMAP Technical Series are discussion documents, not final project reports. They are subject to the same copyrights as other ESMAP publications The material in this publication is copyrighted. Requests for permission to reproduce portions of it should be sent to either: The World Bank Office of the Publisher, ESMAP Manager, or The World Bank Clean Air Initiative in sub- Saharan Africa at the address shown in the copyright notice above. ESMAP encourages dissemination of its work and will normally give permission promptly and, when the reproduction is for noncommercial purposes, without asking a fee. ii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Table of Contents Executive Summary vii 1. Why the need for this Action Plan? 1 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Objectives of this report and action plan 1 1.3 Overview of Tanzania economy and urban development 2 1.4 Acknowledgements 2 1.5 Study Team 2 2. Benefits of lead phase­out 3 2.1 Lead is highly toxic 3 2.2 WHO recommends lead phase-out 4 2.3 Health impacts are growing 5 2.4 Economic costs of health impacts 6 2.5 Towards improved fuel and air quality 6 2.6 Other benefits 10 3. Potential cost advantages and disadvantages in lead phase-out 11 3.1 Fuel prices ­ ULG is cheaper in international markets 11 3.2 Change-over costs 12 3.3 Suitability of Older Vehicles with Soft Valve Seats to Use ULG 12 3.4 Conclusion 13 4. Priority issues and recommendations for leaded gasoline phase-out 15 4.1 Fuel specifications and fuel quality 16 4.2 Vehicle imports and emission controls 17 4.3 Base line studies of emissions and health impacts 18 4.4 Public Awareness Campaign 19 5. Action Plan to phase out leaded gasoline and next steps 21 6. Indicative Public Awareness Campaign 27 6.1 Objectives and outputs 27 6.2 Target audience 28 6.3 Role of Civil society, media and other partners 28 6.4 Emerging issues 31 6.5 Indicative Public Awareness Detailed Plan 32 7. Annex A ­ Terms of Reference for Preparation of this Action Plan 37 iii CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES 8. Annex B: Overview of Tanzanian Petroleum Market 41 9. Annex C ­ Draft mandate for a multi-sectoral working group to oversee action plan implementation 47 10. Annex D ­ Draft Outline Terms of Reference for follow on air quality activities 49 11. Annex E ­ Motor Vehicle Fleet Data in Tanzania and Related Information 53 12. List of Workshop Participants 55 13. Report References 61 14. List of ESMAP Technical Paper Series 63 iv EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Abbreviations and Acronyms Africaclean NGO based in Sénégal promoting clean air activities in Africa CNG Compressed Natural Gas CH4 Methane CO Carbon Monoxide COHb Carboxyhemoglobin ESMAP Energy Sector Management Assistance Program GHG Green House Gas HC Hydrocarbon IQ Intelligent Quotient ILFEMP Institutional and Legal Framework for Environmental Management MEM Ministry of Energy and Minerals MTBE Methyl Tertiary-Butyl Ether MVCR Motor Vehicle Central Registry, Revenue Department, Tanzania NEMC Tanzanian National Environmental Management Council NOX Oxides of Nitrogen NO2 Nitrogen Dioxide NGOs Non-Governmental Organizations PM10 Particulate Matter smaller than 10 microns PM2.5 Particulate Matter smaller than 2.5 microns PM1.0 Particulate Matter smaller than 1 micron RON Research Octane Number SO2 Sulfur Dioxide SPM Suspended Particulate Matter SSA Sub-Saharan Africa TA Technical Assistance TOE Ton Oil Equivalent TSP Total Suspended Particulate µg Micrograms UNEP United Nations Environment Program TBS Tanzania Bureau of Standards ULG Unleaded Gasoline VOCs Volatile Organic Compounds Approx. Currency Equivalent US$ 1.00 = 1,000 Tanzania Shillings (Date: June, 2003) v EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Executive Summary T he global phase-out of lead from gaso- Lead is a poison with significant negative line has proceeded dramatically in the public health impacts. Historically, the princi- last five years. Countries in North pal source of atmospheric lead has been the America, Europe, Japan and Asia have combustion of alkyl lead additives in motor fu- phased-out leaded gasoline; about 85% els. As SSA and other oil importing countries of total gasoline consumption is now are confronted with fewer difficulties to phase lead-free. However there a number of coun- out lead from gasoline than those operating tries that still use lead additives to boost octane national refineries for the supply of their mar- levels in gasoline. Almost all of these countries kets, there is an opportunity to make a major are in Africa and the Middle East. The World environmental step forward through early leaded Health Organization recommends that leaded gasoline phase-out. gasoline be phased­out worldwide. As shown in Chapter 2 of this report, while An agreement was reached in June 2001 overall Tanzania's urban population appears at the Dakar Conference, Senegal, to launch not to have the lead exposure from gasoline national programs to phase-out leaded gaso- estimated for other countries in the region, the line by 2005 in the countries of sub-Saharan urban population whose main activities are in Africa (SSA). close proximity to major roads would be likely Follow up conferences have since been held to exhibit similar lead exposure from mobile in Abuja, Nigeria in November 2001; Dakar, sources. Continued economic development Senegal in March 2002; Cotonou, Benin in without lead-phase out would undoubtedly in- April 2002 and Nairobi, Kenia in June 2002. crease the likelihood of spiraling negative health All four conferences supported the Dakar dec- impacts due to lead. These negative impacts laration. Many countries have committed to the fall disproportionately on the poorer people in 2005 phase out date and Mauritius has gone a urban areas. step further by aiming for phase out by August Improved fuel quality to standards similar 2002 or equal to that used by other countries in the The World Bank has obtained Energy Sec- region will also have important economic ben- tor Management Assistance Program (ESMAP) efits: funding to assist Tanzania (and Mauritania, Mali and Ethiopia) to develop an action plan as de- Economic--facilitationofregionaltradeand scribed in this report, which demonstrates the cooperation, larger markets and economies benefits of leaded gasoline phase­out and out- of scale; lines the necessary associated actions. vii CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES Security of supplies--fuel of a suitable qual- Upgradingthequalityofvehicleimportsand ity can be sourced from a range of mar- emission controls; kets/ suppliers; Establishing baseline inventories of key Facilitatecapacitybuilding--knowledgeand pollutants and health effects; and skills enhancement will be increased through Developing an appropriate public informa- wide access to technical expertise; and tion or awareness campaign. Environmental--joint implementation of environmental standards with neighboring In Chapter 5 of this report, we propose countries in the region. three key recommendations to commence the process of leaded gasoline phase-out and to In Chapter 4, rather than cost penalties, a move towards a more comprehensive approach change-over to unleaded gasoline is expected to air quality management. The three recom- to lead to important savings to the economy mendations are: and to motorists through: A switch to unleaded gasoline will lead Recommendation 1 ­ The Cabinet of the to significant foreign exchange savings--a sav- Government of Tanzania resolves to phase- ing of at least US$2M per year is anticipated out leaded gasoline and simultaneously in- because prices for ULG are lower than leaded troduces unleaded gasoline to the market gasoline in international markets; by end 2003. All necessary legal and pre- Changeover costs are expected to be paratory work will need to be completed negligible; by that time. The oil industry can then fol- The impact of unleaded gasoline on low through with leaded gasoline phase-out engines with soft valve seats in a small propor- by June 2004. tion of cars manufactured prior to 1980 is Recommendation 2 ­ The Cabinet of the expected to be minor but could be compen- Government of Tanzania commits to es- sated for by appropriate (lubricant) additives to tablishing a multi-sectoral stakeholder group the fuel. But additives are not recommended by end 2003 consisting of senior members as they are not considered necessary; and of government agencies, the oil industry, Reduced maintenance costs for cars are and civil society including Non-Government expected. Organizations (NGOs) and consumer groups for a period of at least three years. The These benefits have already been recognized Tanzanian National Environmental Manage- by BP (Tanzania) that announced in June 2003 ment Council; Division of Environment, that it will immediately commence introducing Vice President's Office; Ministry of Health; ULG as a new grade of gasoline to the Tanza- and Ministry of Energy and Minerals would nian market. have lead roles in its implementation. Fur- The phase-out of leaded gasoline is but a ther details of the role of individual organi- first step in developing a more comprehensive zations are made in Chapter 5. This approach to air quality management that would multi-stakeholder group would oversee include actions on: implementation of the public awareness activities and provide feedback and advice Improving fuel quality and developing new to implementation agencies. A proposed fuel specifications; draft mandate for this group is included in viii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Chapter 9 ­ Annex C. This group should draft of this action plan was discussed at a be supported by technical advice provided workshop of key stakeholders in June 2003 by member agencies and by consultant and and comments made at that workshop have other expert inputs. been incorporated into this final version of the Recommendation 3 ­ The Cabinet of the action plan. Government of Tanzania commits to de- Chapter 6 of this report provides details of veloping a more comprehensive approach an indicative approach for developing a public to air quality management by end 2003 awareness campaign to be overseen by the based on the Terms of Reference (ToR) multi-sectoral stakeholder group ­ a draft man- described in Chapter 10 ­ Annex D and date for this group is set out in Chapter 9 ­ recommended action plan set out in Table Annex C. 5.1. The Tanzanian National Environmen- The World Bank is willing to support the tal Management Council/ Division of Envi- Government with its decision to phase-out ronment, Vice President's Office would have leaded gasoline, and subsequent air quality key roles. management activities, and will seek funding support, together with other interested orga- The action plan recommends an integrated nizations, for needed follow up Technical As- approach to improve air quality starting by sistance (see Chapter 10 ­ Annex D for a Draft phasing-out leaded gasoline in Table 5.1. It Outline Terms of Reference for work identi- consists of these three key recommendations fied to date). and nine supporting recommendations. The ix 1CHAPTER Why the need for this Action Plan? 1.1 Background for Environmental Management (ILFEMP) has been prepared and is awaiting adoption and The global phase-out of lead from gasoline has implementation. proceeded dramatically in the last five years. Lead is a poison with significant negative Countries in North America, Europe, Japan public health impacts. As Tanzania and other and Asia have phased-out leaded gasoline; about oil importing countries are confronted with fewer 85% of total gasoline consumption is now lead- difficulties to phase out lead from gasoline than free. However there a number of countries that those operating national refineries for the sup- still use lead additives to boost octane levels in ply of their markets, there is an opportunity to gasoline. Almost all of these countries are in make a major environmental step forward Africa and the Middle East. through early leaded gasoline phase-out. An agreement was reached in June 2001 The World Bank has obtained Energy Sec- at the Dakar Conference, Senegal, to launch tor Management Assistance Program (ESMAP) national programs to phase-out leaded gaso- funding to assist Tanzania (and Mauritania, Mali line by 2005 in the countries of sub-Saharan and Ethiopia) to develop this report and action Africa (SSA). plan to demonstrate the benefits of leaded gaso- Follow up conferences have since been held line phase-out and necessary associated actions. in Abuja, Nigeria in November 2001; Dakar, The draft version of this report and Action Senegal in March 2002; Cotonou, Benin in April Plan was discussed in a workshop with Tanza- 2002; and Nairobi, Kenya in June 2002. All four nian stakeholders on June 9-10, 2003. conferences supported the Dakar declaration. Following comments received during the work- Many countries have committed to the 2005 shop this final version of the report and Action phase out date and Mauritius has gone a step Plan was prepared. further by aiming for phase out by August 2002 In the past decade, Tanzania has made sig- nificant progress in introducing regulations, 1.2 Objectives of this report strategies, and guidelines for various aspects and action plan of environmental management. A National Environmental Action Plan was produced in The objectives of this report and action plan are: 1994 and a National Environmental Policy was adopted in 1997. In 2000, work on a National To assist the Tanzania Government mak- Strategy for Sustainable Development was ini- ing the decision to stop importing leaded tiated. A draft Institutional and Legal Framework gasoline; and 1 CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES At the same time, raise awareness in gov- 1.4 Acknowledgements ernment, industry and civil society on the need to pursue policies to improve urban The study team extends thanks to the mem- air quality. bers of the Tanzanian Government, who gave generously of their time at short notice during While the report concentrates on the issue our mission to Tanzania in February, 2003. of lead in gasoline and the need for leaded We are grateful to Mr. Bashir J Mrindoko and gasoline phase-out, this is but a first step to- Mr. Prosper Victus, Commissioner and Assis- wards a more comprehensive approach to tant Commissioner, respectively, for Energy integrated Air Quality Management (AQM). This Petroleum Affairs; and Mr. Julius R Gashaza, report also discusses what the priority follow- Executive Engineer, Energy Petroleum Affairs; on steps towards AQM might be. who facilitated all contacts during our visit to Tanzania. We also wish to acknowledge the generous assistance of Mr. Thomas FM Masili, 1.3 Overview of Tanzania's Executive Secretary, Tanzania Association of economy and urban development Oil Marketing Companies, and of Prof. Jamidu Katima and Dr. A.K. Temu, University of Dar Tanzania's economy as measured by gross Es Salaam. domestic product (GDP) was an estimated US$9.34bn in 2001. In recent years the economy has been growing at around 5% per 1.5 Study Team annum. The nation's population was an estimated The World Bank's study team1 consists of: 34.6 million in 2002 and the average per capita income was US$270. DrEleodoroMayorgaAlba,LeadPetroleum Over 67% of the population lives in rural Economist, World Bank; areas with most relying on subsistence farm- Dr Amadou Diouf, President of the ing. The capital city of Dar Es Salaam had an Africaclean network2 ; estimated population of 2.5 million in 2002. Lynda Osafo, Executive Director, Junior Tanzania's next four largest urban centers to- Eco-Club Organization, Ghana and mem- gether with their populations (in 2002) are: ber Africaclean network; England Rogasian Maasamba, Team Assis- Mwanza ­ 476,600; tant, World Bank Resident Mission, Dar Es Mbeya ­ 266,400; Salaam; and Arusha ­ 282,700; and Philip Sayeg, Project Consultant. Tanga ­ 243,600. 1Mr Theo Macha, local consultant, assisted the team with some data collection. 2An NGO based in Senegal promoting clean air activities in Africa. 2 2 CHAPTER Benefits of lead phase-out 2.1 Lead is highly toxic This exposure route is most important in young children, who tend to crawl and put things in Lead is a highly toxic, non-degradable, element their mouths. Because of a mixed and largely that can result in damage to the brain, kidneys, unplanned land use, residential dwellings, of- blood, central nervous system, and reproduc- fices, shops, restaurants, schools and hospitals tive system. Children who are exposed to high are usually located adjacent to major roads. This levels of lead may experience slowed cognitive high exposure of the general population to development, reduced growth, and other health vehicle emissions is compounded by the prac- effects. Regulators in many countries are now tice of roadside eating and walking (the majority aware of the insidious consequences of cumu- of trips are believed to be walking trips) which lative low-level exposure to lead, most notably increase the exposure to lead. decrements in neurobehavioral development of Atmospheric lead concentrations of 50 mg/ children (Schwela et al, 2001). In many coun- m3 have been found in remote areas. In devel- tries, lead use in gasoline and other products oped countries, where most gasoline sold is (e.g. paints) has been, or is being phased-out, unleaded, typical annual average concentrations as a consequence of this. are between 0.1 and 0.2 mg/m3 in urban ar- Anemic children are most vulnerable with eas and between 0.01 and 0.05 mg/m3 in rural lead more easily being able to be fixed into the parts. Concentrations in excess of 1 mg/m3 bones. A loss in Intelligence Quotient (IQ) for children is a future loss in the future intelligence of the adult Figure 2.1 population that would have un- Loss in IQ due to Lead Exposure desirable impacts on economic development. Figure 2.1 indi- cates how an average loss in intelligence implies a reduction in the capacity of society's most intelligent persons and therefore a loss in creativity. Gain !! Lost !! Exposure to atmospheric lead is usually through the gastrointes- tinal tract as a result of consuming IQ Distribution and lead in blood dust containing lead particles. 3 CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES are recorded in cities in developing countries, a maximum lead concentration in the ambient which still heavily rely on leaded gasoline air is 0.5 mg/m3, due to the significant nega- (Schwela et al, 2001). tive impacts of lead on human heath, the WHO The transport and distribution of lead is recommended in 1995 that the use of lead primarily via air. Airborne lead can be depos- additives in motor fuels be phased-out and that ited on soil and water, thus reaching humans exposure to other sources of lead should be through the food chain and in drinking water. reduced (Schwela et al, 2001). Atmospheric lead is also a major source of lead in household dust. Potentially airborne lead can contaminate Table 2.1 food and vegetation, water and soil with sig- Ambient Air Quality Standards in µg/m3 nificant environmental and health impacts (Sridhar, 2001). Averaging Standard or Pollutant time Guideline µg/m3 Historically, the principal source of atmo- spheric lead has been the combustion of alkyl US-EPA WHO lead additives in motor fuels. However, in coun- TSP Daily ­ 2 tries that have not yet started phasing out lead Annual1 as an antiknock agent in gasoline, most of the PM Daily 150 ­ 2 lead in the environment originates from vehicu- 10 Annual 50 lar emissions. In those countries, the addition of tetra alkyl lead in motor fuels accounts for Lead (Pb) 1-month an estimated 80-90% of lead in ambient air. Annual 0.5 The degree of pollution from this source Ozone (O ) 1-hour differs from country to country, depending on 3 8-hours 120 motor vehicle density and efficiency of efforts to reduce the lead content of petrol. In Tanza- SO Daily 365 125 2 nia, we understand that there are no primary Annual 80 50 or secondary lead processing and refining fac- NO 1-hour 200 2 tories, nor any lead alkyl manufactures, lead Annual 100 40 oxide and inorganic pigments products and gray CO 1-hour 40 K 30 K iron foundries. Hence, the main source of lead 8-hour 10 K 10 K in the atmosphere in Tanzania is considered likely to originate from the use of leaded gasoline. Notes: 1 Geometric mean 2 WHO no longer recommends air quality guideline for PM because there is no safe lower limit for PM. 2.2 WHO recommends lead ­ Values of US-EPA are for primary standards. phase-out ­ Annual Average is an average of daily measurements taken during a period of one year. ­ µg/m3 is a unit of measurement and refers to one millionth As no amount of lead in the ambient air is of a gram of a pollutant in a cubic meter of air. ­ Guideline refers to the safe level of a pollutant, for the given considered safe, US-EPA does not specify averaging time, to protect the public from acute health ef- maximum lead concentration in its standards fects. as shown in Table 2.1. Although the current ­ CO values are in 1000 (K) of µg/m3. World Health Organization (WHO) standard for Source: WHO/SDE/OEH/00.02, Geneva 2000. 4 CHAPTER 2: BENEFITS OF LEAD-PHASE OUT 2.3 Health impacts are growing cent to major roads, then their exposure can be expected to be similar to that observed in At present, because the Tanzanian vehicle fleet other countries where gasoline has a similar is small and the population dispersed, the im- lead content to that used in Tanzania. pacts of airborne lead and other pollutants are Senegal provides an interesting compari- likely to be low in an international context and son to Tanzania--according to Table 2.2, the in relation to other environmental issues. exposure of the urban population to lead from However, the problem is concentrated in gasoline is much higher than in Tanzania. the major cities such as Dar Es Salaam where In the absence of specific data on lead lev- the ambient atmospheric lead and associated els in blood in vulnerable groups in Tanzania, health problem would be larger and growing. data from Senegal may prove instructive. A For example, a rough estimate of the amount recent authoritative study carried out in Dakar, of urban lead exposure from gasoline for Tan- Senegal (Diouf et al 2001), showed a signifi- zania in relation to other selected SSA or similar cant difference was observed (p=0) between countries is shown in Table 2.2. blood lead levels observed in children living in The table shows that the lead exposure in urban areas (average 106.6µg/l) and those liv- Tanzania (and Ethiopia) is expected to be lower ing in rural areas (average 68.1 µg/l). This is than in neighboring Kenya or similar countries the maximum level in a child tolerated by the such as Ghana and Senegal. However, even Center for Disease Control (Atlanta, USA) since though the overall lead emissions per capita in 1991. The study noted that these high levels Tanzanian urban areas may be lower, for those of blood lead seem to be caused by lead from people whose main activities take place adja- automobiles. No industries likely to emit lead Table 2.2 Estimate of relative Lead Exposure in Selected Countries Maximum Average Actual Exposure Market Share Motor % of Lead Actual Leaded Total to Leaded of Leaded Gasoline gasoline Concentra- Lead Con- Gas Urban Gasoline Gasoline Consumed consumed tion in centration Emissions Pop (tons per (%) {a} (million in urban Gasoline in Gasoline (metric (000) M urban Country 20021 liters) areas (gms/liter) (gms/liter)2 tons) 1995 95 pop) Ethiopia 100 188 0.70 0.6 0.06 11 8,695 0.9 Ghana 100 806 0.80 0.6 0.1 81 6,222 10.4 Kenya 100 458 0.70 0.4 0.2 92 7,763 8.3 Senegal 100 242 0.80 0.8 0.2 48 3,629 10.7 Tanzania 100 165 0.70 0.4 0.2 33 7,279 3.2 Notes: Gasoline consumption for Tanzania and Ghana is in 2002; for other countries in 1995. 1 Market share and fuel consumption data are for 2002 but for Kenya is 1995 data. 2 Lead content for Ghana is average actual for 2001/02 (Jan 01­May 02); for Tanzania, Senegal & Kenya lead content is assumed. Source: Adapted from WRI 2002. 5 CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES into the atmosphere exist within the study exhibit similar lead exposure from mobile area. sources. Diouf et al (2001) compared the results to Continued economic development without similar studies carried out in Africa and found lead-phase out would undoubtedly increase the that the recorded blood lead concentrations likelihood of spiraling negative health impacts were similar: due to lead. These negative impacts fall dis- proportionately on the poorer people in urban Nriagu, 1997 carried out two studies; the areas. first one was in Nigeria, in the medium sized town of Kaduna and the average blood lead level in children aged between 1 and 6 years 2.4 Economic costs of old was 106 µg/l; and health impacts In the second study, in South Africa, cover- ing 1,200 children aged between 3 and 10 Many studies have estimated that the economic years old, the average blood lead level of cost of poor air quality in developing countries children living in urban areas was 100µg/l is significant in terms of increased mortality and and 38µg/l for those living in rural areas morbidity and in terms of health impact (esti- (Nriagu, Oleru et al, 1997a Nriagu, Jinabhai mated between 0.5 to 2.5% of GDP). et al, 1997b). For example in the case of Thailand, that phased-out leaded gasoline over 1992 to 1996, Diouf et al (2001) stated that "...the (lead) a recent study found that the phase-out of leaded levels found in our study are very high com- gasoline had major health and associated eco- pared to those of children living in industrialized nomic benefits as shown in Figure 2.2. countries. In the USA children between the ages of 1 and 6 yrs had levels of 27µg/l from 1991 to 1994, whereas these were 40µg/l in 1988 2.5 Towards improved fuel to 1991, and approximately 150µg/l from and air quality 1976 to 1980. In France, the average blood lead levels were estimated at 36µg/l in 1995 Air quality of a given locality is determined by in children between 1 and 6, expecting to reach the amount of emissions produced by motor 25µg/dl by 2000. The reduction of average vehicles and other sources as well as topogra- levels of blood lead in industrialized countries phy and prevailing meteorological conditions. since the 80s is linked to the implementation Ambient air quality in almost all large cities in of the "unleaded" policy that began earlier in the developing world today exceeds acceptable the States than in France". standards and is linked to major health prob- In conclusion, the amount of lead exposure lems of the exposed population. Health impacts in children in urban areas in Senegal was found vary depending on the type of pollutant, the to be very high. While Tanzania's urban popu- length of exposure and the extent of interac- lation appears not to have the lead exposure tion with other pollutant types. from gasoline estimated for Senegal and the As vehicles normally contribute more than other countries shown in Table 2.2, the urban half of the emissions within an urban air shed, population whose main activities are in close the phase-out of leaded gasoline that is worth- proximity to major roads would be likely to while on its own, is an important first step in 6 CHAPTER 2: BENEFITS OF LEAD-PHASE OUT Figure 2.2 Benefits of Unleaded Gasoline (ULG) Phase-out in Thailand A study on health benefits after the implementation of the ULG policy showed that blood lead levels in traffic policemen decreased dramatically from 28.14 µg/dl in 1988 to 5.33 µg/ dl in 2000. Similarly, blood lead levels in school children also decreased from 8.56 µg/dl in 1993 to 5.58 µg/dl in 2000. Therefore, it is obvious that the leaded gasoline phase-out policy yielded health benefits to the population in Thailand. This study also calculated the monetary value of health benefits resulting from reductions in IQ loss effect on lifetime earnings in children, and in hypertension, heart disease, stroke and premature mortality in adults. The monetary value of health benefits was calculated to be 7,000 million Baht (US$ 163M using an exchange rate of Thai Baht 43= US$ 1.00 prevail- ing at March 03), while the costs of the phase-out are only 200 million Baht (US$ 4.7M). Therefore, the benefits outweigh the costs by more than 32 fold. However, the study found that lead in paint is another important challenge. Both children and traffic policemen whose blood lead levels exceed the standard have one common risk factor--exposure to house paint. Therefore, it is recommended that Thailand initiate mea- sures to limit or remove lead from other sources, particularly paint. Source: The Study on "Unleaded Gasoline Policy: Health Benefits for School Children and Traffic Policemen in Bangkok Metropolitan Administration" done by Chulalongkorn University and PCD, 2002. improving overall fuel quality and hence air fuel from its present specified maximum level quality. of 5,000 parts per million (ppm). Most devel- Although there is at present little hard evi- oped and many developed countries are now dence on the relative importance of other reducing the level of sulfur in diesel fuel to a emissions, it appears that PM from badly tuned maximum of 500 ppm or lower. This 500ppm buses (and perhaps two-stroke motorcycles) is level of sulfur content compared to the present a growing problem. While there are clearly PM 5,000ppm specification can be achieved at emission hotspots at street level, it is likely that relatively low incremental cost. From the point ambient levels of PM are within accepted in- of view of an oil importing country such as ternational standards. High levels of sulfur in Tanzania there may be no cost penalty for diesel fuel are a major source of black smoke moving to low sulfur (500ppm) diesel. and particulate matter emissions that are very Improved fuel quality such as introducing harmful to human health as described in Fig- unleaded gasoline (ULG) and low sulfur diesel ure 2.3. fuel pave the way for use of advanced tech- Apart from reducing the maximum content nologies for emissions reduction in vehicle fleets. of lead in gasoline or eliminating lead altogether, In gasoline powered engine vehicles, catalytic another action that appears immediately ben- converters can then be introduced to reduce eficial is to reduce the level of sulfur in diesel CO, HC and NO and in diesel engined ve- X 7 CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES hicles, the use of purifiers and filters can cut only reduces the efficiency of the catalyst but particulate and other emissions dramatically. can destroy it. ULG is needed to operate catalytic convert- A summary of key pollutants other than lead ers that come as standard in modern cars. emitted from gasoline and diesel-powered ve- Catalytic converters reduce the tailpipe emis- hicles is summarized in Figure 2.3. sions of HC, CO and NOX and pollutants Table 2.3 shows that use of catalytic con- emitted with engine exhaust gases. Lead not verters can reduce emissions of CO, VOC, NOX Figure 2.3 Summary of Other Key Pollutants and Health Issues Particulate matter (PM) is a growing problem in many urban areas in developing coun- tries. Collectively, particulate pollution is often referred to as Total Suspended Particulates (TSP). Fine particulates less than 10 and 2.5 microns in size are referred to as PM10 and PM2.5, respectively. These have the most significant impact on human health because they can penetrate deep into the lungs. PM emissions are a key health concern with estimated economic damage costs much higher than for other pollutants. Major sources of particulate pollution in urban areas are likely to be industry and commerce, re-suspension of road and construction dust, and vehicles. In non-urban areas, sources such as agricultural burning contribute significantly to overall particulate pollution, and their impacts are also felt in urban areas. Carbon monoxide (CO) is an odorless, invisible gas, formed when carbon in fuel is not burned completely. The inhalation of CO can disrupt the supply of essential oxygen to the body's tissues--thus posing a major health risk. Those who suffer from cardiovascular dis- ease are most at risk. At high levels of exposure, CO can be fatal. Automobiles are the largest source of CO emissions. Lesser sources include industrial processes, non-transportation fuel combustion, and natural or manmade fires. Nitrogen oxides (NOX), including nitrogen dioxide (NO2), are mainly produced by fossil fuel combustion in urban areas. They play a major role in the formation of ozone, particulate matter, and acid rain. Short-term exposure, even less than three hours, to low levels of NO2 may lead to changes in lung function in individuals with pre-existing respiratory illnesses and can increase respiratory illnesses in children. Long-term exposure to NO2 may increase sus- ceptibility to respiratory infections and cause permanent alterations in the lung. Diesel-powered vehicles are a major contributor to NOX emissions. Hydrocarbons (HC) and other Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)--low-molecu- lar weight compounds cause unpleasant effects such as eye irritation, coughing and sneezing, drowsiness; heavy molecular-weight compounds may have carcinogenic or mutagenic ef- 8 CHAPTER 2: BENEFITS OF LEAD-PHASE OUT Figure 2.3 (continued) fects. Some hydrocarbons have a close affinity for diesel particulates and may contribute to lung disease. Ozone (O3) is a highly reactive gas, formed by the reaction of VOCs and NOX in the pres- ence of heat and sunlight. Ozone can cause a range of acute health effects including eye, nose and throat irritation, chest discomfort, coughing and headaches. Children who are active outdoors when ozone levels are high are most at risk. Ozone also affects vegetation and ecosystems, decreasing yields of commercial crops and plantations and lowering the aesthetic value of national parks. Non-health Impacts--While health impacts are no doubt the most compelling reason to take action, non-health costs of pollution are also significant. These costs include those stem- ming from congestion and loss of productivity, and damage to ecosystems and physical infrastructure. Transboundary and global impacts include acid rain, global warming, and damage to stratospheric ozone. Green House Gases--Some greenhouse gases occur naturally in the atmosphere, while others result from human activities. Naturally occurring greenhouse gases include water va- por, carbon dioxide, methane (CH4), nitrous oxide, and ozone. Very powerful greenhouse gases that are not naturally occurring include hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs), per fluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), which are generated in a variety of industrial processes. and CH4 by 5 to 10 times compared to a well "tuned-up" car without a catalytic converter. Indoor air pollution is also a potential or real problem in many urban households. In- Table 2.3 door air pollutants are recognized as a potential Reduction in Gas Emissions in Vehicles source of health risks to exposed populations with or without Catalytic Converters throughout the world. Problems vary widely in without c.c. with c.c. industrialized and non-industrialized settings. In rural environments exposure to emissions from "well tuned-up" biomass burning for cooking or heating is he CO (gm/km) 42.67 6.86 main problem. In urban areas such pollution can originate from cooking or heating, and be VOCs (gm/km) 5.62 0.67 worsened by poor ventilation. Epidemiological CH (gm/km) 0.19 0.04 4 studies have indicated that women and children NO (gm/km) 2.70 0.52 who spend large portions of the day in the home X are often exposed to high levels of pollutants Source: Eleodoro Mayorga Alba (2001) 9 CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES there. In addition, the location of the home is Economic­facilitationofregionaltradeand a major determinant of total exposure. Poor cooperation, larger markets and economies outdoor pollution also increases indoor air of scale; pollution levels. Securityofsupplies­fuelofasuitablequality can be sourced from a range of markets/ suppliers; 2.6 Other benefits Facilitate capacity building ­ knowledge and skills enhancement will be increased through Improved fuel quality to standards similar or wide access to materials and expertise; and equal to that used by other countries in the Environmental­jointimplementationofen- region will have important economic benefits: vironmental standards with neighboring countries in the region. 10 3 CHAPTER Potential cost advantages and disadvantages in lead phase-out T his section discusses a number of po- and Premium unleaded was US$ 315 to tential costs impacts that could US$ 317/barrel. Since a barrel is approx potentially arise from leaded gasoline 162.75 liters ULG is cheaper by US$ phase-out although as shown below in 0.012/liter in this example. many cases the various cost factors are In the Gasoline International Market, FOB favorable to the case for leaded gaso- NEW Premium ULG was US$ 303 per line phase-out, or very minor. US gallon compared to FOB Medium leaded (0.15g/liter of lead) was US$ 310.6 per US gallon. ULG is cheaper by 3.1 Fuel prices ­ ULG is cheaper in US$0.043/liter in this example. international markets Fuel price quotations are stated as CIF (cost, Lead is harmful to human health and does not insurance and freight) ­ i.e. where usually the occur naturally in gasoline. But lead has tradi- bidder would quote the product CIF meaning tionally been used in gasoline since the early that they would be prepared to sell the fuel at 1920s as it is the cheapest means of increas- the price including, cost of fuel, freight and in- ing octane level. It also protected exhaust valve surance to bring the goods to the named port seats in older vehicles that were designed to of destination e.g. CIF Dar Es Salaam. operate on leaded gasoline. Both of these re- Given that Tanzania purchases around quirements can now be met by use of ULG 165M litres of fuel per year, the foreign ex- which has additional, significant health benefits change saving to the country in purchasing to the population at large (EPA, 1996; Chev- ULG, compared to the leaded gasolines used ron, 1990; Shell; 1990). in the examples, would vary between US$ Since around 85% of the world's gasoline 2.0M and US$ 7.1M per year. This would sales are now ULG, ULG is almost always be a major potential foreign exchange cheaper to purchase on world markets. saving. For example, prices of gasoline (leaded and ULG) varied as follows recently in selected in- ternational markets: Barges FOB Rotterdam for 5 days ending Jan 31, 20033 ): Premium leaded gasoline 3 According to the January 2003 edition of Platt's (0.15g/l) was US$ 314 ­ US$ 319/ barrel "Oilgram Price Report" 11 CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES 3.2 Change-over costs ULG. The possible extent of older vehicles that may have soft valve seats needs to be consid- With a single grade4 of gasoline (now 95RON) ered. There is almost no reliable data on the it is a straightforward matter to convert to ULG. age structure of neither the vehicle fleet nor After stopping leaded gasoline imports, after a their propensity to have soft-valve seats. suitable transition period in which all signifi- At present the in-use Tanzanian vehicle fleet cant traces of lead are removed, a switch to is estimated to be 350,0005 vehicles accord- ULG can immediately take place with no in- ing to data from the Revenue Departments' frastructure costs or transition issues. Central Motor Vehicle Registry as set out in What is the length of a suitable transition Chapter 11 ­ Annex E. Based on the propor- period? This would be best determined by in- tions of cars and commercial vehicles provided dustry but is believed to require three rotations by Raynor (2002) we estimate that some of gasoline in which all gasoline is flushed out 154,000 are cars and are used for personal and replaced each time by a new ULG load. In transport. It is estimated that less than 20% of remote, up country locations one rotation would cars are older than 20 to 23 years (i.e. pre- take around one or more months. Hence, a 1980). The balance of the in-use fleet of transition period of around six months would 196,000 vehicles consists of commercial ve- seem appropriate for tanks at Tanzania's 450 hicles which use diesel fuel. gasoline stations. In the USA in 1970, about a third of cars A program to flush the relevant industry- had valves seats made of soft metals. It could owned depots would need to be planned but be assumed that less than a third of vehicles would not involve any additional cost. manufactured between 1970 and 1980 had soft Overall, a carefully planned changeover to valve seats. For the purposes of this report it ULG could be achieved with no significant ex- has been assumed that a fifth of vehicles older tra cost being incurred. than 20 years in Tanzania may have soft valve seats. Applying this to the 20% of vehicles older than 20 years gives an estimate of around four 3.3 Suitability of Older Vehicles percent of Tanzania's car fleet that may have with Soft Valve Seats to Use ULG soft valve seats. In fact, as many older vehicles may have While generally all vehicles manufactured world- had their engine replaced by an imported Japa- wide since 1980 are able to use ULG without nese or other engine as was (and is today) engine damage there was concern that older common practice, the estimate of four percent vehicles (with soft valve seats) may experience is thought to be on the high side. some problems as described above. Some models of pre-1980 European car have soft 4 In June20 03, BP Tanzania introduced ULG side valve seats. Lead, in addition to boosting oc- beside their leaded gasoline in effect creating a tane rating, also acts as a valve lubricant and second grade of gasoline that they agree has led prevents wear in engines with soft valve seats. to increased distribution costs. The chief concern in the past that has now 5 This is more than three times the total vehicles largely been disproved has been the possibility reported by Raynor (2002) which stated that Tanzania's total car fleet was 49,500 vehicles and of exhaust valve seat recession particularly when its commercial vehicle fleet was 63,000 vehicles engines with soft valve seats are operated on giving a total of 112,500 vehicles. 12 CHAPTER 3: POTENTIAL COST ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF LEAD PHASE-OUT But it appears that in the past, too much tives to the fuel. In Tanzania, the available evi- lead has been added to gasoline for the pur- dence is that the issue of soft valve seat recession poses of lubrication ­ only some 0.02gm/liter is not an issue and hence valve seat lubricating are needed for lubrication purposes. That is, additives are not required to be added to the even in older cars with soft valve seats the new ULG fuel. amount of lead required is small. Only every Finally, many countries around the world fourth or fifth tank need be leaded (Shell Sci- with older car fleets similar to those in SSA ence and Technology). countries have recently phased-out leaded gaso- But studies by US-EPA found that the theo- line without use of lead-substitute additives in retical problem of valve seat recession that could ULG (e.g. Colombia, Honduras, Bolivia, and occur if soft-valve seat engines use ULG is Guatemala) and no problems have been re- unlikely to occur. Under laboratory test condi- ported. tions, it was found that some five hours of driving Participants from the Tanzania workshop at 100km/hr would be required to cause the considered that valve seat recession was a non problem to start to occur and then the (old) car issue in the context of Tanzania. Hence, no is likely to fail from some other problem. further action on this subject was recommended. Chevron (1990), a US Oil Company, has concluded that all typical US passenger cars and light-duty trucks are safe from valve reces- 3.4 Conclusion sion when operated on ULG. Weaver (1996) "...concluded that much of the concern about It is concluded that there are no significant costs valve seat recession in normal use has been involved in changeover to ULG. In summary, misdirected and exaggerated". Radian (1994) concluded that reducing lead A switch to ULG will lead to significant in gasoline is a win-win action as it will extend foreign exchange savings; spark plug life, increase the interval between Changeover costs are expected to be neg- oil changes and extend exhaust system and ligible; muffler life. These findings have been also con- The impact of ULG on engines with soft firmed by US EPA (1985). valve seats is expected to be insignificant That is, recent international experience has and no additives to lubricate soft-valve seats confirmed that the potential damage to be at are required; and worst, a minor issue and to the extent that the Reduced maintenance costs for cars are problem exists, is able to be completely resolved expected. by the addition of appropriate (lubricant) addi- 13 4 CHAPTER Priority issues and recommendations for leaded gasoline phase-out T he discussion of overall benefits (Chap- Improving fuel quality and developing new ter 2) and costs (Chapter 3) of the fuel specifications; phase-out of leaded gasoline shows that Upgradingthequalityofvehicleimportsand the benefits are likely to greatly exceed emission controls; the costs which are virtually nil or ac- Establishing baseline inventories of key tually in favor of the leaded gasoline pollutants and health effects; and phase-out decision. Developing an appropriate public informa- The appropriate approach to change-over tion or awareness campaign. to ULG involves setting a phase-out date for leaded gasoline that provides a suitable length The issues involved in leaded gasoline phase- of time to flush all traces of lead from the dis- out and air quality improvement involve many tribution system. A lead time of six months groups in society and consequently it is recom- appears appropriate and that is the time ac- mended that: tual importation of leaded gasoline should be banned. Recommendation 2 ­ The Cabinet of the It is therefore recommended that: Government of Tanzania commits to es- tablishing a multi-sectoral stakeholder group Recommendation 1 ­ The Cabinet of the by end 2003 consisting of senior members Government of Tanzania resolves to phase- of government agencies, the oil industry, out leaded gasoline by end 2003 and and civil society including Non-Government simultaneously introduce unleaded gasoline Organizations (NGOs) and consumer groups to the market6 . All necessary legal and pre- paratory work will need to be completed by that time. The oil industry can then fol- low through with leaded gasoline phase-out 6BP's recent (June 2003) introduction of ULG as by June 2004. a new grade of gasoline is commendable. But BP still sells leaded gasoline side by side with ULG. As demonstrated in this report, the phase- As BP currently purchases only small quantities out of leaded gasoline is but a first step in of ULG and operates two distribution systems it incurs significant additional costs. It would be far developing a more comprehensive approach more economical for the nation to reject this to air quality management which would include approach and phase-out leaded gasoline and in- actions on: troduce ULG in a single step. 15 CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES for a period of at least three years. The 4.1 Fuel specifications Tanzanian National Environmental Manage- and fuel quality ment Council; Division of Environment, Vice President's Office; Ministry of Health; Tanzania's present unleaded gasoline fuel speci- and Ministry of Energy and Minerals would fications (contained in Chapter 8 ­ Annex B) have lead roles in its implementation. Fur- have been recently updated on a regional ba- ther details of the role of individual sis and are considered satisfactory until the next organizations are made in Chapter 5. This regional update. multi-stakeholder group would oversee In Tanzania at present the standard for sul- implementation of the public awareness fur content in diesel fuel is 0.5% by weight7 or activities and provide feedback and advice 5,000ppm that is quite high. This sulfur con- to implementation agencies. A proposed tent has been specified during regional fuel draft mandate for this group is included in specifications as Kenya's Mombasa refinery Chapter 9 ­ Annex C. This group should cannot economically produce diesel fuel with be supported by technical advice provided sulfur content lower8 than this. Most developed by member agencies and by consultant and and many developing countries have specified other expert inputs. or are considering lowering the maximum per- mitted sulfur levels in diesel fuel to 0.05% by The benefits from a more comprehensive weight or 500ppm or lower. Even though there approach to air quality management are ex- are at present no measurements of air quality, pected to be significant and it is therefore as sulfur is a major contributor to smoke and recommended that: PM emissions from buses and other commer- cial vehicles, it would appear that it would be Recommendation 3 ­ The Cabinet of the highly beneficial to reduce sulfur content in diesel Government of Tanzania commits to de- fuel at the next round of regional fuel specifi- veloping a more comprehensive approach cations updating. However, as Tanzania is an to air quality management by end 2003 oil importing country it may be able to source based on the Terms of Reference (ToR) low sulfur diesel fuel on world markets for no described in Chapter 10 ­ Annex D and additional cost. recommended action plan set out in Table Even though there is an absence of com- 5.1. The Tanzanian National Environmen- prehensive measurements of air quality or the tal Management Council/ Division of source of emissions it is known that Tanzania's Environment, Vice President's Office would buses and trucks are gross polluters of PM and have key roles. black smoke. These first three recommendations are considered fundamental or key recommenda- tions. A series of important associated 7 recommendations that flow from the above are Actual sulfur content is believed to be around 0.3% by weight or 3,000ppm. presented below. Except where indicated the 8 recommended actions below are believed to be Since this specification was set recently it appears that the Mombasa refinery has found that it is cost neutral or favorable to the lead phase-out unable to economically produce diesel fuel with decision (i.e. save money). a sulfur content lower than 1,000ppm. 16 CHAPTER 4: PRIORITY ISSUES AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR LEADED GASOLINE PHASE-OUT In the meantime, therefore, it is recom- Second hand vehicles have typically already mended that: done significant mileage and are usually aged between 5 and 10 years. As the source of most Recommendation 4 ­ oil importers be vehicles would be Europe most would be encouraged to import only diesel fuel with equipped with functioning catalytic converters a sulfur content lower than 3,000ppm. At when they enter the country. At present, these the next regional round of fuel specifica- catalytic converters are left intact while oper- tion updating it is recommended that the ating in Tanzania on today's leaded gasoline. maximum specified content of sulfur in die- They are therefore destroyed in-use by the lead sel be lowered as close to 500ppm as it is additive. cost-effective to do so. In the meantime, it As the Tanzanian vehicle market is price- is recommended that oil marketers through sensitive there appears to be an exhibited the Tanzania Oil Marketing Association preference for older vehicle imports (towards agree to proceed to supply the market with 10 years old rather than five years) with most low sulfur diesel (as close to 500ppm as likely poorer performance in terms of emis- possible). sions. The percentage of vehicles with soft valve The present system of monitoring of fuel seats is likely to be almost negligible and even quality relies on pre-shipment certification of these vehicles will under normal operating con- fuel. However, by the time a consumer buys ditions be able to operate satisfactorily on ULG. fuel at a petrol station there is no guarantee of While significant benefits are to be derived the quality of the fuel. To support the leaded from the use of ULG on its own, even greater gasoline phase-out decision and program of benefits to air quality and public health will be overall fuel quality improvement, it is recom- incurred through the reduction of other emis- mended that: sions by the mandatory use of catalytic converters in cars. It is therefore recommended Recommendation 5 ­ Tanzania's Bureau that: of Standards should be given expanded pow- ers and resources to satisfactorily monitor Recommendation 6 ­ All cars imported in-market fuel quality. This also requires TBS into Tanzania be fitted with a functioning to have the power to apply suitable fines catalytic converter and that this is to be cer- and penalties to act as an effective deter- tified by the exporter in the country of origin, rent to fuel quality breeches. and the importer in Tanzania prior to the vehicle being registered for on road use in Tanzania; 4.2 Vehicle imports and Recommendation 7 ­ The Central Mo- emission controls tor Vehicle Registry should not register an imported vehicle without these two certifi- As for many other developing countries, Tan- cations being present. zania relies on the import of second hand vehicles to supply its vehicle markets. New At present, there are no regulations gov- vehicles are also imported but have a minor erning the quality of imported new or second role. hand vehicles, their age or the extent of their 17 CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES emissions. Tanzania's present system of reli- veloped and analyzed to reduce emissions ance on second hand imports while having from in-use vehicles. A traditional I/M sys- many benefits may need to be adjusted to en- tem may be difficult to sustain due to a lack sure that over time, the quality and level of of capacity--an appropriate system may technology (which with fuel quality governs consist of random checking of gross pol- emission levels in new vehicles) in imported luters. The responsible agencies are the vehicles continue to improve. Tanzanian National Environmental Manage- An appropriate regulation may seek to limit ment Council; Division of Environment, the age of vehicles which can be imported to 7 Vice President's Office; and the Ministry or say, 10 years to ensure that over time, of Communications and Transport. Tanzania's vehicle fleet is upgraded in terms of technological level. It is also recommended that: 4.3 Base line studies of emissions and health impacts Recommendation 8 ­Inthemediumterm (2 to 4 years) the benefits and costs of in- Given a decision to phase-out leaded gasoline troduction of a system to reduce emissions it is recommended that: from new and imported vehicles be devel- oped and the options for such a system, Recommendation 10 ­ In order to cre- should it be worthwhile, be evaluated and ate a suitable base-line to measure the a clear recommendation made. The options benefits of the lead phase-out decision, sta- would include tax changes to favor younger, tistically valid measurements of blood level low polluting vehicles and/or age limits on lead in currently vulnerable groups (e.g. traf- vehicles that can be imported. The respon- fic policemen, school children etc) and a sible agency would be the Ministry of suitable control group, be carried out in Dar Finance. Other relevant agencies are the Es Salaam. The responsible agency is the Tanzanian National Environmental Manage- Ministry of Health. ment Council; Division of Environment, Vice President's Office; and the Ministry Prior to designing other interventions to of Communications and Transport. The reduce other pollutants, initial base line studies World Bank will aim to facilitate Regional to establish an initial emissions inventory and Cooperation in SSA to achieve a harmoni- the likely severity of health impacts of each zation of the approaches to reducing pollutant will need to be developed. They will emissions from imported vehicles. require technical assistance and this may be able to be provided by the World Bank, the There is no effective inspection and main- United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) tenance (I/M) system for in-use vehicles at or other donors. The estimated cost of this present in Tanzania. It is recommended that: activity is US$ 100,000. It is recommended that: Recommendation 9 ­Inthemediumterm (2 to 4 years) the effectiveness of the exist- Recommendation 11 ­ An emissions ing system of I/M be investigated and inventory from mobile and other sources options to improve the I/M system be de- be developed by the Tanzanian National En- 18 CHAPTER 4: PRIORITY ISSUES AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR LEADED GASOLINE PHASE-OUT vironmental Management Council; and Initial visits to Tanzania indicate that there Division of Environment, Vice President's is also a general lack of information on un- Office. The following pollutants should be leaded at the government level and there are targeted at first with both ambient and road- some public impressions, myths and miscon- side measurements conducted at a small ceptions about the negative effects of lead on range of representative sites in Dar Es Sa- vehicles, the effect of unleaded fuel on vehicles laam: as well as a lack of knowledge on the role of the catalytic converter, and the health effects o PM2.5 of lead on adults and children. o CO Discussions have also revealed that consum- o HC and ers have a right to be informed. Lessons show o NOX that building the capacity in the community is a slow process but confidence can be built even- The main agencies that should be respon- tually. Confident and well informed communities sible would be the Tanzanian National enhance understanding of health risks, allays Environmental Management Council; and Di- myths and misperceptions. If consumers have vision of Environment, Vice President's Office. the correct information on the side-effects of The estimated cost of this activity is US$ lead that are better placed to make an informed 500,000. decision i.e. going unleaded. In the medium term, these agencies will re- The decision to phase out use of leaded quire technical assistance and training to establish gasoline and subsequent actions to adopt a a functioning, embryonic monitoring system and more comprehensive approach will be sup- this may be able to be provided by the World ported by a well designed approach to public Bank and/or the United Nations Environment awareness rising, therefore, it is recommended Program (UNEP). The World Bank will aim to that: facilitate Regional Cooperation in SSA to achieve a harmonized approach to air quality Recommendation 12 ­ A public aware- monitoring possibly on a sub-regional basis. ness campaign, designed to inform the public, government officials, industry and others, be developed as an integral com- 4.4 Public Awareness Campaign ponent of the decision to phase-out the use of leaded gasoline and of the subsequent The public needs to be empowered through actions to improve air quality on a more information and education to advocate for and comprehensive basis. The recommended accept unleaded gasoline as a positive factor. multi-sector stakeholder group would be Information is required for stakeholders to un- overseeing this activity although it is envis- derstand the details such as effect on vehicles, aged that the Tanzanian National health and environment and fuel specifications. Environmental Management Council; and There is also the need to justify the proposed Division of Environment, Vice President's action plan to the public. It would be desirable Office; and Ministry of Health could have that the public have information on the actions a lead role in providing a technical secre- other sub-Saharan countries have taken to tariat certainly at the commencement of the phase out leaded gasoline and its implications. campaign. 19 CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES The broad recommended actions that cor- is expected to be $100,000 in the first year of respond to this recommendation are shown in implementation with a funding commitment Table 5.1 of the Chapter 5. However, in Chap- of $50,000/year allocated for subsequent ter 6 these recommended actions are expanded years. This funding would be additional and with a detailed but indicative public awareness would not include relevant budgets of indus- plan that can be expected to be modified dur- try, government agencies etc for similar ing implementation. The cost of the public activities. A three-year program of public aware- awareness activity to support the lead phase- ness rising is the minimum that should be out decision and associated awareness rising contemplated. 20 5 CHAPTER Action Plan to phase out leaded gasoline and next steps T he recommended actions presented in Dar Es Salaam and other urban areas, starting Chapter 4 together form the basis of with the leaded gasoline phase-out decision. an Action Plan (Table 5.1) that would move towards a more integrated ap- proach to air quality management in Table 5.1 Action Plan for leaded gasoline phase-out and next steps Year 1 Years 2 to 4 Recommended Actions Immediate (03/04) (04/05 to 06/07) 1. The Cabinet of the Govern- ment of Tanzania immedi- ately resolves to phase-out leaded gasoline by end 2003 and simultaneously supply the market with ULG. All necessary legal and preparatory work will need to be completed by that time. The oil industry can then supply ULG to the market by June 2004. 2. Tanzanian Cabinet com- mits to establishing a multi-sectoral stakeholder group by end 2003 con- sisting of senior members of government agencies, the oil industry, and civil society including Non- 21 CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES Table 5.1 (continued) Year 1 Years 2 to 4 Recommended Actions Immediate (03/04) (04/05 to 06/07) Government Organiza- tions (NGOs) and consumer groups. This group should be estab- lished for a period of at least three years. This group will need technical support provided by mem- ber agencies and other expert resources. 3. Tanzanian Cabinet com- mits to developing a more comprehensive approach to air quality management by end 2003 based on the Terms of Reference (ToR) described in Annex C. Fuel specifications and fuel quality 4. Oil importers encouraged In the next regional round to reduce the actual maxi- of fuel specification up- mum content of sulfur in dates the maximum diesel to 3,000ppm or specified content of sulfur lower. in diesel is lowered to as close to 500ppm as it is considered cost-effective to do so. In the meantime, it is recommended that oil marketers through the Tanzania Oil Marketing As- sociation agree to proceed to supply the market with low sulfur diesel (as close to 500ppm as possible). 22 CHAPTER 5: ACTION PLAN TO PHASE OUT LEADED GASOLINE AND NEXT STEPS Table 5.1 (continued) Year 1 Years 2 to 4 Recommended Actions Immediate (03/04) (04/05 to 06/07) 5. Tanzania's Bureau of Stan- dards should be given expanded powers and re- sources to satisfactorily monitor in-market fuel quality. This also requires TBS to have the power to apply suitable fines and penalties to act as an ef- fective deterrent to fuel quality breeches. Vehicle imports and emission controls 6. All cars imported into Tan- zania are required to be fitted with a functioning catalytic converter. This is certified by the exporter in the country of origin, and the importer in Tanzania prior to the vehicle being registered for on road use in Tanzania. 7. The Tanzanian Central Motor Vehicle Registry refuses to register an im- ported vehicle without sighting the export and import documents that certifies a functioning catalytic converter is present. 23 CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES Table 5.1 (continued) Year 1 Years 2 to 4 Recommended Actions Immediate (03/04) (04/05 to 06/07) 8. The Ministry of Finance in conjunction with the Tanza- nian National Environmental Management Council; Divi- sion of Environment, Vice President's Office and the Ministry of Communications and Transport evaluate the benefits and costs of intro- duction of a system to reduce emissions from new and im- ported vehicles. The options for such a system (which could include taxes and age limits to favor younger low polluting vehicles), should it be worthwhile, are evaluated and a clear recommendation made. World Bank aims to fa- cilitate Regional Cooperation in SSA to achieve a harmoni- zation of the approach to reducing emissions from im- ported vehicles. 9. The Tanzanian National Environmental Manage- ment Council/ Division of Environment, Vice President's Office and the Ministry of Communica- tions and Transport assess the effectiveness of the existing system of I/M and the improvement options to reduce emissions from in-use vehicles and a clear recommendation made. 24 CHAPTER 5: ACTION PLAN TO PHASE OUT LEADED GASOLINE AND NEXT STEPS Table 5.1 (continued) Year 1 Years 2 to 4 Recommended Actions Immediate (03/04) (04/05 to 06/07) Base line studies of emissions and health impacts 10. The Ministry of Health de- velops a suitable base-line to measure the benefits of the lead phase-out deci- sion with statistically valid measurements of blood level lead in vulnerable groups and a suitable con- trol group in Addis Ababa. Cost: US$100,000. 11. Sources of technical assis- The Tanzanian National The World Bank facilitates tance for preparation of Environmental Manage- Regional Cooperation in the emissions inventory ment Council/ Division SSA to achieve a harmo- should be considered by of Environment, Vice nized approach to air the Tanzanian National En- President's Office pre- quality monitoring possi- vironmental Management pares an appropriate bly on a sub-regional Council/ Division of Envi- emissions inventory from basis. ronment, Vice President's mobile and other sources. Office. These sources The following pollutants could include the World should be targeted: Bank and/or the United PM2.5; CO; HC; and NO . X Nations Environment Pro- Cost: US$ 500,000. gram (UNEP). Public awareness campaign 12. Tanzanian Cabinet commits On-going consultation and On-going consultation and to developing a compre- activities as described in activities as described in hensive approach to public Chapter 6 (Table 6.1). Chapter 6 (Table 6.1). awareness rising as further Cost: Year 1: US$ Cost: US$ 50,000/ year amplified in Chapter 6. 100,0009. subsequently. 9This funding would be additional and would not include relevant budgets of industry, government agencies etc for similar activities. 25 CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES Table 5.1 (continued) Year 1 Years 2 to 4 Recommended Actions Immediate (03/04) (04/05 to 06/07) Identify sources of fund- ing for the public awareness activity and de- velop initial materials as discussed in Chapter 6 (Table 6.1). 26 6 CHAPTER Indicative Public Awareness Campaign T his section of the report and action plan ity for overseeing the development and imple- amplifies the details of what might con- mentation of an appropriate public awareness stitute an appropriate approach to campaign. This stakeholder group would need developing a public awareness cam- funding and the technical support of a secre- paign that is suitable for Tanzania. Once tariat--it is envisaged that the Tanzanian a commitment is made to the phase- National Environmental Management Council; out of lead in gasoline and to the need for a and Division of Environment, Vice President's public awareness campaign, the details of the Office; and Ministry of Health could play this campaign can be refined to match prevailing role on a joint basis initially. circumstances and other proposed sub-regional As discussed in Chapter 4 and summarized programs such as that proposed by UNEP. in Table 5.1, the cost of the public awareness Creating opportunities for the participation activity to support the lead phase-out decision of the public in the implementation of national and associated awareness rising is expected to action plans (through information gathering and be $100,00010 in the first year with a funding dissemination) to phase out leaded fuel in oil commitment of $50,000/year allocated for importing countries such as Tanzania will help subsequent years. A three-year program of to provide information and build capacity on public awareness rising is the minimum that the health risks, legislation, partnership oppor- should be contemplated. tunities with various stakeholders and advocacy needed for its success. This will in turn build capacity at commu- 6.1 Objectives and outputs nity level to engage in local initiatives and interventions and to be part of a consultative The objectives of a suitable public awareness group that would feed into policy and decision campaign are: making in the implementation of the lead phase- out plan and air quality management plans. To sensitize and create awareness of the It is envisaged that once a decision is made public on the change from leaded fuel to by the Tanzanian Cabinet to phase-out leaded ULG, the health risks of car generated air gasoline and to commit to other actions in the Action Plan (Table 5.1), then the recommended multi-sectoral stakeholder group (A proposed 10This funding would be additional and would not draft mandate for this group is included in include relevant budgets of industry, government Chapter 9 ­ Annex C) would take responsibil- agencies etc for similar activities. 27 CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES pollution and exposure to leaded gasoline, Governments­policymakers/civilservants; thus exposing them to the benefits to health, Politicians; safety and environment. Members of parliament, mayors and coun- To assist the public to understand that un- cilors; and leaded gasoline will not adversely affect NGOs and coalitions. vehicle performance and to empower the public to enable them participate in initia- It is recommended that materials for the tives/interventions towards the prevention information campaign should as far as possible and management of air pollution and the be developed and shared on a regional basis in implementation of a lead phase-out plan. order to reduce costs and ensure uniformity. It should be community friendly, present the facts The desired outputs are: and take into account local culture. Information should be targeted to the vari- Enhancedunderstandingbycivilsocietyand ous groups in society such as decision makers the creation of a well-informed public on as well as the general public. the health risks of exposure to lead and Initially messages for the campaign should benefits of the phase-out plan for effective focus on health, environment and the economic decision-making; benefits of unleaded gasoline. Public acceptance of the new fuel as a positive factor that improves air quality and thereby protects public health is en- 6.3 Role of Civil society, media sured; and other partners Civil society and local communities are in- volved in the phase out plan and The involvement of the following government participating in initiatives to improve air and other institutions is essential to ensure the quality management and control; and success of a public awareness campaign: Education materials for priority issues and messages for the lead phase-out and air TanzanianNationalEnvironmentalManage- quality public education awareness strategy ment Council; are developed/adapted. Division of Environment, Vice President's Office, Tanzania; Tanzanian Ministry of Energy and Miner- 6.2 Target audience als; Tanzanian Bureau of Standards; The target audience of the proposed public TanzanianMinistryofCommunicationsand awareness campaign would include: Transport; Tanzanian Ministry of Health/Local Pump attendants and mechanics; Government (Health inspectors/, commu- Parentsandchildren(localcommunitiesand nity-based health care); schools); Tanzanian Association of Oil Marketing Fleet owners and operators; Companies; General public (motorists); Universities and colleges; Media people and journalists; Africaclean Network, Tanzania; 28 CHAPTER 6: INDICATIVE PUBLIC AWARENESS CAMPAIGN Health Board Associations; Development Partners e.g. World Bank, Tanzania Drivers Association; (e.g. UNEP, UNDP etc) NGO's such as Leat, Agenda, Jet; Tanzania Journalists Association; and The following stakeholders shown in Table Oil Marketing Companies e.g. BP, Gapco, 6.1 need to be closely involved for informa- Total, Mobil, Engen, Oryx etc. tion sharing and support. Table 6.1 Role of Civil society, media and other partners Stakeholder Role Detail Civil Society- NGO's, Associations Involvement/participation of local Issues to include: and Networks coalition NGO's such as LEAT, Theeliminationofleadfromgaso- AGENDA, and Networks such as line as the first step to improve Africaclean, in Information Gather- air quality in the SSA ing and Dissemination to facilitate broad consensus (political and so- Dispelling the myths and telling cial) and acceptance among the facts about lead in fuel (and stakeholders and the public. blood lead levels), that all cars can use unleaded fuel. Provide information on Case stud- ies, Conduct baseline studies, No extra cost and cheaper on the prepare fact sheets, share knowl- world market edge and expertise and sensitize That safe alternatives to lead are during consultations to create available awareness on health risks of car- generated pollution, lead in fuel, Negative impacts of urban air impacts of the phase-out and other pollution especially lead and PM successful phase-out programs. on health. Advocacy ­ lobbying governments Vehicleimportsandmaintenance to act and monitoring compliance Participation in Local initiatives according to national action plans and capacity building on lead regarding fuel specs, quality en- phase-out issues. forcement and pricing. Child health and environment Participate in group training Broad message declarations by government to phase-out lead Support statements from devel- opment partners 29 CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES Table 6.1 (continued) Stakeholder Role Detail The Media Facilitating a national media outreach to This also includes specific targeting for generate demand for the Unleaded fuel Dar Es Salaam and other major cities and support for the campaign. This in- using little/group media for identified cludes a variety of communication groups such as street groups/traders, channels for mass media (radio, TV, mechanics, Commercial transport own- newspapers, leaflets and bill boards, ers and operators, gasoline pump press releases/conferences). They attendants and schools. should also participate in training. The Private Sector ­ Fuel transporters Advocacy and support. Participate in training, baseline stud- who are private owners, Haulage truck ies and other interventions. owners, Commercial Transport unions, Individuals Parents and Schools Advocacy. Participate in training through curricu- lum developed for teachers and related activities at school health centers, fo- cusing on child health issues. Research Institutions, University, Monitoring and baseline studies. Baseline surveys--on Relevant behav- Environmental protection Authority iors such as usage of fuel, trends in fuel usage, issues of concern, blood lead levels and air quality. Case studies Development Partners-WHO, UNEP, Financial and technical support. Funding for local initiatives, Emissions World Bank monitoring, Air Quality Baseline stud- ies and Information dissemination. Regulatory Agencies ­ Bureau of Provide technical support. Information dissemination and mate- Standards Authority, Ministry of rials development. Communications and Transport 30 CHAPTER 6: INDICATIVE PUBLIC AWARENESS CAMPAIGN Table 6.1 (continued) Stakeholder Role Detail Government Ministries & agencies for Set up multidisciplinary stakeholder To develop communication plan and Health, Environment, Energy and steering committee on public informa- steer public awareness activities. Transport, Standards tion/ education. Participate in group training Oil marketing companies/ Provide financial and technical sup- For awareness campaigns; Research- Associations port. Monitoring and baseline studies; Participating in consultations; and Training programs for target groups. Parliament Legislation and advocacy. Vehicle import tax regulations, Participate in group training emissions and other regulations. Car Dealers /manufacturers ­ e.g. Finance and Technical support Funding for the awareness campaign Toyota, Mitsubishi, CMC motors Technical expertise 6.4 Emerging issues versely affected by unleaded gasoline to afford a more scientific basis and help the The following emerging issues provide chal- public fully appreciate the issues including lenges and opportunities for developing an that effects are likely to be minimal; appropriate public awareness campaign and The concern about fuel quality and impli- encouraging public participation: cation of current RON Levels, fuel specifications and public opinion after the The thinking that there might be price dif- change over if vehicles develop "normal" ferences or extra cost incurred by the change faults, etc; to unleaded gasoline. The public needs to The role and benefits of catalytic convert- be assured that there is no extra cost. This ers and how to maintain their correct needs to be verified within the framework functioning; of the changes to the oil marketing arrange- The need for discussion of options of other ments anticipated after October 2003; safe alternatives to lead as well as the ad- The need for education about the perceived vantages and disadvantages of each; effects of unleaded gasoline on old vehicles Information dissemination on the need to especially when at least 20% of vehicles minimize the health impacts of lead and are over 20 years. The effect on the valve other pollutants as well as impact on water seat in older vehicles needs to be explained. quality to encourage prioritization of air It may be necessary to identify specific quality measurements and assessments of models of vehicles that are likely to be ad- blood lead levels. There is little informa- 31 CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES tion on lead poisoning or any specific mea- 6.5 Indicative Public Awareness sure of the extent of the poisoning; Detailed Plan Benefits of unleaded gasoline to motorists ­ reduced health impacts, reduced mainte- The first part of the indicative public aware- nance; ness plan includes an evaluation (through Regulation on importers of old polluting baseline studies and available information) of vehicles; and the public's general level of awareness of the The need for information of both technical adverse effects of lead on health as well as the difficulties in phasing out lead and social level of concern and misconception about the implications to the public as well as assess- effects of ULG. The result of evaluation and ments of collaborative studies in countries monitoring activities will provide information that have phased out and those with high for the educational campaign scope (scale and levels of lead in gasoline. costs), message content and information to be developed and/or adapted from other sources. Table 6.2 Indicative Public Awareness Detailed Plan Recommended Year 1 Years 2 to 4 Actions Immediate (03/04) (04/05 to 06/07) The recommended actions Create multi-stakeholder Consultation on a quarterly Consultation on a quarterly in columns to right are group to oversee imple- basis with representatives basis with representatives indicative and will be modi- mentation of the public of identified target groups. of identified target groups. fied during implementation. awareness activities and They flow from key provide feedback for overarching actions set out implementation agen- in Table 5.1. cies--identify main stakeholders and partners in air quality management and the lead phase-out activities. 32 CHAPTER 6: INDICATIVE PUBLIC AWARENESS CAMPAIGN Table 6.2 (continued) Recommended Year 1 Years 2 to 4 Actions Immediate (03/04) (04/05 to 06/07) Conduct a situational Conduct a baseline survey on Monitor impact of the cam- analysis/survey and relevant behaviors, public per- paign against indicators develop a database on ceptions on the health risks developed. available information/ trends of usage of fuels, per- research and evaluate ceptions on impacts on public's general level of vehicle fleet, fuel specs and awareness of lead ef- quality and blood lead levels. fects and air pollution. Develop monitoring in- dicators and survey tools. US$ 10,000. Organize consultative Initiate mass communi- workshops to feedback cation and information information from the dissemination program baseline research and for targeted groups to disseminate infor- based on surveys, mation on the national research, available infor- action plan. mation and materials Identify human and adapted. material resources Assess audience needs Organize showing of and an indication of pre- video documentary ferred communication "Leaded Gasoline the methods to facilitate ac- silent threat "by the ceptance of the new fuel Clean Air Initiative and to dispel myths fears (World Bank) in major etc. urban areas. Prepare ToR and issue Other available docu- contract for materials mentaries, posters and development and dis- materials developed by semination. the USEPA on health Develop/adapt critically impacts. important messages pre-test and proceed with mass production ­ (prepare/adapt audio visuals, flip charts, infor- mation fact sheets. 33 CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES Table 6.2 (continued) Recommended Year 1 Years 2 to 4 Actions Immediate (03/04) (04/05 to 06/07) Workshop to adapt / Link specific messages develop materials In to identified target coordination with the groups Ministry of Energy and Minerals, Health and other local, regional and international agen- cies, /stakeholders. Establishbudgetneeds and timing. Develop a communication Use selected communi- Implementation of pub- plan for implementation in- cation channels under lic awareness campaign cluding launching the mass and other media in collaboration with program at a forum, TV/ for specific target stakeholders. Radio discussions on health groups and the general Activities for public re- and developmental effects public (Radio, TV, Bill- lations, advocacy and caused by exposure to lead, boards, newspapers, advertising and what to do when chang- Information services de- Training,talks,seminars ing to ULG. partment, Flip charts, and forums for identifi- group discussions, able groups nationwide. audiovisuals, Video Organizechildren's'pro- documentary). grams in schools and on Activelycollaboratewith TV on hazards of leaded local agencies and other gasoline and benefits of organizations doing edu- unleaded gasoline. cation and awareness programs, research etc on air quality manage- ment and leaded fuel phase out (e.g. US-EPA, Alliance to End Child- hood Lead poisoning, Africaclean Network, UNEP, WHO). 34 CHAPTER 6: INDICATIVE PUBLIC AWARENESS CAMPAIGN Table 6.2 (continued) Recommended Year 1 Years 2 to 4 Actions Immediate (03/04) (04/05 to 06/07) Create channels of Invite proposals for communication for civil local initiatives/inter- society input into policy ventions to promote and decision making general air quality man- agement issues and disseminate information on the phase out. Coordinate the set up of resource centers with man- agement options (such as managed by local authorities in collaboration with civil so- ciety groups/NGO's for implementation in the capital and one other major urban center to facilitate information flow between the community and other stakeholders. Elicit consensus on future use of the center ­ could be open to use as reference center 35 7 CHAPTER Annex A ­ Terms of Reference for Preparation of this Action Plan Energy Sector Management Assistance Program Improvement of the urban air quality and Phasing out of lead from gasoline in oil importing countries of sub-Saharan Africa THE CASE OF TANZANIA TERMS OF REFERENCE FOR CONSULTANT SERVICES 7.1 Background nies and the organizations of the civil society that are interested by the formulation of rec- Following the agreement reached at the Dakar ommendations to eliminate lead additives from Conference (June 2001) the ESMAP Program gasoline and to continue longer term efforts to has allocated funds for studies required for the improve the quality of air in their main cities. preparation and implementation of national and In 2001, Tanzania imported all of its pe- sub-regional plans to eliminate lead additives troleum products. Considering the prevailing from gasoline and to contribute in this way to price distortions, diesel is preferred in both the improvement of urban air quality in SSA countries by the majority of car owners. The countries net importers of petroleum products. consumption of the fishing artisan sector rep- These importing countries are confronted resents a significant percentage of the total with fewer difficulties to phase out lead from gasoline supplied to these markets. gasoline than those operating national refiner- Tanzania does not operate refineries, as ies for the supply of their markets. The studies the Tanzania refinery ­ TIPER ­ was closed to be made will focus exclusively on the impacts several years ago. The supply of petroleum to be expected from the change of products' products is achieved by the means of procure- quality only at the level of the consumers. ment operations that still considers the Indeed, for Tanzania and also for other coun- importation of leaded gasoline. tries that import directly petroleum products, the studies should address the issues related to the consumer's preferences. The studies will be 7.2 Objective carried out at the same time of the setting up of a multi-organization working team gathering the The main aim of the consultant services hereby different Government agencies, the oil compa- requested is the formulation and implementa- 37 CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES tion of a national plan for eliminating leaded for the unleaded type and proposal to re- gasoline from the Tanzanian fuel market as well duce these impacts. as the review of technical, environmental and Formulation of a national plan to improve economic issues to be covered in the efforts of air quality starting by the elimination of lead a network of public and private entities that is additives from gasoline, transition issues, joining efforts to improve the air quality in both evaluation of costs and benefits and prepa- countries. ration of a preliminary proposal for its financing. Proposal for the Terms of Reference and 7.3 Scope of Work mandate of a multi-sectoral working team to implement the air quality improvement The consultant services will cover the follow- plan. ing topics: Development of the concept for a public awareness campaign to inform on the health The evaluation of the current and future impacts of air pollutants starting by those car fleet and the respective gasoline mar- from the use of leaded gasoline. Best prac- kets, including the fuel transportation, tice campaign addressed to vehicle owners storage and distribution system(s). on possible measures to reduce air pollu- The analysis of scenarios of the possible tions. evolution of the car fleet and other gaso- line and motor fuels markets. Evaluation of the gasoline quality, octane 7.4 Duration of the Task grades and other specifications. Existing technical specs, typical imported gasoline(s) The expected net amount of time the consult- and proposed specifications. ant will dedicate to this task is estimated in 2.5 Possible problems of smuggling and prod- months to be developed during a maximum ucts adulteration. contractual duration of six months. The evaluation of the impacts of the lead and other atmospheric pollutants emissions from petroleum products. 7.5 Consultant Qualifications The identification of key stakeholders and determination of their importance and re- The consultant should demonstrate international spective roles. experience in the preparation and implemen- Review of the legislation and regulatory tation of programs for the elimination of lead measures and assessment of possible from gasoline and related areas of work. He changes to reduce the air pollution (envi- should be familiar with the petroleum supply ronmental regulations, vehicle importation procedures and markets of developing coun- rules, technical specifications of the pe- tries. He should know the typical consumer troleum products, etc). Review of the issues to be resolved when changes are carried Institutional capacity to enforce regulations. out in their fuel supply Study of the impacts related to the replace- ment of the currently available gasoline(s) 38 CHAPTER 7: ANNEX A 7.6 REPORTS Final Report: After the workshop the con- sultant will be able to insert improvements The preparation of the proposed national study and corrections and present its final report. will involve the following reports: Field visit: At an agreed time, the con- 7.7 Coordination and Local sultant will make a field visit to Tanzania. Counterparts During this visit, the consultant will obtain from different stakeholders up to date in- The Ministry responsible for the energy sector formation and will have the opportunity to and the supply of petroleum products will di- test any preliminary recommendation to be rectly supervise the project administration and included in the proposed national plan. technical work. In principle The Minister will Inception Report: Three weeks after the nominate a local coordinator who will assure field visit, the consultant should present an the coordination of the parties concerned in inception report with the methodology that each country (petroleum companies, consum- will be applied and a work program of the ers, local civil society members, other activities to be undertaken. This report will government agencies, etc). The resident mis- be commented by the local government sion of the World Bank will support the counterparts and the World Bank. coordinator task in the organization of the field Preliminary Report: To be presented af- visits and the preparation of the workshops for ter the field visit and not later than three the presentation of the consultant report. months after the field visit. The report will The consultant is encouraged to make use include the results and observations as well as much as possible of local experts for activi- as proposals and recommendations on the ties such as data collection and partial reports issues listed in the scope of work. This re- on consumer's interests. port will be first commented by the local In relation to contacts with the civil soci- counterparts and the World Bank and in ety, the consultant will liaise with the network an improved version will be presented in a of AFRICACLEAN and the Alliance for End- workshop to the different stakeholders. ing Childhood Lead Poisoning. Declaration of Dakar Regional Conference on the Phasing-out of Leaded Gasoline in Sub-Saharan Africa The participants from 25 sub-Saharan Afri- tional organizations attended the Regional can countries, representing governments, Conference on the Phasing out of Leaded industry and civil society, and from interna- Gasoline (Dakar, June 26­28, 2001). 39 CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES Declaration of Dakar (continued) Considering: intra-regional trade and traffic; and re- quest IPIECA, in collaboration with The recommendations and resolutions of national and international oil companies WHO, WB and UNEP stating the high and representatives from the automobile priority of lead phase out worldwide, industry, to assist in the formulation of a That surveys on blood lead levels in SSA complete set of fuels technical specifica- city populations show that in many cases tions. WHO guidelines are exceeded, bringing 5. Complete the sub-regional action plans in particular at risk children's develop- within the next 12 months framing the ment and intellectual performance. respective national clean air programs. That delays to start using unleaded gaso- 6. Request the oil supply chain operators line are precluding the introduction of to improve their production, storage and vehicles equipped with catalytic convert- distribution facilities in accordance with ers and thus the development of urban the target lead phase out frame. clean air policies in growing cities of SSA. 7. Request WHO, UNEP, WB and bilateral The support expressed by the oil indus- environmental agencies such as USEPA try and the NGO community in favor of to support SSA stakeholders in develop- a prompt government action phasing out ing the capacity to implement the lead leaded gasoline. phase out programs within air quality management. Agree to: 8. Develop an appropriate public informa- tion campaign with an active participation 1. Join efforts to accelerate the formulation of NGOs community. and implementation of programs to com- 9. Request the WB and other international pletely phase out leaded gasoline in all donor agencies to give a high priority to SSA countries as soon as possible, lat- lead phase out in economic policy dia- est by 2005. logues with the SSA governments and 2. Recommend governments to reduce the to continue supporting required techni- lead content in gasoline--currently 0.8 cal assistance programs and assisting in g/l in most SSA countries--to average the financing of viable investments. not more than 0.4 g/l by 2002 and to 10.Request OAU and other regional orga- an average not more than 0.2 g/l by nizations (ECOWAS, WAEMU, SADCC, 2003. CAEMU, etc.) to endorse the phasing out 3. Encourage countries with independent of leaded gasoline in their priority pro- import facilities to accelerate their respec- grams and to contribute to the tive lead phasing out programs. harmonization of standards and techni- 4. Harmonize the gasoline norms in all sub- cal specifications. regional markets, in order to foster 40 8 CHAPTER Annex B: Overview of Tanzanian Petroleum Market T he petroleum sector in Tanzania was Oilcom heavily regulated until 1997. The then Oryx sole operating refinery was the outdated Shell TIPER refinery which refined imported Total crude oil into end products. It could only process around 50% of national require- Many of the 55 companies are however ments and the balance was imported by the inactive. Tanzania Petroleum Development Corporation. One grade of gasoline (95 RON) is sup- In 1997, the government liberalized down- plied in the market. Current specifications are stream marketing to promote competition in are shown in Tables 8.1, 8.2, and 8.3 for leaded the petroleum sector. The government did this gasoline, unleaded gasoline, and gasoil, respec- prior to establishing any effective oversight or tively. In June 2003, BP introduced ULG regulatory function. The TIPER refinery was (95RON) to enhance its brand image as an en- closed at the end of 1999. vironmentally conscious company--it did this Within a short time, some 70 companies by introducing ULG side by side with the leaded registered as oil marketing companies. This grade of gasoline. This in effect created two figure included the major international oil mar- grades of gasoline for BP with increased costs keting companies and many local small trading due to operating two distribution systems. companies. Many had little experience and no Due to the deregulated nature of fuel prices, storage facilities of their own. Many also are prices were rising rapidly at the time of writing believed to have engaged in tax evasion i.e. in response to rising world oil prices. On aver- avoiding tax on imported oil products. age current prices with an exchange rate of At the present time, in early 2003, there 1US$ = approx 1050 shillings: are 55 registered oil marketing companies with the major ones being: Premium gasoline ­ 695 shillings/liters (US $ 0.66/ liter) BP Diesel ­ 660 shillings/liter (US$ 0.63/ Caltex liter) Engen Kerosene ­ 500 shillings/liter (US$ 0.48/ Gapco liter) Gapoil Kobil Table 8.4 describes the price structure of National Oil retail fuel prices for diesel and gasoline in Tan- 41 CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES Table 8.1 Specifications requirements for leaded gasoline, Tanzania Finalized Tanzania Standards TZS 579:2002; ICS.75.160.20 S/N Characteristic Requirements Test Method I Reid vapor pressure (RVP), Kpa, max. 0.63 ASTM D 323 II Specific Gravity 15°C 0.720­0.77 ASTM D 1298 III Odor Marketable -- IV Color Red Visual V Octane RON, min. 95 ASTM D 2699 VI Octane MON, min. 85 ASTM D 2700 VII Lead content (as Pb), g/L, max. 0.4 ASTM D 3341 VIII Density at 20°C, kg/L 0.705­0.750 ASTM D 4052 IX Existent gum content, mg/100 mL, max. 4 ASTM D 381 X Induction period, minutes, min. 240 TZS 643 XI Sulfur content, % mass, max. 0.2 ASTM D 1266 XII Mercaptan sulfur, % mass, max. 0.0015 ASTM D 3227 XIII Copper corrosion, 3 hrs at 50°C, max. 1 TZS 680 VIV Doctor Test Negative IP 30 XV Distillation Recovery, °C, max. (i) 10% 71 (ii) 50% 77­115 ASTM D 86 (iii) 90% 180 XVI Final Boiling Point (°C) max. 205 ASTM D 86 XVII Residue, % vol, max. 2.0 ASTM D 86 XVIII 20%­10% by volume evaporated, °C, min. 8.0 ASTM D 2699 XIX Benzene, % by mass, max. 5.0 ASTM D5580 XX Total aromatic compounds including Benzene, % by vol max. 48.0 ASTM D5580 Note: Volatility adjustment of leaded gasoline is given as follows: 20% minus 10% volume evaporated temperature °C Allowed maximum Reid vapor pressure, bar (psi) at 100°F 8 or more 0.63 (9.1) 7.0­7.5 0.59 (8.6) 6.0­6.5 0.55 (8.0) 5.0­5.55 0.52 (7.5) 42 CHAPTER 8: ANNEX B Table 8.2 Specifications requirements for unleaded gasoline, Tanzania Finalized Tanzania Standards TZS 672:2001; ICS.75.160.20 Requirements S/N Characteristic Min Max Test Method 1 Research Octane Number (RON) 95 -- ASTM 2699 2 Motor Octane Number (MON) 85 -- ISO5163; ASTM 2700 3 Lead content g/L max. -- 0.013 ASTMD 3348 4 Benzene content %v/v -- 5.0 EN 238: 1998 5 Density at 20°C kg/m3 725 780 TZS679: 2001 6 Distillation Point a) Temperature °C for 10% v/v evaporated -- 71 ASTM D 86 50% v/v evaporated at 77 115 90% v/v evaporated at -- 180 b) final boiling point °C -- 205 c) residual % v/v -- 2.0 7 Oxidation Stability 360 -- TZS643: 2001 8 Copper strip corrosion (3hours at 50°C) Class 1 1-strip TZS680:2001/ISO 2160:1998, ASTM 130 9 Existence gum content solvent washed mg/100ml -- 4 ASTM 381 10 Sulfur content, % m/m -- 0.05 ISO 8754, ASTM D 1266 visual 11 Color As per Govt requirement zania. Except for prescribed taxes, prices rise underreported with tax being avoided on this or fall in response to global prices. unreported fuel. Tanzania's Bureau of Standards while tech- The same report found that there were some nically responsible for the standards has limited issues with mixing of kerosene and gasoline and powers and capacity (e.g. equipment) to carry with smuggling from Kenya along the border out in-country checks of fuel quality. The country regions. The latter problem was regarded as relies on a system of pre-shipment certifica- relatively minor as the Tanzania Revenue Au- tion which by and large is satisfactory but is thority is a competent enforcer. There has always not able to guarantee the quality of fuel sold to been some leakage across the border between consumers. However, while fuel quality of im- Kenya and neighboring parts of Tanzania. As ported fuel may generally be satisfactory, a fuel prices in Kenya are higher (even in Nairobi recent confidential study11 for the Tanzanian they are US$0.83 compared to US$ 0.66 in Petroleum Marketing Association found that there was no effective monitoring of imported fuel volume entering the country with a result 11 A Review of the Petroleum Industry in Tanzania that official fuel sales may be up to 20% 2002 ­ Problems and Perceptions". 43 CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES Table 8.3 Specifications requirements for Automotive Gasoil (Diesel) Finalized Tanzania Standards TZS 674:2001 S/N Characteristic Requirements Test Method 1. Density, 15°C 0.82­0.87 ASTM D1298 2. Appearance Clear Visual 3. Color, max. ASTM 3.5 ASTM D1500 4. Cetane Number, min. 51 ASTM D613 5. Cetane index. calc. Min. 48 ASTM D976 6. Viscosity, at 40°C, cSt. 1.6­4.5 ASTM D445 7. Cloud point, C, max. ° 4.5 ASTM D2500 8. Sulfur, % by mass, max. 0.5 ASTM D2622 9. Copper corrosion 3 hrs at 100°C, max. (strip) or 50°C 1 ASTM D130 10. Carbon residue, 10% bottoms, % by mass max. 0.15 ASTM D189 11. Water, % vol. max. 0.05 ASTM D95 12. Sediment, % vol. max. 0.01 ASTM D473 13. Ash, % by mass, max. 0.01 ASTM D482 14. Flash Point PMCC, C, min. ° 65.5 ASTM 93 15. Distillation Recovery , % by volume, min. 1.00 ASTM 86 16. Distillation recovery, % by volume, At 357°C 90 ASTM D8 17. Total volume recover % by volume 240­310°C 90 18. Oxidation stability mg/100 ml. max. 2.0 ASTM D2274 Dar Es Salaam) it would be expected that legal In 2002, fuel sales (retail and other) were importation of Kenyan fuel would not be at- as described in Table 8.5. Diesel fuel dominates tractive but could be done if tax-avoided Kenyan reflecting the high proportion of commercial fuel could be sourced. However, smuggling from vehicles in the fleet (or alternatively, the rela- Tanzania to Kenya may occur. Fuel prices in tively few cars). Arusha and other towns near the Kenyan bor- Fuel imports enter the country through Dar der are actually lower than in Dar Es Salaam Es Salaam and are the shipped by truck up- suggesting that maybe there is smuggling across country depots. There are 450 gasoline stations the border and tax avoidance. However, the (for retail sales) of which about half are in Dar problem is understood to be localized. Es Salaam. 44 CHAPTER 8: ANNEX B Table 8.4 Tanzanian Specified Fuel Taxes (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Retail Price Landed Excise Fuel VAT (on Total (Dar Es Product fuel cost Duty Levy 1+2+3) Tax Salaam) Diesel 100 42.3% 30% 20% 106.4% 206.4% Gasoline 100 47.1% 29.0% 20% 111.3% 211.1% Kerosene 100 42.5% 0% 20% 71.0% 171.0% Source: Finance Act As shown in Table 8.1, the present maxi- diesel fuel with a sulfur content lower than mum lead content is 0.4g/liter which is quite 1,000ppm. high. With a single grade of gasoline (now The Tanzania Bureau of Standards (TBS) 95RON) it is a straightforward matter to con- has promulgated new standards for leaded vert to ULG. After stopping leaded gasoline gasoline, unleaded gasoline, diesel and other imports, after a suitable transition period in fuels. These standards are prepared on a re- which all significant traces of lead are removed, gional basis (i.e. East Africa consisting of a switch to ULG can immediately take place Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda). The gasoline with no infrastructure costs or transition issues. and unleaded gasoline standards are considered What is the length of a suitable transition pe- satisfactory until the next round of regional riod? This would be best determined by industry revisions. In respect of diesel fuel standards but is believed to require three rotations of and their sulfur content, Kenya's Mombasa re- gasoline in which all gasoline is flushed out and finery which is small and requires upgrading replaced each time by a new ULG load. In re- with desulphurization units is a constraint. The mote, up country locations one rotation would regional standards for diesel fuel specify a maxi- take around one or more months. Hence, a mum sulfur content of 5,000ppm (i.e. 0.5% transition period of around six months would by mass) but the Mombasa refinery now seem appropriate. claims that it cannot economically produce Table 8.5 Fuel Sales by Type 1998 to 2002, Tanzania (units: liters) Fuel Type 1998 2000 2001 2002 Gasoline 93RON (MSP) 108,606,000 164,160,924 194,307,822 164,883,000 Diesel (Gas Oil) 413,736,000 477,498,756 500,373,209 539,070,900 LPG na 3,275,127 3,639,680 4,903,000 Source: Tanzania Association of Oil Marketing Companies 45 CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES Uncertainty about the proposed upgrade ability of this pipeline prior to the refinery be- of the Mombasa refinery to produce ULG in ing upgraded is unlikely to increase the Kenya could have a potential impact on Tan- prevalence of smuggling of gasoline product zania. The existing pipeline connects Mombasa into Tanzania as described above and hence and Kusumu via Nairobi12 . While this pipeline the integrity of the strategy to phase-out leaded is critical for the efficient supply of gasoline to gasoline is unlikely to be undermined by the Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, east part of Congo presence of the pipeline. and to a less extent north of Tanzania, the avail- 12Up to Nairobi this pipeline is 14-inches in diam- petroleum barge loading facilities in Kisumu and eter; there onwards it is 8-inches in diameter. The a few petroleum barges to transport the products 14-inch section can transport about 4.0 million over Lake Victoria to Uganda to northwest Tan- tons per year, and the 8-inch section, about 1.0 zania. With this additional transportation, about million tons per year. At the moment, transpor- 350,000 tons per year could be delivered to tation to Nairobi is limited to about 2.4 million Uganda and 150,000 tons per year could be de- tons per year. Consumption in the Kisumu area livered to Northwest Tanzania at the least cost. in Kenya is only about 300,000 tons per year. Source: World Bank (2003) Sub-Saharan Petro- To increase the cost effectiveness of the pipeline, leum Products Transportation Corridor, another project should be developed to provide Analysis and Case Studies. Draft Report. 46 9 CHAPTER Annex C - Draft mandate for a multi- sectoral working group to oversee action plan implementation T he global phase-out of lead from gaso- ply of their markets, there is an opportunity to line has proceeded dramatically in the make a major environmental step forward last five years. Countries in North through early leaded gasoline phase-out. America, Europe, Japan and Asia have The phase-out of leaded gasoline is but a phased-out leaded gasoline; about 85% first step in developing a more comprehensive of total gasoline consumption is now approach to air quality management that would lead-free. However there a number of coun- include actions on: tries that still use lead additives to boost octane levels in gasoline. Almost all of these countries Improving fuel quality and developing new are in Africa and the Middle East. The World fuel specifications; Health Organization recommends that leaded Upgradingthequalityofvehicleimportsand gasoline be phased-out worldwide. emission controls; An agreement was reached in June 2001 Establishing baseline inventories of key at the Dakar Conference, Senegal, to launch pollutants and health effects; and national programs to phase-out leaded gaso- Developing an appropriate public informa- line by 2005 in the countries of sub-Saharan tion or awareness campaign. Africa (SSA). Follow up conferences have since been held Government agencies will retain the key in Abuja, Nigeria in November 2001; Dakar, responsibilities for phasing-out leaded gasoline Senegal in March 2002; Cotonou, Benin in and its replacement with unleaded gasoline, as April 2002; and Nairobi, Kenya in July 2002. well as follow on actions aimed at securing a All four conferences supported the Dakar dec- more comprehensive approach to air quality laration. Many countries have committed to the management. 2005 phase-out date and Mauritius has gone a As the issues involved in leaded gasoline step further by aiming for phase-out by August phase-out and air quality improvement are com- 2002 plex and involve many groups in society and Lead is a poison with significant negative consequently it has been recommended that public health impacts. As SSH and other oil once the government commits to phase-out importing countries are confronted with fewer leaded gasoline and follow on actions to im- difficulties to phase out lead from gasoline than prove air quality, a multi-sectoral stakeholder those operating national refineries for the sup- group consisting of senior members of govern- 47 CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES ment agencies, the oil industry, and civil soci- government, media) so that a consistent ety including Non-Government Organizations message is transmitted to the public during (NGOs) and consumer groups should be estab- the phase-out of leaded gasoline and its lished. replacement with unleaded gasoline as well The objectives (i.e. mandate) for this multi- as follow on actions aimed at securing a sectoral stakeholder group that should be more comprehensive approach to air qual- established for a period of at least three years ity management; shall be to: Coordinate with sub-regional public aware- ness campaigns to ensure that messages Steer the overall air quality management are consistent and activities are compatible activities in the medium to the long term; and efficient; and Provide an independent source of advice, comment and feedback for government The multi-sectoral stakeholder group should agencies responsible for key implementa- aim to establish a small full time secretariat tion actions for phasing-out leaded gasoline within six months of being established to carry and its replacement with unleaded gasoline out the needed work--the secretariat should as well as follow on actions aimed at secur- aim to supplement it resources as required with ing a more comprehensive approach to air the assistance of members of the stakeholder quality management; group. Take responsibility for developing the pub- The initial steps to establish the multi- lic awareness campaign and associated sectoral stakeholder group should be established expenditure decisions of relevant compo- immediately the Government commits to phase- nents with the close cooperation of out leaded gasoline. The initiating steps should government agencies and other groups; be taken jointly by the Tanzanian National En- Obtain sources of funds for implementa- vironmental Management Council; Division of tion of relevant public awareness campaign Environment, Vice President's Office; Minis- expenditures from relevant stakeholders, try of Health; and Ministry of Energy and government and international funding agen- Minerals. cies; Coordinate the relevant communication campaigns of other groups (e.g. industry, 48 10 CHAPTER Annex D- Draft Outline Terms of Reference for follow on air quality activities 10.1 Background those operating national refineries for the sup- ply of their markets, there is an opportunity to The global phase-out of lead from gasoline has make a major environmental step forward proceeded dramatically in the last five years. through early leaded gasoline phase-out. Countries in North America, Europe, Japan The phase-out of leaded gasoline is but a and Asia have phased-out leaded gasoline; about first step in developing a more comprehensive 85% of total gasoline consumption is now lead- approach to air quality management that would free. However there a number of countries that include actions on: still use lead additives to boost octane levels in gasoline. Almost all of these countries are in Improving fuel quality and developing new Africa and the Middle East. The World Health fuel specifications; Organization recommends that leaded gasoline Upgradingthequalityofvehicleimportsand be phased-out worldwide. emission controls; An agreement was reached in June 2001 Establishing baseline inventories of key at the Dakar Conference, Senegal, to launch pollutants and health effects; and national programs to phase-out leaded gaso- Developing an appropriate public informa- line by 2005 in the countries of sub-Saharan tion or awareness campaign. Africa (SSA). Follow up conferences have since been held Government agencies will retain the key in Abuja, Nigeria in November 2001; Dakar, responsibilities for phasing-out leaded gasoline Senegal in March 2002; Cotonou, Benin in and its replacement with unleaded gasoline, as April 2002; and in Nairobi, Kenya in July 2002. well as follow on actions aimed at securing a All four conferences supported the Dakar dec- more comprehensive approach to air quality laration. Many countries have committed to the management. 2005 phase-out date and Mauritius has gone a As the issues involved in leaded gasoline step further by aiming for phase-out by August phase-out and air quality improvement are 2002 complex and involve many groups in society Lead is a poison with significant negative and consequently it has been recommended that public health impacts. As SSH and other oil once the government commits to phase-out importing countries are confronted with fewer leaded gasoline and follow on actions to im- difficulties to phase out lead from gasoline than prove air quality, a multi-sectoral stakeholder 49 CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES group consisting of senior members of govern- 10.3 Key tasks to satisfy ment agencies, the oil industry, and civil society each objective including Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) and consumer groups should be estab- 10.3.1 Task 1 ­ Establish an lished. appropriate emissions inventory Establish Inventory ­ The purpose of this 10.2 Objectives task is to support the Tanzanian National En- vironmental Management Council/ Division of The objectives of these outline draft Terms of Environment, Vice President's Office and de- Reference (ToR) cover needed research and velop an initial and approximate emissions technical assistance to provide a sound infor- inventory from mobile and stationery sources mation base to monitor the benefits of to support on-going air quality management phasing-out leaded gasoline and for support- activities. Initial work should be carried out to ing the design of subsequent more confirm the scope of the pollutants to be moni- comprehensive activities to improve air quality tored that have been initially identified as: generally. The objectives of the ToR are to: PM2.5 Establish an appropriate emissions inven- CO tory from mobile and other sources; HC and Create a suitable base-line to measure the NOX benefits of the lead phase-out decision through statistically valid measurements of Both ambient and roadside measurements blood level lead in currently vulnerable should be made as necessary to establish an groups; inventory of sufficient accuracy to identify the: Undertake a public perception survey and develop a database on available informa- Relativecontributionstoeachpollutantfrom tion/research and evaluate public's general mobile and other sources; and level of awareness of lead effects and air Ambient and roadside measurements over pollution including develop monitoring in- various periods of time to describe the ex- dicators and survey tools; and tent to which pollutants exceed established Prepare an updated and prioritized action international standards. plan for improving air quality. Propose training ­ Equipment used during While the work required to satisfy each of the project shall be transferred to the Tanza- the above objectives is discrete and indepen- nian National Environmental Management dent to a large extent it shall be carried out Council. They shall receive initial training to- under a single contract with appropriate ex- wards establishing a functioning, embryonic perts being brought to bear on each separate monitoring system. The consultant should pro- aspect of the work. pose and carry out a suitable initial training The following sections describe the key tasks activity recognizing that in the medium term a required to be undertaken to satisfy each of sub-regional approach to training could be pro- the above objectives. vided by the World Bank and/or the United 50 CHAPTER 10: ANNEX D Nations Environment Program (UNEP) through at the disposal of the multi-sectoral stakeholder a program similar to their previous Global En- group to conduct suitable public perception vironment Monitoring Systems (GEMS)/Air. surveys. 10.3.2 Task 2 ­ Create a suitable 10.3.4 Task 4 ­ Prepare updated base-line to measure the benefits of air quality action plan the lead phase-out decision Based on the above tasks the consultant shall The consultant shall propose and implement prepare an updated, integrated air quality ac- with advice of the Tanzanian Ministry of Health tion plan that addresses in a prioritized manner and the multi-sectoral stakeholder group a se- the following components: ries of statistically valid measurements of blood level lead in currently vulnerable groups (e.g. Priority pollutants from mobile sources; and traffic policemen, school children etc) and a Priority pollutants from stationary sources. suitable control group in Addis Ababa. The aim The updated action plan will therefore ad- is to establish a suitable base-line to monitor dress further priority actions on: blood lead levels over time. Improved fuel quality and harmonized, sub- 10.3.3 Task 3 ­ Undertake initial regional fuel quality specifications in the public perception surveys context of desirable longer term air quality improvement goals; The purpose of the public perception surveys Vehicle emission standards for new and in- is to develop a database on available informa- use vehicles; tion/research and evaluate the public's general Emissions reduction strategies from station- level of awareness of lead effects and air pollu- ary sources; tion including develop monitoring indicators and Strategies for improving indoor air quality; survey tools. Soundly based urban and transport plan- The consultant shall reserve US$ 10,000 ning and management; and of the total budget for this technical assistance Capacity building. 51 11 CHAPTER Annex E- Motor Vehicle Fleet Data in Tanzania and Related Information The following fleet statistics were obtained from over-represent the in-use fleet by at least 20 to the Motor Vehicle Central Registry (of the Tan- 30%. They also overemphasize the number of zanian Revenue Department) at Dar Es Salaam. vehicles present and used in Dar Es Salaam in The report is for the period between 1969 to view of its important role as the principal cen- December 2002. They are cumulative vehicle ter of commerce in Tanzania. registrations for this period and are believed to Table 11.1 Vehicle Fleet Tanzania, 2002 Registration Station No of Motor Vehicles Arusha 25,188 Bukoba 9,998 Dodoma 4,973 Iringa 8,192 Mbeya 7,450 Kilimanjaro 9,789 Morogoro 8,513 Rukwa 1,760 Mwanza City 18,545 Mtwara 4,170 Shinyanga 2,763 Tabora 5,212 Tanga 34,776 Kigoma 2,867 Dar es Salaam City 318,921 53 CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES Table 11.1 (continued) Registration Station No of Motor Vehicles Government owned Parastatal Organization vehicles 3,770 Local Government vehicles 34,549 Embassies/Foreign Embassy vehicles 2,140 Total Registered Vehicles 503,576 Est. In-use vehicles (assuming 70% of registered operational) 350,000 vehicles Notes: 1. These numbers do not include central registered cars. However, some Government vehicles were registered using ordinary registration system until as recent as December 2002. 2. It is difficult to sort out diesel and petrol vehicles because the statistics do not indicate fuel type. 3. The numbers include motorcade and tractors 4. It has been difficult to obtain the data or information because for a long time the government was only concerned with the tax revenue from importation and registration of vehicles. As of now the Government is re-registering all motor vehicles in Tanza- nia to create a central registry of international standards--this is expected to be ready at the end of October 2003. Table 11.2 Taxes pertain to registration Upon registration, any motor vehicle Upon transfer, any motor vehicle is charged: is charged: Car Tshs 95,000 Car Tshs 55,000 Motorcycle Tshs 32,000 Motorcycle Tshs 25,000 Registration and Transfer taxes are charged on flat rate basis whatever the age of the motor vehicle Table 11.3 Tax structure for Vehicles in Tanzania Type Import Duty Value Added Tax Excise Duty Saloon cars less than 3,000cc 25% 20% -- Saloon cars more than 3,000cc 25% 20% 10% Pick ups and lorries 10% 20% -- Mini-buses seating less than 20 persons 10% 20% -- Mini-buses seating less than 10 persons 25% 20% -- 54 12 CHAPTER List of Workshop Participants Organization Name Contact Address Emails Ministry of Energy & Minerals Mr. Bashir J. Mrindoko P.O. Box 2000 mrindoko@mem.go.tz Commissioner for Energy Dar es Salaam Mr. Prosper Victus Tel: 2139455 pvictus@yahoo.com Asst. Comm. for Energy Cell: 0744 844584 (Viktus) Mr. L. Edward O741 213145 (Julius) Mr. Julius Gashaza gasaza@hotmail.com Executive Engineer gashaza1963@yahoo.com Vice President' Office Ms. A. Madete (assistant P.O. Box 5380 sotchair@africaonline.co.tz Director of Environment) Dar es Salaam angelmadete@hotmail.com Mr. W.M.B. Jirabi (Snr. Tel: 255 22 2113983 / Environmental Officer) 2118416 Ministry of Justice & Ms. Barke Sehel P.O. Box 9050 bsehel@hotmail.com Constitution Affairs State Attorney Dar es Salaam Tel: 255 22 2118179-82 Ministry of Industries & Trade Mr. Patrick B. Marwa P.O. Box 9503 patmarwa@yahoo.com Sr. Industrial Engineer Dar es Salaam Tel: 2180075 Cell: 0744 465831 Ministry of Works Ms. Mary L. Assey P.O. Box 9423 maryassey@yahoo.com Head of Environmental Unit Dar es Salaam jnduff@fastmail.ca Mr. Jean Noel Duff Tel: 255 22 2110539 Environmental Management Advisor Ministry of Health Mr. Raphael M. Kukula P.O. Box 9083 Head of Occupational Dar es Salaam Health Services Tel : 2120261/7 Cell : 0744 496260 55 CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES Organization Name Contact Address Emails Tanzania Association of Oil Mr. Thomas S.M. Masili P.O. Box 9540 thomas.masili@aggeltd.com Marketing Companies Executive Secretary Dar es Salaam Cell: 0744 782267 MOIL (Mansoor Industries Mr. ALKarim Hirani P.O. Box 2860 Mwanza moil@cats-net.com Limited) Chief Operating Officer Cell: 0744 601155 / Mr. E. Sangawe 0748 601155 (Alkarim) Ag. Branch Manager P.O. Box 78 Dar es Salaam Tel: 255 22 2124385 / 2137217 Cell: 0744 484460 (Sangawe) BP (Tanzania) Limited Mr. Kelvin Mwamukonda P.O. Box 9043 Kelvin_mwamukonda@tz. Retail Sales Manager Dar es Salaam bp.com Tel: 255 ­ 22 ­ 2111269 GAPCO / GAPOIL Mr. Charles J. Ponera P.O. Box 9104 cjponera@gapcogroup.com General Manager Dar es Salaam cjponera@gapcoonline.com Tel: 255 22 2115767 TOTAL (Tanzania) Limited Mr. Evarist Stanslaus P.O. Box 1503 Evarist.stanslaus@total.co.tz Supply Controller Tanzania Dar es salaam Tel: 255 22 2111672 Cell: 0741 236943 FREDKA Mr. Wilfred Kipondya Managing Director University of Dar es Salaam Prof. Jamidu Katima P.O. Box 35131 atemu@cpe.udsm.ac.tz Dr. A.K. Temu Dar es Salaam jkatima@cpe.udsm.ac.tz Chemical Engineer/ Tel: 2410368 / 2410754 Senior Lecturer Cell: 0744 265864 (Katima) Cell: 0744 365791(Temu) Petroproducts Testing & Mr. John N.K. Iseme P.O. Box 24073 Chemical Laboratory Services Managing Director Dar es Salaam Mr. Joseph Liuki Cell : 0741 225812 / Director 0748 610454 (Mr. Iseme) 56 CHAPTER 12: LIST OF WORKSHOP PARTICIPANTS Organization Name Contact Address Emails TIRDO Dr. ASifa P. Nanyaro P.O. Box 23235 luganowilson@hotmail.com Director General Dar es Salaam tirdo@intafrica.com Mr. Lugano Wilson Tel: 2668822 / 2666034 Senior Research Engineer Cell: 0741 246434 Tanzania Bureau of Standards Mrs. Beatrice F. Kusindah P.O. Box 9524 imwabuka@yahoo.com Principal STDS Officer Dar es Salaam tbsinfo@uccmail.co.tz Mr. Imani Mwabuka Cell: 0744 267042(Beatrice) Standards Officer 0744 636492 (mwabuka) Mr. L. S. Kihabo Diamond Motors Mr. Rupin Rajani Managing Director Toyota (Tanzania) Limited Mr. J.M. Simkondo P.O. Box 9060 generalmgr@toyotatz.com General Manager Dar es Salaam Mr. Uwe Lehmgrubler Tel: 2866353-8 National Service Manager Cell: 0748 782967 Tanzania Automotive Mr. George Mafuti Private Bag tatc@raha.com Technology Centre (Nyumbu) Quality Assurance Manager Nyumbu, Kibaha Cell: 0744 272013 National Institute of Transport Mr. Kaimukilwa P.O. Box 705 Senior Tutor Dar es Salaam Cell: 0744 488780 Tanzania Revenue Authority Mr. Philemon L. Kweka P.O. Box 9053 plkweka@yahoo.com Regional Revenue Officer Dar es Salaam Tel : 2111180 Tanzania Petroleum Mr. Mohammed R. Ngude P.O. Box 2774 Development Corporation Chief Research Officer Dar es Salaam Tel: 255 22 2129661 National Environmental Mr. Samuel Msangi P.O. Box 63154 nemctz@yahoo.com Management Council Actng Director of Dar es Salaam ssmsangi@yahoo.com Environmental compliance Tel: 255 22 2134603 & enforcement Directorate Cell: 0744 463 973 57 CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES Organization Name Contact Address Emails Dar es Salaam Institute of Mr. M.Y. Kiluswa P.O. Box 2958 kiluswa@hotmail.com Technology Lecturer Dar es Salaam Cell: 0744 295743 Tanzania Zambia Pipeline Mr. G. Sambi P.O. Box 2157 gsambi@hotmail.com Company Limited Operations Manager Dar es Salaam Cell: 0744 443507 Embassy of Burundi Hon. Ferdinand Ngendavanka P.O. Box 2752 bankaca@yahoo.com The Ambassador Dar es Salaam Tel: 2126827 Cell: 0744 611016 Lawyer's Environmental Mr. Theodul Macha P.O. Box 70339 machatheo@hotmail.com Action Team (LEAT) Consultant Dar es Salaam leat@twiga.com Cell: 0744 260500 Tanzania Drivers Association Mr. Aristides Bishota P.O. Box 16386 madereva@yahoo.com Secretary General Dar es Salaam Mr. Jerome Ringo Cell: 0741 244 754 (Bishota) Chairman of Trustees 0744 360 295 (Ringo) National Oil (Tanzania) Limited Mr. Chandrakant M. Jani P.O. Box 70048 natoil@raha.com General Manager, Operations Dar es Salaam Tel: 2851249/67 Ministry of Finance Mr. Simon Kiraiya P.O. Box 9111 Economist Dar es Salaam Tel: 2110331 Cell: 0741 317471 World Bank Mangesh Hoskote P.O. Box 2054 mhoskote@worldbank.org Sr. Power Sector Specialist Dar es Salaam Tel: 255 22 2114575/7 AFRICACLEAN Network Mr. Amadou Diouf P.O. Box 5245 amdiouf@refer.sn President Dakar Faan, Senegal afclean@refer.sn Tel: 221- 644 9823 USEPA Sylvia I. Correa USA Correa.sylvia@epa.gov Office Director Tel: 202 564 6443 58 CHAPTER 12: LIST OF WORKSHOP PARTICIPANTS Organization Name Contact Address Emails World Bank Mr. Eleodoro Mayorga-Alba USA emayorgaalba@ Economist Tel: 202-473 4295 worldbank.org UNEP / Partnership for Ms. Wendy Jackson P.O. Box 30552 Wendy.jackson@unep.org Clean Fuels & Vehicles Associate Programme Officer Nairobi, Kenya Tel: 254 2 624621 World Bank ­ Consultant Mr. Phil Sayeg P.O. Box 3224, Australia p.sayeg@uq.net.au Consultant for World Bank Tel: 617-38445266 TEMA OIL REFINERY (TOR) LTD Mr. Quartey, E. K. P.O. Box 599 equartey@tor.com.gh Business Dev. Manager Tema, Ghana Tel: 00 233 24 321 783 AFRICACLEAN Network Mrs. Lynda Joana Osafo P.O. Box KB 139 lyndaosafo@yahoo.com Executive Member Accra, Ghana jecoclub@yahoo.com Tel: 23321-760220 59 13 CHAPTER Report References Chevron (1990) Use of Unleaded Gasoline in Africa, II. Kwazulu/Natal, South Africa in Cars Designed for Leaded Gasoline, Sci. 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Unleaded Gasoline, Questions and An- Nriagu J., Oleru NT, Cudjoe C, Chine A (1997a) swers. ­ Lead Poisoning of Children in Africa, Sridhar MKC (2001), Environmental Lead III. Kaduna, Nigeria. Sci. Total Environ; 197 Levels in African Cities. (1­3), 13­9. US EPA (1985), Costs and Benefits of Re- Nriagu J, Jinabhai CC, Naidoo R, Coutsoudis ducing Lead in Gasoline: Final Regulatory A (1997b) ­ Lead Poisoning of Children Impact Analysis. EPA-230-05-85-006. Of- 61 CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES fice of Policy Analysis, USA Environmen- World Resources Institute (2002), Research tal Protection Agency, Washington DC. Center; Maps and Indicators: Health. Ex- Weaver, C (1996), Personal Communication. posure to air polluted with lead from (Specialist in Fuels, Emissions and Engine gasoline in developing countries, http:// Technology). www.wri.org/wri/ehi/leaddev.html (ac- World Bank (2003) Sub-Saharan Petroleum cessed 10 January 2003). Products Transportation Corridor, Analy- sis and Case Studies. Draft Report. 62 14 CHAPTER List of Technical Paper Series of Joint UNDP/World Bank ENERGY SECTOR MANAGEMENT ASSISTANCE PROGRAMME (ESMAP) Region/ Activity/Report Title Date Number Country SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA (AFR) Ethiopia Phase-Out of Leaded Gasoline in Oil Importing Countries of sub-Saharan Africa: The Case of Ethiopia ­ Action Plan 12/03 038/03 Sub-Saharan Petroleum Products Transportation Corridor: Analysis and Case Studies 03/03 033/03 Phase-Out of Leaded Gasoline in sub-Saharan Africa 04/02 028/02 Energy and Poverty: How can Modern Energy Services Contribute to Poverty Reduction 03/03 032/03 Kenya Field Performance Evaluation of Amorphous Silicon (a-Si) Photovoltaic Systems in Kenya: Methods and Measurement in Support of a Sustainable Commercial Solar Energy Industry 08/00 005/00 The Kenya Portable Battery Pack Experience: Test Marketing an Alternative for Low-Income Rural Household Electrification 12/01 005/01 Nigeria Phase-Out of Leaded Gasoline in Nigeria 11/02 029/02 Senegal Regional Conference on the Phase-Out of Leaded Gasoline in sub-Saharan Africa 03/02 022/02 Swaziland Solar Electrification Program 2001ĉ2010: Phase 1: 2001ĉ2002 (Solar Energy in the Pilot Area) 12/01 019/01 Tanzania Mini Hydropower Development Case Studies on the Malagarasi, Muhuwesi, and Kikuletwa Rivers Volumes I, II, and III 04/02 024/02 Phase-Out of Leaded Gasoline in Oil Importing Countries of sub-Saharan Africa: The Case of Tanzania - Action Plan. 12/03 039/03 Uganda Report on the Uganda Power Sector Reform and Regulation Strategy Workshop 08/00 004/00 WEST AFRICA (AFR) LPG Market Development 12/01 017/01 63 CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES Region/ Activity/Report Title Date Number Country EAST ASIA AND PACIFIC (EAP) Cambodia Efficiency Improvement for Commercialization of the Power Sector 10/02 031/02 China Assessing Markets for Renewable Energy in Rural Areas of Northwestern China 08/00 003/00 Technology Assessment of Clean Coal Technologies for China Volume I--Electric Power Production 05/01 011/01 Technology Assessment of Clean Coal Technologies for China Volume II--Environmental and Energy Efficiency Improvements for Non-power Uses of Coal 05/01 011/01 Technology Assessment of Clean Coal Technologies for China Volume III--Environmental Compliance in the Energy Sector: Methodological Approach and Least-Cost Strategies 12/01 011/01 Thailand DSM in Thailand: A Case Study 10/00 008/00 Development of a Regional Power Market in the Greater Mekong Sub-Region (GMS) 12/01 015/01 Vietnam Options for Renewable Energy in Vietnam 07/00 001/00 Renewable Energy Action Plan 03/02 021/02 SOUTH ASIA (SAS) Bangladesh Workshop on Bangladesh Power Sector Reform 12/01 018/01 EUROPE AND CENTRAL ASIA (ECA) Russia Russia Pipeline Oil Spill Study 03/03 034/03 LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN (LAC) Regional Electricity Markets Interconnections -- Phase I: Identification of Issues for the Development of Regional Power Markets in South America 12/01 016/01 Regional Electricity Markets Interconnections -- Phase II: Proposals to Facilitate Increased Energy Exchanges in South America 04/02 016/01 Population, Energy and Environment Program (PEA), Comparative Analysis on the Distribution of Oil Rents (English and Spanish) 02/02 020/02 Estudio Comparativo sobre la Distribución de la Renta Petrolera Estudio de Casos: Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador y Perú 03/02 023/02 Latin American and Caribbean Refinery Sector Development Report ­ Volumes I and II 08/02 026/02 The Population, Energy and Environmental Program (EAP) (English and Spanish) 08/02 027/02 Ecuador Programa de Entrenamiento a Representantes de Nacionalidades Amazónicas en Temas Hidrocarburíferos 08/02 025/02 64 CHAPTER 14: LIST OF ESMAP TECHNICAL PAPER SERIES Region/ Activity/Report Title Date Number Country Guatemala Household Fuel Use and Fuel Switching 06/03 036/03 Nicaragua Memoria Taller de Electrificación Rural 08/02 030/02 GLOBAL Impact of Power Sector Reform on the Poor: A Review of Issues and the Literature 07/00 002/00 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power in Developing Countries 08/00 006/00 Mini-Grid Design Manual 09/00 007/00 Photovoltaic Applications in Rural Areas of the Developing World 11/00 009/00 Subsidies and Sustainable Rural Energy Services: Can we Create Incentives Without Distorting Markets? 12/00 010/00 Sustainable Woodfuel Supplies from the Dry Tropical Woodlands 06/01 013/01 Key Factors for Private Sector Investment in Power Distribution 08/01 014/01 Cross-Border Oil and Gas Pipelines: Problems and Prospects 06/03 035/03 Monitoring and Evaluation in Rural Electrification Projects: A Demand-Oriented Approach 07/03 037/03 65 Previous Working Papers Available from the World Bank AFRICA REGION THE WORLD BANK on The Clean Air Initiative in Sub-Saharan African Cities Working Paper No. 1: Clean Air Initiative in Sub-Saharan African Cities ­ Dakar Semi- nar, December 17 & 18, 1998 - Urban Transport and Air Quality in Dakar ­ Proceedings (SSATP and Urban Mobility, February 1999). Working Paper No. 2: Air Quality Studies in Urban Context ­ Dakar and Ouagadougou Cases ­ Final Reports (SSATP and Urban Mobility, September 1999). Working Paper No. 3: Clean Air Initiative in Sub-Saharan African Cities ­ Work in Progress (January 2000). Working Paper No. 4: Air Quality Study in Urban Context - Cotonou Case ­ Synthesis (October 2000). Working Paper No. 5: Regional Conference on the Phase-Out of Leaded Gasoline in Sub-Saharan Africa ­ Dakar, Senegal, June 26­28, 2001 ­ Proceedings (December 2001). Working Paper No. 6: National Conference on the Phase-Out of Leaded Gasoline in Nigeria ­ Abuja, Nigeria, November 15­16, 2001 ­ Proceedings (March 2002). Working Paper No. 7: Sub-Regional Conference on the Phase-Out of Leaded Gasoline in Nigeria and Neighboring Countries ­ Cotonou, Benin, April 11­12, 2002 ­ Proceed- ings (June 2002). Working Paper No. 8: Sub-Regional Conference on the Phase-Out of Leaded Gasoline in West Africa ­ Dakar, Senegal, March 26­27, 2002 ­ Proceedings (July 2002). Working Paper No. 9: Sub-Regional Conference on the Phase-Out of Leaded Gasoline in East Africa ­ Nairobi, Kenya, June 5­7, 2002 ­ Proceedings (January 2003). Working Paper No. 10: 1998-2002 Progress Report of the World Bank Clean Air Initiative in Sub-Saharan African Cities (January 2003). Working Paper No. 11: Rapport d'avancement 1998­2002 de l'initiative sur la qualité de l'air dans les villes d'Afrique sub-saharienne de la Banque mondiale (Janvier 2003). Working Paper No. 12: Second Steering Committee : The Road Ahead ­ Phase II : 2003­2006 (May 2003). Working Paper No. 13: Phase-Out of Leaded Gasoline in Oil Importing Countries of Sub-Saharan Africa ­ The Case of Ethiopia, Action Plan (ESMAP, December 2003).