AGRICULTURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES DEPARTMENT 84948 N O T E S ISSUE 7 FEBRUARY 2014 Participation of Women in the Second Participatory Rural Investment (PDCR) — Case Study Bolivia BY DAVID TUCHSCHNEIDER AND VICTORIA STANLEY This case study1 describes the integration of gender in the Second Participatory Rural Investment (PDCR), as described in the Final Evaluation Report:2 Evaluación Final del PDCR and the Project Appraisal Document (PAD).3 This evaluation, done in 2012 and 2013, consisted in measuring the quantitative and qualitative achieve- ments of the PDCR (Projecto de Desarrollo Concur- rente Regional in Spanish) according to the objectives formulated in the design and subsequent adjustments of the project (2009–13).4 The PDCR project is being implemented by the Plurinational Government of Bolivia with the objective of reinforcing the National Policy of Decentralization initiated after the enactment of the Popular Participation Law in 1994. The objective of this case study is to briefly recount the process of gender World Bank mainstreaming into the components and activities of the PDCR, focusing on the positive outcomes identified by the evaluators. To understand this process, a general ments in selected productive sectors. It emphasizes the project background and setting are presented in the first autonomous territorially-based development, in order part, followed by a short explanation of the objectives, to improve the “standard of living” (Vivir Bien) of the rural design and implementation. The subsequent sections population, in particular to those currently excluded explain the innovative aspects of the experience, the such as women and the rural poor. To achieve this aim benefits and impacts, the limitation and constraints, the the PDCR focuses on three components: 1) institutional lessons learned and some guidelines and recommenda- strengthening, 2) productive investment, and 3) project tions for wider applicability. management. The first component emphasizes techni- cal assistance, training, and capacity building in order 1. General Project background, geographical to: (a) develop the capacities of municipal governments and institutional setting and local municipal associations (called mancomuni- The PDCR project is being implemented by the Ministry dades); (b) facilitate the process of coordination among of Autonomies and the National Fund for Productive municipalities and between them and departmental and Social Investment (FPS), with assistance from the prefectures; and (c) support the national government’s World Bank, the Danish Government, and the Swiss capacity to formulate enabling regulations and co- Confederation. The project aims to pilot the strengthen- finance subnational investments. The second compo- ing of institutional arrangements among the national, nent focuses on creating the conditions to improve the prefecture, municipal governments, and civil society for employment and income generation of the rural popula- sustainable management of subnational public invest- tion by building roads, bridges, rural market spaces, community micro-irrigation systems and water conservation works. The project also finances the sustainable management of natural resources through agro-forestry and improving pastures. The third component centers on the managerial and administra- tive side of the project. The implementation of PDCR began in 2009 and is expected to be completed by December 2013, while the project identification and design lasted from 2007 to 2008. The PDCR covers a large area of 194 municipalities (58 percent of the national total) within the 9 departments in Bolivia, and is characterized by a high level of social, cultural, and geographical diversity. Both men and women in most regions of Bolivia have access to land, but men on average own twice as much arable land as World Bank women and this difference is even bigger in the Chapare region. Although both men and women are responsible for cultivating and irrigating, men are the often the decision-makers, representing mancomunidades, NGOs, indigenous peoples, farmers, women, the family in the local governance institutions as well as in Water and youth organizations, as well as from the private sector related User Associations (WUA), though this does vary from place to place to productive and economic initiatives. The methodology used and from family to family. Women from rural and urban areas are in the workshops emphasized the participation of women, youth usually organized in clubs, committees, and associations. At the and indigenous people. These processes allowed the Project higher level, they form part of the Bartolina Sisa National Confed- team to establish a base-line of data for the beneficiaries differen- eration of Campesino, Indigenous, and Native Women of Bolivia. tiated according to their gender, ethnic and social backgrounds. At the national level there are favorable policies and regulations The design of the PDCR project also included the following relating to gender awareness and its inclusion in the national governing values: unity, solidarity, gender and ethnic equality, development process. These policy changes began in earnest in reciprocity, self-reliance (individual and collective), institutional 1994 when the Law on Popular Participation was introduced (Ley loyalty, transparency, participation and social control. Finally the de Participación Popular). In 2009, Bolivia’s new constitution and design of the PDCR project is consistent with the “National Plan other initiatives, such as the Plan of Equal Opportunities entitled, of Equal Opportunities: Mujeres Construyendo la Nueva Bolivia “Mujeres Construyendo la Nueva Bolivia para Vivir Bien,” brought para Vivir Bien”. about a greater awareness on gender issues. This has been further complemented by Bolivia’s ratification of a number of international During the implementation stage, and as a consequence of agreements pertaining to gender equality. The Vice-Ministry for the recommendations of the World Bank missions, the Project Equal Opportunities (VIO) and the Vice-Ministry for Decolonization established the following gender target—at least 30 percent are both responsible for promoting gender equality. of the participants in the services offered by the PDCR should be women. The project included gender in the log frame as a 2. Gender inclusion in design, implementation and crosscutting theme, especially in the first component: institu- monitoring of the PDCR tional strengthening. Accordingly the PDCR tried to promote and Although the PDCR project did not focus on gender as a consis- measure (in terms of numbers) the participation of women and tent and crosscutting issue during the preparation and design local and regional women’s organizations in: a) the participatory stage, a social assessment was conducted during project prepa- planning at the municipal and regional level, to discuss the poli- ration through workshops and a series of consultations. These cies, activities, and financing of local, departmental, and national consultations involved representatives of local governments, institutions; (b) the consolidation of local municipal associations 2 (mancomunidades) to create and implement territorial develop- regional and national networks and platforms, such as the Bartolina ment strategies and achieve economies of scale in administering Sisa National Confederation of Campesino, Indigenous, and Native funds; (c) the discussions to provide co-financing for investments Women of Bolivia. Subsequent missions by the World Bank (in in basic infrastructure, natural resource management and promo- 2009, 2010, and 2011) were also crucial in providing feedback and tion of economic activities; and (d) the technical assistance and recommendations to apply gender as a crosscutting theme in the capacity building. Under the second component “productive other components of the Project. The mission in 2009 suggested a investment” the PDCR did not include gender as criteria to design quota of 30 percent for women’s participation in the benefits of the and implement the project. As mentioned previously, the main Project. The 2010 mission recommended registering the reports focus of this component was building roads, bridges, investing and monitoring information disaggregated by gender. in agro-forestry and improved pastures; as well as in the mainte- nance of micro-irrigation infrastructures, such as canals, reservoirs As mentioned, to effectively put into practice the recommenda- and water retention infrastructure works. The local municipalities tions of the World Bank mission, the PDCR established collabora- had the complete responsibility and autonomy to implement this tive work with the NGOs, women’s associations and the Bartolina component. Although the gendered indicators were not estab- lished during the design of the project, there was an attempt during the monitoring stage to differentiate the beneficiaries by The explicit inclusion of women in the outcomes of the gender. institutional strengthening helped to develop the capac- ity of women and motivate them to participate in different To make sure that gender was included in the institutional domains of political discussions and platforms. It gener- strengthening activities, the PDCR project hired the services of ated opportunities for women to exercise their political, consultant gender specialists. They were in charge of developing social, cultural, and economic rights. The project design the necessary participatory training methodologies, as well as for was also consistent with the national “Plan of Equal Oppor- monitoring the activities. To implement the training activities, the tunities,” which has been championed by the government project also established collaborative relationships with women’s since 2006. NGOs, universities, and the Bartolina Sisa National Confederation of Campesino, Indigenous, and Native Women of Bolivia. Sisa National Confederation of Campesino, Indigenous, and Native 3. Innovative activities Women of Bolivia, which proved to be central for the purpose of PDCR to mainstreaming gender in the project. These organiza- Even though gender was not formally mainstreamed at the beginning of the PDCR, and no gender indicators were developed tions worked together with the gender consultants, hired by during the design, the social assessment which was part of the the PDCR, to develop the training activities. They promoted the participatory approach in the preparation phase resulted in identi- active participation of women in setting up proposals and bylaws fication of the different categories of beneficiaries, and eventually for autonomous development and the territorial and regional to the establishment of gender targets. During the preparatory development planning. They also trained the elected female and and design stage of the institutional strengthening component, male community leaders (to be part of the Municipal Council) and analyzing the base line data by differentiating the beneficiaries female municipal staff, to strengthen their leadership and project appears to have been fundamental, because it allowed the project management capacity. These training opportunities helped to to be appropriate to the needs of the different identified beneficia- identify and support the women’s own initiatives and demands. ries by gender, ethnic, and social markers. Accordingly, the Project For instance, female leaders requested that the project pay special supported various capacity building activities aimed at the political attention to the fact that women are confronted with abuse and empowerment of women and men (indigenous and mestizo) by violence at different levels of interaction (household, community, their participation in the different local and regional organizations: and public institutions) on a daily basis. This demand was also women’s committees and clubs, indigenous-peasant organizations, included and discussed at the different community, municipal and Mancomunidades, municipal governments, and the women’s regional meetings. 3 To confront the widespread violence against women, different these proposals, advocacy work for positioning the women’s rights proposals to deal with the issue had been prepared and presented on the political agenda has already been developed. to the Tribunal of Justice. The use of different means of commu- nication: radio, pamphlets, informative meetings and newsletters Municipal Goverments, Mancomunidades, Indigenous Campesinos helped to sensitize men to gender issues and to violence against Groups and Producers’ Organizations were the key actors in leading women. It also motivated the women to participate in meetings and implementing the PDCR development planning and invest- and discussions. ment. Indigenous women farmers and women’s organizations became as active as men in voicing and elaborating different opin- The project provided financial assistance to local and regional ions, proposals and bylaws. By doing so they contributed to the leaders (such as municipal council members and mayors), both relevance and therefore to the sustainability of the PDCR project. male and female, to undertake semi-formal training (diplomados) resulting in an official qualification. Such training opened oppor- Women’s participation in the technical trainings on the manage- tunities for the young male and female students—who lacked ment and maintenance of micro-irrigation infrastructures (as part the necessary financial resources—and government employ- of the second component: productive investments) surprisingly ees, enabling them to finish their career training and obtain the reached a level of 51 percent, which was not expected initially. This required credentials. These trainings were designed according result cannot only be attributed to the PDCR intervention, but was to the needs and capacity (economic, language, level of educa- also a consequence of the high level of male migration. Women tion) of the targeted groups. The thematic training was based on left behind had to assume overall domestic, productive and politi- decentralization and regional autonomies, productive investment, cal responsibilities. Although women experienced an overload in local economic development, territorial governance, and contract their work, they explained that the micro-irrigation technology administration. relieved some of their tasks. For instance, they dedicated less time to cleaning the new cement-lined canals than the earlier natural 4. Benefits and impact canals. Although the objective of the micro-irrigation was to ex- The extent of participation by women and men during the discus- pand the diversification of agricultural products (vegetables, fruit, sions in the different capacity building trainings and series of cereals, etc.) and generate additional income, women experienced consultations was unexpected. In some cases women’s participa- this intervention in another way—an alleviation of some tasks. tion reached 70 percent, whilst the quality of their active involve- Similar experience also can be attributed to the improvement and ment systematically improved in subsequent processes. At the construction of roads, bridges, and market places. These infra- beginning of the Project, women participated in a more passive structures can be considered as risk-preventing and time-saving way, simply listening to the information given in the discussions for women and men. It facilitated their mobility, the transport of without voicing opinions or voting. To encourage women to the local products to the market, and access to the market and participate actively in community, Municipal or Mancomunidades neighboring communities. meetings and consultations, trainings were first organized with women’s groups and organizations. This strategy proved to be use- 5. Limitations and constraints ful, because women could openly express their concerns, expecta- Even though government policies and regulations have paid atten- tions and ideas about the Project in this setting. In the subsequent tion to women’s issues and gender equality in Bolivia, governmen- stages, women began engaging in different, mixed working tal organizations are still restricted when putting these policies into groups, by voicing their concerns and explaining their ideas. How- operation, especially when it concerns agro-productive and irriga- ever, they were still reluctant to negotiate their proposals at higher tion projects. PDCR focused on promoting and strengthening both political levels. The training and information about the national men’s and women’s capacity in terms of their political participation policies in favor of women, encouraged the female leaders to in local and regional governments, but this approach has not been present and negotiate their proposals (women’s rights bylaws and extended to empower women to participate as active actors in the gendered development plans) at a higher level, such as the Consti- management and governance of agro-productive, micro-irrigation tutional Court. Although (male) legislators have resisted approving 4 or natural resource management projects. This can be attributed to 6. Lessons learned the following limitations: • Given the fact that quantitative and qualitative gender • Micro-irrigation and agro-productive activities are still seen indicators were not clearly defined during the design and as pertaining to the male domain, in spite of the fact that implementation of the PDCR, the monitoring and evaluation women are getting more and more involved in these activi- of the affirmative (and transformative) gender actions was ties because of male migration. Based on this assumption, difficult. the PDCR saw men as the main actors of the micro- • Despite the fact that Government enacted different leg- irrigation projects and the family as the beneficiaries. islation and policies to move towards gender equity and • Indicators to gauge the participation of women in these women’s empowerment, women—especially from the projects were basically neglected, because women were rural communities—still had barriers to confront. Public seen as passive beneficiaries (receptors) of the micro- organizations and male professionals are not adequately irrigation. gender-sensitive to accept women’s participation at differ- ent levels of decision-making. This opposition is very visible The family approach (familiarista5) posed an obstacle in draw- in agriculture, irrigation, and natural resource management. ing attention to gender issues and women’s needs, because this • It was positive that women’s requests for capacity building approach tends to reinforce the reproductive roles of women, with women’s groups and organizations were supported. It impeding affirmative and transformative action6 toward empow- allowed women to voice their concerns and viewpoints in erment of women. a friendly environment. Importantly, it prepared women to participate actively in the Mancomunidades and Municipal Of eminent concern, manifested during the evaluation of the government meetings. It also helped to develop collabora- project, are the difficulties to measure and monitor the results tion with the women’s networks and organizations, the and impacts of the affirmative and transformative gender actions NGOs, as well as the Bartolina Sisa National Confederation of executed throughout the implementation of the project. This is Campesino, Indigenous, and Native Women of Bolivia. because of the lack of, or inconsistent indicators and means of, • It is important to inform and sensitize the different actors monitoring. Therefore the quantitative and qualitative achieve- (women, men, local leaders, and political authorities) con- ments, generated by the capacity building and other participatory cerning gender and other sustainability elements (environ- actions (in component 1), cannot be directly attributed to the mental, social, and economic) before and during the design action promoted by the PDCR project.7 and planning of the project. The sensitization activities also help the formulation of local development plans and bylaws The lack of gender considerations in the process of implement- at the Mancomunidades and municipal level. ing the second component (productive investment) of the PDCR • The fact that the number of women increased in the differ- project can partly be ascribed to the technical focus and lack of ent processes of participation initiated by the project was sensitivity to gender and other social relations of those who were not always translated into an effective (voicing and making responsible for monitoring and pre-evaluating the respective decisions) participation of this group. projects. • The methodology and procedures designed to motivate women to participate in thematic discussions, territorial con- Finally, the steps taken and methodology designed by the PDCR sultations, and Mancomunidades meetings all year round and Ministry for Autonomy to engage women in the process became a burden for some women. It did not take into of public audits, thematic consultations and territorial planning account the heavy workload the women already had. In the turned out to be a barrier to keeping the women interested and end, women’s participation decreased from 50 percent to 30 motivated to participate because too many meetings overbur- percent. dened the already busy women, thus decreasing their participation • Training events, consultation meetings and the construc- from 50 percent to 30 percent. tion of productive infrastructures may face serious setbacks 5 7. Guidelines and recommendation for monitoring and wider applicability Based on the evaluation’s findings, as well as on different studies implemented by the World Bank in Bolivia, the main recommenda- tions emphasize the following necessities: • Monitor the quality of women’s participation, not only in institutional strengthening projects, but also in productive investment projects, such as micro-irrigation and water management. A pre-requisite for this, is that male and female staff in charge of designing, implementing, monitor- ing and evaluating the projects must be sensitive to gender, cultural and social aspects. This necessity is relevant since gender roles are rapidly changing as women assume male assigned responsibilities. • Project managers, policy-makers, and practitioners must take into account that women are already very busy, and may be overburdened with productive or water management activities. It is necessary to find mechanisms to: a) alleviate the tasks overloading women in such a way that they can have time to participate in decision-making, representation World Bank and management activities, b) value their participation not only as helpers or somebody who is replacing their absent when not taking into account the agricultural calendar and partners (in case of migration, sickness or alcoholism), but the climatological factors. more as farmers in their own right and as knowledgeable • Women, who had access to micro-irrigation training ses- and capable actors/participants. sions, welcomed these opportunities, because it allowed • Bolivia is one of the countries in Latin America where them to be recognized as agricultural producers and poten- abundant and interesting gender and water management tial leaders in water management. In fact, there are already a and irrigation studies8 have been developed. It is advisable number of studies, assessments and project manuals which for policy makers and irrigation intervention projects to look aim to integrate gender into water management (see list into these studies. Most findings point out that in rural areas in recommendations) and irrigation projects. These efforts both men and women are responsible for managing water could have more impact, if they were less isolated in nature and producing food. Although men and women discuss and and disconnected from policy formulation. organize the distribution of tasks and also negotiate differ- • Women requested not only the social recognition of their ent water issues in the field, household and intra-household, multiple roles and heavy work, but also of their significant this is not acknowledged as such by most water profession- contribution to the local and national economy, despite als. Often a male-centered point of view is reflected in the not being accepted or compensated. For instance, women’s implementation, monitoring and evaluation of the project involvement in agricultural or irrigation activities is recog- and often translates into even more gender inequality at the nized only as a complementary activity or as “helpers” of end of the project than at the beginning of the intervention. their male partners, but not as one of the main contributors • Recognizing, valuing and strengthening the knowledge and to the economy as farmers and producers of food. Women capacity of both men and women in water management are insisted on more recognition and valuation of their contri- essential in the current context of climate change. Several bution and accordingly an equal redistribution of tasks and studies (Ashill et al. 2011, Salinas 2011) developed by the (economic) benefits. World Bank in Bolivia point out that men and women from 6 different geographical areas experience climate change in women’s and men’s viewpoints, needs and concerns in terms of water scarcity, flooding, unpredictable rainfall and relation to interrelated critical issues that determine their water contamination. Despite these shared experiences and participation, agency, and empowerment. concern, women perceive the impacts of climate change • Issues such as: access to resources and services, ownership to be more negative for them than for men, in terms of and control of land, access to social and economic capital, increased workload, more male migration and a higher risk water rights and obligations, access to training and educa- of children’s diseases and mortality. tion, individual and collective responses to change and • In linking water and climate change, it is necessary to pay distribution of benefits can be incorporated and put into attention to those women’s activities and strategies which operation during the design and planning process. Pertinent they develop to cope with water scarcity. For instance, to this effort is to link gender with the analysis of ethnic and women, more than men, tend to develop small-scale and cultural issues, since a vast population in Bolivia, especially low cost responses to adapt to climate change, while women, have historically experienced ethnic and racial adapting their activities to ensure food for the family: they marginalization. They were labelled as being inferior without diversify the subsistence crops, planting those that demand the capacity to govern themselves. This kind of labelling less water, they also diversify the animals they keep (poultry, also defined the rights of people’s access to and control of pigs, guinea pigs, rabbits, etc.) not only to supplement resources, as well as to participation and representation. family nutrition, but also to earn money. Therefore, gender • Efforts to mainstream gender in water management or sensitive projects would make a significant contribution irrigation interventions in Bolivia must also take into account when developing the necessary infrastructure to provide the existing pool of studies, guides and manuals developed water, and offer services (credit) to support female-managed by different organizations involved in water and natural agricultural enterprises (such us animal husbandry). resource management. For instance the following materials • In the context of Bolivia, the approach of the multi-use9 can be recommended for Spanish-speaking practitioners of water must also be included in efforts to mainstream and policy-makers: 1. FAO: http://www.fao.org/docrep/x0218s/x0218s03.htm gender into water management, as well as into other related 2. Ministry of Water and Environment: http://saludpublica.bvsp. projects such as natural resource management and climate org.bo/textocompleto/bvsp/boxp68/genero-proyectos- change. This facilitates the analysis and inclusion of both riego.pdf World Bank 3. GWA: Guía Para la Operativización del Eje Transversal del Enfoque de Género en el Sector de Agua Y Saneamiento (Isabel Ascarrunz): http://www.genderandwater.org/es/ 4. FIDA: http://www.ifad.org/pub/gender/mspanish.pdf 5. COSUDE: http://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publica- tions/and_estudiogenero.pdf Endnotes 1. In addition to the World Bank, the Gender and Water Alliance (GWA) contributed to the development of this case study. 2. “Evaluación Final del PDCR.” Producto No 4, Informe Final. Ministerio de Autonomías Proyecto de Desarrollo Concurrente Regional PDCR. SAXgr—Strategy Advisors for Government Reforms. May 2013. The evaluation covered different aspects of the project: regional development from a territorial perspective, the autonomy of the municipalities, the regional governments 7 and the organizations of indigenous people. Gender main- Colectiva. pp 307-316. Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, IEP. streaming in the PDCR project was also one of the crosscut- Lima, Perú. ting evaluated components. Bustamente, Rocío, Elizabeth Peredo, and María Udaeta. 2005. 3. Project Appraisal Document on a Proposed Credit to the Women in the “Water War” in the Cochabamba Valleys. In: V. Republic of Bolivia for a Second Participatory Rural Investment Bennett, S. Dávila-Poblete and M.N. Rico (eds), Opposing Cur- Project. Document of the World Bank, November 2007. rents: The Politics of Water and Gender in Latin America. pp 72-90. Pittsburgh, USA: University of Pittsburgh Press. 4. The Skype information provided by the PDCR, Ms. Ana Cristina Betancourt, helped to clarify many doubts about the project Calla, O. Hernando. 1996. ¿Reciprocidad en la Dominación? In: itself and the evaluation process. The following studies also H.C.F. Mansilla and M. T. Zegada (eds), Política, Cultura, y Etni- were helpful to understand the gender dynamic in Bolivia: cidad en Bolivia. Documentos de Investigación No 2 (25-34). “Gender Dynamic and Climate Change in Rural Bolivia.” Cebem, CESU and UMSS. La Paz, Bolivia. Ashwill, M et al. 2011. World Bank. “Estudio de Linea de Base Claverías, H. Ricardo. 2002. Género e Interculturalidad en los sobre Género en el Contexto de Desastres Naturales, Cambio proyectos de Riego. Metodología para la Sistematización. Climático y Gestión de Recursos Hídricos.” Salinas, S. 2011. Centro de Investigación Educación y Desarrollo -CIED-, Agual- Banco Mundial. tiplano. Lima, Perú. 5. Although the report does not explain what the “familiarista” Gutiérrez, P. Zulema. 2006. Riego Campesino y Diseño Campar- approach means, it can be inferred that this term is used to tido. Gestión Local e Intervención en Sistemas de Riego en stress the collective nature of the family needs and interests Bolivia. Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, IEP. Lima, Perú. Water contrary to the Western individualistic right-based approach, Law and Indigenous Rights, WALIR. Wageningen, The Nether- which is advocated by some feminist scholars to promote lands. women empowerment. Gutiérrez, Zulema and Marina Arratia. 1997. Género, Comunidad 6. The document does not explain or number these actions. y Familia en Sistemas de Riego de Punata. Una Aproximación However, in the PDCR context, affirmative actions can be sobre Género en la Gestión Comunal del Agua. PEIRAV. Cocha- understood as the attempt of the project to include women bamba, Bolivia. and other poor and ethnically discriminated groups as benefi- ciaries of the services and development investment projects; Gutiérrez, Zulema, and Marina Arratia. 2009. Discusiones sobre while transformative actions refer to the economic and politi- Propiedad Hidráulica, Procesos de Intervención y Relaciones cal empowerment of women, and discriminate groups, to de Género desde una Perspectiva Interculturales. In: 53º participate in decision-making and distribution of the benefits Congreso International de Americanistas. Ciudad de Mexico, generated by the project. Mexico. 7. The Evaluation report showed some inconsistences in this Gutierrez, Zulema, and Silvia Cardoma. 1998. La Dinámica respect. Campesina en la Gestión del Agua: la Flexibilidad de las Rela- ciones de Género en el Riego. Seminario Internacional CORSA, 8. Some of these studies are: PEIRAV. Cochabamba, Bolivia. Boelens, Rutgerd, and Margreet Zwarteveen. 2003. Water, Gen- der, and “Andeanity:” Conflicts or Harmony? Gender Dimen- Perales, M. Víctor. 2009. Chikat, Chikat Uma Jaljasiña. Uso, Manejo sion of Water Rights in Diverging Regimes of Representation. y Gestión del Agua desde una Perspectiva de Género. IDRC- In: T. Salman and A. Zoomers (eds), Imaging the Andes: Shift- CRDI, UMSA, PIEB. La Paz, Bolivia. ing Margins of a Marginal World. pp 145-167. CEDLA Latin 9. The documents do not conceptualize the multiuse of water, America Studies no. 91. Amsterdam, The Netherlands. but it is assumed that this term is used to refer to the multiple Boelens, Rutgerd, and Paul Hoogendam. 2001. La Yapa. Derechos uses of water for: consumption, irrigation, rituals, livestock, de Agua, Poder y Fortalecimiento Organizativo en Bolivia. In: R. washing, medicine, industrial, environmental services, etc. Boelens and P. Hoogendam (eds), Derechos de Agua y Acción 1818 H Street. NW Washington, DC 20433 www.worldbank.org/rural