81059 DIRECTIONS IN URBAN DEVELOPMENT DECEMBER 2012 City Brand Urban lives are filled with brands. Now, cities are waking up to the prospect of place brands. As globalization intensifies, urban development has come "In the 21st century, cities will to include an image dimension. The common rationale is increasingly compete on the value that that a well-known place name often creates opportuni- they provide in terms of their physical, ties for international attention, events, investments and become ‘winning’ places. Notwithstanding critical voices service and experiential offer, their pointing to the challenges and disadvantages of the new heritage, their ambitions, and their reliance on city branding, many cities are proactively posi- character. In short, they will compete tioning and promoting themselves with strategic intent. The aim is often to orchestrate the totality of perceptions, on their brand and will develop in line experiences and feelings that people hold about that city to with it." ensure that it is as distinctive, compelling and memorable as possible. As Baker (2007) reminds, ‘In the 21st century cities will increasingly compete on the value that they provide in terms of their physical, service and experiential (60 cities), Foreign Policy’s Global Cities Index (66 cities), offer, their heritage, their ambitions and their character. In GaWC ranking of cities in globalization (178 cities), The short, they will compete on their brand and will develop in Economist Intelligence Unit’s global city competitiveness line with it.' 1 (120 cities) and the world’s most livable cities indices (140 As interest gravitates toward cities as growth poles, inno- cities), among others. All of which have reinforced attention vative and creative places and the like, there is a moving on city brand in urban policy. away from competitive or comparative advantage toward Despite growing research on how to build and manage constructed advantages between cities. Cities, regardless city image and competitiveness, city branding is no easy of size, are seeking to differentiate themselves, emphasiz- task. City branding (more generally, place branding) is also ing why they are valued options in the global economy. referred to as place marketing, place imaging and reimag- There is increasing willingness to improve city image (brand ing.4 The branding process is a complex interaction involv- identity)—the attractiveness and vitality of urban spaces, ing many factors including economic development plans, cultural, leisure and entertainment industries—in order to marketing strategies and socio-cultural features. This Note attract and retain mobile international talent, businesses discusses the emerging practice of city brand and place mar- and visitors. A number of urban economists, geographers keting. It outlines what is involved in city brand, city identity and other urban analysts in recent years, prominently and strategy for promoting a city brand, illustrating with the Richard Florida, have argued that in the knowledge econ- case of Seoul, South Korea. omy, companies, creative workers and entrepreneurs are attracted to cities with strong brand identities as open, tol- Place Marketing erant and dynamic places.2 Others have offered the tourism development potential as a primer for strong city brand.3 Place marketing is not new. Early examples can be traced to Yet, others have invoked city rankings to unpack the 1850.5 The approach, however, has changed over time, from essence of cities: you can’t manage what you don’t measure. one of place selling, place development (developing the image Recent decades have seen a proliferation of city rankings of the city based on geographical and/or physical features from Best Value Cities (353 US metropolitan areas), Best Performing Cities (200 largest metropolitan areas) and This paper was prepared by Dr. Belinda Yuen, Vice-president Best Places to Live in USA (50 largest metropolitan areas), (Southeast Asia), Commonwealth Association of Planners. to global cities ranking such as Anholt’s city brand index THE WORLD BANK URBAN AND RESILIENCE MANAGEMENT UNIT | DECEMBER 2012 DIRECTIONS IN URBAN DEVELOPMENT such as paths, edges, districts, nodes and landmarks) to an increasing emphasis on consumer perspectives and urban Box 1. Some Examples of Place Branding entrepreneurialism in which the image of the city is relent- Spain, for instance, has built its place brand strategy on a lessly packaged and presented through place marketing.6 combination of evolving and distinguishing characteristics, Place marketing enables a targeted strategy of differentiating commencing with being a new democracy, its tourism, culture, the city from the competition. The underlying principle is the sports (e.g., the Barcelona Olympic Games) and more recently, necessity of place excellence among cities. the development of new technologically advanced businesses, Since the 1990s, eager to strengthen city attractiveness especially in computer gaming and virtual reality sectors. in local economic development, the notion of a strategic New Zealand has defined a national branding strategy around approach to place marketing (in particular, city branding) has the environment theme. At the start of the 1990s, New been embraced by a widening number of cities and coun- Zealand promoted the country as the ‘environmental destina- tries around the world. Some urban analysts have argued tion of the 1990s’ in order to take advantage of the world’s that city branding is a cultural strategy of an entrepreneurial interest in nature-based tourism, building upon its green city.7 From Amsterdam, Barcelona, Chicago and Dublin to image. In 1999, this was refined and given a more precise image when Tourism New Zealand launched the New Zealand Montevideo, Seoul, Shanghai, Singapore, Tel Aviv, Tokyo and 100% Pure campaign, using the landscape as the brand essence Valencia, cities have invested in city brands to compete more and reinforcing the country’s clean and green positioning. In effectively on the international scene (Box 1). As OECD reports 2002, a future innovation perspective was added when the on Stockholm,8 prime minister released a policy framework for economic To play an even bigger role in Europe and globally, the transformation structured around the theme of ‘growing Stockholm region will need branding to increase its inter- an innovative New Zealand’. The centerpiece was to pursue national visibility. Compared to many other European long-term sustainable growth and ‘promote a contemporary cities, Stockholm is far less known. Stockholm may have and future-focused Brand NZ, which projects New Zealand to rely on regional branding to attract foreign resources as a great place to invest in, live in, and visit’ and ‘brand New Zealand as being technologically advanced, creative and suc- (businesses and workers). Regional branding could serve cessful and to present that consistently across sectors’ (H Clark to overcome the disadvantages of being located at the (2002) Growing an innovative New Zealand, Wellington: Office edge of European and global markets as well as increase of the Prime Minister, pp48; 7). its currently low international visibility. In 1988, the mayor of Tel Aviv launched a city promotion cam- In some countries, e.g., US, place marketing is a multi-billion paign with the supporting slogan: ‘Tel Aviv – A Non-Stop City’. dollar industry where places are promoted aggressively as Under the slogan, Tel Aviv began to re-emerge as Israel’s night- ‘commodities to be consumed’.9 Common branding strate- life capital and as a city that never sleeps, in sharp contrast gies include, to the other cities in Israel at the time. This attracted people, • Architectured branding where the branding has a logo especially the young, who in turn attracted businesses, night- life, fashion, raising real estate demand and development fol- and a slogan designed to create an image and is highly lowed. The city’s residents began realizing the vision, and Tel memorable, e.g., New York City’s ILOVENY campaign cre- Aviv was regenerated and reborn as the focal point of Israel’s ated in the 1970s; cultural life, business activity and nightlife. • Propositional branding where the branding is a statement Source: F Gilmore (2001) A country–can it be repositioned? Spain–the and a proof of the positioning of the city, e.g., Hollywood, success story of country branding, Journal of Brand Management 9(4):281- Los Angeles, the VIP city has constantly brought forth 293; Shir and Spitzer, There is a place for branding places: Branding new films and new star celebrities, establishing itself as cities and institutions–Tel Aviv-Yafo-A non-stop city, http://www.2sh. the embodiment of American cinema; and co.il/?ItemID=2473 accessed 18 Dec 2011 2pm; N Morgan, A Pritchard and R Piggott (2002) New Zealand, 100% Pure: The creation of a powerful niche destination brand, Journal of Brand Management 9(4/5):335-354. • Naked branding where the brand is the city itself and the branding strategy is to change people’s perceptions (usu- ally negative) of the city, e.g., Pittsburgh has changed from being ‘hell with the lid off’ to becoming America’s most livable city. In Europe, the Guggenheim Museum has transformed Bilbao from a declining steel and shipbuilding city into an international creative city, positioning Bilbao strongly on the European cul- tural map, commonly referred to as the Bilbao effect. Another is the regeneration of Barcelona using culture and entertain- ment (hosting the 1992 Olympic Games) in its redevelopment and branding effort. Others, including Glasgow, Liverpool and Prague, have used the European cultural capital program to promote their cities. Increasingly, a large range of material New York City, US. Source: Belinda Yuen features and immaterial qualities (usually the city’s strengths) 2 DECEMBER 2012 process alignment, consistent communication across a wide range of stakeholders and strong compatible partners.12 Even though city authorities have their own aspirations, and in most cases are responsible for the implementation of city branding, Baker (2007) has further accentuated the need for a commu- nity-based brand that has been developed with stakeholders, involving a communitywide effort and partnerships to effec- tively communicate, create and deliver a city destination expe- rience that is memorable to its consumer.13 The underlying premise is that there are close emotional ties between people and places. Those are developed, as Holloway and Hubbard (2001) explain, ‘through direct experience of the environment or indirectly through media representations’.14 The Case of Seoul Barcelona, Spain. Source: Belinda Yuen Seoul is among the group of cities that has recognized early have been used to promote the city’s image and choice posi- the value of city brand in urban competitiveness. Seeking to tion. The image carriers include unique/scenic landscape, improve its low brand value position in the 2008 City Brands famous architects and architecture, public art, painters, musi- Index (ranked 33rd among 50 world cities), Seoul has imple- cians and historical figures, mega-events, special quality of mented a large-scale city branding program and increased its place, lifestyle, culture, diversity, international sports and advertising expenditure 10-fold, from 4 billion won in 2007 to recreation and history of innovation. Put simply, the city brand 40 billion won in 2008.15 The motivations are several. is deeply rooted in the city’s physical aspects, qualities and in First, Seoul, as the capital city, has come to represent the many cases, stereotypes of the place and its people. image of the country. Seoul’s ambition is to maintain its key The implication is that the making of a good city is ever more role in world economy, a global city that is the latest place important. Increasingly, city planners’ efforts are directed to in which to do business. Second, with globalization and not just the built infrastructure but also intangible dimensions internationalization, other major Asian cities, e.g., Shanghai, of city image and positioning (the city’s calling card), its ability Singapore, Hong Kong and Bangkok, are intensifying their eco- to attract and retain talented labor and provide places where nomic development efforts and identifying new opportunities new ideas and innovations can grow, where people’s experi- such as the creative and cultural industries to attract the best ence matters. The prospect of place marketing recognizes and people and businesses. An improved city brand could help seeks to enhance the brand equity of a place, that is, brand enhance Seoul’s image and improve tourism and investments. awareness (how easily the brand comes to the consumer’s The tourism industry in Seoul contributes 7% to gross regional mind) and brand image (overall impression in consumer’s domestic product when compared with 10% in most other mind) through communication and marketing measures with developed countries.16 brand-related identities.10 The focus is on gaining positive associations in the minds of the ‘place consumers’. These include residents, businesses and visitors; all the people and Figure 1. Place marketing framework organizations that are critical for the functioning of the city. The interest lies usually in the positive impacts of place brand- ing for the benefit of foreign investment and cultural and tour- ism destination development. A review of the extant literature indicates that much place marketing generally involves three primary ingredients: iden- tification of target markets (and the tools that a city adopts to market itself), marketing factors (the physical and observable aspects from which a city can be seen, such as the image and infrastructure of the city) and planning groups (includes part- nerships, peoples' perception, experience and communication about a city) (Figure 1). Kavaratzis has suggested six key ques- tions to help frame the creation of a recognizable place iden- tity and subsequent use for branding: what the city indubitably is, what the city feels it is, what the city says it is, what the city is seen to be, whom the city seeks to serve and what is prom- ised and expected.11 There are several cornerstones for change. Hankinson (2007) has posited five basic principles for successful destination brand management: strong, visionary leadership, a brand-ori- Source: P Kotler, M A Hamlin, I Rein and D H Haider (2002), Marketing Asian ented organizational culture, departmental coordination and Places, Singapore: John Wiley and Sons, p46. 3 DIRECTIONS IN URBAN DEVELOPMENT The mayor of Seoul’s strong leadership has been critical. A pertinent to involve the local population and stakeholders Global Marketing Division has been established within Seoul's early in the city branding process. Metropolitan Government to coordinate and spearhead the Rather than a standardized city brand, Seoul Metropolitan city branding effort. There is increasing recognition of the Government has opted to identify five target markets need to enhance Seoul’s city brand within the government (based on its tourism strategy), a plurality of place iden- administration. Even so, the branding (and its investment) is tity and associated communications strategy (Table 1). not without its controversy. Many have questioned its expen- Emphasis is on projecting Seoul as a city of culture, a diture (is it necessary) and the city’s ability to effectively man- cutting-edge city, a city that is traditional yet a leader age the branding project and budget. Others have pointed in IT industry and has a modern, dynamic feeling with to Seoul’s identity crisis. A key challenge is the difficulty of audience-specific city branding messages to create unique delimiting Seoul’s identity and core values in a manner that is values to individuals, both current residents and outside widely acceptable, easily marketable, presentable and open audiences. Thus, in China, the communication is of Seoul to experience on a daily basis. As Yoon (2012), director of as a city where ‘one can simultaneously enjoy a diverse Seoul Metropolitan Government Global Marketing Division, cultural experience and enjoy a city of infinite possibilities’. summarizes, Seoul is a ‘city without a concept’; it is difficult In Japan, it is Seoul as a city where ‘you would like to come to determine ‘what exactly is Seoul’.17 He attributes this to again to find an infinitely new city’, while in South East Seoul’s numerous images and the lack of a clear ‘special char- Asia, the image is that of a ‘fashion forward Seoul where acteristic’. Among the first tasks of improving Seoul’s brand one can experience the infinite excitement of Korean fash- value are to develop and manage a clear city brand to become ion’, and in North America and Europe, it is Seoul as ‘a city better known both internationally and to Seoul’s own citizens. of strangers that invoke infinite curiosity’. Put simply, the This includes, basic concept, as Yoon (2012) explains, is that you could • Defining the city’s strengths and weaknesses (hardware get all you want in Seoul: Seoul—City of Infinity, ‘Seoul is and software) so as to assess competitive brand position a place full of fun, novelty, excitement, and curious experi- and sharpen the city’s brand identity; ences’. 18 • Determining the target group(s) to identify potential cus- As with many other cities, the place promotion message tomers and their motivational factors; and is a critical instrument in Seoul’s brand promotion. Many • Designing the brand communication strategy to create a place brand campaigns are structured around a slogan. For promise and translate it into a concept—how the brand instance, Malaysia uses ‘Truly Asia’ (promising an authentic will be communicated and delivered, e.g., core brand ele- Asian experience) while South Africa’s slogan is ‘It’s pos- ments, brand messages and images, etc. sible’ (suggesting that visitors can find any experience they seek) and New York’s image, logo and song is ‘I Love New This is implemented through a comprehensive city brand- York’ (inviting visitors to discover what they love in the ing communications strategy including stakeholder city). The Seoul Metropolitan Government has adopted involvement, studies on other cities’ brands and media ‘Hi Seoul: Soul of Asia’ (Figure 2). ‘Hi Seoul’ was the high- coverage, comprising televised commercials, print and est scored entry from among over 7000 submissions to commercial advertisements and cultural and sports mar- the Seoul Metropolitan Government’s 2002 citywide Seoul keting. But, the notion of place identity is dynamic and will Brand Contest. This slogan was chosen for two main rea- vary in relation to the social context in which an individual sons: it is perceived to convey a friendly image of Seoul to interacts. The challenge lies in creating and profiling an the international community and to promote harmony and identity of the city from the diverse values and interest unity among Seoul citizens.19 groups that could be condensed into an appropriate iden- tity acceptable to all people. This raises an often over- Aside from a slogan, Seoul also uses colors (national col- looked, crucial reality: city brand invariably will lead to con- ors of blue-orange-red) and the voices of cultural icons testations over competing representations, understanding like Chen Kaige, Murakami Ryu, and George Winston as and identification of the city. For exactly this reason, it is well as ordinary people to tell personal ‘Seoul stories’. People have long played the role of ‘ambassadors’ of Table 1. Seoul's brand concept Target markets Place identity Communication strategy China Stylish metropolis Emphasis on images of being more fashionable, more elegant than Shanghai and Beijing Japan Warm and humane metropolis Emphasis on images of being more humane than Tokyo South East Asia Advanced metropolis Emphasis on images of being more energetic and more oriental than Bangkok and Kuala Lumpur North America Exotic metropolis Emphasis on Seoul’s advantage on energetic and oriental charm compared with New York and London Europe Traditional metropolis Emphasis on the impression that Seoul has similar traditional culture deposits like Paris and Rome Source: Y S Yoon (2012), Designing the Seoul city brand in C Y Wun and X Liu (ed) Asian Great Place Branding Campaigns, Communication University of China, p9. 4 DECEMBER 2012 Figure 2. Seoul's city brand slogan and logo As the Seoul experience testifies, city branding necessi- tates a clear vision for the city and a coherent strategy for building and spreading the destination brand. The brand key is coordination and direction. Importantly, this means action that prioritizes local needs, aligns key stakeholders (providers and consumers) and communicates the city’s assets in a way that would connect with the city’s target consumers and deliver the brand. Beyond the slogans and Source: Seoul Metropolitan Government, http://english.seoul.go.kr/ accessed 17 Dec 2011 6:50pm logos, the design of city branding should consider the vari- ous demands and synergies of target markets (local and the city, communicating their experiences, evaluations external audiences) and develop joined-up yet appropri- and identifiable images.20 A strong driving force behind ate audience-specific brand communication messages Seoul’s city brand effort is the vision for Seoul’s future. to improve people’s self-relevant imagery of the city and The vision is for shaping the future of Seoul as ‘a clean, attract the city’s audiences where it matters most. attractive and global city’ in five major directions—warm City branding is not a one-off activity but a long-term life welfare, dynamic livelihood economy, clean and green dynamic process. The difficulty of achieving successful city eco-environment, attractive cultural capital and trusted branding should not be underestimated.24 As international and transparent city administration to strengthen the city’s city branding experience demonstrates, a successful brand international competitiveness as well as improve the citi- image can bring its own challenges such as the risk of zens’ quality of life.21 architectural fatigue, visual overload and the city becom- The process of Seoul’s branding has involved parallel physi- ing a destination for mass tourism, crowded with visitors.25 cal development and reconstruction of the city to convey a Effective city branding requires effective policy implemen- modern, cultural, cosmopolitan and people/environment- tation. This implies a willingness to evaluate impact and based city. These included massive investments to improve effectiveness—what has been done right and what not, environmental sustainability including targets to reduce what was successful and what has failed so as to ensure air pollution, energy use, carbon emissions and reliance on that the city is on-brand and can innovate more effectively. fossil fuels by 2030, improve public transport and create The ultimate test for the place brand lies in the feelings more parks and public recreation spaces within the city. and responses of its target audience. Although early days An exemplar is the restoration and regeneration of the yet, Yoon (2012) has reported that since the start of Seoul’s Cheonggyecheon stream from highway to parkland within comprehensive city branding and international city promo- the city. How cities are developed will provide the founda- tion campaign in 2008, Seoul has been listed among the tion for their image position and promotion orientation. world’s top city to visit and tourist arrivals have increased Increasingly, the urban qualities of livable, smart, environ- by 21%: 1.37 million tourists during 2008-09.26 Seoul has mentally sound and sustainable cities are chief among the been named the World Design Capital 2010, reinforcing the new benchmarks used in assessing competitive city posi- city’s ambition to reinvent into a global city of design and tion.22 Importantly, as the critical literature shows, many cultural innovation.27 city marketing campaigns have failed because decision makers focused on the marketing aspects and neglected Conclusion physical changes to the place, resulting in a mismatch between image and place.23 In other words, the city brand In recent years, city brands are increasingly being seen as campaign and media strategies on the city’s momentous the new tool to enhance city positioning and development. identity must be backed up by reality—physical trans- By capturing the spirit of the city and its characteristics, a formation of the city. City branding will not mask a city’s successful city brand can stimulate increased attractive- problems. ness, competitiveness, investment and pride in the city as well as coherent city development to deliver the brand promise. Equally, poor branding can erode city attractive- ness. Given the close link between a city’s brand and its identity, having a clear city brand strategy is useful in supporting cit- ies to develop a long-term vision and future perspectives. It offers a means to think about what the city is, what the city wants to be and how it wants to get there. It could help cities focus on how they wish to develop in the future and think beyond their present situation so as to create new growth opportunities that builds on a city’s strengths, core values and characteristics. But, it could also lead to an increased focus on competitiveness and a top-down approach involving image experts, neglecting the voices of the community to foster a collective construction of the Cheonggyecheon stream, Seoul, Korea. Source: Wikimedia Commons, stari4ek communicated city for the tourists. 5 DIRECTIONS IN URBAN DEVELOPMENT Palgrave Macmillan; K Kunzmann (2004) Culture, creativity and spatial plan- Those cities wanting to enhance their brand image to ning, Town Planning Review 74(4):383-404; J Hannigan (2003) Introduction: compete for tourism and economic development would Symposium on Branding, the Entertainment Economy and Urban Place do well to address several basic branding questions— Building, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 27(2):352-360. 7 S Zukin (2002) Re-imaging downtown: Problems of branding the particular what does the city want to be known for, how can the in Danish Ministry of the Environment, European Cities in a Global Era, pp10- city stand out from the rest and what thoughts and feel- 19; R Lloyd and T N Clark (2001) The city as an entertainment machine in K ings does it want to project when people are exposed to Gotham (ed) Critical Perspectives on Urban Redevelopment, Oxford: Elsevier the city’s name?28 As illustrated by the Seoul experience, Science, pp357-378. 8 OECD (2006) Territorial Review: Stockholm, Sweden. Paris: OECD, p80. this requires careful definition of the brand image, target 9 G Hankinson (2001) Location branding: A study of the branding practices of markets and communications strategy. It requires stake- 12 English cities, Journal Brand Management 9(2):127-142; P Kotler, C Asplund, holders’ buy-in and partnership, creating opportunities to I Rein and D Haider (1999) Marketing Places Europe, London: Pearson strengthen the city’s social cohesion. At the same time, it Education Ltd; G J Ashworth and H Voogd (1994) Marketing and place promo- tion in J R Gold and S W Ward (ed) Place Promotion, the Use of Publicity and needs infrastructure, equipping the built environment with Marketing to Sell Towns and Regions, Chichester: John Wiley and Sons. the ability to represent and reinforce the city’s brand, with- 10 P Kotler and K L Keller (2006) Framework for Marketing Management, New out which the city cannot attempt delivering the expecta- Jersey: Prentice-Hall; M Trueman, M Klemm and A Giroud (2004) Can a city tions created by its brand. This also requires continuous communicate? Bradford as a corporate brand, Corporate Communications 9(4):317-330; G Hankinson (2001) Location branding: A study of the branding development since the city is constantly evolving. practices of 12 English cities, Journal of Brand Management 9(2):127-142. 11 M Kavaratzis (2004) From city marketing to city branding: Towards a There is no single place marketing model, depending on theoretical framework for developing city brands, Journal of Place Branding local economic and socio-cultural factors. The key is suffi- 1(1):58-73. cient time to build up the city brand, improving it over time 12 G Hankinson (2007) The management of destination brands: Five guid- to reinforce and reflect the city’s core values while adapt- ing principles based on recent developments in corporate branding theory, ing to changing circumstances. Making it work requires the Journal of Brand Management 14:240-254. 13 B Baker op cit. city to deliver on its brand promise, providing the experi- 14 L Holloway and P Hubbard (2001) People and Place: The Extraordinary ences associated with the brand image to ensure brand Geographies of Everyday Life, Harlow: Pearson Education, p48. credibility. This calls for identification, organization and 15 Y S Yoon (2012) Designing the Seoul city brand in C Y Wun and X Liu (ed) coordination of all the variables that have an impact on Asian Great Place Branding Campaigns, Communication University of China. the city’s identity—its urban infrastructure, quality of local 16 Ibid. services, ‘soul’ and image of the city—in order to achieve a 17 Ibid, p11; see also Seoul Metropolitan Government, http://english.seoul. coherent, desired city brand identity. go.kr/gtk/news/reports_view.php?idx=1281 accessed 17 Dec 2011 4:50pm. 18 Y S Yoon op cit, p20. Since cities are by definition multilayered, each city will 19 Seoul Metropolitan Government, Hi Seoul Introduction, http://english.seoul. need to create and manage their own specific city brand in go.kr/gtk/cg/cityhall.php?pidx=4 accessed 17 Dec 2011 4:30pm. the way that is best for their situation. It is about evoking 20 S Zenker, E Knubben and S Beckmann (2010) Your city, my city, their city, the uniqueness of place. our city: Different perceptions of place brands by diverse target groups, Paper presented at 6th International Conference 2010 Thought Leaders in Brand References Management, Lugano, Switzerland, April 18-20; B Eckstein and J Throgmorton (2003) (ed) Story and Sustainability: Planning, Practice and Possibility for 1 B Baker (2007) Destination Branding for Small Cities, Portland, Oregon: American Cities, Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. 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Management: Branding European Cities and Regions, Cheltenham: Edward 24 S Anholt op cit; M Kavaratzis (2009) Cities and their brands, Place Branding Elgar; H Skinner (2008) The emergence and development of place marketing’s and Public Diplomacy 5:26-37; D Gertner and P Kotler (2004) How can a confused identity, Journal of Marketing Management 24(9):915-928; P Kotler, place correct a negative image? Place Branding 1(1):50-57; G Evans (2003) D H Haider and I Rein (1993) Marketing Places: Attracting Investment, Industry Hard-branding the cultural city, International Journal of Urban and Regional and Tourism to Cities, States and Nations, New York: The Free Press. Research 27(2):417-440. 4 H Skinner op cit; M Kavaratzis (2007) City marketing: The past, the present 25 K Dinnie (2011) City Branding: Theory and Cases, Basingstoke: Palgrave and some unresolved issues, Geography Compass 1(3):695-712. MacMillan. 5 S Ward (1998) Selling Places: The Marketing and Promotion of Towns and 26 Y S Yoon op cit. Cities 1850-2000, London: Spon Press. 27 World Design Capital, http://www.worlddesigncapital.com/press-releases/ 6 G Ashworth and M Kavaratzis op cit; S Anholt (2007) Competitive Identity: world-design-capital-seoul-2010-kicks-off/ accessed 18 Dec 2011 2pm. The New Brand Management for Nations, Cities and Regions, London: 28 B Baker op cit. Urban Development Copies of this Note are available at: DIRECTIONS in Urbanization and Resilience Management Unit, The World Bank Telephone: 202-473-0409, Fax: 202-522-3232 http://www.worldbank.org/urban urbanhelp@worldbank.org If you are interested in submitting an article for consideration, please contact us at the email address above. The views expressed in DIRECTIONS in Urban Development are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the World Bank. 6