Report No. 36 63489 South Asia Human Development Sector Higher Education in the Maldives An Evolving Seascape May 2011 I Report No. 36 South Asia: HumaR Development Unit Higher Education in the Maldives An Evolving Seascape May 2011 Discussion Paper Series TABLE OF CONTENTS Table of Contents............................................................................................................................. .i Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................iv Abbreviations and Acronyms .......................................................................................................... v Executive Summary ........................................................................................................................vi Chapter One: Higher Education in the Maldives ............................................................................. 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 1 The Economic Context ............................................................................................................... 1 The Higher Education Sector ......................................................................................................2 The Global SEAscape of Higher Education ............................................................................... 3 The Higher Education Seascape of the Maldives ....................................................................... 7 Public Higher Education Institutions .......................................................................................... 8 Private Higher Education Institutions ....................................................................................... 11 Economic and Social Benefits of Higher Education ................................................................. 13 Promoting Democracy through Higher Education ................................................................... 14 Chapter Two: Governance and Quality of Higher Education ....................................................... 17 Introduction............................................................................................................................... 17 The Governance of Higher Education: Status, Challenges and Policy Options ....................... 17 The Way Forward: Options for DeVelopment ..........................................................................22 The Quality of Higher Education: Status, Challenges and Policy Options ..............................22 The Way Forward: The Development ofa Higher Education Program to Strengthen Governance and Enhance Quality ............................................................................................. 30 Chapter Three: Higher Education Expansion and Diversification ......... .......................................33 Introduction............................................................................................................................... 33 Public-Private Partnerships in Higher Education ..................................................................... 34 The Way Forward: Policy Choices for the Promotion of Private-Public Partnerships in the Maldives.................................................................................................................................... 38 Strengthening the Public Higher Education Institutions ...........................................................41 The Way Forward: Development Measures for the Expansion and Diversification ofthe National Maldives University ................................................................................................... 43 The Way Forward: Development of the Maldives Polytechnic ............................................... .46 Appendix A............... ..................................................................................................................... 48 Appendix B .............................................................................. ...................................................... 54 Bibliography .................................................................................................................................. 56 Figures Figure 1.1. The Structure of the Maldivian Economy, 2009 ............... ............................................ 2 Figure 1.2. The Tri-Partite Typology of Higher Education ............................................................. 5 Figure 1.3. Enrolment Shares of the Private Higher Education Institutions, 2009/10 .................. 12 Figure 2.1. The Maldives National Qualification Framework ........................................ .............. 26 Figure 3.1. The ISCED Typology of Education ............................................... ............................. 34 Figure 3.2. Land Subsidies in Male: Components Requiring Coverage ....................................... 39 Figure 3.3. Distribution of MCHE Graduates by Type of Academic Award in 2008/2009 .........42 Figure 3.4. The Academic Organization and Awards of the Maldives Polytechnic .................... .46 Tables Table 1.1. Maldives Higher Education Institutions by Type of Courses and Programs .................3 Table 1.2. Tripartite System of Tertiary Education in Selected OECD Countries..........................6 Table 1.3. Gross Enrolment in Higher Education, Maldives and Selected Countries ..................... 7 Table 1.4. Enrolment Levels and Numbers of MCHE Graduates in the Academic Year 2008/2009 ........................................................................................................................................8 Table 1.5. Enrolment and Number of Graduates from the Polytechnic in the Academic Year 2007-2008 ....................................................................................................... ............................... 10 Table 1.6. Student Numbers in Private Higher Education Institutions (2009/1 0) ......................... 11 Table 1.7. Benefits of Higher Education ... .................................................................................... 14 Table 2.1. Programs Offered by the Main Institutions of Higher Education ............. ................... 18 Table 2.2. Alternative Approaches to Financial ControL............................................................. 31 Boxes Box 2.1. The Quality Assurance and Accreditation Council of Sri Lanka ................................... 27 Box 3.1. Relevance of Higher Education and Training to Employment, the University of Belize (UB) ............................................... ............................................ .............................. ...................... 43 Box 3.2. Distance and Flexible Learning (DFL) at the University of South Pacific (USP) ........ .44 II Authors Harsha Aturupane, John Fielden, Samih Mikhail and Mari Shojo Team Support Anita Fernando and Mohammad Khalid Khan iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A number of individuals in the Maldives assisted and provided valuable information for this study. His Excellency the President of Maldives; the Vice-President and members of the Higher Education Council; the Minister of Education, the State Minister of Education, the Deputy Ministers of Education, the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Education; the Director­ General of the Department of Higher Education and the Director-General of the Department of Planning in the Ministry of Education; and the senior staff of the Ministry of Education (MOE); the Minister and senior staff of the Ministry of Finance and Treasury (MFT); the Minister and senior staff of the Ministry of Human Resources, Youth and Sports (MHRYS); the Department of National Planning (DNP); the Chancellor, Rector and staff of the Maldives National University (MNU); the Maldives Polytechnic (MP); the UN agencies; private higher education and training providers, including from Clique College, Cyrix College, Focus Education Center, Mandhu College, MAPS Institute, and Villa College; education officials from the Northern Province, including from the lalaaluddeen School, Afeefuddeen School and Atoll Education Centre; education officials from the Southern Province, including from the MNU Campus and the Polytechnic in Hethadoo, the Mohibudeen School and the Seenu Atoll Education Centre; employers from the public and private sectors; and participants at consultation workshops in Male' and the Addu Atoll. The team also acknowledges with sincere gratitude the assistance of several World Bank colleagues and Sri Lankan counterparts in the preparation of this report. In particular, Diaretou Gaye (Country Director for Sri Lanka and the Maldives), Naoko Ishii (former Country Director for Sri Lanka and the Maldives), Michal Rutkowski (Sector Director, Human Development), and Amit Dar (Education Sector Manager). The peer reviewers were Peter Matern, Lead Education Specialist (AFTED), and Dingyong Hu, Senior Education Specialist (EASH2). iv ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ABE - Association of Business Executive ACCA - Association of Chartered Certificate Accountants AHSTC - Allied Health Services Training Centre BTEC - Business and Technical Education Council CIM - Chartered Institute of Marketing CIMA - Chartered Institute of Management Accountants CMS - Center for Maritime Studies COL - Centre for Open Learning DHE - Department of Higher Education EQA - External quality assessments FE - Faculty of Education FEC - Focus Education Centre FHS - Faculty of Health Sciences Faculty FHTS - Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism Studies FMC - Faculty of Management and Computing FSL - Faculty ofShari'ah and Law GCE/AL - General Certificate of Education Advanced Level GCE/OL - General Certificate of Education Ordinary Level GER - Gross Enrollment Rate GNI - Gross National Income GOM - Government of Maldives HDI - Human Development Index HEC - Higher Education Council HEI - Higher Education Institution HEMIS - Higher Education Management Information System IBS - International Business Systems Overseas ICT - Information and Communication Technology IHS - Institute of Health Sciences IMO - International Maritime Organization ISCED - International Standard Classification of Education MAB - Maldives Accreditation Board MAPS - Modem Academy for Professional Studies MC - Mandhu College MCHE - Maldives College of Higher Education MNQF - Maldives National Qualification Framework MNU - Maldives National University MOE - Ministry of Education MP - Maldives Polytechnic MQA - Maldives Qualifications Authority PAC - Program Advisory Committee QAA - Quality Assurance Agency QAAC - Quality Assurance and Accreditation Council SVHE - Short-duration Vocational Higher Education TIOL - Tertiary Institute for Open Learning v EXECUTTVESUNUdARY 1. The Government of Maldives (GOM) is seeking to accelerate human development and economic prosperity within the political framework of a modern liberal democracy. The government's reform program to achieve this goal, outlined in the policy statement "The Other Maldives" [Government of Maldives (2009a)] contains five pillars: good governance to strengthen democratic institutions and processes; expansion and development of human capital; climate change and adaptation; public sector reform to streamline the delivery of services and improve efficiency; and macroeconomic reform to promote private-sector led growth. 2. Higher education enrolment in the Maldives is low for a middle-income country. If only university degree level or equivalent enrollment is considered, the gross higher education enrollment rate (GER) is about 6 percent. This is approximately the same GER as countries like Bangladesh, Nepal and Pakistan, which are much poorer than the Maldives and have less developed basic education systems. It is also about half the GER in India and less than a third the GER in Sri Lanka. The main reasons for the low enrollment in higher education are: (a) very limited access to higher education opportunities in the Maldives; and (b) poor access to and completion of higher secondary education in the country. Countries at the per capita income level of the Maldives would normally have a larger gross enrollment rate in higher education. For instance, among small, middle-income countries Cape Verde has a GER of 12 percent, St Lucia a GER of 15 percent, and Mauritius a GER of26 percent. 3. The Maldives, an enlightened, market-friendly country, contains both public and private higher education institutions (HIEs). The Maldives College of Higher Education (MCHE) was the main public sector higher education institution until February 2011, when it was converted into the Maldives National University (MNU). The majority students in the MNU, however, are at pre-degree level, reflecting its history as a college. The Maldives Polytechnic is the other public sector higher education institution. There are also seven major private providers of higher education courses and programs. Over 95 percent of enrolment in these private HEIs are in pre-degree level diploma and certificate programs. 4. The shortage of degree level programs in the country has compelled Maldivians who wish to study to degree and postgraduate degree levels to seek their university education overseas in a diverse range of countries, including Australia, England, Egypt, Lebanon, Malaysia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Scotland and Sri Lanka. An important advantage and benefit of this option is that university educated Maldivians are exposed to a rich variety of higher education systems, as well as societies and cultures. A major constraint, however, is that this is an expensive option, particularly if Maldivians are to travel to the high quality Higher Education Institutions (HEls) in developed countries such as Australia, England and New Zealand. In consequence, higher education opportunities are severely limited for Maldivians, and there is a shortage of well-educated Maldivians for professional and managerial positions in the economy. THE GOVERNANCE AND QUALITY OF IDGBER EDUCATION 5. Governance and quality are the heart of higher education systems. Governance typically addresses such questions as the roles and responsibilities of the state and the private sector; the vi extent and nature of autonomy of institutions engaged in the delivery of higher education services; the protocols and processes for the accountability of the various agencies in the higher education sector; and the management and organization of higher education institutions. Higher education quality focuses on the framework for quality assurance and accreditation, and the ingredients of quality, such as the quality of faculty programs, curricula, and teaching-learning activities. Governance 6. In developed and upper-middle income countries governance mechanisms typically involve: • A national strategy for higher education that shows what the country wishes to get from its higher education institutions with some overall policy goals and targets. • Institutional strategies with targets and Key Perfonnance Indicators (KPIs) that each institution has developed for itself and that have been endorsed and agreed with the government. • An external quality assurance agency that reviews the quality of the programs delivered by public and private higher education institutions. • A funding fonnula that is related to student numbers and/or outputs and outcomes rather than inputs. This is usually transparent and makes a financial link between resources invested and the perfonnance of the institution. The fonnula may also incorporate weightings that favour particular subjects, depending on their costs and national importance, or differentiate between modes of delivery and the level of the program. • Special 'eannarked' funding linked to particular policy objectives set by the MOE, which can only be used for a particular purpose. • Financial audits by a national audit office or by authorised professional external audit companies. • A regular reporting and infonnation system on costs, and outputs and outcomes. 7. Only some of the normal accountability mechanisms for a higher education system exist at present in the Maldives. This is due to the fact that, as yet, there is only an embryonic national program for higher education. There is no systematic funding fonnula, or results focused targets and perfonnance indicators agreed with public higher education institutions, or a good Higher Education Management Infonnation System (HEM IS). Nor does the Ministry of Higher Education set aside funding for policy related programs or perfonnance based funds such as competitive funds. Thus, if the country is to come into line with best international practice there is a considerable amount of work to be done. 8. The government needs to select from among a rich menu of options available from international practice to meet the current challenges faced by the country. The appropriate degree of autonomy and accountability of the Maldives National University (MNU), and the role of the Maldives Polytechnic (MP), has to be carefully worked out. In particular, the government now needs to specify whether the MNU will be solely an institution focusing on degree and postgraduate degree programs and research, as is nonnally the case with a university, and all vii non-degree programs to be given to the MP and the private sector. The government also needs to develop a program by which the funding for the MNU and MP are linked to the performance of these institutions. 9. The provision of financial incentives for private higher education institutions through either support for capital expenditures, or recurrent costs, or both, needs to be decided. If a decision is made to provide such support the private sector through such a system of fiscal incentives, the modalities of this relationship, expected performance and outcomes, and the accountability framework have to be set. Alternatively, if students are to be supported through a loan scheme, as the government has commenced to do, then the accountability framework with students, including for repayment, has to be established. The government also needs to decide whether resources will be made available to the private sector through competitive funds, and if so, the design and management of such funds . Quality 10. The quality of Maldivian higher education needs to be demonstrably up to international standards. As a small country the Maldives must be sure that its higher education is of high quality. This means that it is very dependent on establishing international partnerships and links so that it does not lose touch with global standards and developments in higher education. GOM should consider ways of achieving this such as: • encouraging institutions to internationalise (by recruiting staff and students from overseas and arranging staff and student exchanges); • by sponsoring and promoting international partnerships and linkages and the use of international external examiners; • by encouraging institutional governing bodies and boards [such as the Maldives Qualifications Authority (MQA)] to have members from other countries. • encouraging the use of external examiners from other countries, • provision of funds to support overseas scholarships and PhDs for teaching staff so that they absorb international norms, standards and practices, • Another simple approach would be to benchmark entry standards and definitions of pass rates for GCE OIL and GCE AIL examinations. • and students. 11. The MQA's operational mechanisms need to be developed to enable it to fulfil its role effectively. This would include: • accrediting new institutions; • externally reviewing the quality of the programs delivered by all higher education providers; and • working to strengthen the way that all institutions seek to enhance quality within their normal teaching and learning practices. Vlll mGBER EDUCATION EXPANSION AND DIVERSIFICATION 12. The expansion and diversification of the higher education sector is a key challenge facing the Maldives. This challenge is the result of several converging factors. First, the demand for higher education is increasing as the proportion of youth in the population who complete secondary education rises. Second, the per capita income of the country is increasing, and the demand for higher education is expanding as the education aspirations of young people grows with greater affluence. Third, employers in the both the public and private sectors are seeking graduates with good skills and competencies for their organizations. Fourth, the delivery of higher education programs and courses are being transformed by global technological changes and economic developments. 13. The Government of Maldives is seeking to diversify and expand its limited range of higher education programs. This objective requires a combination of policy measures that cover both the private higher education sector and the public higher education institutions. 14. The Maldives has several policy options to promote private-public partnerships in the provision of higher education and training for students. The main options are: a) The provision of land on Male' for private higher education providers. b) The payment of subsidies for rented premises to private HEIs. c) Financial grants towards the capital costs of constructing buildings for private HEIs. d) Payment of a subsidy for students enrolled in private HEIs in the form of scholarships, student loans or vouchers. e) Inviting private HEIs to establish campuses in combination with other services: for instance, local and foreign partnerships in medical education and studies, linked with the establishment of hospitals on atolls that would provide health tourism services. t) Allowing academics from private HEIs to compete for research grants under a government research fund on the same terms as academics from the NMU. These different policy options are not in competition or mutually exclusive. The Government could choose to implement more than one, or even several, of these options. It is very important that the incentives provided establish a level playing field for domestic and overseas HEIs and theMNU. 15. The Maldives National University (MNU) will need to develop along multiple paths. This would include the following. a) The expansion of programs and courses, including e-Ieaming programs and courses, to the various provinces and atolls,. This will also require further development of the special types of student support required for e-Ieaming within the MNU system. b) The introduction of new degree programs and courses, wherever relevant and necessary. This could include programs more explicitly targeted at the promotion of modem, liberal democratic ideals, and of programs to support the economic comparative advantage of the country. IX c) The shedding of non-degree programs and courses, over time. These programs and courses could be left to the Polytechnic and to the private sector. d) The generation of research capacity and the production of research output, including journal articles, papers, monographs and books. 16. The Polytechnic will have to develop in ways that enable it to produce graduates who have skills that are relevant in a rapidly evolving and changing labor market. This would involve the following. a) Strengthening the link with the world of work by having active Program Advisory Committees (PACs) composed of successful practitioners from various sectors of the economy who employ graduates of the MP programs. b) Increasing the use of ICT (Infonnation and Communication Technology) platfonns and on-line Internet technologies to support the effective delivery of their programs. c) Increasing the capacity, quality and relevance of sub-degree programs in hospitality and tourism studies, construction and fisheries. x CHAPTER ONE IDGHER EDUCATION IN THE MALDIVES INTRODUCTION 1.1. The Republic of Maldives, a middle-income country of extraordinary natural beauty, is one of the most advanced nations in South Asia. The Maldives consists of an archipelago of nearly 1,200 islands and a population of approximately 400,000 inhabitants; 310,000 Maldivians and 90,000 expatriate workers. More than 25 percent of the population live in Male', the capital, while the rest are distributed among just under 200 other inhabited islands. The Maldives had attained a national income per capita of USD 2,786 in 2009. This is the highest GDP per capita among countries in the South Asia region. The Maldives also has the best position among South Asian countries in the doing business indicators, at 85'th in the world. The country ranks at 107'th in the human development index (HDI) for 2010, which is the second highest HDI rank in South Asia after Sri Lanka. 1.2. The Government of Maldives (GOM) is seeking to accelerate human development I and economic ,prosperity within the political framework of a modern liberal democracy. The government's reform program to achieve this goal, outlined in the policy statement "The Other Maldives [Government of Maldives (2009a)]" contains five pillars: good governance to strengthen democratic institutions and processes; expansion and development of human capital; climate change and adaptation; public sector reform to streamline the delivery of services and improve efficiency; and macroeconomic reform to promote private-sector led growth. I TBEECONOMUCCONTEXT 1.3. The Maldivian economy has experienced strong growth over the last two decades. GDP per capita increased from USD 1,013 in 1990, to USD 2,300 in 2000, and USD 2,786 in 2009. The tourism sector has been the principal engine of growth in the Maldives. The economy is critically dependent on a small number of sectors, with the following contribution to GDP in 2009: tourism (21%), transportation and communication (18%), government administration (17%), construction and real estate (12%), trade and business services (10%), agriculture and fisheries (11 %), manufacturing (7%) and energy (11 %) [Figure 1.1]. Just two sectors, tourism and transportation and communication, account for nearly 40 percent of the national economy. Transport and communication, and other sectors including trade and business services, and construction and real estate, are also linked to the tourism sector. The dominance of tourism in the economy is both a strength and a weakness. On the positive side the demand for tourism, hospitality and leisure services is income elastic, so that as countries grow and household incomes rise, the demand for these services is likely to enjoy strong growth. On the negative side, it makes the Maldivian economy highly vulnerable to fluctuations and variations in global economic and social conditions through their effect on tourism, and the transmission of these effects to the other related sectors. Figure 1.1. The Structure of the Maldivian Economy, 2009 Energy Manufacturing 1% Source: Estimated from the Maldives Monetary Authority Annual Economic Review 2009. THE IDGHER EDUCATION SECTOR 1.4. The Maldives, an enlightened, market-friendly country, contains both public and private higher education institutions. The Maldives College of Higher Education (MCHE) was the main public sector higher education institution until February 2011, when it was converted into the Maldives National University (MNU). The Maldives Polytechnic is the other public sector higher education institution. There are also seven major private providers of higher education courses and programs: Clique College, Cyryx College, Focus Education Center, International Business Systems Overseas (lBS), Mandhu College, Modem Academy for Professional Studies (MAPS), and Villa College. 1.5. The structure of the higher education sector in the Maldives is typical of small countries. The higher education institutions do not specialize in degree level and postgraduate degree programs in small countries, as they do in large countries. Instead, these institutions offer a variety of courses and programs, at pre-degree certificate and diploma levels, as well as at degree and postgraduate degree level. All Maldivian higher education providers focus mainly on 2 short-duration vocational higher education (SVHE) programs such as pre-degree certificates and diplomas [Table 1.1]. The majority of degree and postgraduate degree/diploma programs that are offered by the MNU and two other colleges, Mandhu and Villa, are accredited and/or awarded by overseas universities. The SVHE certificates and diplomas offered by the various institutions are awarded sometimes by the Maldivian higher education institutions themselves, and sometimes by overseas higher education institutions. Table 1.1. Maldives Higher Education Institutions by Type of Courses and Programs Public Sector Private Sector Postgraduate Degree or Mandhu College Diploma Level Programs Villa College Degree Level Programs National University of Villa College Maldives (fonner MCHE) Pre-Degree Diplomas and National University of Clique College Certificates Maldives (fonner MCHE) Cyryx College Focus Education Centre Maldives Polytechnic IBS Mandhu College MAPS Institute Villa College Source: Records of the Maldives College of Higher Education, Maldives Polytechnic and the Private Higher Education Institutions. 1.6. The shortage of degree level programs has compelled Maldivians who wish to study to degree and postgraduate degree levels to seek their university education overseas in a diverse range of countries, including Australia, England, Egypt, Lebanon, Malaysia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Scotland and Sri Lanka. An important advantage and benefit of this option is that university educated Maldivians are exposed to a rich variety of higher education systems, as well as societies and cultures. A major constraint, however, is that this is an expensive option, particularly if Maldivians are to travel to the high quality Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in developed countries such as Australia, England and New Zealand. In consequence, higher education opportunities are severely limited for Maldivians, and there is a shortage of well­ educated Maldivians for professional and managerial positions in the economy. In consequence, the country is forced to rely, to a considerable extent, on expatriate workers to staff professional occupations in fields such as medicine, engineering, and teaching, as well as in management positions in service sector operations in tourism, hospitality and leisure services, banking and finance, and transport. THE GLOBAL SEASCAPE OF GHER EDUCATION 1.7. Higher education today includes both the conventional university sector and non­ university institutions, which constitute an alternative sector of higher education. In most countries, both sectors of higher education are facing a number of common challenges, including rising participation rates, changing labor market requirements, and competition for public and 3 private funds. All higher education institutions have, therefore, to adapt to the increasingly conflicting demands of multiple stakeholders. Students are demanding quality education; employers, education relevant to their needs; and governments, accountability for public resources allocated to educational institutions. Other relevant trends in higher education include the growth of deregulated, market-driven institutions and vocationally relevant programs, together with the development of "seamless" systems of secondary and higher education, vocational training, and lifelong learning. 1.8. The seascape of higher education has changed and alternative institutions represent distinctive developments in higher education. They also offer some important benefits­ compared to universities-including: (a) easier and more equitable access for large segments of the student population, (b) greater flexibility and responsiveness to the needs of employers, and (c) a different occupational orientation and approach to public service. An effective typology of the higher education system is the so called tripartite system composed of three tiers of institutions: Tier I, which consists of elite research and comprehensive universities; Tier II, lower-status universities and degree-granting colleges and institutes; and Tier III, institutions that offer mostly short-cycle, sub-degree programs (1-3 years). The alternative sector usually consists of all institutions in Tier I and a small percentage of the institutions in Tier II, as shown in Figure 1.2 which outlines the evolution of higher education over the period 1960-2010. The hierarchy of institutions in Tiers I and II is established by the type of degrees offered, the selectivity of admission criteria, and the resources allocated per student. The application of the tripartite system to several leading OECD countries is give in Table 1.2 below. 1.9. The strategic objectives of the alternative sector of higher education are to: • provide equity in access to higher education for the growing youth cohort and young adults who would otherwise have no opportunity for higher education; • provide this access in a cost-effective manner, usually at a lower cost-per-student than in the traditional universities; • ensure that such education equips graduates with the knowledge, skills, and competencies needed by employers in a fast-changing knowledge economy; • offer greater flexibility in program design and delivery in order to respond to the complex and diverse needs of students, the labor market, employers, and governments; • equip students with the learning know-how, abilities, and skills to pursue lifelong learning; • establish partnerships and bridges to other educational sectors, including general and vocational secondary education, as well as the traditional university sector of higher education; and • playa meaningful role as an agent of regional economic development in remote regions and/or disadvantaged communities. 1.10. The Maldivian higher education institutions fit mainly into the model of Tier III institutions, focusing on job-oriented alternative higher education. The National University of Maldives is aspiring to become a TIER II university, shedding its non-degree programs over time to the Maldives Polytechnic and the private higher education colleges. Mandhu College and Villa College, the two private colleges which also prepare students for foreign degrees, also touch the space of Tier II, but are not themselves degree granting bodies to enter this space. 4 Figure 1.2. The Tri-Partite Typology of Higher Education The University Sector of Higher The Alternative Sector of Education .14 Higher Education The Binary System Development of the Alternative Alternative Sector of Higher Education Institutions (1960-1985) The University Sector of Higher 1 The Alternative Sector of Education ...... Higher Education The Tri-Partite System Tier III Development of Hybrid Tier II Short Institutions (1985 - 2(08) Cycle Institutions 5 Table 1.2. Tripartite ystem of Tertiary Education in Selected OECD Countries Country I Tier I Tier 1/ Tier 1/1 32 new universities and I Australia 8 research universities 68 T AFE3 colleges some T AFE colleges 30 research and 56 new universities, 145 community colleges Canada comprehensive university cQlleges, and technical institutes universities polytechnic ITALsb Short-cycle programs in Finland 20 universities 31 polytechnics ~olytechnical education I 123 instituts universitaires de technologie (IUTs) France 37 Grande Ecolesc 86 universities 280 sections de brevet de technicien superieur (BTS) 78 technical and 182 Fachhochschulen Germany comprehensive FHSd Dual training institutesf universities 43 Berufsakademiene Ireland 8 universities 13 technical institutes Training centers 14 public junior 10 public universities 24 public universities I colleges Korea 7 private universities I 50 private universities 144 private junior colleges 54 state and polytechnic 60 technical universities 10 federal and state universities 21 I technical institutes Mexico universities I 84 private teacher 995 private career 8 private universities training (IT) colleges I colleges I 249 public IT colleges Higher professional Superior technical training schools Spain University schools schools (Escue las (Fonnacion profesional (Escue las universitarios) tecnicas superiors) de grado superior, I FPGS) 690 Ivy League, public, 1,760 polytechnic, 1075 community United and private research coIJeges, and smaller colleges and institutes States universities Notes: 3 Technclal and Further EducatIOn Colleges. state universities I of technology b Institutes of Technology and Applied Learning, Ontario. C The Grande Ecoles are professional schools, but most are not research-oriented institutions, however, they are the most selective and prestigious institutions in France. d Fachhochschulen FHS are Universities of Applied Science. e Berufsakademien are similar to the FHS, but with a strong emphasis on cooperative education f "Dual training institutes" offer cooperative programs with employers. 6 THE mGHER EDUCATION SEASCAPE OF THE MALDIVES 1.11. The higher education system (degree or above and pre-degree level) has total enrollment of about 11,000 - 12,000 students. The Maldives National University (MNU) accounts for approximately 4,500 - 5,000 students, the Maldives Polytechnic has around 630 students, and the balance 6,000 or so students are in the various private higher education institutions. There are some students overseas, too, although the exact number is not known. Students follow a variety of types of programs and courses, including face-to-face instruction, on-line education, full-time courses and part-time courses. If the numbers enrolled in degree level and above or equivalent programs alone are considered, however, there are about 1,700 students in the Maldives. Table 1.3. Gross Enrolment in Higher Education, Maldives and Selected Countries Country Higher Education GER (%) GDI per Capita (USD) Maldives 6 3,870 Sri Lanka I 21 1,990 India 13 1,220 Bangladesh 8 580 Pakistan 6 1,000 N~al 6 440 Bhutan 7 2,020 Cape Verde 12 3,010 St. Lucia 15 5,170 I Mauritius 26 7,240 .. Source: UNECSO and World Bank EducatIOn StatiStiCS. SrI Lanka Higher Education Report [World Bank (2009)]. Note: All data are for 2009 or nearest available year. 1.12. Higher education enrolment in the Maldives is low for a middle-income country. If only university degree level or equivalent enrollment is considered, the gross higher education enrollment rate (GER) is about 6 percent [Table 1.3]. This is approximately the same GER as countries like Bangladesh, Nepal and Pakistan, which are much poorer than the Maldives and have less developed basic education systems. It is also about half the GER in India and less than a third the GER in Sri Lanka. The main reasons for the low enrollment in higher education are: (a) very limited access to higher education opportunities in the Maldives; and (b) poor access to and completion of higher secondary education in the country. Countries at the per capita income level of the Maldives would normally have a larger gross enrollment rate in higher education. For instance, among small, middle-income countries Cape Verde has a GER of 12 percent, St Lucia a GER of 15 percent, and Mauritius a GER of 26 percent. 1.13. The higher education sector consists of three mains sets of institutions. Two of these are public institutions: the Maldives National University (MNU), formerly the Maldives College of Higher Education (MCHE), and the Maldives Polytechnic. The third set of institutions consists of a number of private higher education institutions. 7 PUBLIC mGBER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS The Maldives National University (former Maldives College of Higher Education [MCHE)) 1.14. Maldives National University was set up in 2011 tbrougb new legislation wbicb seeks to upgrade tbe MCHE to university status. The MCHE itself was established in 1998 to consolidate the existing institutions of post secondary education in the Maldives, which evolved earlier from initiatives in a number of separate ministries including the Ministries of Health, Tourism, Transport and Civil Aviation, and Planning to address their human resources and training needs. The enrollment and graduation levels in the MCHE are given below. Enrolment and Graduation Levels in MCHE 1.15. The overall level of enrolment and graduation at MCHE in the academic year 2008-2009 is outlined in Table 1.4.1 Table 1.4. Enrolment Levels and Numbers of MCRE Graduates in the Academic Year 2008/2009 Enrolment 2008-2009 Graduates 2008-2009 Faculty F M Total F M Total Centre for Maritime Studies 0 0 0 0 0 0 I Centre for Open Learning 91 421 I 512 20 68 88 Faculty of Shari'ah and Law 117 138 255 2 4 6 Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism Studies 118 236 354 50 87 137 I Faculty of Education 1170 405 1575 265 96 361 Faculty of Health Sciences 596 109 705 211 36 247 Faculty of Management and Computing 458 510 968 114 104 218 Foundation Studies 146 35 181 27 94 121 Total MCHE 2696 1854 4550 689 489 1178 Source: MCHE StatiStiCS. Note: F = female, M = male. The main distinguishing characteristics of the pattern of enrollment and graduation from MCHE are that: (a) about 60 percent of students are female; and (b) education, management and computing, and health sciences are the most popular subjects. The high rates of female enrollment are normal in education systems as they advance. In neighboring Sri Lanka, too, university enrollment is about 60 percent or more female. A similar pattern can be observed in many more developed countries, too. The popularity of subjects such as education and health sciences will also be related to high female enrollment, as these are sectors which are popular among female workers. 1 This section uses the terms Maldives College of Higher Education and MCHE rather than Maldives National University or MNU because the data pertains to the period when the institution was still the Maldives College of Higher Education (MCHE). 8 The detailed patterns of enrollment and graduation by the various Faculties and Centers in the MNU (MCHE) are presented in Appendix A to this chapter. The Maldives Polytechnic 1.16. The Maldives Polytechnic is an institution of higher education and training which offers a range of programs in engineering technology. These lead to the awards of certificates, advanced certificates, diplomas and advanced diplomas. The institution was established as a separate entity in 2010, by restructuring and renaming the Faculty of Engineering Technology (FET) of the Maldives College of Higher Education (MCHE) as the Maldives Polytechnic. The Faculty of Engineering Technology was originally established in 1975 as the Vocational Training Centre (VTC) under the Department of Electricity. In 1993, the centre was renamed as Maldives Institute of Technical Education (MITE) under the Ministry of Planning, Human Resources and the Environment, and then finally as a constituent Faculty ofMCHE in 1998. 1.17. A summary of the student enrolment and the number of graduates from the various disciplines and specialties in engineering technology in the academic year 2007-2008 is presented in Table 1.5, which includes 30 distinct academic awards in four engineering and technology clusters: (a) mechanical engineering technology, (b) civil engineering and built environment technology, (c) electrical and electronic engineering technology, and (d) carpentry and boat building technology. The most popular subjects are mechanical engineering and electrical and electronic engineering. The course which has the highest enrollment in engine repair and maintenance. 9 Table 1.5. Enrolment and Number of Graduates from the Polytechnic in the Academic Year 2007-2008 Enrolment 2007 Graduates 2007 I-­ Program Award F M F M ,a ...... _0 _ 0_ --. ~ Mechanical Engineering AD 0 0 0 0 Mechanical Engineering D 0 9 0 2 Machining & Mechanical Fitting C III 1 5 0 0 Engine Repair and Maintenance AC 2 167 0 41 Fluid Power AC 0 0 0 0 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning AC 0 66 0 4 Welding & Metal Fabrication AC 0 11 0 0 Engine Repair and Maintenance CIII 1 5 0 0 Welding & Sheet Metal CIII 1 17 0 4 Total Mechanical Engineering iCMI - ....-... 5 280 0 51 Construction Management AD 0 0 0 0 Civil Engineering AD 1 10 0 1 Construction Management D 0 0 0 0 Architecture D 11 31 2 6 Civil Engineering D 0 0 0 0 Building Construction D 2 23 0 9 Desalination Sys 0 & M AC 0 21 0 9 Total Civil Eng & Built Envlrnment 14 85 2 25 Electrical Engineering AD 0 0 0 0 Electronic Engineering AD 0 10 0 0 Electrical Engineering D 0 0 0 0 Electronic Engineering D 0 12 0 8 Electrical Engineering AC 0 26 0 7 Electrical & Electronic Engineering AC 1 105 0 23 Power System O&M AC 0 41 0 6 Total Elec & Electronic Engineering 1 194 0 44 Furniture Carpentry & Joi nery AC 0 0 0 9 Wooden & Fibre Glass Boat Building AC 0 27 0 25 Furniture Carpentry & Joinery CIII 0 28 0 15 Furniture Carpentry & Wood Carving CIII 0 0 Wooden & Fibre Glass Boat Building CIII 0 0 0 25 Total Carpentry 0 55 0 74 Total Enldneerfng Technology 20 614 2 194 Source: Maldives Polytechnic. 10 PRIV ATE WGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS 1.18. There are a number of private providers of higher education programs in the Maldives. These providers offer courses leading to certificates, diplomas, and in few cases, to degrees. Although a comprehensive institutional classification system has yet to be established, the development of quality assurance guidelines has led to institutional differentiation among these providers; registration as an "Institute" or a "Centre" is less demanding and elaborate compared to a "College", which requires submission of a detailed proposal outlining the College's organizational and academic structures. 1.19. The enrollment numbers in the private higher education institutions is shown in Table 1.6. The shares of enrollment among these institutions are presented in Figure 1.3. The information shows that the majority of enrollment is concentrated in professional, diploma and certificate courses. Degree level enrolment is very small, just 181 out of 5,935 students (3 percent} Cyryx College has the largest share of enrolment, about 43 percent. The next largest institution are Clique College and IBS. The courses and programs offered by these institutions generally fall within the categories of alternative higher education and are short-term vocational higher education (SVHE), typically lasting from six months to two years in duration [see Mazeran et af (2007) for a discussion ofSVHE programs]. 1.20. These private higher education institutions provide programs and courses in fields such as ICT, management and accounting, business administration, and English language. The focus is on job-oriented higher education. Many students are part-time, working during the day and following courses during the evenings. The institutions are all established in Male', although the government would like them to diversify into other parts of the country. Some private institutions have just begun to locate outside Male'. Table 1.6. Student Numbers in Private Higber Education Institutions (2009/10) Private colleges Total Degree Level Professional Certificates I and Diploma and other Villa College 608 I 181 263 164 Mandhu College 472 136 336 Cyrix College 2,557 286 2,271 IBS 752 103 649 Focus Education 552 117 435 Centre I MAPS Institute 237 237 0 Cilgue Colle~e 757 757 0 Total 5,935 181 1,899 4,036 Source: MOE-OHE survey, November 2010. 11 Fi re 1.3. Enrolment Shares of the Private Hi her Education Institutions, 2009/10 • Cyryx College • Modern Academic for Professional Studies • Focus Education Center • International Business Systems Overseas • Clique College • Mandhu College • Villa College Source: MOE-DHE survey, November 20 I O. Private Higher Education Institutions 1.21. Clique College: Clique received college status in September 2009 after nine years of delivering higher education and training programs as Clique Training Centre. Clique's institutional capacity has expanded with the establishment of Library, larger academic staff portfolio, and quality assurance mechanisms. The College is planning to offer full degree pathways in four specialization; Business Management, Marketing, Tourism, and Human Resource Management. In addition, Clique offers accounting courses at the certificate level, and a diploma in Information Technology approved by the Maldives Accreditation Board (MAB). 1.22. Cyryx College: Cyryx is a full-fledged college that caters to over 3000 students and employs over 60 academic and support staff members. Its facilities have grown to include two campuses in Male' with several computer training labs, modem lecture rooms, and a library. Cyryx was awarded the "college" status by the Government of Maldives in 2009, and its courses are approved by the MAB. Cyryx College is also among the private education providers in the Maldives who has developed its courses following to the Maldives National Qualifications Framework (MNQF). Cyryx College has degree completion agreements with several universities in Malaysia, Australia and India. 1.23. Focus Education Centre (FEC): FEC was established in 1995 as a training provider for computer studies. Today it its portfolio of programs certificates and diplomas in business 12 management, human resources management and IT applications including operating systems, networking and applications programming, as well as corporate IT systems. l.24. International Business Systems Overseas (IBS): IBS has been operating for about 15 years. It was incorporated as a company in 1996. IBS conducts business on educational and training services in the IT field. l.25. Mandhu College (MC): Mandhu College initially established as Mandhu Learning Centre in 1998, offers higher education and training programs to lower and upper secondary school leavers. Further the College has opened avenues for adults without conventional secondary qualifications to obtain diplomas and degrees through its carefully structured Foundation programs as a bridging alternative to fill up the increasing gap between the shortage of competent personnel in various industries and the demand for these people. All programs offered by MC are approved by MAB. The Mandhu College programs include certificates, diplomas, advanced diplomas and graduate diplomas in the following subjects: early childhood education, teaching primary and secondary education, business administration, and IT applications. MC also offers short courses at the level of Certificates I, II and III in wide range of applications. 1.26. Modern Academy for Professional Studies (MAPS): MAPS portfolio includes also seven programs geared towards professional certification with associations such as the Association of Chartered Certificate Accountants (ACCA), and the Association of Business Executive (ABE) of England. l.27. Villa College: Villa College is a full-fledged higher education and training institution belonging to the Villa Group. Located in the centre of Male' , Villa College is the first private college in the country with an excellent reputation for its quality of education and services. The colleges' programs include the following categories: • Foundation! Advanced Certificates in Infonnation Technology, Teaching and Tourism Studies; • Diplomas in Infonnation Technology and Business Studies; • Bachelor Degrees in Infonnation Technology, Business Management, Education and Educational Administration; • Graduate Diploma in Teaching; and • Professional Certification Programs with ClM (Chartered Institute of Marketing ) and ACCA (Association of Certified Chartered Accountants) in the UK. ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL BENEFITS OF mGHER EDUCATION 1.28. Investment in higher education benefits individuals and society. The individual (private) benefits of higher education are those which are realized by the person being educated. Public benefits, on the other hand, are those which fall on all of society and spill over to many other individuals, including future generations. These benefits of higher education are also categorized into economic and social, cultural and political benefits [Table 1.7]. 13 . I a ble 1.7 Benefit'Sof Hi her Ed uca tion Igl Economic benefits N on-economic benefits Individuals - Better employment prospects - Increased responsible citizenship (private) - Higher earnings - Increase human welfare - Higher savings levels - Improved health and life expectancy - Faster technological catch-up - Promoted democracy - Increased national productivity - Better governance - Improved economic output - Increased political stability Society - Produced skilled labor force - Reduced crime (Public) - Lower state welfare and prison costs - Greater and more informed CIVIC I participation - Social cohesion 1.29. As shown in Table 1.7, the economic benefits for individuals include better employment prospects, higher earnings and higher savings levels. For all of society, on the other hand, expanding higher education can promote faster technological catch-up, increase national productivity and then improve a country's ability to maximize its economic output [Bloom et at (2006)]. Higher education also provides the skilled labor force which is needed for technology transfer and technology development, both in terms of specific skills and of general leaming ability. As economic production processes have become increasingly knowledge-intensive and technology-intensive in recent decades, the returns to higher education have been rising in many countries [Hanushek and Welch (2006)]. 1.30. Education also has non-economic benefits. For individuals, higher education strengthens core values relating to responsible citizenship and care for family and community. Higher education also increases human welfare, and improve health and life expectancy. Studies on the value of higher education outcomes identify a number of public benefits of higher education, including promoting democracy, increasing political stability, reduced crime, lower state welfare and prison costs [Hill et at (2005), McMahon (2009)]. These benefits represent a considerable return although they are difficult to quantify, and thus are significantly important in the context of a country's development. A key public benefit identified by the Government of Maldives, for the future of the country, is the promotion of democracy through higher education [GOM (2009b)]. PROMOTJNG DEMOCRACY THROUGH IDGHER EDUCATION 1.31. The political processes in the Maldives have been evolving over time. Originally a Sultanate even as recently as the mid-twentieth century, the country became a Presidential system in the second half of the twentieth century. Multi-party democracy was finally established in the twenty-first century. As such, modem liberal democracy is in its infancy in the Maldives. It is vitally important that the Maldives cultivates an enlightened citizenry, with the ethics, values, norms and codes of conduct required for democracy to be established strongly and sustainably. 14 1.32. Mature and successful pro-market democracies have citizens who reward politicians for policies that promote national development, while immature and less successful democracies have citizens who expect politicians to provide personal rewards to voters. For instance, politically and economically enlightened citizens vote for governments that promote economic growth and stimulate job opportunities in the private sector. Less enlightened citizens expect politicians to provide them with government jobs, an attitude of mind that both weakens the statesmanship of politicians and undermines the economy. 1.33. The MNU needs to be at the center of policy measures to promote democracy through higher education. The Faculty of Arts and Humanities clearly has a key role to play, through its courses and programs in the social sciences and politics, in deepening the understanding of political democracy among its students. Beyond this, however, the MNU could consider introducing, for students following courses and programs in other Faculties, modules that cover the history of democratic reform and the evolution of democracy in the world and in the Maldives, and the desirability ofthe institutions of democracy, including such concepts as the separation of powers between the executive, the legislative and the judiciary, systems of checks and balances on the exercise of power, and an independent media. It is also extremely important that students understand and appreciate the important values and processes of democracy, such as personal freedoms, human rights, political and civic responsibilities of individuals, reasoned debate and argument, participatory decision-making, and non-violent conflict resolution. These modules would build upon the foundation established in the secondary education curriculum, but rise well above it. This is particularly important in the Maldives because a large number of students actually complete schooling at the age of 15 years, and enter the MNU or other HEIs to follow certificate and diploma level courses. A greater understanding of civics and democratic governance is possible for students in their late teens and beyond, compared to the cognitive levels of students in their mid-teen years. Such modules also need to count towards the credit I received by students, to ensure that all students have an incentive to follow these modules fully. 1.34. The role of other private higher education institutions in promoting democracy through their programs is less clear. If such HEIs wish, they could also offer credit-bearing modules on political processes and democracy for their students. Alternatively, these HEIs could offer non­ credit modules, although these are less likely to be effective. A third possibility would, of course, be for private HEIs not to include such modules. Overall, however, the leadership and example of the MNU in this novel and innovative area would be important for the private HEIs, too. The Contribution of the World Bank Higher Education Report 1.35. This report, which has been prepared in consultation with senior policy makers, administrators, academics, employers, public and private higher education providers, principals, teachers, parents and students, serves several purposes. First, the report presents a picture of the higher education sector based on technical analysis and factual evidence. This is the first time such an analysis has been undertaken for the Maldives. As such, the report can serve as a vehicle to communicate the characteristics and features of the Maldivian higher education sector to a global audience. Second, the report presents and discuses a rich and diverse range of higher education systems, policies and reforms observed in the modem world. The discussion has a 15 special focus on those areas where the Maldives faces its most important higher education policy challenges. Third, based on global and international experience, the report presents several policy and program options for the consideration of policy makers and stakeholders. Finally and most importantly, the report is intended to provide information and analysis that can be used by the Government of Maldives, and stakeholders and beneficiaries, for the long-term development of the higher education sector in the country. 16 CBAPTERTWO GOVERNANCE AND QUALITY OF HIGHER EDUCATION INTRODUCTION 2.1. Governance and quality are the heart of higher education systems. Governance typically addresses such questions as the roles and responsibilities of the state and the private sector; the extent and nature of autonomy of institutions engaged in the delivery of higher education services; the protocols and processes for the accountability of the various agencies in the higher education sector; and the management and organization of higher education institutions. Higher education quality focuses on the framework for quality assurance and accreditation, and the ingredients of quality, such as the quality of facuIty programs, curricula, and teaching-learning activities. 2.2. The current analysis covers several of the governance and quality issues above. The objective is to stimulate and contribute to the thinking and debate on the national higher education strategy and program in the Republic of Maldives. The emphasis is on the analysis of the current status in the country, the challenges faced, and the presentation of various options for consideration by policy makers and stakeholders in the higher education sector. THE GOVERNANCE OFIDGBEREDUCATION: STATUS, CHALLENGES AND POLICY OPTIONS 2.3. The Higher Education Council (HEC) under the auspices of the President's Office has overall responsibility for national policy on higher education. The HEC recommends high-level policies, for both the public and private higher education sectors, to the President and the Cabinet of Ministers. Where changes in legislation are necessary, the policies are presented to the Parliament. The policies that are agreed and adopted by the Government of Maldives (GOM) are then administered by the Ministry of Education (MOE) through the Department of Higher Education (DHE). The remit of the MOE covers the Maldives National University (MNU) [fonnerly the Maldives College of Higher Education (MCHE)], the Maldives Polytechnic, and oversight of the rapidly growing private sector higher education institutes and colleges. Table 2.1 lists the principal public and private higher education institutions in the education system, showing the programs they offer at certificate, diploma and degree levels for students after their General Certificate of Education Ordinary Level (GCE OIL) Examination and General Certificate of Education Advanced Level (GCE AIL) Examination. 2.4. The government policy framework acknowledges that the private sector has a positive and significant contribution to make to national economic and social development. However, the HEC and MOE have not yet defined a clear regulatory framework, nor a process for obtaining regular or complete infonnation on the scale of the private HEls. A special study in December 2010 by the MOE collected infonnation on the numbers of students studying at public 17 and private institutions and their mode of study. This shows the following approximate picture [Table 2.1]. Table 2.1. Programs Offered by the Main Institutions of Higber Education Public Sector MNU (ex-MCHE) Certificate, diploma, undergraduate degree, BTEC, ACCA. Maldives Polytechnic Certificate, diploma, CIMA. Private Sector Clique College Certificate, diploma. Cyryx College Certificate, diploma, advanced diploma, ACCA, A TTL Focus Education Centre Certificate, diploma. MAPS Institute Certificate, short courses. Mandhu College ACCA, ClMA, CIM. Certificate, diploma, advanced diploma, graduate diploma. Villa College ACCA, ABE certificates and diplomas, Microsoft certificates. Certificate, diploma, undergraduate and Master's degrees. Source: Handbooks of the various HEIs. • There are about 6,000 students in both the public and the private sectors. • Only one private college has a few students at degree level. • MNUIMCHE and the private colleges each have about 1,900 students working on professional or diploma courses. • A majority of students in the private colleges are studying at certificate or advanced certificate levels. 2.5. The Ministry of Education has had a long declared aim to upgrade the MCHE to the status of a university. A Bill to this effect was passed by the Parliament (Majlis) in January 2011. The MCHE has now become the Maldives National University (MNU).2 The MCHE had campaigned hard to achieve this status and produced an action plan in 2008 called Operational priorities for university title. This set out the steps needed to match the criteria adopted by the Quality Assurance Agency (QAA) in the UK for the award of a university title. The process described in the QAA's web site is however only partially applicable to the Maldives, since the role of the QAA is to make recommendations to the appropriate UK ministry, which then applies its own rules regarding the award of a university title. There is also an intermediate step in the UK system which is the recognition of an institution's capability to award degrees by granting "Degree Awarding Powers" for taught degrees and research degrees. The legislation enacted for the Maldives National University, in contrast, makes it partly accountable to Parliament and partly accountable to the MOE. This is a highly unusual arrangement. The MNU gets its budget through the MOE, and the modalities of the relationship between the MNU, Parliament and the MOE will have to be worked out over time. 2The Faculty of Islamic Studies of the Maldives College of Higher Education is expected to become a separate university in its own right. 18 2.6. The government will need to develop its own criteria for key characteristics of university status. The term is not always well defined, but where it is (as in nearly all high income and upper middle-income countries) the criteria for a university relates to the size of student enrolment at degree level, the qualifications of staff, the spread and number of subjects taught, the ability of staff to undertake research, and the academic track record [Salmi (2009)]. The GOM needs to determine the degree level courses and programs which will be developed in the MNU, rather than being left to the private HEls. Thereafter, the enrolment in the MNU of students who have successfully completed the GCE AIL examinations and follow degree level courses and programs for the university also needs to be determined. Once this number is decided, the MNU can be given a period oftime in which to develop these courses and programs to degree level, including the development of academic staff where needed and appropriate, and to enrol the required number of students. These are key policy options for the goverrunent if the MNU is to function as a proper modern university. Governing the Higher Education -Sector: the Role of the State - 2.7. The general principles of governance of a higher education sector [see Fielden (2008)] are that the State has the key role in the following areas: • Deciding the shape and size of the sector. This would involve, for example, the number and types of publicly funded higher education institutions (HEIs), and the numbers of such HEIs in the different categories. In the Maldives the decision appears to be that there will be two universities, the MNU and the Faculty of Islamic Studies of the MCHE. Currently, the MNU has both degree level and pre-degree level courses. The government needs to decide whether the pre-degree level courses of the MNU will be transferred to the Maldives Polytechnic and/or left purely to the private sector. If such a decision is taken the government also needs to decide over what period of time this transfer would be made. • Devising and then implementing a national strategy for the sector that identifies ways in which the State can be assured that its funding is producing graduates with skills that are relevant and of high quality. This will especially apply in the context of the Maldives given the high number of educated young people who search for jobs in the government services rather than the private sector. This is a challenge for many countries in South Asia, as well as in other parts of the world including the Middle East. • Monitoring or setting the number of students in the sector (in partnership with the Ministry of Finance and Treasury as regards funding). • Seeking to ensure equitable access for all qualified applicants for higher education. • Defining the role of private sector higher education institutions and setting out how they should be regulated. • Developing a national research and development capacity, where relevant and applicable. This would be particularly important for the Maldives at the current time when the MCHE has been upgraded to the status of a university. 19 2.8. These six roles are all appUcable to the Maldives and, because of the small size of the sector, should be achievable with minimal bureaucratic process. In the present structure the high level policy decisions on roles would be principally carried out by the Higher Education Council, and then implemented by the Ministry of Higher Education. Operational policy decisions would be carried out by the Department of Higher Education of the Ministry of Higher Education. Autonomy and Accountability 2.9. The MNU and the Polytechnic receive their funding from the MOE budget. The degree of autonomy that the MNU has is shown in the checklist in Table B1 of the Appendix, which illustrates (in the column headed MA) those areas where MNU has freedom to operate. It can be seen that this compares reasonably favourably with the other countries shown, but the State still retains all the key powers relating to academic staff salaries and appointments, as well as the appointments of CouncillBoard members. 2.10. The MNU has three sources of income: grants from the MOE, tuition fees, and other earnings. Overall, tuition fees provide about 15 percent of the MNU's income, but in the Faculty of Management and Computing (FMC), which is semi-autonomous, they meet over 60 percent of costs. It is usual in small or developing countries for public higher education institutions to be heavily reliant on the State for the bulk of their income or on a mix of tuition fees and State income. 2.11. In any public higher education system the autonomy of institutions is linked to an accountability and regulatory framework. The aim of such a framework in the Maldives would be for the Ministry of Higher Education to provide assurance to the general public that the MNU and the Polytechnic are achieving the national goals set for them and are operating effectively. At present, the accountability and regulatory is still at an infant stage in the Maldives. There are a number of areas that this accountability and regulatory framework could cover, based on international experience [Woodhall (2007), Saint et al (2009)]. 2.12. In developed and upper-middle income countries accountability mechanisms typically involve: • A national strategy for higher education that shows what the country wishes to get from its higher education institutions with some overall policy goals and targets. • Institutional strategies with targets and Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) that each institution has developed for itself and that have been endorsed and agreed with the government. • An external quality assurance agency that reviews the quality of the programs delivered by public and private higher education institutions. • A funding formula that is related to student numbers and/or outputs and outcomes rather than inputs. This is usually transparent and makes a financial link between resources invested and the perfonnance of the institution. The fonnula may also incorporate 20 weightings that favour particular subjects, depending on their costs and national importance, or differentiate between modes of delivery and the level of the program. • Special 'earmarked' funding linked to particular policy objectives set by the MOE, which can only be used for a particular purpose. • Financial audits by a national audit office or by authorised professional external audit compames. • A regular reporting and information system on costs, and outputs and outcomes. Formula-Based Funding of Higher Education Institutions 2.13. A funding formula for higher education institutions, such as the MNU, and for private higher education institutions if the government decides to enter into private-public partnerships with these institutions using budgetary resources, could be relevant for the following reasons: • Allocations would be transparent and not open to "personal negotiations". • Allocations would be logical, fair and consistent across the two institutions. A formula provides stability. • Resources could be clearly linked to outputs and performance, if so desired. • Unit costs/units of resources used in the formula could be easily adjusted to achieve efficiency/economy gains. • In times of hardship the unit of resource used in the formula could be adjusted. • The allocations can be part of a funding system (combined with tuition fees) and do not need to meet 100 percent of costs. 2.14. There are several options to be considered when developing a formula funding model: • The funding can be allocated on the basis of students completing their programs rather than those enrolling. This rewards success and penalises institutions that fail to educate their students. However, measures to protect the quality of graduates would need to be instituted, as otherwise institutions may lower standards to pass students and obtain the funds linked to graduation rates. • The formula can vary by subject, paying more for expensive disciplines. In the UK there were four price bands (until recently) and there are eight price bands in Australia. • The price paid per student can be based on historic cost or a targeted cost. • The allocation per student will vary for postgraduate and doctoral students, part-timer students, and for those studying online or through distance learning. 2.15. Only some of the normal accountability mechanisms for a higher education system exist at present in the Maldives. This is due to the fact that, as yet, there is only an embryonic national program for higher education: in particular, there is no systematic funding formula, or results focused targets and performance indicators agreed with institutions, or a good Higher Education Management Information System (HEMIS). Nor does the Ministry of Higher 21 Education set aside funding for policy related programs or performance based funds such as competitive funds. Thus, if the country is to come into line with best international practice there is a considerable amount of work to be done. THE WAY FORWARD: OPTIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT 2.16. The government needs to select from among the rich menu of options available from international practice to meet the current challenges faced by the country. The appropriate degree of autonomy and accountability of the MNU, and its relationship to the Parliament and the MOE, has to be carefully worked out. In particular, greater clarity is needed on what is meant to be accountable to Parliament and what the role of the MOE would be in terms of funding and performance monitoring. 2.17. The provision of fmancial incentives for private higher education institutions through either support for capital expenditures, or recurrent costs, or both, needs to be decided. If a decision is made to provide such support the private sector through such a system of fiscal incentives, the modalities of this relationship, expected performance and outcomes, and the accountability framework have to be set. Alternatively, if students are to be supported through a loan scheme, as the government has commenced to do, then the accountability framework with students, including for repayment, has to be established. The government also needs to decide whether resources will be made available to the private sector through competitive funds, and if so, the design and management of such funds. 2.18. The development of a balanced framework of accountability and monitoring of the performance of higher education providers will require strengthening the Department of Higher Education (DHE) of the Ministry of Education. The extra responsibilities on the DHE will require additional skills. This suggests the need for a program of management development for staff, and capacity building of the DHE, since the demands of developing new accountability mechanisms, monitoring, and reporting to the Higher Education Council and the Parliament will place a strain on the existing resources. THE QUALITY OF IDGHER EDUCATION: STATUS, CHALLENGES AND POLICY OPTIONS Assurance of Quality 2.19. A key element in an accountability framework is a process for ensuring the delivery of higher education to a standard of quality that is acknowledged internationally. Maldivian higher education institutions, both state and private, should have their awards recognised by universities and colleges throughout the world. One route to widespread recognition could be the adoption of the principles and practices of the Bologna process. A growing number of institutions outside Europe are voluntarily accepting these as a means of enhancing the status of 22 their HE systems.) The Maldives higher education system is based on the UK model, which means that the core element of the Bologna process (the three cycle system of higher education ­ bachelor's, master's and doctorate) is already in place. Further changes required now would be strengthening the quality assurance regime and the adoption of "Diploma Supplements" for all graduates so as to enhance their mobility into other higher education systems and provide some transparency on what they had achieved in their degree programme. 4 2.20. The Maldives higher education system needs to be viewed within the framework of different functions involved in quality assurance and accreditation, as they can sometimes be confused: • Before a new private provider can enrol students, it needs some form of recognition by the government. Some countries such as Singapore, Malaysia, Mexico and South Africa, have a hierarchy of processes which separate institutional registration and licensing from accreditation and quality assurance. While the processes of institutional registration, provisional licensing, and full licensing usually look at the institution as a whole, the final accreditation often confines itself to looking at programs. The Maldives has decided to accredit programs using the Maldives Qualifications Authority (MQA). The MQA mainly confined itself to quality assurance of private higher education institutions and has not undertaken quality assurance of the MNU (previously MCHE) ahhough ideally it should cover both private and state higher education institutions. • When a foreign provider wishes to establish itself in a country, governments are often unsure how to handle their registration or accreditation. They have a choice - of accepting the institution's bona fides if it has been recognised and quality assured by a well respected agency in their home country - or of asking the institution to submit to the normal processes followed by domestic applicants. In principle there should be no difference between the treatment of foreign private providers, foreign State-funded providers and new domestic providers. Similar standards of vetting and approval should apply so that there is basis for similar quality standards of provision. • Some countries have a time limit on accreditation of programs and will expect institutions to re-apply when that limit expires. In the USA this process applies to all public and private institutions as a whole and the voluntary accreditation process is extensive as it involves a scrutiny of a wide range of operational and management processes [see CHEA]. In the UK there is no accreditation as such, but control over private providers is through giving them degree awarding powers which have to be reviewed after six years by the Quality Assurance Agency. • External quality assessments (EQA) are the usual form of check that governments rely on to be assured that institutions are serious about maintaining quality. These EQAs are carried out by a national agency on a cycle ranging from five to seven years and usually focus on the institution rather than an academic program. The standard approach is for the institution to complete a self-assessment exercise (to a standard format), which is then 3For an outline of the Bologna Process see http://ec.europa.euJeducationihigher-educationidocI290_en.htm 4Diploma Supplements are documents that students receive on graduation that provide information on what they have learned. For information on what this entails see http://ec.europa.euJeducationilifelong-learning­ policy/doc 1239_en.htm. 23 submitted to the quality agency; this is followed up by a team of reviewers who visit an institution and discuss the self assessment. However, governments may also request reviews of specific academic programs where they have concerns. • A final element relates to Quality Enhancement, which covers the activities and policies that an institution has put in place to promote quality teaching and to carry out regular internal assessments of quality. Although the prime responsibility for quality enhancement rests with the institution, some governments prompt or sponsor activities such as National Teaching Awards or support units to help institutions. 2.21. There are various ways in which small emerging economies can ensure that the quality of their higher education system is in line with global standards. These include: • the establishment of national quality assurance agencies (which in small states may have strong links with other regional systems), • encouraging the use of external examiners from other countries, • provision of funds to support overseas scholarships and PhDs for teaching staff so that they absorb international nonns, standards and practices, • promoting collaborative partnerships with universities in other countries which can lead to their validation of programs and the exchange of staff and students. 2.22. Apart from the establishment of the Maldives Qualifications Authority (MQA) it is not clear to what extent these measures are being encouraged. As an example the Ministry of Human Resources Youth and Sports (MHRYS) and the Villa Foundation both provide overseas scholarships for staff and students. Up to 400 scholarships are awarded each year by the MHRYS, but the MOE has no infonnation on the number of these that are used to upgrade teaching staff and does not know whether these staff return afterwards to their institution in the Maldives or become part of a brain drain. Infonnation gathering, monitoring and dissemination in higher education is weak, and needs to be strengthened considerably in the Maldives. 2.23. The Maldives Qualifications Authority (MQA) was created as a semi autonomous body in May 2010 from the former Maldives Accreditation Board (MAB) with several functions: • To develop and then administer the Maldives National Qualifications Framework (MNQF). • To accredit any new programs proposed by the Polytechnic and private sector higher education institutions. • To monitor and assure the quality of all the programmes provided by these institutions. • To authorise the entry into the Maldives of any foreign providers of tertiary education through an accreditation process. 2.24. The Maldives National Qualification Framework (MNQF) was established by the Maldives Accreditation Board (MAB) to provide learners, employers, and education providers in the Maldives with a framework that ensures that qualifications are nationally standardized and quality assured. The MNQF incorporates technical and vocational qualifications that provide 24 parity of esteem between these qualifications and academic qualifications, as well as the opportunity for the GOM to put in place sustainable and strategic solutions for national human resource development needs. The MNQF is based on a modified version of the Scottish Qualifications Framework and involves ten qualification levels from the lowest Level I, corresponding to Certificate I, a first vocational certificate, to Level 10 that includes several qualifications; the Doctoral Degree, as well as Higher Professional Certificates and Diplomas [see Figure 2.1. In addition, Table B2 in the Appendix gives the details of the framework]. 2.25. The MQA has inherited many of its processes from its predecessor body, the MAD. The MQA carries out very detailed checks on the study records of each batch of students seeking to graduate from private sector colleges before it authorizes their entitlement to an award. This is highly labour-intensive and imposes a heavy burden on the small staff available to the MQA, and delays the process quality of assurance. This system could be replaced by spot checks on a valid statistical basis or academic audit visits to the colleges to check the reliability of their internal processes and service delivery mechanisms. 2.26. The MQA has the dual function of operating the national qualifications framework and the national system of quality assurance. While there are some advantages in the same functions being carried out within one organisation, there are also risks. The MQA accredits programs and not institutions. It has no role therefore in reviewing the internal quality assurance processes of higher education institutions to assess the extent to which a quality culture exists or whether quality enhancement processes have taken root. The other noticeable omission is that MQA has no jurisdiction over the MNUIMCHE. This is very unusual, as national agencies usually cover all publicly funded institutions, although it has been common in some countries for them to focus initially on the private sector. 5 The major advantage of the MQA accrediting both the MNU and the private HEIs is that it would establish a level playing field between the state and non-state HEIs. This would benefit the country, as well as both sets of institutions in tenns of the long-tenn development of their quality. S This was the situation in Malaysia where the first external quality assurance agency focused solely on the private sector. Now both the public and private sectors are reviewed by the same body, the Malaysian Qualifications Agency. 25 Figure 2.1. The Maldives National Qilalification Framework 2.27. The operations of the MQA should be reviewed in the light of international practice in regulation and quality assurance. It is clear that the combination of a current shortage of 26 qualified staff and the workload from carrying out the present very detailed procedures is preventing MQA from carrying out its more strategic quality assurance and quality enhancement functions. A review of MQA could explore the introduction of a more balanced system, which would include: • Restructuring the organisation so that its three core functions are placed in separate units: the first managing the MNQF; the second applying licensing and accrediting providers; and the third carrying out external quality assurance reviews. • Changing the role of the MQA so that it is empowered to review institutions as well as programs and to support their internal quality enhancement processes. • Re-engineering and simplifying the processes involved in approving new programs offered by the private sector. This would remove the MQA's image of being a policeman rather than an advisor and enabler. • Revising the procedures for licensing and accrediting new tertiary education providers. • Developing of codes of practice and benchmarks against which all academic programs can be assessed. • Developing processes to operate a programme of periodic "light touch" external reviews of both public and private institutions - using the same criteria and benchmarks. • Drafting policies and procedures on quality enhancement to be followed by all institutions (and reviewed in the self assessment process). 2.28. The MQA now has to develop a strategy for the development of its functions and its organisation. This could include a program of professional development - possibly including short-tenn secondments to overseas quality assurance agencies - and the design of appropriate light touch external review procedures so as to lessen the workload on the staff. The MQA could be encouraged to follow the models and procedures developed by the International Network of Quality Assurance Agencies in Higher Education (INQAAHE) and to join in regional networks such as the Asia Pacific Quality Network (APQN).6 Partnerships could also be sought from neighbouring countries such as Malaysia or Sri Lanka where the Quality Assurance and Accreditation Council (QAAC) has invested considerable efforts in developing a full range of subject standards and benchmarks and external quality review processes. Participation in some of the subject and institutional reviews undertaken by the QAAC would be an effective fonn of staff development for reviewers from the MQA. Box 2.1. The Quality Assurance and Accreditation Council of Sri Lanka Sri Lanka has developed a comprehensive process for carrying out quality assurance reviews of universities. This has involved the development of benchmarks and subject standards, the design of self assessment procedures, training university staff as reviewers, and completion of subject and institutional reviews in all the universities. The QAAC has also developed the outlines for reviews of postgraduate programs and library facilities and has worked to establish and strengthen networks for internal quality enhancement in each university. 6 See http://ww.inqaahe.orglindex.phpand http://www.apqn.orgl 27 Quality Assurance of the MNU 2.29. One reason for the exclusion of the MNU from the scope of the MQA is the fact that it has established a range of quality assurance mechanisms of its own. It is no different in this respect from most university institutions in the developed world. The MNU currently has about 6,000 students (including about 2,000 part timers) who study 150 certificate, diploma and degree level courses. About 70 percent of these certificates and diplomas are at sub-degree level and can be taken by students with adequate '0' levels, but the MNU's long term plan is to increase the number of degree courses so that they are in a majority. All the current degree programs are validated by overseas institutions. In addition some of the professional diploma and certificate courses offer awards by BTEC, CIMA, ACCA and Microsoft. 2.30. Now that university status has been approved by Parliament, it is assumed that the MNU will have degree awarding powers of its own. The MNU is keen to emphasize its academic autonomy as regards the maintenance of quality and has established internal policies and processes covering the approval of new programs and examination and assessment processes. For example, one policy adopted by the MNU is the establishment of Advisory Committees in each faculty, with 50 percent of members from outside the College, with the task of reviewing new course proposals and confirming their relevance and the need for them. It is not clear how comprehensive or productive this consultation is, since industry representatives continue to complain about the lack of employable skills in the MNU'sIMCHE's graduates. 2.31. The MOE needs to undertake a review of all the internal and external quality assurance mechanisms within MNU and recommend any changes in the respective roles of the MQA, the international validating bodies and the MNU's internal quality assurance staff. Any such review should also review the extent of MNU's autonomy in academic and financial issues and, having assessed this in the global context, should offer suggestions for change in both delegated powers and mechanisms for MNU's accountability to the MOE. The existence of independent mechanisms within MNU for enhancing quality would not be an argument for excluding it from a regime of external self-assessment administered by the state. External reviews are needed to confirm that internal processes and efforts at quality enhancement are working well. Internal and external strands of quality assurance should be complementary, as they are in most universities in the developed world. For example, the Australian Universities Quality Agency states "AUQA recognizes that the achievement of quality in any organization depends on a commitment to quality within the organization itself, and so operates as unobtrusively as is consistent with effectiveness and rigour." 2.32. One crucial step needed to ensure a quality higher education system is to strengthen the capacity of academic staff. This includes encouraging academic staff to qualify at PhD level. The MNU plans to arrive at a situation where only those with a PhD teach masters level students. The MOE should assess the national stock of teaching staff with masters and PhD qualifications and review the plans of the MNU and the Polytechnic for investing further in academic development. If the MNU is to become an all degree institution, it will require a significant investment in academic staff development, which will need to be phased and planned by the MOE. The Maldives has already obtained academic training from countri~s such as Australia, India, Malaysia, New Zealand and the u.K. However, this has mainly been at degree 28 level, with some masters degrees and a very few PhDs. Upgrading staff to PhD level will require considerable investment of time and resources over a long period of time, and win have to be carefully managed to minimize the risk of brain drain. 2.33. The government will also have to think about the most cost effective ways of providing short-term academic and management development courses in future for academic and managerial staff in the MNU and the Polytechnic. This is most likely to involve the use of foreign staff developers running a tailored program in the Maldives or the participation of Maldivian staff in leadership development programmes run by organizations overseas. International Aspects of Quality 2.34. Establishing and maintaining close Jinks with international providers can playa key role in helping a small country such as the Maldives to benchmark its higher education quality against global standards. It win always be hard for the Maldives to prove that it has applied quality standards objectively, so that international recognition from respected external organisations will be important. Maldivian institutions are already using overseas institutions and professional bodies in various ways: • To provide franchised course content developed by an international organisation which is delivered locally and then examined to international standards for an international award (e.g. Villa College's arrangement with the Malaysian Open University, and the professional validations provided by CIMA, ACCA and BTEC). • To validate local courses as being equivalent to the diploma or degree of the validating body with an examination that is administered by the awarding body. In this model the overseas provider usually provides academic staff development for Maldivian staff or seconds its own academic staff to supplement locai academic staff in the initial delivery of some modules of the course. • To validate local courses as equivalent to the first two or three years of an international course and to offer students at the Maldivian institution a progression to the final year of a degree programme overseas. Establishment of Overseas Universities in the Maldives 2.35. Another model of higher education that is now emerging is where an international provider seeks to establish a campus in the Maldives from which it aims to deliver programmes for the overseas students as well as Maldivian students, given the small potential student population in the Maldives. The country has already received such inquiries from international higher education institutions from Italy and India. 2.36. The MOE will need to develop its regulatory framework for this type of international provider. For example, to what extent will it expect the MQA to be involved with its provision? How much reliance will it place on the quality assessments of the provider by other national quality assurance agencies in countries such as the UK, India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, New Zealand and Australia? In addition, it wilt be important for the Maldives to take a strategic view of requests from international providers and ask whether they are highly regarded 29 in their own country and whether they are among the world's leaders in disciplines of strategic interest to the Maldives. The MOE will need to move away from a reactive mode of merely responding to external requests to a positive one of inviting chosen institutions to express an interest in coming to the Maldives. This model is used successfully in many of the Gulf States, including in Qatar, and also in Singapore. These are, of course, countries which can afford to target some of the world's leading institutions. THE WAY FORWARD: THE DEVELOPMENT OF A IDGHER EDUCATION PROGRAM TO STRENGTHEN GOVERNANCE AND ENHANCE QUALITY 2.37. The program for the higher education sector at present is at an embryonic stage. Substantial future development of the regulatory framework and the quality assurance system is urgently needed. One possible strand of a future strategy could be for the Maldives to seek out international partners with a global reputation in the academic fields in which the Maldives wishes to build its reputation. If the country relies solely on responding to approaches made to it, many potentially excellent matches could never materialise. The comparative advantage of the Maldives would be in areas such as marine sciences, oceanography, and tourism, hospitality and leisure services. 2.38. The country needs to develop an approach to funding tertiary institutions that links the national strategic objectives with institutional plans to achieve them. The usual way that countries follow this model is by using the targets set in the national strategy as a framework within which institutions are asked to plan. Institutions are then encouraged to develop their own strategic plans (adapted to their particular strengths and circumstances), but showing how they will work to implement the national targets. The MOE and the Ministry of Finance and Treasury will need to develop a medium tenn budget framework that provides enough funding for the overall strategy to be implemented. This calculation will be based on decisions such as the relative share of institutional income that will come from tuition fees or grants from the State and forecasts for the future numbers requiring higher education in the public sector. A decision will be required on whether to introduce a fonnula funding model, as described earlier in this chapter, and what version of it to adopt. 2.39. An appropriate accountability framework for both the public and private higher education institutions, that focuses on the outputs and results achieved, needs to evolve. As discussed earlier, funding fonnulae can be used to encourage the adoption of policy goals; the fonnulae can also be fine tuned when required. The balance between centralized control and full autonomy in funding is summarized in Table 2.2 below. 2.40. Another accountability mechanism which the Maldives could consider adopting is to designate special funds that are only used for particular national objectives. An institution would only be able to use them for that purpose. Once accountability has been assured, there will be a need to consider the extent of financial autonomy that should be given to the new university and the Polytechnic. The system whereby the Ministry of Finance and Treasury exercises 30 detailed control over much of the expenditure could be re-examined and brought into line with that adopted in the other countries where institutions have greater freedom and flexibility. . T a blc 2.2 AJterna f Ive A . lOanCla I C on t ro I .pproach es t 0 F' Topic Centralized Control Full Autonomy I Annual budgets Agreed in detail by MOE or Agreed by the Board (but the funding body , possibly reported to the Ministry of Education) Expenditure "Line item control" so that Total freedom to allocate and institutions cannot switch spend as required within the expenditure between the overall total grant or budget ' agreed budget headings awarded by the Ministry of Education Under-spending at the end of Surrender all under-spent Freedom to carry forward an accounting period sums to the Ministry of under-spending (and to absorb Education or to the Ministry any over-spending from future of Finance funds within limits) External earnmgs from non­ Surrender to the Ministry of Freedom to retain and spend governrnentsources Education or to the Ministry freely all sums earned from of Finance aU external non-govenunentsources earnings Tuition fees for domestic and Fees cannot be charged or, if Fee levels can be set freely international students they are, have to be set at a and the money retained fixed rate and then without affecting the budget surrendered to the Ministry of allocation from the Finance govenunent. Source: FIelden (2008). 2.41. The quality of Maldivian higher education needs to be demonstrably up to international standards. As a small country the Maldives must be sure that its higher education is of high quality. This means that it is very dependent on establishing international partnerships and links so that it does not lose touch with global standards and developments in higher education. GOM should consider ways of achieving this such as: • encouraging institutions to internationalise (by recruiting staff and students from overseas and arranging staff and student exchanges); • by sponsoring and promoting international partnerships and linkages and the use of international external examiners; • by encouraging institutional governing bodies and boards (such as the MQA) to have members from other countries. • Another simple approach would be to benchmark entry standards and definitions of pass rates for GCE OIL and GCE AIL examinations. 2.42. Establishing regular reporting systems that will give GOM reliable information on student and staff numbers in the system and the costs of the institutions can be very useful, 31 but also challenging. This, again, is an extension of the accountability and regulatory framework. GOM wishes to have a reporting system on both public and private providers, so that the HEC and MOE can have an overall view of the state of HE. In many countries the Ministry of Education has established a Higher Education Management Information System (HEMIS) as an integrated source of information on all aspects of higher education. Such a system usually draws its data direct from institutions so that it is accurate and up to date. This is one option for GOM to consider. There are boundary questions as to whether such a system should also collect data on Maldivian students studying abroad (whether on GOM and Villa scholarships or on their own account) and on those studying by distance or e-Iearning. It should be noted, however, that the development and maintenance of a Higher Education Management Information System (HEMIS) can be costly and time and skill-intensive. 2.43. MQA's operational mechanisms need to be developed to enable it to fulfil its new role. These would include: • accrediting new institutions; • externally reviewing the quality of the programs delivered by all higher education providers; and • working to strengthen the way that all institutions seek to enhance quality within their normal teaching and learning practices. This policy review has identified several areas where the MQA should be encouraged to review its operations, and has also proposed that its role be broadened. How this review is undertaken is an important matter for the government to decide: it could be internally driven by the Board and staff of MQA, or it could use some external inputs from other quality assurance agencies in the Asia Pacific region (or elsewhere) in order to draw on international experience. Given the limited specialist experience on quality assurance issues in the Maldives, a review panel with external members would seem to be desirable. 2.44. Academic staff and civil servants in the key agencies need to be developed so that they can implement the required changes in the MOE, the MQA and higher education institutions. It is clear that if the proposals in this report are followed, an investment in management development and training would be very valuable. There are several ways in which this can be provided: • commissioning a series of tailored programmes to be run in the Maldives by experienced international providers is one method; • sending selected senior staff to participate in relevant programmes run by the leading agencies in other countries that train managers in higher education. This is expensive, but has the advantage of enabling networking with participants from other countries; and • organizing short focused study visits to relevant countries from which the Maldives can learn. 32 CHAPTER THREE HIGHER EDUCATION EXPANSION AND DIVERSIFICATION INTRODUCTION 3.1. The expansion and diversification of the higher education sector is a key challenge facing the Maldives. This challenge is the result of several converging factors. First, the demand for higher education is increasing as the proportion of youth in the population who complete secondary education rises. Second, the per capita income of the country is increasing, and the demand for higher education is expanding as the education aspirations of young people grows with greater affluence. Third, employers in the both the public and private sectors are seeking graduates with good skills and competencies for their organizations. Fourth, the delivery of higher education programs and courses are being transformed by global technological changes and economic developments. The current chapter analyzes and presents a set of options for the expansion and diversification of the higher education sector in the country. 3.2. Higher education programs in most countries are delivered by a diverse variety of higher education institutions. These include both conventional universities and non-university alternative higher education institutions [Mikhail (2008)]. In addition to the variety of institutional models, the higher education sector also involves work-based cooperative programs and online distance learning schemes. Other relevant trends in the higher education sector include the growth of deregulated, market-driven institutions and vocationally relevant programs, together with the development of "seamless" systems of secondary and higher education, vocational training, and lifelong learning. A useful typology of education that is often used in analyzing education systems is the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED), which classifies education into seven levels from pre-school (lSCED 0) to the Post Graduate Programs (lSCED 6) as indicated in Figure 3.1. Higher Education in the Maldives involves the following institutional types: • Remedial programs in private institutions for adult learners needing to complete O-level examinations ( ISCED 3B and 4B) • Programs in the Polytechnic and other private institutions that accept students with O-level and lead to the award of certificates and advanced certificates in vocational and occupational subjects (ISCED 3C and 4C) • Undergraduate programs in the Maldives National University (MNU) and private higher education institutions leading to the award of diplomas and advanced diplomas in occupational subjects (lSCED 5B) • Undergraduate programs in the MNU as well as in private institutions leading to the award of degrees from partner foreign universities (ISECD 5A). 33 Figure 3.1. The ISCED Typology of Education 1 University Graduate Programs 1 [&ED 6 - Ii r I! University Undergrad Programs -: 1 11 -:1 Alternative Undergrad Programs ~~ Adult Occupational Programs ~r:J 1 I -:" Upper Secondary Youth Occupational school Programs Lower Secondary school ..,21 1 Primary school lmotl Pre-school lmool 3.3. The Government of Maldives is seeking to diversify and expand its limited range of higher education programs. This objective requires a combination of policy measures that cover both the private higher education sector and the public higher education institutions. The present chapter discusses a series of policy measures that can be adopted, commencing with the stimulation of the private sector, and followed by a discussion of options for the development of the two public sector institutions, the Maldives National University and the Maldives Polytechnic. PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIPS INIDGHER EDUCATION 3.4. Public-private partnerships (PPPs) in higher education are of central importance for the future development of higher education in the Maldives. PPPs in the higher education sector can be used for a variety of purposes. The main purposes would be to: a) support socially responsible and sustainable development of the higher education sector; b) expand access to quality higher education to all provinces; c) introduce innovative means of financing and delivering education services; d) improve quality standards in higher education; 34 e) help students and institutions obtain access to financial support; and t) complement public financing and provision to achieve national education goals. Private Higher Education Institutions 3.5. Private higher education institutions (HE Is) fall into two broad classes, private profit-making HE Is and private non-profit HEIs. Private profit making HEIs in middle­ income countries usually invest in courses and programs that enjoy strong student demand and have relatively low set-up costs. Typically, IT software courses, and management and accountancy courses, predominate. This is currently the case in the Maldives, as with many other developing countries. 3.6. Private non-profit higher education institutions normally commence with a specific institutional mandate. For instance, religious orders may establish HEIs for the academic needs of its membership. Over time, some of these HE Is can develop into institutions that offer a broad curriculum, including the arts and humanities, the natural sciences and the social sciences, and eventually even professional programs such as engineering, law and medicine. Several of the world's most famous universities are private non-profit HEIs, and commenced centuries earlier, many as institutions engaged initially in religious knowledge, philosophy and theology. 3.7. The participation of private HEIs in higher education has several advantages. Some of these advantages are common to both non-profit HEIs and profit-making HEIs, while some are relevant only to one or the other of these classes of HEIs. Private HEIs also have some limitations: these are discussed in a subsequent section. Advantages of Private Higher Education Institutions 3.8. The first advantage of private HEIs is that they increase investment in the higher education sector and bring additional resources for expansion a,nd development. This is particularly important because the unit cost of providing higher education services is considerably greater than the unit cost of providing primary and secondary education services. And expanding access to higher education is necessary for advancement and progress as a country ascends the ladder of economic development. The demand for good quality higher education rises sharply as a country develops, and the production cost of meeting this demand increases steeply. Even many developed countries, as a result, have introduced policy initiatives to promote private sector participation in higher education during the last five to ten years. 3.9. A second advantage of private investment in higher education is that private HEIs usually have greater flexibility, and can react to changes in student demand more quickly and efficiently than public HEIs. This is especially the case for private profit-making HEIs, whose very rationale for existence depends on being able to match the supply of courses and programs to meet the demand from students. Public HEls, in contrast, usually have less flexibility in changing staff and the organization of courses and programs. 3.10. A third advantage of private HEIs is that they increase the number, and usually also the variety, of institutions offering higher education services. When a country has multiple 35 providers and a diversified range of higher education institutions it expands the choices available for students. This enables students to select courses and programs more closely aligned with their preferences and circumstances. And the country can benefit from the presence of graduates who have a variety of higher educational experiences rather than if all the graduates had a narrow and limited set of higher educational experiences. 3.11. A fourth advantage is that the presence of private HEIs generates competition, both among the private HEIs and with the public HEIs: in the case of the Maldives with the MNU. This competition can stimulate improvements in quality in both the public and private HEIs. Also, in the case of private HEIs it can lead to reductions in cost, as the HEIs strive to increase their enrollment numbers and market share. The competition can also act as a spur to innovations in courses and programs, including the introduction of new, market-oriented courses and programs by the HEIs. 3.12. A fifth advantage is that if the private higher education sector takes-off and grows vibrantly, it can become an important source of economic revenue to the country. This is particularly the case if foreign students can be attracted to the HEIs based in the Maldives. Private HEIs, due to their greater flexibility and adaptability, are more likely to be able to attract foreign students. For example, where private HEIs are linked with overseas partners, or are in­ country franchise operations of a reputed HEI in a developed country, international students from other countries, especially the neighborhood of the Maldives, could well be attracted to take advantage of the higher education opportunities available in the country. The private HEIs seeking to attract foreign student could seek to use the natural beauty of the Maldives creatively in their campuses, in order to attract foreign students and researchers. 3.13. A sixth advantage is that the expansion of private HEIs can generate job opportunities for bright young Maldivians, as academics and researchers, as well as in managerial and administrative positions, in the HEIs. If HEI campuses can be established in a viable manner in strategically selected atoll centers, then the government's policy objective of developing provincial economic centers can also be facilitated, as the presence of HEI campuses generates demand in the locality for a variety of goods and services, including accommodation and food, cultural and social activities, and ancillary services. Limitations of Private Higher Education Institutions 3.14. Private HEIs also have limitations, which can be perceived as disadvantages from certain perspectives. These limitations, the perspectives from which these are considered disadvantages, and some responses, are described below. 3.15. Private HEIs in small developing countries such as the Maldives, especially when they are new, typically do not engage in courses and programs that have high set-up costs. Hence degree programs in, for example, heavy engineering would not nonnally attract private HEls. Also, for-profit HEIs do not engage in courses and programs where student demand is low, but which are of importance for the intellectual and cultural lives of the country. For instance, courses in several varieties of the arts and humanities, and the social sciences, and even the natural and social sciences, may not attract adequate private investment. The only exception 36 would be non-profit private HEI's which may engage in a few areas within their institutional mandates. But these HEIs may not be able to offer a full range of liberal arts type programs in the Maldives, given its small student numbers. 3.16. Private nEls, particularly some profit-making nEls, may also offer courses and programs of poor quality. The drive to reduce costs and generate profits can cause private HEIs to operate with poor physical capital, especially facilities and equipment, as well as to reduce the quality of staff. This has not been a major problem in the Maldives thus far, mainly because there are a small number of private higher education providers, nearly all of whom concentrate on a limited range of vocational higher education courses, with only partial emphasis on academic higher education. But it could become a problem if the private higher education sector were to expand in the future. The optimal policy response to this problem is to set up a strong quality assurance and accreditation agency that can safeguard standards and facilitate the entrance and operation of good quality private HEIs. . 3.17. Private profit-making nEls may be "footloose", and might close down leaving students stranded in mid-program. This does not appear to be a major risk in the Maldives at present, as the current private providers are reputed and responsible institutions. But some degree of risk needs to be recognized, especially if the private HEIs engage in typical three and four year degree programs. The appropriate policy response, once again, is to ensure that all private HEIs operate within the umbrella of the quality assurance and accreditation agency. 3.18. Another criticism of the private nEls, especially for-profit nEls, is on equity grounds. Private profit-making HEls normally cater to students from wealthier households, when intelligent students from less affluent homes may be unable to pay the fees required to enjoy the benefits of higher education in these institutions. 3.19. Countries can respond to this limitation in several ways. First, the government could make some means-tested scholarships available in the private HEIs for bright but poor students. Second, the HEIs can themselves be requested to set aside a percentage of places at a subsidized cost for such students. Third, the government could take the position that the public HEI, the MNU, would take care of the demand from less affluent students, so that at the national level there is equity of access and opportunity. 3.20. There is also concern in some countries that private, non-profit nEls may have institutional mandates that are not consistent with the social, cultural and political goals of a country. This does not appear to be a problem at present in the Maldives. However, policy makers could provide adequate safeguards that, for instance, private HEIs work within institutional mandates that are consistent with the principles and norms of modem liberal democracies. 3.21. A further criticism levied against opening the higher education sector to private sector participation, in some countries where higher education is either solely or nearly a public monopo)y, is that the private HE Is will offer better benefit packages and attract the best academics away from public HEIs, thus weakening the latter. This criticism or fear is usually unwarranted in practice. When countries open up to the private higher education sector at first 37 some academics in public HEIs may teach in the private HEIs on a part-time basis, but there is no mass drain of talent from public HEIs to private HEIs. Academics prefer to stay in public HEIs for a variety of reasons, including greater job security and time for research and other activities. Over time, as the private HEI's become better established, some academics may move from the public HEIs to the private sector. However, this process creates opportunities for bright and well-educated young individuals to become academic in the public HEIs. Overall, the employment opportunities available for academics increases. THE WAY FORW ARD: POLICY CHOICES FOR THE PROMOTION OF PRIVATE-PUBLIC PARTNERSHIPS IN THE MALDIVES 3.22. The Maldives has several policy options to promote private-public partnerships in the provision of higher education and training for students. The main options, and their advantages and disadvantages, are outlined below. Policy Option One 3.23. Provide land on Male' for private higher education providers. Advantages. This is the principal demand of private higher education institutions. The demand for higher education is experienced mainly in Male', as most potential students live on Male' and do not want to travel to locations outside the island. Land in Male' is expensive and limited. And private HEIs need to invest considerable resources in the construction and refurbishment of buildings, and in fixed equipment, to deliver education services. If private HEIs are assured of land, for example through long-term leases or freehold ownership, the investment required would be worthwhile. However, if land is available only on short-term leases, the HEls face considerable investment risks, and are reluctant to invest substantial resources in construction and fixed equipment. 3.24. The government is also seeking to promote balanced regional development on the atolls by encouraging private HEIs to locate on these atolls, perhaps in the provincial centers. However, private HEIs state that there is insufficient demand on the atolls for their operations to be financially viable. But if they are given land on Male', the profits made through the Male' operation would enable them to subsidize operations on the atolls. Limitations. Land on Male's is extremely scarce, and in high demand from a variety of sources. Devoting some land for private HEI's would have an opportunity cost in terms of alternatives foregone. 3.25. A spider graph of this option, and the components it would need cover: land, quality assurance and accreditation, are given below in Figure 3.2. 38 Fi rc 3.2. Land ubsidies inMate: Com 1. Land Physical Resources 8. Quality Knolwledge Resources 6. Tuition Costs Policy Option Two 3.26. The payment of subsidies for rented premises. Such subsidies can play an important role in encouraging private HEIs where available land is scarce and expensive, as in Male'. Advantages. This would reduce the costs and be an incentive for private HE Is to set up. It would also facilitate non-profit oriented private HEIs, which may not offer courses with the same revenue raising opportunities as profit-making private HEIs. Limitations. There would not be a level playing field between investment in higher education and other investment choices faced by the private sector. Policy Option Three 3.27. Financial grants towards the capital costs of constructing college or university buildings. Advantages. This would provide a substantial incentive for a private HEI as the capital costs of construction are high. Non-profit private HEIs would particularly benefit. In order for the full benefits to be realized, the land on which the buildings are constructed or refurbished would need to be given on a sufficiently long lease or freehold. Limitations. Once again, the playing field between investment in higher education and other potential private sector investments would not be even. 39 Policy Option Four 3.28. Payment of a subsidy for students enrolled in private HEIs. This could be in the form of scholarships, student loans or vouchers. Advantages. The cost of payment for students would be reduced (scholarships, vouchers) or deferred (loans). It would also promote competition among HEIs if the students who are entitled to the subsidy could carry the financial benefit to whichever HE1 they chose. Competition could be extended to public HEIs (e.g. Maldives College of Higher Education) if students were entitled to this financial benefit in either the MCHE or the private HEIs, and could select between either set of institutions. Student loan systems have been successful in countries such as the U.S.A. where students can obtain loans from Banks, and in Australia. Limitations. Student loan systems are difficult to administer in economies that have not acquired the culture of financing higher education through borrowing. Two key conditions for success are that the government should be in a position to track a graduates income accurately and have an effective collection mechanism. Where these two conditions are not met, repayment rates are very poor. It is unclear whether the Maldives would be able to design and implement and effective mechanism for collection, so this is an important limitation for the country. 3.29. Scholarship schemes can be inequitable if they are awarded on the basis of performance at public examinations, rather than economic need. Voucher systems are promising, but require a drastic change in the culture of HEIs, particularly public HEIs (such as MCHE), and can be difficult to implement fully, or except over a long period of time. With voucher schemes it is also important that weaker institutions receive considerable support in the form of capacity building. Policy Option Five 3.30. Invite private HEIs to establish campuses in combination with other services. For instance, it could be possible to invite local and foreign partnerships in medical education and studies, linked with the establishment of hospitals on atolls that would provide health tourism services. Advantages. Measures such as these could both expand the higher education sector and link it with economically attractive activities. There would be a direct benefit to the economy as well as the higher education sector. Disadvantages. There are likely to be a limited number of such opportunities that are viable over the long-term. 3.31. However, where such opportunities do exist, they can and should be exploited. The government could either respond, on a case by case basis, to HEIs that express an interest in this type of collaboration. Alternatively, the government could invite proposals for such partnerships, perhaps through international tenders. 40 Policy Option Six 3.32. A research fund is established by the State. Academics from private HEIs are allowed to compete for research grants under this fund on the same terms as academics from the MNU. Advantages. Research funding can stimulate research, which in turn is positively related to the quality of teaching, as active researchers are more likely to be up-to-date with their academic knowledge than non-researchers. It would also stimulate some HEIs to be centers of excellence in areas where the country has a comparative advantage, such as environmental and marine resources, climate change, and tourism. The research output could also be of benefit to the government, through the contracting of policy research from academics in the HEls, and to private sector firms. A high quality research system in specialized niche areas could even attract foreign researchers and research grants to the country, as well as contracts from overseas private firms, in the long-run. Limitations. The Maldivian higher education system is not yet developed enough for high quality research programs. And the mass of academics available is very small. 3.33. As such, this would be more a long-term option, with carefully targeted support for research in selected areas, and where Maldivian academics link with overseas academics and researchers in joint research programs. Combinations ofPolicy Options 3.34. Finally, it should be noted that these different policy options are not in competition or mutually exclusive. The Government could choose to implement more than one, or even several, of these options. It is also very important that the incentives provided establish a level playing field for domestic and overseas HEls and the MNU. STRENGTHENING THE PUBLIC IDGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS 3.35. The Maldives has several development options to strengthen the public higher education institutions. These are the Maldives National University (MNU) and the Maldives Polytechnic. The key options are discussed below. The Maldives National University 3.36. The Maldives National University (MNU) is an embryonic university. The MNU was formed in February 2011, and emerged from the Maldives College of Higher Education (MCHE). As the name indicates the MCHE was more comparable to a community college than a university in terms of its range of program offerings, and the numbers of graduates in various academic award categories, including certificates, advanced certificates, diplomas, advanced diplomas and degrees. As Figure 3.3 indicates only two faculties at MCHE had more than 15 41 percent of their graduates at the degree level in the academic year 200812009, namely the Faculties of Shria'a and Education. The percentage of graduates with degrees from The Faculty of Management and Computing was 13 percent and from the Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism Studies was zero. This low level of graduates with degrees in a growing knowledge economy, and in two important sectors of the economy, represents a key challenge for the government. 3.37. The MNU needs to be further developed to offer higher education opportunities, particularly in geographical areas that the private higher education institutions may not reach despite the provision of incentives, and in subjects and disciplines that are important for the country, but not sufficiently market-oriented to attract private higher education institutions. A key policy for the MNU to consider is to improve the capacity, quality and delivery of on-line education, including e-Ieaming and m-Ieaming [see Box 3.1 for an example ofa university from a small country, Belize, with strong investment in on-line courses and programs]. Fi ure 3.3. Distribution of MeHE Graduates b T e of Academic Award in 2008/2009 • Certificates • Advanced Certificates • Diploma • Advanced Diploma • Bachelors Shari'ah Magt & Comp Hospitalty & Tourism Health Sc Education Source: MCHE statistics, 2008/2009. 42 Box 3.1. Relevance of Higher Education. and Training to Employment, the University of Belize (UB) The University of Belize (UB) is a national, autonomous and multi-location institution committed to excellence in higher education, research and service for national development. As a catalyst of change it provides relevant, affordable and accessible educational and training programs that address national needs based on principles of academic freedom, equity, transparency, merit and accountability. The University of Belize is dedicated to fostering Belize's development by producing graduates who are socially and ecologically responsible, analytical, self-confident, disciplined, ethical, entrepreneurial, and skilled communicators and who are committed to using these skills and values for Belize's enrichment. The Faculty of Management and Social Sciences (FMSC), for example, focuses on quality graduates, who have the knowledge and competencies to find employment in sectors relevant to their field of study. It is expected that all graduates will have a well-rounded education and will be technically and professionally qualified in their area of studies. Graduates at this level will be expected to take up leadership positions in middle level and upper level management of organizations and also be expected to have tools that will lead them toward creating their own businesses. Graduates will also be well equipped with the requisite academic skills to transfer successfully into graduate programs. Associate degree students will also boast a well-rounded education and be equipped with the necessary skills to function effectively and efficiently at the beginning levels of organizations. These graduates will also be well equipped to transfer easily into undergraduate degree. The FMSC offers the following programs: (i) Certificate in Para-Legal Studies (CPLS), (ii) Associate Degree, Business Science (ABUS), (iii) Associate Degree, Tourism Studies (ATOS), (iii) Bachelor Degree, Accounting (BACC); (iv) Bachelor Degree, Public Sector Management (BPSM), (v) Bachelor Degree, Management (BMAN), (vi) Bachelor Degree, Tourism Management (BTOM). Partnership with employers, especially from the private sector is important and allows for funding for particular projects or support for specific programs. The FMSC at UB has successfully received support for specific programs from targeted employers. For example, the tourism programs have been embraced by the tourism sector and hotel chains and operators have provided opportunities for internships for VB students. The paralegal program is supported through the Belize Bar Association in terms of adjunct faculty who provide their services for nominal fees and pro bono. THE WAY FORWARD: DEVELOPMENT MEASURES FOR THE EXPANSION AND DIVERSIFICATION OF THE NATIONAL MALDIVES UNIVERSITY 3.38. The Maldives National University (MNU) will need to develop along multiple paths. First, the introduction and expansion of e-Iearning courses to the various provinces and atolls, with a focus on quality and relevance. In particular, the special types of student support required for e-Iearning has to be developed within the MNU structure. Second, the MNU will have to introduce new degree programs and courses, wherever relevant and necessary. Third, the non­ degree programs and courses will need to be shed, over time, and left to either the Polytechnic or 43 the private sector. Fourth, over the long-tenn the MNU has to generate research capacity and output. Box 3.2. Distance and Flexible Learning (PFL) at the Univers!!y of Soutb Pacific (USP) The University of South Pacific is a regional university established to serve 12 small island states spread out over vast distances in Pacific Ocean. The fact that USP has accomplished this feat is a testament to perseverance and to taking advantage of developments in the field of international communications technology. At present, more than half of the university's 22,000 students are distance students; that is, in the modern jargon, they are distance and flexible learning (DFL) students who learn with the assistance of modern telecommunications media, comprising audio conferencing, videoconferencing, and the Internet, as well as paper-based materials. The communication difficulties facing the small communities living on the small outlying islands and in the remote areas of the main islands have long been a concern for Pacific peoples. The advent of global satellite coverage and the rapidly declining costs of computers and VSAT (very small aperture tenninals) equipment, together with the availability of solar power technology, have opened up the possibility for people in the remote communities to have immediate telecommunications contact with the rest of the world. This technology also opens up the opportunity for these communities to participate in the DFL offerings of USPNet. It is likely that the next big step for USPNet will be to develop its facilities to respond to this demand. The Lessons Learned from the USPNet Experience • Strong, consistent leadership at the top of the organization is needed to drive the project over the long tenn. The USPNet project has greatly benefited from having vice chancellors who have given it high priority for resources. They have provided a clear vision for the project and have been champions who were able to convince aid donors to fund the various stages of development. • A highly participatory approach to project design and implementation builds commitment and support for the project by the stakeholders. For the USPNet project, senior management from the outset adopted consultative decision-making processes on project design issues, especially those related to the priorities of the users, and put in place a system to gain regular feedback on USPNet perfonnance from the clients located across the 12 campuses. The campus directors are major clients of the educational services delivered through USPNet. A system that ensures regular feedback and consultation on the needs of the clients and the extent to which USPNet is meeting those needs is necessary to gain the full support and ownership ofthe project. • Clarity as to the roles and responsibilities of all persons responsible for implementation. Reaping the educational benefits of the USPNet project has been somewhat delayed by lack of a unified organizational structure for project management that coordinated the roles of the main groups that make the project successful: the academic staff members in the faculties; the 12 USP campus directors; and the Infonnation Technology Services Division, the Centre for Educational Development and Technology, and the Distance and Flexible Learning Support Centre. 44 The future development of the MNU will involve the following key initiatives: • Organizational review: The executive management of MNU would need to complete a review of its organizational structure against a background of mission, mandate, values and development commitments. The resultant organizational structure should be fully documented with functional responsibilities, accountabilities, perfonnance standards, staffing levels, and position descriptions. • Establishing new academic faculties where required: for instance, a new faculty in the area of applied sciences. The Faculty of Applies Sciences would have a focus on relevant areas of science for the Maldives including marine science, environmental studies, and green energy. • Establishment of MNU Net: The executive management of MNU would need to develop a strategic plan for the establishment ofMNU Net as a cost-effective regional communications system for campus administration and distance education program delivery similar in spirit and approach to the successful e-based distance learning network used by the University of South Pacific USPNet [see Box 3.2]. • New Academic Framework: The executive management of MNU would also need to develop a unified university-wide approach to develop guidelines and processes for new program design, delivery and evaluation. The framework would also involve the shifting of most sub-degree programs to the Maldives Polytechnic, and the definition of all program articulation arrangements using the guidelines of the Maldives National Qualification Framework (MNQF). The Maldives Polytechnic (MP) 3.39. The Maldives Polytechnic (MP) bas developed its programs drawing on lessons from international practices, and with some feedback from industry and business. The academic organization and awards of the Maldives Polytechnic are presented in Figure 3.4. The mandate of the Polytechnic includes both short-cycle diplomas and certificates, as well as some applied degree programs in selected disciplines. 3.40. The developments in modern technology and communications, changing skills requirements for economic production processes, and the new sub-degree programs that will have to be transferred from the fonner MCHE to the MP, means that the Polytechnic now needs a program development and renewal framework that is suited to the requirements of the Maldivian economy. Further, the existing learning resources in the Polytechnic need considerable strengthening. In particular, the relevance of higher education in knowledge­ intensive technological fields requires the effective use of resources, frequent upgrading and refurbishing of equipment and facilities, and regular and continuing staff development. 45 Figure 3.4. The Academic Organization and Award of the Maldives Polytechnic Advanced Diplomas Diplomas ~ . • Q.o ::l ~ ... III cu-a a.c Col cu G12 Gll Advanced Certificate .t , '" I~ .~ !.~ ~ undation Studies G10 ~ ... III -, h cu-a ~ c G9 .9 8 cu '" G8 Certificate III ) THE WAY FORWARD: DEVELOPMENT OF THE MALDIVES POLYTECHNIC 3.41. The Polytechnic will have to develop in ways that enable it to produce graduates who have skills that are relevant in a rapidly evolving and changing labor market. There are a number of steps that the Polytechnic can take to develop as a modem, high-performing institution. In particular, to ensure the quality and continued relevance of programs, and to establish a student-centered learning environment. 3.42. The Polytechnic needs to have a close link with the world of work by having active Program Advisory Committees (PACs) composed of successful practitioners from various sectors of the economy who employ graduates of the MP programs. The quality of programs 46 of the Maldives Polytechnic MP and in the private institutions of higher education and training should be informed by ongoing the advice and input from these Program Advisory Committees. On-going links and input from key employers in relevant sectors of the economy is a necessary condition for relevance to the labor market in modem times. At present these formal partnerships and linkages with employers do not represent a key element of the institutional culture of the MP, and needs to be revitalized and developed. The effective use of PACs would require the following types of measures: • The composition of the PACs should have a balanced representation from key employers in the sector, as well representatives of the sector employment councils. • Mandating the PACs to provide oversight and approval of all changes to existing programs and for the establishment of new programs. • The government could consider establishing incentives to encourage employers to participate in work-study cooperative schemes in which students can alternate semesters of study at the HET institution with semester of employment and training with the employers. 3.43. The Polytechnic could also be encouraged to explore the use of ICT (Information and Communication Technology) platforms and on-line Internet technologies to support the effective delivery of their programs. The use of ICT and Web-based technologies to support teaching, which at present is less than adequate in most academic units of the Polytechnic, would be extremely useful. This will also require staff developments programs to enable academic staff to strengthen their skills to use ICT platforms and on-line programs as an integral part of their teaching strategies. 3.44. Increase the capacity, quality and relevance of sub-degree programs in hospitality and tourism studies, construction and fisheries. These are key economic sector in the Maldives, and are likely to grow over time, especially tourism and construction. As such, these sectors will generate a continuous flow of demand for skilled personnel. The Polytechnic can play an active role in meeting this demand, at the levels of skills within its mandate. 47 APPENDIX A The Faculty ofEducation (FE) The Faculty of Education, initially known as the Institute for Teacher Education is one of the key faculties at MCHE. Initial efforts at teacher education in the Maldives were aimed at training teachers in Dhivehi to provide basic education in primary schools. With universal primary education achieved, FE embarked on training teachers for secondary education in 1997. The provision of teacher education in the atolls is a major initiative of the Faculty of Education. FE Diplomas and Certificates FE Degrees • Advanced Diploma n Applied Statistics • BA in Dhivehi Language • Diploma in School Management • Bachelor of Education-Primary Schools • Diploma in Teaching English as a Foreign • Bachelor of Education- Secondary Schools Language • BA in Teaching English as a Foreign • Diploma teaching Dhivehi Language Language • Advanced Certificate in Teaching-Primary • Diploma in Teaching-Primary School • Diploma in Teaching-Middle School • Diploma in Teaching-Secondary School Source: MCHE. The number of enrolled and graduating students in the Faculty of Education in the academic year 2008-2009 is outline in Table AI. Table Al. The Number of Students and Graduates in the Faculty of Education in the Academic Year 2008-2009 Enrolment 2008-2009 Graduates 2008-2009 ; .....,.. Faculty Applied Statistics Award AD F 7 M 10 Total 17 F 1 M 0 Total -; 1 School Management D 10 12 22 4 6 10 Dhivehi Lanaguage BA 57 34 91 0 0 0 Teaching English as a Foreign Language D 45 6 51 19 3 22 Primary Education BA 55 9 64 12 0 12 Dhivehi Language D 93 54 147 47 36 83 Teaching English as a Foreign Language BA 73 21 94 12 0 12 Teaching Primary Schools AC 19 6 25 15 1 16 Teaching Middle Schools D 128 29 157 26 8 34 Teaching Seondary Schools D 165 66 231 60 20 80 Teaching Primary Schools D 256 29 285 40 4 44 Teaching Secondary Schools BA 262 129 391 29 18 47 Total Faculty of Education 1170 405 1575 265 96 361 Source: MCHE StatIStiCS. 48 Faculty ofHealth Sciences (FHS) The FHS was originally established as the Allied Health Services Training Centre (AHSTC) in 1973 under the Ministry of Health. Its status was upgraded to the Institute of Health Sciences (lHS) in 1991, and finally consolidated with other institutions with formation of the MCHE and renamed as the Faculty of Health Sciences (FHS) in 2001. The Faculty conducts a range of training programs in the field of primary care, nursing, pharmacy and medical lab technology to meet the health care demands in the Maldives. The FHS provides pre-service, and in-service education through workshops and seminars in the Male' and the atolls. FHS Diplomas and Certificates FHS De2rees • Advance Certificate in Primary Health Care • Bachelor of Nursing • Advance Certificate in Counseling • Advance Certificate in Family Health • Advance Certificate in Nursing • Advance Certificate in Pharmacy • Certificate III in Social Services • Diploma in Critical Care Nursing • Diploma in Medical Laboratory Technology • Diploma in Nursing • Advanced Diploma in Nursing • Diploma in Primary Health Care .. Source: MCHE StatiStICS. The number of enrolled and graduating students in the FHS in the academic year 2008-2009 is outlined in Table A2. Similar patterns can be observed in the data in concerning the enrolment and graduation in the Faculty of Health Sciences, to those observed in the Faculty of Education including: (a) the ratio of enrolled females to enrolled males exceeds 5: I and the ratio of female to male graduates is close to 6: 1, (b) the vast majority of all graduates are in sub-degree (certificates, advanced certificates, diplomas and advanced diplomas) programs, and (c) there are no enrolments of students in post graduate programs. The Faculty ofHospitality and Tourism Studies (FHTS) The Faculty was originally established in 1987 as the School of Hotel and Catering Services under the Ministry of Tourism to develop trained personnel for the tourism sector. The school was transferred to MCHE and given its present name in 2001. FHTS was initially the only independent centre in the Maldives offering programs of the Business and Technical Education Council (BTEC) qualifications by a Foundation in the UK. The Faculty is unique in that respect in its ability to offer these qualifications in the Maldives. 49 FHST Diplomas and Certificates • BTEC National Diploma (ND) in Catering and • Certificate III in Food and Drinks Institutional Operations Services • BTEC National Diploma (ND) in Travel and • Certificate III in Commercial Cookery Tourism • Certificate III in Front Office • Certificate III in Accommodation Operations Operations Certificate III in Pastery and Bakery Source: MCHE. Table A2. The Number of Students and Graduates in the Faculty of Health Sciences in tbe Academic Year 2008-2009 Enrolment 2008-2009 Graduates ZOO8-2009 Faculty Award F M Total F M Total fII ....... : Social Services Work CIII 0 1 1 0 0 0 Primary Health AC 47 39 86 17 9 26 Counselling AC 20 2 22 7 1 8 Family Health AC 14 3 17 12 3 15 Nursing AC 151 0 151 66 0 66 Pharmacy AC 16 0 16 4 0 4 Social Work Services AC 32 3 35 22 5 27 Medical Lab Technology 0 42 8 50 10 2 12 Nursing ON &AON 147 1 148 31 1 32 Nursing (Conversion) ON 13 0 13 11 0 11 Pharmacy 0 11 6 17 4 0 4 Primary Health Care 0 13 12 25 4 10 14 Primary Health Care ( Conversion1) 0 11 5 16 11 5 16 Primary Health Care ( Conversion 3) 0 15 13 28 0 0 0 Midwifery 0 41 0 41 15 0 15 Health Services Management SSc 22 16 38 0 0 0 Nursing SN 1 0 1 1 0 1 I Total Faculty of Health Sciences S96 109 70S 215 36 251 Source: MCHE statIstics. The number of enrolled and graduating students in the Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism Studies in the academic year 2008-2009 is outlined in Table A3. Three key observations can be made here. First, the enrolment numbers are low compared to those found in education or health science. Second, the enrolment of males is almost double those of females probably reflecting the resistance to the employment of females in the tourism sector in the Maldives. Finally, all the programs in this sector are at the sub-degree levels; i.e. certificates and diplomas. 50 Table A3. The Number of Students and Graduates in the Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism Studies in the Academic Year 2008-2009 Enrolment 2008-2009 Graduates 2008-2009 Faculty Award F M Total F M Total I... ..... ", '.-T....... BTEC in Hotel Catering & Operations ND 4 47 51 1 13 14 BTEC in Travel & Tourism ND 19 31 50 11 6 17 1 Accomodations & Operations CIII 2 2 4 0 20 20 Food & Drink Serv,ice CIII 3 31 34 1 15 16 Commercial Cookery CIII 7 4 11 11 4 15 Front Office Operations CIII 55 64 119 24 29 53 Pastery & Bakery CIII 6 3 9 2 0 2 Total Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism 96 182 278 50 87 137 Source: MCHE statistics. The Faculty ofManagement and Computing (FMC) The Faculty of Management and Computing (FMC) was originally established in 1991 as the Maldives Centre for Management and Administration (MCMA). The centre joined MCHE and its status was upgraded to an Institute and renamed the Institute of Management and Administration (lMA) in 1998. Finally the IMA was given the status of a Faculty and renamed once again to its present name as the Faculty of Management and Computing in 2001. The Faculty offers a wide range of programs in business management and information technology and the certificate, diploma and degree levels. FMC Diplomas and Certificates FMC Degrees • Advanced Certificate in Island Administration • Bachelor of Information Technology • Advanced Certificate in Accounting • Bachelor of Business • Advanced Certificate in Management • Chartered Accountancy Part 1 I • Advanced Certificate Information Technology • Chartered Accountancy Part 2 • Advanced Diploma in Accounting I· Advanced Diploma Information Technology • Advanced Diploma in Business and Commerce • Certificate III in Clerical Studies • CIMA Certification • Diploma in Accounting • Diploma in Business I • Diploma in Information Technology Source: MCHE StatIStICS. The number of enrolled and graduating students in the Faculty of Management and Computing in the academic year 2008-2209 is outline in Table A4. 51 Table A4. The Number of Students and Graduates in the Faculty of Management and Compu tin' th e A d ' Y ear 2008­ 2009 19 ID ca ennc Enrolment 2008-2009 Graduates 2008-2009 Faculty Island Admininstration .... Award AC F 5 M 24 Total 29 F 15 M 51 Total 66 Information Technology AD 1 1 2 2 0 2 Accounting AC 3 2 5 1 4 5 Management AC 41 26 67 10 9 19 Accounting AD 1 7 8 0 0 0 Business & Commerce AD 1 1 2 0 0 0 Information Technology AC 1 1 2 0 0 0 Information Technology BA 11 31 42 2 8 10 Business Management BA 33 10 43 15 4 19 Clerical Studies CIII 37 10 47 31 4 35 Chartered Accountancy ACCA2 0 8 8 0 0 0 Chartered Accountancy ACCA 1 29 39 68 0 0 0 CIMA CIMA 2 3 5 0 0 0 Accounting D 56 79 135 5 6 11 Business Management D 75 48 123 24 10 34 Information Technology D 45 85 130 9 8 17 Total Faculty of M&C 341 375 716 114 104 218 Source: MCHE StatiStiCS. The pattern of enrolment and graduation in the Faculty of Management and Computing is more equitable among males and females as well as the distribution of these numbers among the various programs and program academic awards compared to other Faculties at MCHE. Faculty ofShar;'ah and Law (FSL) The Faculty of Shari'ah and Law (FSL) previously known as the Institute of Shari'ah and Law was established in 1999 to strengthen the legal and judicial system of the Maldives by producing suitably qualified personnel qualified in legal and judicial affairs. The primary function of FSL is to design, develop and deliver courses in Shari'ah and Law at the certificate, diploma and degree levels. FSL Diplomas and Certificates FSL Degrees • Advanced Certificate in Shari'ah and Law • Bachelor of Laws • Advanced Diploma in Shari' ah and Law • Master of Arts in Shari'ah • Diploma in Justice Studies II Source: MCHE. The number of enrolled and graduating students in the Faculty of Shari'ah and Law in the academic year 2008-2209 is outline in Table A5. 52 Table AS. The Number of tudents and Graduates in the Faculty of Sbari'ab and Law in the Academic Year 2008-2009 Enrolment 2008-2009 Graduates 2008-2009 Faculty Award F M Total F M Total F .tI=--:~aJaw . Shari'ah and Law AC 53 35 88 14 17 31 Shari'ah and Law , AD 0 1 1 0 0 0 Law BL-llB 61 53 114 2 4 6 Justice Studies D 2 43 45 0 0 0 Shari'ah and Law MA 1 6 7 0 0 0 Total Faculty of Shari'ah & Law 117 138 255 16 21 37 Source: MCHE statistics. The Center for Maritime Studies (CMS) The Center for Maritime Studies (CMS) was established in 1987 as the Maritime Training Centre (MTC), when the Maldives ratified the International Maritime Organization (IMO) conventions on standards of training, certification and watch keeping for seafarers. The Centre is located in Vilingili, separated by narrow channel from Male'. The CMS has an important role in providing training for the national and international merchant navy service, as well as training for the fishing industry including courses for navigation and safety for fishermen. The Centre for Open Learning (COL) The Centre for Open Learning (COL) was established in 1999 as the Tertiary Institute for Open Learning (TIOL) to provide distance education programs at Foundation and Post Secondary levels. Given the geography of the Maldives, distance education and open learning are cost effective and reliable modes of providing education services to the island communities in the atolls. The COL programs provide education opportunities to over 650 learners in 100 islands. The COL Programs include: (a) advanced certificate in primary teaching, and (b) English for Further Studies. 53 APPENDIXB Table 81. Indicators of Autonomy in Selected Countries Decide size of enrollments X X X X Quotas for special groups X X X Part Decide lanluale of X X X X instruction Introduction of new courses / X X X X X X elimination of old courses Selection of textbooks X X X X X X Set examination / graduation X X X X X standards Decision to teach courses at X X X X X X graduate level Select members of goveming X X X council/ board Management of university X X X X Part X budlet Set level of tuition fees Part Part Approval of income X X X X X generatinl ventures Buy or sell buDdlngs and X X X X Ability to borrow funds from X X X X a bank Source: World Bank surveys conducted in 2005-10 from JF/JS data. Note: X means that the university is autonomous in this area. 54 Table B2. The Maldives National Qualification Framework (MNQF) I Level and Generic and Applied Knowledge & Skills Communication Autonomy, Accountability Academic and ICT Skills and Team Work Awards Levell : • Relate basic knowledge in subject/discipline to • Use simple • Work alone or with Certificate I personal and/or work context written, oral others under frequent Level 2: • Use routine skills ( fewer in Level I) in to complete communication supervision Certificate II familiar and routine ( Level I) tas.ks skills in routine • Participate in the • Select ( Level 2) or use with guidance basic ( Level I) contexts setting of goals and the tools and materials safely and effectively • Carry out and review of completed • Identify, with some prompting, a process relevant to use simple data work the task at hand (Level I) processing • Participate in the • Use, with guidance ( Level 2) designated stages of a tasks identification of ways problem solving strategy to deal with a situation or of improving work issue practices Level 3 : • Relate ( Level 3) or ~( Level 4) knowledge in • Use a range of • Work alone or in tearns Certificate III subject/discipl.ine to personal and/or work context written, oral , and take leadership Level": • Complete routine ( Level 3), or non-routine ( Level 4) communication responsibility ( Level Certificate IV tasks using knowledge associated with subject or skills 4) for task completion discipline • Use standard • Participate, and take • Select ( Level 3) or plan ( Level 4) to use, and adjust, applications to leadership in the appropriate tools and materials safely and effectively obtain, process identi fication of ways • Use ( ~eveI3) or organize ( Level 4) abstract information of improving work constructs to make generalizations or draw practices conclusions LevelS: • Demonstrate a broad and sometimes detailed (Level 6) • Use a range • Manage limited (Level Di2ioma knowledge of the subject/discipline ( Level 6) of il resources within Level 6: • Awareness of the changing nature of the body of standard defined areas of work Advanced knowledge, as well as the areas of scholarly research applications to • Take !;ontinuing ( level Diploma, in the discipline ( level 6) obtain and .Q) account of own and Professional • Use a range of routine, and advanced (Level 6) process others roles, Associate techniques to evaluate evidence-based solutions to information responsibilities and Degree, or work-related problems • Use a range contributions Foundation • Use a range of approaches to addressing ( Level 5) or «Level 5) of Degree formulating ( Level 6) responses to routine problems data management skills Level 7: • Demonstrate critical understanding of a selection • Use a wide • Exercise autonomy and Bachelor ( Level 7) of principal theories and concepts of the (Level 8) range initiatives in l!Q!llit( Degree discipline of skills to Level 7) professional Level 8: Post • Use a selection ( Level 7) or a range ( Level 8) of support activities ~e principal skills, techniques practices or materials established • Work under guidance ( Certificate or associated with the discipline work practices Level 7) with qualified Diploma, • Apply ( Level 7) routine methods of enquiry or • Use range of practitioners Advanced research, or execute a defined project of research and software and • Deal with professional Professional development ( Level 8) IT applications and ethical challenges Diploma and • Identify and analyze routine professional problems Honours Degree (Level 7) or critically review and consolidate ( associated knowledge_ Level 8) Level 9: • Demonstrate a critical detailed and leading (Level • Use a wide • Exercise substantial Masters Degree 10) knowledge and understanding of the forefront of range of autonomy and Level 10: the discipline software to initiatives in Doctoral Degree • Plan ( Level 9), or design ( Level 10) a significant support and professional activities or Higher project of research and development in the discipline enhance • Make informed Professional • Identify, conceptualize and offer creative reSDonses research and judgment on ethical Diploma ( Level 9) and/or insights ( Level 10) into challenging investigations and professional issues disciplinary problems and issues 55 BmLIOGRAPHY Bashir, Sajitha. 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