75719 v2 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Jointly prepared by The Ministry of Education and The World Bank Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Jointly prepared by The Ministry of Education and The World Bank His Majesty S u lta n Q a b oo s bin Said W hen His Majesty Sultan Qaboos ascended to the throne in 1970, one of the first commitments of his Government was to develop a public education system that would reach all parts of the country and would include all sections of society. At that time, there were only three schools in the whole of the Sultanate of Oman, all of them at the primary level and all for boys. To all intents and purposes, therefore, the country was starting with what was virtually a clean slate in terms of comprehensive educational provision. With very low enrollment rates, the early focus of the Ministry of Education centered on issues related to access. The clear priorities of the country were to build the required educational infrastructure; to conduct a teacher recruitment program, mainly from abroad; and to develop a curriculum. The aims were to provide universal primary education, to expand provision to elementary and secondary education, and to promote gender equality. Within a period of 40 years, the situation has been completely transformed. In 2008, there were nearly 1,300 schools in the country, providing education from Foreword of grades 1 to 12 for over 600,000 students, 48 percent of whom were female. There were over 43,000 teachers, of which 89 percent were Omani. Education Her Excellency participation levels in Oman are now equal to or above those observed in other Middle East and North Africa (MENA) countries. the Minister of The last 40 years has been a period of unprecedented development in the Sultanate, not only in education, but also economically and socially. The country Education is pursuing a development plan that focuses on economic diversification as a way of reducing its dependency on the oil sector. In addition, globalization of the world economy has brought its own strains, challenges and opportunities. These developments, coupled with the Government’s policy to “Omanize� the workforce, have meant that the country’s needs in terms of education have dramatically changed. To prosper in the global marketplace, the Sultanate requires an education system that can produce future employees who can engage in analytical thinking and problem solving and who are creative, adaptable and competitive. In response to these demands, the attention of the Ministry of Education in recent years has shifted away from concerns about access (since 97 percent of basic school-age Omanis are enrolled in schooling) towards attempts to qualitatively improve and increase the relevance of the education system so as to prepare our students to meet the challenges of a knowledge-based economy. The Ministry of Education is presently engaged in a number of major reform initiatives across the whole system. A new basic education system designed to provide a unified program for grades 1 to 10 was introduced in 1998, and a new post-basic education system organized on a “core plus electives� model for grades 11 and 12 was introduced in 2007. The reforms emphasize changing teaching, learning and assessment methodologies, updating the curriculum, adding new resources, improving facilities, reducing class sizes and upgrading the qualifications and skills of teachers. 6 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality However, there are still persistent issues concerning the quality of student achievement that need to be addressed. The Government of Oman invited the World Bank to collaborate with the Ministry of Education to undertake a study of the school education sector to analyze the strengths and weaknesses of the present system and to provide recommendations for future improvement. On behalf of the Ministry of Education, I would like to thank the World Bank for its considerable efforts and expertise in producing such a comprehensive and valuable report. I would also like to express my appreciation to all those within the Ministry of Education whose assistance to the World Bank team helped to improve the relevance and quality of the report. I am confident that the report prove to be of considerable benefit to the Sultanate in helping it to improve its educational system in terms of access, equity, quality and efficiency. We are grateful for the continued fruitful collaboration and support offered by the World Bank and, as always, we are deeply appreciative of its contribution. With the strong political will and commitment of His Majesty Sultan Qaboos and his Government to the country’s educational development, we believe we can successfully prepare our citizens for the great challenges facing our nation through our mission to provide them all with an Education of Quality and Excellence. In light of this, the report will undoubtedly be instrumental in helping us to design future successful educational policies and strategies. Madiha Ahmed Al-Shaibani Minister of Education Sultanate of Oman 8 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality 9 Contents Acknowledgements............................................................................................................................ 13 Acronyms................................................................................................................................................ 15 ....................................................................................................................................... 17 List of Figures. ......................................................................................................................................... 19 List of Tables. .......................................................................................................................................... 21 List of Boxes. .................................................................................................................................................. 23 Overview. Chapter 1. Demographic, Economic and Social Context.............................. 29 1.1 Demographic Context............................................................................................. 31 1.2 ................................................................ 32 Macroeconomic and Social Context. 1.3 Education Context..................................................................................................... 33 Chapter 2. ............................................................. 37 Access and Efficiency. 2.1 Achievements in Reaching the EFA Goals..................................................... 39 2.2 Remaining Steps on the Road to EFA.............................................................. 47 2.3 Policy Implications..................................................................................................... 57 Chapter 3. Quality of Student Learning..................................................... 63 3.1 Evidence from National-level Assessments.................................................. 65 3.2 ............................................... 66 Evidence from an International Assessment. 3.3 Gender Differences.................................................................................................. 77 3.4 Policy Implications..................................................................................................... 83 Chapter 4. Assessment, Curricula and School Year.................................... 87 4.1 Public Examinations.................................................................................................. 89 4.2. Continuous Assessment........................................................................................ 91 4.3. Curriculum.................................................................................................................... 93 4.4. Official and Actual School Year........................................................................... 95 4.5. Standard Setting........................................................................................................ 97 4.6. .....................................................................................101 Whole-school Evaluation. 4.7. ..........................................103 Capacity Building in Research and Evaluation. 4.8. Policy Implications..................................................................................................103 10 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Contents 11 Chapter 5. Chapter 9. Teachers and Quality of Education.......................................... 111 ................................................................ 227 The Way Forward. 5.1. Historical Context...................................................................................................113 9.1. Factors Contributing to the Quality and Relevance Challenge..........232 5.2. Teacher Requirements........................................................................................115 9.2. The Way Forward...................................................................................................233 5.3. Deploying Teachers Where Needed.............................................................120 9.3. Management and Financial Implications.....................................................237 5.4. Selecting Student Teachers..............................................................................125 9.4 . Improving the Quality of Education in Oman: 5.5. ........................................................................127 Initial Preparation of Teachers. .........................................................240 A Review of Policy Recommendations. 5.6. Induction and In-service Support for Teachers........................................129 5.7. Teacher Utilization: Student-Teacher Ratio, .......................................................................131 Teaching Hours and Class Size. Appendices 5.8. Supervising and Managing for Results........................................................135 Appendix A. Economic Data............................................................................................. 251 5.9. ...........................................................................137 ICT in Teaching and Learning. Appendix B. The Organization of the Ministry of Education...............................253 5.10. Quality of Teaching and Learning....................................................................138 Appendix C. Education For All Goals.............................................................................254 5.11. Policy Implications..................................................................................................139 Appendix D. International Comparison of Gross Enrollment Ratios........................................................................................ 255 Chapter 6. Appendix E. Preschool Education in Oman 2008/09........................................256 Appendix F. Grade 1 Teacher Ratings........................................................................257 ........................................................................... 145 Relevance. Appendix G. Number of Courses Taken in Selected Countries.......................258 6.1. ........................................................147 The Challenge of Post-basic Education. Appendix H. Some Limitations of the Current Examination 6.2. .............................149 The Supply Side: Products of the Education System. ............................................................................................................. 259 System. 6.3. ....................................157 The Demand Side: Labor Market Requirements. Appendix I. Ensuring the Credibility of the Examination System....................260 6.4. ........................................................................160 Balancing Supply and Demand. Appendix J. Using National Assessment Results for Regional 6.5. The Labor Market Prospects...........................................................................165 Comparisons................................................................................................. 261 6.6. Policy Implications..................................................................................................167 Appendix K. Australian School Report: National Assessment Program Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN), Year 5, 2009................................................................................................ 262 Chapter 7. Appendix L. Supporting Research and Evaluation of Costs and Financing............................................................. 177 Public Examination...................................................................................... 264 Appendix M. Country Examples of Using Objective Information 7.1. The Education Budget: Overview.....................................................................179 from National Assessments to Improve Curriculum.................265 7.2. ..................................................................................................................183 Unit Costs. Appendix N. Examples of Research and Evaluation Centers............................266 7.3. Composition of Recurrent Expenditures.....................................................186 Appendix O. .....................................................268 Teachers and Quality of Education. 7.4. ....................................................................................193 Investment Expenditures. Appendix P. Description of the Vocational Training and 7.5. ............................................................................................195 Sources of Financing. Technical Education System..................................................................273 7.6. Policy Implications..................................................................................................197 Appendix Q. Distribution of Higher Education Graduates by Fields of Study............................................................................................... 275 Appendix R. Labor Markets: Activity Rates and Labor Chapter 8. .................................................................................................... 276 Productivity. ............................................... 205 Governance and Management. Appendix S. ................................................278 Educational Level of the Labor Force. 8.1. Policy Development and Planning...................................................................207 Appendix T. University International Rankings........................................................279 8.2. System Management...........................................................................................214 Appendix U. Job Seekers’ Expectations......................................................................281 8.3. Policy Implications..................................................................................................217 Appendix V. Metacognitive Skills.................................................................................... 282 12 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality 13 Ac k n o w l e d g m e n t s Appendix W. ..................................................................................... 283 Cost of Graduation. Appendix X. Staff Ratios by Region...............................................................................284 Appendix Y. .........................285 Distribution of Civil Service Employees by Grade. Appendix Z. Share of Selected Expenditure Items inTotal Household Budget by Education Status of Household Head..........................286 Appendix AA. A Governance of Education Framework...........................................287 This report reflects the results of many months of collaboration between the Oman Ministry Appendix AB. The National Education Commission (NEC) of Education (MOE) and the World Bank with assistance from many stakeholders. of Sri Lanka.................................................................................................... 289 The Omani Study Team was led initially by H.E. Dr. Madiha Al-Shaibani, Minister of Appendix AC. A Framework for Education Policy Development and Education (formerly Secretary General, Oman National Commission for Education, Culture Implementation............................................................................................ 290 and Science) and then by Dr. Ahmed Mohammed Al-Hinai (Advisor to the Minister), H.E. Yahya bin Saud bin Mansoor Al-Sulaimi (former Minister of Education) and Appendix AD. ...................................................................292 School-based Management. Dr. Muna bin Salim Al-Jardania (former Undersecretary for Education and Curriculum) Appendix AE. Frameworks for Strategic Planning and Business provided leadership and valuable input to this study. The Omani Study Team included Process Management..............................................................................294 Dr. Maryam Al-Nabhani (Deputy Director of the Technical Office for Studies and Development) the head of the technical team of the study, Dr. Amal Al-Busaidi (former DG of Curriculum References ................................................................................................................ 297 Development), Dr. Zuwaina Al-Maskari (DG of Educational Evaluation), Dr. Sana Al-Balushi (DG of the National Career Guidance Centre), Yahya Al-Harthi (DG of Human Resources Development), Dr. Masooma Al-Ajmi (Expert/Minister’s Office), Aqeel Al-Lawati (Ministry of National Economy [MONE]), Fatma Noorani (DG of Private Schools), Waleed Al-Hashmi (Director of Quality Control), Dr. Rashid Al-Hajri and David Griffiths (Experts, the Technical Office for Studies and Development), Tahira Al-Lawati (Director of Statistics), Maryam Al-Riyami (Director of Planning), Intisar Ambusaidi (Director of Educational Supervision), Abduljaleel Al-Manthari (Director of Budget), Majid Al-Abri (Deputy Director of Current Budget), Asma Al-Balushi (Curriculum Development), Ahmed Al-Hinai (Educational Evaluation), Salim Al-Harthi (Educational Evaluation), Sultan Al-Wadhahi (Deputy Director for Archive Management and E-services), Rabab Al-Lawati ( Director of Educational Programmes for Private Schools), and Abudulla Al-Ruhaili (Oman National Commission for Education, Culture and Science). The World Bank team was led by Lianqin Wang (Task Team Leader, Senior Education Specialist) and included Vincent Greaney (Education Assessment Specialist), Laura Gregory (Education Specialist), Hiromichi Katayama (Education Specialist), Sam Mikhail (Education Specialist), Benoit Millot (Education Economist), and Aidan Mulkeen (Teacher Education Specialist). Guidance was provided by Farrukh Iqbal (Country Director), Mourad Ezzine (Education Sector Manager), and Marcos Ghattas (Program Manager, Reimbursable Technical Cooperation). Ms. Larisa Marquez (Operations Analyst) and Ms. Hida Haddad (Senior Executive Assistant) provided substantial operations support. World Bank peer reviewers for the draft report were Harsha Aturupane (Lead Education Specialist), Nathalie Lahire (Senior Education Economist), and Jee-Peng Tan (Education Adviser). Peer reviewers at the Concept Note stage were Robert Prouty (Head of Education Fast Track Initiative), Harsha Aturupane, and Juan Manuel Moreno (Senior Education Specialist). Many officials and technical staff from Oman’s education system participated in the focus group discussion and surveys related to this study. Support was also provided by MOE officials and staff, including H.E. Dr. Saod Al-Belushi (Undersecretary for Planning and Human Resources), Hana Al-Ghasani (School Performance Development), Salim Al-Habsi (Oman National Commission for Education, Culture and Science), Mahfoodha Al-Wahaibi (Statistics Department), Azza Al-Harthi, (Educational Evaluation Department), and Hunaina Al-Barwani (National Career Guidance Centre). Special thanks go to Fatma Al-Hinai (Senior International Relations Expert, Oman National Commission for Education, Culture and Science) for the coordination of mission activities. This report was edited by Barbara Catherwood. 14 n ducation in Oma E 15 The Drive for Quality A C RON Y MS This report reflects the results of many months of collaboration between the Oman Ministry of Education (MOE) and the World Bank with assistance from many stakeholders. BPM Business Process Management MOHE Ministry of Higher Education CA Continuous assessment MOM Ministry of Manpower CCG Center for Career Guidance MONE Ministry of National Economy CD Compact disc MOSD Ministry of Social Development CDD Curriculum Development Directorate MTBF Medium-term budgetary framework CED Curriculum Evaluation Department MTEF Medium-term expenditure framework CRT Criterion-referenced test NAEP National Assessment of Educational Progress CV Curriculum vitae NAPLAN National Assessment Program for Literacy DG Directorate General and Numeracy DGEE Directorate General for Educational Evaluation NCE National Council of Education ECCE Early childhood care and education NCGC National Career Guidance Center ECE Early childhood education NEC National Education Commission EFA Education for All NFQ National Framework of Qualifications EMIS Education management information system NQF National qualifications framework EU European Union NRT Norm-referenced test FIEL Finnish Institute of Educational Leadership OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development FTI Fast Track Initiative OQA Omani Qualification Agency GCC Gulf Cooperation Council OQF Omani Qualification Framework GCI Global Competitiveness Index PETS Public Expenditures Tracking Survey GCSE General Certificate of Secondary Education PIRLS Progress in International Reading Literacy Study GDP Gross domestic product PISA Programme for International Student Assessment GER Gross enrollment ratio RO Omani Riyal GIR Gross intake ratio SBM School-based Management GNI Gross national income SCP Stability and Convergence Programs HEAC Higher Education Admission Centre SME Small and medium enterprises HEI Higher education institution SQU Sultan Qaboos University ICDL International Computer Driving License STR Student-teacher ratio ICT Information and communication technology TEAD Tests and Examinations Administration Department ILO International Labour Organization TEVT Technical education and vocational training IT Information technology TIMSS Trends in International Mathematics and ITA Information Technology Authority Science Study KEI Knowledge Economy Index TOSD Technical Office for Studies and Development LFS Labor Force Survey UIS UNESCO Institute for Statistics MARA Ministry of Awqaf and Religious Affairs UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural MENA Middle East and North Africa Organization MLA Monitoring Learning Achievement UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund MOE Ministry of Education VTC Vocational training center MOF Ministry of Finance WEI World Education Indicators MOH Ministry of Health 16 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality 17 LIS T OF FIG U RES Figure 1.1 . Composition of Oman’s Population by Age Group, Gender and Nationality, 2009 (thousands)........................................................................................................................ 32 ....................................................................... 34 Figure 1.2 . Structure of the Oman Education System. Figure 1.3 . Number of Student Enrollments (Grades 1–12), 1970/71 to 2008/09.... 35 ........................... 39 Figure 2.1 . Number of Grade 1–12 Enrollments, 1997/98 to 2008/09. Figure 2.2 . Survival Rates, 1997/98 to 2008/09 (%)................................................................... 41 Figure 2.3 . Repetition Rates by Grade in Public Schools, 1998/99 and 2008/09 (%).42 Figure 2.4 . Student Flow from Grades 10 and 12, 2007/08 to 2008/09......................... 43 Figure 2.5 . Tertiary Gross Enrollment Ratios (GER) in Selected Countries, Most Recent Year Available (%)............................................................................................ 45 Figure 2.6 . Adult Literacy Rates, Omani Nationals (15+ year olds), 1970, 2000 and 2003 (%). ................................................................................................................................ 54 Figure 2.7 . Number of Students in Literacy Programs, 2001/02 to 2005/06................ 54 Figure 3.1 . TIMSS Grade 8 Mathematics Scores, GCC Countries, 2007................................ 68 Figure 3.2 . International Benchmarks in TIMSS Grade 8 Mathematics, 2007.................... 69 Figure 3.3 . Comparison of a High-Performing Student in Oman (90th Percentile) With Scores of Students from Singapore, Grade 8 Mathematics, 2007........ 71 ........................................... 72 Figure 3.4 . TIMSS Grade 8 Science Scores, GCC Countries, 2007. Figure 3.5 . International Benchmarks in TIMSS Science, 2007................................................... 73 Figure 3.6 . Comparison of a High-Performing Student in Oman (90th Percentile) With Scores of Students from Singapore, Grade 8 Science, (TIMSS 2007)..... 74 Figure 3.7 . Oman’s TIMSS Results by Gender and Content Domain, Grade 8, 2007 (scaled scores).............................................................................................................................. 78 Figure 5.1 . Age Profile of Teachers in Oman (2009) and OECD Countries (2004) .................................................................................................................................... 115 (% of total). Figure 5.2 . Teachers per Class in World Education Indicators (WEI) Countries and Oman............................................................................................................................................... 132 Figure 6.1 . Percentage of Job Seekers (15 years and over) Not Previously Employed and Who Believe Their Education Qualifies Them Adequately For Employment, by Educational Status, 2008 (%).................................................. 163 Figure 7.1 . MOE Recurrent Expenditure, 2000 to 2009 (RO million)..................................... 180 Figure 7.2 . Recurrent Expenditures: Selected Government Agencies (% of total .............................................................................................................................. 181 expenditures). Figure 7.3 . Theoretical Teacher’s Age Earning Profile (RO)......................................................... 190 Figure 7.4 . Direct and Indirect Development Expenditure, 2006 to 2008 (RO million).192 Figure 7.5 . Direct Development Expenditure....................................................................................... 192 Figure 8.1 . Business Process Map for the Construction and/or Refurbishing and Expansion of Existing Schools.............................................................................................. 223 Figure B.1 . The Organization of the Ministry of Education............................................................. 253 Figure F.1 . Percentage of Students Awarded an A in Grade 1 by Gender and Region, 2009 (%)...................................................................................................................... 257 18 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality 19 LIS T OF TA B LES Figure O.1 . Intake to the College of Education at Sultan Qaboos University, 1986 to 2009. ........................................................................................................................... 269 ............. 270 Figure O.2 . Frequency Distribution of Student-Teacher Ratios in Schools, 2009. Figure P.1. Vocational Training and Technical Education System............................................ 273 Figure R.1 . Economic Activity Rates for Males and Females 15+ Years by Age Groups, Oman, 2003 (%). ............................................................................................ 276 Figure S.1 . Labor Force aged 25-29 with Completed Tertiary Education in Table 1.1 . Population of Oman, 1998–2009.............................................................................................................................................31 Selected Countries, Various Years (%)........................................................................... 278 ..........................................................................31 Table 1.2 . Crude Birth Rates, Omani Nationals, 1990–2008 (per thousand). Figure U.1 . Percentage of Job Seekers (15 years and over) Who Have Never Table 2.1 . Number of Schools and Students by Type of School, 2008/09.................................................................................39 ..........281 Worked Before and Have Attended a Short-term Vocational Training. .........................40 Table 2.2 . Gross Enrollment Ratios (GER) for Omani Nationals by Level, 2006/07 to 2008/09 (%). Figure U.2 . Proportion of Job Seekers Looking for a Desk Job by Level of .................................................................................................................................................42 Table 2.3 . Transition Rates, 2008/09 (%). Education, 2008........................................................................................................................ 281 Table 2.4 . Higher Education Enrollments, 2008/09..............................................................................................................................45 Figure Z.1 . Share of Selected Expenditure Items in Total Household Budget by Table 2.5 . Gender Parity Index (GPI) for Gross Enrollment Ratios (GERs), Omanis only, 2006/07 Education Status of Household Head, 2007/08 (%). ............................................. 286 to 2008/09 (%).................................................................................................................................................................................46 Table 2.6 . Student Flow Indicators by Gender, 2008/09 (%)............................................................................................................46 Figure AA.1 . A Governance of Education Framework......................................................................... 287 Table 2.7 . Percentage of Illiterate Adults (15+ years of age) by Governorate/Region and Nationality, Figure AC.1 . A Policy Development and Implementation Framework......................................... 291 2003 (%)................................................................................................................................................................................................54 Figure AD.1 . Occurrence of School Council Functions in 15 SBM Projects (%).................... 293 Table 2.8 . Number of Learners in Adult Education Centers and Studying Informally, 2008/09. .....................................55 Figure AE.1 . Methodology for Translating Strategic Goals into a Portfolio of Projects. .....295 Table 3.1 . Average TIMSS Grade 8 Mathematics Scores and Rank, Selected Countries, 2007. .....................................69 Table 3.2 . Average TIMSS Grade 8 Science Scores and Rank, Selected Countries, 2007.................................................72 Table 3.3 . Oman Grade 12 Examination Results by Gender and Nationality, 2009................................................................77 Table 3.4 . Gender Differences in TIMSS, Selected Countries, Grade 8, 2007 (girls-boys, average score difference).................................................................................................................................................................................79 Table 3.5 . Gender Comparison of Teacher Ratings, Grade 8 Mathematics and Science, 2008/09............................80 Table 3.6 . Number of Females with Adequate Marks Not Offered Places in Major Groups due to the ................................................................................................................................................................................81 Selection System. Table 4.1. Instructional Hours during School Year in Selected Countries, 2004. .....................................................................96 Table 4.2 . Teacher Ratings: Criteria for Awarding Grades. ..................................................................................................................97 Table 5.1 . Number of Omani Teachers, 1980 to 2008.....................................................................................................................113 Table 5.2 . Teacher Qualifications, 2008/09. ..........................................................................................................................................114 Table 5.3 . Age Profile of Teachers in Oman, 2009 (% of total). ......................................................................................................115 ............................................................................................................116 Table 5.4 . Causes of Teacher Attrition in Oman, 2008/09. Table 5.5 . OECD Teacher Attrition Rates (%). ..........................................................................................................................................116 Table 5.6 . Experience Profile of Teachers in Oman, 2009 (%)........................................................................................................116 Table 5.7 . Teachers by Subject, Nationality and Gender, 2009......................................................................................................118 Table 5.8 . Number of Schools, Classes and ICT Teachers, 2009.................................................................................................118 Table 5.9 . Average Student-Teacher Ratio, by Region, 2009..........................................................................................................121 Table 5.10 .Percentage of Teachers who are Omani, by Region, 2008/09..............................................................................121 Table 5.11 .Interdistrict Transfers, 2009....................................................................................................................................................123 Table 5.12 .Teachers with Less than Five Years of Experience after Graduation by Region, 2009................................123 Table 5.13 .SQU Student Teachers Response to Why They Study Teaching..............................................................................126 Table 5.14 .Students, Teachers and Student-Teacher Ratios in Public Schools, 2008/09...............................................131 Table 5.15 .Student-Teacher Ratios by Level of Education: International Data, circa 2004................................................131 Table 5.16 .Students, Teachers and Classes in Public Schools, 2008/09.................................................................................133 Table 5.17 .Teacher Workload, Teaching Time per Year, International Comparisons...........................................................133 Table 6.1 . Enrollments in the First Year of Higher Education Institutions, 2007/08 and 2008/09.........................150 Table 6.2 . Graduates with Bachelor Degrees and Postgraduate Diplomas from Higher Education Institutions, 2008............................................................................................................................................................................153 Table 6.3 . Distribution of Graduates (Bachelor Degrees and Postgraduate Diplomas) by Field of Study, 2008 (%).............................................................................................................................................................................................154 Table 6.4 . Proportions of Females among New Entrants and Graduates, 2007/08 and 2008/09 (%)................155 20 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality 21 LIS T OF B O X ES Table 6.5 . Sectoral Contribution to GDP in Selected Countries, 2007 (%)...............................................................................157 Table 6.6 . Economically Active Population by Sector of Activity in Selected Countries, Various Years (%)................158 Table 6.7 . Distribution of Omanis and Expatriates in the Public Sector by Level of Education, 2007 (%)..................159 Table 6.8 . Distribution of First-time Job Seekers by Gender and Level of Education, 2007(%). ......................................161 Table 7.1 . Recurrent and Investment Expenditures: MOE and Total Public Budget, 2005, 2007 and 2009.........179 Table 7.2 . Public Education Expenditure as a Percentage of GNI and Government Spending in Selected Countries, 2009 or Most Recent Year (%)........................................................................................................................182 Box 2.1 . Ireland’s Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) Scheme.....................................................................................58 Table 7.3 . Expenditure per Student by Level of Education, 2008...................................................................................................183 Box 2.2 . Expansion of Early Childhood Education: The Case of Jordan........................................................................................59 Table 7.4 . Expenditure per Student as a Percentage of GDP per Capita in Primary and Secondary Box 3.1 . Sample Item from TIMSS 2007 Low International Benchmark of Mathematics Achievement Education, 2009 or Most Recent Year (%)........................................................................................................................184 (Grade 8).................................................................................................................................................................................................70 Table 7.5 . Cumulative Graduate Costs, 2008.........................................................................................................................................185 Box 3.2 . Sample Item from TIMSS 2007 Low International Benchmark of Science Achievement (Grade 8).........73 Table 7.6 . Ministry of Education Recurrent Budget Official Nomenclature...............................................................................187 Box 4.1 . Characteristics of Good Quality Public Examinations........................................................................................................89 Table 7.7 . Staff in Public Schools by Categories and Staff-related Indicators, 2006/07 to 2008/09.....................187 Box 4.2 . Continuous Assessment and Moderation: Some International Experience. ...........................................................92 Table 7.8 . Composition of the Staff Remuneration Bill, 2008.........................................................................................................189 Box 4.3 . Bands of Student Levels of Achievement in Ireland, Grade 4 Mathematics..........................................................99 Table 7.9 . Nonsalary Recurrent Expenditures: Selected Items, 2008 (%)................................................................................191 Box 4.4 . ..............................................................100 Australia’s National Assessment Program for Literacy and Numeracy. Table 8.1 . Distribution of Training Programs at MOE, 2008...........................................................................................................215 Box 4.5 . Enhancing TEAD’s Technical Capacity...................................................................................................................................104 Table 9.1 . Matrix of Policy Recommendations for the Ministry of Education (MOE).............................................................240 Box 4.6 . Improving Understanding and Use of Continuous Assessment (CA) Materials and Processes...............104 Table A.1 . Selected Economic Indicators, 1998–2008.....................................................................................................................251 Box 5.1 . Issues Related to Teacher Oversupply: US Experience. .................................................................................................114 Table A.2 . Public Recurrent and Investment Expenditure by Selected Sector, 2005, 2007 and 2009. ....................252 Box 5.2 . Measures to Address Geographical Preferences: Some International Examples...........................................120 Table D.1 . Gross Enrollment Ratios (GERs) in Selected Countries, 2007–2009 (%)..........................................................255 Box 5.3 . Selecting the Right Teachers.....................................................................................................................................................125 ............................................................................................................................256 Table E.1 . Preschool Education in Oman 2008/09. Box 5.4 . Teaching Practice............................................................................................................................................................................128 Table J.1 . Example of Standards Data at Each Mathematics Achievement Level, by Region Box 5.5 . Induction of Newly Qualified Teachers: England................................................................................................................129 (% of students, standard error)................................................................................................................................................261 Box 5.6 . Leadership in Schools....................................................................................................................................................................136 Table K.1 . Summary of Skills Assessed 2009.........................................................................................................................................263 Box 5.7 . Regulating the Teaching Profession.......................................................................................................................................141 Table N.1 . Educational Research Centre, Ireland...................................................................................................................................266 Box 5.8 . Reflective Practice: Lesson Study in Japan.........................................................................................................................142 Table N.2 . New Zealand Council for Educational Research...............................................................................................................267 Box 6.1 . Classic Options for Secondary Education in an Industrial Economy........................................................................147 Table O.1 . Percentage of Teachers Qualified by Subject, 2008/09............................................................................................268 Box 6.2 . ......................................................................................................162 Employers’ Views on Relevance of Graduates’ Skills. Table O.2 . Specialist Teachers by Subject and Region, 2008/09 (%)........................................................................................268 Box 6.3 . Soft Skills Sought by Employers in the MENA and South Asia Regions.................................................................162 Table O.3 . Academic Staff at the College of Education at SQU, 2008/09...............................................................................271 Box 6.4 . International Responses to the Changing Status of Vocational Secondary Education. ..................................168 Table O.4 . Average Class Size by Region, 2009.....................................................................................................................................272 Box 6.5 . Specialist Schools............................................................................................................................................................................169 Table O.5 . Average Class Size, International Comparisons, 2006.................................................................................................272 Box 6.6 . Pathways for Youth to Labor Market: An Overview of High School Initiatives in Canada..............................172 Table O.6 . Official Instruction Time in Oman, 2009...............................................................................................................................272 Box 6.7 . Services to Support Young People in Selected Countries............................................................................................173 Table Q.1 . Distribution of Higher Education Graduates by Fields of Study, Selected Countries, 2006/07 (%).......275 Box 7.1 . Economic Wealth and Enrollments: International Correlations...............................................................................184 Table R.1 . Economic Activity Rates 15+ years, by Gender in Selected Countries, Various Years (% and ratio).....276 Box 7.2 . .........................................................................................198 Example of Budget Classification for Program Budgeting. Table R.2 . Sectoral Share of Labor Force / Sectoral Share of GDP in Selected Countries, Various Years. .............277 Box 7.3 . Medium-term Budgetary Frameworks: Two Extreme Cases....................................................................................199 Table S.1 . Labor Force (15+ Years) by Level of Educational Attainment in Selected Countries, Circa 2000 (% of total).................................................................................................................................................................278 Box 7.4 . Sample Research Matrix for PETS........................................................................................................................................200 Table T.1 . Number of Universities Ranked among the Top 500 in Selected Countries......................................................279 Box 8.1 . Ten Lessons in Design and Use of Management Information Systems..............................................................210 Table T.2 . Top Arab World Universities......................................................................................................................................................280 Box 8.2 . Features of the Irish National Framework of Qualifications......................................................................................212 Table W.1 . Cost of Graduation, 2008...........................................................................................................................................................283 Box 8.3 . Lessons on National Qualifications Framework (NQF): Experience of 16 Countries.....................................213 Table X.1 . Staff Ratios by Region, 2008/09...........................................................................................................................................284 Box 8.4 . Capacity Building for School Leaders...................................................................................................................................218 Table Y.1 . Distribution of Civil Service Employees by Grade, 2007...............................................................................................285 Box 8.5 . Using a National Assessment to Identify the Training Needs of School Principals........................................219 Box 8.6 . The Finnish Institute of Educational Leadership..............................................................................................................220 Box 8.7 . Possible Lessons from Civil Service Reform Initiatives in Jordan...........................................................................221 Box O.1 . Components of the Teacher Induction Program: Oman.............................................................................................271 23 O V ERV IE W Since the 1970s, public education provision in Oman has flourished. Almost all Omani children of basic education age are now enrolled in schools, along with a high proportion (86 percent) of those of post-basic education age. The Government of Oman has turned its attention to ensur- ing that the achievements made to date are not only maintained but also further enhanced to achieve a high-quality, efficient and relevant education system. This report is the result of an education sector study undertaken collaboratively by the Government of Oman and the World Bank to analyze the strengths and weaknesses of the system and to provide recommenda- tions to continue to improve education outcomes in Oman. Drawing on evidence and information from a wide variety of sources, this report concentrates on pretertiary education and examines aspects of access to education, quality of learning, teachers and teaching methods, relevance of education to the labor market, and the financing and manage- ment of the education system. The report offers some policy recommen- dations on the way forward. A summary of the report’s key findings follows. KEY FINDINGS Oman’s recent successes in expanding education provision are impressive. School enrollments have grown from 900 in 1970 to over 600,000 in 2008/09, and repetition and dropout rates have decreased considerably. The result is that education participation levels in Oman are equal to or above other countries in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). In particular, young women in Oman have high levels of tertiary education completion similar to levels in top performing countries, such as Singapore and South Korea. The Government has now moved its focus to the quality and relevance of teaching and learning. The results of the analysis from this education sector study confirm that the key challenge facing the education sector in Oman is to improve the quality of student learning outcomes and that enhancing quality should be the Government’s main priority in education. Recent endeavors to improve quality include the introduction of revised systems of basic education (grades 1–10) and post-basic education (grades 11–12). While these initiatives are still new and their results will not be entirely apparent for several years, recent national and international assessments of learning achieve- ment highlight the need for a concerted effort to improve quality. There are many factors that influence the quality of educational outcomes. The Ministry of Education (MOE), in particular, has a central role to play in opti- mizing education system performance. There are two broad priorities suggested by this report: (1) creating a culture of high standards; and (2) developing the pedagogical capacity of the teaching force. These priorities, along with policy recommendations, are outlined as follows. 24 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Overview 25 Establish a Culture of High Standards Develop Strong Pedagogical Skills Current Situation: Current Situation: From young children’s work in the classroom to teachers and administrators and beyond schools to Of all the factors affecting student learning that can potentially be influenced by public policy, teaching the home environment, high standards of performance and learning should be expected. A disconnect quality is the single most important one. An effective teaching force with strong pedagogical skills is was observed between the perception of learning achievement among students, teachers and parents the key to increasing education quality. Oman has a large teaching force with sufficient qualifications, and the students’ actual learning achievement. National and international assessments of learning but new teachers’ skills are not developed adequately in preservice teacher training due to the lack of show that students are performing below the Government’s expectations and below many countries in emphasis on pedagogical skills and the limited use of practical training. Currently teacher trainers do the world. In particular, the underachievement of boys is striking: of all 48 participating countries in the not have sufficient classroom experience or practical teaching skills. In-service training should be more 2007 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), Oman had the largest gender practical and responsive to teachers’ needs. In school, teachers’ work needs to be refocused with more difference with boys scoring significantly lower than girls in all content areas. The amount of actual time devoted to teaching and less to reporting and administrative requirements. time spent on learning activities in Oman’s public schools is less than in many other countries. School graduates lack some critical skills, particularly in English, which necessitates a foundation year in higher Specific Areas to Address: education institutions. In addition, employers express concerns about the job readiness of graduates. n Teacher education courses are not well matched to the curriculum that new teachers are expected For Oman’s education system to continue to improve, standards need to be raised and measures put to teach or to teaching realities in Omani classrooms. In addition, courses lack a suitable emphasis in place to ensure that these new standards are met. on practical training, and the teacher trainers tend to have limited practical classroom experience themselves. Regulating teacher education courses would help to ensure that pedagogical skills Specific Areas to Address: are prioritized suitably and that newly qualified teachers are prepared to teach the curriculum. n To increase the time students spend on meaningful learning tasks, it will be important to meet the n Teachers need to be focused on the quality of teaching and student learning. Even though teaching official target of 180 days in the school year, which is close to international norms. Currently days loads are low in Oman compared to other countries, teachers cite an overload of administrative are lost due to examinations, special events and other closures. Reducing the grade 12 examina- tasks, such as reporting and recording, which takes their focus away from classroom perform- tions to one session at the end of the year and keeping classes for grades 1–11 operating as ance. Rebalancing teachers’ work to prioritize teaching quality and to reduce paperwork may be usual during these examinations would help to meet the target. In addition, schools could be asked necessary. In-service training should focus on teaching skills for quality learning and teacher-peer to extend the term to make up days lost for festivals or other reasons. Furthermore, teachers activities should be supported, such as the formation of regional teacher subject associations. should be encouraged to prioritize the curriculum over other activities. n Ensuring an adequate supply of Omani teachers by forecasting need and supporting domestic n Setting clear and realistic learning targets for each grade and publicizing these widely to teachers, provision will be necessary in the long term. The current teacher oversupply, which has contrib- students and parents can help to raise the quality of learning. Teachers should be encouraged to uted to the closure of some teacher education courses, has left little domestic capacity to train monitor learning regularly and give realistic feedback to students and parents. The development teachers for the first cycle of basic education. This poses a risk for the future and may increase of higher-order thinking skills should be encouraged across the grades with increasing emphasis reliance on non-Omani teachers. There are currently imbalances across subject specializations on higher-order thinking in the examinations. More use could be made of examination results to with a teacher oversupply in some areas and an undersupply in others. This unsatisfactory situ- identify common areas of difficulties in each subject and to adapt in-service teacher training to ation can be addressed by requiring teacher education institutions to be guided by long-term improve teaching in these areas. national needs as they select students for each specialization. n The significant underachievement of boys should be examined and addressed systematically. As a first step, parents should be made more aware of the gender gap and encouraged to set higher n Retaining teachers in remote areas is a challenge in Oman. Remote areas have a greater propor- expectations for boys. As key issues affecting boys’ low performance are not well understood, a tion of non-Omani teachers and significantly more turn over than urban areas. Providing an comprehensive empirical study should be conducted to identify factors and to inform an action appropriate additional allowance for teachers in carefully targeted remote areas, extending the plan to address them. duration of stay in a school before a transfer can be requested, and giving preference to students from remote areas for teacher training may be options to consider. n There are several areas in which school curricula could be improved. In particular, given that a lack of English language proficiency is one of the main reasons students require a foundation year at most public and private universities, reviewing the English curriculum and teaching methods may be necessary. In addition, given the objective evidence suggesting that achievement levels in mathematics and science are low, a curricula review in these areas is warranted. Furthermore, “soft skills� development, such as team work, public speaking, problem solving, critical thinking and a strong work ethic, were seen as lacking by some employers. A reduction in the number of subjects that post-basic students are required to take may be necessary to ensure a deeper understanding of concepts. Since few staff at the MOE’s Curriculum Development Directorate (CDD) have benefited from training in curriculum development or evaluation, a professional development program in these areas should be undertaken. 26 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Overview 27 Other Challenges In addition there are a number of specific areas in which access to education should be addressed in order to reach the Education for All (EFA) goals and contribute to education quality enhancement: n Expanding the provision of publicly financed early childhood education (ECE) should be a priority given the current low participation rate and the substantial evidence of ECE benefits, particularly for school readiness. Private preschools, which have become popular in Oman and grown in number, are only accessible to families who can afford to pay for them. Initially in public ECE expansion, areas of poor educational performance should be prioritized and encouragement of private provision of ECE continued. n Oman currently lacks adequate mechanisms for identifying and evaluating children with special needs, and it is likely that the true requirement for special needs education provision is greater than what is currently available. A national strategy for special needs education should be devel- oped, involving all of the responsible ministries. Reliable data on the demand for educational facili- ties for children with special needs will be essential. Teachers who are responsible for integrating children with special needs into the classroom should receive appropriate training. n While adult literacy rates have improved significantly in Oman, there is a need to review the literacy program’s curriculum and delivery methods and to conduct an assessment of the literacy education needs of potential learners, particularly males who are currently under-represented in the programs. The quality of the literacy program could be enhanced by providing more centers, improving the curriculum and supporting materials, and developing a policy to attract, train and retain suitable teachers. These recommendations have management and financial implications. In particular, reaching the goal of improved education quality will require all relevant ministries to unite their efforts and to plan together, for example through the development of a national strategy for education. Guiding the planning of the education sector could be the responsibility of a high-level body established with representation from the relevant ministries, including the MOE, the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE), the Ministry of Manpower (MOM), the Ministry of Social Development (MOSD), the Ministry of Health (MOH) and the Ministry of Finance (MOF), and other stakeholders including the private sector. Within the MOE, a management training program could be established to enhance the leadership and planning skills of senior officials. Resources should be shifted toward quality-related inputs and to support teaching and learning initia- tives. This resource shift could be achieved by reviewing the remuneration system for teaching and administrative staff. In particular, the review should focus on student-teacher and teacher-administrator ratios, which are currently low. Consideration could be given to the use of allowances to link remunera- tion to performance or acceptance of hardship posts rather than to seniority alone. Other management and finance initiatives aimed at improving quality include (1) granting more financial autonomy and management responsibility to the governorates, regions and schools to make decisions more relevant to local contexts; (2) conducting a tracking study of public finance for education to identify possible inefficiencies in resource allocation; and (3) ensuring that the data required to make sound informed policy decisions in education are produced in a timely manner and are valid and reliable. This report acknowledges the tremendous achievements that Oman has made in education provision to date, and the capacity and political will that has facilitated the remarkable accomplishments. The challenge of improving education quality is not insurmountable for Oman, but it will require a shared vision, careful planning, focused use of resources and collaborative work involving all relevant stakeholders. 29 CHAPTER 1 Demographic, Economic and Social Context Under the leadership of His Majesty Sultan Qaboos bin Said, Oman’s development over the past 40 years has been striking. The economy has been fundamentally transformed through a series of development plans, including the current 8th Five-Year Development Plan 2011–2015. Maintaining the momentum of this remarkable economic growth and increasing Oman’s competi- tiveness internationally will require further development of Oman’s human capital. This development is a high national priority in which education plays a central role. Providing background to this study on the education sector, this chapter highlights key issues in Oman’s demographic, economic, social and education context. 30 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 1 31 1.1 DEMOGRAPHIC CONTEXT Oman has a large proportion of youth but is undergoing a demographic transition. In mid-2009 the country’s total population was 3.2 million, a significant change from 2.9 million in 2008 due to a 28 percent increase in the non-Omani population (table 1.1). Approximately 36 percent of the total population is non-Omani nationals. Oman has a high proportion of young people with approximately 27 percent of the total population under the age of 20 and 48 percent of Omani nationals under age 20. In the coming decades this is likely to change, however, because the crude birth rate per thousand for Omani nationals dropped from 44.7 in 1990 to 24.0 in 2004, although it increased to 29.5 in 2009 (table 1.2). The effect of this fall in birth rate can be seen in the shape of the population composition in figure 1.1 by the greater number of Omanis in the 15–19 age group than in the younger age groups of 0–4, 5–9 or 10–14 (MONE 2010). Table 1.1 Population of Oman, 1998–2009 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Omani Population 1,685 1,729 1,778 1,826 1,870 1,782 1,803 1,843 1,884 1,923 1,967 2,018 (000s) Annual % 2.6 2.8 2.7 2.4 -4 . 7 1.2 2.2 2.2 2.1 2.3 2.6 increase N o n -O m a n i 602 596 624 652 668 559 613 666 693 820 900 1,156 Population (000s) Annual % -1 . 0 4.7 4.5 2.5 -1 6 . 3 9.7 8.6 4.1 18.3 9.8 28.4 increase Total Population 2,287 2,325 2,402 2,478 2,538 2,341 2,416 2,509 2,577 2,743 2,867 3,174 (000s) Annual % 1.7 3.3 3.2 2.4 -7 . 8 3.2 3.8 2.7 6.4 4.5 10.7 increase Source: MONE 2010. Table 1.2 Crude Birth Rates, Omani Nationals, 1990–2008 (per thousand) 1990 1995 2000 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Crude Birth Rate 44.7 34 32.6 24.4 24 24.8 24.2 25.0 27.3 29.5 Source: MONE 2010. The demographic composition of Omani nationals is different from that of non-Omanis. The non-Omani population is concentrated around the 25–39 age range and is mostly male (82 percent male in 2009), a reflection of the fact that the majority of non-Omanis are male workers who are single or have families outside of Oman (figure 1.1). The non-Omani population has a lower propor- tion of young people than the Omani population: only 8 percent of non-Omanis are under 20 years of age compared to 48 percent of Omanis (MONE 2010). 32 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 1 33 Figure 1.1 Non-Omani nationals dominate Oman’s private sector despite the Omanization effort. Composition of Oman’s Population by Age Group, Gender and Nationality, 2009 (thousands) Youth unemployment is an increasing concern. Among public sector employees in 2009, 86 percent were Omani nationals up from 69 percent in 1995 (MONE 2010). However, while the proportion of Age Male Female Omanis in the private sector increased from 4 percent in 1995 to 19 percent in 2005, it decreased 6 5+ to 15 percent in 2009. The overall size of the public and private sectors grew in recent years: the 6 0-64 number of public sector employees increased by 44 percent between 2000 and 2008, and private 5 5-59 sector employees increased by 88 percent.4 Despite these increases, unemployment, particularly youth 5 0-54 unemployment, is a growing concern. Oman faces difficulty in providing jobs for the more than 30,000 4 5-49 young Omanis entering the job market each year (Economist Intelligent Unit 2008). 4 0-44 3 5-39 Oman is performing relatively well on a number of key human development indicators. 3 0-34 Oman ranked 56th among 182 countries on the Human Development Index (UNDP 2009), a composite 2 5-29 2 0-24 index measuring average achievement in three basic dimensions of human development.5 The infant 1 5-19 mortality rate in Oman is 10.6 per 1,000 live births, a figure that is lower than most other countries in 1 0-14 the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region but slightly higher than many OECD countries, as well 5 -9 as Singapore (2.4) and South Korea (4.4). 0 -4 340 300 260 220 1 80 1 40 1 00 60 20 20 60 1 00 1 40 1 80 2 20 2 60 3 00 3 40 In the past few decades, Oman has also made remarkable progress in adult literacy. Non-Omani In 1970, only 33 percent of Oman’s adults were literate (MOE 2006). By 1990, the adult literacy Populat ion (thousands) Omani rate had reached 55 percent, and the average between 2000 and 2007 was 84 percent (Economist Intelligent Unit 2008 and UNESCO 2010). Oman’s adult literacy rate, however, is still lower than Source: MONE 2010. several other countries in the region.6 1.2 M A C R O E C O N O M I C A N D SOCIAL CONTEXT 1.3 E DUCATION CONTEXT Over the last 40 years, Oman has pursued a diversified industrial development policy. Oman’s education provision is governed by a legal framework based on directives and decrees of Oman is classified by the World Bank as a high-income country with a gross national income (GNI) His Majesty Sultan Qaboos and basic laws of the state. The state endeavors to make education acces- per capita of US$17,890 in 2008.1 Between 2000 and 2009, the real gross domestic product sible to all and aims to use education “to raise and develop general cultural standards, promote scientific (GDP) growth rate averaged 4.6 percent per year; the growth has been reflected in an increase in thought, kindle the spirit of research, build a generation that takes pride in its nation’s heritage, and per capita GDP in real terms (appendix table A.1).2 For many years, government revenue depended preserves its achievements� (MOE 2006, p.34). Free access to school is provided for all boys and girls, almost exclusively on oil receipts. At present Oman is actively pursuing a development plan that focuses but education is not compulsory in Oman. on diversification, industrialization and privatization. The portion of petroleum and natural gas in GDP, The Ministry of Education (MOE) has formal responsibility for education system however, is still high at 40.6 percent in 2009 (MONE 2010). The Government of Oman hopes to reduce administration in grades 1–12. the oil sector’s contribution to GDP to 10 percent by 2020 (MONE 2007). The MOE has more than 5,000 employees about two-thirds of whom work in regional directorates. At the central level, the minister is supported by three undersecretaries who manage (1) administration The government’s education emphasis is reflected in the high proportion of civil and financial affairs, (2) education and curricula, and (3) planning and human resources development. ministries’ resources allocated to the sector. Further details of MOE’s organizational structure are in appendix figure B.1. MOE responsibilities include To keep pace with technological advancements and to attain international competitiveness, the devel- policy development for state schools to grade 12, system management at the national level and in the opment and upgrading of human resources is a high priority on the country’s development agenda, 11 educational regions, curriculum development, textbook provision, assessment, and supervision of and education is central to this national priority. The education sector received 37.2 percent of civil teachers, nonteaching staff and schools. Each region has a Directorate General whose responsibili- ministries’ recurrent expenditure or 17.5 percent of total government recurrent expenditure (appendix ties include implementation of MOE policies, preparing plans and budgets, allocation of teachers and table A.2 and table 7.1).3 supervisors, and monitoring teacher and administrative staff performance. The central MOE also has 1 World Bank EdStats/DDP database. GNI measures the total domestic and foreign income claimed by the residents of the 4 economy. It comprises GDP plus net factor income from abroad, which is the income residents receive from abroad for factor The number of public sector employees increased from 110,498 in 2000 to 159,538 in 2009 and the number of private sector services (labor and capital) less similar payments made to nonresidents who contributed to the domestic production. GNI in employees increased from 550,671 in 2000 to 1,032,560 in 2008 (MONE 2010). U.S. dollars is calculated according to the World Bank Atlas method of conversion from national currency to U.S. dollar terms 5 The Human Development Index includes the following measures: (1) a long healthy life (life expectancy at birth); (2) access to (http://go.worldbank.org/WG51XXDWB0).  knowledge (adult literacy rate and gross enrollment ratio); and (3) a decent standard of living (GDP per capita). 2 Further details on economic indicators may be examined in appendix table A.1. 6 Adult literacy rates (for 15+ year olds) were 87 percent in Oman (2008), 91 percent in Bahrain (2008), 92 percent in Jordan 3 The education sector includes the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Higher Education, the Sultan Qaboos University and the (2007), 94 percent in Kuwait (2007), 90 percent in Lebanon (2007), 93 percent in Qatar (2007), 90 percent in the United Arab Ministry of Manpower (which is responsible for technical and vocational education and training). Emirates (2005) and 94 percent in the West Bank and Gaza (2008) (World Bank, EdStats December 2010). 34 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 1 35 responsibility for overseeing education quality in private and international schools. Additional ministries The education system has experienced many reform efforts in recent years. have responsibility for other areas of education policy: Ministry of Manpower (MOM) for technical Recent reforms have focused mainly on basic and post-basic schools. They have included such features education and vocational training (TEVT) and Ministry of Social Development (MOSD) for early childhood as a student-centered approach to teaching and learning; introduction of information technology (IT) education (ECE). and life skills; emphasis on real-life applications in the curriculum; continuous assessment; and reduc- tion of class size. Added resources have included learning resource centers in schools; computer labs A new basic education model organized into cycle one (grades 1–4) in cycle two schools (grades 5–10); halls for curricular activities and for environment life skills; stores, and cycle two (grades 5–10) was introduced in 1998/99. canteens, and health rooms; and air conditioners for classrooms. The MOE has also raised initial The basic education system is replacing the general education system (elementary, preparatory and teacher qualification standards. A school-based management process was introduced to give schools the first grade of secondary education). It is designed to provide a unified grade 1–10 program for all and their employees a greater role in planning, implementation and self management (MOE 2007a). school-age children to improve learning outcomes through the development of new curricula and text- A program to evaluate overall school performance has been in operation for some years. books. Currently the two systems are operating in parallel as the new basic education system is being implemented gradually. In the 1998/99 academic year, basic education was first introduced in 17 The MOE recognized that the amount of school time was inadequate to prepare schools. By 2005/06, 507 schools were involved. By the end of 2010, all children in grades 1–4 will students for the globally competitive economy. be studying under the new system. The first basic education graduates entered post-basic education in In response, it increased to 180 days the official number of “instruction days� per year for basic and 2007/08. Figure 1.2 shows the education system structure from ECE to higher education, including general education schools, and it lengthened the school day from four to over six hours for basic and TEVT, adult education and special education. general education. In theory, this increase (68 percent) in instruction time would bring Omani students in line with standards in many developed countries. A new post-basic education system (grades 11 and 12) has been implemented since 2007/08. Since the 1970s, Oman has made remarkable achievements in providing students The two-year post-basic education system has gradually replaced the two years of secondary education with access to schools and to trained teachers. under the general education system. The post-basic education curriculum is organized on a “core plus From a total of three schools for just over 900 male students in 1970 to now, 40 years later, the electives� model, and students are given an element of choice. During these two years, students’ school country has 1,283 schools and over 600,000 students (figure 1.3). Universal basic education has been experience is expected to prepare them for life after school either for higher education or for entry into virtually achieved, and the secondary education gross enrollment ratio (GER) is high compared to many the labor market. To this end, all students are required to complete a graduation project. countries. The Government appreciates that, having achieved highly impressive school access results, its efforts must now turn to ensuring that students achieve satisfactory levels of learning — a necessary condition for economic and personal development. Figure 1.2 Structure of the Oman Education System Figure 1.3 Number of Student Enrollments (Grades 1–12), 1970/71 to 2008/09 Age Gr a d e 21 20 19 Universities and Colleges 18 700,000 17 12 603,039 Post-basic 600,000 Institutes of Vocational 569,931 16 11 education 15 10 Royal Islamic Science Training Centers 500,000 Guard of 14 9 Basic Oman 400,000 13 8 education Technical Literacy Centers/ Cycle 2 General International College Adult Education Public, private and 12 7 300,000 international schools education schools Centers 11 6 200,000 Public and private schools 10 5 9 4 Public only Public schools 100,000 900 8 3 Basic Private only education 7 2 Cycle 1 Public and private 0 3 7 1 5 9 6 1 9 9 0 0 0 Public, private and / / / / / 5 0 2 6 0 4 8 special needs 7 9 9 0 0 0 9 9 9 0 0 0 4 1 1 1 2 2 2 Early childhood education 3 Source: MOE Statistical Department. Source: MOE Statistical Department. Notes: The ages are approximate and do not necessarily correspond to grades. ECE institutions include Notes: Data for international schools are only available for 2008/09. private schools, classrooms in public schools, international schools, Ministry of Social Development Kindergarten, Royal Oman Police Kindergarten, Royal Armed Houses, and Qur’an Schools. 36 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Overview 37 CHAPTER 2 The following chapters of the report analyze the major achievements and key challeng- es of Oman’s education sector. The report focuses mainly on pretertiary education and includes analyses of education access and student flow; student learning quality; teaching and nonteaching factors that may have a bearing on learning levels; education system relevance from an economic perspective; current system finance; and overall education system management. Recommendations, many of which are based on ACCESS AND EFFICIENCY international experience, have been added to the chapters to guide further advance- ment of the education sector. Oman has successfully made formal schooling available to its young population. This chapter analyzes the country’s achieve- ments in student enrollment, education coverage, student flow, and equal opportunities for education access. It examines whether the government’s approach to education has been successful in achieving the Education for All (EFA) goals and highlights areas that need more focus, including early childhood education (ECE), students with special needs and adult literacy. Oman’s EFA com- mitment includes six goals agreed upon at the World Education Forum in Dakar, Senegal, in April 2000, which are to be reached by 2015 (appendix C). The chapter analyzes Oman’s achievements in the first five goals (the last goal is discussed in chapter 3), and discusses the steps that remain for Oman on the path to EFA. 38 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 2 39 2.1 ACHIEVEMENTS IN REACHING THE EFA G O A L S Student Enrollment Education access in Oman has increased remarkably over the past four decades. From 900 students in 1970, enrollments rose to over 600,000 in 2008/09 (table 2.1), representing a rapid expansion of education services. Regional access has been aided by the building of additional schools in rural areas. There has been a reduction in “double-shift� schools from 37 percent in 1995 to 10 percent in 2008/09. The rate of enrollment increase has gradually declined since 2002/03 (figure 2.1), which is consistent with national demographic changes (chapter 1). Table 2.1 Number of Schools and Students by Type of School, 2008/09 Type of school Public Private Other* International Total Number of Schools 1,047 200 3 33 1,283 Number of Students 540,332 28,999 600 33,108 603,039 B a s i c e d u c a t i o n 1 s t c y c l e ( g r a d e s 1 -4 ) 156,667 19,244 - 14,732 190,643 Basic education 2nd cycle (grades 5-10) 288,273 8,328 365 15,694 312,660 P o s t -b a s i c e d u c a t i o n ( g r a d e s 1 1 -1 2 ) 95,392 1,427 235 2,682 99,736 Source: MOE 2009a; MOE Statistical Department. Note: *Other schools include the Sultan Qaboos Institutes for Islamic Studies and the Royal Guard of Oman Technical College. Figure 2.1 Number of Grade 1–12 Enrollments, 1997/98 to 2008/09 700,000 600,000 500,000 400,000 300,000 Public and private schools Public schools 200,000 100,000 0 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 / / / / / / / / / / / / 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Source: MOE 2009a; MOE Statistical Department. Note: For comparison purposes, this figure does not include international schools, which accounted for 5 percent of all grade 1-12 enrollments in 2008/09. Data for international schools are not available prior to 2008/09. 40 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 2 41 For Omani nationals, basic education coverage of the population is almost complete Student Flow through the System and post-basic education coverage is high and increasing. Currently it is not possible to calculate education coverage indicators for the whole of Oman due to Entry to grade 1 is almost universal for Omani children, and retention from grade problems with non-Omani population estimates (discussed later in this chapter). Therefore, indicators 1–12 has improved for both Omani and non-Omani students. presented here are for Omani nationals only. In 2008/09 the gross enrollment ratio (GER) for Omani In 2008/09 the gross intake ratio (GIR) was 98 percent.9 Retention rates throughout the school nationals was 97 percent for the first cycle and 98 percent for the second cycle of basic education grades have increased substantially over the past decade. For Omani and non-Omani students together, (table 2.2).7 The GER for post-basic education increased from 82 percent in 2006/07 to 86 percent survival to grade 12 was 86 percent in 2008/09, up from 64 percent in 1998/99 (figure 2.2).10 in 2008/09. Figure 2.2 Table 2.2 Survival Rates, 1997/98 to 2008/09 (%) Gross Enrollment Ratios (GER) for Omani Nationals by Level, 2006/07 to 2008/09 (%) 2006/07 2007/08 2008/09 Basic education Basic education Post-basic Cycle 1 Cycle 2 education Basic education 1st cycle (grades 1- 4) 94 95 97 Basic education 2nd cycle (grades 5-10) 98 98 98 100 Post-basic education (grades 11-12) 82 84 86 80 Source: Authors, based on data from the MOE Statistical Department. 60 2007/08 to 2008/09 40 2002/03 to 2003/04 GERs for Omani nationals are high compared to middle-income countries but still lag 1997/98 to 1998/99 behind the leading high-income countries in upper secondary education. 20 For this comparison the international classification for education systems was used: students in grades 0 1–6 are classified as primary, in grades 7–9 as lower secondary and in grades 10–12 as upper Grade 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 secondary.8 The upper secondary GER (grades 10–12 in Oman) was 90 percent for Omanis, well above the average of 54 percent for middle-income countries but below the average of 99 percent for high- income countries (appendix D). Compared with other Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, Oman’s Source: Authors, based on data from MOE Statistical Department. upper secondary GER is higher than that of Qatar, Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates and close to Note: Survival rates with repetition are shown, calculated using the UNESCO Institute for Statistics reconstructed cohort method. The data used to calculate the survival rates include Omanis and that of Saudi Arabia and Bahrain. It should be noted that these figures are not directly comparable non-Omanis in public and private schools. because the GERs for other countries include all nationalities, while the GERs for Oman are limited to Omani nationals only. In recent years following concerted efforts by the Ministry of Education (MOE), repetition rates have decreased considerably and dropout rates are low. High repetition rates indicate a lack of efficiency in the education system. The MOE initiated a number of policy changes to reduce repetition and dropout. New pass/fail regulations stipulate all grades 1–4 students should progress from one grade to the next. In grades 5–11, Attainment Follow-up Committees should identify and support students at risk of falling behind in their school work and, at the end of the year, should decide whether retention or progression is in the students’ best interests. These initiatives have reduced grade repetition to zero for grades 1–4 (figure 2.3). For grades 5–12, repetition rates range from 1 to 6 percent with the highest rates in grades 5 and 10 (a repetition rate of 5–6 percent for males and females). Dropout rates are now low at 2 percent or less with the exception of grade 10, the final grade before the transition to post-basic education, where rates were 7 percent for males and 5 percent for females.11 7 9 GERs for Omanis are calculated as the total number of Omani enrollments (in public, private and other schools) divided by the GIRs for Omanis are calculated as the total number of new entrants to grade 1 (in public, private and other schools) as a Omani population of the official age for the grades. Omanis are not permitted to enroll in international schools unless they have percentage of the Omani population of official age for the grade. obtained special permission. 10 Survival rates were derived using the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) reconstructed cohort method, which includes those 8 International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) 1997 (UNESCO 2006a). who repeat grades. The reconstructed cohort method uses data from two consecutive years to estimate rates of progression, repetition and drop out. 11 Authors’ calculations based on data from the MOE Statistical Department. 42 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 2 43 Figure 2.3 After completing basic education (grade 10), the vast majority of students continue Repetition Rates by Grade in Public Schools, 1998/99 and 2008/09 (%) on to post-basic education; a small but increasing number enters technical education and vocational training (TEVT). While 89 percent of grade 10 students in 2007/08 went on to grade 11 of post-basic education in Basic education Basic education Post-basic 2008/09, 5 percent repeated grade 10, and the remaining 6 percent either joined vocational training Cycle 1 Cycle 2 education centers (VTCs) or entered the labor force as employed or seeking employment (figure 2.4). The number 25 of students enrolled in VTCs increased from 1,933 in 2005/06 to 2,929 in 2008/09, representing 20 approximately 3 percent of the Omani population aged 16–17 (2 percent in 2005/06). 20 Figure 2.4 15 Student Flow from Grades 10 and 12, 2007/08 to 2008/09 10 10 9 9 9 10 8 7 6 6 6 5 5 2007/08 2008/09 5 6 3 2 2 4 1 Grade 11 new entrants1 4 0 0 0 0 47,825 0 89% Grade 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Grade 10 new repeaters1 Grade 10 total enrollment1 2,790 2008/09 1998/99 53,856 5% Other2 Source: Authors’ calculations based on data from the MOE Statistical Department. 3,241 6% Note: Repetition rates are calculated as the number of repeaters in 2008/09 and 1998/99 as a percentage of the numbers enrolled in the previous grade in 2007/08 and 1997/98, respectively. In Oman’s HEIs In 1998/99, grade 7 was the first grade of the preparatory level, which was commonly repeated (repetition rate of 20 percent). 23,583 92% Transition rates between education levels have improved considerably, particularly Higher education new entrants Inoverseas HEIs for males. 25,694 1,475 55% 6% Almost all grade 4 students in 2007/08 advanced to grade 5 (start of the second cycle of basic educa- tion) in 2008/09.12 This is a considerably higher transition rate than ten years earlier (table 2.3). The Grade 12 total enrollment1 Grade 12 repeaters1 Overseas by correspondence4 528 636 transition rate from the end of basic education to post-basic education was 89 percent for both males 46,659 1% 2% and females in 2008/09. This represents a substantial increase for males over the 73 percent rate recorded for 1998/99. Other3 20,437 44% Table 2.3 Transition Rates, 2008/09 (%) Males Females All 1998/99 2008/09 1998/99 2008/09 1998/99 2008/09 Basic education 1st to 2nd cycle 84 97 90 98 87 98 Source: Authors’ calculations based on data from the MOE Statistical Department and MOHE 2009. (grades 4 to 5) Basic education to post-basic Notes: 73 89 87 89 80 89 1 education (grades 10 to 11) Includes Omanis and non-Omanis in public and private schools but not in international or other schools. 2 Source: Authors’ calculations based on data from the MOE Statistical Department. Other includes labor force (employed and unemployed) and VTC enrollments (a small number). 3 Other includes labor force (employed and unemployed), military service and VTC enrollments Note: Includes Omanis and non-Omanis in public and private schools only (but not international or other (a small number). schools). Transition rates are calculated as the number of new entrants to grade 5 (or 11) in 2008/09 4 as a percentage of the number of enrollments in grade 4 (or 10) in 2007/08. The number of new entrants studying overseas by correspondence has been estimated due to lack of data. The estimate (636) was calculated by taking all enrollments studying overseas by correspondence and applying the percentage of new entrants in all enrollments in Oman’s HEIs 12 Transition rates are calculated as the number of new entrants to a grade as a percentage of the total number of enrollments (28 percent). This assumes that the percentage of new entrants among all enrollments in in the previous grade in the previous year. Oman’s HEIs is the same for overseas correspondence students. 44 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 2 45 More than half of grade 12 leavers (55 percent) joined institutions Table 2.4 of higher education in 2008/09. Higher Education Enrollments, 2008/09 The higher education institutions (HEI) in Oman include the Sultan Qaboos University (SQU), colleges of applied sciences, colleges of technology, institutes Males Females All of health, Institute of Shari’a Sciences, College of Banking and Financial Studies, 2003/04 2008/09 2003/04 2008/09 2003/04 2008/09 and private universities and colleges. In addition, a number of students attend Total Studying in Oman and Abroad 3,341 46,897 4,939 47,320 8,280 94,217 overseas universities or stay in Oman and study at overseas universities by corre- Total Studying in Oman Institutions 3,341 39,709 4,939 42,101 8,280 81,810 spondence. Figure 2.4 shows that 1 percent of grade 12 leavers in 2007/08 Private Universities and Colleges 548 14,192 528 19,329 1,076 33,521 repeated grade 12 in 2008/09. The remaining 44 percent entered the labor Colleges of Technology 801 12,677 1,058 8,618 1,859 21,295 force (either employed or seeking employment), joined VTCs (a small number) or Sultan Qaboos University 1,001 7,925 1,319 7,351 2,320 15,276 the military service (also a small number). It is currently not possible to determine Colleges of Applied Sciences 796 3,613 1,298 4,035 2,094 7,648 the number of grade 12 leavers who are employed or unemployed. A study of Health Institutes 115 637 717 1,655 832 2,292 grade 12 leavers’ destinations would allow a more detailed analysis of the path- Institute of Shari'a Sciences 67 391 0 520 67 911 ways of students who do not enter higher education. College of Banking and Financial Studies 13 274 19 593 32 867 There has been a dramatic increase in the number of students Studying Abroad* . 5,424 . 4,726 . 10,150 enrolled in higher education institutions. of which: grants and own accounts . 4,991 . 4,450 . 9,441 The student enrollment number in Oman’s HEIs (81,810) increased tenfold of which: MOHE funded . 433 . 276 . 709 between 2003/04 and 2008/09 (table 2.4). Adding the students studying Studying Abroad by Correspondence* . 1,764 . 493 . 2,257 abroad and those studying abroad by correspondence, the 2008/09 total was 94,217. This total enrollment, which is used to calculate the tertiary-level GER, Source: MOHE 2009. represents 35 percent of the 18–22 year-old population.13 With the increase in Note: *Data not available for studying abroad in 2003/04. post-basic education (grade 12) graduates, demand for places in HEIs has intensi- fied. The demand is being met by the Sultan Qaboos University (opened in 1986) and private universities (operating since 1994 and accounting for about one-third Figure 2.5 of enrollments), as well as other institutions (table 2.4). In 2008/09, females Tertiary Gross Enrollment Ratios (GER) in Selected Countries, Most Recent Year Available (%) accounted for 51 percent of enrollments in Oman’s HEIs, a more gender-balanced ratio than 60 percent five years earlier and a reflection of the introduction of OECD average (2008) 70 gender quotas (table 2.4). Females accounted for 47 percent of students studying in HEIs abroad and for 22 percent of those studying abroad by correspondence Estonia (2008) 64 (enrolled in overseas universities but living in Oman). Lebanon (2008) 52 OMAN (2009) 35 At 35 percent, Oman’s tertiary GER is higher than many Middle East and North African countries. Malaysia (2006) 32 Figure 2.5 shows that there is wide variation in tertiary GERs in the selected Bahrain (2008) 30 countries. Oman’s tertiary GER is higher than the other GCC countries, including Saudi Arabia (2007) 30 Bahrain and Saudi Arabia (both 30 percent), but far below the 70 percent average United Arab Emirates (2008) 25 for OECD countries. Kuwait (2004) 19 Qatar (2008) 11 0 20 40 60 80 100 Source: EdStats (August 2010) and authors’ calculations based on MOHE 2009. Note: For Oman includes enrollments in public and private universities and colleges and those studying abroad as a percentage of the population of Omani 18–22 year olds. Non-Omani population data are not included in the tertiary GER calculation because they are not eligible to enroll at SQU (excluding 10 scholarships for GCC students each year and the children of non-Omani academic staff in SQU) and accounted for just 4 percent of enrollments in private institutions in 2008/09. 13 International tertiary GERs are calculated by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) using a base population of 18–22 years of age. For Oman, the population of Omani-only 18–22 year olds is used because non-Omanis are not eligible to enroll at SQU (excluding 10 scholarships for GCC students each year) and accounted for just 4 percent of private institution enrollments in 2008/09. Note that this indicator is often used in Oman with a base population of 18–24 year olds. Using this definition (with a base of 18–24 year olds), the tertiary GER was 25 percent in 2008/09. 46 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 2 47 Equal Opportunities for Education Access 2.2 REMAINING STEPS ON THE ROAD TO EF A In line with EFA goals, the Omani Government is committed to providing education for The analysis of education access in the preceding section demonstrates the remark- all children by confirming every child’s right to education and by providing free access able achievements made in Oman on the road to EFA, however, a few areas remain to schooling for all children. in which attention is necessary to fully achieve the EFA goals. One of the first priorities of the new Government, which came to power in 1970, was to develop a public These areas include early childhood education, special needs education, adult literacy and data quality education system to reach all sections of society and all parts of the country. The Government also issues. This section outlines the current situation for each of these four areas and discusses the steps recognized the right of non-Omani communities to establish their own schools. This section analyzes the that could be taken to advance Oman’s education system further. degree of equal opportunities for access to education for boys and girls.14 Boys and girls have high and similar enrollment ratios. Early Childhood Education (ECE) At cycle one and cycle two of basic education, Omani boys and girls have similar GERs of close to 100 percent (table 2.5). At the post-basic education level, however, boys have a higher GER (7 percentage points higher). Adequate data were not available to compute GERs for the non-Omani student population. Research studies have consistently identified the significant role that ECE plays in improving young children’s cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills, and hence in Similar student flow rates through the system have been reached for boys and girls in Oman. contributing to school readiness and better learning achievement. Table 2.6 shows that entry rates to grade 1 and completion of grade 4 are now approximately the same Expanding and improving ECE is one of the internationally agreed EFA goals. ECE contributes to a for Omani boys and girls. Transition rates between the levels of education are also the same for boys child’s school readiness (UNESCO 2006b). School readiness includes physical development and well and girls (including Omanis and non-Omanis). However, survival rates to grade 12 are 4 percentage being, social and emotional growth, language and cognitive development, and general knowledge. ECE points higher for males than females. participation is shown to improve primary school attendance and performance (UNESCO 2006b). It is Table 2.5 associated with on-time entrance to primary school and a reduction in dropout and repetition rates in Gender Parity Index (GPI) for Gross Enrollment Ratios (GERs), primary and secondary education. Given its link with future productivity and reduced costs of health and Omanis only, 2006/07 to 2008/09 (%) other public services, ECE is a recognized factor in economic growth (Young 2009). Early educational intervention costs are shown to be relatively low and returns high compared to other options at later GER stages (Carneiro and Heckman 2003). Most importantly ECE has the potential to promote equal oppor- % Female GPI Males Females tunity because of its recognized benefits for young children from poorer or less educated backgrounds. 2006 2007 2008 2006 2007 2008 2006 2007 2008 2006 2007 2008 /07 /08 /09 /07 /08 /09 /07 /08 /09 /07 /08 /09 While there has been some ECE provision expansion in Oman, overall it is still lacking Basic education 1st cycle (grades 1-4) 94 96 97 94 95 96 49 49 49 101 100 99 and mostly available only to families who can afford it, since most ECE provision is Basic education 2nd cycle (grades 5-10) 101 100 99 96 97 97 48 48 49 96 97 98 from the private sector. Post-basic education (grades 11-12) 84 86 89 80 82 82 48 48 47 95 95 92 The task of providing ECE services has fallen to the private sector and to some government and voluntary institutions. A list of ministries and organizations that provide preschool education together Source: Authors’ calculations based on data from the MOE Statistical Department. with enrollment data is in appendix table E.1. In 2008/09, approximately 41,000 children enrolled Note: The GPI is the ratio of the GER for females to the GER for males. A GPI of 100 indicates parity between males and females. A GPI less than 100 indicates that the GER for females is lower than the in preschools, 35 percent were in private Qur’anic schools, 29 percent in private kindergartens, GER for males. 17 percent in Child Growth Houses or Child Corners, 13 percent in international schools, 3 percent in MOE’s new preparation classes and the remaining 3 percent in institutions for the Royal Oman Police, Table 2.6 Student Flow Indicators by Gender, 2008/09 (%) the Royal Armed Forces or public Qur’anic schools. The total ECE enrollment for Omani and non-Omani children represents approximately 39 percent of the population of 4–5 year olds. This percentage is Males Females Total low compared to ECE enrollment rates in countries such as the United Arab Emirates (87 percent in Omanis only 2007), Kuwait (76 percent in 2008), Lebanon (72 percent in 2008), Bahrain (54 percent in 2008), Gross intake ratio to grade 1 (GIR) 99 98 98 and Qatar (51 percent in 2008) (EdStats August 2010). The majority of ECE enrollments are in urban Gross completion ratio (grade 4) 95 94 95 areas. Source: Authors’ Omanis and Non-Omanis calculations based The Government launched a national ECE awareness campaign. on data from the Transition rates 2007/08 to 2008/09 In November 2008, the MOE (in collaboration with UNICEF and the private sector) launched a one-year MOE Statistical Department. Basic education 1st to 2nd cycle (grades 4 to 5) 97 98 98 national campaign to raise awareness of ECE’s importance, aiming to increase ECE participation. The Note: Includes public, Basic education to post-basic education (grades 10 to 11) 89 89 89 campaign included national and local media, Internet, mobile telephones and outreach by a national private and other schools. Survival rate to grade 12 88 84 86 team to remote families and communities. In collaboration with the Ministry of Labour, Ministry of Social Development (MOSD) and UNICEF, it also supported production of a guide to advise parents on how to 14 support their children’s learning; held seminars and workshops for parents; and prepared a training Note that education access rates cannot be examined by region because of the lack of reliable population estimates by region and single year of age (to calculate GERs). Access to education for children with special needs is discussed later in this chapter. package for ECE teachers. The MOE considered the campaign to be a success. 48 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Overview 49 To date, however, the Government has not taken decisive steps to support a broad ECE program. The government’s support for the public awareness campaign has not been followed by clear policies and adequate financial resources to develop a national ECE program. In particular although there is high ECE demand, the Government at present has not taken responsibility to support the provision of ECE places for all young children or for children whose families cannot afford private school fees. Recently the MOE introduced a pilot program establishing ECE “preparation classes� in public basic education schools in some remote areas. This program, however, is not able to address the demand for ECE opportunities in all rural and remote areas. In 2005/06 the MOE launched a pilot program in 14 schools for 277 children, which introduced classes to prepare children for a successful transition to basic education. In 2008/09, preparation classes were extended to 58 schools and 1,173 children. The MOE provides training and supervision for preparation class teachers, most of whom are volunteers. The MOE has requested rural schools to open preparation classes where private ECE is not available. Its financial support, however, is limited to providing funds for classroom furniture. The teachers are mainly volunteers from local communities who graduated from grade 12 but could not enter higher education or find paid employment. Retaining these teachers is difficult because they do not have regular salaries, receive only small financial incen- tives from the MOE, and hence, can easily leave for another job. In addition because they are volunteers, preparation class teachers do not have the same status as other teachers. At present, there also are no plans to expand this small program. Without a policy change, it is clear that the majority of young children in Oman will not have access to free ECE in the near future even though the financial implica- tions for a large-scale ECE program are substantial. The private sector is active but unlikely to be able to offer a national, affordable and sustainable ECE program. Promoting additional private sector provision of kindergartens is one approach to expand ECE. Indeed, the number of private kindergartens is increasing at a fast pace. In 2010/11, 216 new private kinder- gartens are scheduled to open across Oman, including several in rural areas. Private schools, however, are fee based and, therefore, are not an option for poor families. Furthermore, the private sector could not expand provision rapidly enough to cope with demand. A 2005 UNESCO study on “Early Childhood Care and Education Policy in Oman� (Hassan 2005) concluded that it would be unreasonable to expect the private sector alone to expand ECE provision rapidly while still maintaining quality. Government leadership and involvement will be necessary if the goal of making ECE available on a large scale and including children from poor families is to be achieved. The lack of equal opportunity in ECE provision may contribute to widening educational disparities between urban and rural areas and between rich and poor families. Private kindergartens, which are mostly in urban areas, are well equipped with facilities and resources; many of their teachers hold formal qualifications to teach in preschools and have taken MOE training programs. Opportunities are lacking in some rural areas and existing urban-rural disparities in educa- tion quality and opportunity will likely increase. Without free or low-cost ECE provision, children whose parents cannot afford or find a place in private preschool will start their basic education without this important step for school readiness. Chapter 2 51 Special Needs Education The term “special needs� is problematic, as definitions and eligibility criteria vary from country to country. OECD, for instance, has reported a range of 1 percent to 35 percent of the primary and lower secondary population receiving special needs support in various forms in 20 developed countries (OECD 2004a). In many countries, provision of special needs education requires specialized teachers, equipment and, in some instances, specially designed schools and classrooms. The Framework for Action at the World Conference on Special Needs Education in 1994 proposed the concept of “inclusive education,� meaning “schools should accommodate all children regardless of their physical, intellectual, social, emotional, linguistic or other conditions. This should include disabled and gifted children, street and working children, children from remote or nomadic populations, children from linguistic, ethnic or cultural minorities and children from other disadvantaged or marginalized areas or groups� (UNESCO 1994, p.6). The MOE and MOSD have made some progress in providing for children with special needs. There are currently three educational programs for special needs students.15 These are (1) special education schools; (2) the Program for Integrating Special Needs Students in Basic/General Schools; and (3) the Learning Difficulties Remediation Program in Basic/General Schools. The MOSD runs the Center for the Care of Disabled Persons, which in 2008/09 had 125 enrollments aged 14–25 with auditory and mobility disabilities. The MOSD also oversees voluntary social centers across the country, which in 2008/09 supported 2,174 children aged 3–14 with various disabilities. In addition outside of the public education system, some families send their special needs children to private schools, and a number of voluntary organizations provide education for children with special needs.16 Special education schools serve a small number of students. Three schools, all of which are in Muscat, offer specialized education: (1) Al-Amal School for students with hearing impairments, (2) Al-Fikryah School for students with intellectual impairments, and (3) Omar bin Khataab Institute for those with visual impairments. In 2008/09 the combined enrollment in these three schools was 673 students; most students were male in grades 1–9 (MOE 2009a). The Program for Integrating Special Needs Students in Basic/General Schools is at an early stage of development. Initiated by the MOE in 2005/06, the program offers special separate classes to students with hearing and mental disabilities in basic/general schools. Starting in two basic education schools in the regions of Al-Batinah (North) and Al-Dakhliyah, the program was extended to four regions in 2006/07 and to 10 regions by 2008/09, at which stage there were 477 student participants in 56 schools in all regions (except Al-Wusta). In 2008/09 Al-Buraimi had the greatest proportion (15 percent) of public schools offering the special needs program while Al-Batinah (North) had the largest number of participants at 119 students (MOE 2009a). Plans are currently underway to accept students with visual disabilities into the program. 15 In addition, other ministries (including MOSD) provide some special needs services. 16 The number of children receiving special needs education in private schools is not known. 52 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 2 53 The third and largest of the MOE special needs programs, the Learning Difficulties Adult Literacy Remediation Program in Basic/General Schools, helps teachers identify students who require assistance in literacy and numeracy. Literacy facilitates personal development and enables individuals to contribute to Teachers are expected to work with students with learning difficulties either in regular classroom the well being of their families, communities and nation. settings or in “pull-out� programs. This pilot project began with 15 students in two basic education From a national economic perspective, a literate population is associated with better health, lower schools in 2002/03. By 2008/09 it was being implemented in around 400 schools and involved over unemployment and higher productivity rates. The UNESCO Institute for Statistics estimated that Oman 4,500 students in all education regions (MOE 2009a). in 2007 had an adult literacy rate of 84 percent, which is the same as the international average. This rate is 4 percentage points higher than the rate for developing countries and 13 points higher than the There is considerable room for improvement in the identification and education of rate for Arab states (UNESCO 2010). children with special needs. Data on the total number of special needs children who are in schools or kept at home are not available. Adult literacy rates in Oman, particularly those for females, have increased At present, the total number of students in the MOE programs for special needs represents approxi- dramatically in recent decades. mately 1 percent of the basic-school-age population.17 This percentage is considerably lower than the Census data revealed that the adult literacy rate for Omani nationals (15+ year olds) increased from finding of one international study, which estimated that at least one in 10 persons in the majority of 34 percent in 1970 to 78 percent in 2003 (the most recent census). In 1970, the difference in literacy countries have disabilities (World Bank 2003). Even if the international estimate is on the high side, the rates between male and female Omanis was 44 percentage points; by 2003 it had been reduced to large difference suggests that the current level of government support for children with special needs 14 percentage points (figure 2.6). The census also revealed that the rate of illiteracy among non- is inadequate. This observation is supported by some MOE personnel (interviewed for this study) who Omanis (11 percent) was half the rate reported for Omanis. The highest illiteracy rates for Omanis were have carried out informal surveys throughout the Sultanate to identify children with disabilities: they found in Al-Wusta, Musandam and Al-Sharkiyah (table 2.7) have noted that there is a very big demand for special education, particularly in rural areas. The MOSD is planning to establish a national commission for services for disabled persons, which will develop a The MOE aims to reduce adult illiteracy by half between 2003 and 2015, a target database of people with special needs. which corresponds to the EFA’s fourth goal. To this end, the MOE has established a series of formal and nonformal literacy programs, aiming to The current system of support for children with special needs requires leadership, eradicate illiteracy particularly in rural and hard-to-reach areas. coordination and training for special education teachers. The MOE, MOSD and Ministry of Health (MOH) each provide limited services for families with special Literacy programs are offered in all regions, including remote rural areas, and are needs children. The MOE’s responsibilities do not include children with severe special needs. There open to Omanis and non-Omanis alike. is limited sharing of information and expertise among ministries regarding special needs children, The programs teach reading, writing and basic skills over three years and consist of classes gener- however, it is hoped this will improve with the establishment of the national commission for services to ally based in schools.18 The literacy program curriculum covers Arabic language, Islamic studies, disabled persons headed by the MOSD and including members from relevant ministries. The present mathematics, culture (including social studies, science and domestic studies on childcare and nutrition), system could be enhanced by an agreed definition of the term “special needs,� better interministry and English.19 The programs aim to educate students to a grade 6 level of achievement. Successful cooperation on procedures for identifying and supporting special needs children, and assignment of graduates may join grade 7 classes in adult education centers. The vast majority of participants are responsibility for delivery of specific services. Training for the specific challenges of teaching special female whose numbers have been increasing (figure 2.7). needs students is required at both the pre- and in-service levels. In an attempt to address the shortage of qualified Omani special needs teachers, the MOE, through the Sultan Qaboos University, introduced a special education (for learning difficulties) diploma course in 2006. At the in-service level the MOE, supported by UNICEF, has organized workshops for teachers of students with learning disabilities. 17 This includes students in one of the three MOE programs for special needs only and does not include 18 The literacy programs started as two-year programs, but the period was extended to three years in 2005/06. the small number of special needs students in private schools. It is unlikely, however, that the inclusion of these other programs would increase the proportion of the basic-school-age population beyond 19 English language has recently been introduced into the second year of the three-year program and in 2010/11 will be introduced 1 percent. into the program’s third year. 54 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 2 55 Figure 2.6 The Cooperative Schools Project aims to coordinate schools to manage and improve Adult Literacy Rates, Omani Nationals (15+ year olds), 1970, 2000 and 2003 (%) their literacy programs and attract more students. The project, which began as a pilot in 2003/04, has been expanded and now includes 89 schools 100 85 across all regions. From each cooperating schools group, one school takes the lead in supervising the 90 82 literacy programs. Teachers are asked to work as volunteers to supervise and train school graduates 80 78 74 to teach in literacy classes. 70 71 60 56 66 The Learning Villages Project, initiated in 2004, is a community-based approach 50 to eradicate illiteracy while addressing peoples’ needs in remote and underserved areas. 40 34 All The initial project involved one village; in a short period of time, over 250 people began attending classes 30 Male in reading, writing, basic mathematics and life skills. In addition to tackling illiteracy, the project aims 20 Female 12 to raise awareness of social issues, such as the environment, nutrition and childcare, through courses 10 and lectures offered by organizations, including the Ministry of Awqaf and Religious Affairs (MARA), the 0 MOH, the MOSD and the Royal Omani Police. In 2008/09 the project expanded to include 17 villages across 10 regions. 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2003 Source: MOE 2008a. For those who have completed the three-year literacy program or dropped out of formal education and are literate, the MOE offers grades 7 to 12 in adult education Table 2.7 centers or through self-study materials. Percentage of Illiterate Adults (15+ years of age) by Governorate/Region Learners choosing to study at home must register every year and, for a relatively small fee (RO 20 and Nationality, 2003 (%) for all books), are given the required books for study. These students follow the same curriculum as All Omani Non-Omani basic and secondary schools (grades 7 to 12). Table 2.8 shows that most adult education students Al-Wusta 36 52 9 (86 percent) are studying informally on their own. This is particularly true for males — 96 percent of adult Musandam 27 32 18 male students are enrolled in informal study at home. Three-quarters of the students in adult educa- Al-Sharkiyah 25 29 11 tion centers are women. Women tend to be studying at lower grades than men: one-third of females Al-Batinah 23 24 17 Al-Dakhliyah 22 25 12 enrolled in adult education centers were in grade 7, while over a quarter of males were in grade 12. Al-Dhahirah 19 20 17 Dhofar 15 18 11 Table 2.8 Muscat 11 14 8 Number of Learners in Adult Education Centers and Studying Informally, 2008/09 Total 19 22 11 Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Source: MOE 2004. Total 7 8 9 10 11 12 Figure 2.7 Attending Males 123 115 106 130 39 183 696 Number of Students in Literacy Programs, 2001/02 to 2005/06 formal classes Females 678 335 285 230 167 334 2,029 Studying informally on Males 517 664 586 2,614 2,177 9,059 15,617 12,000 their own Females 275 231 164 464 370 2,972 4,476 10,244 10,000 Total 1,593 1,345 1,141 3,438 2,753 12,548 22,818 7,328 Source: MOE. 8,000 6,238 5,823 6,000 5,214 The literacy programs have experienced a number of issues. Female First, the vast majority of participants are female (table 2.8). Males do not attend literacy programs Male 4,000 for a variety of reasons, including belief that there is no need to improve their literacy skills. A number of international cases have shown that most adult literacy instructors are women and courses often 2,000 target women, making it difficult for adult male learners to participate (Rogers 2005). Second, after 416 302 384 313 482 completing the three-year literacy program, as few as 5 percent of students progress to grade 7. 0 In many instances, students do not continue their literacy studies if their villages do not have an adult 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06 education center. Third, a variety of curricula have been used in the literacy programs. Evaluation of Source: MOE 2008a. literacy program curricula and learners’ needs is necessary, so changes can make programs more 56 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 2 57 relevant and effective and can enable program graduates to master the skills needed to join grade 7 2.3 POLICY IMPLICATIONS in adult education centers. Fourth, because literacy program teachers’ salaries are low (RO 1.5 per class and RO 70 per month), attracting and retaining qualified and experienced teachers has been a This chapter has analyzed education access and highlighted Oman’s substantial achievements in its problem. In some instances, grade 12 graduates have been recruited for this task. Current plans to quest to achieve the goals of Education for All. It has also indicated a number of areas for emphasis to improve teaching quality by hiring university graduates and using teachers from regular schools may fully achieve the EFA goals. These areas include early childhood education, special needs education and not solve the problem unless the financial issue is addressed. Finally, some remote areas lack buildings adult literacy. The following recommendations are based on these analytical findings and on relevant to use as literacy centers. international experience. Increasing Access to Early Childhood Education (ECE) The Government of Oman is increasingly aware of ECE’s importance; it is seeking ways to expand children’s access to ECE programs and to improve program quality. While continuing to encourage the private sector’s contribution to quality ECE expansion through appropriate policies and regulations, the Government also has to increase its efforts in this critical education subsector to achieve greater ECE access and to gain from ECE potential. A few specific recommendations follow: The Government of Oman could develop a comprehensive and implementable ECE strategy that links with an overall education vision. Since several ministries are currently involved in ECE, a unified national education strategy could guide ECE development. The strategy document could cover (1) diagnosis of the present situation; (2) a long- term vision; (3) a short- to medium-term strategic plan, including estimated financial resources needed; and (4) an implementation arrangement. To increase overall ECE provision and improve equal opportunities for ECE access, increased public investment will be required. Given the demand for increasing ECE provision from its current low levels, it is clear that the pace of expansion is beyond the scope of the private sector alone. In addition, without increased public sector provision or public financing of places in private preschools as in Ireland (box 2.1), children from poor and remote areas will not have ECE access, leading to increased disparities in the future. The MOE could plan to expand the preparation classes at basic education schools, particularly in rural areas and initially for the year prior to grade 1. To ensure sustainability and high quality of ECE programs, these classes should be staffed by teachers with the same qualifications and employment status as basic school teachers. This requires a substan- tial political and financial commitment from the Government. Preparation class expansion should be included in the short- and medium-term plan of the national ECE strategy. To expand ECE provision, the Government could study other countries’ experiences with established preschool programs. Experiences from other countries prove it is possible to expand ECE rapidly with strong government commitment. For example in Kuwait, the MOE offers two years of free kindergarten in public schools. Approximately 65 percent of Kuwaiti kindergartens are public (Kuwait Ministry of Education 2007). Jordan offers an example of rapid expansion of public ECE. The Jordanian Government committed strongly to ECE development and launched an education reform program that included ECE program expansion and quality enhancement; the results of the reform are encouraging (box 2.2). Ireland’s Early Childhood Care and Education Scheme (box 2.1) is another model of government commitment and partnership with the private sector to promote ECE expansion. 58 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 2 59 Box 2.1 Box 2.2 Ireland’s Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) Scheme Expansion of Early Childhood Education: The Case of Jordan Ireland’s Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) Scheme commenced Enrollment in kindergarten (comprising KG1 for 4 year olds and KG2 for in January 2010. The scheme provides one free year of ECE for children 5 year olds) was low and uneven across Jordan. Provision was mostly from between the ages of 3 years 2 months and 4 years 7 months, beginning the private sector; kindergarten attendance was not compulsory; and there in September of the relevant year. Where a child has been assessed with were few formal curriculum requirements. The Jordanian Government a significant disability, they may under certain circumstances participate in recognized the importance of ECE for educational and social development, a second free preschool year. The Government pays a fixed rate per child particularly for vulnerable populations, and for improving school readi- (capitation fee) for all children to participating private providers (including ness, which ultimately reduces education system inefficiencies. In 2003 preschool and daycare services). In return, these providers must offer a the Government designed a reform program to revamp the education preschool service free of charge to all children for a set number of hours sector starting from early childhood in the framework of lifelong learning and weeks. The rate depends on the type of service provided. For half-day to increase the country’s competitiveness in the knowledge economy. sessions, (such as preschool, Montessori, or parent and toddler group) it is The program emphasized the expansion of quality kindergarten education usually free preschool for 3 hours a day, 5 days a week for 38 weeks. Any to enhance children’s readiness for primary education. The action areas time over that is charged to the family. For full-time or part-time daycare included (1) establishing a kindergarten curriculum, license standards and services, it is usually free preschool for 2 hours and 15 minutes per day an assessment instrument for learning readiness; (2) developing training over 50 weeks with additional hours paid for by the family. and occupational standards for kindergarten administrators and teachers; (3) expanding access for poor children by creating public kindergartens; and The childcare providers who take part in the ECCE scheme must provide (4) providing education to increase parents’ understanding of the impor- an appropriate preschool program, which follows the national framework tance of quality early childhood experiences and awareness of their role as for early years care and education. The capitation fee for daycare services their children’s first educators. providers is €48.50 per week (approximately US$60) over 50 weeks and for providers of sessional services it is €64.50 per week (approximately The reform program took a phased approach, starting with the establish- US$80) over 38 weeks. Preschools that have more highly qualified staff ment of kindergartens to accommodate 5 year olds (KG2, one year prior to are given a capitation fee of €75 per week (approximately US$92) over grade 1) at public schools in poor and remote areas to prepare students 38 weeks. to succeed in school. This included the creation of a new ECE environment with an interactive curriculum based on selected and well-defined national When the scheme started in January 2010, 3,800 preschool services standards, in addition to suitable infrastructure, staffing and training. The participated (85 percent of all such services). From September 2010, this program will be extended gradually to KG1 (age 4) at a later stage. Results figure was expected to increase to over 4,300 services (or 96 percent of all of the reform program included preschool services). Of the target group of children, 83 percent (or 53,000 children) used the free preschool year. A further 4,000 children used free (1) GER for KG2 increased from 41 percent in 2002/03 to 52 percent preschool under other schemes targeted at the disadvantaged, bringing the in 2008/09; total number of children benefitting from a preschool year to 89 percent. This number is expected to rise in September 2010. The private sector has (2) Percentage of qualified kindergarten teachers with bachelor degrees been responsive to the scheme. Most importantly the scheme is socially and certification at public schools increased by 37 percent; progressive as it provides free ECE for all children, including poorer children (3) Percentage of fully equipped public kindergartens increased by who were least likely to attend preschools. The increased rate paid to ECCE 46 percent; and providers with highly qualified staff is an incentive for providers to improve staff quality and is likely to lead to quality improvements in early childhood (4) Basic education learning quality was enhanced as more children’s learning in the future. school readiness improved. Source: Ireland Office of the Minister for Children and Youth Affairs (www.omc.gov.ie). Sources: World Bank 2009 and Kaga 2007. 60 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 2 61 Improving Special Needs Education Provision Improving Data Quality and Monitoring The MOE is making an effort to provide more and better education opportunities for children with For sound decision making, education policy makers need access to timely, valid and special needs who are often the last group to reach the EFA goals. It is indeed a challenging area that reliable data on important aspects of the education system. requires substantive financial commitment and technical capacity. The following are a few recommen- Currently, the MOE produces timely and comprehensive education statistics yearbooks. However, there dations from analytical results: is room for improving the quality of data needed by policy makers. Some policy issues related to educa- tion access and efficiency cannot, at this time, be monitored adequately due to lack of data, some of The Government of Oman could consider the development of a national special needs which would come from government departments other than the MOE. To resolve this situation, the education strategy to articulate a long-term vision and a short- to medium-term plan. technical staff of the MOE should work closely with the producers of statistics in these other depart- Special needs education is still a relatively young subsector, and the financial and technical resources ments. The main data issues include, but are not limited to, the following points: needed to develop this subsector are tremendous. A subsector strategy will help identify and prioritize the most urgent work needed. The strategy should represent close collaboration of all relevant parties, n The single-year-of-age population data for non-Omanis is not reliable. As such, the Ministry of including the MOE, MOH and MOSD. National Economy (MONE) population data cannot be used to calculate education indicators that require the total population of Oman as a denominator nor can it be used to determine indica- Improve mechanisms for identifying and evaluating children with special tors for non-Omanis. As a result, Oman cannot report on the percentage of its population that educational needs. complete primary education (an EFA goal). Identifying children who require special education is a first crucial step. Currently public campaigns n Enrollment data from international schools is incomplete. For example, information on repeaters encourage parents to come forward and identify their children requiring special education. Developing has not been obtained from international schools. expertise in evaluating children with special education needs should be a national priority. Proper iden- tification will ensure that children with special needs are placed in the most appropriate education n Information has not been collected in all schools on the number of repeaters at each grade environment to reach their learning potential. The MOE, MOH and MOSD should collaborate on this by nationality, limiting the ability to produce separate student flow information for Omanis and priority. The ministries could also establish a reliable and up-to-date database for special needs children. non-Omanis. n Special needs students in private schools or who remain at home and do not attend school have Teacher training for integrating special needs children within the classroom could not been identified. be expanded. As an international trend and a more appropriate educational approach, children with special needs are n Progress in eradicating illiteracy cannot be evaluated because objective measures of literacy increasingly integrated within regular classrooms. Oman is still at an early stage in this approach and achievement have not been developed. Census data provide an inadequate measure of literacy needs to build human resources. Well-designed preservice and in-service training should be developed rates. Sample-based approaches that use literacy achievement levels would provide more valid and introduced to all teachers who are or will be involved in initiatives to mainstream special needs measures of literacy achievement. children. n The destination of school leavers is unknown. A survey of the destination of school leavers would provide valuable information on their transition to further studies, work after post-basic education or unemployment. Continue Reducing Illiteracy Oman’s efforts to reduce adult illiteracy have made much headway, but there are steps that can be taken to reduce illiteracy even further and to ensure the country benefits fully from a literate society. Improve literacy program quality and availability to increase its value and to attract students, particularly males. The MOE may need to consider options to improve literacy program quality and to ensure quality outcomes for all learners. The Cooperative Schools Project and the Learning Villages Project are steps in the right direction. But further investment will be needed to ensure that those most in need of literacy education receive it. Ensuring that these classes are offered at a time suitable for working males and in an environment in which they can feel comfortable (with other male students and male teachers) is a challenge that other countries are currently tackling. Improving facilities will also be necessary. Develop a policy to attract, retain and train suitable teachers for adult literacy. The development of quality literacy programs will require investing in staff. Specifically, attracting qualified teachers will require pay at a rate that will ensure recruitment and retention. 62 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Overview 63 CHAPTER 3 QUALITY OF STUDENT LEARNING Over the last 40 years, Oman has achieved impressive results in developing its education system, particularly in providing education opportunities and in enhancing service delivery. Like many coun- tries in the world, Oman is now shifting priorities from school enroll- ment to a greater emphasis on education quality as measured by student learning outcomes. This shift is driven primarily by the need to enhance Oman’s human resources in the context of the modern globally competitive labor market. While the Ministry of Education (MOE) is shifting its focus from educational inputs to educational outcomes, there are two key outcome questions to be addressed: “How well are students learning?� and “Are current levels of student learning adequate?� In this chapter, the analysis focuses on Oman’s performance in national and international studies of educational achievement levels. Through participation in a series of national studies and in an international study, the MOE now has access to objective data, which can provide an indication of students’ learning achievement levels. 64 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 3 65 3.1 EVIDENCE FROM NATIONAL-LEVEL ASS E S S M E N T S Between 1993 and 2001, Oman participated in four UNESCO/UNICEF-sponsored Monitoring Learning Achievement (MLA) studies, one each for grade 4 (1994), grade 6 (1998), grade 9 (1999) and grade 10 (2001). These studies were carried out before the new basic education system was fully introduced, and therefore, the results may relate more to learning achievement from the previous general educa- tion system. Achievement levels were tested in Arabic, mathematics, science and life skills in grades 4, 6 and 9 and in Arabic, mathematics, chemistry, physics and biology in grade 10. The findings indicated, in general, that student learning achievement in Oman did not meet expected levels across all grades and subjects, particularly in grade 6 mathematics. Explanations for the poor findings included (1) inclusion of test items that tested higher-level cognitive skills in a system that emphasized mastery of factual knowledge; (2) inclusion of material that was not in students’ textbooks; (3) lack of student familiarity with multiple-choice tests; and (4) lack of students’ effort to do well because they understood the test did not contribute toward grade promotion. The MOE considered the results disappointing, and they became one of the reasons for undertaking major education reforms (MOE 2006). The studies did not identify specific areas of students’ weakness within the subjects. Students performed less well than an international comparator group in the Canedcom study. As part of an extensive evaluation of the first cycle of the new basic education system in Oman, Canedcom International conducted surveys of grade 4 students in 51 schools in each of 11 regions and in 12 private schools in mathematics, Arabic, English and science (Drader et al. 2004). Each test had between 34 and 40 items. Average performance scores, based on the percentage of items answered correctly, were below 50 percent in three of the four subjects. Subsets of items from the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS 2007) were included in the assessment (16 items for mathematics and 6 items for science). Students in Oman scored lower than their interna- tional counterparts on both subsets. Results should be interpreted with some caution due to sampling, administrative and other design issues. The study concluded that students in grade 4 were one year behind international standards.20 The MOE carried out sample-based national assessments of grades 4, 7 and 10. The assessments enabled the MOE to develop necessary experience in item writing and in conducting large-scale surveys. Details and results are as follows: Grade 4: The 2008/09 national assessment covered (1) Arabic and social studies; (2) mathematics and science; and (3) English (reading, writing and speaking). A national sample of 6,817 students included each of the 11 regions, as well as a small number (173) from private schools. The tests were relatively short, ranging from 12 items in the case of Arabic language to 27 items for mathematics. Performance levels were lower than expected; the average scores for all subjects were less than 50 percent with the exception of English (reading and writing). Girls outperformed boys on average in each subject area in all 11 regions.21 The highest scoring regions were Musandam and Al-Batinah (North), followed by Muscat, Al-Dhahirah, Al-Batinah (South) and Al-Buraimi. Private school students tended to score higher than those in public schools. 20 This assertion was based on the numbers of students who were struggling with the basics of reading and writing in grade 4 in Oman and in grade 3 in Canada and on differences recorded in the TIMSS 2007 comparison. 21 Reported comparisons are based on the average percentage of items answered correctly. 66 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 3 67 Grade 7: The 2006/07 assessment tested student achievement in Arabic, English, mathematics and A number of factors that might account for low student performance in science. Each test had 50 items (MOE 2008b). The results revealed that the tests were quite difficult (TIMSS 2007) were examined. (the mathematics average was 22 out of a total of 100 marks); generally students did not reach the Students in Oman did not tend to skip questions. The percentage of missing answers for open-ended MOE’s expected standard or performance level. Students who attended basic education schools scored questions was lower than the international average. For the multiple-choice questions, the percentage higher in Arabic than students in general education. Girls as a group scored higher than boys. of missing answers was almost the same as the international average. It is also worth noting that, in comparison with international averages, students’ questionnaire responses in Oman showed that they Grade 10: The 2007/08 national assessment tested achievement levels in Arabic, English, math- tended to have more positive attitudes towards mathematics and science, placed a higher value on ematics and science (MOE 2009b). Again, the items proved to be difficult for the majority of students, mathematics and science as subjects, and were more self confident about learning mathematics and especially in science, and girls on average outscored boys in all subjects. science. In each of the three national assessments, average achievement levels by region differed from assess- ment to assessment and by subject tested. This may be due to real differences among the regions, Mathematics or it may be due to sampling and validity problems associated with the survey methodology and with the tests. Students’ TIMSS mathematics assessment performance levels in Oman compared favorably with students in other participating GCC countries. The TIMSS 2007 test for grade 8 mathematics covered four domains: number, algebra, geometry, and data and chance. For each of the participating GCC 3.2 E V I D E N C E F R O M I N T E R N ATIONAL ASSESSMENT countries, four separate scores (known as percentiles) are calculated corresponding to different points in the distribution of scores within each country: The Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS 2007) provides n Very good – a score that was as good as or better than the score achieved by 90 percent the most comprehensive report on learning achievement standards in Oman. of students in the country (492 in the case of Oman); The technical quality of TIMSS in terms of sampling, data cleaning, sample weighting and analysis was superior to that of the earlier reported national-level studies, making the results more reliable. The n Average – a score that was as good as or better than the score achieved by 50 percent of tests consisted of both multiple-choice and constructed-response items (Martin et al. 2008 and Mullis students in the country (378 in the case of Oman); et al. 2008). A total of 49 education systems participated in the TIMSS grade 8 assessments. The n Below average – a score that was as good as or better than the score achieved by international average was set at 500 points. Data published in the international reports and from 25 percent of the students in the country (309 in the case of Oman); and additional analyses undertaken by the authors using the TIMSS dataset for Oman are presented here n Poor – a score that was as good as or better than the score achieved by 10 percent of to illustrate how Oman’s results compared with those of participating Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) students in the country (245 in the case of Oman). countries, with other Arabic-speaking countries and with high-scoring countries. These percentiles and corresponding scores for each country are shown in figure 3.1. It shows that Oman’s educators considered the items in (TIMSS 2007) mathematics and students in Oman, at each of the four points of the mathematics score distribution (percentiles), science tests fair. tended to score slightly higher than their counterparts in the other GCC countries with the exception As part of the background research for this report, the MOE established separate mathematics and of Bahrain. For example, the “very good� student in Oman (on the 90th percentile) scored almost as science teams to study the content of the TIMSS tests for grade 8 in mathematics and science. The high as the “very good� student in Bahrain and higher than the “very good� students in the other listed teams considered that 80 percent of the mathematics and 65 percent of the science items were GCC countries. fair in terms of content and format for students in Oman. An additional 18 percent of mathematics items and 25 percent of science items were considered by the teams to have covered appropriate content but contained unfamiliar question formats. A relatively small percentage of items (2 percent for mathematics and 10 percent for science) were considered to have tested material not in the Omani curriculum. Teachers of students who took the TIMSS tests indicated that the vast majority of students were familiar with the multiple-choice and constructed-response type of questions used in the study. Eighty-four percent of Oman’s teachers considered themselves very well prepared to teach all 18 specific mathematics topics covered in the TIMSS test.22 22 For science, 71 percent of teachers in Oman reported feeling very well prepared to teach all 23 science topics in TIMSS 2007. 68 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 3 69 Figure 3.1 Table 3.1 TIMSS Grade 8 Mathematics Scores, GCC Countries, 2007 Average TIMSS Grade 8 Mathematics Scores and Rank, Selected Countries, 2007 Average score Rank Score Selected countries scoring significantly higher than Oman: Chinese Taipei 598 1 700 Korea Rep. of 597 2 600 Singapore 593 3 Hong Kong SAR 572 4 500 Lebanon 449 28 Jordan 427 31 400 Tunisia 420 32 Bahrain Bahrain 398 35 300 Kuwait Syria 395 37 Oman Egypt 391 38 200 Saudi Arabia Algeria 387 39 100 Qatar OMAN 372 41 Selected countries scoring significantly lower than Oman: 0 Kuwait 354 44 Percentile 10th 25th 50th 90th Saudi Arabia 329 46 Qatar 307 48 Source: Mullis et al. 2008. Source: Mullis et al. 2008.. In Oman the average score in TIMSS 2007 mathematics was significantly higher Figure 3.2 than that of students in GCC countries and lower than that of other Arabic-speaking International Benchmarks in TIMSS Grade 8 Mathematics, 2007 countries and of the high-scoring countries. Chinese Taipei Oman’s students recorded an average score of 372; this ranked Oman 41st among 48 countries.23 Korea, Rep. of Oman’s average TIMSS mathematics score was higher than three GCC countries but significantly lower Singapore than a number of other Arabic-speaking countries (table 3.1). The highest performing countries in Jordan mathematics were Chinese Taipei (598), Republic of Korea (597), Singapore (593) and Hong Kong n Advanced (>625) Lebanon SAR (572). Tunisia n High (550-624) Bahrain n Intermediate (475-554) Few students in Oman achieved high-level scores in mathematics. Syria Palestinian Nat’l Auth. n Low (400-474) An international panel, using a sophisticated statistical approach, selected international benchmarks OMAN n Below low (<400) (or cut-off points) to categorize all students who participated in TIMSS into one of four different perform- Kuwait ance levels: “advanced� (>625), “high� (550–624), “intermediate� (477–554) and “low� (400–474). Qatar The international averages in figure 3.2 shows that 2 percent of all participating students in TIMSS Saudi Arabia were ranked “advanced,� 13 percent ranked “high,� 31 percent ranked “intermediate� and 29 percent ranked “low.� The remaining 25 percent were considered “below low.� These benchmarks can be used International average to compare the mathematics performance of Oman’s students with the TIMSS international averages. % 0 0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 The comparison shows that no student in the Oman sample was rated “advanced,� 2 percent were in the “high� category, 12 percent in the “intermediate� category and 27 percent in the “low� category. More than half of Oman’s students (59 percent) were ranked “below low.� Source: Mullis et al. 2008. 23 Morocco also participated in the TIMSS 2007 grade 8 test (making a total of 49 countries); however, it did not satisfy the guidelines for sample participation rates and so their results are not included in the ranking. 70 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 3 71 Mathematics Low Benchmark Item: Figure 3.3 Items in the grade 8 “low� category assessed students’ “knowledge of whole numbers and decimals, Comparison of a High-performing Student in Oman (90th Percentile) operations and basic graphs� (Mullis et al. 2008, p. 112). Box 3.1 presents an example of a low-level With Scores of Students from Singapore, Grade 8 Mathematics, 2007 item used in the assessment. This item was answered correctly by 64 percent of Oman’s students. The international average was 79 percent. Almost all Korean students (97 percent) answered this item correctly. Score 700 Box 3.1 90th percentile 600 Score 15th percentile in in Oman of 492 Singapore Sample Item from TIMSS 2007 Low International Benchmark of Mathematics Achievement (Grade 8) 500 400 On a school trip there was 1 teacher for every 12 students. If 108 students went on the trip, how many teachers were on the trip? 300 Singapore o 7 Oman 200 o 8 100 o 9 0 o 10 Percentile 10th 25th 50th 90th Source: Authors. Source: Mullis et al. 2008. Science The difference in achievement standards between the students in Singapore, one of the top scoring countries, and Oman was substantial. The performance of Oman’s students in TIMSS 2007 science compared favorably with that of students Following discussions with Omani members of the study team, Singapore (the third highest performing in other participating GCC countries. The TIMSS science test covered biology, chemistry, physics and country in TIMSS 2007) was selected for comparative purposes. The team selected a high-performing earth science. The performance of Oman’s students at the four selected levels was lower than that of or “very good� student in Oman, to be named Abdullah, who scored 492 on the mathematics test. This students from Bahrain and very similar to that of students from Kuwait (figure 3.4). The “very good� score corresponded to the 90th percentile of the Omani sample (figure 3.3), meaning that he scored (90th percentile) and “average� (50th percentile) students in Oman scored higher than similarly rated equal to or higher than the scores of 90 percent of Oman’s students. In Singapore, a student, to be students from Saudi Arabia and Qatar. Students from Oman, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia on the 25th and named Lee, also scored 492 on the same TIMSS 2007 mathematics test. This score, however, was 10th percentiles received very similar scores, while students from Qatar scored much lower. considered quite poor by Singapore standards. Lee’s score of 492 put him on the 15th percentile in The average performance of Oman’s students in science placed them in the middle Singapore, which meant that he was as good as or better than 15 percent of the Singaporean students range of Arabic-speaking countries and below the high-scoring countries. who took the test. In this instance, a very good student in Oman would be considered close to being a With an average science score of 423, Oman was ranked 36th out of 48 countries, seven places poor student in Singapore in mathematics. higher than its ranking for mathematics (table 3.2). Oman’s rank placed it above five and below four other Arabic-speaking countries. Kuwait and Lebanon are not listed in table 3.2 because the average score differences between Oman and these two countries were not statistically significant. The highest performing countries in science were Singapore (567), Chinese Taipei (561), Japan (554) and Republic of Korea (553). 72 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 3 73 Figure 3.4 Figure 3.5 TIMSS Grade 8 Science Scores, GCC Countries, 2007 International Benchmarks in TIMSS Science, 2007 Score Singapore Chinese Taipei 700 Korea, Rep. of Jordan 600 n Advanced (>625) Bahrain n High (550-624) Syria 500 Palestinian Nat’l Auth. n Intermediate (475-554) 400 OMAN Lebanon n Low (400-474) Bahrain Kuwait n Below low (<400) 300 Kuwait Tunisia Oman Saudi Arabia 200 Saudi Arabia Qatar 100 Qatar International average 0 % 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Percentile 10th 25th 50th 90th Source: Martin et al. 2008. Source: Martin et al. 2008. Table 3.2 Average TIMSS Grade 8 Science Scores and Rank, Selected Countries, 2007 Box 3.2 Average score Rank Sample Item from TIMSS 2007 Selected countries scoring significantly higher than Oman: Low International Benchmark of Science Achievement (Grade 8) Singapore 567 1 Chinese Taipei 561 2 Japan 554 3 Cells that conduct messages are known as Korea, Rep. of 553 4 Jordan 482 20 o skin cells Bahrain 467 26 o nerve cells Syria 452 32 Tunisia 445 34 o blood cells OMAN 423 36 o kidney cells Selected countries scoring significantly lower than Oman: Egypt 408 41 Algeria 408 42 Palestinian Nat'l Auth. 404 43 Saudi Arabia 403 44 Qatar 319 47 Source: Martin et al. 2008. Source: Martin et al. 2008. Science Low Benchmark Item: Eight percent of Oman students were rated “high� or “advanced� on the Skills associated with the “low level� included recognizing some basic facts about life and physical international benchmarks for science, compared to 17 percent internationally. sciences; having some knowledge of the human body; demonstrating some familiarity with everyday “Advanced� level students accounted for 3 percent of all the students in the TIMSS study who took the science physical phenomena; interpreting pictorial diagrams; and applying knowledge of simple physical concepts test. A further 14 percent were rated “high,� 32 percent “intermediate,� 29 percent “low� and 22 percent to practical situations. Box 3.2 presents an example of a “low level� item. This item was answered “below low.� The comparable figures for Oman were 1 percent “advanced,� 7 percent “high,� 24 percent correctly by 64 percent of Oman’s students, by 75 percent of all students who took the (TIMSS 2007) “intermediate� and 29 percent “low.� In addition, 39 percent were categorized “below low� (figure 3.5). grade 8 science test, and by 97 percent of students in Chinese Taipei. 74 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Overview 75 The difference in science achievement standards between the students in Singapore and Oman, while substantial, was not as big as that recorded for mathematics. For comparative purposes (figure 3.6), we selected a high performing Omani student again, Abdullah, who scored 541 on the science test (a score as good as or better than that of 90 percent of Oman’s students on this test). In Singapore, Abdullah would have ranked below a student on the 50th percentile. In fact his score would have placed him on the 36th percentile. In this instance, a very good student in Oman would have been ranked well below average in grade 8 science in Singapore. Figure 3.6 Comparison of a High-performing Student in Oman (90th Percentile) With Scores of Students from Singapore, Grade 8 Science, (TIMSS 2007) Score 700 36th percentile in 90th percentile Score of 541 Singapore in Oman 600 500 400 300 Singapore Oman 200 100 0 Percentile 10th 25th 50th 90th Source: Authors. Factors Associated with Learning Achievement (TIMSS 2007) data indicates that a number of home-related factors were associated with better test performance.24 The data revealed a number of correlations between home factors and test performance in Oman. Students who did homework for an hour or more each day scored higher on the mathematics and science tests. Students in homes with more books performed better on the tests, and students in a home with a computer also performed better. These correlations must be treated with caution, as the presence of books and a home computer may also be linked to other factors, such as more wealthy families or better-educated parents. Nevertheless, these provide some indication of the importance of home factors in learning outcomes. Despite the poor results, students and teachers had relatively high levels of self confidence about learning and teaching science. Students in Oman scored higher than the overall TIMSS averages in measures of valuing mathematics and science and self confidence in learning mathematics and science. The TIMSS results suggest that teachers of grade 8 students felt confident that they were familiar with the science concepts covered in the assessment. The test score data suggest that this confidence level may be unjustified. 24 The results presented here are from an analysis by the authors using TIMSS 2007 data for Oman. 76 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 3 77 3.3 GENDER DIFFERENCES As part of their EFA strategies, many countries are striving to ensure equal opportunities for girls and boys both in school participation and learning outcomes. For most of these countries, the challenge is to improve the status of girls in the education system. The situation in Oman is the opposite of the general international trend but is similar to a number of GCC countries. Girls, on average, consistently outscore boys on all measures of student achievement in Oman. Over the last thirty years Oman has made very significant strides to promote equal educational oppor- tunities for girls and boys. From a position where girls were underrepresented in the education system, Oman has achieved gender balance in student enrollment; women are now a majority of the teaching force; and they have attained many senior positions in supervision and administration, as well as in curriculum and textbook development (Rassekh 2004).25 While girls and boys attend separate schools from grade 5, the curriculum content for virtually all courses is the same. Among schools, while much has been achieved in terms of equal levels of inputs, the resulting outputs are not the same. The most striking finding to emerge from this report is the consistent superiority of girls over boys in learning achievement. The size of the average difference is substantial by almost all comparisons. Public Examinations Girls tend to perform better than boys on public examinations. On the all-important grade 12 General Education Diploma examinations (also addressed in chapter 4), the results for public school candidates show that the pass rate for Omani females was 9 percentage points higher than for males (table 3.3). In sharp contrast, males had a marginally higher pass rate than females among the relatively small population of non-Omani students in public schools. Table 3.3 Oman Grade 12 Examination Results by Gender and Nationality, 2009 Omani Non-Omani Females Males Females Males Number of entries 21,174 22,451 381 368 Number of passes 19,386 18,648 369 359 Pass rate (%) 92 83 97 98 Source: MOE 2009a. 25 According to a report on trends in education statistics, in 1970, 1980, 1990 and 2000 the percentage of girls among all students was 16, 33, 47 and 49 respectively (MOE 2002). 78 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 3 79 National Assessments The extent of superiority of girls over boys in TIMSS 2007 mathematics and science in GCC countries was not as apparent in Girls, on average, outscored boys on objective tests used in national assessments. other regions. On each of the grade 7 national assessment subjects, girls outperformed boys in most instances by Among all participating countries, girls scored slightly higher than boys both in very substantial margins. The MLA studies at grades 4, 6, 9 and 10 reported that girls outperformed mathematics (by 5 points) and science (by 6 points). In GCC countries, the average boys in Arabic, mathematics, science and life skills. Similarly, the Canedcom (2004) study reported that scores for girls were substantially higher than for boys: the average gender differ- girls in grade 4 outperformed boys in all regions. ence ranged from 22 points for mathematics in Kuwait to 70 points for science in Qatar (table 3.4). For countries outside of the GCC in the Middle East and North International Assessments Africa (MENA), the pattern is inconsistent. Girls outscored boys in both subjects in Egypt, Jordan, and the Palestinian National Authority. Gender differences were Girls tended to outscore boys by substantial margins in international assessments of not significant in either subject in Iran and in science in Algeria and Lebanon. mathematics and science. Boys outscored girls in both subjects in Syria and in mathematics in Algeria and The (TIMSS 2007) study provides a rich data source on gender differences in achievement at grade Lebanon. In three of the high performing countries, gender differences were not 8. Girls outperformed boys in Oman by substantial margins in each of the four content areas tested significant with the exceptions of Singapore where girls scored higher in math- in mathematics and also in each of the four content areas in science (figure 3.7). Girls outperformed ematics and Korea where boys outscored girls in science. boys in mathematics by 54 points, the largest difference between genders among the 48 participating countries in the (TIMSS 2007) study (the next highest was Qatar which had a 38 point difference). In science, girls outperformed boys by 61 points, making Oman the country with the third largest score difference between boys and girls after Qatar and Bahrain. Table 3.4 Figure 3.7 Gender Differences in TIMSS, Selected Countries, Grade 8, 2007 Oman’s TIMSS Results by Gender and Content Domain, Grade 8, 2007 (scaled scores) (girls-boys, average score difference) Mathematics Science 421 412 411 399 International average 5 6 Mathematics 367 380 360 362 344 344 GCC countries n Girls OMAN 54 61 n Boys Qatar 38 70 Bahrain 32 62 Saudi Arabia 23 43 Kuwait 22 49 Middle East and North Africa (non-GCC) Palestinian National Authority 36 36 Algebra Geometry Data and Chance Number AVERAGE Jordan 20 34 Syria -16 -9 469 461 450 442 452 Egypt 13 17 416 415 Science 391 Lebanon -13 (-7) 380 383 Iran (7) (12) n Girls Algeria -5 (1) n Boys High performing countries Japan (-4) (-4) Korea, Rep. of (-4) -8 Singapore 15 (8) Source: Martin, et al. 2008 and Mullis, et al. 2008. Chemistry Biology Physics Earth Science AVERAGE Note: All average differences were statistically significant except those marked in parentheses ( ). Source: Martin, et al. 2008 and Mullis, et al. 2008. 80 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 3 81 Teacher Ratings The results of the higher education institution (HEI) selection system underline the extent to which girls outscore boys on the Basic education cycle two teachers tend to award girls higher ratings. grade 12 examination. Teacher ratings are another source of evidence on student learning achievement in Oman. Data Girls, as noted earlier, outperform boys on the all-important grade 12 public containing teacher ratings for each subject showed that girls tend to be awarded higher teacher examinations. To help avoid having a disproportionate number of girls in tertiary- ratings than boys. In grade 8 mathematics and science, for example, in 2008/09 the percentage of level institutions, the Higher Education Admission Center (HEAC) operates a quota girls getting A or B ratings was far greater than boys —14 percentage points higher for both subjects selection system. Each year, the MOE announces details of the quota, which vary (table 3.5). A similar comparison at grade 9 across all subjects showed girls were almost four times as across disciplines. This system, like any quota system, favors one group (boys in likely as boys to get an A or a B teacher rating. this instance) while discriminating against another group (girls). It favors boys by applying a lower selection cut-off point to their grade 12 examination results. HEAC Cycle one teachers tend to award girls higher ratings. provided December 2009 data on the number of boys and girls offered places in Gender differences in achievement, which are so evident at more senior levels, may have been apparent higher education institutes based on their grade 12 examination results.27 In engi- before boys and girls were segregated into separate schools at the end of grade 4. The MOE did not have neering for example, 3,624 boys and 887 girls applied and were offered places, objective test data for students in grades 1–3 and until late in 2010 for grade 4 students to test this making a total of 4,491 successful applicants. Based on the grade 12 examina- hypothesis.26 It did, however, have teacher ratings for all grade 1–4 students for the 2008/09 school tion results, the top engineering applicants (before applying the different cut off year. Female teachers who taught both boys and girls in the same classes compiled these ratings. Data points for boys and girls) consisted of 2,911 boys and 1,599 girls.28 Following from grade 1 was selected for analysis. This was the grade where the effects of teachers and schools the selection system using different cut-off points for boys and girls, it emerged on achievement would be weakest due to the relatively short student enrollment time. Teachers’ ratings that 732 girls who had applied and would have qualified for engineering were were examined for the following grade 1 subjects: Islamic studies, mathematics, Arabic language, life denied places. Viewed from another perspective, had the selection system for skills, music, information and communication technology (ICT), English, art and sport. The percentage engineering been based on the highest marks irrespective of gender, 732 boys of students awarded A, B, C, D or E was recorded for each region. The percentage of students who who were offered places would not have qualified for engineering based on their had received an A for Islamic studies, mathematics, Arabic language, and life skills can be examined grade 12 examination results. Table 3.6 presents data on quota system effects in appendix F. The results are consistent: girls received higher ratings than boys in each of the four in other major disciplines. subjects in each of eight regions (with just one exception). In most instances, the difference between girls and boys receiving an A grade was over 10 percentage points. The results for music, ICT, English and art were similar. Sport was the only subject in which grade 1 teachers awarded boys higher ratings in five of eight regions. Table 3.6 Table 3.5 Number of Females with Adequate Marks Not Offered Places in Major Gender Comparison of Teacher Ratings, Grade 8 Mathematics and Science, 2008/09 Groups Due to the Selection System Girls Boys Percentage point Major group Number difference Engineering 732 Number of Percentage Number of Percentage students A or B students A or B (girls - boys) Science 578 Mathematics (basic + general education) 16,260 34 16,966 20 14 Foundation year 451 Social studies / Art 210 Basic education 8,824 38 9,176 21 16 Education 208 General education 7,436 30 7,790 19 11 Information technology 186 Science (basic + general education) 16,260 38 16,966 24 14 Medicine and Health 140 Business administration 133 Basic education 8,824 39 9,176 26 13 Sharia and Law 60 General education 7,436 38 7,790 23 15 Agriculture and Marine 22 Source: Authors’ calculations based on data from the MOE General Directorate of Educational Evaluation. Source: Authors’ calculations based on data provided by HEAC, December 2009. 27 These include SQU, 23 private HEIs, as well as institutes associated with the MOH, MOHE, MOM, MARA, and the Central Bank. 26 28 As noted earlier, objective test data for grade 4 students showed that girls outscored boys in almost every comparison of student The small difference between 4,510 and 4,491 is due to the number of students at the cutoff point achievement in each of the 11 regions. in the separate analysis. 82 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 3 83 Factors Associated with Gender Differences 3.4 POLICY IMPLICATIONS A variety of factors, both at home and in school, contribute to the marked Oman’s student learning outcomes fall short of those in the leading countries. differences in achievement between boys and girls. The success achieved in expanding education access has not been matched by student learning quality. Teachers in grade 1, where most classes are mixed, consistently rated girls’ performance as higher Student performance falls short of standards set by the curriculum, as demonstrated by the poor results than boys in all main academic school subjects, except sports. A gender gap in teacher ratings of on national assessments. On international tests like the (TIMSS 2007), young Omanis are performing at students as early as grade 1 suggests that at least some of the gap arises from the early experiences a level well below the leading countries in crucial subjects, such as mathematics and science. The size of of children in the home. the performance gap is considerable. Data from (TIMSS 2007) mathematics tests indicate that a student on the 90th percentile in Oman (better than 90 percent of students) would be on the 15th percentile Girls tend to use their time outside of school more constructively than boys. in Singapore (a relatively low performance level only better than the lowest 15 percent of students Grade 8 students’ responses to the (TIMSS 2007) questionnaire provided some useful insight into in Singapore). out-of-school time use by boys and girls. Compared to boys, grade 8 girls tended to spend less time Improving the quality of student learning should become the central focus of watching television or videos or playing computer games, and more time reading books for enjoyment education policy. or doing homework. For example, 69 percent of girls indicated that they spent at least an hour on Levels of student learning achievement, while similar to those of some neighboring countries, are unlikely homework each night, compared with only 48 percent of boys. to be sufficient to support the aim of developing a vibrant economy independent of extractive industries. Despite their poor results in (TIMSS 2007), boys do not lack self confidence in their Building on the previous successes in expansion, the time is right to focus on improving quality. A quality abilities to learn. improvement strategy will involve a series of concerted actions from all parts of the education sector The substantial lead that Oman’s girls have over boys in learning achievement was not reflected in their and will require strong sector leadership. scores on the TIMSS measures of self confidence. Boys were just as self confident as girls about their In striving to improve standards, the MOE will require timely and good quality data abilities to learn mathematics and science. on key aspects of student learning. This will require the development of high quality assessment instruments, including the development of a rigorous national assessment system. The technical skills — such as test development, sampling, analysis and report writing — required to design and undertake educational program monitoring and evaluation will need to be enhanced. In addition, it is important for the MOE to make the best use of the information collected to influence policy. The TIMSS 2007 study is a good example of a wealth of information that can be carefully examined and used to support reform. The gender performance gap is very large both by international and regional standards. The TIMSS 2007 tests revealed that Oman had the largest gap of any country tested, including GCC countries. Oman’s gender gap in mathematics was 54 points, more than double the gap in Kuwait or Saudi Arabia. Other assessment measures show that girls outperform boys in virtually all grades, subjects and regions, irrespective of whether achievement is measured by teacher ratings, national assessments, international assessments or public examinations. Understanding and addressing the reasons behind this difference will help to improve Oman’s overall achievement levels. In this regard, well-designed research to identify the nature and sources of the gender gap in achievement standards should be conducted both in Oman and in the GCC. The gender quotas for higher education access may further reduce the incentive for boys to perform. Entry to higher education uses a quota system, which ensures a greater number of boys enter univer- sity than would otherwise be the case. This quota is intended to ensure a gender balance in entry to universities, but it has the effect of setting lower entry standards for boys. Setting lower standards is undesirable and may exacerbate the gender gap. Consideration should be given to phasing out this quota in the medium term and ensuring that boys and girls work to similar standards. 84 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Overview 85 Both teachers and students appear to have unrealistic assess- ments of their performance, suggesting that expectations set within the education system are not conducive to raising standards. In the TIMSS attitude survey, students, including boys, were confident of their ability in mathematics. Teachers also felt they were “very well prepared� to teach the topics covered in the mathematics and science tests. The evidence from TIMSS and the other assessments suggests that this confidence level was misplaced. These unrealistically optimistic self assessments may encourage a culture of complacency, which is inconsistent with the aim of raising standards. Mobilizing parents to motivate and support their children in learning is likely to be part of the response to the quality challenge. It may be necessary to launch a high-profile professional public awareness campaign to provide guidance to parents and students on steps to raise learning levels, particularly for boys. These steps might include highlighting effective ways for parents to interact with children outside of school; emphasizing the impor- tance of books and learning resources in the home; increasing time spent on reading and active pursuits; and decreasing time spent watching television or playing computer games. Improving quality will require rigorous assessments and realistic feedback to teachers and students. Students and teachers both need to have realistic information about the stand- ards achieved. The development of a rigorous assessment system that provides students and their parents with realistic feedback from the early grades would help to set and maintain high standards. 86 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality 87 CHAPTER 4 ASSESSMENT, CURRICULA AND SCHOOL YEAR The previous chapter presented evidence on the quality of student learning using national and international assessment instruments, as well as teacher ratings. This chapter continues the focus on learning quality by analyzing the grade 12 examination, the major “high stakes� test taken by Omani students, and its impact on the length of the actual school year. It reviews continuous assess- ment, the subject of much Ministry of Education (MOE) effort in recent years, and describes the official curriculum and supporting textbooks and their influence on examination and continuous as- sessment. The section includes a discussion of standard setting based on national criteria of student performance levels and com- ments on current efforts to evaluate overall school effectiveness. The chapter concludes with comments on the education system’s technical capacity to conduct research and evaluation studies to promote sound policy making. 88 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 4 89 4.1 PUBLIC EXAMINATIONS Public examinations can have positive and negative impacts on teaching and learning. A public examination system can have a strong impact on what is taught and how it is taught and more importantly on what is learned and how it is learned. A system can have negative educational consequences when teachers “teach to the test,� when too much emphasis is on rote memorization or when previous examination content dictates teaching and learning. Box 4.1 presents characteristics of good quality examinations. Box 4.1 Characteristics of Good Quality Public Examinations Good quality public examinations should meet a number of conditions. The examinations should be valid and the questions relevant and representative of course content, knowledge, and skills. They should also be reliable. While there are a number of aspects of reliability, for the MOE a key question is “Would the same set of students be selected, for instance, for the next level of educa- tion, if the examination papers were to be corrected by other examiners?� They should neither be too easy nor too difficult, as such examinations fail to discriminate among students, an essential criterion for a selection test. “Easy� examinations are likely to appeal to students, teachers and parents but are of limited effectiveness in selecting for a course of study because many students receive similar marks. Examinations should specify clear goals and standards, employ a variety of assessment methods, contain items that measure higher-order thinking skills, and assess students’ abilities to apply their knowledge and skills to real life situations, as well as to academic situations. Source: Kellaghan & Greaney 2004. The Tests and Examinations Administration Department (TEAD) has responsibility for public examinations in Oman. TEAD administers the grade 10 selection examination and the high-stakes grade 12 examination, which is the principal formal instrument in the education system for (1) certifying that students have satisfactorily completed post-basic education; and (2) selecting students for jobs or for admission to a tertiary-level institution. The examination is administered in two parts at the end of the first and the second semesters. In 2004/05 a new continuous assessment system was introduced, which is part of the examination process. It aims to reduce overreliance on paper and pencil tests and to reduce the amount of memorization. The TEAD supplies the Higher Education Admission Centre (HEAC) with timely examination data used to select entrants to tertiary institutions. TEAD staff and internal administrative procedures are regarded as objective and fair. Positive features of the present system include an appropriate technical approach to examination development, a correction system that stresses reliable scoring, careful preparation of scoring guides and an appeal process. Test validity is addressed by use of a specifications table to reflect curriculum content and expected cognitive levels and to assign relative weights of importance to different aspects 90 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 4 91 of each subject. There have been considerable improvements in recent years. 4.2 CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT For example, marking system security and credibility have been enhanced by bar coding examination papers and by sending papers to other regions for correction. Continuous assessment (CA) was introduced to help ensure that students are awarded credit for their work throughout the school year. Under CA, teachers are expected “…to assess their students’ The current high-stakes grade 12 examination has some performance in accordance with the criteria specified in the relevant Student Assessment Document� limitations. (MOE 2010, p.31).30 It should be stressed that CA has considerable potential for improving pedagogy. These include lack of adequate preparation time; less than rigorous moderation Other expected advantages of CA include increasing the range of assessment approaches, helping system; narrowing effect on the curriculum taught in schools; and inadequate teachers to know their pupils better, lowering students’ anxiety levels, increasing their motivational emphasis on testing higher-order thinking skills. By international standards, levels, making the assessment more authentic, helping teachers to diagnose student and teaching the number of courses taken by grade 12 students is high (appendix G). weaknesses and to indicate how these might be addressed, and enhancing the overall validity of the At the moment, the MOE is considering steps to address some of these issues assessment process. (appendix H). While incidences of improper behavior at examination centers are reportedly few, nevertheless the MOE should remain vigilant and ensure that the Formal continuous assessment is difficult. public examination system continues to be viewed as credible (appendix I). CA includes many sources of measurement error, including variation in the types of assessment tasks used; differences in the interpretation and application of performance criteria or marking schemes; and High grades were common in some subjects but not in others. effects of irrelevant contextual information in awarding marks.31 CA increases the teacher workload. High marks, which were a feature of past grade 12 examinations (Ganson 1998), Some have questioned whether all teachers have the assessment skills required for CA and have noted do not seem to have been a major issue in 2009 except for a few subjects. Fewer that it has led to some administrative problems, such as dealing with student absences and transfers than 5 percent of candidates were awarded an A grade in applied mathematics, (Harlen 1994, Kellaghan & Greaney 1992, Pennycuick 1990). Moderation is an essential component pure mathematics, English A basic, English B general, science/environment and of effective CA. Moderation brings individual teacher judgment into line with general standards and Arabic. At the other extreme, at least 30 percent of students were awarded helps to adjust teacher-assessed scores among schools. Its primary purpose is to help ensure consist- A grades in Islamic culture, sport, drawing, life skills and elective subjects.29 ency of assessment standards applied by teachers (Griffith 2004). Some aims of the CA approach are being achieved but many others remain a challenge. Training in CA using the cascade model approach commenced in 1998. In 2005/06 some of the training approach was revised in response to teacher comments on the inconsistency and complexity of the original documentation. To determine the CA program’s effectiveness, the report’s study team carried out a national survey of randomly selected teachers (751 participants) across all districts.32 The survey results suggest that teachers strongly support the concept of CA. A majority (70 percent), however, claimed that CA imposes great demands on their teaching time. Two out of three teachers had recorded CA marks within the previous week. While CA is intended to provide teachers with formative-type information, the findings suggest that this objective is not being achieved. A majority (86 percent) agreed with the statement that “Most teachers do not think about what they are filling in� and about 90 percent agreed with the statement “I seldom look back at what I have written in the report card.� Approximately half the teachers claimed that they had not received any training in CA. Most of the remainder indicated that they had received up to two hours training (MOE 2009c). 30 CA is the norm in basic education cycle one. In cycle two, formal examinations are expected to account for approximately 30 percent of the total mark in most subjects. For post-basic students, 60 percent of the marks in key subjects are awarded for the written examination and 40 percent for CA in grade 11; in grade 12 the corresponding percentages are 70 and 30 percent, respectively. 29 The importance of marks in individual subjects varies from student to student, depending on the 31 This is not a measurement mistake; it refers to the difference between the student’s actual score or mark and the score he or course of third-level studies being considered. The MOE should carefully monitor the impact of she would have received on an unlimited number of perfectly parallel forms of the same test (that is, the student’s “true� score). marking standards across subjects to ensure that some subjects do not have an undue influence 32 in determining HEAC marks. In this regard the average mark or difficulty level of a subject is not the The average number of respondents per district was 68 (with a standard deviation of 25). The sample included male teachers critical factor; rather it is the subject with the largest variation in marks that tends to contribute most (40 percent) and female teachers (60 percent) and a minimum of 63 teachers in each of the key subject areas: Islamic studies, to a student’s final rank order in the competition for specific courses of study. Arabic, English, mathematics, science, and social studies, as well as 115 teachers who taught “other� subjects. 92 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 4 93 Other sources have revealed some additional problems in using the CA approach. 4.3 CURRICULUM Follow-up discussions, which were held with panels of teachers, revealed that there was a lack of clarity on what and how to rate students. They also confirmed that CA imposed a considerable workload National curricula serve national educational priorities and are important on teachers, and CA use for formative assessment was very infrequent. Some teachers appeared to government responsibilities. be recording student marks but were not using the material for formative assessment. A number of As in most countries, curriculum development in Oman is assigned to the MOE, specifically to the teachers expressed confusion with the separate assessment directions for the profile charts in the Curriculum Development Directorate (CDD). The curriculum is expected to reflect the needs of Omani teachers’ books and the directions issued by the Directorate General of Educational Evaluation (DGEE). society (including understanding and coexisting with others, emphasizing individual rights, and main- Participating teachers remarked that some supervisors and senior teachers were unsure as to what taining the values and positive traditions of Omani society) and link education outcomes with labor was required in implementing CA. There was general agreement that the intended message got diluted market demands (International Bureau of Education 2006). A national curriculum should include when training was delivered using the cascade model approach and that designers of training materials precise details about the content, educational processes and courses of study. should participate in the training process. Most teachers in the focus groups indicated they did not study the CA records of students in incoming classes. They considered the amount of CA information on The CDD has an extensive work program. incoming students excessive and difficult to summarize. Instead of using this information, they tended It has developed frameworks for each subject, describing concepts, skills and values that students are to develop their own tests to gain insights into students’ strengths and weaknesses. A separate study expected to acquire. The CDD, whose origins extend as far back as 1973, has a large staff of 221 (Creative Associates 2005) revealed that some parents thought CA was subjective; it led to grade grouped into six departments. CDD personnel indicated that they placed considerable emphasis on inflation; and factors unrelated to student performance could affect the final CA grade. developing objectives and materials that promote learning higher-order thinking skills. The CDD also develops educational support materials, drafts content for textbooks and prepares videos. It supports DGEE’s challenge is to ensure that teachers and other key stakeholders readily a pilot project for grades 1–4 that promotes learning through using one class teacher, a single book, understand the CA support materials and accompanying training content. an integrated approach to literacy in Arabic and English and a focus on the child’s cognitive, physical, CA and moderation of marking systems used in formal public examinations are complex and require emotional, social and language development. Recent curricular reforms have focused on (1) introducing training (box 4.2). new subjects, such as information technology, science and the environment, and life skills; (2) limiting the amount of theoretical content; (3) making learning more meaningful by relating content to the students’ practical world; (4) reducing the emphasis on memorization; and (5) reducing dependence on textbooks as an informational source. Box 4.2 The CDD actively promotes respect for peace and diversity. Continuous Assessment and Moderation: Some International Experience There is justifiable concern that curriculum and textbook materials in some countries do little to encourage peace and social cohesion (Greaney 2006). The CDD asserts that peace, respect, diver- sity, democracy and multiculturalism have been incorporated in new school frameworks and learning Experience in other countries and states that have used CA as part of high-stakes assessments resources and that teachers’ guides for all subjects reflect these goals or aspirations. Four committees (such as some Australian states, New Zealand, South Africa, Sweden and the United Kingdom) (writing, revision, steering and education policy) that oversee curriculum design and implementation serves to underline the complexity of the moderation process. Considerable effort has been made are expected to confirm the new materials are consistent with these goals and that stereotypes or to calibrate CA marks statistically after the assessment against other measures, such as aptitude incorrect versions of history are omitted. tests, items drawn from an item bank or an external examination of the same subject area. More recently the aim has been to assist teachers to conduct marking during the year rather than to The CDD requires technical skills in curriculum development. adjust their marks at the end. There is general agreement that effective moderation requires The large CDD staff has been recruited for the most part from the teaching profession. While this teachers to follow clearly defined and agreed procedures and to acquire considerable training. background sensitizes staff to classroom realities, it has not provided CDD with a core staff formally This training should involve teachers in identifying assessment criteria, in developing ownership trained in and familiar with curriculum development and evaluation. of these criteria and in understanding the language used. In Western Australia, for example, the Curriculum Council offers teachers a package that includes a school moderation visit, consensus Curriculum development should be a participatory process. moderation, assessment tasks teachers can use for practice purposes, and district seminars The CDD should continue to work closely with other MOE departments and other educational stake- where teachers can compare notes. In addition, education officials designated as “accreditation holders, including teachers and supervisors. Discussions with focus groups and with senior MOE and moderation officers� are available to teachers. It is only when teachers use as much of this personnel suggest that there should be greater input from other stakeholders, especially those with support as they wish that statistical moderation is implemented. extensive teaching experience. The current language curriculum places undue emphasis on grammar and does not give adequate emphasis to reading for knowledge and enjoyment. A considerable body of research evidence underlines the importance of reading for knowledge and enjoyment not only for vocabulary development and comprehension skills but also for developing Source: Harlen 2004; Wilmut and Tuson 2005. the habit of reading (Brozo et al. 2007, Guthrie and Greaney 1991). The current English textbooks 94 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 4 95 place a heavy emphasis on skills development and contain relatively little literary, humorous or adven- 4.4 OFFICIAL AND ACTUAL SCHOOL YEAR turous material — important in promoting reading for knowledge and enjoyment. There is a relatively heavy emphasis, both in the English and Arabic language textbooks, on definitions and grammar, Oman is comparable to other countries in the number of days schools are officially some of which are rarely used (such as “the third conditional� and “modals of possibility� in the grade open for instruction. 10 skills book). Effective learning depends on a number of factors, including teaching quality, home background, oppor- tunity to learn, student effort and time spent on the task of learning. In 1998 as part of its reform The production quality of books reviewed during a visit to the textbook unit and of program, the Government, aware the school year was short and trying to improve student learning English books subsequently reviewed was impressive. quality, increased the number of instructional days in basic and general education from 160 to 180 Books prepared for basic education are considered much better than those published for general days and the school day length from four to over six hours. education. Books were well illustrated in four colors. The “English for Me� series impressed reviewers for the substance of the texts and supporting artwork; its scope, sequence and spiraling; coverage There is a substantial difference between the number of days schools are officially of topics related to Omani culture and environment; treatment of special needs (wheelchairs were open for instruction and the number of days students attend school. featured); relevance (sections in grade 12 were related to the work world); and range of topics covered. Documentary evidence, as well as discussions with senior MOE personnel, suggests that the goal of More attention might be given to including long passages of continuous text and reducing the activities 180 instructional days has not been achieved (MOE 2006). The 180-day figure includes days when in some English books. More than one reviewer of content and artwork should check galley and page schools are closed for national holidays, religious events, public examinations and some adverse or proofs to ensure that new books do not contain errors. unusual circumstances. The unusual unofficial practice of allowing grade 12 students to be absent from schools for lengthy periods prior to examinations greatly reduces the actual number of days these In general, the delivery of textbook and educational materials is satisfactory but a students attend school. An unpublished (2006/07) MOE study noted that students lost 28 teaching number of issues remain. days in the first semester and a further 17 days in the second semester due to a combination of days The textbook section should continue to ensure that textbooks are delivered in time for the beginning devoted to taking examinations and studying at home prior to sitting examinations. Despite repeated of the school year. In recent years, delays occurred at the level of the independent tendering board and efforts, the study team was unable to quantify the precise number of days students actually spend at in printing and distribution. Presentation of material on CDs (a responsibility of the IT Department) is school, including grade 12 absences for examination preparation. In addition, it is likely that this number expected to develop students’ listening skills—a priority of the curriculum. Some schools, however, do of days differs by school. Focus group meetings held by the study team with students and teachers not have CD players and some have not collected the CDs from stores. indicated that during their final grade 12 examination boys stay home for up to 40 days and girls for 24 days. For grade 12 students, the cumulative effect of these absences plus the days assigned for The Curriculum Evaluation Department (CED) has an overly ambitious work program formal examinations results in the amount of formal school instruction as low as 110 days for boys and and needs to be strengthened. 126 for girls. The CDD established a small Evaluation Department in 2005. CED has a mandate to conduct evalua- tion studies of the implemented curricula; suggest curriculum modifications; and model its approaches The effects of public examinations on school absenteeism are not confined to on recent international trends in curriculum evaluation. It has been heavily involved in developing the grade 12. General Framework for Curriculum and coordinating the curriculum updates and the scope and In addition to time lost by grade 12 students, student-learning opportunities in lower grades are seri- sequence charts for various subjects. Working in collaboration with other departments, it is expected ously affected because they do not have lessons during examination periods. Basic education cycle one to contribute to future curricular plans and strategies, implementation and studies of student learning teachers tend to be used as examination enumerators and cycle two teachers as examination markers. achievement levels. CED has organized conferences and workshops related to curriculum development and evaluation. By international standards, Omani students appear to have less school instructional time. CED’s current work program responds to the expressed needs of the other CDD Data on instructional hours in Oman and in other countries are difficult to obtain. Assuming that, for the departments. purpose of comparison, students in Oman’s public schools receive formal classroom instruction for 130 It includes evaluations of the curricula for English language (grade 3), science (grade 8), Islamic studies days each year and each day consists of eight periods of 40 minutes. This amounts to approximately (grade 11), Arabic language (grade 3), music (grade 3), life skills (grade 6), fine arts (grade 3) and phys- 690 hours of instructional time per year. In sharp contrast, most countries allocate between 700 and ical education (grade 1). The CED has expressed a need to strengthen its personnel and upgrade skills 800 yearly hours of instructional time for pupils in grades 1 to 4 and between 800 and 900 yearly in curriculum evaluation in part through focused training and attendance at international conferences. hours in grades 5 to 8 (Benavot 2004). The study team also used data from the OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) study of 15–16 year olds to estimate the average amount of instructional hours (excluding the small amount of time given to remedial and enrichment work) in the 38 participating countries.33 It was assumed that the average amount of instructional time received by 15–16 year olds would be approximately the same for students in their final year of secondary 33 For OECD countries, including time for remedial or enrichment classes would have increased the overall “in school� activity time by an additional 1.5 hours. 96 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 4 97 school. Table 4.1 presents data on the total number of instructional hours from a list of selected 4.5 STANDARD SETTING OECD and OECD-partner countries. These show that the total number of instructional hours is much higher in these countries than in Oman; the average amount of instructional time of 905 hours in the Standards can provide objective information for governments based on national 38 PISA countries was approximately 30 percent greater than the estimated 690 hours for Oman criteria of student performance levels. (OECD 2004b). In recent years, education policy makers and curriculum authorities in many countries (such as the USA, England and Australia) have emphasized setting standards and specifying what students should The cumulative effect of the lengthy unofficial annual school closures over the life of be able to do at the end of a number of stages of their formal schooling. Governments use student a student is unknown but is likely to be substantial. performance on objective test items to establish standards, which are described using terms such as The cognitive development advantage of students in the countries listed in table 4.1 is likely to be “proficiency,� “achievement� or “skill� levels. OECD’s PISA program, for example, has identified a test even more pronounced as many would have had the added benefit of two years of kindergarten or score cut-off point, below which students are considered to be at serious risk of not achieving sufficiently preschool. Common sense suggests that the current practice to allow students in Oman’s public to participate effectively in the 21st century work force. Standards can be used in Oman, for example, schools to be absent from school for such long periods does little to boost national levels of student to (1) indicate if government expectations regarding student learning levels are being met at the end learning achievement or to enhance confidence in the education received by students completing of cycle one or cycle two of basic education; (2) provide baseline information for monitoring progress grade 12.34 over time; and (3) show if particular subgroups (such as boys or students in individual governorates and regions) are meeting expected achievement levels. Table 4.1 Instructional Hours during School Year in Selected Countries, 2004 Standards also can provide useful information for teachers, students and parents. Without clear, approved and common targets, teachers risk becoming complacent about their students’ learning achievement and having low standards for acceptable student performance levels. Over time, Hours per Weeks per Hours per teachers, students and parents (who receive descriptive reports about their children’s progress three week year year times per year) may come to accept low performance levels as adequate. Without standards or refer- Thailand 30.5 39.7 1,211 ence points, policy makers risk having no valid basis for determining the percentage of students who Korea, Rep. of 30.3 35.6 1,079 meet minimal or desirable standards of learning achievement by the end of grade 12.35 Hong Kong SAR 26.5 35.4 938 Teachers awarded relatively high ratings for mathematics and science. France 24.8 37.8 937 Teachers’ official ratings for 2008/09 were examined in mathematics and science for grade 8 Australia 24.1 38.6 930 (basic and general). Teachers’ formal ratings of individual student progress had been converted from Germany 22.6 41.0 927 overall marks into letter grades (A, B, C, D or E). The General Document for Students’ Learning New Zealand 23.5 39.4 926 Assessment (MOE 2007c) specifies the criteria to be used in awarding grades (table 4.2). Teachers awarded 27 percent of students either an A (13 percent) or a B (14 percent) in grade 8 mathematics. Japan 23.8 38.9 926 In science, teachers awarded 32 percent of students either an A (14 percent) or a B (18 percent). Hungary 23.9 38.1 911 Sweden 22.5 39.7 893 Table 4.2 Tunisia 27.6 31.9 880 Teacher Ratings: Criteria for Awarding Grades Finland 22.6 38.3 866 Grade Percentage range Level Netherlands 23.9 36.0 860 A 90-100 Excellent Uruguay 21.6 39.6 855 B 80-89 Very good Denmark 22.2 38.0 844 Russian Federation 23.8 35.0 833 C 65-79 Good Norway 22.1 36.6 809 D 50-64 Average/satisfactory United States 22.2 36.0 799 E < 50 Needs help Source: OECD 2004b. Source: MOE 2007b. 34 35 It is interesting to note that private schools in Oman have more instructional hours, partly due to the fact that they take just one Examinations are not suitable for monitoring standards for a variety of examination (at the end of the second semester). reasons, including changes in questions from year to year and students having options on what items and subjects to take. 98 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 4 99 Teachers’ ratings and objective test scores differ. Box 4.3 Teacher rating data was used in an attempt to compare national-level standards (from the national Bands of Student Levels of Achievement in Ireland, Grade 4 Mathematics database) with external objective data provided by Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). This comparison assumes that teachers’ rating standards did not change much between 2007 and the 2008/09 school year. The percentages of grade 8 students who received “excellent� Advanced Level of Achievement (115+) Band 5: or “very good� ratings from their teachers, as noted previously, were 27 percent in mathematics and n Number/Algebra: Pupils at Band 5 can convert fractions to decimals. 32 percent in science. The key question for the policy maker is “Did a somewhat similar percentage of Omani students record similar ratings based on their performance on TIMSS?� TIMSS used the terms n Shape and Space: They can list properties of types of triangles and make informal “advanced� and “high� to describe its two highest rating categories. The data, reported in chapter 3, deductions about 2-D shapes. show that based on their test performance as few as 2 percent in mathematics and 8 percent in n Measures: They can convert liters to milliliters, grams to kilograms, and order science received “advanced� or “high� ratings on the TIMSS test. measures of length and weight. They can solve word problems involving multiplication of weights, division of capacities and measures of time. Students may have unrealistic perceptions of their learning achievement levels. This comparison of teacher ratings with test score data suggests that teachers’ ratings of student n They can also do the tasks described in Bands 1, 2, 3 and 4. achievement levels are lenient and are not in accord with the evidence provided by objective data. Teachers’ marking standards would have given many grade 8 students the impression that they were Low Level of Achievement (65–84) Band 1: performing well in school. If it is accepted that the TIMSS international benchmarks are appropriate for Oman, the present marking system based on teacher ratings may leave many grade 8 students with n Number/Data: Pupils at Band 1 can recall basic multiplication and division facts unreasonable and inflated perceptions of their learning achievement levels in mathematics and science. and translate simple word problems into number sentences. They can solve routine one-step word problems involving multi-digit subtraction of whole numbers. The MOE might consider one of a number of options to ensure that teachers are n Shape and Space: They can identify line symmetry in 2-D shapes, obtuse angles in 2-D aware of the student performance levels expected. shapes, nets of 3-D shapes and visualize properties of 3-D shapes. One option is to develop sample-based criterion-referenced tests and make them available for teachers to assess the percentages of students achieving or mastering key learning objectives.36 The MOE could n Measures: They can solve problems involving subtraction of money. also develop norm-referenced tests to be administered by schools, from which teachers can assess n Data: They can construct simple bar charts. how well their students are performing against national norms.37 MOE personnel and/or local teams with some assessment experience could create benchmarks to correspond to a percentile score. Students would be placed in one of three or four categories based on their performance on national- level tests (to be developed). The data could be used to calculate the percentage of students in each region performing at each benchmark category. Teachers, policy makers and others could develop an understanding of what students can and cannot do by looking at the objectives assessed at each level. Source: Educational Research Centre 2008. Policy makers are likely to find information of this nature more useful than percentage scores or letter grades. Appendix J contains examples of standards-based assessment approaches, which can be used Standards can help school-, regional- and national-level monitoring of key educational by Omani policy makers in a cross-regional comparison of student achievement levels. variables. Standards-based assessment approaches can be also used to develop tests for Oman could develop detailed assessment approaches, which would allow schools to determine how teachers to use as information or diagnostic tools. well they are performing in terms of national performance levels and also in terms of schools serving Ireland used the results of a national mathematics assessment to develop an assessment instru- similar students. Australia, for example, has introduced a National Assessment Program for Literacy ment for grade 4 teachers who wished to find out how well their students were performing by specific and Numeracy (NAPLAN), which permits comparisons among states and among statistically similar standards. A national center developed five achievement levels or bands, two of which (the highest and schools across Australia (box 4.4). lowest) are shown in box 4.3.38 36 A criterion-referenced test (CRT) determines how well a person can perform compared to a specified standard. 37 A norm-referenced test (NRT) helps rank students on the basis of learning achievement results. It indicates how a student’s score compares to others in terms of a norm, such as a national average score. It provides little or no information on a student’s actual level of learning. 38 Students at each level would be expected to get at least 50 percent of the tasks correct. Students who failed to answer 50 percent of the Band 1 tasks or items were classified as “Below Band 1�. . 100 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 4 101 Box 4.4 4.6 WHOLE-SCHOOL EVALUATION Australia’s National Assessment Program for Literacy and Numeracy Schools in Oman are expected to monitor data on student performance, analyze the All students from Year 3 to Year 9 are assessed in reading, writing, language conventions (spelling, grammar and data, evaluate the quality of key aspects of the school’s work, plan changes in light punctuation) and numeracy across a range of achievement levels and on a single scale. Individual student performance of the findings and implement the plan (MOE 2006). on each test is shown on national achievement scales. Six bands are reported for each year level. The second lowest A school’s ethos, values, and administrative and management style can foster an atmosphere that band at each year level is considered the national minimum standard for students at that year level. The numeracy appreciates high quality teaching and learning standards and inspires a teaching and administrative staff skills and bands for Year 3 are given in the following table. Appendix K presents a summary of the bands for Year 5 in to cooperate for the good of the students and the school. The MOE has instituted a school evaluation reading, writing, language conventions, and numeracy. system to help make schools more self critical and responsible for their own development. It introduced a whole-school evaluation program to judge the quality of (1) school administration, (2) teaching and (3) Year 3 Numeracy Skills and Band student learning, including students’ attitudes toward learning. As part of the whole school evaluation process, each teacher is required to complete a self-evaluation form, which is countersigned by the Band Numeracy skills principal. Teachers are assessed a number of times by their supervisor and once a year by the school 6 Solves a problem involving division with a remainder. Performs subtraction involving numbers up to 100. principal to determine if their students have obtained and can apply appropriate knowledge and skills Applies knowledge of fractions to convert from minutes to hours. Interprets a map and follows directions and also have positive attitudes about learning. Teachers’ and students’ opinions are obtained about to locate a position. aspects of the school. A team headed by the principal is expected to review the collected information 5 Solves a money problem involving multiplication and rounding. Interprets data in a table to solve a subtrac- and determine what follow up actions should be taken. tion problem. Uses understandings of simple fractions to interpret a recipe. Uses knowledge of addition strategies to complete a number sentence. Matches analogue time in words to digital time. Identifies the Whole school evaluation is a comprehensive labor-intensive approach designed to number of faces in a 3D model and identifies the top view of a cone. bring about overall school improvement. An external evaluation is carried out by a team of 12–20 educators, including supervisors, regional 4 Adds 2 two-digit numbers. Counts half of a collection of objects to solve an everyday problem. Knows multipli- officials and one staff member from the central MOE. The team visits 10–50 percent of classes in each cation facts up to 10 x 10. Continues a number pattern based on subtraction. Recognizes 2D shapes after school; examines “good�, “average� and “poor� student portfolios; uses a checklist to evaluate teachers they have been rotated or reflected. Identifies a prism displayed in an everyday context. and talks to students and parent council members only. At the end of the three- to five-day evaluation 3 Measures an area on a grid using informal units. Identifies a specific date on a calendar and identifies the period, the team meets with the school principal and supervisors and makes suggestions for overall possible outcomes of a simple chance event. Identifies the pentagon in a collection of 2D shapes. school improvement. The evaluation process is intended to check educational standards in Oman’s public schools, to determine the educational performance level of each school and to discover the 2 Identifies a three-digit number written in words. Solves a word problem involving the order of numbers less extent to which each school was able to achieve the expected objectives. The process, however, does than 20 and identifies the repeated addition to match a diagram showing equal groups. Reads a simple not require students to take objective measures of student achievement to help schools and teachers scale to estimate capacity. assess if the learning standard across schools is “good enough�. The regional administrative supervisor 1 Adds tally marks in a table to calculate a total. Selects the next number in a simple number pattern. is expected to follow up to check if a school has made improvements in its administrative procedures. Recognizes an instrument for measuring length. Identifies the missing part of a puzzle and uses coordi- The team issues a report within two to three months of the evaluation. The number of schools evaluated nates to locate a position on a simple grid. has been reduced from about 150 per annum to 22 schools in 2009/10. The time demands and opportunity costs of the evaluation process are substantial, even allowing for the fact that whole-school evaluation is part of the routine responsibilities of some team members. Discussions with teachers and with senior MOE personnel suggest that the quality of the supervisors varied. Some schools were unclear how to use the information. There was also concern that many reports were similar and that Source: Australia Curriculum and Assessment Reporting Authority 2008. some new principals did not consult the reports. Standard setting in education is not limited to student learning. Many countries have used sample-based national-level results to improve education policy making; promote more public awareness about the state of education; improve in-service teacher education; and promote curriculum reform (Kellaghan et al. 2009). In addition to standards of learning achievement, the MOE can also develop standards in other areas, such as amount of student reading for enjoyment, knowledge and use of ICT, and in-service teacher training. Prompted by the increase in monitoring and accountability, more ministries of education are setting standards in a range of diverse areas, such as training and provision of textbooks. Oman, for example, expects to have completed the development of standards for head teachers, teachers and supervisors by the end of 2011.39 39 Report under preparation by Center for British Teachers. 102 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 4 103 4.7 CAPACITY BUILDING IN RESEARCH AND EVALUATION Sound education policy making requires timely, reliable, objective evidence on student learning levels and on other education system aspects. Many agencies and units within the MOE have carried out research and evaluation studies. At present, responsibility for giving objective feedback on education aspects is shared among a variety of groups, including the DGEE, CED, Directorate General for Planning and Quality Assurance, Department of School Performance Evaluation, and Quality Assurance Office in the Directorate General of Private Schools. Studies have been completed on various topics, including assessment and evaluation methods, examinations, promotion policies, educational guidance, homework and use of microcalculators. The TEAD, for example, has carried out an item analysis of the grade 12 papers (International Bureau of Education, 2006). Discussions with staff engaged in research and evaluation revealed concern over issues related to technical capacity, specifically in areas such as statistics and sampling, and also with the lack of opportunities to develop skills in key aspects of educational research and evaluation. 4.8 POLICY IMPLICATIONS A focus on learning quality is central to Oman’s drive to improve education. The evidence presented in this chapter suggests areas for student learning improvement in curriculum, assessment, standards and evaluation. Length of School Year As a priority, policy makers should plan to lengthen the effective school year. Students in Oman’s public schools spend far less time in school (up to 30 percent fewer hours in many instances) than their counterparts in developed economies. Increasing the actual number of days students spend in schools will require enforcing strict rules regarding school closure and addressing the current approach to administering public examinations. Having one final examination rather than two would increase the length of the effective school year. It would also allow TEAD more time to develop good quality examination papers. Removing the first semester examination would create some modest savings.40 In many countries, one final examination is the norm and the formal curriculum assessed often extends over a two- to three-year period. Given the apparent popularity of the current two-semester approach, especially with students and teachers, strong and persistent MOE leadership supported by a public awareness campaign will be required to make the change. One final examination will allow more time for students to master the key content areas covered by the curriculum. 40 Monitoring/invigilation and marking, which accounts for approximately 60 percent of overall nonsalary costs, would still have to be carried out on first semester subjects. Data supplied by TEAD indicate that it costs approximately RO 322,000 to administer each semester examination (excluding internal operating costs and staff salaries). 104 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 4 105 Box 4.5 Public Examinations Including Continuous Assessment Enhancing TEAD’s Technical Capacity More use of examination results can improve teaching and learning. At this rapid period of change in the education system, it would be inappropriate, especially for students A number of established examination bodies in African countries operate and teachers, to suggest major changes in the examination system. Nevertheless, some key improve- short-term practical exchange programs for examination officials in their ments can be made, especially if the TEAD were relieved of some tasks—notably administering two region (Kellaghan and Greaney 2004). Regional capacity development initia- major rounds of public examinations in one year. The TEAD should expand its role beyond the logistical tives in GCC countries could also explore ways of maintaining standards, aspects of conducting examinations. Since many students do not advance to tertiary-level institutions, combating malpractice, and training in new assessment and scoring tech- the MOE should consider the value of including in the formal certificate details of student competencies niques. Establishing twinning arrangements with overseas agencies could in key subject areas, as opposed to percentage marks. In addition to sending examination reports to also enhance technical capacity. TEAD should take steps to ensure that a interested Directorate Generals, the TEAD should also give detailed feedback to teachers on the most number of officers get training in statistics and are given adequate time to common mistakes students made in examination papers. A newsletter prepared by the TEAD with conduct annual analyses of results. Senior TEAD staff could also participate input from the CDD can communicate common errors to teachers. Topics ignored by candidates could in the annual conference of the International Association for Educational be identified. The TEAD could provide examination-related feedback about problem areas to teachers Assessment, the professional body for public examination systems. via in-service courses and the education portal. In English, problem areas identified in the grade 12 examination could be featured in the journal each English teacher receives, as well as in presentations and workshops at prominent events, such as the National English Conference. The TEAD should enhance its technical capacity level and support a long-term Source: Authors. research and evaluation program. The MOE should support a long-term research and evaluation program designed to enhance the quality of the public examination. Box 4.5 outlines a number of strategies for enhancing technical capacity and appendix L presents a summary of research and evaluation topics designed to improve public examination quality. Box 4.6 The MOE could implement a program of activities designed to improve aspects of the Improving Understanding and Use of Continuous Assessment (CA) CA program, including the moderation process. Materials and Processes The TEAD could establish formal moderation review committees to evaluate the validity and reliability of assessments made by grade 12 teachers. All schools could have informal moderation procedures that require subject teachers to arrive at common understandings of the criteria to be used to assess 1. Provide concrete examples in written form or on the web of how to student work. The TEAD could develop a pilot training program in moderation techniques, revise it in rate student work at different levels. light of evidence and commence a large-scale training program to help ensure consistency of ratings 2. Establish the utility of the various forms that have to be completed by among and within schools. Box 4.6 contains some additional suggestions for enhancing CA implementa- teachers (for example, is it necessary for English teachers and supervi- tion. Future efforts to enhance the CA approach might start by considering teachers’ understanding sors to fill out student forms in both English and Arabic?). of CA, as well as their concerns, insights and experiences. The MOE could secure the services of an independent agency to carry out a formal evaluation of the CA program, which would include a review of 3. Train a group of educators in each region to provide guidance and training approaches and materials, time taken to complete records, teachers’ understanding and use leadership in CA to schools in the region. of CA, as well as a sample-based evaluation of the impact of the CA mark on the final examination mark. 4. Ensure that teachers up to grade 12 have opportunities to provide feedback or to seek clarification from regional and national offices on The TEAD should develop capacity in item banking. the implementation of the CA program. This will require subject matter specialists to draft, discuss and redraft items that are consistent with the official curriculum and not biased (in terms of gender and region, for example) and to agree on acceptable and unacceptable answers. All potential item bank questions have to be pilot tested and checked by review panels for curricular and psychometric properties. Over time, questions or items from the bank can be included in the public examinations to help monitor trends. Formal use of item banks as part of the public examination system should be delayed until there is adequate technical Source: Authors. capacity in place and a sizeable bank of valid piloted test items. 106 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 4 107 Curriculum The CDD’s evaluation unit should limit its work to what can reasonably be achieved without compromising quality. The CDD should consider global trends in curriculum development. If the evaluation unit is to remain within the CDD, it could consider establishing a twinning arrangement Increasing influence of international media, technological developments, an international market place with an internationally respected center that conducts high-quality evaluations. This collaboration could for labor and increased travel opportunities call for students to be prepared to participate in an ever- help design and implement curriculum projects and build capacity to use key evaluation models and increasing global environment. As a result, the CDD has to reflect on global trends in approaches to methods. Future work should address the key issue of relatively low student achievement scores and curricula, especially in the areas of science, mathematics and literacy. This can be achieved in part by identify the curriculum’s role in enhancing performance. The CDD, through its evaluation unit supple- examining national or state curriculum documents many of which are available on the web and also by mented with technical support, could (1) assess whether the curriculum and textbooks are promoting looking at the framework documents that accompany international- (for example, Mullis et al. 2006) higher-order thinking skills; (2) use objective data from national and international assessments of Omani and national-level assessments, which are also readily available on the web. Having reviewed experi- students to modify the curriculum, textbooks and other educational materials; and (3) compare math- ences in other countries, the CDD should reject those that are not appropriate and seriously consider ematics and science curricula covered in international assessments with the Omani national curricula inclusion of those that seem likely to improve the overall quality of the Omani curriculum. to determine what aspects might be incorporated. The CDD should also play an active role in future national assessments of education achievement levels, especially at the design, test development, Objective data from national and international assessments should be used to gain analysis and report writing stages. These activities might be undertaken by a strengthened evaluation valuable information for curriculum development. unit at the CDD or by an external professional body. CDD personnel could review this information and determine if aspects of the current curriculum need to be dropped, modified or assigned to a different grade level. Examples of how some countries have Whole-school Evaluation used objective assessment information are given in appendix M. As it prepares new curriculum drafts, the CDD should continue to allow time for reasonable inputs from education stakeholders, including It is time to evaluate the impact of the whole school evaluation program. teachers and supervisors. The MOE should carry out a formal review of the whole-school evaluation process. The review should focus on the utility of the current program’s information. It should assess and evaluate (1) the extent to The CDD could consider expanding the scope of the language curriculum. which the existing self-evaluation reports have been used by schools and teachers, have helped improve English language is now taught in Oman’s public schools in grade 1 and in private Arabic schools in the pedagogical skills and have enhanced education quality; (2) the time demands placed on teachers by first year of kindergarten. The next round of curriculum development in the two major subjects, Arabic the evaluation; (3) the financial and opportunity costs of the external evaluation; and (4) the extent to language and English, could consider expanding the scope of the current curricula. The CDD should give which school staff have studied and acted on recommendations of the external evaluation reports. The serious thought to including concepts related to reading from international literacy research. These proposed review might also consider the impact of reducing the number of personnel involved in the are currently reflected in national assessments, such as National Assessment of Educational Progress external evaluation and the number of days required to complete the process. (NAEP) in the United States and in international assessments, such as the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) and PISA, and indicate what reading skills students are expected to Standard Setting master in many other countries. In addition to word recognition and literal comprehension, these skills include the following elements: Policy makers and others should approach standard setting with some caution. It takes time to develop appropriate standards that are valid, reliable and evidence based. Teachers, n Retrieve explicitly stated information; curriculum experts and other stakeholders have to discuss and agree on what constitutes different performance levels (such as “basic�, “proficient� and “advanced�). At the outset, the MOE might focus n Make straightforward inferences about ideas or information not explicitly stated; on one subject area and assess one grade level to identify the percentage of students meeting various n Interpret and integrate ideas and information, such as discerning the overall message or standards or proficiency levels. They should interpret results for individual students and schools with theme of a text; and care, bearing in mind that other factors, such as student home background, play influential roles in n Examine and evaluate content, language, and textual elements, such as evaluating the determining outcomes. likelihood that the events described could really happen. Experience in other countries suggests that Oman should carefully consider the known risks in using standards-based assessments to hold teachers and schools It should be noted that the PIRLS test, which will be administered in Oman in 2011, will examine these accountable for student learning. literacy skills. The use of standards can influence teachers’ reaction and cooperation. Standards use can narrow the taught curriculum to the particulars of the test, discouraging teachers, promoting “teaching to CDD staff need long- and short-term training programs to strengthen their technical the test,� increasing grade repetition, and in some instances, reporting of false results (Greaney and competence in theoretical and practical aspects of curriculum development. Kellaghan 2008, Kellaghan et al. 2009, Ravitch 2010). Reasons for caution include the knowledge that Long-term programs should include postgraduate qualifications for promising, relatively young staff a wide range of factors affects student performance, including students’ earlier achievements, family at overseas institutes with a proven track record in curriculum development and evaluation. Working and community resources, school resources, education policies, and quality of teacher preparation closely with a well-established curriculum development agency, the CDD could also support a series of and supervision. Accountability for student performance should be shared among students, teachers, short-term programs, especially in the key subject areas, such as standard setting. schools, parents, policy makers, and national and regional administrators. 108 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Overview 109 Research and Evaluation The MOE could take steps to centralize much of its research and evaluation work in one unit. The unit’s long-term goal should be to produce quality research and evaluation evidence to meet international technical standards. Staff members should have skills in educational evaluation, test development, questionnaire design, research design and education statistics including psychometrics, computer analysis, sampling, and report writing. The proposed unit’s work program could include conducting national assessments of student achievement levels, coordinating Oman’s participation in international studies related to teaching and learning, developing diagnostic tests (for subjects such as Arabic and mathematics), and monitoring the effectiveness of current educational policies and programs. The research and evaluation unit would be expected to act as a central resource for educational research studies carried out in Oman. Details of two national research centers serving student populations similar to Oman’s are in appendix N. The proposed research and evaluation unit should be a key tool for policy makers and the broader education community to provide feedback on important outcome measures. Feedback could come from national assessments of educational achievement levels, studies, evaluations and literature reviews to address policy issues. A good national assessment, to cite but one example, can show how well students are mastering the national curriculum, which reflects the cognitive and cultural priorities of the Omani education system. The national assessment could indicate whether learning standards are improving, remaining static or deteriorating. It could quantify the strength of association between student learning quality and the factors over which a ministry has some control (such as level of teacher qualification, teacher participation in in-service courses or class size). The national assessment could identify regions or categories of schools in need of additional resources or inputs and also provide information on the attitudes, habits and expectations of students (such as time spent reading for enjoyment), teachers (such as aspects of the curriculum they find difficult to teach), and parents (such as level of schooling they expect their children to attain). 110 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality 111 CHAPTER 5 TEACHERS AND QUALITY OF EDUCATION Teacher quality is one of the most important factors in improving quality of student achievement. International research has consistently shown that home background and teaching quality are the two most significant influences on student learning achievement. An OECD study concluded, “of those variables which are potentially open to policy influence, factors to do with teachers and teaching are the most impor- tant influences on student learning� (OECD 2005, p.2). Studies in Australia showed that the effect of teacher quality was greater than that of other variables at the school level (Rowe and Rowe 1999). A US study reported that if two average 8-year- old students were given different teachers, one a very effective teacher and one an ineffective teacher, their scores could differ by 50 percentile points within three years (Sanders and Rivers 1996). International evidence has suggested a string of good teachers can erase the deficits associated with poor preparation for school (Hanushek 2005). Other studies have shown student achievement to be more strongly related to teacher education quality and teaching than to class size, overall spending levels or teacher salaries (Darling-Hammond et al. 2000). 112 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 5 113 Teacher quality is not determined solely by teacher education level or teacher training duration. Research has shown a positive relationship between student performance and measurable teacher characteristics, such as teaching qualifications, academic ability and subject knowledge, but to a lesser extent than might be expected (OECD 2005). Other important factors include motivation; creativity; ability to convey ideas in a clear and convincing manner; creation of effective learning environments for different types of students; and ability to work effectively with colleagues and parents (OECD 2005). Developing appropriate teacher policies is difficult and complex. While no single policy measure can guarantee good quality teaching, policy makers can exert influence on teaching quality in three key areas: n Teacher provision: (1) ensuring an adequate supply of teachers across specializations, and (2) deploying teachers where needed; n Teacher preparation: (1) attracting and selecting talented and motivated teachers, and (2) preparing them through high quality initial teacher education; and n Teacher support and management: (1) supporting teachers with appropriate induction and in-service training, (2) ensuring adequate time on task and (3) supervising and managing teachers. In addition with the increasing importance of information and communication technology (ICT) in educa- tion, policy makers in many countries are seeking to provide appropriate ICT support for teachers. 5.1 HISTORICAL CONTEXT A successful policy of Omanization reduced an early reliance on expatriate teachers. During the initial education system expansion, large numbers of expatriate teachers were employed; by 1980, 92 percent of teachers were expatriates. By the mid-1980s, increased domestic teacher training capacity enabled a rapid “Omanization� of the teaching force. Table 5.1 shows that by 2008/09, there were over 38,000 Omani teachers, accounting for 89 percent of teachers. Table 5.1 Number of Omani Teachers, 1980 to 2008 Total Omani Others % Omani 1980/81 5,150 423 4,727 8 1990/91 15,121 4,361 10,760 29 2000/01 26,509 17,766 8,743 67 2003/04 32,345 26,026 6,319 80 2007/08 41,988 36,341 5,648 87 2008/09 43,149 38,398 4,751 89 Source: MOE 2004; MOE 2008c; MOE 2009a. 114 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 5 115 The overall level of teacher qualification has improved. 5.2 TEACHER REQUIREMENTS In 1972, nearly half of all teachers had qualifications lower than the secondary school leaving examina- tion or General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE); as few as 8 percent had a university degree. Oman has an unusually young teaching force, reflecting the recent The establishment of the Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) and six teacher colleges provided a supply of expansion in teacher numbers. teachers with degrees and two-year teaching diplomas. In recent years the Ministry of Education (MOE) In Oman, 40 percent of teachers are under the age of 30, and 89 percent are has entered into a partnership with the University of Leeds (in the UK) to enable Omani English teachers under 40 (table 5.3). This age profile is very different from the average in OECD with a diploma qualification to upgrade to a degree. As a result of these initiatives, all teachers are now qualified and over 83 percent have a degree-level qualification or higher (table 5.2). countries (figure 5.1) where 60 percent of teachers are over 40 (UIS 2006). Table 5.3 There is now a teacher excess in most subjects, and recruitment into the teaching Age Profile of Teachers in Oman, 2009 (% of total) force is no longer automatic. In the initial expansion phase up to 2004, there was an acute shortage of teachers, and those trained in Oman were automatically recruited into the profession. As the expansion rate of student numbers Age Female Male Total slowed and the number of graduate teachers increased in recent years, the supply of newly qualified 20-24 6.2 5.4 5.9 teachers has exceeded the requirement, although there remain shortages in some subjects and in 25-29 37.3 28.7 33.9 certain geographical areas. Oman’s experience in this regard is not unique and is shared by many countries, including the US (box 5.1). In response to the oversupply, the six teacher colleges have 30-34 32.0 30.5 31.4 been converted into colleges of applied science, intake into universities’ education courses has been 35-39 17.2 19.6 18.2 restricted, and recruitment of newly qualified teachers is no longer automatic. With the slowing of 40-44 4.7 9.2 6.5 recruitment, significant numbers of newly qualified teachers are unable to find teaching positions. In 45-49 1.5 4.1 2.6 2009 in an effort to address the excess supply, the MOE created 3,000 new support positions in schools, thus increasing the number of new teachers required that year from 2,000 to 5,000. 50-54 0.3 1.0 0.6 55-59 0.1 0.6 0.3 Table 5.2 Teacher Qualifications, 2008/09 60-70 0.0 0.1 0.1 Over 70 0.0 0.0 0.0 Omani Omani Non-Omani Non-Omani % Total 100 100 100 Male Female Male Female Female Diploma and less 3,059 3,875 105 127 7,166 56 Source: MOE Human Resources database 2009. University degree 10,952 18,697 2,341 1,928 33,918 61 Postgraduate diploma 301 1,369 52 28 1,750 80 Figure 5.1 Master 76 64 130 37 307 33 Age Profile of Teachers in Oman (2009) and OECD Countries (2004) Doctorate 5 - 2 1 8 13 (% of total) Total 14,393 24,005 2,630 2,121 43,149 61 % University degree and postgraduate diploma 78.7 83.9 96 94 83.4 60 n OECD primary % Master or Doctorate 0.6 0.3 5 1.8 0.7 n OECD lower secondary 50 Source: MOE 2009a. n OECD upper secondary Box 5.1 40 n Oman Issues Related to Teacher Oversupply: US Experience Most OECD countries have some imbalances of teacher supply and requirements. In the US for 30 example, more teachers are trained every year than are required yet shortages exist in particular geographical areas, normally in rural areas and in poor urban districts, and in certain subject 20 specializations, normally mathematics and science. These shortages result in the employment of unqualified and “out of field� teachers. The poorest children feel the impact of these shortages disproportionately, as both poor rural and poor urban districts experience shortages of qualified 10 teachers and high teacher turnover. In some high poverty schools, teacher turnover can be as high as 50 percent. 0 Under 30 30 to 39 40 to 49 50 to 59 Over 60 Source: Darling-Hammond and Sykes 2003. Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) 2006 and MOE Human Resources database 2009. 116 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 5 117 Table 5.4 The young teacher age profile is reflected in low teacher attrition rates. Causes of Teacher Attrition in Oman, 2008/09 The teacher attrition rate (defined as the proportion of teachers permanently leaving teaching each year, for any reason) was 2.4 percent in 2008. The data in table 5.4 indicate that the greatest source Number of Cause of attrition teachers % of all teachers of teacher attrition was moving to another post within the MOE. A mere 0.2 percent of teachers left through retirement, death or illness. Total left 1,009 2.4 Move to other MOE post 700 1.7 In countries where natural attrition (reaching retirement age, death and illness) is the main cause of Resign 209 0.5 teachers leaving the system, teacher attrition is typically around 5 percent. In countries where there Left through retirement, death, and medical are significant numbers of voluntary resignations (typically resulting from movement to other occupa- 100 0.2 grounds tions), the rate can be higher (table 5.5). Total number of teachers 41,988 100.0 It is likely that teacher retirement will rise in the medium term. Source: MOE Human Resources database The current public service regulations provide for a relatively short teaching career with early retire- Note: The data in this table differs from the data in tables 5.1 and 5.2 because it was ment on a pension of 60 percent of salary (excluding allowances) after 15 years service and on a obtained from the live MOE Human Resources database at a different time in the year. full pension of 80 percent of basic salary after 20 years’ service. The data in table 5.6 indicate that 13 percent of teachers will reach 20 years of experience in the next five years. A further 39 percent Table 5.5 of teachers have between five and nine years experience and could opt for retirement in 10–15 years, OECD Teacher Attrition Rates (%) assuming the current retirement rules still apply. In the long term as the retirement pattern becomes Type of school Annual attrition rate stable, attrition through retirement should be at least 5 percent per annum, assuming a 20-year average duration of service. England All 9 The Netherlands Primary 7 Growth in national economic activity may prompt a rise in the number of early Australia Secondary 5 voluntary resignations. Primary 4 In most countries with an active private sector economy, significant numbers of teachers resign for Germany All 5 private sector employment. This type of attrition fluctuates in response to labor market conditions. In Canada All 2 times of growth there tends to be a demand for people, such as highly qualified teachers, with skills Japan All 2-3 valued by the labor market. While current attrition rates are low, there are some anecdotal indications South Korea All 2 of relatively high attrition rates for male teachers of ICT and English. If the national strategy of private US Public 8 sector development is successful, increased attrition of some specialist teachers through voluntary Private 14 resignation is likely. Source: OECD 2002 and Marvel et al. 2006. Note: The year of data varies by country from 1997 to 2005. Alignment of Teacher Supply with Subject Needs Table 5.6 Oman has a reasonable proportion of teachers in each subject area, but there are Experience Profile of Teachers in Oman, 2009 (%) some minor imbalances. In 2008/09, roughly equivalent proportions specialized in major subjects, such as mathematics Years since (10 percent), English (13 percent), Arabic (11 percent) and Islamic studies (7 percent). In total Female Male Total graduation 15 percent of teachers were qualified to teach sciences with more trained in general science in the 0-4 years 27 25 26 early grades and more specialists in the older grades. Fewer teachers, however, were qualified in 5-9 years 41 36 39 biology (2 percent) than in physics or chemistry (5 percent and 4 percent respectively). There were 10-14 years 16 15 16 relatively few teachers of physical education (4 percent), as this specialization is only available at SQU. 15-19 years 12 16 13 The distribution of subject specialists by region was relatively even with 13–14 percent of teachers in each region qualified to teach mathematics and 12–13 percent qualified to teach English. Further 20-29 years 3 6 4 related data on national- and regional-level distributions of teachers by subjects can be examined in 30-39 years <1 <1 <1 appendices table O.1 and table O.2 Over 40 years <1 <1 <1 Missing data 1 1 1 Total 100 100 100 Source: MOE Human Resources database. 118 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 5 119 The education system remains dependant on non-Omani teachers to fill key gaps in As a result of curricular changes, some teachers find themselves teaching subjects teacher supply. The gaps in the availability of qualified Omani teachers are subject other than their specialties. and gender specific and most obvious in particular regions. In 2009, there were only 916 teachers with an initial qualification in ICT, while 1,776 teachers were Teachers of general science, Arabic and Islamic studies are almost all Omani (over 99 percent). There recorded as teaching ICT (table 5.8). In the early grades, changes in subject specialization policy have are shortages, however, of qualified male Omani teachers in English and biology (table 5.7): 64 percent resulted in a mismatch between teacher training and subjects taught. At present, teachers in the early of male English teachers are non-Omani, as are 44 percent of male biology teachers. There is also a years are expected to specialize in clusters of subjects known as Field 1 (Arabic, Islamic studies and shortage of female Omani teachers in physical education, art and music; 48 percent of female physical social studies) and Field 2 (mathematics and science). Some of the teachers currently in these levels education teachers are non-Omani. were trained as subject specialists and now find themselves teaching subjects for which they were not qualified. Teachers trained as Arabic language teachers, for example, are frequently expected to teach Table 5.7 the First Field, including Arabic, Islamic education and social studies. Teachers by Subject, Nationality and Gender, 2009 Further policy measures under consideration may require changes in teacher Subject Number of teachers % of male teachers % of female teachers preparation programs. who are Omani who are Omani At present, the MOE is implementing a pilot integrated curriculum for cycle one, in which a class teacher Islamic studies 2,980 100 100 teaches all subjects with the exception of mathematics (in grades 3 and 4), English, art, physical educa- Arabic 4,644 98 100 tion, music and information technology. In 2006/07 this was piloted in four schools, and it is expected Chemistry 1,738 93 100 to expand to 43 schools in 2010/11. If this integrated curriculum is adopted as the mainstream Physics 2,000 95 93 approach, the current teacher training approach will have to be replaced with a training program for the entire basic education curriculum. The possibility of teaching mathematics and sciences after grade Mathematics 4,428 90 90 4 in English has been also discussed (though not yet approved); such a change would have teacher Biology 802 56 94 training implications given the need for teacher familiarity with English language concepts and termi- English 5,571 36 92 nology related to mathematics and science. Physical education/ sports 1,558 86 52 Learning difficulties 500 100 98 Teacher Training Capacity 1st Field 6,596 100 100 2nd Field 3,892 100 100 In response to the oversupply of teachers, the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) IT 1,803 91 100 has taken measures to limit intake into preservice teacher training. Fine arts 1,374 45 52 The six teacher training colleges established to provide a two-year diploma qualification for teachers Geography 1,843 100 100 have now been closed and the premises converted into colleges of applied sciences. One of the colleges, Rustaq, retains a small cohort of English language teachers. The main publicly funded supply of teachers History 1,364 98 100 comes from the College of Education at SQU. Annual intake into the College of Education at SQU has Life skills 1,165 100 100 varied (appendix figure O.1) but since 2008 has been restricted to 300 in response to oversupply. The Music skills 932 3 2 MOHE has also restricted education course intake at the private universities (Sohar, Dhofar and Nizwa) Total 43,243 85 92 to reduce output. This restriction has contributed to market growth in private teacher training colleges abroad. Omani students can attend universities in other countries to obtain teacher qualifications. The Source: MOE Human Resources database. MOHE normally recognizes accredited degrees from other countries within the region. Note: The data in this table differs from the data in tables 5.1, 5.2 and 5.4 because it was obtained from the live MOE Human Resources database at a different time in the year. Although there is an excess of capacity, there is little domestic capacity in some important areas. In the universities, most of the courses prepare teachers for cycle two and post-basic education. There Table 5.8 is very little capacity to prepare teachers for cycle one of basic education. Number of Schools, Classes and ICT Teachers, 2009 Schools Classes ICT teachers Basic education 759 11,069 1,401 General education 288 8,598 375 Total 1,047 19,667 1,776 Source: MOE. 120 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 5 121 5.3 D E P L O Y I N G T E A C HE R S WHERE NEEDED The current teacher allocation system has produced a reasonably even distribution of teachers at the regional level. Demand for teaching positions varies by geographical location. On appointment, teachers are sent to specific schools. While individual teachers do not normally have a Teachers generally prefer to be posted in the more developed and accessible regions. As a result, the choice of school, regional education officials usually consider the teacher’s home location when deciding MOE encounters problems in placing teachers in the more remote regions, particularly in Al-Wusta and on a position. This system seems to have produced an equitable distribution of teachers across the Dhofar. Government incentives to attract teachers to some remote regions include (1) a small incentive regions, and there is little interregional variation in student-teacher ratio (table 5.9). Al-Wusta’s payment (RO 30 per month, about 5 percent of the salary and allowances of a newly qualified graduate) favorable student-teacher ratio (STR) of 8 reflects the greater number of small schools in this region. for teachers in specific remote schools and (2) priority to teachers from Al-Wusta and Dhofar who pass This relatively equitable distribution of teachers is achieved partly through the use of non-Omanis to the selection test and who wish to be placed in these two regions. To date, the financial allowance does fill gaps in less-needed locations. Data from 2008/09 (table 5.10) show that at least one out of four not seem to have been a sufficient incentive to attract teachers to the most difficult locations. Other teachers in the more remote areas of Al-Wusta and Dhofar were non-Omani. countries have faced similar problems in teacher placement and have attempted to address it through a variety of incentives (box 5.2). Table 5.9 Average Student-Teacher Ratio, by Region, 2009 Box 5.2 Schools for Schools for Schools for All schools boys and girls girls only boys only Measures to Address Geographical Preferences: Some International Examples Al-Batinah (North) 12 15 14 14 Al-Batinah (South) 13 15 14 14 Many countries experience shortages of teachers for specific geographical Muscat 13 14 14 14 areas, social groups, and subject areas. Some countries have used financial Al-Dakhliya 12 14 13 13 incentives to try to address these shortages. Al-Sharkiyah (North) 12 13 13 13 (1) In the UK, London offers salaries approximately 12 percent Al-Sharkiyah (South) 11 13 11 12 higher than other areas to attract teachers. Al-Buraimi 10 12 12 11 (2) In France, a scheme with additional benefits in training and Al-Dhahirah 11 12 11 11 career progression encourages teachers to take positions in Dhofar 8 13 11 10 disadvantaged suburbs of Paris. Musandam 9 10 9 9 (3) Sri Lanka’s incentive scheme includes cash stipends, housing, Al-Wusta 7 - 9 8 transport allowance, and accelerated teacher promotion. Total 11 14 13 13 Despite these financial incentives, shortages still remain. London has higher Source: MOE 2009a. vacancy rates than other parts of the UK, and in Paris the majority of the teachers willing to accept positions in the disadvantaged urban schools are Table 5.10 inexperienced. Percentage of Teachers Who Are Omani, by Region, 2008/09 Male Female All teachers Al-Dhahirah 88 96 93 Muscat 86 96 92 Source: OECD 2009a. Al-Sharkiyah (South) 88 94 92 Al-Batinah (South) 87 94 91 Al-Dakhliyah 89 92 91 Al-Buraimi 88 93 91 Al-Batinah (North) 50 93 88 Al-Sharkiyah (North) 86 88 87 Musandam 82 89 86 Dhofar 64 79 72 Al-Wusta 60 82 69 Total 82 92 88 Source: MOE 2009a. 122 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 5 123 The similarity of average regional STRs should not hide the fact that there are Table 5.11 substantial STR differences at the school level (appendix figure O.2). In 2009, 20 Interdistrict Transfers, 2009 percent of schools had STRs less than 10, while 25 percent of schools had STRs greater than 15. The schools with low STRs are mainly small schools, mostly in Transfers out Transfers in In as a % of out the more remote regions. Al-Buraimi 16 127 794 The current transfer system assigns more inexperienced teachers Al-Dhahirah 50 296 592 to remote regions. Al-Batinah (North ) 106 458 432 Teachers are allowed to request a transfer after one year of service. Some priority Al Sharkiyah (South) 66 207 314 in transfer is given to teachers serving in difficult areas. In 2009, almost 10 Muscat 184 479 260 percent of teachers requested an interregion transfer, and 5.8 percent (2,510 Al-Batinah (South) 356 471 132 teachers) were transferred (table 5.11). Transfers show a strong directional Al-Dakhliyah 240 253 105 pattern: in 2009, 332 teachers moved out of Al-Wusta region through transfer, Al-Sharkiyah (North) 372 158 42 but as few as 14 were transferred into the region. The pattern was even more Musandam 72 25 35 pronounced in Dhofar. By contrast, 184 teachers transferred out of Muscat, Al-Wusta 332 14 4 while 479 transferred in. Dhofar 706 22 3 An inevitable result of the current transfer system is the relatively Source: MOE Human Resources database. large proportion of inexperienced teachers in the remote regions. While overall 26 percent of teachers had less than 5 years’ experience since graduation, in Al-Wusta and Dhofar the percentages were 59 percent and 42 Table 5.12 percent respectively (table 5.12). The high turnover of teachers in these areas Teachers with Less than Five Years of Experience after Graduation increases the difficulty for remote schools to develop good teaching practices and by Region, 2009 to build good relationships with parents and the community, factors identified as contributing to student learning achievement (Okagaki 2001). Number of Number with % under 5 years teachers under 5 years Al-Wusta 732 432 59 Dhofar 4,368 1,836 42 Musandam 565 212 38 Al-Sharkiyah (North) 3,367 1,202 36 Al-Batinah (South) 5,357 1,610 30 Al-Batinah (North) 8,277 1,872 23 A-Sharkiyah (South) 3,712 832 22 Al-Buraimi 1,071 221 21 Al-Dakhliyah 6,096 1,246 20 Muscat 6,640 1,321 20 Al-Dhahirah 3,059 550 18 Total 43,244 11,334 26 Source: MOE Human Resources Database. 124 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 5 125 5.4 SELECTING STUDENT TEACHERS Teaching remains a relatively attractive profession especially for females, and competition for places in the preservice program at SQU is keen. Against a national background of high graduate unemployment, the security of public service employ- ment tends to be highly valued. Teacher remuneration is based on public service salary scales, and teacher earnings equal those of other public servants with similar qualifications. Culturally teaching is perceived as one of the more socially acceptable forms of employment for Omani women. Consequently there is high demand for access to the profession, and some parents finance their children to study abroad in the hope of returning to a teaching position. The intake to the College of Education at SQU is highly competitive, particularly for female students, and the entry requirements are higher than for many other university courses. There is also a waiting list of SQU students wishing to transfer into education courses. At present, the selection into teacher education courses is based mainly on academic achievement. Internationally some of the leading education systems have begun to use other assessments, including interviews and aptitude tests, to ensure that personality variables are included in the selection (box 5.3). Currently, SQU conducts interviews for grade 12 graduates. Box 5.3 Selecting the Right Teachers Part of the key to teacher quality is selecting the right people into the profes- sion: a bad selection decision can result in up to 40 years of poor teaching. Countries are using different selection methods to ensure that entrants to the profession have the right mix of academic preparation, personality and motivation. Some evidence associates high levels of literacy with effective teachers, and both Singapore and Finland use literacy assessment as part of the selection process. Singapore uses a three-step selection process before entry to teacher training: (1) Applicants provide a CV, which is used to check if they have the required academic qualifications. (2) Applicants sit for an entry test, which tests literacy level. (3) Applicants are interviewed to examine their attitude, aptitude and personality. Finland also has a three-step selection process: (1) Applicants sit for a national entry test, which measures literacy, numeracy and problem-solving skills. (2) Students then take university assessment tests, which aim to measure ability to process information, think critically and synthesize data. (3) Finally students are interviewed to check motivation to teach, motivation to earn, communication skills and emotional intelligence. Source: McKinsey and Company 2007 and Gopinathan et al. 2008. 126 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 5 127 Paradoxically while intake to teacher education is highly competitive, the motivation 5.5 INITIAL PREPARATION OF TEACHERS of some new entrants is sometimes poor. Discussions with MOE staff, teachers and supervisors suggest that many students are not strongly Teacher preparation requirements need to reflect the changing economic and social motivated to be teachers; they apply for teacher education due to lack of career alternatives. As part context and developments in pedagogy and psychology. of this study, student teachers at SQU were interviewed about their reasons for selecting teaching The task of teaching has changed over the last few decades. First, in this information age teachers are as their area of study. Their reasons varied, and while some were highly motivated to be teachers, for expected not merely to deliver a body of knowledge but also to guide their students in developing critical others teaching was a choice motivated by lack of alternatives. Some of the responses are show in skills in analysis, judgment and problem solving. Second, increased student participation and retention table 5.13. rates in education require teachers to work with a broader range of students with a greater mix of skills and backgrounds than before. Third, in an increasingly competitive labor market there is greater external Table 5.13 pressure on teachers to ensure that students perform well on measures of learning achievement SQU Student Teachers Response to Why They Study Teaching (such as school- and national-level tests and examinations). Finally, teachers are now responsible for supporting students in a broad range of nonacademic areas, such as social and personal development. Responses from male student teachers Responses from female student teachers Initial teacher education in Oman experienced a notable transformation in one n No other alternatives, did not even n Belief in the role of education and generation. choose the subject I am studying. personal development. The teaching force moved from reliance on expatriate teachers to a mostly Omani profession, in which n Do not want to be a teacher but no n Did not choose it, but have grown over 80 percent of teachers have university degrees. While there are a number of institutions involved, other choices. I may get another job in more interested (two comments). the flagship institution is the College of Education at SQU, which provides initial teacher education, as the future. well as preparation for school leaders and supervisors. SQU provides training for only about 15 percent n Wanted to study psychology, now n I aimed to study English, I think hope education can be a step to this. of newly qualified teachers; the rest comes from private institutions in Oman and institutions abroad. teaching is an important profession. n Do not really want to be a teacher, The major concern in initial teacher education is the varied institutional standards. n I was inspired by teachers in my students always complain about their secondary school, I got to love English. grades. School principals interviewed noticed a difference in quality among newly qualified teachers from varying Education is a worthy profession. institutions; they expressed concern about the content knowledge, English language proficiency and n Want to teach art, to be creative. teaching skills of some newly qualified teachers. n I had a personal interest in physical education. Teacher education courses at SQU are generally perceived to be of high quality but can be strengthened in some specific areas. Source: Focus group of student teachers at SQU, 2009. While recognizing the quality of many of SQU’s initial teaching courses, some focus group participants and other MOE personnel interviewed raised concerns about the alignment of SQU training with current schools’ practices. In focus group discussions, school principals noted that newly trained teachers seemed unfamiliar with the required school assessment and monitoring practices and were better prepared in subject content than in pedagogy. Teachers also reported that they felt poorly prepared for some school practices. In response some SQU academic staff said that they were not informed by the MOE of relevant changes in approaches to teaching and learning and that they were not in a position to know about these changes, as they were not represented on relevant committees. These comments suggest that MOE and SQU could improve communication with more timely information sharing and better alignment between suppliers and users. The challenge is to determine how the initial training experience can help prepare young teachers for the realities of working in Omani schools and meeting MOE’s expectations. The academic staff in the teacher education institutions has strong academic qualifications but limited school teaching experience. In SQU, most of the current academics were trained initially as teachers but immediately following course completion they were selected for sponsored postgraduate programs abroad and later returned to join the faculty (see staff qualification levels in appendix table O.3). As a result, most have limited experience in teaching in a school setting. Similarly most of the academic staff at private universities are expatri- ates who were initially trained as teachers, but few have had careers teaching school-age students. These staffing patterns suggest a risk of an overly theoretical approach to initial teacher education. 128 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 5 129 Teaching Practice 5.6 INDUCTION AND IN-SERVICE SUPPORT F O R T E A C HE R S Teaching practice is a relatively small part of initial teacher Newly qualified teachers need a formal induction into the realities of teaching in preparation in Oman. Omani schools. An international review of teacher education reported that while most professions It is highly unlikely that a society would ever turn out a freshly trained doctor and advise him or her conduct much of their training in real life settings, relatively little teacher training to “go operate on somebody� without three of four years of guided practice (McBeath 2006). In the takes place in the teacher’s own classrooms (box 5.4). This is particularly the education sector, however, young teachers often have little structured induction after they complete case in Oman; in SQU, teaching practice accounts for approximately 6 percent their initial training. Newly qualified teachers are neither fully equipped to deal with teaching challenges of the total credits for the course. Student teachers have teaching practice for nor helped to develop their skills over their early years of teaching. Typically newly qualified teachers one day per week in the 7th semester and for two days per week in their final report problems in the areas of classroom management, student motivation, student assessment and (8th) semester. Teaching practice is not offered during the first three years of the accommodation of individual student differences. There is increasing recognition that teacher educa- course. While in school, each student teacher works with a cooperating teacher, tion can no longer be seen as a single initial period of training but as an ongoing process throughout but focus group discussions suggested that the quality of supervision and support the teacher’s career. provided by cooperating teachers varies. In Nizwa University teaching practice In this regard, OECD (2005) has suggested that teacher preparation has three main phases: (1) initial accounts for 5 percent of the total credits for the course. Students go on teaching teacher training, (2) induction and (3) in-service continuing professional development. Of the proposed practice for two days per week (Tuesday and Saturday) in the two semesters of three phases, induction tends to be the most neglected. England, to cite one example, operates an the fourth year. For the first two weeks they observe teaching and after that they induction program for teachers in their first year of service. The program covers a broad range of teach one to two hours per week. aspects in the young teachers’ work world, including roles and responsibilities, evaluation, dealing with young people and classroom activities (box 5.5). Prior to 2009 in Oman, induction in most schools took the form of senior teachers familiarizing the new teachers with school rules and procedures. The MOE’s induction program, which is expected to be compulsory for all new teachers, will involve two-week taught courses delivered in three blocks in September, October and February. The induction program focuses on teaching practices and policies, as well as the curriculum (appendix box O.1). Box 5.4 Box 5.5 Teaching Practice Induction of Newly Qualified Teachers: England “… despite the evidence, and the fact that almost every other profession England was the first European country to introduce a mandatory induction conducts most of its training in real-life settings (doctors and nurses in year in 1999. This induction program was viewed as one part of a continuum hospitals, … lawyers in courtrooms, …) very little teacher training takes place of career-long professional development for teachers. The policies provide in the teacher’s own classrooms, the place in which it would be precise and a mentor for each new teacher. Additionally, newly qualified teachers in relevant enough to be most effective.� England receive a 10 percent reduction of teaching responsibilities. Two performance evaluations are built into the induction year, and new teachers (McKinsey and Company 2007, p.28). are evaluated by national standards. A period of supervised teaching practice is central to the development If newly qualified teachers in England fail to demonstrate that they meet of teaching skills. McKinsey and Company (2007, p.41) suggests that in the standards during their induction year, they may appeal but may not the best systems student teachers have at least 20 weeks of supervised repeat the induction year. If their appeal fails, they lose their registration practice in schools. with the General Teaching Council of England. This means that they may not be employed to teach in public schools, although they may teach in an independent school or as a private tutor. Source: McKinsey and Company 2007. Source: Killeavey 2006, p.171. 130 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 5 131 In-service Training 5.7 TEACHER UTILIZATION: STUDENT-TEACHE R R A T I O , TEACHING HOURS AND CLASS SIZE The MOE’s Human Resources Development Directorate provides a range of in-service short courses for teachers. Courses are provided at central, regional and school levels with training done Oman has low STRs at all levels of the education system. through a cascade approach. Teachers are not paid to attend training but trans- The STR in Oman’s public schools has been declining in recent years, as teacher recruitment has port, meals and accommodation are provided. Teachers normally attend courses outpaced enrollment growth. The average STR has fallen from 21 in 2000/01 to 12.5 in 2008/09. during school time, and teachers are replaced by a substitute, often a colleague. The lowest STRs are found in basic schools where the average is 10.6, while the highest is in general Courses cover a variety of topics: at the central training center for instance, over a education grades 1–6 with an average of 19.2 (table 5.14). The overall STR of 12.5 is very low by one-year period participants took courses on education (53 percent), information international standards, well below the average for the countries in the World Education Indicators technology (23 percent), administration (12 percent) and language (1 percent). study, and lower than the average for OECD countries (table 5.15 and appendix figure O.3). The impact of this training is unclear. Table 5.14 Participants rate the courses in terms of content, delivery, meals and transport Students, Teachers and Student-Teacher Ratios in Public Schools, 2008/09 arrangements, but there is no systematic data on the impact of the courses on General education classroom practice. There is some concern that teachers do not always take Basic Total education these courses seriously, and they have no implications for salary or promotion. Grades 1-6 Grades 7-9 Grades 10-12 Teachers are normally selected for training by supervisors, resulting in some Students 309,527 37,498 64,540 128,767 540,332 teachers complaining that they are sent on irrelevant courses or courses on Teachers 29,298 1,957 4,418 7,476 43,149 familiar material. Indications from school level are that the message may be diluted Student-teacher 10.6 19.2 14.6 17.2 12.5 considerably by the time it arrives. In a survey of 150 teachers in five regions ratio in June 2009, teachers were asked to comment on the in-service training. The Source: MOE 2009a. major criticisms raised were (1) the training was over-theoretical, (2) the training was delivered in a didactic manner and did not respond to the participants’ issues, Table 5.15 and (3) the trainers were not sufficiently expert in the content. School principals in Student-Teacher Ratios by Level of Education: International Data, circa 2004 the focus group were also critical of the structure and timing of in-service training. They suggested that the courses were too short to have an impact, reached only Primary Lower Upper education secondary secondary a portion of teachers, and caused disruptions from teacher absence. Covering for absent teachers can be particularly difficult when a number of courses are held World Education Indicators average 24.3 23.9 20.7 at the same time. The principals said they would prefer the training to be held on OECD average 16.9 13.7 12.7 designated, nonteaching days, such as the period before state examinations. United Kingdom 21.1 17.1 12.3 United States 15.0 15.2 16.0 There may be considerable advantages to allowing schools to Chile 27.1 44.3 26.8 organize some of their in-service teacher training needs. Finland 16.3 10.0 16.2 At present the MOE provides modest funds to schools to organize training to France 19.4 14.1 10.3 support school-level professional development. Each school receives RO 300 per Germany 18.8 15.6 13.9 year; in addition, 610 schools have received an additional RO 200 to develop and implement a school professional development plan. Senior teachers often identify Source: UIS 2006. the topics for staff development based on their knowledge of the needs within the school. Sometimes expertise is found within the school. In other cases, schools These favorable STRs are not translated into smaller class sizes. invite external trainers to provide input; this form of training can be relatively In 2009, the average class size was 27 with slightly smaller classes in coeducational schools and aver- expensive for schools. Some principals reported raising additional funds from ages of 29 and 30 in boys and girls schools.41 These class sizes are larger than the OECD averages of teachers to offset the cost of external trainers. In focus group discussions princi- 21 in primary education and 24 in lower secondary education (OECD 2006). Details of average class pals appreciated the ability to customize training to address school needs. sizes in Oman (by region) and in other countries can be examined in appendix tables O.4, and O.5. The apparent contradiction of low STR and relatively high class size may be explained by the data outlined in figure 5.2, which shows that Oman has far more teachers per class than the average for OECD countries. 41 Note that class sizes of 35 are very common, and the average is lower because of the presence of very small schools in remote areas. 132 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 5 133 Figure 5.2 Table 5.16 Teachers per Class in World Education Indicators (WEI) Countries and Oman Students, Teachers and Classes in Public Schools, 2008/09 2.5 Basic General education Total education Grades 1-6 Grades 7-9 Grades 10-12 2.0 Students 309,527 37,498 64,540 128,767 540,332 Classes 11,069 1,505 2,371 4,722 19,667 1.5 Teachers 29,298 1,957 4,418 7,476 43,149 Student-teacher 10.6 19.2 14.6 17.2 12.5 ratio 1.0 Teachers per 2.6 1.3 1.9 1.6 2.2 class 0.5 Source: MOE 2009a. Table 5.17 Teacher Workload, Teaching Time per Year, International Comparisons Hu l y t de o n ia Ki es om W of K le Cy y T s ia itz ia th nd ds ain Jo n Po an Un ust l ia es y y Un hili zil a v ea ce Ge g e A e s A ga p ar e an u Fe exic tio pa Ita ol i an D unis Sw ustr ite al ag P ra i c Egy Ch rk in at pr lan ee or Ne erla rd u Sp a ng d r rm ho Ja ra ite pp B rt Tu m St ng er er Gr M er Ro sc av d c d bli EI ian as EC pu Primary Lower Upper ss B Re O Ru education secondary secondary an m O World Education Indicators average 872 864 858 OECD average 805 704 663 Sources: WEI data taken from UIS 2006 for primary schools. Oman data is from 2008/09 for basic schools. United States 1,080 1,080 1,080 Chile 873 873 873 Teacher Workload Finland 680 595 553 France 918 639 614 The low STRs and high class sizes are reflected in a reduced teacher workload. Germany 793 751 705 Teachers are expected to teach 28 periods of 40 minutes each per week, the equivalent of 70 percent Germany 18.8 15.6 13.9 of typical student contact hours. Implementation of this workload norm would result in a requirement Source: UIS 2006. of 1.4 teachers per class.42 In practice, teachers rarely teach 28 periods per week. The national data show an average of 2.2 teachers per class (table 5.16), which implies an average teacher workload of 18 periods per week or 12 hours per week. Teaching time is further reduced by frequent teacher absences. There is no reliable data on teacher absence, but it was reported to be a serious concern by school principals in focus group discussions. The focus group principals reported that a small number of Teacher workload (in terms of teaching time) is low by international standards. teachers took unauthorized days off particularly on Wednesday and Saturday (a relatively infrequent The official length of the school year for students in basic, general, double shift and grades 10–12 is occurrence). Much more frequently, teachers were absent from school attending courses. Short 180 days (appendix table O.6). A teacher teaching 28 periods per week for a 180-day academic year courses of one or two days were easily covered within the school, but longer courses (up to two weeks) would have a workload of 672 hours of teaching time per year. In practice, there are 2.2 teachers presented difficulties for the school and loss of teaching continuity for students. Maternity leave also per class, which suggests an average workload of 18 periods per week or 436 hours per year. These tends to cause disruption. Female teachers are entitled to 50 days maternity leave. The disruption figures are substantially lower than both the OECD country averages, which range from between 663 resulting from maternity leave is concentrated in girls’ schools and basic education cycle one schools, and 805 hours per year and the World Education Indicators (WEI) countries’ averages of over 800 and it can have a significant impact, given the relatively high birth rate and the age profile of the female hours per year (table 5.17). As described in chapter 4, the average number of teaching hours per teaching force. In focus group discussions, all principals reported that their schools experienced year in public schools is considerably lower than the 436 estimated hours due in part to the way the multiple teacher absences for maternity leave in the previous year. One principal commented that four national public examination system is implemented. It should be stressed that teacher workload, which Arabic and three science teachers were on maternity leave at the same time. While the MOE provides is measured by time spent teaching, does not take into account the considerable time that teachers some replacements, principals reported that replacement cover was insufficient, and some of the work devote to preparing written narrative lesson plans for each lesson, marking student work, updating of absent teachers was shared among colleagues in the school. assessment information and fulfilling other reporting and administrative requirements. 42 The number of teachers required per class can be calculated by dividing the number of periods in the week (in this case 40) by the number of periods each teacher is expected to teach (in this case 28). In Oman 40/28 gives a requirement for 1.42 teachers per class. 134 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 5 135 5.8 SUPERVISING AND MANAGING FOR RES U L T S Teachers are part of a hierarchical structure that includes senior teachers and supervisors. Senior (experienced) teachers are supervised at least twice a year by external supervisors and newly qualified teachers four times a year by senior teachers in their schools. Senior teachers have a reduced teaching load, normally about 50 percent, and are responsible for supervising teachers. A minimum of one senior teacher is appointed for every four teachers of a particular subject. Supervisors are selected through competition and provided with some training spread over a two-year period. They have responsibility for visiting schools, providing pedagogical support and ensuring standards of teaching and learning. In 2009 about 1,400 supervisors handled 1,047 schools and 43,245 teachers, a ratio of one supervisor for every 30 teachers. Supervisors are monitored by regional senior supervisors who are in turn monitored by chief supervisors at the MOE. Despite the large numbers of supervisors, their impact on quality is unclear. Focus group discussions and meetings with MOE personnel suggest that many supervisors spend a good deal of their time engaged in other tasks, including administrative duties and providing training, thus limiting their ability to perform supervisory duties at the school level. Teachers interviewed as part of this review indicated that they valued the input from senior teachers more than that from supervisors who were sometimes seen as out of touch with the real world of the classroom. A 2008 report that synthesized supervision findings noted (1) the overload of administrative and paper work for teachers, (2) weaknesses in teaching strategies, (3) some weaknesses in subject knowledge, and (4) problems with IT equipment and maintenance. School principals can play a stronger role in improving educational quality within their schools. In many countries the role of school principal is changing from one of an administrator/manager to one of leader and change agent (box 5.6). A significant body of research indicates the importance of good school leaders in determining educational outcomes (Cotton 2003), underlining the importance of selecting good school leaders and providing them with appropriate preparation. In Oman, promotion to the position of school principal is based on written examination performance followed by a technical interview. Professional training is provided for school principals; most of the school principals in focus group discussions had received training for the role of principal either through full-time or part-time postgraduate study at SQU. Each of the principals in the focus group had worked in a number of schools with an average service of three to four years in each school. Despite the careful selection and training, at present school principals have relatively little autonomy. There is scope to enhance the local leader- ship function and give school principals more autonomy to improve quality through actions, such as organizing appropriate teacher in-service programs and exerting a greater influence in staff selection and school budget. The teacher career structure is based on fixed promotion intervals and provides little incentive to improve performance. All teachers are employed as permanent civil servants with a probation period of three months, following which all become permanent. Starting salary is determined by entry-level qualification and is consistent with public service salaries. Once appointed, teachers receive a fixed annual increment and an automatic promotion to the next scale after every four years of service. In addition, teachers at each level receive fixed allowances for housing, electricity, phone and transport, which amount to over 40 percent of total pay. School principals and supervisors are also paid on the same basic scale although allowances may differ. There is often little incentive for promotion. 136 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 5 137 Box 5.6 5.9 ICT IN TEACHING AND LEARNING Leadership in Schools Oman has the opportunity to benefit from other countries’ experiences in using ICT in education. “Managers do things right, while leaders do the right thing.� Many developed countries had high expectations for ICT’s role in education and made substantial ICT Internationally, the thinking on education places a strong emphasis on investments over the last two decades. One of the key drivers of this investment was the assumption school leadership. In a rapidly changing context, school leaders are the that ICT could assist in preparing young learners for a knowledge society by facilitating a more learner- bridge between policy and practice. The role of school principal is changing centered pedagogy and greater access to a broad range of classroom sources, resulting in better in the process from one of an administrator/manager to one of leader and analytical and problem-solving skills. Some of the results have been disappointing. While there have change agent. A significant body of research indicates the importance of been some positive educational activities supported by ICT, much of the reality of ICT in schools has good school leaders in determining educational outcomes. been routine learning of computer operations. Systems vary a great deal in the level of autonomy they allow schools. On Oman has an impressive ICT infrastructure in schools but limited and uneven one hand, there is a global trend for greater accountability in education connectivity. reflected in greater efforts to set goals, monitor achievement and hold Computers are provided in computer laboratories, in learning resource centers and in specific areas, schools accountable for their performance. On the other hand, many argue such as school science laboratories, career guidance rooms and classrooms, with a current coverage that deregulation of schools and empowerment of individual schools to of about 20 percent of schools. Hardware is procured centrally with a six-year full warranty and a make their own decisions will lead to better education outcomes. This view six-year replacement cycle. A network of approximately 450 computer technicians provide technical supports teachers and school leaders as the professionals on the ground backup. About one-third of schools have sufficient connectivity to allow students to search the web (DSL who are best placed to exercise discretionary judgment over issues of connections). Many others rely on slower connections, such as through the mobile telephone network, teaching and student care. and are unlikely to promote student-centered Internet use. Some schools remain unconnected. One of the key questions is the extent to which schools have influence over the selection of their teachers. School leaders’ ability to select their Teacher training and development of curriculum guidelines support ICT use. teaching staff is central to their ability to establish a school culture and About 4,000 teachers have ICT skills training through short in-service courses, mainly using the capacity conducive to better student performance. International Computer Driving License (ICDL). In addition since 2009/10, an initiative (IC3) of the Information Technology Authority (ITA) has trained all government employees, including MOE teachers. “If I cannot choose the members of my team, I cannot be So far it has addressed over 7,000 teachers around the country. Most preservice courses include ICT, responsible for winning on the field.� (Pont et al. 2008, 56). ensuring that newly qualified teachers have ICT skills. A structured ICT curriculum has been developed to encourage use of ICT in support of other curricular subjects in basic education. ICT use to support teaching and learning remains limited and uneven. Although there is little firm data, it seems that some teachers use ICT to support learner-centered Source: Pont et al. 2008. activities, and others fail to appreciate its relevance. For many teachers who experienced a didactic learning approach, switching to a learner-centered approach is difficult. The training, provided through short courses, may have been more successful in developing technical skills than pedagogical atti- tudes. In addition, there is a risk of mixed messages from supervisors, curriculum specialists and ICT specialists. Some work is underway to help teachers develop pedagogical uses of ICT. The MOE has recently launched an initiative to train teachers to use ICT in educational activities, and around 200 MOE teachers are already members of iEARN (a nonprofit organization that encourages teachers and students to work together online). Further improvement in ICT application to education is likely to require (1) longer-term work in teacher professional development with a greater focus on building pedagogical skills, and (2) greater coordination of ICT, curriculum, supervision and assessment departments. 138 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 5 139 5.1 0 QU A L I T Y O F T E A C HI N G AND LEARNING 5.11 POLICY IMPLICATIONS While there is little systematic information on teaching quality, Oman has a large and qualified teaching force, and its achievement in building teacher numbers and there are indications that more could be done to develop classroom qualifications is impressive. Nevertheless opportunities exist to develop and enhance current practices teaching. to improve teaching quality. The foremost challenge appears to be ensuring that the education system Some of the most important factors in education take place behind the closed develops a method in which well-trained teachers have adequate teaching time to raise the current door of the classroom, however, little reliable international information is available standard of student achievement. The following recommendations arise from the current study’s find- about what happens inside. Oman makes a very significant investment to oversee ings and a reflection on international experience. quality with senior teachers, supervisors and other officials monitoring teaching. Some of these observations may be relatively superficial, and there is no system There is a need for a strategic forecast and plan for teacher supply. designed yet to analyze findings and inform policy. This lack of information makes After an era of rapid expansion and high demand, the employment market for teachers has reached it difficult to be certain of specific measures needed to improve quality. saturation with some demand for positions in specific subject areas. Over the next few years, the situa- tion is likely to revert to a more normal state when a constant proportion of teachers, probably between Despite the lack of direct evidence from inside classrooms, 5 and 10 percent, will retire or leave the profession and require replacement. While it is difficult to the combination of high enrollment, high staffing levels and predict teacher attrition rates with precision, it will be important to develop a forecasting mechanism to unsatisfactory learning outcomes suggest that pedagogy quality ensure that teacher supply and demand is maintained in a reasonable balance. Significant mismatches could be strengthened. of supply and requirements are potentially damaging. An undersupply of teachers will result in shortages The following are some indications that teacher quality may be weakened by poor and reliance on expatriate or underqualified teachers. An excessive oversupply of teachers is costly, can pedagogical skills: (1) practical skills of teaching are allocated a relatively small reduce teacher status and makes it more difficult to attract high-caliber applicants to the profession. proportion of the time in teacher training courses, (2) faculty in universities often Systems are already in place to forecast teacher requirements and regulate intake into publicly funded have limited teaching experience themselves, (3) new teacher induction tends to teacher education programs. These mechanisms should be expanded to include projections of teacher focus on procedures rather than pedagogical skills, and (4) experienced teachers attrition and provide long-term projections of requirements. are often withdrawn from the classroom to serve in supervisory or administrative positions. There are also suggestions that the relatively high level of reporting and The MOE should take steps to ensure there is adequate capacity to prepare monitoring intended to ensure quality might be taking time and attention away teachers for each level and subject area and to reduce the risk of out-of-field from lesson preparation. Finally, there may be some cases where teachers have teachers. a limited understanding of the material they are supposed to teach, particularly The closure of some teacher education courses in response to oversupply has left Oman with little when they are teaching subjects in which they were not trained. domestic capacity to train some teachers, particularly for cycle one of basic education. In the long term, this poses a quality risk and may result in a renewed reliance on expatriates or teachers trained abroad. The MOE should determine if Oman has the institutional capacity to train adequate numbers of teachers at each level and take steps to address apparent shortfalls. The policy of deploying teachers to remote schools should be reviewed to promote regional balance. In a period of oversupply of qualified Omani teachers, the difficulty in filling positions in remote schools causes concern. In the interest of equal educational opportunities, the MOE should take steps to ensure that students in remote areas do not suffer from frequent changes in teachers, which will hinder their formal educational development. A number of strategies should be considered: a more substantial allowance to teachers in carefully targeted remote schools; an extension of the minimum assignment time prior to transfer from a remote school (currently one year) to improve teaching continuity; and greater preference to candidates from remote areas for entry to teacher education courses and for recruitment. A quota system could be considered to reserve places in teacher training for remote area applicants linked with a bonding system requiring work in remote areas for a period after graduation. Future teacher recruitment should be needs based and classroom focused. In 2009, 3,000 additional positions in the education system (equivalent to 7 percent of the teaching force) were created in excess of requirements. This expansion responded in part to pressure to create positions for the large numbers of unemployed teachers. While these positions have provided extra support, they have added staff to schools, which by international standards already had low STRs. 140 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 5 141 This overemployment in the system withdraws expertise from the classroom, as experienced teachers Box 5.7 are moved to nonteaching positions, and can lead to poor work practices, which may be difficult to Issues Related to Teacher Oversupply: US Experience reverse later. In many countries, there are specific agencies charged with regulation of the teaching profession, Further collaboration between the MOE and providers of preservice teacher training sometimes called teaching councils. These agencies fulfill a number of important functions to can enhance teacher preparation quality. assist the government in regulating the teaching profession and teacher qualifications. Initial teacher education can benefit from a closer alignment between preservice coursework and First, they maintain a register of qualified teachers. This register allows standards to be estab- current public school practice. For instance, new curricula, assessment systems and other relevant lished and ensures that teachers included meet the required standards. The teacher register practices should be incorporated into initial teacher education. In turn, preservice trainers should be is sometimes linked with disciplinary procedures, as teachers can lose their license to teach for invited where appropriate to share their expertise with MOE officials. serious misconduct. Second, the agencies have the power to evaluate teacher education courses and to determine Preservice teacher education programs should place greater emphasis on practical which courses are of sufficient quality to allow the graduates to be registered as teachers. This pedagogical skills. mechanism allows the teaching council to regulate the quality of teacher education. Teaching Teaching practice should begin in the initial years of teacher training. The number of teaching practice councils also consider the quality of courses outside of the country and may recognize such hours should be extended and include periods of block teaching practice where students would work courses or insist that graduates do some additional study before qualification. full time in schools for a number of weeks. Enhancing the cooperating teacher’s role could improve Finally, some also have a role in coordinating or recognizing in-service teacher education and the quality of teaching practice. To improve the practical focus of initial teacher education, preservice continuing professional development. training providers should make greater use of highly experienced teachers in teacher training and Examples: especially in supervision; proven teaching competence should be the main criterion in selecting these UK: www.gtce.org.uk support personnel. Scotland: www.gtcs.org.uk Ireland: www.teachingcouncil.ie The quality and consistency of teacher education could be regulated through a New Zealand: www.teacherscouncil.govt.nz system of recognition or accreditation. At a time of teacher oversupply, the government has an opportunity to improve teacher education quality through a recognition or accreditation system of teacher education courses that meet required standards (box 5.7). This process could be used to ensure that training providers have adequate staff and expertise and that they align training to the curriculum and language policies. Source: Authors. The amount of time teachers spend teaching should be increased. By international There is an opportunity for on-going improvement in teaching quality through a standards, Oman’s teachers have light teaching workloads. teacher career structure linked with in-service continuous professional development. Many are overloaded with assessment and reporting tasks. Teaching time is further eroded by prac- Ideally there should be a teacher career structure where promotion is linked to teacher performance. tices (related to public examinations discussed in chapter 4) that result in shortening the school year. Measurement of teacher performance in terms of examination scores is problematic, as experience In addition, teacher specialization in the early grades impedes the ability of teachers to get to know their elsewhere indicates that a range of factors, including social background and opportunities to learn, can students and address their individual needs. A series of measures is required to ensure that teachers influence outcomes. In particular, decision making based on examination results risks having negative use much more of their time actually teaching. First, MOE should review the current workload and effects, including encouraging teaching to the test, emphasizing memory or recall type questions and remove many of the nonessential tasks teachers currently undertake to allow for more teaching time excluding weaker students. Promotion, such as selection of senior teachers, could be done through a and to improve system efficiency. Second, MOE should take steps to ensure that the mandated full competitive process with an interview and could draw on data, such as attendance at school, comple- 180 days of instructional time are delivered. Third, at cycle one the current pilot project where one tion of recognized in-service courses and principals’ reports. Such a system would provide incentives teacher teaches all subjects to one class should be extended as soon as possible. for regular attendance, positive engagement with continuous professional development and a positive professional attitude within the school. The MOE should encourage teacher collaboration to improve teaching. There is a need to refocus the system on quality, in particular teaching quality. Improving pedagogy quality is likely to involve sustained engagement with teachers, allowing them to put ideas into practice and take ownership of the process. In Japan for example, groups of teachers study lessons together to examine and refine the teaching of individual topics (box 5.8). In developing such programs, the MOE should consider (1) making greater use of the expertise of practicing teachers, (2) encouraging teacher-peer collaboration where teachers meet at the local level to share ideas and develop good practices, and (3) encouraging the development of teacher subject associations, which provide a forum for professional development. 142 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Overview 143 Box 5.8 Reflective Practice: Lesson Study in Japan Japanese teachers have a long history of doing lesson study. These are cycles of activities in which teacher groups, usually by grade level, work together to design, implement and improve one or more research lessons and seek to make positive changes in instructional practice and student learning. Teachers teach these collaboratively and carefully planned research lessons with team members observing lessons and taking careful notes on learning processes. This ongoing form of professional development has generated “shareable knowledge� and developed schools as organiza- tions where teachers can learn and progress together. It is also believed that lesson study contributed to Japan’s shift from “teaching as telling� to “teaching for understanding,� especially at the elementary level from the 1970s to 1990s. Source: International Alliance of Leading Institutes 2008. 144 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality 145 CHAPTER 6 RELEVANCE In addition to good performance in access, teaching quality and student achievement, an education system needs to be relevant to the nation’s culture, society and economy. This chapter focuses mostly on education’s relevance to the economy, beginning with a review of Oman’s current situation and challenges on the demand and supply sides and concluding with possible options for improvement. 146 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 6 147 6.1 THE CHALLENGE OF POST-BASIC EDUC A T I O N A duality of clients and missions characterizes secondary education. In addition to the integral development of children, pretertiary education serves two purposes: grooming students for further studies and preparing them to enter the work place. The education system has two “clients:� the institutions of further learning and the labor market. The youth leaving the education system are expected to be both trainable and employable. College readiness and immediate or deferred career readiness are expected from general education graduates. In many countries, upper secondary education represents an especially arduous policy challenge for education planners, and building political consensus for this level has often turned out to be more problematic than for basic and tertiary educa- tion (box 6.1). Upper secondary education policy choices are more complex because of the intrinsic duality of the purposes of this education level. It is at the same time: (1) terminal and preparatory; (2) compulsory and elective; (3) uniform and diverse; (4) serving individual and societal needs and interests; and (5) integrating but also screening students according to academic ability (World Bank 2005). In Oman, the two years of post-basic education are at the forefront of this duality of missions, as the pivot between the school world and the work world and the transition between these two worlds. Box 6.1 Classic Options for Secondary Education in an Industrial Economy Within the framework of an industrial-based model, the classic options for secondary education provision involve the disaggregation of policy into three dimensions: (1) selection and specializa- tion; (2) academic-vocational balance; and (3) disciplinary or nondisciplinary nature of curriculum design and development. A matrix of policy choices and trade-offs is implicit, resulting in a broad framework for policy analysis of secondary education systems. Combining and balancing the three dimensions yields a set of three alternative policy scenarios for secondary education with clear implications for the financing of secondary education outlined as follows: Scenario 1: Highly Specialized and Highly Selective Tracking. In this scenario students take examinations at age 11–12, resulting in attendance at different types of lower secondary school. Vocational education is a main option in lower secondary school. Emphasis is placed on traditional disciplines in academic tracks and on-the-job preparation and practice in the vocational track. Scenario 2: Deferred Specialization and Selection. Specialization and selection are deferred to the end of the lower secondary level. A framework of elective subjects is used as a device to introduce limited internal differentiation. Vocational education is pushed to the upper secondary level. Some effort is made to introduce vocational elements in the common curriculum. Cross-curricular issues and interdisciplinary approaches are considered, but traditional areas continue to frame the secondary curriculum. Scenario 3: Specialization and Selection Deferred to Higher Education. A system of electives and homogeneous student groupings form the internal system of selection within a given secondary school. Vocational education is a fully post-secondary enterprise, and vocational elements are increasingly built into the academic curriculum. Apart from languages and mathematics, the rest of the curriculum departs from traditional disciplines by including widespread use of skills-based, project-based, and cross-curricular alternatives. Source: World Bank 2005. 148 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 6 149 It is still too early to provide a comprehensive assessment of the 6.2 THE SUPPLY SIDE: impact of Oman’s education system reform and, in particular, of the new basic/post-basic structure. PRODUCTS OF THE EDUCATION SYSTE M The first consultancy report on grade 11 and 12 reforms states that the aim of the reforms is to produce “graduates of Secondary Education who are capable This section provides a broad review of the volume and composition of the population of students tran- of strong academic performance according to international standards, or who sitioning toward the final years of the general education system and moving up to further education and are ready to make a productive contribution to the workforce� (MOE 2003). The training after leaving school. new post-basic education program rightly identifies the most important features needed to reach the initial aim: diversity, choice, flexibility and meeting individual Grades 10 to 12 student’s needs (MOE 2008e). It also recognizes the basic skills needed to reach this aim: communication, numeracy, IT, problem solving, personal and interper- While a high proportion of Oman’s young people remain in school until the final years sonal skills. The first cohort of students who benefited from the start of the new of the education system, the underperformance of boys and the high proportion of system graduated in 2009 and is too small to draw solid conclusions. Therefore, over-aged students are matters of concern because of possible consequences at a the observations presented in this chapter are based on the previous secondary later stage in life. education structure that is gradually being phased out, and they do not neces- Entry to grade 1 is almost universal for Omani nationals and the survival rate to grade 12 was 86 sarily apply to the new generation of students. percent for Omanis and non-Omanis in 2008/09 (figure 2.2). The transition rate from the final grade of basic education (grade 10) to the first grade of post-basic education (grade 11) was 89 percent in 2008/09 (table 2.4). Repetition rates have dropped considerably over the last six years for all grades in basic and post-basic education. However, the high repetition rates of the past are still evidenced in the high proportions of over-age students in the final years of education. Among post-basic education students, almost one student out of three is above the intended age corresponding to each grade. In 2008/09 despite sharp improvement, approximately 29 percent of grade 12 public school students were still over the intended age for that grade by more than 6 months.43 Transition to Further Learning There are two possible educational paths after grades 10–12 for those wishing to pursue their studies before entering the labor market: higher education (after grade 12) and vocational training (as early as grade 10). How students select or are selected for one of these paths depends on a number of factors, including their own expectations and their meeting the prerequisites.44 Students’ selection decisions also depend on their understanding of the prerequisites for each path, their ability to access accurate information on the prerequisites, and the benefits that they perceive will be gained from each path, including whether they will be able to transfer from one path to another. 43 The figure for girls was 26 percent and for boys was 32 percent. Private schools had similar over-age levels. 44 There is a suggestion (from informal interviews) of a strong preference among grade 11 and 12 students to choose science subjects over humanities, possibly in an effort to increase their chances of entry to HEIs. 150 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 6 151 A. Higher Education Institutions The fierce competition for places in Oman’s HEIs, the perceived superiority of HEIs abroad, and the lack of a foundation year in most foreign HEIs have encouraged There have been rapid increases in enrollments in higher education institutions (HEI); more grade 12 graduates to enroll in overseas universities, especially those in GCC in 2008/09, more than half (55 percent) of grade 12 leavers joined HEIs countries. (figure 2.4). With the rapid increase in post-basic education graduates, competition for places in Oman’s HEIs has In 2008/09, close to 82,000 students were enrolled in Oman’s various HEIs with a further 12,000 become stronger. The demand has been met in part by private universities and colleges, colleges of studying abroad (either based overseas or by correspondence) (table 2.4). This equals a gross enroll- technology, SQU, colleges of applied science and other colleges and institutes (table 2.4). There are a ment ratio (GER) of 35 percent (of 18–22 year olds), somewhat higher than in many other Middle East number of reasons, however, why increasing numbers of Omani students have opted to study abroad. and North African (MENA) countries (figure 2.5). Private HEIs in Oman commenced operation in 1994 First, there is the lure of free tuition in Arabic at universities in other GCC countries. Second, a belief and now account for one-third of all HEI enrollments (table 2.4).45 In 2008/09 approximately one- exists that overseas higher education is more valuable than studies in a domestic institution. Finally, quarter of Oman’s HEI students were attending a college of technology. The only public university, Sultan overseas universities generally do not require the foundation year that Oman’s universities expect. The Qaboos University (SQU), enrolled 19 percent of Oman’s HEI students — less than the 28 percent just subjects chosen by those opting to study abroad indicate that supply scarcity is not the main driver: five years earlier. A significant number of students start their higher education career by studying more than half of Oman’s graduates from some Arabic foreign universities study education and very abroad (table 6.1). few are in disciplines not taught in Oman’s HEIs. The United Arab Emirates and other Gulf countries enroll 78 percent of all Omani students studying abroad. India, New Zealand and Malaysia have become Table 6.1 attractive destinations, in addition to the UK, USA, Australia and Canada. Enrollments in the First Year of Higher Education Institutions, 2007/08 and 2008/09 University education is the preferred option for those graduating from grade 12, but acceptance rates are low. The number of students who applied to a HEI for 2008/09 through the Higher Education Admission 2007/08 2008/09 Center (HEAC) electronic system46 (46,687)47 was approximately equal to the number of students enrolled in grade 12 in 2007/08 (46,316).48 This indicates that post-basic education graduates’ first Number % Number % choice is to pursue a university education. However, only 32 percent (15,072 applicants) were offered Total Studying in Oman and Abroad 24,113 100 25,694 28 a place. Total Studying in Oman Institutions 21,082 87 23,583 92 Conditions of entry to SQU are stringent. Private Universities and Colleges 8,246 34 10,509 41 In addition to passing the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) in the year of entry, other Colleges of Technology 6,318 26 6,844 27 admission requirements include (1) holding Omani nationality; (2) being less than 25 years of age; (3) Sultan Qaboos University 2,810 12 2,850 11 having obtained minimum stipulated percentages and (4) having scored high grades in the require- Colleges of Applied Sciences 2,000 8 1,750 7 ments for chosen specialization. Conditions of entry in the other HEIs are not as strict as those imposed Health Institutes 879 4 898 3 at SQU but still constitute a screening device, reducing access to higher education. Like SQU, the Institute of Shari'a Sciences 243 1 215 1 colleges of applied sciences, higher colleges of technology and most other public HEIs, as well as many College of Banking and Financial Studies 586 2 517 2 private ones, use English as a medium of instruction. While this may be beneficial for students, since Studying Abroad1 2,456 10 1,475 6 English is almost universally required for professional jobs, university lecturers have indicated that the Studying Abroad by Correspondence 1 575 2 636 2 English level of entrants has not met the standard to adequately learn course content. Source: MOHE 2008 and 2009. Before participating in a higher education program, most entrants have to attend a Notes: The data in this table differs from the data in table 2.4 because this table includes first year “foundation year� to reach the level required to engage in genuine higher education, students only (table 2.4 includes all enrolled students). 1 particularly in English. The number of first year students has been estimated for those studying abroad in 2007/08 and those studying abroad by correspondence in 2007/08 and 2008/09 by taking 28 percent of the In 2007/08, there were 13 students in the “foundation year� for 10 freshmen in first year in SQU (and enrollments. This percentage is the number of first year students in HEIs in Oman as a proportion of the 16 to 10 in the Salalah College of Applied Sciences). Private universities also resort to a foundation number enrolled in any year for 2008/09. year where they enroll one-quarter of their freshmen. The fact that a foundation year is necessary to engage in higher education studies is a clear indication that graduates from secondary school are not 46 The HEAC electronic system was introduced in 2006. It allows students to apply to any higher education institution in one single application. 47 45 In 2008/09 private HEIs in Oman account for 34 percent of all HEI enrollments (including those studying abroad), or 41 percent A further 4,175 applied for self-payment programs. of enrollments in Oman’s HEIs (excluding those studying abroad). 48 This does not include enrollments in international schools (HEAC 2009). 152 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 6 153 adequately prepared. It is hoped that the increased emphasis given to English, information technology Outputs of the Education System (IT), science and mathematics in basic education will help to mitigate this weakness. English is the over- whelmingly selected major in the foundation year and the exclusive one in the case of the SQU’s College Each year, approximately 20,000 young people exit the education system, do not of Education, strongly suggesting that these graduates are not ready to be taught in this language. The attend technical, vocational or higher education or training and are added to the Language Center at SQU is dedicated to develop and teach intensive English language courses aimed labor force. at boosting students’ proficiency in English. Even if statistics are incomplete,51 it remains that almost half of the cohort of grade 12 leavers — approximately 20,000 — are left out of the education system and are technically members of the labor New entrants to higher education are predominantly choosing to major in scientific force (figure 2.4). These young people are likely in a precarious situation and may face particular difficul- streams. ties in finding gainful employment. The lack of information on their exact number, gender composition According to the HEAC statistics, as many as 31 percent of new entrants (excluding those doing a and real situation in terms of the labor market seriously hinders any preventive and remedial measures. foundation year) select engineering, 15 percent science and 13 percent information technology, while another 9 percent chose medical studies (HEAC 2009).49 Once students are admitted at SQU, the probability that they will graduate is high. The total annual output for bachelor degrees and postgraduate diplomas was approximately 13,000 graduates, including universities and colleges in Oman and studies abroad (table 6.2). At SQU in 2008, B. Vocational Training and Technical Education the 2,287 students who graduated at the bachelor level (excluding postgraduate diploma graduates) reflect an overall survival rate of 83 percent.52 Despite recent increases in enrollments, Oman’s vocational and technical subsector is still relatively limited and has room to expand. Table 6.2 In 2008/09, over 21,000 students were enrolled in colleges of technology and over 2,500 in the five Graduates with Bachelor Degrees and Postgraduate Diplomas vocational training centers (VTCs) run by the Ministry of Manpower (MOM) (chapter 2). The student from Higher Education body of the colleges of technology is predominantly male (60 percent). Most students at these technical colleges have to attend a foundation year. The number of students admitted to this foundation year Number % surged from approximately 2,200 in 2001/02 to over 7,500 in 2008/09. The fact that technical Total Studying in Oman and Abroad 13,026 100 colleges share the foundation year syndrome with universities demonstrates that this foundation year Total Studying in Oman Institutions 11,143 86 remains a necessity for secondary school graduates, regardless of the path they take to continue their studies. Enrollments in the second year of colleges are equally distributed between engineering and Private Universities and Colleges 3,910 30 science on the one hand and commercial studies and information technology on the other. Colleges of Technology 1,509 12 Sultan Qaboos University 2,673 21 The VTCs are the main base for preparing Omani youth for jobs in occupational areas Colleges of Applied Sciences 1,894 15 and, as such, are intended to be directly in sync with the labor market. Health Institutes 829 6 Comprised of three stages, VTCs are accessible to students as early as the end of grade 9 (for the basic Institute of Shari'a Sciences 260 2 training program), but they are mostly geared toward grades 10–12 school leavers.50 In 2008/09, College of Banking and Financial Studies 68 1 there were 1,782 new entrants to VTCs. The majority of trainees study in fields such as equipment, Studying Abroad 1,453 11 facilities and vehicle maintenance. Studying Abroad by Correspondence 430 3 Private institutions are also present in the vocational training subsector. Source: MOHE 2009. The focus of private vocational training institutions is more on administrative fields (62 percent of enrollments) than on technical and craft fields (21 and 17 percent, respectively). Only 15 percent of enrollments are females. Most trainees are graduates of post-basic education (71 percent). Following international practice, the MOM and Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) are working together to create an integrated system of technical education and vocational training. One concrete manifestation of efforts to bolster the complementarities between VTCs and the colleges of technology and to establish bridges between the two systems is the opportunity given to the “distin- guished graduates� of VTCs to join the colleges of technology (appendix P). 51 Some early school leavers also join apprenticeship programs. Also, those attending military service or studying by correspond- ence overseas are not included. 52 The survival rate has been calculated using the number of SQU graduates in 2008 (2,287) as a percentage of the new entrants 49 to bachelor’s courses in 2004 (2,754) for 2004/05. Note that the number of new entrants to undergraduate degrees in Girls are a minority among those selecting engineering but a majority among those choosing other majors, especially medicine. 2004 was estimated because the only data available included postgraduate students, so an estimate was used to remove the 50 Appendix P provides a description of the vocational training and technical education system. postgraduate students from the figure (MOHE 2009). 154 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 6 155 Despite a recent and rapid decline, a large proportion of HEI students are graduating More females than males graduate from all types of HEIs in Oman. Regardless of with education degrees — a unique characteristic of Omani universities. whether females are over or underrepresented among new entrants to HEI’s, they As many as 28 percent of all 2008 SQU graduates were in the field of education (bachelors and are the majority of graduates (table 6.4). postgraduate diploma) (MOHE 2009), leaving very little space for disciplines, such as engineering and For example, in private universities, females made up 52 percent of new entrants in 2008/09 but sciences (15 and 5 percent, respectively). This situation reflects the efforts made by the Sultanate accounted for 62 percent of graduates in 2007/08. While this comparison is not direct (since to sustain an influx of teachers needed to achieve universal basic education. It also reveals a prefer- changes may have taken place in the proportions of new entrants over time), it nevertheless supports ence for teaching careers, which offer a secure and stable position in the civil service scales. This the evidence presented elsewhere in this report on the underperformance of males in education. The unique situation is similar only to Mauritius as far as the overwhelming weight of education is concerned difference is particularly noticeable in the colleges of technology where only 30 percent of new entrants and similar to Gulf neighbors regarding the limited weight of engineering (appendix Q).53 However, the were females, but they accounted for 55 percent of graduates. The exception is for those studying pattern is changing rapidly; between 2007 and 2008, the share of education students at SQU dropped abroad where 69 percent of new entrants are female but they accounted for 58 percent of graduates. from 22 percent to 18 percent and the share of engineering students increased from 16 percent to 17 percent.54 These changes will need to be sustained because the numbers of teachers required at Career guidance is offered to school students, but the effectiveness of this new the lower levels are dropping and other needs are emerging. initiative is yet to be determined. The National Career Guidance Center (NCGC) was created in 2008 to provide counseling and informa- While science majors are becoming more popular with new entrants to university, tion for students about work opportunities. The objectives of the center are (1) to assist students in graduation does not yet reflect a change. their own development to become self directed; (2) to prepare students to excel in the workplace; and The majority of students currently graduating are in nonscientific subjects (table 6.3). This is the legacy (3) to deliver effective career guidance and counseling. The initiative involves the creation of career guid- of earlier selection strategies, which signaled a serious dysfunction in the education system as a whole. ance resource rooms in all schools that offer grades 5–12. There are currently approximately 1,200 These practices resulted from a selection process at play at the university level, whereby enrolling in career guidance specialists and about 60 supervisors. The NCGC collaborates with the MOM, MOHE, scientific elective programs in grades 11 and 12 was a strategy to maximize the chances of university Ministry of Civil Service, SQU, and private firms, such as Shell and BankMuscat, and it participates acceptance. The prospect of a scholarship in scientific streams in university has helped to reverse this in various events, including the higher education and career fairs. Issues to review as the initiative situation, as suggested by the larger share of new entrants enrolled in scientific streams. Whether develops include whether (1) outreach to students as young as grade 5 is meaningful; (2) staffing ratios they have the necessary background in these subjects in post-basic school, and whether they are are an efficient use of the teaching workforce; and (3) staff recruited as career guidance specialists well equipped to take advantage of further scientific studies is discussed later in this chapter. Among have suitable experience and training. private HEI graduates and graduates studying abroad, majors in the sciences or engineering are rare (table 6.3). Table 6.3 Table 6.4 Distribution of Graduates (Bachelor Degrees and Postgraduate Diplomas) by Proportions of Females among New Entrants and Graduates, 2007/08 and Field of Study, 2008 (%) 2008/09 (%) HEIs abroad New Entrants Graduates Public HEIs Private HEIs by corres- Total 2008/09 2007/08 in Oman HEIs abroad pondence Medicine, Health Sciences and Pharmacy" 14 1 7 0 9 Private Universities and Colleges 52 62 Engineering 12 9 4 0 10 Colleges of Technology 30 55 Science 5 2 3 0 4 Agriculture 1 0 0 1 1 Sultan Qaboos University 49 54 Education 40 12 23 32 29 Colleges of Applied Sciences 44 60 Computer Science and Information Technology 5 21 1 6 9 Health Institutes 73 79 Literature, Arts and Social Sciences 6 11 11 42 10 Law, Commerce, Economics and Political Science 13 38 22 19 22 Institute of Shari'a Sciences 53 69 Islamic Law 4 0 29 0 5 College of Banking and Financial Studies 64 68 Other 0 7 0 0 2 Total 100 100 100 100 100 Studying Abroad 69 58 Source: MOHE 2009. Source: MOHE 2009. 53 Note that issues of definition make it difficult to reconcile UIS statistics and those produced by the MOE and MOHE in their respective statistical yearbooks. 54 This includes bachelors, postgraduate diplomas, masters and PhD programs. 156 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 6 157 The Center for Career Guidance (CCG) at SQU is another initiative 6.3 THE DEMAND SIDE: to prepare for the transition from the academic world to work. This center’s mission is to assist students in developing career education and LABOR MARKET REQUIREMENTS employment decision plans and to “enhance the interface with the labor market to maximize the employment opportunities available to SQU graduates.� Its objectives Oman’s labor market is dominated by extraction industries with manufacturing cover the whole spectrum of activities from self-knowledge development and suit- accounting for only a small component. able academic program selection to job-search skills and occupational information The structure of the labor market mirrors the structure of economic activity as measured by the gathering. The CCG conducts a variety of activities, including individual consulta- contribution of each sector to the gross domestic product (GDP). Oman features some unique char- tion on careers, advertising graduate employment opportunities, maintaining a acteristics: (1) the share of agriculture is minimal, (2) the contribution of manufacturing (non-oil and dedicated website and coordinating an annual Graduate Destination Survey. non-gas activities) is low, and (3) services are not yet fully developed (table 6.5).55 Table 6.5 Sectoral Contribution to GDP in Selected Countries, 2007 (%) Hong Saudi Oman Estonia Jordan Korea Malaysia Mauritius Singapore Turkey UAE Kong Arabia Agriculture 2 3 0 3 3 9 5 2 0 9 2 Industry 49 29 9 32 39 51 28 70 31 28 56 (of which manufacturing) 10 17 3 21 28 30 20 8 26 18 14 Services 50 68 91 65 58 41 67 27 69 64 42 Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Source: MONE 2009; World Bank At a Glance Tables. Notes: “Industry� includes petroleum activities. The figure for Turkey is for 2008. The columns may not add to 100 percent due to rounding error. Economic Activity Rates The level of participation in the labor market in Oman is relatively low, especially for women despite their significant representation among higher education graduates. Oman’s economic activity rate at approximately 55 percent in 2003 is on the low side, reflecting the very young structure of the population (ILO LABORSTA).56 The activity rate of women is particularly low at 25 percent in 2003 (appendix table R.1). While the activity rate for both men and women peak at the same age range (25–29), it plateaus until about 50 for men, but it drops much earlier for women (appendix figure R.1). Oman’s economically active population is concentrated in public administration and private services with little participation in manufacturing. The structure of the labor force by sector places Oman in a unique position. Based on data between 2003 and 2007, the two main features of Oman’s economic activity structure are (1) a particularly small fraction of the labor force is engaged in manufacturing activities, and (2) an exceptionally high proportion is employed in public administration (table 6.6).57 55 Data on employment in Oman present discrepancies, which make their use and interpretation difficult and subject to further checks and confirmation. In particular, data available from international agencies (ILO LABORSTA) do not always match those coming directly from various governmental agencies. 56 The economic activity rate is the proportion of the population of working age who are employed or unemployed (looking for jobs and available for work). Currently, the working age in Oman starts at 15 years (employment law, article 75 of the chapter on employment of juvenile and women). 57 The MENA region holds a world record in share of the public sector in total employment, and several countries in the region report higher shares than Oman. This regional peculiarity is a source of distortion as generous wage and security schemes lure away national citizens from private employment (World Bank 2008b). 158 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 6 159 Labor productivity in the service sector — which employs half the workforce — however, the literacy rate is approaching 100 percent for both sexes, showing the gender gap has been is low. closed and putting Oman close to the OECD countries. Comparing the labor force structure with the contribution of each sector to the GDP provides a reasonably good proxy of labor productivity. Using this measure, agriculture has not only the lowest At the outset of the new century, the educational level of the economically active productivity of all sectors in Oman but is also less productive than agriculture in countries to which population was still low, but at the beginning of the decade, Oman already had high Oman is compared. Productivity in services is also lower in the Sultanate than in comparable coun- rates of female tertiary graduates in relation to comparator countries. tries. Productivity is higher, however, in extraction activities (appendix table R.2). The data suggests (1) A second, more focused, way to look at human capital stock is to assess the educational attainments there is potential for increasing manufacturing in Oman; (2) civil service’s absorptive capacity is likely of the economically active population. In 2000 (the most recent year with internationally comparable exhausted; (3) more people can move away from agriculture; and (4) there is a need for upgrading data), one-quarter of the Omani labor force still had less than a year of education, a poor achievement service sector workers’ skills to increase productivity. by international standards (appendix table S.1). Focusing on the 25–29 age group, however, shows that Oman was already ahead of comparator countries at the beginning of the decade for the share of Expatriates dominate the Omani private sector labor force, as in other countries in women with a higher education level. In 2000, 55 percent of Omani women of this age cohort held a the region. tertiary education degree compared to 17 percent of males, a difference that was larger than in the In 2009, expatriates accounted for 36 percent of the population (up from 27 percent in 2006), and selected countries (appendix figure S.1). those aged 25 to 54 years — the bulk of the economically active population — outnumbered their Omani counterparts (MONE 2010). The total number of expatriates reached approximately 1,156,000 in The expatriate labor force is represented more than Omanis in all areas of work 2010, up from 600,000 in 2005, despite the expectations of the 7th Five Year Plan to stabilize the except the public service. foreign population (MONE 2006). In 2007, the activity rate of expatriates was estimated at 98 percent, The distribution of the expatriate labor force in the private sector by education level is bimodal: (1) a showing that they are in Oman to work.58 Expatriates represent approximately 75 percent of the labor pool of unskilled laborers, and (2) a group of highly educated professionals. In terms of occupation type, force in the Sultanate. They have a strong presence in the private sector accounting for 85 percent of expatriates dominate all categories of employment with the exception of clerical occupations, which are the labor force, while their share is 24 percent in public corporations and 11 percent in the civil service. overwhelmingly held by Omanis. Past recruitment policies and personal preferences make the public Yet, they are mostly absent from public general and basic education, and their presence is marginal in service popular among Omanis — including the highly educated ones — while expatriates dominate the universities. private sector. The public sector attracts educated personnel both Omanis and expatriates. More than two-thirds of the expatriates working in the civil service and public corporations have at least a univer- sity degree. In these sectors, they outpace Omanis in relative terms despite the fact that educated Education Level of the Labor Force Omanis are disproportionally concentrated in public agencies (table 6.7). This pattern has become more pronounced over time. The public sector continues to lure away educated Omanis — women in Oman’s literacy rate has reached OECD levels for the new generation of entrants to particular — as shown by the distribution of new appointees.59 the labor market, but the rate is still low for the labor force as a whole. The overall literacy rate of the total adult population aged 15+ is lower than what is observed in compa- rator countries, and the gender gap substantially higher (chapter 2). For the generation aged 15 to 24, Table 6.6 Table 6.7 Economically Active Population by Sector of Activity in Selected Countries, Various Years (%) Distribution of Omanis and Expatriates in the Public Sector by Level of Education, 2007 (%) Oman Estonia Korea Malaysia Mauritius UAE Civil Service Public Corporations Level of education 2003 2008 2007 2008 2008 2008 Omanis Expatriates Omanis Expatriates Private services 25 36 45 38 38 45 Pre-primary 13 2 6 0 Public administration and defense 25 6 3 7 7 11 Primary 5 0 7 0 Electricity, gas, water supply & construction 19 14 8 10 12 16 Preparatory 5 0 7 0 Education, Health & Community Services 13 19 18 11 13 12 Secondary 14 1 26 2 Agriculture, Fishing 9 4 7 14 9 5 Manufacturing 9 21 18 19 21 10 Post secondary 64 97 53 97 Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 Total 100 100 100 100 Source: ILO LABORSTA, retrieved November 2010. Source: MONE 2009. Note: The columns may not add to 100 percent due to rounding error. Note: The columns may not add to 100 percent due to rounding error. 58 59 Out of a total population of 820,000, there were about 800,000 workers (of which 715,000 are aged 15 to 59). Seventy-six percent of women newly appointed in the civil service had a post-secondary education level (MONE 2008). 160 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 6 161 6.4 B A L A N C I N G SU P P L Y A N D DEMAND subsequently graduate from HEIs. The remaining 34,000 leave the school system with only general skills: they originally aimed to pursue their education further and not start a professional career. This section analyzes how the supply from the education system and the demand for its products meet. According to the 7th Five Year Plan, an average 43,000 jobs were to be created annually during the It reviews successively the demand from post-secondary education institutions and that from the labor 2006–2010 period; however, employment creation has grown at about half that rate. In addition, market, which together are the main “clients� of the education system. approximately 55 percent of these jobs were projected to require either no skills or low-level skills, and only 11 percent and 15 percent, respectively, were expected to be filled by specialists and technicians. Exacerbating the employment issue is the fact that Oman’s labor market continues to be dominated by Tertiary Education: The Legacy of the School System expatriates. On the one hand, most of the demand for low or unskilled labor is met by expatriates who fill low-status or low-paid jobs that Omani citizens tend to avoid. On the other hand, focus group discussions Omani universities are underrepresented in the subset of regional university rankings. with employers found that they tend to give priority to either expatriates or Omanis educated abroad for Unfortunately, instruments to assess students’ achievements at the tertiary level are not available. This high skill or high paying jobs. Until now, young educated Omanis could easily find a civil service job, but prevents meaningful international comparisons. However, despite their pitfalls university league tables this will be less and less the case as the civil service becomes saturated. offer an alternative method to indicate the quality of tertiary education institutions. In this regard while Arab universities are underrepresented in most rankings, Omani universities themselves are underrep- Like many countries, Oman has a high rate of unemployment among graduates. resented in the subset of regional universities regardless of the ranking methodology used (appendix T). The 2008 Labor Force Survey (LFS) estimated the unemployment rate for 15–24 year olds at 25 percent, and these young unemployed accounted for 65 percent of all unemployed. These figures are A widely held perception among academic staff at HEIs is that new entrants from consistent with what is observed in other countries of the region. Of relevance to the current education the general education system are not “college ready� and that their high scores in system, among the population of job seekers of particular interest are those who have not been previ- secondary schools do not correctly reflect their true level of achievement. ously reported as unemployed and who are looking for their first job, mostly in the 15–24 age group. A focus group was organized for this study with SQU representatives to ascertain their expectations of The majority of first-time job seekers (approximately 80 percent) have reached secondary or higher grade 12 graduates with Certificates of General Education. Their common feeling was that, despite high education (table 6.8). In comparison, only 32 percent of workers who had terminated their job in 2007 competition for selection at entry to higher education, graduates from secondary school are not well had reached this level of education. In many countries (including advanced, developing and emergent prepared to undertake university-level studies. While it is too early to gauge the impact of the new basic economies), the disparity between rapidly growing secondary education enrollments and the slow rate and post-basic education system, the staff present at the focus group agreed that the graduates they of job creation leads to rising numbers of young people with degrees but no employment prospects. inherit from the education system are generally weak in academic topics, especially in scientific subjects Even though circumstances vary widely from one country to another, the challenge is similar and is and in English, but they also lack writing skills and basic concepts.60 The relatively low achievements of characteristic of a period of mutual adjustment between the school system and the economy. In India, Omani students in science and mathematics, as assessed by TIMSS in grade 8 (chapter 3) suggest only a quarter of the 600,000 engineers produced annually are employable. In many cases, global that the problem has its roots at early stages. SQU staff also perceive weaknesses in attitude (creativity, graduate unemployment coexists with talent shortages.62 time management, capacity to work independently, work ethic).61 Both academic and attitudinal deficits explain why a foundation year is deemed necessary to bring secondary school graduates to the level expected of university students. Several staff blame general education system curricula and also point Table 6.8 to the fact that secondary school students’ high scores overestimate their real achievement. They Distribution of First-time Job Seekers by Gender and Level of Education, 2007 (%) believe university perpetuates score inflation. In addition, staff attributed the large number of transfers among programs and departments as a sign of a lack of preparedness of secondary school students. The SQU and Ministry of Education (MOE) staffs have high expectations that the students going through Secondary No formal Primary Preparatory Post- (grades Total the new basic and post-basic education system will be better prepared for higher education. education (grades 1-6) (grades 7-9) secondary 10-12) Males 7 6 17 71 0 100 15-19 Employment: The Quantitative Dimension Females 4 3 4 88 1 100 Males 3 7 14 65 11 100 20-24 The imbalance between the overall high rate of production of the education system Females 0 1 6 65 27 100 and the low job creation rate is aggravated by the number of youth leaving the Males 6 10 13 59 13 100 25-29 system without skills and by the competition with expatriates. Females 0 3 6 49 41 100 An inflow of approximately 60,000 young people reach working age each year, while the total number of jobs created annually during the 7th Five Year Plan was in the region of 21,000 (around half of the Source: LFS 2008. amount projected in the 6th Plan). Approximately 47,000 are enrolled in 12th grade and 13,000 Note: The columns may not add to 100 percent due to rounding error. 60 Echoing these messages, recently interviewed educators point to “poor prior preparation and low motivation of students� and advocate setting clear (and higher) standards (Al-Barwani, et al. 2009). 61 College readiness is a widely shared concern not limited to Oman: the Bill & Melinda Gates foundation has “College-ready for All� 62 as one of its flagship program for secondary schools in the US. According to the most recent survey completed by Manpower of employers in 36 countries, 31 percent of employers have See http://www.gatesfoundation.org/learning/Documents/College-ready-for-all-education-plan.pdf. difficulty filling key positions (Manpower 2009). 162 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 6 163 Box 6.2 There is general dissatisfaction among employers regarding the low employability of Employers’ Views on Relevance of Graduates’ Skills Omani graduates and their lack of both technical and attitudinal skills necessary to perform in the workplace. Operators and technicians Employers gathered in a focus group organized in Muscat in November 2009 admitted a preference for Omanis trained overseas or (even more) for expatriates when recruiting new personnel. From the Graduates from colleges of technology do not have the skills required by private companies for employers’ perspective, the edge that both types of candidates have over homegrown Omani graduates operators and technicians, that is mechanical, electronic and instrumental skills. ranges from mastery of basic skills to scientific and technical skills and also to soft skills (box 6.2). These employers did not deem the graduates as prepared for teamwork, public speaking, problem solving and Banking sector critical thinking. They believed Omani graduates lack willingness to take responsibility and their work Secondary school graduates lack basic communication and language skills, strong motivation, ethic is often not developed; graduates are good at memorizing but not at problem solving. presentation skills and critical thinking skills — even though some have better skills than diploma holders. Some of those who do well in tests cannot explain how they got the answer. In addition to core competencies, employers recruiting professionals are looking for skills in English and IT — indispensable in the globalized economy — and a variety of Civil servants features that can be considered “soft skills.� It is important to note that these soft skills are in demand for a whole range of occupations and sectors High school and university graduates recruited by the MOM and the Ministry of Civil Service often not limited to chief executives or managers. As such, soft skills are becoming more and more an inte- have weak problem solving, creative and English skills. gral part of the core competencies (box 6.3). The similarities between HEI staff opinions and employers’ views on preparedness of young people are striking. They suggest the expectations of the two “clients� are convergent, and therefore, there is no funda- Source: Authors, based on focus group of employers, 2009. mental contradiction in serving both. There is weak coordination between some SQU departments and labor market institutions on the skills needed by the market, and this results in some graduates not meeting all the required skills. In contrast to employers’ view young job seekers believe that their education has prepared them adequately for work and their level of confidence increases with their Box 6.3 educational qualifications (figure 6.1). Soft Skills Sought by Employers in the MENA and South Asia Regions Figure 6.1 Attributes Percentage of Job Seekers (15 years and over) Not Previously Employed and Who Believe Their Enthusiastic, energetic, drive and commitment, positive outlook, committed towards perform- Education Qualifies Them Adequately For Employment, by Educational Status, 2008 (%) ance, high sense of responsibility, enthusiastic, dedicated, “can do,� high level of integrity, dynamic, self motivated, innovative mind, cheerful, smart and independent, pleasing personality, emotional maturity, ambitious, willing to perform, natural leadership qualities, good interpersonal and communication skills, hard working, ability to inspire and motivate, strategic thinker, articulate 100 and diplomatic communicator, presentable. 90 80 Acquired skills 70 60 Positive working attitude, self motivation, task oriented, strong critical thinking, systematic working style, ability to work long hours without supervision, ability to work beyond regular working 50 hours, ability to meet deadlines, strong attention to detail under pressure, forward looking, career 40 Male minded, result oriented, excellent team player, out of the box thinker, aptitude to work independ- 30 Female ently, make quick decisions, ability to demonstrate skills in decision making, negotiation skills, 20 analytical skills, active involvement in extracurricular activities during school/university career, 10 good public relations skills, proven track record of achievement. 0 No formal Primary Preparatory Secondary Higher education (6 grades) (3 grades) (3 grades) Education Source: Authors, from national newspapers employment sections (MENA and South Asia Regions). Source: LFS 2008. 164 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 6 165 With such unrealistic expectations, it is not surprising that only a 6.5 THE LABOR MARKET PROSPECTS minority of young job seekers attend short-term vocational training to complement their general education. Despite the likelihood of a relatively rapid rebound from the global economic Yet, attendance at such training increases with education level. Those with a downturn, net employment creation and a reduction in unemployment cannot be secondary education, in particular, are significantly more likely than their coun- automatically expected. terparts with only a primary education to join training courses to improve their After enjoying a 6.2 percent growth rate in 2008, the Omani economy grew at 3.7 percent in 2009 access to employment (appendix U). despite the global financial crisis. Since the economic fundamentals remain strong, there is likely to be a return to precrisis growth within the next couple of years, even if the 7.4 percent projected by The 2008 LFS shows that approximately one in five first-time job the “Vision 2020� takes longer than initially thought.64,65 As confirmed recently in several countries, seekers is rejecting opportunities to work in the private sector. however, economic recovery does not mechanically reduce unemployment. Aversion to a private sector job is significantly more marked for females than for males.63 Rejection of the private sector peaks for illiterate females and The slowdown of demographic growth will cause a reduction in the size of cohorts university-educated males. These results suggest that neither risk taking nor exiting the education system, but the aggregate domestic demand for labor will not entrepreneurship is encouraged by the formal education system. In addition, the necessarily increase. LFS reveals the type of job that job seekers desire. Females are mostly interested The sharp decline in Oman’s fertility rate will result in a reduction of 20–25 percent in the number in desk jobs and this increases with education levels. The same is true to a lesser of graduates from basic and post-basic education in the next ten years. At the higher education and extent for males, but males are more willing to accept any kind of job (appendix U). technical education and vocational training (TEVT) levels, however, “Vision 2020� projects an enrollment Desk jobs are often associated with civil service positions. increase, as well as an increase in TEVT’s share of higher education from 4.5 percent in 1995 to 50 percent in 2020. Demand for local workers may remain constrained, and competition with foreign low cost and high skilled labor may intensify. Omanization rates for the two extremes of the skill spectrum (very low and very high skill jobs) are expected to increase in the private sector. However, fewer jobs were created than sought despite respectable economic growth, and therefore, there is no reason to think that a likely less robust growth will generate a stronger demand.66,67 In addition, there are mounting pressures from countries that are traditional exporters of low cost labor force. For instance, in its strategy to deal with an unskilled labor surplus, Yemen is counting on the trend to “Arabise� the work place in Gulf countries by substituting expatriates from Asia with expatriates from Arab countries (Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation, Yemen 2009). With the highest proportion of Asian expatriates in Gulf countries (92 percent compared to a regional average of 70 percent), Oman is seen as a country of special opportunity. Therefore, competition between job seekers from Oman and from other Arab countries is likely to increase both for low skills/low paid jobs and high skills/high paid jobs. The only way to compete at the high end is to enhance education quality of Omani citizens. Therefore, Oman’s graduate unemployment is unlikely to recede soon. This view is consistent with the ILO Global Employment Trends 2010, which projects the largest year- on-year increase in the number of unemployed worldwide in at least ten years (ILO 2010). Individual strategies to deal with the situation may trigger an increase in emigration to countries where skills shortages are particularly acute.68 Such strategies, however, would be available only for those Omanis equipped with the appropriate (needed) skills, and they would have to compete with counterparts from neighboring and other countries. 64 The experience of the 6th Five Year Plan showed that the domestic projections were conservative because actual economic growth was stronger than had been projected (4.6 percent compared to the projected 3.0 percent). 65 According to Merrill Lynch, it is estimated that (1) recovery will be stronger on the periphery of the GCC countries where Oman is located and (2) Oman will enjoy the highest non-oil growth in the region in 2010 (quoted by The MENA Weekly Monitor, February 12–19, 2010). 66 Projects, such as the Sanad Training Program, aim to support Omani citizens to open their own business. Their quantitative 63 impact on Omanization remains limited (less than 6,000 beneficiaries in 2007). The reasons for such a choice are quite different for males and females. The majority of males cite 67 low wages, while females mention long working hours as the main reason for not looking for work in Several recent megainvestments are capital intensive and have little impact on hiring Omanis. the private sector (low wages come only as a distant second). 68 This scenario is analyzed in particular by Al-Barwani et al. 2009. 166 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 6 167 To be economically competitive, Oman will need to upgrade the skills and education of 6.6 POLICY IMPLICATIONS its workforce. Currently, Oman stands in the first third of about 130 countries ranked in the Global Competitiveness The measures to increase education relevance are the responsibility of a wide range Index (GCI) and in the first half of those ranked in the Knowledge Economy Index (KEI). It is clearly ahead of departments, units and other administrative bodies, including ministries other of North Africa countries but also consistently behind direct competitors, such as UAE and most Gulf than the MOE. Countries and even more distant from countries, such as Korea or Singapore. Given that education is For the education system to make its graduates both trainable and employable calls for measures strongly correlated with overall economic performance and that Oman’s rank on the education compo- across the system, including curricula, teaching methods, teacher training, career guidance, informa- nent of the 2009 KEI is particularly low (86 out of 145), Oman will need to increase its pool of skilled tion and assessments. Most of these measures are on the supply side, since the demand side is not and educated manpower to position itself better in the global market.69 under the control of the MOE. Due to the multidimensional nature of education relevance, most of the measures to promote education are outlined in other chapters of this report, and those presented in The Quality of the Labor Force and Jobs this chapter mainly echo these measures. The MOE is acutely aware of the relevance issue and has started to tackle it through While Oman’s labor force size and labor demand volume are not likely to change a variety of initiatives and instruments. radically in the next 10 years, Oman’s labor market is undergoing a gradual but These include (1) the introduction of basic and post-basic education; (2) curriculum innovations; (3) irreversible shift in qualitative terms, reflecting the changes in the economy. introduction of research skills; (4) introduction of computers in schools; (5) research methodology; The way production and workers are organized is undergoing profound transformations. In the service (6) graduation projects; and (7) creation and expansion of the NCGC. Also a committee on relevance sector, small and medium enterprises (SMEs) will continue to dominate (more than 85 percent of was activated and is working on the balance among elective courses. The complexity of the problem, registered Omani companies have less than 100 employees). In SMEs, there are fewer layers of however, requires a more radical and comprehensive approach. management and specialized occupational positions and fewer predesignated career paths. Workers are expected to design, develop and implement total solutions rather than provide limited services to the client. In SMEs, rules and regulations are understandably loose. People are working more in teams Academic/Vocational Links toward delivering the final product rather than according to protocols. There is a greater demand for self discipline, self confidence and self management. Likewise in large modern organizations, functional The barriers between academic and job-oriented streams and institutions, between departments and lower layers of management are increasingly replaced by task forces, product teams general and technical/vocational education and between secondary and higher and project groups/teams. Work performance is organized in the form of projects, programs and education could be reduced, and flexibility in the overall system could be introduced portfolios. Workers are no longer simple implementers of procedures and solutions handed down from to eliminate dead-end streams, to allow second-chance opportunities and to promote the top. lifelong learning. Experience from many countries suggests that the creation of linkages between general and vocational These organizational changes entail a necessary change in the skills required from secondary education is the best way to blur the distinction between the two kinds of institutions and the labor force. to rehabilitate the value of vocational courses (box 6.4). There is no single way to do this, but what is Labor markets signal the value of certified skills for successful entry into the workplace. Countries like becoming clear is that early selection and a narrow curriculum should be avoided. Introducing some Oman with relatively open labor markets and where skill requirements are more likely to be clear at the technical or vocational subjects into post-basic education would be an option. In addition, encouraging enterprise level tend to value more generic employability attributes. Specific skills tend to be acquired some schools to build specific specialized areas, allowing them to become centers of excellence may be through on-the-job learning and career development within enterprises. Throughout the world, there another possibility (box 6.5). is a marked trend to shift the focus from cognitive to attitudinal, from manual to intellectual, and from hard to soft skills. While general skills constitute the prerequisite for the acquisition of further qualifica- Tightening the linkages between general and vocational education has institutional tions and for almost any kind of job, specific skills linked to particular techniques or occupations will implications, namely a closer collaboration among Oman’s governmental bodies in always be needed, even if their contents continue to vary.70 charge of general secondary education (MOE), technical education (MOM) and higher education (MOHE). Relevance will not be achieved if these three subsectors are not thinking and acting together. Recognizing job-related competencies and establishing correspondences among skills acquired from different types of institutions are important moves to introduce more flexibility in the education system. In this regard, the development of a qualifications framework, as suggested in chapter 8, would be a critical step. 69 www.worldbank.org/kam. 70 The most recent annual survey by Manpower (Manpower Inc. 2009) conducted on a sample of 33 countries, from which Arab countries are notably absent, identifies “skilled manual trades� as the “hottest jobs,� that is those that employers have the most difficulties filling. Skilled manual trades are defined in the survey as referring to “a broad range of job titles that require workers to possess specialized skills, traditionally learned over a period of time as an apprentice.� 168 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 6 169 Box 6.4 Box 6.5 International Responses to the Changing Status of Vocational Secondary Education Specialist Schools Over the past two decades, developed countries have been experimenting with more flexible Specialist secondary schools of different types exist in many countries education pathways in upper secondary education to respond to its falling status, to the demands and serve various purposes. In some cases, specialist schools are used to of a growing and diverse student population, and to changes in work organization. The main establish parallel strands of academic and vocational secondary education; challenge is to establish a system that allows students completing the general education pathway in other cases, specialist schools are centers of excellence in particular to acquire recognized labor market qualifications and that also permits students completing the subject areas, such as science or mathematics. The term is also used to vocationally oriented pathway to gain entrance into HEIs. A significant constraint on attempts to refer to schools for students with specific needs, either learning difficulties combine general and vocational education has been the lack of specialized equipment and related or special physical needs. resources in schools, which limits choices of modules and subjects and renders earned diplomas or certifications of little value. Employers’ expectations and HEI entry requirements are often too Academic and vocational strands: In some countries, students are sepa- demanding for school. A study conducted in several European countries, Australia, Canada and rated into different kinds of secondary education oriented toward either the United States (OECD 1994) identified the following four common elements in this trend: academic subjects or technical/vocational subjects. This approach is used, for example, in Germany where students are separated into a Gymnasium n Reducing the number of vocational education fields or programs by broadening (academic) or a vocational school at the end of lower secondary education. vocational areas and qualifications; In other countries, the trend has been to offer a range of subjects in one n Creating linkages between general and vocational education; school (European Commission 2009). In the UK for example, 90 percent of secondary students attend comprehensive schools, which allow individual n Developing combinations of school- and work-based learning; and students to select from a range of academic and technical subjects. The n Building bridges between secondary vocational education/training and higher vast majority of high schools in the US offer a comprehensive form of educa- education. tion. In theory, comprehensive schools help avoid the stigmatization that may be associated with technical schools and allow greater flexibility for The study highlighted two fundamental dilemmas that policy makers face in their efforts to reform people to take a mix of subjects. Historically, vocational/technical education secondary vocational education: (1) increasing general education content in upper secondary has tended to be more expensive than academic education. Where there education would enhance the value of such programs as preparation for higher education, but is a parallel system, it is important that opportunities exist for students to the programs may become more selective than intended and less successful students may move between the specialist strands for those who discover that they are avoid them; yet tailoring upper secondary vocational programs too exclusively to the needs of not in the best strand for their interests and aptitudes. less successful students would make them unattractive to successful students, which could devalue vocational programs as a desirable option; and (2) attempts to broaden the content Centers of excellence: In some countries, schools seek to become of upper secondary vocational programs to be more generic to a significant number of related centers of excellence in specific subjects. These schools teach the normal occupations could limit the programs’ appeal for employers who demand more specialized skills. curriculum but in addition have a strong emphasis on a particular subject, In addition, these attempts might flounder because of limited equipment, physical facilities and often mathematics or science. In the US since the 1960s, public schools poorly trained teachers. known as magnet schools have existed that are allowed to attract students The study yielded some important recommendations for policy makers: from outside the normal school catchment areas. n Avoid making upper secondary vocational education programs a residual and dead- The UK case: In the UK in the 1950s, a tripartite system of secondary end pathway linked to poor-quality jobs and directed at the lowest achievers. education existed where children sat for the eleven plus examination in their last year of primary education and were sent to secondary modern, n Provide institutionalized bridges between secondary vocational education and tertiary secondary technical or grammar schools, depending on their perceived education and ensure that significant proportions of students take this pathway. abilities. This was largely replaced with a system of comprehensive schools, n Design vocational education and training programs for less successful young people which teach a wide range of subjects across the academic and vocational as an element of safety nets rather than as ordinary vocational programs; make sure spectrum. In the 1990s, a Specialist Schools Programme was created. This that safety net programs prepare young people for later participation in mainstream allows schools to establish distinctive identities through chosen curriculum vocational education and training. specialties, while still delivering the full National Curriculum (Higham 2007). Source: OECD 1994. Source: Authors. 170 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 6 171 The content of the post-basic education curricula could be reviewed to ensure it is Teacher Training responsive to concerns of “clients� of the graduates from this cycle. Given the feedback from both higher education leaders and employers regarding secondary education Teachers and teacher trainers could be trained to effectively use pedagogic methods graduates, and the international trends that Oman is poised to follow, improving the curricula will be that will promote students’ appetite and ability to learn by themselves, while vital to ensuring education system relevance. This is an enormous and complex task, and also a sensi- equipping them with basic skills and competencies. tive one since it touches on many aspects of society. In addition to reducing the distinction between Regardless of how proficient teachers are in their own discipline, they need special training to be effec- purely academic and practical job-oriented subjects, the MOE could consider curricula organization. tive in these new pedagogic methods. Without further training, teachers will not be in a position to The general approach followed in many countries is to move away from traditional curricula based on transfer “soft,� behavioral and metacognitive skills. This, in turn, will require that the curricula of the academic categorization to competency-based curricula. It will be important to identify the core compe- colleges of education — whether at SQU or in other institutions — be revised in depth, giving more tencies deemed to be needed regardless of the destination of post-basic school leavers. Consulting on emphasis to teaching practice (as recommended in chapter 5). It also implies that the faculty of these the changes with representatives from public and private HEIs and with employers will be essential. colleges themselves be retrained and that their own pedagogic methods be realigned with modern approaches. This is an urgent task, which could be initiated in the revision of preservice training provided An improvement in English learning quality in post-basic education is necessary, and by the Human Resource Development Directorate of the MOE. the MOE could consider the development of “soft skills� and “attitudinal skills� in the curricula. English is critical not only for students wishing to continue post-secondary studies but also for those Student Flow desiring to start a professional career. If English language learning is improved in post-basic educa- tion, the remedial courses required at university entry become unnecessary. The number of hours Student flow through basic, post-basic and higher education could be improved with currently devoted to English may need to be increased to reach this objective. In addition, the MOE the aim that all graduating students are at the intended age for completion and have could also examine the new areas covering the “soft skills� and “attitudinal skills,� which both HEI staff the skills needed to commence further studies. and employers mention as deficient. One direction to explore would be to entrust the NCGC with the Despite improvements in recent years, a significant number of children still graduate over age from introduction of specific activities to help students develop these skills. To maximize the value of its grade 12, which puts their future in HEIs and as employees in the workplace at risk. An analysis of the interventions, the NCGC would need precise inputs from both HEIs and employers. causes of this problem could determine the best ways to mitigate its negative impact on the lives of young people. Teaching Methods Together the MOE and MOHE could analyze carefully the main weaknesses of grade 12 graduates, which necessitate a foundation year at university. Teaching methods should be aligned so that students acquire not only the essential A candid, fact-based discussion of this preparatory year’s merits and of how to share responsibilities basic skills that constitute core competencies but also the skills they will need their to correct the lack of readiness for academic work would follow. Ultimately it would lead to a gradual entire life to learn more, work more independently and better contribute to society. transfer of the foundation year programs to the post-basic education cycle, and the possible phasing The acquisition of skills, such as self confidence, creativity or problem solving, is not a topic in itself but out of the foundation year itself. is more about how subjects are taught and how to help students learn how to learn. These skills are generally referred to as metacognitive skills (appendix V). Student Assessments The shift away from a teacher-centered to a student-centered approach in basic and post-basic education has already helped to enhance the quality of teaching and The rigor of student assessments could be improved so that they accurately reflect learning, but further improvements can be made. the true level of achievement and help students, educators and employers to develop Teaching methods, such as group and teamwork and out-of-school work, are intended to improve the realistic perceptions and expectations. quality of the learning experience and better prepare students for the pursuit of further studies in As already observed in chapter 3, student assessments could be the main information basis for higher education. These reforms also aim to develop skills and attitudes that promote autonomous and students, their current and future teachers and their potential employers to form realistic expectations cooperative learning, critical thinking, problem solving, research techniques, creativity and innovation, and to make the right decisions regarding both education and job choices. Eliminating complacency in which students will require for lifelong learning. They can be further developed and more systematically grading would restore assessment credibility. Reliable assessments would also give HEIs and employers used so that their impact will be more profound and more durable — useful both for further studies the right signals in their admissions and recruitment practices. and occupations. Several techniques can be used for these purposes: (1) include projects in applied subjects to strengthen team work capacity, (2) introduce “system thinking� in curricula, (3) encourage and reward independent enquiry and learning, (4) promote open-ended and critical enquiry that chal- lenges the collective wisdom, (5) encourage and reward creativity in problem solving, and (6) introduce concepts of project planning and management. 172 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 6 173 School/Work Links Bringing together the worlds of school and work is both necessary and difficult for young school leavers who do not have the prospects to continue further education. More opportunities could be sought for post-basic education students to gain work Even in countries where there is a wider industrial base, getting the involvement of employers is often experience and for the private sector to come closer to schools. Examples of such elusive “due to lack of corporate responsibility and incentives and high cost of training from employers’ initiatives are short internships in companies or in public administration. side� (Wang 2010). Thus, as suggested previously, partnerships could be encouraged by the state In a country where the private sector is still limited, exposure to community and social work would also and complementary measures could be taken by both public and private entities for young graduates, be beneficial. Such experiences would help build students’ responsibility as citizens and would make especially those who face unemployment (box 6.7). them more attractive to employers who often favor multiple experiences beyond purely academic (box 6.6).71 Box 6.6 Box 6.7 Pathways for Youth to Labor Market: An Overview of High School Initiatives in Canada Services to Support Young People in Selected Countries This study focuses on high schools in four provinces: British Columbia (BC), Alberta (AB), Countries Packages of services and support Ontario (ON), Newfoundland/Labrador (NL). UK Provide 18–24 year olds with at least six months services on job seeking, career n All four provinces have placed emphasis on career planning as part of the secondary guidance advice, basic education, skills training, work experience. Job placement school program. Some require that students prepare an employability skills or career is subsidized and follow up is provided. portfolio. Canada Government departments and agencies work in partnership with employers’ and n BC, ON and NL have mandated that secondary students participate in some form workers’ organizations and civil society groups to offer work experience, learning of community involvement for a set number of hours as part of their high school and skill building opportunities, basic and advanced employment skills services, graduation requirements. and assistance in finding career-related summer jobs. Employers are offered n BC, AB and ON have established a high school apprenticeship program (a small wage subsidies for job placements. proportion of the high school population participates and the majority of the group is Chile The National Service for Training and Employment is in charge of program coor- male). dination and operation aimed at increasing prospects for youth from low-income n All four provinces emphasize the need for local partnerships among schools, post- families and those with difficulties in social and economic integration. The enter- secondary institutions and employers. ON and AB have supported the development of prise assumes a tutoring role and provides in-house work experience, ensuring provincial “brokers� to promote partnerships. that training is easily adapted to local labor market demand. n All four provinces have promoted a decentralized “market� approach to vocational France New Services, New Jobs Program 1997–2003 provided wage subsidies up to education and training with varying degrees of intervention in coordinating institu- 80 percent of minimum salary per job per year for five years to employers who tional arrangements. There has been little federal involvement in recent years. hire young people under contract. Mentors were assigned with the enterprises to provide guidance and support. n All four provincial governments are interested in increasing the career pathways for students and enhancing flexibility and mobility in learning systems. BC and ON have Republic of Youth Work Experience Program in Korea aims to provide work experience gone further than others in providing opportunities for high school students to earn Korea support and an employment support system. Through the program, college post-secondary credits and/or industry certification. To date, these initiatives involve students are employed as interns in public and private institutions to gain a small proportion of the high school population. hands-on experience. Enterprises that employ youth as interns can receive wage subsidies for three months and those who hire interns as regular workers can n All four provinces are struggling with the need to constantly update technology, receive another three months wage subsidies. curriculum and facilities and to hire qualified teachers. Hong Kong, The Youth Pre-employment Training Program offers training to school leavers n Few provinces collect information about program outcomes, and enrollment informa- tion is not readily available or easily comparable across jurisdictions. China aged 15–19 in interpersonal skills, including leadership, self discipline, team building, computer literacy and vocational skills. The program is combined with subsidized on-the-job training to increase employment opportunities. Employers are commissioned and subsidized to appoint mentors to guide trainees throughout their training. Source: Taylor 2007. 71 In a recent survey regarding the employability of college graduates, 83 percent of the US employers interviewed stated that it would be very or fairly effective to see an evaluation of a supervised internship where students apply college learning in a real- world setting (http://insidehighered.com/news/2008/01/23/employers). Source: Wang 2010. 174 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 6 175 Omanization Efforts should be made to develop alternative strategies to boost Omanization in the private sector. The lack of presence of Omanis in the private sector is primarily the result of supply and demand in the global economy, over which there is limited control. As education quality improves in Oman’s public schools, Omani students will become gradually more attractive to prospective employers. However, short of an aggressive incentive policy to hire more Omani workers in the private sector, the impact of MOE measures may remain limited. Hence, the MOE will need to team up with the other agencies that have a stake in the Omanization policy to design more aggressive measures to enforce Omanization in the private sector. Management and Planning The MOE could reinforce linkages with other public and private institutions in charge of regulating and/or providing educational services. The MOE is only one, albeit the largest, of many actors on the education scene. Cooperation among the various providers of education and training of all types and at all levels is a prerequisite to ensure educa- tion system relevance. Likewise, involvement of students, faculty, administrative staff and employers is critical. Inputs from all these stakeholders need to be harnessed, and one way to do this is to provide a forum where their views and feedback can be heard. In that regard, the activation of the National Council of Education (NCE) with an empowered secretariat as proposed in chapter 8 is recommended. The MOE should emphasize its focus on relevance within its internal structure, so that each department becomes conscious of and ultimately responsible for ensuring relevance. This implies a reinforcement of the internal cooperation among several units that are involved in deci- sion making “at the top,� in particular: General Directors under the Undersecretary for Education and Curricula, those under the Undersecretary for Planning and Human Resources Development, most General Directors of Specialized Directorates and the heads of specialized units, such as the Technical Office for Studies and Development.72 The cooperation must be extended to all Regional Directorates, and it must percolate down to actors at the school level—principals, teachers and administrators. Information could be shared with all stakeholders — students, parents, providers, policy makers — so they can strategize and make decisions based on facts and evidence. Reliable and timely information needs to be available for and provided by the MOE, other ministries, schools and HEIs, principals, administrators, teachers, employers and students, each in their own capacity. Information needs to circulate among all these stakeholders. The MOE — and its MOHE, MOM and Ministry of Health (MOH) partners — could facilitate the information flows among all stakeholders. Primarily, in order to address “leakages� from the education system, a longitudinal study could be under- taken, tracking grade 10 students for a number of years (throughout further studies in an HEI or VTC) to understand how their secondary education performance influences their future career. The NCGC is uniquely positioned to play a key role in making information available and transparent and to oversee the completion of such a tracking study. Additionally, it is not enough for the MOE and other providers and regulators of education to make schooling information available. The flow must go both ways with employers giving as much feedback as possible on their recruitment plans, the kinds of skills they seek and their assessments of the graduates they recruit. The MOE could reach out to these employers and solicit their feedback. 72 A focal point could be clearly identified to ensure follow up and accountability 176 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality 177 CHAPTER 7 COSTS AND FINANCING Public education in Oman is free, yet the resources required to make the system more accessible and relevant and to increase its quality are significant. No absolute or universal rule determines if the resources allocated to education are sufficient, efficient or optimally distributed among various levels and functions of the sector. It helps initially to compare Oman to other countries with the same level of development, similar regional features or experiences that have already reached higher-level objectives.73 This comparison identifies specific patterns and offers an idea of possible areas where efficiency can be improved. How- ever, questions remain about the priorities the Government has defined for the sector: “Could the current strategic objectives be achieved with fewer resources?� or “Would it be pos- sible to achieve more ambitious objectives with the same level of resources?� Even though the education system is free for its users, its resource base is limited. Moreover, there are several other important sectors of activity that compete for the same resources. The idea that “more is better� can be replaced by the question of efficiency. This chapter outlines Oman’s education budget, including its main elements, how it has evolved over time, and how it compares to other countries. It examines the important issue of spending efficiency within the education sector. 73 Most budgetary data come from the Ministry of National Economy (MONE). After the 2010 census, there is a plan to unify all the definitions and time bases with those produced by the MOE. However, because definitions and time bases differ, they are currently not fully consistent with those produced by the MOE. In addition, the data is not fully consistent with data produced by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS). Hence, the issue of data comparability is a challenge for the purpose of this study but more generally and more importantly for the piloting of the system. 178 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 7 179 7.1 THE EDUCATION BUDGET: OVERVIEW The Government has allocated a high proportion of its civil ministries’ budget to education. In 2009, education expenditures, including the Ministry of Education (MOE), Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE), Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) and Ministry of Manpower (MOM), which is responsible for technical and vocational education and training, represented 12.8 percent of total government spending (table 7.1). A distinction needs to be made at the outset between recurrent and investment expenditures.74 Recurrent expenditure on education in 2009 (including all the relevant ministries) represented 17.5 percent of total government recurrent costs or 37.2 percent of government spending on civil ministries (table 7.1). While the MOE accounts for only 3.2 percent of the overall public investment budget, it accounts for over one-quarter (26.1 percent) of the total public recurrent budget (table 7.1). This is because education is a labor-intensive industry: MOE’s recurrent costs are more than 90 percent of its total costs, significantly more than in other ministries. Table 7.1 Recurrent and Investment Expenditures: MOE and Total Public Budget, 2005, 2007 and 2009 All (Recurrent + Investment) Recurrent Investment Government Expenditure 2005 2007 2009 2005 2007 2009 2005 2007 2009 RO millions (current) Total Government Expenditure 4,207.6 5,880.5 7,428.7 3,212.0 4,165.6 4,707.1 995.6 1,714.9 2,721.6 Civil Ministries 2,077.7 2,737.2 3,850.6 1,531.9 1,898.7 2,216.7 545.8 838.5 1,633.9 Education-related Ministries, 545.9 746.2 948.2 493.2 651.1 823.8 52.7 95.1 124.4 of which MOE 394.3 516.9 630.0 360.6 474.5 578.1 33.7 42.4 51.9 MOHE 24.5 55.8 70.6 22.0 34.8 43.3 2.5 21.0 27.3 SQU 89.6 110.1 142.2 84.6 99.4 127.0 5.0 10.7 15.2 MOM 37.5 63.4 105.4 26.0 42.4 75.4 11.5 21.0 30.0 Percentage (%) Education and Manpower as a % of 13.0 12.7 12.8 15.4 15.6 17.5 5.3 5.5 4.6 Total Government Expenditure Education and Manpower as a % of Civil 26.3 27.3 24.6 32.2 34.3 37.2 9.7 11.3 7.6 Ministries' Expenditure MOE as a % of Civil Ministries' Expenditure 19.0 18.9 16.4 23.5 25.0 26.1 6.2 5.1 3.2 Source: MONE 2008 and 2010. Between 2000 and 2009, the MOE’s recurrent expenditure has grown annually by approximately 7 percent in real terms. In nominal terms, or current prices, recurrent expenditure grew from RO 217.7 in 2000 to RO 578.1 in 2009 or an annual average increase of 12 percent (figure 7.1). However, if these prices are corrected by the GDP deflator (to account for changes in prices) and translated in constant 2000 prices, the growth is more modest at about 7 percent per year even with some decreases between 2003 and 2006 and between 2007 and 2008 (figure 7.1). 74 In 2009, civil ministries’ expenditures amounted to 52 percent of total public expenditures. The balance was shared between defense and national security (23 percent), oil and gas production expenditures (17 percent), support to the private sector (7 percent) and interest on loans (1 percent). In the rest of the chapter, only civil ministries’ expenditures are considered. 180 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 7 181 Figure 7.1 Figure 7.2 MOE Recurrent Expenditure, 2000 to 2009 (RO million) Recurrent Expenditures: Selected Government Agencies (% of total expenditures) 700 40 37 578.1 35 MOE, MOHE, MOM 600 and SQU 474.5 30 500 Ministry of Education 26 25 400 360.6 20 278.7 300 358.5 228.5 Diwan and Royal 15 288.4 Court Affairs 13 272.1 263.9 Current prices 200 241.9 Ministry of Health 10 Constant Pensions and End of 2000 prices Service Benefits 100 5 5 0 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2007 2008 2009 Source: MONE 2010. Source: MONE 2010. The steady increase in the MOE’s recurrent expenditure on education is not the In relation to the country’s wealth, the education budget increased slightly in result of enrollment expansion. recent years. While the budget was increasing slightly in constant terms during the last decade, total enrollments It is common practice to assess the weight of the education budget in comparison to total national were decreasing due to the demographic slowdown that has characterized this period (chapter 1). wealth as measured by GDP. In 2005 and 2007, total public expenditure on education represented Therefore, the budget is not driven by enrollments but by inputs allocated to the sector. Over time, more 4.6 percent of GDP. This increased to 5.3 percent in 2009 (appendix table A.2). resources have been allocated on a per student basis. Whether measured against the country’s total wealth or against its total budgetary The MOE is the largest recipient of the country’s civil recurrent budget. expenditures, public spending on Oman’s entire education sector is coming close to With a share of 26 percent in 2009, the MOE is far ahead of the next largest recipients: Diwan and the what is broadly observed in comparator countries. Royal Court Affairs (13 percent) and the Ministry of Health (13 percent) (figure 7.2). If other expendi- There is no absolute measure to gauge whether these expenditures are on the low or high side, unless tures on education and training are added (including the MOM, MOHE and SQU), the recurrent budget they are put in an international perspective. If measured by their share of the gross national income allocated to the entire education sector was 37 percent of the overall recurrent civil budget in 2009 (GNI), expenditures on Oman’s entire education sector were at the higher end of the set of countries (figure 7.2 and appendix table A.2). used as comparators. However, if measured as a share of total public spending, these expenditures are at the lower end of the comparator countries (table 7.2). Within the education sector, 70 percent of the budget goes to the MOE with the remainder for higher education and technical and vocational education. The intrasectoral allocations for education indicate the degree of priority given to each level or subsector of education.75 In 2009, 70 percent of the recurrent education budget went to MOE, 20 percent to higher education (made up of 15 percent to SQU and 5 percent to the MOHE) and 9 percent to the MOM, provider of technical and vocational education and training. 75 76 A fully comprehensive account of expenditures on education should include expenditures on training made by the Ministry of The significant difference between the ratio of expenditures/GDP (as estimated by the MONE) and the ratio of expenditures/GNI Health and other ministries and agencies. Hence, the figures used here slightly underestimate the total effort made for education reported in table 7.2 comes from the difference in the definition of these two aggregates, mainly accounted for by the balance of and training. receipts of primary income, namely compensation of employees and property income from abroad. 182 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 7 183 Table 7.2 7.2 UNIT COSTS Public Education Expenditure as a Percentage of GNI and Government Spending in Selected Countries, 2009 or Most Recent Year (%) Public expenditures per student for the new basic education system do not appear to exceed those for general education, even though they have significantly risen since Public expenditure on education Public expenditure on education the inception of the new system. as % of GNI as % of total government expenditure Based on MONE data, the per student expenditures incurred by the MOE for basic and general educa- Tunisia 7.5 2007 Hong Kong, China 24.1 2009 tion together represented approximately RO 1,000 in 2008, up from about RO 720 in 2006.77 The unit costs estimated by the MOE are higher. According to MOE data, per student costs for the cycle OMAN 5.6 2009 United Arab Emirates 23.4 2009 one of basic education are in general lower than those for the cycle two, but there are some exceptions Estonia 5.2 2007 Tunisia 22.4 2007 (2001, 2007 and 2008). On average, however, the difference in unit costs between basic education Thailand 4.9 2008 Iran, Islamic Rep. 20.9 2009 and general education grades 1–10 is not significant (table 7.3). Iran, Islamic Rep. 4.7 2009 Thailand 20.9 2007 Table 7.3 Malaysia 4.6 2007 Qatar 19.6 2005 Expenditure per Student by Level of Education, 2008 Hong Kong, China 4.5 2009 Malaysia 18.2 2007 Cyprus 4.4 2007 Korea, Rep. 14.8 2007 % of GDP RO US$ per capita Korea, Rep. 4.2 2007 Estonia 13.9 2007 Kuwait 3.5 2006 Kuwait 12.9 2006 Cycle one (grades 1-4) 1,357 3,528 17 Basic education Mauritius 3.2 2009 OMAN 12.8 2009 Cycle two (Grades 5-10) 1,188 3,089 15 Singapore 3.0 2009 Singapore 11.6 2009 Grades 1-4 1,138 2,959 14 Lebanon 1.8 2009 Mauritius 11.4 2007 General education Grades 5-10 1,227 3,190 15 United Arab Emirates 0.9 2008 Cyprus 9.6 2007 Grades 11-12 1,697 4,412 21 Lebanon 7.2 2009 Source: MOE 2009a (unit costs) and MONE 2010 (GDP per capita). Source: MONE 2010 for Oman and UIS for all other countries. The increase in per student cost can be attributed to the fact that total enrollments decreased at a time when the budget was increasing. Per student costs as a percentage of GDP per capita ranged from 14 percent for general education grades 1–4 to 21 percent for grades 11–12 in 2008 (table 7.3). Table 7.4 shows that Oman’s levels of per student spending are similar to the comparator countries and less than the average for OECD countries. While the introduction of the new education structure has not led to an excessive surge in recurrent expenditures, it is only when the reform has been embedded (particularly for post-basic education) that a full assessment will be possible. Comparisons of unit costs associated with either the economic level or the enrollment level suggest that the Sultanate is still in a transitional period linked to the completion of its bold reform to reorganize the education structure and that the cost structure will become gradually more differentiated (box 7.1). 77 These figures are based on the budgetary data provided by the MONE. They are consistent with those estimated by the MOE. Disaggregation of unit costs (and of total costs) by education levels always carries some degree of arbitrariness, as several items are common to all levels (teachers teaching different grades, administrators in charge of more than one cycle, and so on). 184 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 7 185 Table 7.4 The costs of grade repetition are estimated at approximately 3 percent of the MOE’s Expenditure per Student as a Percentage of GDP per Capita in Primary and recurrent budget. Secondary Education, 2009 or Most Recent Year (%) While the per student costs give an indication of the amount of resources invested for each student, they do not reflect the entire costs of educating a child throughout the schooling system. The next step, Primary Education Secondary Education therefore, is to estimate how much it costs to bring pupils to the graduation stage from grades 1–12. Such a cost must factor in repetitions. While the repetition rate is at a low level and has decreased for OECD Average 21 2007 OECD Average 25 2007 several years, its influence on the total cost is not marginal (chapter 2). Using the 2008 MOE data, the Estonia 20 2007 Estonia 24 2007 difference between the total cost with and without repetition amounts to approximately 3 percent of Saudi Arabia 18 2007 Korea, Rep. 22 2007 the MOE’s total annual recurrent budget. In other words, repetition still costs the equivalent of approxi- Korea, Rep. 17 2007 Iran, Islamic Rep. 21 2008 mately three years of teaching materials (table 7.5, appendix X). In terms of the weight of repetition OMAN 14-17 2008 Saudi Arabia 18 2007 cost in the recurrent budget, Oman is placed between the East Asian average and the Latin American average for secondary education — estimated in 2000 at 0.1 percent and 3.5 percent, respectively Hong Kong, China 14 2009 OMAN 15-21 2008 (World Bank 2006). Iran, Islamic Rep. 14 2008 Hong Kong, China 17 2009 Jordan 13 2007 Jordan 16 2007 Table 7.5 Kuwait 11 2008 Mauritius 15 2009 Cumulative Graduate Costs, 2008 Mauritius 9 2009 Kuwait 15 2008 Philippines 9 2007 Philippines 9 2007 Basic Education Post-basic Total Cycle One Cycle Two Education United Arab Emirates 5 2008 United Arab Emirates 7 2009 Cost for total enrollments (RO million) 200.1 392.5 163.3 755.9 Source: Authors’ calculations based on MOE 2009a and MONE 2010 for Oman, UIS for all other countries. Cost without repeaters 200.1 378.3 159.3 737.6 Note: For primary education in Oman, expenditure per student as a percentage of GDP per capita in Difference (US$ million) 0.0 14.3 4.1 18.3 2008 ranged from 14 percent in general education grades 1-4 to 17 percent in the first cycle of basic education. Source: Authors’ calculations, based on MOE 2008c and 2009a (appendix W). For secondary education it ranged from 15 percent in basic education cycle two to 21 percent in post-basic education (table 7.3). Box 7.1 Economic Wealth and Enrollments: International Correlations Per student costs as a percentage of GDP per capita and GDP per capita: On average, low per student costs in primary education as a percentage of GDP per capita tend to be concentrated in low income countries. Per student costs at the primary level, however, are only slightly correlated with a country’s wealth level, and even more weakly correlated in the case of secondary education. Poor countries, such as the Republic of Congo, share low per student costs with rich countries, such as the United Arab Emirates. Likewise, high student costs are found in the poorest countries, such as Burkina Faso, as well as some of the most developed countries, such as Norway. Per student costs as a percentage of GDP per capita and enrollments: There is little correlation between per student costs as a percentage of GDP per capita and enrollment rates at the primary and secondary levels. At the tertiary level, there is a clear negative correlation. Oman finds itself in the group of countries migrating toward a combination of increasing enrollment levels and lower unit costs. Source: Authors’ analysis based on UIS data. 186 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 7 187 7.3 C O M P O S I T I O N O F R E C U RRENT EXPENDITURES Table 7.6 Ministry of Education Recurrent Budget Official Nomenclature The presentation of MOE’s recurrent budget is not easily conducive to the develop- ment, monitoring and forecasting of resources: it does not analyze separately each Salaries and Wages education level nor does it link resources to sectoral objectives. Basic Provisional salaries wages The recurrent MOE budget follows the national classification, which applies to all ministries. It is made Allowances up of approximately 60 line items (table 7.6). While such a presentation is useful to single out detailed Housing Electricity Water Phone Professional Travel Transport Other expenditures, it does not lend itself to an analysis by functions, objectives and outcomes, and it does not allowance allowance allowance allowance allowance allowance allowance allowance distinguish education levels. It neither assesses the cost of achieving a particular outcome accurately Other Elements of Compensation (assessment, supervision, counseling and so on) nor does it allow monitoring of whether the resources Supple- Rent for Salaries for In lieu of allocated have been adequate to reach the outcome, thus limiting any measure of accountability. Tickets Remuneration mentary employee special work vacation wages housing contracts Requirements Items In particular, and with the exception of personnel-related expenditures, the Books and Building and recurrent expenditures do not distinguish core functions directly associated with Learning Food items printed road Computer Fuel and oil Fuel and oil Car parts Other materials requirements for equipment for cars requirements teaching and learning activities from those only tangential to these core functions materials materials “ancillary services�). Service Requirements Office Housing Yet, such a distinction is fundamental, as the cost associated with teaching and learning is inherent to Cleaning Building furniture and furniture and Cars Equipment Computer Car Estate rents the MOE’s mandate, under its immediate control and responsibility and closely linked to enrollments contracts maintenance equipment equipment maintenance maintenance maintenance insurances maintenance maintenance and pedagogy, while other costs can be outsourced to other agencies. Categorization of activities Journal and Exhibitions Contract and Learning between these two groups is only a first step, but further disaggregation by broad functions would serve Official assign- Other services Car rental Undefined Scholarship magazine and advertise- Training costs consultation furniture ment travel costs costs costs costs subscriptions ments services maintenance programming and budgeting purposes. Citizens’ Organi- Furniture and Equipment Government Service Expenses Transfers zations sports registration The share of the recurrent budget allocated to staff remuneration is very large in Oman and leaves little room for expenditures directly associated with the quality of Furniture and Furniture and equipment Furniture and Mail and Electricity Water Transfers Students’ Arabic education. office for accommo- equipment for phone consumption consumption to clubs and pocket money organisations equipment dations and schools services costs costs associations Regarding distribution, only minimal variations are observed between 2006 and 2009. Approximately hostels 90 percent of the recurrent budget of the MOE was allocated to staff remuneration in 2009. This is Machines and Transport quite a high proportion compared to other sectors in Oman; overall, the share of wages and salaries in equipment the total recurrent civil budget of the country was 68 percent in 2009 (MONE 2010). Machines Cars Source: Authors, based on MOE recurrent budget data. Staff Remuneration Note: The highlighted boxes are core functions. The proportion of staff remuneration in the MOE’s recurrent budget is high by Table 7.7 international standards. Staff in Public Schools by Categories and Staff-related Indicators, 2006/07 to 2008/09 Staff salaries as a percentage of recurrent education expenditure vary widely across countries, but at 90 percent, Oman’s level is at the high end internationally. In 2007, the OECD averages were 64 percent for teachers’ compensation as a percentage of recurrent education expenditure in primary and % change 2006/07 2007/08 2008/09 (2006/07 - 2008/09) secondary education, and all staff compensation as a percentage of recurrent education expenditure Administrators 4,521 5,709 6,400 42 was 80 percent in primary education and 79 percent in secondary education (OECD 2010). In general, Teachers 39,993 42,079 43,149 8 lower proportions are more often observed in richer countries, while the highest levels tend to be in Students 536,602 553,236 540,332 1 less developed countries. Schools 1,053 1,052 1,047 -1 The salary bill is made of two elements: the number of staff on the payroll and their Classes 19,868 19,798 19,667 -1 remuneration rate. Teachers-administrator ratio 8.8 7.4 6.7 -24 Hence, the first element to consider is the magnitude and composition of the workforce reporting to Student-teacher ratio 13.4 13.1 12.5 -7 and paid by the MOE. There are two main categories of staff: teachers and administrators. The informa- Administrators-school ratio 4.3 5.4 6.1 42 tion available for these staff at the school level reveals significant changes within a short three-year Teacher-class ratio 2.0 2.1 2.2 10 period (table 7.7). Source: MOE 2007c, 2008c, 2009a. 188 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 7 189 The large salary bill is driven mostly by the unusually high and slowly rising number Table 7.8 of teachers relative to students and the similarly high and rapidly growing number of Composition of the Staff Remuneration Bill, 2008 administrators relative to teachers. RO % While the number of schools, classes and students has remained relatively stable, the number of A. Salaries and wages 278,030,547 57.7 teachers has slightly increased and the number of administrators has sharply increased.78 As a result, Basic salaries 276,345,716 57.4 the student-teacher ratio (STR) has dropped to an all-time low level, and Oman stands as one of the countries in the world with the lowest STRs, especially at the primary level where it is currently less than Wages for temporary staff 1,684,831 0.3 half the world average.79 In addition, the gap between Oman’s STR and the world average has increased B. Allowances 196,507,208 40.8 between 2007 and 2008. Similarly, while each administrator was in charge of, on average, 4.3 classes Allowance, housing 128,845,384 26.8 in 2006/07, the number dropped to 3.1 two years later. The steep increase in the number of teachers Allowance, electricity 12,110,790 2.5 can be explained as a consequence of the shift from the general to the basic education system; in Allowance, water 3,611,503 0.8 particular, it is related to the reorganization of classes and to the introduction of elective subjects. Allowance, phone 4,811,673 1.0 However, the efficiency question remains: will the exceptionally high STRs currently observed ultimately Allowance, professional 14,295,761 3.0 be matched by an equally high level of quality? Similarly, are the large numbers of administrators a Allowance, abroad 73,912 0.0 guarantee that the governance of the system is at its optimum? The findings from this report suggest Allowance, transport 32,294,027 6.7 that the response may be mixed at best. Allowance, others 464,158 0.1 The distribution of staff by region shows little variation, and it has become more C. Others 6,954,075 1.4 evenly spread through the last three years (appendix X). Travel tickets 2,133,214 0.4 This reflects a steady trend toward the normalization of standards. However, taking into account the Bonuses 3,091,748 0.6 specific regional features, such as low population density, and measures to address them, such as Compensation for leave 109,275 0.0 double shifts, grade combinations, and consolidations, which justify some deviation from the norms, Overtime 386,307 0.1 some remaining discrepancies exist. For instance, the teachers per administrator ratio varies from 5.8 Rent for employees housing 530,843 0.1 in Dhofar to 7.2 in Al-Batinah (South), and the number of administrators per school ranges from 4.7 in Private contract salaries 702,688 0.1 Al-Wusta to 6.6 in Muscat and Al-Batinah (North). Total staff related expenditures 481,491,830 100 There is a heavy concentration of MOE staff in the middle grades of the civil service Source: MOE. structure (grades 4 to 6). These are typically the grades that characterize teachers’ positions on the ladder, and since teachers There is room for improvements in the distribution of civil servants’ and teachers’ account for 88 percent of the MOE staff, it is not surprising to find that 75 percent of the MOE’s staff allowances in Oman. are in these grades (appendix Y). By contrast, staff in the Ministry of Health and in other ministries is Many types of allowances target different kinds of personnel with different status, such as more evenly distributed. At the same time, hierarchies in those ministries are more pronounced than in (1) teachers/administrators, (2) Omanis/expatriates, (3) civil servants/contracted staff, and (4) staff the MOE where the proportion of staff at the letter grade level is low. in country/staff working abroad. As mentioned previously, there is no direct way to identify the amount of allowances received by each of these categories. However, one-third of the allowances goes to housing Staff remuneration is characterized by a system pegged to the number of years on and is paid mostly to Omani civil servants.80 The next most important item is travel allowances; most the job and by generous allowances. expatriates are offered transportation by the MOE to their work. The third largest item is the work allow- Remuneration is composed of three sets of expenditure categories regrouping as many as 16 different ance, which is paid to all teachers and administrative staff in schools but its amount differs with position items. “Basic salaries� are only a part, making up 58 percent of the total in 2008 (table 7.8), closely from RO 7 for a school coordinator and an administrative supervisor to RO 52 for a school headmaster. followed by a number of allowances at 41 percent, and completed by a small group of miscellaneous items also akin to allowances. Teachers’ pay follows the general civil service guidelines. Teacher salaries are flat (figure 7.3). A teacher at the top of their career earns about 1.6 times what a young colleague makes when he or she starts. Promotion to the next step is a function of seniority in the job, and there is no incentive linked to performance. Annual increases within each step are also automatic and set up as a fixed amount, slightly increasing with the steps, and there is no room for deviating from the general civil service promotion scale. Allowances account for as much as between 40 percent at step 6 and 48 percent at step 5 of the total remuneration, and housing allowances make up from 68 percent at step 7 to 79 percent of all allowances. Most of the allowances go to teachers. 78 Simultaneously the Omanization of both the teaching staff and the administrative staff was progressing, as the number of expatri- The question that arises is whether granting these allowances to teachers improves their performance. ates declined by 25 and 10 percent, respectively, between 2006/07 and 2007/08. 79 Computed on a set of 90 countries for which data are available. In the case of secondary education, the ratio stands 6 points 80 below the world average (20). See chapter 5 for a more in-depth analysis on teachers. A small number of expatriate staff also receives this allowance. 190 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 7 191 Figure 7.3 Table 7.9 Theoretical Teacher’s Age Earning Profile (RO) Nonsalary Recurrent Expenditures: Selected Items, 2008 (%) Share of expenditures 12,000 Schools Administration Total to schools Learning material 12 0 11 100 10,000 Building maintenance and cleaning contracts 9 8 9 90 Official assignment travel 0 16 2 0 8,000 Training 3 2 3 90 6,000 Bus rental 55 9 49 98 Electricity and water consumption 9 8 9 90 4,000 Total 100 100 100 88 2،000 Source: MOE. Note: This table shows the percentage of total nonsalary recurrent expenditures that go to each type 0 of selected item. For example, 55 percent of nonsalary recurrent expenditure on schools goes to bus rental while 9 percent of nonsalary recurrent expenditure on administration goes to bus rental. 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 This means that 98 percent of the expenditure on bus rental is from school expenditure. The first three columns do not add to the total because only selected items are shown. Age Educational materials represent 11 percent of the nonsalary recurrent budget or Source: Authors’ estimates, based on MOE data. the equivalent of approximately US$25 per student per year. Considering its importance to implementing the renovated curricula using a learner-centered teaching Internationally comparable data on teacher salaries are scarce. methodology, the allocation for educational materials is low compared to other countries because Absolute numbers are particularly difficult to compare, and only the relative amount in terms of a ancillary expenditures, such as pupils’ transportation, crowd out this strategically important item. country’s income level can be used for comparison purposes. Teachers’ remunerations in Oman represent between 1.0 and 1.8 times the GNI per capita, which is slightly above what is observed in Although the budget as currently presented does not directly show a breakdown by countries such as Bahrain (0.5), Estonia (0.7) or South Korea (1.5), but far from other countries with final distribution, assumptions can be made about which items reach the schools and lower levels of wealth such as the Philippines (3.3). which ones are retained by central and regional administrations. The results of these assumptions suggest that approximately 85 percent of all funds under the recurrent budget flow directly to the schools; the rest is absorbed by MOE central and regional administrations. Nonsalary Recurrent Costs The main items directly delivered to the schools at a proportion higher than 80 percent include learning materials (100 percent), building maintenance, cleaning and operations (90 percent) and salaries In contrast with Oman’s expressed priority to enhance the educational environment, (85 percent). only a small share of the MOE’s recurrent resources is left for nonsalary inputs directly linked to teaching and learning and directly impacting quality and equal Discretionary power of the school principals to use the resources allocated to opportunities. schools is very limited. Once expenditures for building maintenance and cleaning and charges for electricity and water are Except for an allocation of petty cash, the bulk of the resources available at the school level comes from taken into account, the remaining nonsalary recurrent budget is allocated mainly to bus rental, which the revenues generated by canteens. Only 85 percent of these revenues are kept at the school level, receives almost half of this budget (table 7.9).81 The cost of bus rental cost takes a large share of avail- the rest is reimbursed to the regional directorates of the MOE. Hence, without an allocation of their able resources even though it does not constitute a core function of the ministry.82 own, schools have few incentives to launch specific initiatives relevant to their environment and the community that they serve. 81 Buses are rented and busing activities are subcontracted. 82 The World Bank (2000) report indicated a share of 60 percent 192 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 7 193 Figure 7.4 7.4 INVESTMENT EXPENDITURES Direct and Indirect Development Expenditure, 2006 to 2008 (RO million) The relatively modest level of investment expenditures reflects a shift in priorities 80 from building new facilities to investing more in improving education quality. While the MOE’s recurrent budget accounted for a quarter of the country’s civil ministries’ budget 70 and its share is slowly growing, the MOE’s share of the investment budget was only 3 percent in 2009 and on a downward trend. This relatively low allocation of investment expenditures to education is not 60 unusual, especially for countries like Oman experiencing a gradual enrollment decrease and having 50 completed a period of heavy school construction investments. Oman allocates about 8 to 9 percent Total Development of the total education budget to capital expenditures; this percentage is close to the average of OECD 40 Budget countries, such as the UK, Germany or France that range from less than 5 percent to 15 percent Direct Education 30 Development Budget (OECD 2009b). Indirect Education 20 Development Budget Data and definitions regarding investment costs vary by source, and gaps between different sources are large and difficult to reconcile.83 10 The investment expenditures recorded by the MOE are divided into two categories: direct development 0 expenditures are essentially focused on schools, while indirect expenditures are allocated mostly to 2006 2007 2008 administrative facilities. The relative share of these two categories has varied over time (figure 7.4). The greater variability is on the direct side, even though one would have expected indirect expenditures to be more volatile. This is because indirect expenditures depend on discretionary decisions to undertake Source: MOE Finance DG. specific investments, while direct expenditures are linked to schools and enrollments. The bulk of the indirect development expenditure is allocated to the construction of MOE’s new site, which represented 72, 86 and 61 percent of this category in 2006, Figure 7.5 2007 and 2008, respectively. Direct Development Expenditure The remaining funds were used for various purposes, as the need arose: reconstruction following the Gonu Cyclone in 2007, construction and furnishing of teachers’ accommodations in 2007, and the contract for the development of the MOE electronic portal in 2008. Despite their stability in monetary Other 3% terms over the last three years, these are clearly exceptional expenditures. Equipment and labs 5% Direct development expenditures include construction either as additions to existing schools or as new schools. Together, new construction and additions to existing schools make up 85 percent of total direct expenditures (figure 7.5). Additions to existing schools absorb the majority of this expenditure category, reflecting the slowdown of enrollments and also the shift in priorities from increasing access to imple- menting basic education reform. Restoration of existing schools and purchase of laboratory equipment respond to the same trend.84 New schools Addition to 28% existing schools 57% Restoration of existing schools 6% 83 The two sources are the MOE and the MONE. Two sets of data are issued by the MOE. The first one is published in statistical yearbooks and the other one is produced by the Directorate of Finance. 84 Maintenance costs are split between the recurrent and the investment budget. Small, mainly preventive maintenance is under Source: MOE. the former, and major repairs fall under the latter. 194 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 7 195 7.5 SOURCES OF FINANCING Oman’s absolute reliance on public funds to finance its top priority pretertiary education sector may put the sector in a vulnerable position if the fiscal space were to be reduced and/or sectoral priorities changed.85 Even though the state provides free education to all Omani children, it does not mean that Omani citizens do not pay for it. First, despite the fact that government revenues originate mostly from oil and gas revenues rather than from taxes, there is an opportunity cost attached to this revenue allocation to education, and this cost is spread over all citizens. Hence, budgetary funding of education amounts to a collective way of paying for the education of children enrolled in public schools. Furthermore, the competition for these funds from other sectors may increase, and in a pessimistic but not improbable scenario, government revenues may be under pressure, making the competition even more threat- ening at least in the medium term. In addition to these public resources, private funds also contribute to education, whether delivered by public or private institutions. Parents’ contribution to public education is mainly through indirect costs and personal opportunity costs borne by students after compulsory school age. Contribution to privately provided education includes fees and direct costs. Finally, there are direct investments in private education institutions, mainly at the preschool level. Most Omani households have their children enrolled in public schools that are free of charge, so they spend relatively little from their own pocket on education. Data from the 2007/08 Income and Expenditures Survey draw the following general observations: (1) households allocate only 4.8 percent of their total budget to education, far behind housing (23.1 percent) and transport and communication (20.9 percent);86 (2) Omani citizens spend significantly less on education than expatriates (4.8 percent compared to 6.3 percent) despite the fact that their income is on average twice as large; (3) for Omanis, the dispersion around the average is relatively low; while the location (rural/urban) has little impact, differences between regions are more pronounced (from 2.4 percent in Al-Wusta to 5 percent in Musandam); the level of education spending is also affected by the economic dependency ratio (from 2.9 to 5.4 percent); and (4) the share of education in Omani house- hold expenditures increases with the education attainment of the household head but so do the share of housing and transport; these three items increase their weight, partially and smoothly substituting for food expenditures as the household head’s education level increases (appendix Z).87 The potential of private education provision and of public-private partnerships has not been fully tapped in Oman, perhaps due more to regulations than to a lack of interest from both parents and providers. Internationally, the pattern of private education has the following features: (1) at both the primary and secondary levels, the variation is very large with a share of private education ranging from almost zero to 96 percent; (2) private education is generally more common at the secondary education level than at the primary education level, but there are some exceptions such as Jordan, the UAE and the USA; and (3) most countries have increased the private education share over the last ten years. 85 As mentioned in MOE (2006), “The Ministry of Education is totally dependent upon finance it receives from the government.� 86 The data do not distinguish whether children are enrolled in a public or private institution. 87 For a more rigorous analysis, it would be necessary to single out education expenditures for households disaggregated by the number of children enrolled in school. 196 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 7 197 Against this general background, private education provision is still modest in Oman, 7.6 POLICY IMPLICATIONS especially at the secondary level. Most Arab countries in the Gulf region have significantly higher rates of private enrollments than Oman. The high level of education expenditures at the pretertiary level essentially reflects the priority given to a For example in 2008/09, while 5 percent of Oman’s school enrollments were in private Arabic schools vibrant education sector but also results partially from some inefficient practices. It is difficult to single and a further 5 percent were in international schools, Bahrain’s private school total was 30 percent out the respective role of each of these two factors. Maintaining the priority of the sector and removing (UIS data). the inefficiencies should allow the Government to continue to improve education quality in a sustainable way. Below are some suggestions for the way forward.89 Private education is an alternative to public provision and usually fills a gap where state provision is either lacking or its quality is perceived as lower. Improving the effectiveness of planning and monitoring of the education system would Private provision’s role and magnitude are also a function of the regulatory environment. Ultimately, the provide the Directorate of Finance with broad directions and main parameters to prepare both the degree to which private institutions contribute to the education sector depends essentially on a political recurrent and investment budgets in a fully rational way. For a beneficial impact, prerequisites include choice. In countries such as China and Vietnam, enrollments in private secondary schools are on the a solid, functional Education Management Information System (EMIS) and the availability of a reliable rise (8.3 and 11.5 percent, respectively). The case of Oman, where the state provides all education at sectoral data base. The latter would allow robust forecasts of enrollments, financial needs and expected the pretertiary level, raises the following questions: (1) Would the situation be different if the regulations resources. A dedicated unit could be created for that purpose. were relaxed? (2) Is the current situation financially sustainable? and (3) Do families have a real choice? In face of these questions, there seems to be room for private sector growth. Moving from the input-based budgetary approach currently used to an output-based approach would be a milestone toward making the budget more than a simple accounting exercise Enrollments in private Arabic schools in Oman have increased dramatically, almost and transforming it to a financial control mechanism, management tool, and policy instrument. An doubling between 2002/03 and 2008/09. output-based budget would be a transparent motivator, promoting performance and enabling the MOE This growth (from approximately 15,000 to 29,000) has occurred while STRs have remained at the to assess the costs of achieving specific results. The main characteristics of the shift would be to (1) same level, which is also the same low level as observed in public schools. According to a recent survey, define specific objectives and functions, (2) link resources needed to achieve the objectives and to carry the main criteria for parents’ school choice is the quality of results, and this is precisely what lures them out the functions and (3) relate resources to each cycle of the education ladder to the extent possible. away from public schools and attracts them to private ones (Al Balushi et al. 2009).88 Budget items need to be reclassified to adopt the approach (box 7.2), but institutional changes are also needed for the exercise to be successfully implemented and to yield all its benefits. Since the Even though private schools already benefit from some support, such as free land MOE needs to manage its finance under the budget categorization that applies to all departments, the to build facilities or a discount of 50 percent ion some goods, they are not at a fully recommended approach would have to be followed in parallel with this categorization. The MOE could equal financial footing with public schools. become a precursor in that area by demonstrating the benefits of using this approach. Hence, private sector growth has mostly been driven by a small segment of schools charging high fees, which only children of the economic and political elite can afford, leaving little choice for children of Linking the budget to a medium-term expenditure framework (MTEF) would give to the less well-off households. This situation is socially risky and economically suboptimal, as it limits choices, output-based budget its full significance. The MOE objectives go beyond the single fiscal year horizon of creates a two-class generation of students and restricts bright students of poor families from high the budget and encompass at least a five-year period (box 7.3). Hence, linking the budget to the MTEF quality institutions. would increase the predictability of the resources needed to achieve the assigned objectives to the MOE. The MTEF should reflect the priorities of the five-year plan, and its structure should be similar to the plan to facilitate the monitoring of spending. Together with the output-based budget, the MTEF would make budget negotiations more transparent and more solidly backed by medium-term commit- ments on both sides. Linking the performance of MOE’s operational units to their resources would introduce a sense of accountability in the MOE. Precise objectives would define performance, and the budget would reflect accountability to allow for objectivity. Performance contracts with milestones and targets could be developed to formalize the linkages. 89 Even though they are focused on higher education, the recommendations made in the Ernst and Young report (2006) are sound and a number of them are also relevant to pretertiary education. To avoid repetition, they are not mentioned again in this report, but they are fully consistent with its suggestions. Those related to greater autonomy of teaching institutions are 88 Parents also quote both English and international exposures as additional reasons to enroll children in private schools. particularly pertinent. 198 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 7 199 Box 7.2 Box 7.3 Example of Budget Classification for Program Budgeting Medium-term Budgetary Frameworks: Two Extreme Cases Medium-term budgetary frameworks (MTBF) or medium-term expenditure frameworks (MTEF) are found in diverse Type of Level of Classification Examples economic and sectoral environments. The spectrum of countries where these frameworks are being used spans Classification from the high-income European Union (EU) countries to the low-income countries benefiting from the EFA Fast Track Functional Function or sub-function Agriculture, forestry, fishing and hunting Initiative (FTI). Even though the ultimate objectives are similar (most of them falling in the “good governance� category: Main program Agriculture transparency, stability, predictability, credibility, realism), the role and features of the frameworks in these two extreme cases are indeed different. Organizational Ministry or independent agency Ministry of Agriculture MTBF in EU countries Office or Bureau under a ministry Bureau of Extension Services The main reason for EU Member States (20 out of 25) to adopt a MTBF is linked to the rules regarding the Stability Program/ Program Food Crops Extension Services and Convergence Programs (SCP) by which these countries are supposed to keep their fiscal and budgetary balances operational Recurrent activity Program management and advisory within certain limits and especially to maintain a ceiling of expenditures. MTBFs help to overcome the “natural� tendency services of decision makers to have short-term vision, namely that of annual budgets, and to force them to commit themselves Investment project Construction of stores to longer-term measures. Critically, MTBFs act as a reminder that commitments are made to be honored, and they help keep in mind the necessity to link the cost of measures with predictable revenues. Typically, because of the environ- Input/object/ Category Goods and services ment in which they are operating, MTBFs cover all sectors and allow intersectoral reallocations to be considered. Most accounting/ Item Utilities MTBFs have a horizon of three (Sweden) or four years (Netherlands). Within these broad parameters, MTBFs vary economic Sub-item Electricity from one EU country to another. It is standard to classify them as follows: (1) The fixed frameworks, which do not permit revisions and thus provide a powerful barrier against major deviation from commitments; and (2) The flexible frameworks, which allow for revisions of the objectives from year to year to adjust to changes. Source: Kim 2007. In turn, each of these types of MTBFs can be either periodical (no new framework before the end of the period) or rolling (with the possibility of annual updates). Most EU MTBFs are of the flexible/rolling type, which gives more oppor- tunity to revise the initial parameters but, as a result, defies the very purpose of the framework. MTEF in FTI Countries To access FTI funds that help reach the EFA goals, low-income countries are required to build a sectoral MTEF, which guides them to prepare annual budgets consistent with the measures needed to achieve the EFA goals. Even though they cover only one sector, education MTEFs do allow intrasectoral reallocations, and it is even one of their main functions. They consist of two parts, revenue and expenditure. The resulting gap is a guide for the assessment of the additional needs to which the FTI Fund contributes. The revenue part is drawn from macroeconomic projections. Their realism conditions the usefulness of the whole exercise. The other condition of their usefulness and credibility is their linkage with a global (macroeconomic) MTBF. The expenditure part is based on a specific forecast model, which takes into account the demographic situation and trend and the various technical and financial parameters of the whole sector. Here too, there are conditions for the MTEF to be a real policy instrument: first, just like the revenue forecasts, they need to be realistic and comprehensive (covering both capital and recurrent expenditures), and second, they have to be organized by programs/functions. Finally the MTEF has to be institutionalized, formally endorsed by political authorities, and annual budgets must be prepared in explicit reference to the MTEF. The above points suggest that, unless they fulfill a number of conditions, MTEFs may not play the role that is expected from them and may remain an academic exercise as a result. The features — and quality — of the FTI MTEF are quite diverse. The MTEF used in Mali is a three-year framework; its expenditure part is divided into nine subsectors (from preschool to higher education) and seven programs. For each of the programs, expenditures are divided into salary expenditures, nonsalary recurrent expenditures and capital expenditures. The parameters of the scenario are carefully and explicitly defined: intakes based on demographic projec- tions, transition rates, STRs, nonteaching staff needs, salary rates, staff training needs, pedagogic material and other services. Source: European Commission 2007 and Ministère de l’Education, de l’Alphabétisation et des Langues Nationales et al. 2010. 200 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 7 201 A study could analyze how expenditures allocated to the MOE actually reach their A review of the budget allocations consistent with national priorities and, in intended destination and help give an in-depth and accurate vision of possible sources of ineffi- particular, with the overarching objectives of enhancing quality, increasing learning ciencies and possible bottlenecks. Such a study, referred to as a Public Expenditures Tracking Survey achievements and improving relevance would lead to optimum budget allocations. (PETS), would depict how budgetary resources flow from the Ministry of Finance to the MOE at both the A definition of education’s core services would make it easier to protect budgets in case of more strin- central and the regional levels and ultimately to schools (box 7.4). A PETS would not only track down gent financial constraints. The review would likely entail a revision of the current distribution of recurrent financial resources but also human and in-kind resources, and it would map out how all these resources expenditures, which leaves a very small share for nonsalary items. trickle down to the end-line service providers and users.90 The results of a PETS would help the MOE make budget allocation decisions and would provide the useful feedback for output-based budgeting. Given its overwhelming weight in the recurrent budget, the MOE staff remuneration system would benefit from a thorough review, and the mode of remuneration could also be revamped. Box 7.4 The review would focus on the number of staff, which is currently excessive by international standards Sample Research Matrix for PETS — both for teaching and administrative staff. It would revisit the rationale for keeping STRs at a low level. A review would also scrutinize the remuneration system and explore how to introduce elements of performance and some dose of incentives to unleash energies, especially of teachers, as suggested Objectives Sub Questions Variable of Interest Data Source Method Data Collection of Data Tool by international experiences. Differentiating remuneration for difficult assignments, such as in remote Collection and underserved areas, while reducing the automatic provision of some allowances can lower staff To understand What are the What was budgeted? State budget members’ absenteeism and stimulate their professionalism, which will lead to improved performance. the mechanism of procedures with What was approved? MOE budget As it is not possible to change the rigid civil service guidelines that apply to the MOE staff and to resource allocation regard to resource What was released to Region budget Extraction teachers, flexibility needs to be sought in the area of allowances, which currently account for over in the education allocation? the sector? forms/checklist 40 percent of total remuneration. Pegging some of these allowances to staff’s performance would sector at the state What are the What are the School budget Desk review reward the high achievers and energize those on an upward path. and sub-state levels spending patterns methods of disburse- and identify major at each level? ment of funds at the Additional resources should be allocated to core activities directly linked to improve- issues in budgetary two levels? ments in education quality and relevance to be consistent with the MOE’s overarching priorities. allocation in selected regions What is the funding Clear criteria should be defined and used to balance the allocation of nonsalary resources between core gap to sector needs? pedagogic uses and ancillary services. A distinction would have to be made between the imperative of To identify What are the Actual funds received Financial Extraction Extraction efficient resource use for core education purposes and for other purposes. Tradeoffs between the two problems with procedures with at each level? records forms/checklist types of expenditures should be based on these criteria. Additional resources may be required for the resource allocation regard to resource satisfactory functioning of school libraries, which may have a clear positive impact on learning. Similarly, and transfers transfers? further funding may need to be allocated for other educational materials and for equal opportunity What are the Efficiency in considerations.91 In particular, the MOE should review the transportation scheme (buses) to ensure spending patterns disbursement equal access. at each level? Budget discipline? Finance and In-depth In-depth administration interview Interview Granting more financial autonomy to schools and making them accountable — within officials at the schedule the country’s financial regulations — would have the potential to unleash energies at two levels Transparency and the school level and to improve their transparency and efficiency. Accountability of funds Further staff assignment at regional offices rather than at the headquarters would enable the MOE’s at all levels? regional staff to make more significant decisions and to disburse resources more quickly. Being closer Challenges and to the field of operations, Regional Directors are in a position to make more significant decisions constraints regarding resource allocations. At the school level, providing a larger amount of resources at discretion of the principal would constitute a strong incentive for schools to take initiatives relevant to local circum- stances. To yield its full benefits, decentralization at the school level would need to be accompanied by greater accountability. Source: World Bank 2010. 91 A thorough review of the sector’s equal opportunities dimension would imply a specific analysis of the Income and Expenditure 90 More than 15 such surveys have been undertaken around the world with the World Bank’s assistance. Survey completed by the MONE. It is recommended that the MOE be granted access to that survey for this purpose. 202 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Overview 203 It will be difficult to sustain a quality education sector by relying solely on public resources. Currently, with the exception of preschool education, almost all education costs are borne by the state. Given the prospect of a long-term decline in oil revenues, budget constraints may grow. Simultaneously, competing demands will rise outside the sector, such as for infrastructure, and within the sector, such as for higher education. In addition, as the MOE may have to step in more forcefully in preschool provi- sion, pressure on its own budget is likely to increase. Hence, complementary financing modes should be considered to diversify the sources of funds, while making an effort to rationalize expenditures. If users’ financial contributions are envisaged at the post-basic level, those revenues should be targeted exclusively on noncore activities and associated carefully with appropriate forms of aid, so that no student is refused access due to their family income, background or citizenship. The scope of private contribution to the education of young Omanis could be much greater and, therefore, could be encouraged further. Private education could be tapped on a substantially larger scale to benefit education in the Sultanate. Opening up the education field to more private investment would alleviate some burden on the MOE, create healthy competition with public institutions and give more choice to parents. Private investment would need to be preceded by (1) revamping the regulatory framework to make it more conducive to investments, (2) strengthening the sector’s quality control mechanisms and (3) introducing safe- guards so equal access is fully preserved. A number of options for additional financial support exist to promote the expansion of quality private schools. Conventional mechanisms should be considered, including preferential tariffs on educational materials and on electricity/Internet connections and tax incentives. Other schemes could include the creation of a quality improvement fund accessible through competition and supported by both private school fees and matching amounts from the public budget. The support could also include staff secondment from public institutions to private schools. The principle behind these initiatives is to create an environment to enable both public and private entities to deliver the best educational service to Oman’s students. 204 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality 205 CHAPTER 8 GOVERNANCE AND MANAGEMENT This chapter focuses on the Ministry of Education’s (MOE) key concerns on the governance and effective management of education both at the national and regional levels. These issues include policy development, strategic planning and management with a specific focus on decentralization. The conclusions in this chapter are drawn from information obtained in meetings and discussions with key stakeholders, workshops and experiences in other countries. 206 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 8 207 Good governance and management in education covers many dimensions, including the government’s capacity to (1) formulate sound education policies; (2) allocate and ensure the efficient use of resources to provide high-quality education services; (3) develop effective management processes that allow public oversight of education services delivery and student learning quality; (4) hold providers accountable; and (5) encourage citizen respect for schools and other education institutions. Effective governance in education requires enabling conditions, such as a legal framework to support education for all; equal access; prohibitions on harmful child labor practices; appropriate standards for education programs, products, schools, personnel and students; incentives where appropriate for good performance; and accountability (appendix AA). The MOE has a record of considerable successes. The previous chapters presented evidence of the MOE’s substantial achievements developing the education system. Over a four-decade period, the MOE managed to construct schools throughout the country, including in remote areas; train teachers and supervisors; prepare national-level curricula and textbooks; and develop a public examination system. As a result, Oman has progressed from a position of no public education to one that provides free educa- tion to well over a half million students in grades 1–12. Student-teacher ratios have been reduced by almost two-thirds. Instead of being taught by non-nationals, as was the case in the initial years, the vast majority of students in public schools receive instruction from native Omani teachers. Working with the Ministry of Health (MOH), the MOE has also introduced pilot nutrition programs and established health care centers in the majority of schools. The MOE has cast a critical eye over aspects of its work and brought about major changes in how education is organized, replacing a general education system with a more developed system that encourages students to remain in school until age 16, to complete ten years of basic education and to continue with two years of post-basic education. To further advance education in the country, a few key issues related to governance and management of the system need to be addressed. 8.1 POLICY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING Education planning in Oman takes place within a legal framework and within the context of the government’s five-year plans. The education system has a legal framework based on royal decrees and goals and policies identified by the Government, which includes specifying MOE’s roles and responsibilities in establishing educa- tional norms and standards. The current strategic plan for education, the 8th in the series, covers the period 2011–15. The strategy for implementing the plan was published in the Vision 2020 document (MONE 2007). The five-year plan provides the basis for the MOE’s annual budget, which is submitted to the Ministry of National Economy (MONE) for approval prior to being forwarded to the Ministry of Finance (MOF), which allocates financial resources to the MOE. Each year, the MONE examines the extent to which the MOE meets its objectives, using key performance indictors from the five-year plan. The Planning Department in MOE’s Directorate of Planning manages the education planning process. The department makes enrollment projections for all regions and schools, taking into account figures prepared by the regional offices. The Planning Department works with the regions to plan new school construction or extend existing schools’ buildings. Depending on projections, the Planning Department will usually commit to one or a combination of the following: (1) adding more space (classrooms, labo- ratories and playgrounds) to existing schools; (2) building new additions to school facilities on existing premises; or (3) building new schools in different locations. 208 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 8 209 Responsibility for policy analysis and development in education, training and human The Directorate General of Information Technology facilitates planning with data resource development rests with a number of different bodies. collection, including data provided by the MOE’s electronic education portal or In Oman, policy development does not have a permanent oversight entity. In addition to the MOE, E-Portal. other ministries play key roles. These are the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) through affiliated The E-Portal is part of MOE’s effort to create a link to the community and to help improve information universities and other higher education institutions (HEI), the Ministry of Manpower (MOM) through its services. The education database in the E-Portal contains information obtained from centralized and vocational training centers, and the colleges of technology, the MOH through the nursing schools, and regional sources, including basic school-level data (details on students, personnel and school invento- the health sciences institute, and the Ministry of Social Development (MOSD) through its early childhood ries) and MOE-wide data. It also includes the following elements: education programs. Policies affecting basic and post-basic education are typically developed through n Information and news for local and national stakeholders; a process involving two main bodies: the MOE’s main policy committee, and the Technical Office for Studies and Development (TOSD). These entities work in coordination with relevant Director Generals n Details of multiple interaction channels, including the web, phone, and mobile devices, as well and other stakeholders assigned by the Minister of Education. There is frequent involvement of the as learning assistant software to help students in self study; Education Subcommittee of the Shura Council and the Education Subcommittee of the State Council in n Reporting system to monitor student progress; and the development of education policies; however, the system lacks a central policy development or policy review mechanism. n Resources for teachers and students to interact beyond the classroom. The E-Portal also includes data on (1) public and private schools; (2) number of classes in schools; (3) The absence of a central mechanism makes coordinated policy development difficult, number of students in basic and post-basic classes; (4) number of students in special education; (5) especially where problems to be addressed require cross-ministerial input. number of learners in literacy and adult education classes; (6) human, knowledge and technological Problem areas include the following: resources; and (7) education finance. The annual MOE publication “Educational Indicators� prepared n Lack of equal opportunities in funding for various levels and types of education and training; by the Statistics and Indicator Department is a product of this system (MOE 2009a). E-Portal is a worthwhile effort that will need ongoing support and capacity building to increase its usefulness to all n Inability to transfer academic credits among institutions under different ministries; and stakeholders. Experience in other countries highlights the importance of sustained MOE commitment, n Inconsistency in quality assurance and accreditation procedures across education institu- the danger of an overly complex system and unnecessary information, and the potential failure to appre- tions under different ministries. ciate the information needs of users, especially policy makers (box 8.1). In policy development for basic and post-basic education, the MOE’s main policy The demands of the knowledge economy, which require changes in teaching, learning committee, PFET, and TOSD work in coordination with relevant Director Generals and and assessment, present a series of challenges for the MOE. other stakeholders assigned by the Minister of Education. The knowledge economy concept involves a paradigm shift in thinking about education’s role. Instead However, while some policy-making structures are in place, it does not appear that the MOE has a of viewing education as a means to gain employment or do a specific job, education in the knowlege tested, clearly established and well understood process in which various units can develop coherent economy should be viewed as an enhancer of student employability — the ability to adapt acquired educational policies together. For instance, there does not appear to be clear procedures for when and knowledge and skills to new working environments. Drucker (1966), who is credited with creating the how TOSD and PFET get involved in the process. At times, they are involved more on the “front end� background for the knowledge economy concept, used the comparison of manual workers and knowl- of the process and work with proposing units to develop policy proposals; whereas at other times, the edge workers to clarify the term. The former use their hands to produce goods and services, and the policy committee asks them to review proposals that have been already submitted. Furthermore, the latter use their brains to produce new ideas and information. Proponents of the knowledge economy MOE lacks a well-defined time frame, as well as an approved format and procedures for the submission argue the following points: of policy proposals. n Teachers will be expected to assume roles as facilitators, encouraging students to become There are several different models for coordinating policy development in the world. more active and to assume more responsibility for their own learning. Many countries locate education policy making within one ministry or have separate bodies to represent n Teachers will be expected to change their pedagogical approaches with schools offering all stakeholders. This ensures representation of all interests in national-level policy making, in harmoni- ready access to information and knowledge resources beyond the material in assigned zation and/or arbitration among contending claims, and in resource allocation balance. In Kuwait, for textbooks. example, one ministry has responsibility for both general and vocational education, while in Tunisia the responsibility is shared by two separate ministries. In Sri Lanka, a National Education Commission was n Students will be expected to acquire skills in framing issues and solving nonroutine problems, established to make recommendations to the President on education policy in all its aspects, with a view especially those related to the broader world outside of schools. to ensuring continuity in education policy and enabling the education system to respond to changing n Schools can help students prepare for the requirements of life in a globally competitive world, needs in society (appendix AB). which differs greatly from the work world of the recent past. n Schools can strengthen their links to the outside community. 210 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 8 211 Box 8.1 The knowledge economy challenge will require a new set of approaches to Ten Lessons in Design and Use of Management Information Systems be developed. These include intensive pre- and in-service courses for teachers, supervisors, principals, and regional- The following lessons are based on a literature review of E-Portal and educa- and national-level staff, as well as support for curricular adaptations and new forms of assessment, tion management information system (EMIS) systems use and on insights including public examinations and school materials. As management plans for the future, it should and experiences of professionals. understand that the knowledge economy concept is quite recent and that few education systems have developed comprehensive programs to address these new challenges. Oman can draw on other n Sustained commitment of leadership: The sustainability of an countries’ experiences of attempting to adapt their education systems in response to the knowledge EMIS system is directly tied to the commitment of education leader- economy. ship. As initial “champions� become distracted or disenchanted, the odds of the EMIS effort stalling increase. Oman does not have a comprehensive system or framework for comparing n Incentives and rewards: EMIS users tend to contribute and use educational and training qualifications. information when there are incentives and rewards for participation. A qualifications framework is a set of principles and guidelines that provides a vision, a philosophical n Overestimating client demand for E-services: Misconceptions base and an organizational structure for a national qualifications system. Establishing a national include “The demand for good management information is always qualifications framework (NQF) involves developing a set of principles and guidelines through which there,� or “If given the information, decision-making will be rational.� records of learners’ achievement are registered. NQFs facilitate an easy transfer of credits across n Overdesigned systems: EMIS systems tend to be overdesigned. various school types and across levels of the education system. A recent conference on European Systems with the highest use and downstream adaptation tend to be experience with NQFs (Bologna Expert Conference 2010) noted that a single NQF, which emphasized simple and modest in scope. learning outcomes, had made it easier to bring about change in curricula and programs. The conference also noted that to be successful, close cooperation was required among framework developers and the n Information overload: In most cases, more information is collected agencies and departments involved in qualification recognition. In Oman, the MOHE has established than actually analyzed and applied toward decision making. EMIS reform could focus first on information that directly informs priority a qualification framework for higher education; it does not, however, include post-basic qualifications decisions. or technical and vocational qualifications. Experience in other countries (such as Australia, England, Ireland, New Zealand and Scotland) suggests that a well-structured NQF can incorporate almost all n Use of existing databases: Effective systems tend to be based major education and training awards, certificates or qualifications into one national framework. Box 8.2 on existing databases, taking advantage of current data collection presents some details of the Irish National Framework of Qualifications system, and box 8.3 summa- routines. Maintaining familiarity while enhancing efficiency builds confi- rizes the findings of a recent ILO study that warns about excessive expectations regarding NQFs and dence and increases the likelihood of long-term success. highlights some of the pitfalls to avoid when setting up such frameworks. n Importance of existing organizational processes: Most EMIS interventions — assessment, design, and implementation — A well-functioning Omani qualifications framework could include the focus on technical solutions created by technical teams and overlook following elements: the organizational processes and institutional incentives that drive information use. n Integrate different levels and types of education, such as basic, post-basic, technical education and vocational training (TEVT) and higher education; n Stakeholders’ consensus: Large-scale EMIS efforts require stake- holder/user consensus. New information tends to create “losers� who n Facilitate national recognition of acquired skills and knowledge; may actively resist implementation. Broadening information use at all n Organize qualifications into a single comprehensive system of levels, titles and standards; levels increases the likelihood of ownership. n Impact on planning: EMIS systems have their greatest impact on n Develop greater parity of esteem between academic and vocational qualifications; planning and policy support, the stage where policymakers have the n Help harmonize and enhance quality standards across the system; and greatest latitude to respond to new information. n Encourage lifelong learning. Furthermore as students appreciate that they have opportunities to advance through various levels of education and training, there is an increased likelihood that they will improve their knowledge and skills Source: Chapman 1990. and in the process improve their employment opportunities. 212 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 8 213 Box 8.2 Box 8.3 Features of the Irish National Framework of Qualifications Lessons on National Qualifications Framework (NQF): Experience of 16 Countries (1) The National Framework of Qualifications (NFQ) was developed as a means to compare There are two central messages to emphasize on NQF: there is no single right NQF model and training and qualifications among educational institutions at all levels. NQFs do not provide quick fix or simple solutions to the complex problems facing countries in education, skills development and employment. Ill-founded expectations exist that qualifications (2) The national authority does not give awards. It establishes the policies and criteria on which frameworks can achieve the ambitious policy objectives in relatively limited time periods. Research the framework of qualifications shall be based. found little evidence that NQFs have substantially improved communication between education (3) Its primary targets are award councils at various levels of the system and providers of and both training systems and labor markets. education and training generally. Clearly, NQFs are not “magic bullets� as instruments for reform. Countries most successful in (4) The framework consists of ten levels, ranging from basic certificates to doctoral level (as implementing NQFs are those which have treated the framework development as complemen- shown in the following diagram). tary to improving institutional capability rather than as a substitute for it or as a way of reshaping institutions. NQFs are more likely to be successful if training outcomes and inputs are seen as (5) NFQ aims to promote and facilitate access, transfer and progression through the education related to each other, and policy attention is focused on both. system’s various levels. In this study, the framework that emerges as the most successful, the Scottish Credit and (6) NFQ emphasizes what a person with an award can do rather than time spent on a program. Qualifications Framework, had relatively limited ambitions. It may be the most difficult to replicate (7) NFQ promotes lifelong learning and learning relevant to learners and other stakeholders, because it was part of a very long-term incremental policy reform process and the educational including business and industry. institutions in Scotland are relatively strong. The research suggests that serious consideration of policy priorities and sequencing of policies are important to NQF success. Three key objectives of qualifications frameworks are differentiated and lead to three suggested types of frameworks: (1) The first way of understanding NQFs is as an attempt to make the relationships between existing qualifications more explicit. The focus here is on qualifications systems rather than individual qualifications. (2) A second way of understanding the introduction of an NQF is as an attempt to make the relationships between occupational entry regulations (such as those of the state or profes- sional bodies, which define who can and cannot enter specific occupations and professions) and qualifications more explicit. (3) A third way of understanding the introduction of NQFs is as an attempt to use independently specified outcomes or competency statements to drive a range of different educational reforms. Although all NQFs use the terms like “learning outcomes� or “competencies,� here the development of learning outcomes is seen as the focus, and the mechanism through which all the goals of NQFs will be achieved. Beside the practical problem of getting employers involved, researchers have also suggested that employers may not always be able to articulate their requirements and certainly are not always able to predict what skills and knowledge will be required in the future. Source: National Qualifications Authority of Ireland 2009. Source: Allais 2010. 214 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 8 215 8.2 S YST E M M A N A G E M E N T examination results are assessed and schools that are not considered to be performing well are sent letters by the MOE. Monitors from the Finance and Administration Directorate go to each region International experience suggests that decentralization of many aspects of to audit the schools and the regional offices. The general administrative supervisor receives reports education’s decision making and management can yield benefits. from each region twice per year. In the early 1970s, Oman adopted a centralized education system initially to ensure that common national standards were applied. At this point, the MOE believes that the system has sufficiently matured Most MOE staff hold graduate-level qualifications in a variety of disciplines. to allow decentralization of management functions to the regions. Some features of the current system Staff with postgraduate degrees (PhDs and Masters) are more likely to be located in the in Oman have been decentralized. These include some public examination functions, teacher appoint- minister’s office. About two-thirds (65 percent) of the staff in the DG for Curricula and Development had ments and some in-service teacher training. bachelors-level qualifications; comparable figures were 61 percent for the DG for Human Resources, 75 percent for the DG for Educational Evaluation, 38 percent for the DG for Finance and Administration, Decentralization can have both positive and negative consequences. and 55 percent for staff in the regional directorates. Most degrees were in education and humanities. Positive aspects of decentralization include improving the relevance of education programs, greater About one in eight MOE staff possessed first degrees in business or management. Discussions during local access to schools, increasing efficiency in allocation and utilization of resources, relieving the workshops conducted by this study highlighted the shortage of expertise in business and management- central government of some local political pressure, increasing political legitimacy, augmenting related disciplines. revenues for local governments, and enhancing local government capacity and credibility with local populations. Decentralization is not without risk. Perceived limitations include a possible loss of the As is frequently the case in other countries, many MOE senior personnel intended message transmitted from central to regional administrative units. Other limitations include arrived in their current positions without having up-to-date policy planning and regional decision making, which is at variance with central government policies, and local political pres- management skills. sures, which can be hard to resist in aspects such as school construction and staff appointments. The data in table 8.1 provide limited evidence to suggest that key leadership skills are unlikely to be developed in MOE training programs. The vast majority of these programs were, as expected, directed School-based management (SBM) is a form of decentralization that makes the school at teachers and schools. Comparatively few courses were offered on topics related to leadership, the center of educational reform and quality improvement. financial management and administration. Out of a total of 323 programs with 11,153 participants, SBM relies on the redistribution of responsibilities as the primary vehicle for bringing about improve- as few as 54 programs with 572 participants targeted leadership and management issues; it is not ment. As in other countries, Oman is moving toward greater school autonomy and enhancing the school clear how many of these courses would have been relevant to senior-level MOE managers. Discussions leadership role. In recent years efforts have been made to grant more autonomy to schools and to with senior MOE personnel indicated that many senior-level staff have not had opportunities through assign a greater leadership role to the principal. The degree of school autonomy in Oman, however, professional training courses to develop managerial skills. remains limited. A recent ministerial decree (No 21/ 2009) granted some autonomy to selected schools in the system. School principals are now expected, among other duties, to supervise teachers MOE leaders have many responsibilities. at least once a year, organize school efforts to improve teaching, and develop an action plan based on Leaders are expected to provide necessary education system oversight, to monitor overall program the whole-school evaluation report. Problems and issues are likely to vary across regions. Some prob- outputs and outcomes against national objectives, and to authorize appropriate actions at central, lems seem common to all regions, for example, principals dealing with issues of teacher absenteeism regional and district levels Other important leadership responsibilities include (1) providing direction to either for course attendance, maternity leave or some personal reasons. With increased autonomy, staff, (2) mobilizing and energizing personnel through effective targeted communication, (3) ensuring principals and schools will be expected to accept increased accountability. that directorates or departments are on track and providing ongoing follow up and monitoring, and (4) coordinating initiatives with the other ministries and establishing effective links between the education The current civil service progression system may not be in the best interests of and political systems. promoting good quality teaching. In theory, each teacher’s performance is evaluated annually by a team of supervisors, which includes Table 8.1 school principal input. The result of the evaluation determines the teacher’s progression through the Distribution of Training Programs at MOE, 2008 ranks of the 14-level civil service employee system, as teachers are civil servants. They are appointed at an entry level corresponding to level 6 (Level 1, the highest, corresponds to the position of super- visor). Teachers normally progress through the ranks at one level every four years, provided they get a Discipline Percentage Discipline Percentage “satisfactory� annual evaluation. In theory, teacher promotion is meant to link teachers’ incentives and Education and Curricula 36 Training and HR Development 5 rewards to performance. In reality only 1 to 2 percent of teachers are denied automatic progression through the ranks. IT 8 Financial Management 4 English 7 Leadership 4 The MOE has embarked on the development of a regional accountability framework Public Relations 7 Legal Affairs 2 that will require each region and its schools to set goals, measure progress, undertake improvement projects and report results on an annual basis. The initiative is based on a set of outcomes, impacts Administration 7 Planning and Engineering 2 and associated performance indicators, which allow regions and their schools to be compared on common key performance indicators. As part of the school performance evaluation project, grade 12 Source: MOE 2008d. 216 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 8 217 The MOE and its regional and local operations are overstaffed by prevailing 8.3 POLICY IMPLICATIONS international standards. In 2009 the public education system served the needs of approximately 540,000 students using the The MOE could consider adopting a structured framework for coordinated resources of approximately 43,000 teachers and 6,400 nonteaching staff (MOE 2009a) in schools, policy development. resulting in a student-teacher ratio of 12.5 and an overall student-staff ratio of 11, lower than counter- A logical framework can help ensure that policies identified have been selected through a rigorous part ratios for most transition economies. Further, there was 4,441 staff in MOE central headquarters process and subjected to scrutiny using evidence-based criteria and indicators. This process involves and regional directorates. MOE staff account for approximately 50 percent of all Omani civil service many stakeholders and consideration of a large range of pertinent issues. The framework could include employment, and while this is typical for Gulf countries92 with relatively new education systems, it is (1) policy selection from a number of policy options; (2) development of selected policy implementa- rather high compared to Middle Eastern countries with older education systems, such as Egypt and tion plans; (3) implementation of selected policy; and (4) evaluation of policy implementation. Further Syria, or Asian and African countries at the same stage of development. The root cause of this situation details about a structured framework and about the activities required at each stage are presented in seems to be a conscious decision by the Government to address unemployment through employment appendix AC. in the civil service, even if this means overstaffing and inefficiency. The Government of Oman could consider establishing a National Council of Education (NCE). The Projects Directorate faces some problems in managing construction of new or Its mandate would encompass the education system as a whole and would be broader than that of the expanded schools. Council of Higher Education. It would address all of Oman’s key relevant policy issues related to educa- Over the last five years the MOE has constructed about 60 schools to serve over 40,000 students. tion, training and human resources development. The proposed council could have a secretariat in The Projects Department, which manages and oversees construction and furnishing of new schools, which the MOE’s Technical Office for Studies and Development (TOSD) could play a key role in providing finds it difficult to attract qualified and experienced engineers to supervise its various construction technical support and resources for policy development, feasibility studies and comparative analysis projects. The average monthly salary of RO 500 compares unfavorably to engineer pay in the private as needed. sector. Of the 11 engineers and architects currently employed, five are female and have limited ability to supervise construction in remote sites. Analysis of the school construction process was carried out in a An Omani Qualification Agency (OQA) could be established to manage an Omani workshop as part of this study, during which particular attention was focused on the decision to either Qualification Framework (OQF). (1) expand and/or refurbish an existing school or (2) build a new school. This usually involves a cost/ The agency would represent relevant government ministries, employers and key educational stake- benefit analysis of the two options before a decision is made. Workshop participants identified a number holders. The terms of reference and related framework of the proposed OQF could be managed and of constraining factors in making construction-related decisions, which include controlled by the OQA. It would help provide a vital link among all sectors of the Omani education and training system. It would also facilitate lifelong learning through increasing the mobility of learners n Availability of adequate land with access to services in some remote areas; across institutions and levels in the system and making the process transparent for students and n Pressure from some parent groups about the location of schools in their districts; employers. It could help encourage cross-sectoral cooperation. n Lack of experience in the Directorate of Projects with construction contract types, which do On balance, the current MOE policy to decentralize more functions to the regions not have clearly defined penalties for contractors for lack of compliance; seems to be on the right path. In Oman, decentralization could lead to increased efficiency in resource allocation, more timely interven- n Limited capacity in the Directorate of Projects to monitor and control the construction of new tion when required and more sensitivity to regional conditions. As the move toward decentralization schools, often resulting in the award of expensive contracts to consulting firms to perform gathers pace, the MOE could require regular evaluations of regional initiatives and account audits to this basic service; and ensure that national laws, policies and procedures are being followed. It could also be sensitive to initia- n Lack of a well-documented construction projects database. tives that have national potential. At this stage, MOE could consider decentralizing a number of sections and transferring more authority to regions in the areas of budgetary implementation, in-service training, The Government has encouraged the establishment of private schools in Oman in teacher recruitment, appointment and transfer, and school design and construction. Other current an effort to increase access to education, as well as to improve the overall quality MOE functions, such as the grade 12 national public examinations and overall program monitoring of education in the system. and evaluation, might remain national-level priorities. Similarly curriculum and textbooks, which impart In 2008/09, there were 200 registered private schools enrolling 28,999 students. This represented a strong national unifying force in terms of skills and values, could continue to be administered at the 16 percent of all schools but only 5 percent of all students (table 2.1).93 More than 80 percent of national level. private schools are concentrated in four regions: Muscat, Al-Batinah (North), Dhofar, and Al-Sharkiyah (North). The majority of private schools are small in size. Enhanced school autonomy and leadership responsibility will require capacity building. At this stage of system development, the SBM concept is relatively new for principals, teachers, parents and community leaders. Autonomy, even limited autonomy, will not happen automatically; it has to be planned, developed over time and supported by the MOE. In-service training is required for principals and senior staff. It could cover a wide range of topics designed to provide knowledge and develop leadership skills likely to contribute to the development of a school environment strongly supportive of 92 In the UAE the comparable level is over 60 percent. student learning. Without training, it is unlikely that SBM will become a functioning feature of the Omani 93 These calculations exclude the 33,108 students in the 33 international schools. education system. Box 8.4 outlines five priority areas for capacity building related to SBM. 218 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 8 219 Box 8.4 Box 8.5 Capacity Building for School Leaders Using a National Assessment to Identify the Training Needs of School Principals Improving the quality of teaching: School leaders require training in how to adapt the Background questionnaires administered in a national assessment can help identify in-service teaching program to local needs, improve their skills in monitoring and evaluation teacher work, needs of principals. The data can help prompt education authorities to organize courses to and promote teamwork and professional development of teachers both inside and outside of address one or more of the following (1) head teachers’ skills in managing school resources normal school hours. School leaders would be expected to work with teachers to help reduce to provide a safe, efficient, and effective learning environment; (2) leadership skills to sustain (where warranted) the range of school tasks that currently occupy teachers outside of the class- a school culture and instructional program that support student learning: (3) assist teachers room (chapters 4 and 5). develop their knowledge and skills; (4) analyze and address problems of discipline, school attend- ance and staff morale; (5) develop strategies to collaborate with families and communities in the Human resource management: School leaders should acquire skills in managing and moti- work of the school (in particular, if the community holds negative perceptions of the school); and vating teaching and nonteaching staff; be able to address problems related to teacher behavior, (6) understand, respond to, and influence the larger political, social, economic, legal and cultural including nonattendance; encourage staff to become involved in extracurricular activities; and context. over time, become competent and involved in teacher recruitment and transfer decisions, as well as in teacher promotion (chapter 5). Financial management: As SBM becomes more established, some of the budget currently assigned to the regions for in-service teacher training could be earmarked for school-specific capacity development based on needs determined by the principal in consultation with the staff Source: Murphy et al. 2000. and with the approval of the regional office. In a similar manner, funds could be set aside for ongoing school maintenance. The principal or another senior staff member would be required to Recruiting some staff with formal qualifications in management-related disciplines receive training in basic aspects of financial management of school accounts. can strengthen the MOE’s overall efficiency. Core staff involved in disciplines such as accounting, auditing, procurement, and recruitment, could Collaborating with other schools and subject associations: Principals and other be supported to update their skills by participating in periodic courses and programs related to their senior staff need to develop skills and awareness of how to provide leadership to raise the overall specific disciplines. general quality of educational experiences in their schools. School leaders could be required to take the lead role in promoting cooperative links with other schools in their localities. Cooperation The MOE could reflect on the current system of including teachers in the civil service could take the form of a shared agreed approach to in-service teacher education, sports or scale where promotion tends to be linked to years of service. cultural events. They could also encourage and support teachers to establish and participate in In particular, it could consider whether or not virtual automatic promotion of teachers is in the best teacher subject associations meetings (chapter 5) designed to improve curriculum knowledge interests of promoting good quality teaching. or in pedagogical approaches specific to their subject areas or in general aspects of education. Goal-setting, assessment and accountability: School leaders could have greater discre- The MOE could provide short courses and programs for senior managers and tion in setting a strategic direction for their schools and in developing realistic school plans to leaders to participate in over a period of years in areas designed to develop their address their particular situations. Plans, which could be a follow up to the whole-school evalua- skills in aspects of leadership and management. tion (chapter 4) report, could be prepared, reviewed by regional officials and updated on a regular Training might include, but not be limited to, courses in strategic planning,94 leadership, mission basis. They could cover curriculum, staff in-service training, use of space, facilities and equipment, identification, business process management, and results-based monitoring and evaluation (Kusek policies regarding school closures, as well as administrative and organizational issues. Principals and Rist 2004). who could receive training in how to develop a school plan would be held accountable for the drafting of the school plan and for the quality of leadership efforts to implement the plan. The MOE could consider the value of requiring candidates for senior-level staff positions to complete a specifically designed course of studies leading to a diploma in leadership and management. The course could be jointly designed and delivered by the Public Administration Institute of Oman and the Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) for leaders and top managers from the MOE, as well as from Source: Authors. other government ministries, especially those dealing with human resources development. It could be offered in a variety of flexible modalities, including in-class lectures, group projects and on-line delivery. Use national assessment results to help identify teacher in-service training. Topics to be covered could include (1) leadership training; (2) methods of feasibility assessment; Chapter 4 included details of how a national assessment of educational achievement can be used to (3) strategic planning and strategy implementation; (4) business process management; (5) soft skills identify teachers’ perceptions of their weaknesses in aspects of pedagogy or in specific content areas. (such as competence in effective communication, motivation, change management and conflict resolu- In a similar manner, a national assessment can help identify the training needs of principals and senior tion); (6) human resources management; (7) cost estimating, budgeting and financial management; and school leaders. In Argentina and Uruguay, for example, following a national assessment, workshops (8) communication and dissemination mechanisms and programs to ensure an effective and on-going were organized to address the specific issues of head teachers in addition to workshops for teachers flow of information. Box 8.6 provides an example from Finland. and supervisors (Benveniste 2002). Box 8.5 outlines details of how questionnaires administered as 94 part of national assessment can provide valuable input into identifying the training needs of principals. Methodologies might include approaches such as the Balanced Score Card, situational SWOT analysis (method of evaluating Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats) and business process management (BPM). Appendix AE presents brief For a more extensive treatment of SBM, see appendix AD. summaries of approaches towards strategic planning and business processing management. 220 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 8 221 Box 8.6 Box 8.7 The Finnish Institute of Educational Leadership Possible Lessons from Civil Service Reform Initiatives in Jordan The Finnish Institute of Educational Leadership (FIEL) was established to be at the forefront of Key elements of the Jordanian reform initiative could be relevant to Oman: developing research and university-based training in educational leadership for ten years. Today, n Right sizing: Adjust the size of MOE employment to more acceptable efficient levels; the institute offers the whole range of university-level programs in educational leadership from preparation for principals to advanced leadership programs for senior education managers and n Business process analysis and re-engineering: Encourage managers to think “outside the school principals. box� to redesign and simplify some heavy bureaucratic processes; The Finnish Ministry of Education has designated the University of Jyväskylä as a university of n Measure and monitor all MOE program outcomes, including the degree of stakeholder excellence in adult education for a second three-year period, covering 2007–2009. The criteria satisfaction; for this nomination include the university’s orientation in education research, high quality, a multidisciplinary approach to education management, and the development of adult education n Performance budgeting: Translate MOE’s global budget into budgets for individual pedagogy. directorates and departments based on unit’s stated subobjectives that identify and The University of Jyväskylä and the Institute of Educational Leadership are jointly establishing a use performance indicators and establish an internal auditing framework to monitor the two-year program leading to a certified Master’s Degree in Educational Leadership. The basic budget implementation and outcomes; qualification requirement for application is a Bachelor’s degree in education or in a related field. n Performance appraisal: assess each unit’s performance and reward good performance. Finnish applicants who also have a relevant Master’s degree in education qualify for application. The University of Jyväskylä and the Finnish Ministry of Education agreed to fund a new project, Developing an International Master’s Program and PhD Program in Educational Leadership. This project resulted in launching the first Master’s Degree Program in Educational Leadership in 2007 and the second program in 2008. Source: Authors. Source: http://mirror.undp.org/magnet/Docs/psreform/jordan_ten_best.htm. While the increase in emphasis on student performance data for policy making is to n Conducting skills’ surveys among existing staffs; comparing skill levels with the job descriptions be welcomed, the MOE could interpret these results with some caution. to help identify the skills gaps; developing and implementing training programs to address Care could be taken not to “blame the victim� and to make allowance for students and schools with skill gaps and assigning responsibility for ensuring that skill shortages are addressed to relatively poor or educationally impoverished backgrounds or from regions without ready access to specific units and managers; resources, such as well-trained teachers with longevity in their appointed schools (chapter 5). n Analyzing workload and staffing to determine areas of staff shortages and surpluses; adjusting MOE could consider taking steps to define norms and standards for the performance staffing levels through redeployment, recruitment, consulting with the Ministries of Finance of key finance-related functions. and Civil Service or through a program of early retirement of some staff; and increasing the Steps might include (1) requiring specific items in the recurrent budget for capital investment be set workload and management expectations as appropriate where there is overstaffing. aside for school maintenance; (2) improving accounting procedures and practices, particularly those related to the monitoring and external auditing of internal expenditures; (3) rules for cash management; As the Government embarks on a program of civil service reforms, it should reflect (4) methods to ensure transparency of budget allocations and audits of expenditure; and (5) performing on what has worked to improve the general management of education systems. cost-benefit analyses of resources and programs. The lessons learned and best practices adopted in other countries in the region, especially those intro- duced in Jordan (box 8.7) in the last decade, can serve as a guide to structured and manageable reform MOE staff recruitment and development is an ongoing process, which requires in Oman. planning, training, and monitoring and evaluation. To have a systematic approach toward recruitment, deployment and development, the concerned The MOE could incur considerable savings by strengthening its staff working on directorate could consider the following actions: school construction with technically qualified personnel. It could also organize short intensive training courses in areas such as procurement of goods and n Developing job descriptions specifying the mix of skills and levels of competency required for services, contracts and project management. Other initiatives worthy of serious consideration include each position; requiring service agreements for all office equipment to take effect beyond warrantee periods, n Establishing norms and standards for human resources deployment, linking deployment to earmarking maintenance budgets, developing and introducing computer-based asset management operational requirements; systems interfaced with the E-Portal, monitoring resource utilization, and formulating and implementing stocking policies. 222 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 8 223 The MOE can help improve the quality of school buildings and facilities in a cost n Integrating the process information in a subset of the EMIS; efficient way through a preventive maintenance policy. n Monitoring the outcome of each process against set objectives; The relatively poor condition of equipment, furniture and buildings in some schools could be attributed n Assessment of the performance gap and analyzing the root causes of these gaps; in great part to carelessness and to the lack of a preventive maintenance culture. The MOE could help n Optimizing the process to close the performance gap; and improve the situation by leading and supporting an awareness campaign to encourage school staff, parents and students to take appropriate care of buildings, furniture and school facilities. It could also n Updating the EMIS. develop standards in relation to buildings and facilities. The MOE could assign a percentage of the current budget directly to schools for routine school maintenance, thereby saving both time and funds Figure 8.1 necessitated by the involvement of staff who sometimes may have to make a number of trips to address Business Process Map for the Construction and/or Refurbishing and a relatively minor problem, which could be tackled by competent locals. It could also develop an incentive Expansion of Existing Schools scheme for schools to encourage efficient use of equipment and facilities. In the UK for instance, the majority of Local Education Authorities’ grants for schools can be used as schools see fit (Funding Education 2010). Schools can also apply for additional grants to the Government, trust funds, charities EMIS Cost/Benefit School Design Legal Norms and Standards Enrollment and private groups. Grants can be used to purchase equipment, materials, expand school buildings and Analysis of Norms & & Projections and Build vs. Repair Standards Project Management Office Practices Space Needs grounds and promote certain subjects.95 Strengthening the E-Portal requires, at the outset, a detailed analysis of the 1. Assessment of New 2. Define 3. Prepare Construction Build New New School(s) Tender informational needs of users and potential users, the extent to which they use S Needs or Expand Space Documents for 6. Manage Requirements New Schools the Process E-Portal information, and the perceived value and accuracy of this information. of Open Competitive X This could be followed by an analysis of the skill levels of current staff and suppliers of information. This Bidding and latter analysis could lead to the identification of training programs needed by relevant staff in all direc- Expand 4. Define 5. Prepare the Selection Tender Expansion Plans of Architects torates, including regional directorates and schools. To increase usage of the E-Portal, the MOE cannot Documents for for Existing School Schools Expansion assume that information will be used simply “because it is there.� The MOE could offer or support short courses for all staff in how to access the information and how to use it effectively. It could also require Project Management Office’s Norms that routine operational reports (such as annual reports on in-service training and on school supervi- and Best Practices sors) are placed on the portal at predetermined regular intervals. 7. Manage the 8. Supervise Establishing a Business Process Management (BPM) framework would be Process of All Open Construction, beneficial for the MOE to consider for improving the effectiveness and efficiency of Competitive Expansion X F its operations. Bidding and Repair and the Projects to BPM is a management approach focused on aligning all aspects of an organization with the needs of its Selection of Successful Contractors Completion clients and stakeholders. It is a holistic management approach that promotes business effectiveness and efficiency while striving for innovation and flexibility. BPM attempts to improve processes continu- ously, and enables organizations to be more efficient, more effective and more capable of change than a functionally focused, traditional hierarchical management approach. Source: Authors. An example of process mapping in the MOE is provided in figure 8.1, which maps the MOE may consider undertaking BPM initiatives that include defining norms and process of school expansion and its various options. standards for the performance of key finance-related functions including the It is critical to establish the capacity and know-how within the MOE for mounting an effective BPM following: program. This might involve the appointment of an experienced external consultant with relevant and n Defining norms and standards for relating specific items in the recurrent budget to capital successful experience in other countries. The consultant would be mandated to select and train a team investment, such as basing the flow of infrastructure projects on the ability to allocate of qualified Omanis in the principles of process improvement that includes the following phases: sufficient funds for maintenance and developing full-fledged binding allocation formulas n Initial mapping of the process under consideration; wherever possible; n Analysis of the critical success factors of the process; n Improving accounting procedures and practices, particularly those related to internal n Defining the key information elements that need to be collected to expenditure monitoring and external auditing; monitor the outcome of the process; n Introducing rules for cash management, and providing incentives for compliance and disincentives for noncompliance; 95 http://www.fundingeducation.co.uk/grants-for-schools.html n Ensuring that budget allocations and audits of expenditure are transparent; 224 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 8 225 n Performing cost-benefit analyses for all resources and all running programs, identifying There may be scope to promote the expansion of private school provision. programs where the delivery cost is too high relative to the benefits received at destination The private education sector is relatively small in Oman compared to many other countries. Expanding and taking corrective action; private school provision could offer parents greater choices for their children’s education and share the cost responsibilities with the state for those who can afford it. However, care should be taken to ensure n Improving the capacity to mobilize funds in the governorates’ education offices: train staff to that the expansion of private schools does not create a two-tier system, which disadvantages those who analyze information, perform cost analyses, develop project budgets and write better budget attend public schools. To that end, the following measures may be considered: justifications; and n Develop specific, clear and objective criteria (physical, financial and pedagogic) for the estab- n Consider strategies to address overstaffing including (1) adopting a more realistic student- lishment of private providers, and make them publicly available; teacher ratio of 20 instead of the current 12.5 and improving teacher training to ensure the quality of teaching and learning, and (2) increasing the volume of work and improving n Include incentives for the establishment of private schools in remote/underserved areas; nonteaching staff productivity by providing more effective training and professional develop- n Ensure that the state’s support of private institutions is conditional on the commitment to ment opportunities, without contravening the prevailing civil service regulations and codes. admit at least a certain percentage of students from low income families; Applying the BPM methodology to the concerned departments may involve the following n Conduct regular assessments of the conditions of teaching, the quality of education, and the reform initiatives: enforcement of the quota admission requirement. n Conduct workload and staffing analyses, determine shortages and surpluses, adjust staffing levels through redeployment and recruitment, and conduct negotiations with the Ministry of Finance and Ministry of Civil Service to facilitate early retirement of some staff; n Develop norms and standards for human resources deployment, linking deployment to operational requirements; n Deal with overstaffing due to political considerations by retaining staff but increasing work- load and management expectation; n Develop job descriptions specifying the mix of skills and levels of competency required for each type of job; and n Conduct skills’ surveys among job holders, compare with the job descriptions to determine the skills gaps, and develop and carry out training of MOE staff, assigning them where possible to specific units and managers. Similarly, the concerned departments may consider the adoption of BPM with the following measures: n Institute a maintenance culture in the directorates and all schools; n Integrate and upgrade the organizational homes for the provision and management of physical resources both at the head office and in the regional education offices; n Train managers in asset management and ensure that they have sufficient and adequately trained staff; n Develop policies/strategies for provision, deployment and use of physical resources based on operational requirements; n Require service agreements for all office equipment to take effect beyond warrantee periods; n Develop and introduce computer-based asset management systems, and earmark maintenance budgets; n Monitor systematically both the use and utilization of resources, and hold staff accountable for improvement; and n Formulate and implement stocking policy. 226 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality 227 CHAPTER 9 THE WAY FORWARD This is a strategic review of the education sector in Oman intended to assist in the next phase of education system development. Educa- tion is one of the primary functions of any state, as it plays a key role in shaping society, transmitting culture and values, and developing skills and capacities that influence the lives of its citizens. Given the significance of education for society, the economy and the people, education policies require regular review to enable the sector to adapt to changing context and demands. This study, coming after a period of rapid and sustained growth of education participation, is a policy-focused review of the sector. Based on the available infor- mation and data, international comparisons and discussions with stakeholders, the study aims to identify key challenges and propose future policy directions for Oman in its efforts to build on past suc- cess and further advance its education system. It should be noted that this study examines the outcomes of the general education system that has now been replaced by the basic education system, and the outcomes of this new system may be different. 228 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 9 229 Since the 1970s, Oman has achieved an impressive increase in education access. Building on a long tradition of family and community education, the country moved rapidly to increase enrollment in a modern education system aligned with international norms. Enrollment grew from only 909 students in 1970 to over 600,000 in 2008/09. By 2008/09 the gross enrollment ratio (GER) in basic education (grades 1–10) exceeded 97 percent while the enrollment rate in post-basic education (grades 11–12) was 86 percent. In parallel, the capacity of the higher education sector has grown rapidly with the opening of Sultan Qaboos University, colleges of technology, colleges of applied sciences and other providers, as well as the growth of private universities. Currently more than half (55 percent) of those completing grade 12 progress to higher education, of whom 92 percent study in Oman (figure 2.4). As a result of this rapid growth, education participation in Oman is now at a higher level than the average for middle-income countries but still lags well behind the leading high-income countries. The gross enrollment ratio (GER) for upper secondary education was 90 percent for Omani nationals in 2008/09, significantly above the average for middle-income countries of 54 percent but lower than the average of 99 percent for high-income countries (appendix D). At tertiary education, Oman’s GER of 35 percent was higher than many Middle East and North Africa (MENA) countries but well behind the 70 percent average of OECD countries. As Oman seeks to develop a strong internationally competitive economy based on the skills of its people, it is important that the success in expanding education access is matched by the development of high standards in education. At present, there are a series of challenges to learning quality. First, learning outcomes in Oman, while similar to those in neighboring countries, lag well behind some other high-income countries, such as the Republic of Korea and Singapore. Second, Oman has a very significant gender gap with girls outper- forming boys. Third, there are some concerns about education’s relevance to the needs of young people and employers. There is evidence from a variety of sources that learning outcomes lag behind expectations and behind the leading countries internationally. The UNESCO/UNICEF Monitoring Learning Achievement studies conducted between 1993 and 2004 found low student achievement, particularly in grade 6 mathematics. The 2006/07 and the 2008/09 national assessments of student achievement levels for grades 7 and 4, respectively, found that students did not generally reach the Ministry of Education’s (MOE) expected standard. Oman partici- pated in the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), which provided a rigorous international comparison of standards at grade 8. The majority of items in both tests were considered appropriate, according to the review panels established by the Tests and Examinations Administration Department (TEAD) for this study. Yet in mathematics, Oman was ranked 41st of the 49 countries participating with an average score well below the overall average. The Omani students did better than students in neighboring countries, including Kuwait, Qatar and Saudi Arabia. The scale of the performance gap between Oman and the leading countries in the study (Chinese Taipei, the Republic of Korea, Singapore and Hong Kong), however, is a cause for some concern. A top student in Oman (better than 90 percent of students) would have been placed no higher than the bottom 15 percent of students in Singapore. In science, the average performance of Oman’s students placed them in the middle range of Arabic-speaking countries and below the high-scoring countries. Oman was ranked 36th out of the 48 participating countries. Their rank placed them above five and below four other Arabic- speaking countries. 230 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 9 231 School leavers are not always adequately prepared for tertiary education. among the youngest age groups. At the same time, Oman is heavily reliant on expatriate workers. The majority of students entering higher education institutes are required to take a foundation year to Expatriates make up 36 percent of the population but account for 75 percent of the labor force. bring them up to the required standard to complete their studies successfully, particularly in English Expatriate workers are concentrated in the private sector where they make up 85 percent of all language. At Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) for example, in 2007/08 there were 13 students in foun- workers. In a focus group discussion in November 2009, employers expressed a general dissatisfac- dation year for every 10 in first year. In focus groups conducted for this study, academics expressed tion with the employability of Omani graduates. The employers tended to prefer hiring expatriates or the view that new entrants from the general education system are not “college ready� and that their Omanis educated overseas rather than Omanis educated domestically. The employers argued that high scores from secondary schools do not truly indicate a high level of abilities and skills. Despite graduates from Omani higher education institutions were not in general well prepared for work. In competitive selection at entry to higher education, graduates from secondary school appear to lack academic disciplines, they were perceived to be good at memorizing but weak on understanding, the basic skills and attitudes that are required to undertake university-level studies and to perform to suggesting that courses at higher education should concentrate more on understanding. In the more standards at this level. generic skills, Oman’s graduates exhibited poor skills in teamwork, public speaking, problem solving, and critical thinking, and they lacked a strong work ethic and willingness to take responsibility. Girls as a group substantially outscore boys on measures of student achievement. In the 2009 grade 12 examination, 92 percent of Omani girls achieved a pass compared with The expectations and self perception of young school leavers and graduates may be 83 percent of boys. On each of the national assessments, girls outperformed boys. In the TIMSS study, very different from those of employers. girls outperformed boys by an average of 54 points in mathematics and 60 points in science. Analysis While employers expressed concern about the employability of recent graduates, most young job of teacher ratings in grade 1 suggests that the gender difference is apparent from the earliest grades. seekers believe that the education system has prepared them adequately for work. Teacher assess- The scale of these differences is very significant. Based on TIMSS data in mathematics, if Omani boys ments of students tend to be optimistic and may provide students with unrealistic opinions of their performed at the same level as girls it would lift the country from 41st place to 30th place of the 49 academic performance. Further, young graduates tend to expect desk jobs with relatively short participating countries. The TIMSS study found that Oman’s gender gap was greater than the gender working hours. gap in any of the participating countries, including the neighboring GCC countries. Analysis of teacher ratings in grade 1 suggests that because gender differences in ratings are apparent from the earliest grades, their origins may lie in childrearing practices before the child enters school. The extent of the gender gap has resulted in the imposition of quotas on girls’ entry to universities. Analysis of the HEAC offers in December 2009 suggests that the number of girls offered places in engineering courses would have increased by 82 percent if there had been no quota imposed. Although girls are performing better than boys in the education system, they are underrepresented in the workforce. The majority (61 percent) of graduates in the population are female but only 25 percent of females over the age of 15 are active in the workforce, compared with 77 percent of males (2003 data). The Labor Force Survey (2008) found that one-fifth of job seekers were unwilling to accept work in the private sector. The reluctance to accept private sector employment was particularly strong among female job seekers. At present, public sector employment dominates the Omani labor market, but national strategy envisages a shift to greater private sector employment, a transition that will place new demands on the education system. In 2003, public administration and education together accounted for 38 percent of the labor force, while manufacturing employed only 9 percent. In the transition to a more competitive economy, it is expected that the proportion in private employment in the manufacturing and service sectors will increase. This transition is likely to have an impact on skills profiles required of employees. In the service sector, small and medium enterprises (SMEs) dominate, and more than 85 percent of registered Omani companies have less than 100 employees. In such small enterprises, there are fewer layers of management and a greater demand for employees to be able to carry out multiple functions, be flexible, solve problems and act on their own initiative. There are indications that Oman’s young people are not always well prepared for employment. There is high unemployment of young Omanis. The Labor Force Survey indicates that approximately 40 percent of the economically active population is seeking employment, and unemployment is highest 232 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 9 233 9.1 F A C T O R S C O N T R I B U T I N G TO THE Teachers seem somewhat complacent about current academic standards. Although Oman’s performance on TIMSS was relatively poor, the TIMSS data indicates that the majority QU A L I T Y A N D R E L E V A N CE CHALLENGE of teachers felt that their grade 8 students were very well prepared for the science test. Teacher- awarded grades reflect this optimistic view of standards: in science, 32 percent of students were The issues of quality and relevance are closely interconnected. The data on learning outcomes suggest awarded an A or B grade by their teacher. that despite high passing rates in school-based tests and national examinations, the level of student achievement appears low, as judged by the performance of grade 8 students in TIMSS. Students may be leaving school with unjustified levels of confidence in their own abilities and with insufficient skills to meet the demands and expectations of an increasingly competitive global labor market. 9.2 THE WAY FORWARD Children in Oman start school relatively late. Children normally start school at age 6. They are required to be at least 5 years and 9 months old by the end of September to enter public schools; this is later than the norm in most high-income countries. Focusing on Quality of Educational Outcomes In the absence of universal public preschool provision, only 39 percent of 4–5 year olds were enrolled in preschool in 2008/09 (chapter 2). International evidence suggests that early childhood education Improving the quality of educational outcomes is perhaps the single greatest makes a significant contribution to school readiness and is particularly important for children coming challenge facing the education sector. from the least educated families. Better educational outcomes in Oman will enhance its competitiveness and assist in attaining its economic goals. Improvements in educational outcomes for all citizens will increase the opportunities Time on task is limited by the relatively short school year. available to them, particularly for those with lower household incomes or from homes with less educa- While the official target of a 180-day school year is similar in length to that of many countries, in tion. While improving quality is a complex, multifaceted task requiring a sustained effort, there are a reality the school year is attenuated by the grade 12 public examinations and by special events. These series of measures that are recommended as priorities. examinations are held twice a year, resulting in cancelled classes. This has an impact even on junior classes, as cycle one teachers are used as examination invigilators. The cumulative effect of absences The MOE could seek to increase the time that students spend engaged in meaningful and cancelled classes for public examinations is estimated, based on focus group discussions, to be a learning tasks to be in line with the international norm. school year as short as 110 days for boys and 126 days for girls. In effect, the number of actual days The OECD countries participating in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) that students spend in school can be as low as two-thirds of the expected or officially approved number average over 900 contact hours per year, which could be achieved by 180 school days of five contact of days. hours each. A series of measures could increase time on task. The school year could be extended to reach the official target of 180 school days. Erosion of time from examinations could be reduced by For boys, there is relatively little use of out-of-school time for educational purposes. ending class cancellation during examinations, by not allowing grade 12 students to be absent for The TIMSS survey revealed that boys tended to spend less time than girls on homework and extended periods in advance of the public examinations, and by reverting to one examination period per reading for enjoyment. Girls also tended to spend less time watching television or videos or playing year. Loss of instructional time to festivals, sports events and other functions could be reduced by strict computer games. enforcement of a policy of a minimum number of teaching days, leaving schools free to extend the term Curricula and examinations allow success through memorization. at will to incorporate other events. At grade 12, a tradition of past examinations dictates instruction, and teachers tend to “teach to the test.� The two-semester examination system, which is currently being reviewed by the MOE, may also There is a need to develop a culture of high standards of student learning. encourage this approach, as it enables students to study for only a portion of the curriculum for each This involves a coordinated values change within the system, driven by realistic monitoring and reporting examination. The gap between school examination results and TIMSS performance (which emphasizes of standards. Key actions include setting clear and realistic learning targets for each grade, encour- problem solving) illustrates the extent of this phenomenon. The relatively high subject load in grade aging teachers to monitor learning regularly, and aligning curricula and examinations with the aim of 12, in which students take eight core subjects along with three elective subjects and a project, also improving quality. Public examinations could be reformed to increasingly assess higher-order skills, and encourages superficial engagement with each subject. The MOE has begun to address these issues; to become less predictable. A focus on standards may be encouraged by regular and realistic feedback changes have been made to the examinations with the aim that at least 20 percent of questions require to parents, showing how children are doing relative to national and regional norms. Examination results higher-order thinking. The post-basic education cycle is being evaluated, and the number of subjects is could be analyzed and used to identify and address learning difficulties. under review. There is a need to examine and address the underachievement of boys. Teacher preparation is not adequately focused on pedagogical skills development. Boys’ underachievement represents one of the major threats to education quality in Oman and in the To teach for understanding, teachers need a repertoire of pedagogical skills, which can be developed long term may undermine national competitiveness and productivity. This is a complex and multidimen- and refined with practice. Current systems of initial teacher education include limited teaching practice sional problem, which extends beyond the education system. A good deal is already known about the and a relatively high proportion of theoretical content. Student teachers expressed concern that they gender gap. As early as grade 1, teachers rate girls higher than boys, which suggests that part of the were not well prepared for classroom reality. gap arises from preparation before entering school. TIMSS data suggests that girls at grade 8 spend more of their out-of-school time on educationally supportive activities, such as reading for enjoyment 234 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 9 235 and doing homework. Within schools, grade 12 girls receive over 10 percent more days of schooling Developing an Appropriate Teaching Force than grade 12 boys, due to the nonattendance of boys immediately prior to public examinations. Yet the TIMSS measures of confidence suggest that boys are as confident as girls about their ability in with Strong Pedagogical Skills mathematics. Taken together, these suggest that parents and schools have lower academic expecta- tions for boys and contribute to giving boys an unjustified level of confidence in their academic progress. To ensure teaching quality in school, there is a need to develop an adequate supply Addressing these issues will be a slow process and will involve increasing parent awareness of the of teachers. gender gap, setting higher expectations for boys, and providing them with realistic and valid assess- In the short term, there is an imbalance of teacher supply with shortages in some specializations but ments of their performance. an oversupply in many others. Oman’s teacher education institutions operate within an overall cap on numbers but more could be done to guide the numbers in each specialty. Publication of projected Efforts could be made to increase the involvement of parents and the wider teacher requirements, if approximate, could send a signal to parents and those wishing to enter the community in education. profession. This could result in greater demand for the subject areas where there is likely to be more Parental involvement in schools is likely to increase their monitoring of and support for student home- employment and may have some impact on the choices of Omanis who study abroad. Looking forward, work and to increase student perception of the relevance and importance of their studies. At a national teacher supply could be adjusted to the long-term needs of the Sultanate. This will mean scaling the level, efforts could be made to impress on parents the importance of their roles in enhancing their initial teacher education capacity to the expected long-term demand for teachers and ensuring that children’s learning (promoting reading, monitoring homework, organizing extracurricular activities, there is an adequate supply (slightly more than the projected requirements) in each area. In particular, reducing student absenteeism). At the school level, each institution could seek to encourage meaningful the closure of many teacher preparation courses for basic education cycle one is a cause for concern, parent involvement in school life through parent and teachers committees. as it may lead to renewed reliance on expatriate teachers in this vital area. Deployment of teachers will need to be addressed more vigorously to reduce reliance on expatriate teachers. Expanding Access in Specific Areas Three actions are suggested. First, a more substantial additional allowance could be paid to teachers in carefully targeted remote schools. Second, the duration of stay in school before requesting a transfer Consideration could be given to the expansion of early childhood (currently one year) could be extended to increase supply and improve continuity in remote schools. education (ECE) provision. Third, greater preference could be given to candidates from remote areas at point of entry to teacher Omani children start school relatively late, and international research points to the importance of ECE education courses and in recruitment. It may be desirable to reserve a certain number of special places in laying a good foundation. There is strong demand for preschool education, as demonstrated by the in teacher training for applicants from remote areas, linked with a bonding system requiring them to growth of private preschools. This private provision is regressive and benefits mainly the better-off return to work in those areas for a period after graduation. and best-educated families. Expansion of publically financed preschool education is one of the most promising ways to enhance educational outcomes, particularly for the poorest and least educated The quality and consistency of teacher education could be enhanced through sections of society. Preschool provision could be expanded rapidly by either (1) attaching preschool a system of regulation. classes to existing schools, or (2) using a voucher scheme to finance participation in private preschool This could be used to ensure that (1) teacher preparation is well matched to the curriculum they education at agreed rates, although this mechanism is currently subject to debate in the professional are expected to teach and (2) pedagogical skills development is given an appropriate priority within literature. Whichever route is followed, the provision could initially be targeted in areas of poor educa- the teacher education program. Such a system of teacher recognition could help to ensure a closer tional performance. With the involvement of all relevant ministries, the Government could develop a alignment between the teacher education programs and the school curriculum, reducing the risk of comprehensive and implementable ECE strategy that links to an overall education vision. out-of-field teaching. Further efforts may be needed to enhance the quality of pedagogical preparation of teachers. At present the practical component of teacher education courses is relatively small, is late in In collaboration with relevant ministries, the MOE could seek to ensure adequate the program and carries relatively little weight in the final mark. Measures could be taken to ensure that coverage of special needs education, particularly in rural areas. practical teaching skills are given greater weight and better integrated into initial teacher education. A coherent national strategy for special needs education developed by the MOE in cooperation with the As many of the academic staff engaged in teacher education have limited school teaching experience, Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Social Development could be considered. This would include estab- it may be beneficial to develop a system of temporary secondment of experienced teachers to teacher lishing mechanisms for identifying and evaluating children with special needs; collecting reliable data to education institutions. determine the need; and appropriately training teachers in public schools who have responsibility for integrating students with special needs. Teachers’ work could be refocused on teaching quality and student learning. At present, teacher teaching time is relatively low, yet teachers complain of an overload of paperwork Adult literacy courses could be examined with a view to improving their relevance and reporting. Reporting and evaluation systems could be simplified, and teacher contact time increased and coverage. to rebalance teachers’ work in favor of teaching. Supervision, monitoring and appraisal systems could Conducting an evaluation of the literacy program curricula and of the needs of potential adult learners be similarly rebalanced to prioritize teacher performance in the classroom over the paperwork. Within will be the first steps toward improving literacy education provision. In particular given low rates of the classroom, teachers’ work could prioritize the teaching of curricular topics, using after-class participation for males, examining program relevance will be important. Identifying steps to improve time for extracurricular activities. Teacher specialization in the early grades, which tends to impede program quality and availability should follow. This includes developing a policy to attract and retain teachers’ ability to get to know their students and address their individual needs, could be avoided suitably qualified teachers for literacy courses. wherever possible. 236 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 9 237 The provision of in-service continuing professional development could be used to As the education system seeks to become more responsive to the needs of the enhance the focus on teaching and learning. learners and the labor market, it will be necessary to improve the flexibility within Priority could be given to in-service courses related to teaching and learning, particularly to those the system. involving practical classroom skills and delivered by experienced teachers. The cascade model of Mechanisms that enable learners to delay specialization into specific tracks, to change track after delivery is unlikely the optimal method for changing teachers’ classroom practices. As teacher-peer specialization and to return to learning after work experience all help to build a flexible education activities are a promising way to enhance classroom practices, activities that bring teachers together system, which promotes lifelong learning and allows individuals to adapt their education to their needs. to develop their teaching skills could receive support. Consideration could also be given to forming As part of the process of developing such a system, consideration could be given to the development of regional teacher subject associations where interested teachers of the same subjects have opportuni- a national qualifications framework. ties to share experiences and discuss practices. Improving Education Relevance 9.3 MANAGEMENT AND The linkages among the education system, higher education and employers could be FINANCIAL IMPLICATIONS strengthened to improve education relevance. This could begin with sharing information on employer and university requirements and on the expecta- tions of the basic and post-basic education system. The National Career Guidance Center (NCGC) is Strengthening the Sector’s Vision and Planning well placed to play a key role in this task. In the longer term, curricula and standards may need to be revised to improve labor market relevance. Employers are likely to require a mix of academic and Planning to ensure alignment of education outcomes with national needs will require practical skills. The education system could seek to reduce the separation between the academic and enhanced interministerial collaboration. vocational streams, so that more students emerge with good quality academic and technical skills. This As education is a key national priority, the major focus of public expenditure and an important determi- could be achieved by introducing some technical or vocational subjects into post-basic education, thus nant of Oman’s economic future, its scope stretches beyond the MOE alone. The national strategy for allowing individual students to study a blend of academic and vocational content. In addition, it may be education involves the Ministries of Education, Higher Education, Manpower, Social Development and, possible to encourage some schools to build specific specialist areas, allowing them to become centers of course, Finance. In building a coherent integrated strategy for education, close cooperation among of excellence in these subjects (box 6.4). Perhaps more importantly, employers are likely to value the the relevant ministries will be needed. A high-level body with representation from these ministries metacognitive skills (beyond simply knowing) of the young people they employ. These skills include the and a variety of other stakeholders, including the private sector, could help to guide the sector. The ability to learn new skills quickly, attitude to work, ability to solve problems, and working well with a proposed National Council for Education could be developed to fulfill this role. Close interministerial and team. As curricula are revised, content could incorporate the acquisition of these key skills, along with interagency collaboration will be needed in areas such as aligning teacher supply with requirements and academic subject matter. Incorporation of work experience into school programs could be considered, revising curricula for the changing needs of both society and the labor market. as part of the adjustment of school curricula to life skills. The collection and usage of data to guide system planning could be improved. The key to education relevance remains quality, particularly in the higher-order skills Limitations of the data available in certain areas of the education system could be addressed to support of thinking, analysis and problem solving. decision making. The policy relevance of financial analysis could be enhanced by reclassification of budg- Improving education quality will enhance the employability of school leavers. Standards of English are etary data in line with objectives. Key education indicators could be produced and tracked if accurate important in the private sector and, in particular, in the export-driven sectors. Expertise in mathematics population data for non-Omani children were available. Relevance and labor market demand could be and science is also highly valued by employers and is a prerequisite for many of the technology-related better monitored if detailed data tracking school leavers and graduates were available. Oman has jobs in the industrial sector. Improving post-basic education quality is likely to require a reduction in the already invested heavily in the ICT infrastructure in the education sector, including the E-Portal and the number of subjects studied and a greater focus on understanding of concepts within those subjects. In associated databases. There is now an opportunity to enhance the data emerging from this source and collaboration, the MOE and Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) could analyze the main weaknesses of to use it in shaping the sector. grade 12 graduates in terms of readiness for higher education to address these weaknesses, so that a “foundation year� is no longer necessary. A comprehensive national qualifications framework (NQF) could be developed to allow comparisons of educational and training qualifications and to facilitate movement It may be necessary to review the selection system for entry to higher education. between courses and paths. The current system seems to provide perverse incentives, encouraging students to take subjects of The MOHE currently has a qualifications framework for higher education, however, it does not include little interest in order to gain the points required to get a place in university to study their subject of post-basic education or technical and vocational qualifications. By expanding this framework to include interest. This may be addressed by ensuring consistent standards across subjects or by adjusting all qualifications, a comprehensive NQF for Oman could facilitate transfers of credits across the different the selection mechanism to ensure that relevant subjects for particular courses of study get priority types and levels of education. weighting in calculating the selection points. 238 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 9 239 There is scope for the use of systematic evaluations to guide policy making. Reviewing the Financial Structure Major initiatives, including the use of whole-school evaluation, current provision of in-service teacher training, and provision of guidance counseling could be evaluated systematically and rigorously with In further expanding education coverage while developing quality and equal a view to guiding their future development. In developing a strong culture of evaluation in education, a opportunities, it will be necessary to review education system financing. National Education Research and Evaluation Center could be established to train and develop a strong Oman currently allocates a high proportion of its civil ministries’ resources to the education sector. corps of expertise in educational research, program and product evaluation, test and questionnaire Recurrent expenditure in education (including the MOE, MOHE, SQU and Ministry of Manpower) development, and sampling and statistical analysis to (1) conduct regular national assessments of accounts for 37.2 percent of all civil ministries’ recurrent expenditure or 17.5 percent of all govern- student achievement levels; (2) coordinate involvement in international and regional assessments and ment recurrent expenditure. Education costs have been increasing in real terms and at a faster rate studies; (3) carry out objective evaluations of programs and activities; and (4) provide technical support than the increase in student numbers. Since Oman already allocates a high proportion of civil ministries’ for standard setting for student learning. funds to education, further developments are likely to rely more on efficiency gains and on private financing. Efficiency gains might include, for example, improving the budgeting system, reviewing the remuneration and staffing policies and conducting a public expenditures tracking survey (PETS) to Enhancing the Sector’s Management Capacity precisely identify bottlenecks. There is a need to develop the leadership and management skills of managers in the A move from input-based financing to an output-based approach could enhance the education sector at a range of levels. use of the budget as a financial control mechanism and a policy instrument. This would involve linking resource allocations to specific outputs and functions, thus providing a At present, many in key leadership roles have been assigned to those positions without meaningful transparent financial incentive to promote performance. Output-based budgets could be determined training and preparation. Personnel appointed to leadership roles could receive systematic training in in the context of a medium-term expenditure framework, which provides stability and predictability education leadership at central, local and school levels. This could be a partnership with universities within the sector (box 7.3). As a first step, the MOE could commission a PETS to examine the existing and could take the form of a postgraduate course, such as a postgraduate diploma program in educa- resource flows. tion leadership and management. In developing leadership capacity, it will be necessary to define clear roles and responsibilities for MOE staff to reduce duplication of effort and enhance accountability and There is some scope for efficiency in teacher allocation and utilization. transparency of performance. Currently staff costs account for over 90 percent of recurrent education expenditure, higher than the 63 percent average in the 22 countries for which data is available. High staffing levels in schools drive There is scope for further moves towards decentralization and these relatively high staff costs. Nationally in 2008/09, the average student-teacher ratio was 12.5, school-based management. compared with the OECD average of 17 (in primary schools). These very favorable staffing levels are not School-based management could be extended to all schools, including schools teaching cycle one reflected in improved class sizes; in fact the average class size of 27 is larger than the OECD average. and two. The decentralization of responsibility to governorates and regions could be deepened and Relatively modest changes in the teaching hours of each teacher could be used either to reduce class extended. These changes could be phased in gradually and in parallel with appropriate capacity building sizes or to release resources to expand preschool education. A change from the current allocation of and accountability measures. 2.2 teachers per class to 2 teachers per class, for example, would release 3,800 teachers—more than enough to provide a preschool class at each school. Performance Management There is some scope for increasing the share of education expenditure with private sources in higher education. The key to any education system is personnel performance, and some attention Currently private expenditure on education is low, accounting for only 4.3 percent of household could be given to structures that encourage and reward performance of teachers expenditure (Income and Expenditures Survey 2007/08). The popularity of private education provision in preschool and in higher education demonstrates the demand for education and willingness to pay and administrators. where publicly funded services are not available. Reliance on private finance, however, tends to have The existing performance management system allows teachers to make progress up the salary scale socially regressive effects, as the wealthier families are more able to afford education services. In if they receive satisfactory ratings. Only a tiny percentage of education personnel, however, are denied principle, therefore, cost sharing with private sources is more appropriate at the upper end of the salary progression (typically 1–2 percent), so the system has little impact as an incentive for excellence. system (such as in higher education) where the private returns to education are sizeable and could be accompanied by a targeted grant scheme to ensure that the poorest families are not excluded. Consideration could be given to the development of a career structure where promotion is linked to performance. For teachers, this could be a more competitive system for selection of senior teachers using a competi- tive interview and drawing on data, such as attendance at school, completion of recognized in-service courses and principal’s reports. Such a system would provide incentives for regular attendance, positive engagement with continuous professional development and a positive professional attitude within the school. This system would be easiest to accomplish in the context of a broader reform of civil service pay scales and promotion structures. 240 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 9 241 9.4 I M P R O V I N G T HE Q U A L I T Y OF EDUCATION IN OMAN: In Collabo- Time Policy Recommendation Rationale A R E V IE W O F P O L I C Y R E COMMENDATIONS ration Frame With A.2.5 Analyze examination results to identify and address Interested MOE Director Generals receive Short This report acknowledges the tremendous achievements that Oman has made in education provision to learning difficulties; determine specific subject areas examination results, but data are not used for in-service teacher education focus. as a learning tool. date, and the capacity and political will that has facilitated the remarkable accomplishments. The report offers some policy recommendations on the way forward for Oman’s education sector. A summary of the report’s key policy findings are outlined in a policy matrix that follows in table 9.1. The matrix high- A.2.6 Support long-term research and evaluation Few TEAD staff have technical training in Medium/ program for Tests and Examinations Administration key aspects of examination paper develop- long lights not only the report’s recommendations and their rationales but also the relevant ministries and Department (TEAD) staff to strengthen examination ment, research and evaluation. stakeholders whose collaboration is essential for the success of each step. The challenge of improving system quality and to provide useful feedback to policy education quality is not insurmountable for Oman, but it will require a shared vision, careful planning, makers and stakeholders. focused use of resources and collaborative work involving all relevant stakeholders. A.2.7 Implement a program of activities to improve Moderation is an essential component of Schools/ Short continuous assessment (CA) program by establishing effective CA and currently lacks rigor in teachers moderation review committees. Oman. Table 9.1 Matrix of Policy Recommendations for the Ministry of Education (MOE) A.2.8 Consider global trends in curriculum development; The experience of other countries can Short examine national/state curricula and experience enhance curriculum development. of other countries and international/national In assessments to identify areas that could improve Collabo- Time Omani curriculum quality. Policy Recommendation Rationale ration Frame With A.2.9 Strengthen technical competence of Curriculum CDD staff recruited mostly from teaching Ministry Short A. Focusing on Quality Development Directorate (CDD) staff in curriculum profession so lack formal training in of Higher development. Consider a twinning arrangement with curriculum development and evaluation. Education an internationally respected center. (MOHE) A.1 Increase student time on meaningful learning A.1.1 Meet target of a 180-day school year. To enforce the The official annual target is 180 school Short A.3 Examine and address boys’ underachievement target, the MOE should days, but the actual number is substantially (a) Require term extension for lost official school days; shorter due to school closures for events A.3.1 Increase parental awareness of the gender gap and set TIMSS 2007 shows Oman’s gender gap Parents Short and use of teachers as examination higher expectations for boys. is the highest. Reasons for significant and (b) Keep grades 1–11 operating before and during invigilators, resulting in class cancellations. grade 12 examinations; performance gap for boys may lie in use schools of out-of-school time and child-rearing (c) Hold grade 12 examinations at school year end; practices. and (d) Ensure teachers prioritize curricular topics, using A.3.2 Provide boys and their parents with realistic and valid Despite their poor TIMSS 2007 results, Schools Short after-class time for extracurricular activities. performance assessments. boys had unjustifiably high confidence levels and in their academic progress. teachers A.2 Develop a culture of high learning standards and align with curricula and public examinations A.3.3 Undertake a comprehensive empirical study to identify Key issues in boys’ underachievement are Short key factors affecting boys’ underachievement. not well understood. A.2.1 Set clear and realistic learning targets for each grade Sharing clear and realistic targets with Short and encourage teachers to monitor learning regularly. stakeholders can raise learning quality. A.2.2 Reform public examination content to increase Predictability of public examinations can Medium/ A.4 Increase involvement of parents and community in education assessment of higher order skills. encourage rote learning rather than long develop higher-order skills. A.4.1 Run public awareness campaign to inform parents of Home is a critical factor in overall Schools Short their potential to enhance children’s development and development. Parents can read, monitor and attitudes toward learning and achievement. homework, organize extracurricular activi- parents A.2.3 Provide regular and realistic feedback to parents A disconnect is evident between students’ Short ties and encourage school attendance. and link appropriate achievement information to actual achievement and their confidence in national norms. their abilities. A.4.2 Encourage meaningful parent involvement in school life With involvement, parents can understand Schools Medium/ through parent-teacher committees. schools' expectations and can improve long A2.4 Support further development of regular national Policy makers lack good quality, timely data Medium/ students’ perception of schoolwork's monitoring of student achievement levels to produce on student achievement of key learning long importance. valid, objective data for policy makers. objectives. Short-term: implemented within five years. Short-term: implemented within five years. Medium/long-term: implemented beyond five years Medium/long-term: implemented beyond five years 242 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 9 243 In In Collabo- Time Collabo- Time Policy Recommendation Rationale Policy Recommendation Rationale ration Frame ration Frame With With B. Expanding Participation in Specific Areas C. Developing an Appropriate Teaching Force with Strong Pedagogical Skills B.1 Expand provision of early childhood education (ECE) C.1 Develop an adequate supply of teachers B.1.1 Expand publicly financed preschool education. International research shows ECE impor- Medium/ C.1.1 Guide teacher education institutions with specific An imbalance exists with shortages in some MOHE Short tance. Participation in ECE is low in Oman, long numbers for each specialty. specializations and oversupply in others. but private preschool growth reflects strong demand. C.1.2 Publish figures on projected teacher requirements. Requirement projections could assist Short students in course selection for future B.1.2 Target areas of poor educational performance initially. Benefits of ECE are usually substantial for Short employment. children from the least affluent and least- educated families. C.1.3 Adjust long-term teacher supply to meet projected Ensuring an adequate supply of teachers MOHE Medium/ demand in each subject area. will reduce reliance on expatriates. Recent long B.1.3 Develop an ECE strategy that links with an overall A national strategy coordinating all relevant All Short changes have reduced the output of education vision and includes a diagnosis, long-term stakeholders will ensure expansion and stake- teachers for basic education cycle one and vision, short-medium term strategic plan and improvement of ECE. holders may result in reliance on teachers trained implementation arrangement. in other countries in the medium term. B.2 Expand special needs education C.1.4 Staff ECE preparation classes attached to basic educa- Employing qualified staff will ensure high Short tion schools with qualified teachers who have the same quality ECE and help retain staff. B.2.1 Develop a coherent national strategy for special needs A national strategy coordinating all relevant MOH and Short employment status as basic education teachers. education. ministries (including Ministry of Health MOSD (MOH) and Ministry of Social Development (MOSD)) will manage special needs educa- tion issues coherently. C.2 Address issues of teacher deployment C.2.1 Provide a substantial additional allowance for teachers Teachers tend to leave remote area Medium/ B.2.2 Establish mechanisms for identifying and evaluating Oman currently lacks adequate mecha- MOH and Short in carefully targeted remote schools. schools after serving relatively short long children with special needs. nisms for identifying and evaluating children MOSD periods; these areas are over reliant on with special needs. expatriate teachers. B.2.3 Collect reliable data on demand for educational Lack of reliable data hampers the MOH and Short C.2.2 Extend teacher duration of stay in remote area schools Current duration before transfer request Short facilities to serve children with special needs. appropriate strategy development. MOSD before granting transfer. is one year. B.2.4 Provide appropriate training for public school Teachers currently receive little training to MOHE Medium/ C.2.3 Give preference to remote area candidates when Teachers from remote areas are more MOHE Short teachers responsible for integrating students with adapt teaching methods for class long selecting students for preservice teacher education likely to remain than those from urban special needs. integration of special needs children. courses and for subsequent recruitment. areas. B.3 Improve adult literacy education quality C.3 Enhance teacher education quality and consistency B.3.1 Evaluate literacy program curriculum and delivery The current literacy program is relatively Short methods; conduct a literacy needs assessment for small, has problems attracting good tutors C.3.1 Regulate teacher education courses to ensure Teacher preparation courses do not match MOHE Short potential adult learners and dropouts from formal or teachers and has a substantial under- preparation for curriculum and emphasize practical the current curriculum well, and practical education system, particularly males. representation of males. development of pedagogical skills. Increase teaching component of teacher education courses practice hours and enhance the role of the coop- is small. erating teacher. Consider accreditation of teacher education courses that meet required standards. B.3.2 Enhance the quality of the literacy program by creating Oman's literacy levels have improved Medium/ more centers for literacy courses, improving the considerably but measures exist to reduce long curriculum and supporting materials, and developing illiteracy further and to improve literacy a policy to attract and retain suitable teachers. learning quality. C.3.2 Develop a system of temporary secondment of experi- Many teacher trainers have limited school MOHE Medium/ enced teachers to teacher education institutions. teaching experience. long Short-term: implemented within five years. Short-term: implemented within five years. Medium/long-term: implemented beyond five years Medium/long-term: implemented beyond five years 244 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Chapter 9 245 In In Collabo- Time Collabo- Time Policy Recommendation Rationale Policy Recommendation Rationale ration Frame ration Frame With With C.4 Focus teachers on quality of teaching and student learning D.2 Improve the quality of curricula C.4.1 To increase teaching time, simplify reporting and Despite low teaching loads, teachers Short D.2.1 Clarify necessary aspects of English language learning Most HEIs instruct in English: feedback Short evaluation. Rebalance supervision, monitoring and complain of an overload of time devoted to (reading, writing, oral skills or listening skills); modify indicates new entrant English levels are appraisal to prioritize teacher classroom performance paperwork, recording and reporting. the curriculum; and prioritize appropriate teaching low. Spoken English standards also concern over paperwork. methods. employers. D.2.2 Review mathematics and science curriculum. Evidence suggests unsatisfactory achieve- Short C.4.2 Avoid teacher specialization in early grades. Specialization can impede teachers' ability Schools Medium/ ment in mathematics and science. Improve to know students, address individual needs long student learning quality in these subjects and integrate learning. highly valued by employers. D.2.3 Reduce the number of subjects required in post-basic To improve post-basic education quality, Short education. reduce required subjects and increase C.5 Focus in-service continuing professional development on teaching and learning understanding of priority subjects. D.2.4 Improve curriculum development through training and Formal training in curriculum develop- Short C.5.1 Give priority to in-service courses related to teaching To focus on education quality, in-service Schools Short professional development for CDD personnel, and use ment and evaluation lags. National and and learning, particularly on classroom skills delivered training should prioritize teaching for and available appropriate objective student achievement international learning assessments provide by experienced teachers. quality learning. teachers data. useful information for future curriculum development. C.5.2 Support teacher-peer activities, including formation of Cascade model of professional develop- Schools and Short D.3 Increase flexibility within the education system regional teacher subject associations. ment delivery is not optimal for changing teachers teachers’ classroom practices. D.3.1 Build a flexible system that delays specialization, allows International experience indicates consider- MOHE Medium/ changes after specialization, and offers reentry to able benefits from a flexible education long learning after work experience. system, allowing longer participation, transitions to different levels, and transfers D. Improving Education Relevance across courses and institutions. D.3.2 Develop a comprehensive national qualifications A comprehensive NQF allows course MOHE Medium/ D.1 Strengthen links among education system, higher education institutions (HEI) and employers framework (NQF). comparison and facilitates transitions long Short-term: implemented within five years. among pathways. D.1.1 Share information on university and employer There is a lack of information flow between MOHE Short requirements and basic and post-basic education Medium/long-term: HEIs, employers, governmentimplemented and parentsbeyond andfive years system expectations. and students on skills required, recruit- National E. Management and Financial Implications ment plans, assessments of graduates, Career and so on. Guidance E.1 Strengthen sector vision and planning Center (NCGC) E.1.1 All relevant ministries collaborate to develop and As a national priority, education's scope MOHE, Short implement a national education strategy. extends beyond the MOE and MOHE. MOM, MOSD D.1.2 Revise curricula and standards to improve labor Employer feedback suggests curricula and Medium/ and market relevance. school standards could improve. long Ministry of Finance (MOF) D.1.3 Analyze weaknesses of new entrants to higher Most HEIs require entrants to complete a MOHE Short E.1.2 Establish a high-level education development body A coordinating body can organize priorities MOHE, Short education; work to address identified issues to “foundation year� due to their lack of skills, coordinating all relevant ministries, stakeholders and to meet policy goals like revising curricula MOM, eliminate need for a foundation year. particularly in English. the private sector. and aligning teacher training and supply. MOSD, MOF and other relevant D.1.4 Reduce the separation between academic and Employers may require a mix of academic, Medium/ agencies vocational streams; increase vocational course value; practical and metacognitive skills. long and avoid early selection and specialization. E.1.3 Improve data collection and usage for planning. This Currently some key education indicators MOHE Short includes an education management information are not available or inaccurate. This hinders MOM and system based on more accurate, reliable, timely and planning and monitoring progress of MOF publicly available data on all aspects of the education reforms. D.1.5 Incorporate work experience into school programs. Work experience in school could focus Schools Medium/ system. students on necessary skills and guide and long course choices, aiding transition from employers E.1.4 Centralize research and evaluation through a National Numerous bodies do education research Medium/ school to work. Education Research and Evaluation Center; support and evaluation but lack key skills for long its personnel through sustained capacity building to research design, statistics and test provide objective evidence on the educational system. development. For future development, evaluate major initiatives such Short-term: implemented within five years. as whole-school evaluation, in-service teacher training and guidance counseling. Medium/long-term: implemented beyond five years 246 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality In Collabo- Time Policy Recommendation Rationale ration Frame With E.2 Enhance sector management capacity E.2.1 Develop educators' leadership and management skills Many education leaders do not have relevant MOHE Short with systematic training at central, local and school training and preparation for their role. levels, possibly as a postgraduate course. E.2.2 Define clear roles and responsibilities for MOE staff. Reduce duplication and enhance account- Short ability and transparency. E.2.3 Extend school-based management to all schools; Further decentralization to governorates, Medium/ broaden decentralization of responsibility to regions and schools informs decisions based long governorates and regions. on local contexts. E.3 Performance management E.3.1 Consider structures to encourage and reward Current performance management system Medium/ performance of teachers and administrators. has little incentive for excellence. long E.3.2 Consider linking promotion to performance, for Linking promotion to performance could Medium/ example, with a competitive selection system for encourage regular attendance, positive long senior teachers. engagement with professional development and professional attitudes. E.4 Review the financial structure E.4.1 Examine the scope for efficiency gains: improving the A high proportion of civil ministries’ funds MOF Short budget system; reviewing remuneration and staffing are allocated to education, so further policies; and conducting public expenditure tracking development likely to rely on efficiency gains. survey (PETS) to identify bottlenecks. E.4.2 Consider moving from input-based financing to an Linking resource allocations to specific MOF Medium/ output-based approach. outputs and functions provides a trans- long parent financial incentive to promote performance. E.4.3 Review salary bill to improve efficiency in teacher Oman has low student-teacher ratios and Medium/ allocation and utilization and to free more resources high class sizes. Increasing teaching hours long for investment in quality improvement and new could release resources to reduce class initiatives. sizes or expand ECE. E.4.4 Consider diversifying sources of funding while It will be difficult to sustain quality education Medium/ rationalizing expenditures and ensuring equal access; relying solely on public resources. long for example, user financial contributions at post-basic level could be targeted at noncore activities with financial aid for those in need. E.4.5 Increase the scope of private contributions to Opening education to more private Medium/ education. This requires revamping regulatory frame- investment would alleviate the burden long work and strengthening quality control mechanisms. on MOE. Short-term: implemented within five years. Medium/long-term: implemented beyond five years 248 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality 249 APPENDICES 250 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality A p p e n d i ce s 251 APPENDIX A. ECONOMIC DATA Table A.1 Selected Economic Indicators, 1998–2009 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 GNI per capita, World Bank Atlas 6,300 6,090 6,720 7,700 7,870 8,140 9,140 10,380 12,230 14,300 17,890 - method (current US$) Nominal GDP (current RO million) 5,356 5,972 7,479 7,459 7,708 8,283 9,487 11,883 14,151 16,114 23,288 18,020 Real GDP (constant 2000 RO million) 7,191 7,147 7,479 7,895 8,058 8,087 8,362 8,696 9,117 9,794 11,052 11,176 Real GDP growth rate (%) - -0.6 4.6 5.6 2.1 0.4 3.4 4.0 4.8 7.4 12.8 1.1 Nominal GDP per capita (current RO) 2,342 2,569 3,113 3,010 3,037 3,538 3,927 4,736 5,491 5,875 8,123 5,677 Nominal GDP per capita (US$) 6,092 6,681 8,096 7,829 7,899 9,201 10,214 12,316 14,282 15,279 21,126 14,765 Real GDP per capita 3,145 3,074 3,113 3,186 3,175 3,454 3,462 3,466 3,538 3,571 3,855 3,521 (constant RO 2000) GDP deflator (2000=100) 74 84 100 94 96 102 113 137 155 165 211 161 Source: Authors’ calculations based on MONE 2010 and World Bank Data Development Platform. Note: The figures for 2009 are provisional. 252 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality A p p e n d i ce s 253 Table A.2 APPENDIX B. Public Recurrent and Investment Expenditure by Selected Sector, 2005, 2007 and 2009 THE ORGANIZATION OF THE MINISTRY OF ED U C A T I O N All (Current + Capital) Current Capital Figure B.1 2005 2007 2009 2005 2007 2009 2005 2007 2009 The Organization of the Ministry of Education RO million Total Government Expenditure 4,207.6 5,880.5 7,428.7 3,212.0 4,165.6 4,707.1 995.6 1,714.9 2,721.6 Total Civil Ministries 2,077.7 2,737.2 3,850.6 1,531.9 1,898.7 2,216.7 545.8 838.5 1,633.9 M i n i s t e r o f E d u cation Education-related Ministries, of which: 545.9 746.2 948.2 493.2 651.1 823.8 52.7 95.1 124.4 Ministry of Education 394.3 516.9 630.0 360.6 474.5 578.1 33.7 42.4 51.9 Documentation Department Advisors Ministry of Higher Education 24.5 55.8 70.6 22.0 34.8 43.3 2.5 21.0 27.3 Oman National Commission for Sultan Qaboos University 89.6 110.1 142.2 84.6 99.4 127.0 5.0 10.7 15.2 Internal Auditing Department Education, Culture and Science Ministry of Manpower 37.5 63.4 105.4 26.0 42.4 75.4 11.5 21.0 30.0 Legal Affairs Department Minister’s Office Diwan of Royal Court/Royal Court Affairs 283.2 417.1 637.0 192.6 276.0 296.1 90.6 141.1 340.9 Ministry of Transport and Telecommunication 159.0 286.8 581.8 19.1 23.4 26.6 139.9 263.4 555.2 Security Office Ministry of Health 199.6 247.7 332.9 178.8 228.5 295.1 20.8 19.2 37.8 Office of Public Public Coordination Office The Technical Office for School Relations Inquiry and of the Pensions 61.5 180.0 119.8 61.5 180.0 119.8 - - - Studies and Development Cleanliness Department Follow-up Permanent Affairs Ministry of Housing 179.5 190.8 69.8 112.5 100.8 23.1 67.0 90.0 46.7 and Hygiene Department Department Delegation Office for International Educational Percentage of Civil Ministries’ Expenditure (%) Programmes Competition to UNESCO Education-related Ministries, of which: 26.3 27.3 24.6 32.2 34.3 37.2 9.7 11.3 7.6 Follow-up and Performance Evaluation Office Ministry of Education 19.0 18.9 16.4 23.5 25.0 26.1 6.2 5.1 3.2 Ministry of Higher Education 1.2 2.0 1.8 1.4 1.8 2.0 0.5 2.5 1.7 Directorate General of Undersecretary Sultan Qaboos University 4.3 4.0 3.7 5.5 5.2 5.7 0.9 1.3 0.9 Information Technology for Education and Curriculum Ministry of Manpower 1.8 2.3 2.7 1.7 2.2 3.4 2.1 2.5 1.8 Directorate General of Diwan of Royal Court/Royal Court Affairs 13.6 15.2 16.5 12.6 14.5 13.4 16.6 16.8 20.9 Scouts and Guides Ministry of Transport and Telecommunication 7.7 10.5 15.1 1.2 1.2 1.2 25.6 31.4 34.0 Directorate General Directorate General National Career Guidance Centre of Educational Programmes of Curriculum Development Ministry of Health 9.6 9.0 8.6 11.7 12.0 13.3 3.8 2.3 2.3 Pensions 3.0 6.6 3.1 4.0 9.5 5.4 - - - Directorate General of Private Schools Directorate General of Education Ministry of Housing 8.6 7.0 1.8 7.3 5.3 1.0 12.3 10.7 2.9 Muscat Governorate Percentage of Total Government Expenditure (%) Directorate General of Education Education-related Ministries, of which: 13.0 12.7 12.8 15.4 15.6 17.5 5.3 5.5 4.6 Dhofar Governorate Undersecretary Ministry of Education 9.4 8.8 8.5 11.2 11.4 12.3 3.4 2.5 1.9 Directorate General of Education for Educational Planning and Musandam Governorate Human Resources Development Ministry of Higher Education 0.6 0.9 1.0 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.3 1.2 1.0 Directorate General of Education Sultan Qaboos University 2.1 1.9 1.9 2.6 2.4 2.7 0.5 0.6 0.6 Al Buraimi Governorate Ministry of Manpower 0.9 1.1 1.4 0.8 1.0 1.6 1.2 1.2 1.1 Directorate General of Human Directorate General of Directorate General of Education Resources Development Planning and Quality Control Diwan of Royal Court/Royal Court Affairs 6.7 7.1 8.6 6.0 6.6 6.3 9.1 8.2 12.5 Dakhliyah Region Directorate General Ministry of Transport and Telecommunication 3.8 4.9 7.8 0.6 0.6 0.6 14.1 15.4 20.4 Directorate General of Education of Educational Evaluation Dhahira Region Ministry of Health 4.7 4.2 4.5 5.6 5.5 6.3 2.1 1.1 1.4 Pensions 1.5 3.1 1.6 1.9 4.3 2.5 - - - Directorate General of Education Batinah North Region Ministry of Housing 4.3 3.2 0.9 3.5 2.4 0.5 6.7 5.2 1.7 Directorate General of Education Undersecretary Percentage of GDP (%) Batinah South Region for Administrative and Financial Affairs Education-related Ministries, of which: 4.6 4.6 5.3 4.2 4.0 4.6 0.4 0.6 0.7 Directorate General of Education Sharqiah North Region Ministry of Education 3.3 3.2 3.5 3.0 2.9 3.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 Directorate General of Education Directorate General Directorate General Ministry of Higher Education 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.2 of Finacial Affairs of Administrative Affairs Sharqiah South Region Sultan Qaboos University 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.0 0.1 0.1 Department of Education Directorate General Ministry of Manpower 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.2 Wusta Region of Projects and Maintenance Source: MONE 2008 and 2010. Source: MOE Technical Office for Studies and Development. 254 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality A p p e n d i ce s 255 APP E N D I X C . APPENDIX D. EDU C A T I O N F O R A L L G O A L S INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF GROSS ENROLLMENT RATIOS The Education for All (EFA) goals were agreed at the World Education Forum in Table D.1 Dakar, Senegal, in April 2000 (UNESCO 2000b). The following are the six goals: Gross Enrollment Ratios (GERs) in Selected Countries, 2007–2009 (%) (1) Expanding and improving comprehensive early childhood care and education, especially for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged children; Primary Lower secondary Upper secondary (2) Ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children in difficult Qatar (2008) 109 circumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities, have access to and complete, free and compulsory primary education of good quality; United Arab Emirates (2007) 108 Qatar (2008) 113 (3) Ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met Bahrain (2008) 105 Estonia (2008) 102 through equitable access to appropriate learning and life-skills programmes; (4) Achieving a 50 percent improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015, Korea, Rep. (2008) 105 Bahrain (2008) 101 especially for women, and equitable access to basic and continuing educa- Lebanon (2008) 101 United Arab Emirates (2007) 101 tion for all adults; (5) Eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005, Estonia (2008) 100 OMAN* (2009) 100 100 and achieving gender equality in education by 2015 with a focus on ensuring Mauritius (2008) 99 Korea, Rep. (2008) 99 Estonia (2008) 97 girls’ full and equal access to and achievement in basic education of good quality; Saudi Arabia (2008) 98 Saudi Arabia (2008) 98 Korea, Rep. (2008) 96 (6) Improving all aspects of the quality of education and ensuring excellence of all so that recognized and measurable learning outcomes are achieved by all, Malaysia (2007) 97 Mauritius (2008) 97 Bahrain (2008) 92 especially in literacy, numeracy and essential life skills. OMAN* (2009) 96 Kuwait (2008) 96 Saudi Arabia (2008) 91 Kuwait (2008) 95 Malaysia (2007) 93 OMAN* (2009) 90 Lebanon (2008) 88 United Arab Emirates (2007) 84 Kuwait (2008) 81 Mauritius (2008) 81 Qatar (2008) 78 Lebanon (2008) 75 High income countries (2008) 101 High income countries (2008) 101 High income countries (2008) 99 Middle income countries (2008) 109 Middle income countries (2008) 83 Middle income countries (2008) 54 Source: EdStats (August 2010) and authors based on data from the MOE Statistical Department. Notes: The GER can be over 100 percent in cases where there are students older or younger than the official age for the level, or where population estimates for the country are not accurate. *Oman includes Omani nationals only. 256 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality A p p e n d i ce s 257 APP E N D I X E. APPENDIX F. PRE S C HO O L E D U C A T I O N I N O MAN 2008/09 GRADE 1 TEACHER RATINGS Table E.1 Figure F.1 Preschool Education in Oman, 2008/09 Percentage of Students Awarded an A in Grade 1 by Gender and Region, 2009 (%) Number Islamic Education Course % of 70 Type of school Type Supervisor Intended age Fees of Description 60 length students students 60 52 48 51 48 47 Qur'anic schools Public MARA 3 years 3-6 year olds No 411 1 Implement a curriculum approved by the 50 44 42 44 or Madrassas MARA, concentrating on the Qur'an and 35 38 36 40 (two types) its sciences, and the principles of reading, 28 29 27 writing, and mathematics. 30 20 20 Private MOE 2 years 3.5-5.5 year Yes 14,397 35 Uses the above and a special curriculum olds for Qur'anic schools. 10 Private Private MOE 3 years 3-6 year olds Yes 11,966 29 Managed by the private sector under the 0 kindergartens administrative and technical supervision of Al Sharqiah Al Sharqiah Musandam Al Dhahira Dhofar Al Batinah Al Wusta Al Dakhliyah (two types) the MOE and using the advanced kinder- (North) (South) (North) garten curriculum prepared by the MOE. 2 years 4-6 year olds Yes Aims to achieve complete and balanced growth for the child physically, mentally, 70 Arabic Language socially, and emotionally. 60 51 52 Child Growth Volun- MOSD 2 years 3.5-5.5 year Small 7,109 17 A local group initiative for rural children, 48 46 50 42 43 43 House tary (in coordi- olds fees to provide educational, social, cultural and 39 nation with entertainment services. 40 36 36 34 MOE) 28 27 28 27 30 20 Child Corner Volun- MOSD 2 years 3.5-5.5 year Under the auspices of the Omani Women 20 tary (in coordi- olds Associations (OWA) for children in cities nation with and in centers of Wilayats. Provides basic 10 MOE) educational, social, cultural, and entertain- ment services. Managed by the OWA and 0 female rehabilitation centers Al Sharqiah Al Sharqiah Musandam Al Dhahira Dhofar Al Batinah Al Wusta Al Dakhliyah (North) (South) (North) International Private MOE Varies Varies Yes 5,403 13 Implement their own curriculum. schools Most students are non-Omani. 70 Mathematics Preparation Public MOE 1 year 5 year olds No 1,173 3 A pioneering initiative, attached to govern- classes ment basic education schools provided by 60 the MOE in some remote areas. Began in 50 48 2005/06 with 14 schools. 50 42 43 40 39 39 38 36 40 35 31 31 29 31 29 32 30 Royal Oman Police Public MOE and 1 year 4 year olds Small 643 2 Uses MOE curriculum. ROP fees 20 Royal Armed Public MOE 2 years 3.5-5.5 year Small 380 1 Uses MOE curriculum. 10 Forces olds fees 0 Al Sharqiah Al Sharqiah Musandam Al Dhahira Dhofar Al Batinah Al Wusta Al Dakhliyah Total 41,482 100 (North) (South) (North) Source: Authors, using information from the MOE Statistical Department. 70 Life Skills 61 60 55 55 56 53 52 50 43 45 42 39 41 37 40 34 33 31 34 30 20 10 Boys 0 Girls Al Sharqiah Al Sharqiah Musandam Al Dhahira Dhofar Al Batinah Al Wusta Al Dakhliyah (North) (South) (North) Source: MOE Statistical Department. 258 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality A p p e n d i ce s 259 APP E N D I X G . APPENDIX H. NUM B E R O F C O U R S E S T A K E N IN SOME LIMITATIONS OF THE CURRENT SEL E C T E D C O U N T R I E S EXAMINATION SYSTEM Omani post-basic students are required to take eight group one courses (Islamic The following are some challenges to improving the quality of the examination culture, Arabic language, English language, mathematics, science, social studies, system: life skills, as well as a project). In addition, they are required to take three courses 1. The present system does not allow adequate time for examination prepa- from a list of electives, bringing the total to 11 subjects. The number of exami- ration and for the production of papers and examination materials. Having nation courses or subjects taken by similar-aged students in other countries to prepare examinations for each semester makes the preparation task varies from country to country. Students in England and Wales take three to five particularly difficult. The 2009/10 examinations were limited to one at the subjects, Scotland five, while students in France, the Netherlands and the Republic end of the year due to special circumstances. The MOE plans to evaluate the of Ireland take six or more. In the United States, requirements for getting a high impact of limiting the examinations to one examination at the end of the year school diploma vary considerably across states; four to five subjects (usually as opposed to the previous mid-year and end-of-year examinations. reading, language, mathematics, science and social studies) are common (Center on Education Policy 2009). The full diploma for the International Baccalaureate, 2. The examination system lacks a rigorous moderation system, a basic which is offered in many countries, requires six courses (two languages, and one requirement for ensuring consistency of marking standards (especially for from each of four categories: individual and societies, experimental sciences, continuous assessment). mathematics and computer sciences, and the arts). 3. A tradition of past examinations dictates instruction; teachers tend to base their teaching on the expected content of examination papers and their assessment practices during the school year on the format of old examina- tion papers. The Tests and Examinations Administration Department (TEAD) has taken some steps to familiarize teachers and students with new forms of test items by distributing sample items to all schools with grade 12. 4. The grade 12 examination effectively narrows the curriculum to those subjects that are tested in the public examination and, within each subject, to those aspects that are traditionally tested. Other subjects are tested at school level. 5. The current marking system involves an initial pilot marking of about 5 to 10 percent of the grade 12 papers from each region. The marks for individual questions are studied to see if some items are very easy or very difficult. Where this happens, marks are redistributed to other questions and a formal marking key is prepared. A similar redistribution takes place (less now than in earlier years) after the formal marking has been completed. In the past, the overall effect of this redistribution system was to weaken the ability of the examination to discriminate among students. The TEAD has indicated that redistribution of marks rarely happens now. If there is a “clear error� within a question, however, the marks are redistributed within the remaining parts of the question. 6. Examination paper writers’ skills need to be developed through training in setting questions that assess higher-order thinking skills. 260 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality A p p e n d i ce s 261 APP E N D I X I . APPENDIX J. ENS U R I N G T HE C R E D I B I L I T Y OF THE USING NATIONAL ASSESSMENT RESULTS EXA M I N A T I O N S YS T E M FOR REGIONAL COMPARISONS The Ministry of Education could remain vigilant and ensure that the public exami- The results of a sample-based national assessment, using a standards-based nation system continues to be viewed as credible. The Tests and Examinations approach, could be presented like the data for mathematics in table J.1. This Administration Department (TEAD) has documented procedures to address shows that overall (nationally) 2.4 percent of students did not score well enough reported incidences of improper behavior by students and others. These include to reach level 1. At the other extreme 10.7 percent reached level 5, the advanced verbal warnings, suspensions and denial of the right to register in a school during level. Policy makers interested in raising achievement in the poorest performing the following academic years. Discussions with examination personnel and stake- part of the country (in terms of the national assessment results for mathematics) holder groups suggest that incidences of examination malpractice, while rare, should focus attention on region 1, as it is the region that has the lowest propor- nevertheless occur in Oman as in other countries that run high-stakes public tions of students in the upper levels. examination systems. Incidences of students giving identical answers have been reported. In particular, care needs to be taken to ensure that electronic devices Table J.1 (which are banned) are not used and that materials are not smuggled into the Example of Standards Data at Each Mathematics Achievement Level, examination room. Invigilators need to be firm when supervising candidates, by Region (% of students, standard error) particularly adult candidates. Maintaining confidence in the examination system requires assigning adequate numbers of invigilators to examination sites, estab- Region Level 0 Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 lishing and publicizing the penalties for students, teachers and invigilators who violate examination rules, and enforcing penalties. The TEAD could also conduct 3.2 23.8 22.9 24.8 20.2 5.2 random unannounced visits to examination sites; constantly review its security 1 measures; and keep itself abreast of findings relating to examination malpractice (0.97) (2.12) (2.37) (1.73) (2.32) (1.42) in other countries (Greaney and Kellaghan 1996). 1.1 6.5 16.9 23.8 38.1 13.7 2 (0.78) (1.79) (2.36) (3.01) (4.60) (1.88) 2.8 13.7 21.3 25.9 24.2 12.1 3 (0.80) (1.94) (2.06) (1.92) (2.12) (1.96) 2.50 13.04 21.70 25.20 25.70 11.80 4 0.62 (1.71) (2.22) (1.83) (2.46) (1.55) 2.4 14.2 20.6 24.9 27.2 10.7 National (0.41) (1.06) (1.12) (1.16) (1.64) (0.95) Source: Shiel 2010. Note: Standard errors are shown in parentheses. 262 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality A p p e n d i ce s 263 APP E N D I X K . The following table describes some of the skills assessed in this year’s tests. The skills increase in AUST R A L I A N S C HO O L R E P O R T: difficulty from the lowest to the highest band. A student assessed in a particular band is likely to NAT I O N A L A SS E SS M E N T P R O GRAM have correctly answered questions involving skills in that band and in each band below it. LITE R A C Y A N D N U M E R A C Y ( NAPLAN), Band Reading Writing Language Conventions Numeracy Year 5 Analyses and interprets the Writes a cohesive story that Identifies an error, then correctly Solves a word problem involving YEA R 5 , 2 0 0 9 content of complex texts. Identifies the writer’s main message by attempts to engage the reader. Makes deliberate and appropriate spells words with difficult letter patterns (exhausted, excitement). subtraction of decimals to two decimal places. Recognises connection information across a word choices to create and Recognises and applies a variety different visual representations persuasive text. emotional response. Attempts to of grammatical conventions. of a common fraction. Solves a 8 use features of recognisable text complex problem involving Demonstrates the correct use of types such as fantasy or adventure punctuation in written English such multiplication, division and stories, and devices such as as commas, speech marks and conversion between grams and Table K.1 humour or drama. Constructs apostrophes. kilograms. Calculates the area of most complex sentences correctly. rectangles given their side lengths. Summary of Skills Assessed 2009 Visualises the number of painted faces of a composite 3D object. Infers the motivation of a Writes a story with a beginning Correctly spells some difficult Applies strategies such as multipli- character in a more difficult and a detailed complication words ending with ‘tion’ cation or grouping to solve a word story. Identifies how values are Develops characters and setting (illustration) and with long vowel problem. Converts centimetres to presented in a persuasive text. through description or dialogue. sounds (author). Identifies an metres. Calculates elapsed time Understands how factual texts Joins and orders ideas using error, the correctly spells some in hours and minutes using digital are structured and recognises connection words and maintains difficult words (precious) and am and pm times. Determines the 7 the effect of slogans and the clear meaning through the story. words that contain silent letters total number of specified features purpose of layout features such Correctly spells most common (knitting). of a common 3D object. as subheadings. words and some difficult words, Recognises common grammatical including words with less regular conventions such as the correct spelling patterns and silent letters. tense of a verb phrase. Recognises the correct use of punctuation for direct and indirect speech. Makes connections between Organises a story into paragraphs Correctly spells words with long Solves a problem involving ideas that are implied and not that focus on one idea or a group vowel sounds (curved) and words addition and subtraction. Solves clearly stated. Interprets figurative of related ideas. Uses accurate ending in ‘ous’ (dangerous). a problem involving division with a language to understand a words or groups or words when Identifies an error, the correctly remainder. Divides whole objects character’s actions and feelings. describing events and ideas. spells two-syllable words (often). into fractions. Continues a spatial 6 Understands how texts are Punctuates nearly all sentences Recognises common grammatical pattern beyond the next term. structured and recognises the correctly with capitals, full stops, conventions such as such as the Uses a balance to determine purpose of parts of a text such exclamation marks and question correct us of adjectives, verbs and equivalence. Finds the width of as the title. marks. Correctly uses more adverbs. Recognises the correct a rectangle given the perimeter complex punctuation marks some us of the punctuation such as and length. Locates information of the time. commas in lists and possessive in a reflex angle. Interprets a map apostrophes. and follows directions to locate a position. Connects and interprets ideas in Structures a story to include Correctly spells words containing Solves a money problem involving a story. Identifies the meaning of a a beginning, a complication unusual vowel patterns (thought) multiplication and rounding. word in context and the main idea and events that are related to and two- and three-syllable words Interprets data in a table to of a paragraph. Connects ideas each other. Includes enough ending with a ‘le’ or ‘er’ (title, solve a subtraction problem. and pictures in a longer illustrated supporting detail for the story publisher). Identifies an error, then Selects a column graph to match factual text. Identifies to whom a to be easily understood by the correctly spells compound words information in a table. Compares pronoun refers in a sentence. reader, although the conclusion (sometimes). volume by reading different scales. 5 may be weak or simple. Correctly Identifies a square pyramid from Recognises common grammatical structures most simple and conventions such as the correct its net and visualises the opposite compound sentences and some form of verbs. Recognises the faces on the net of a cube. complex sentences. correct use of punctuation such as question marks within direct speech. Makes an inference from clearly Writes a story in which characters Correctly spells common Adds 2two-digit numbers. Uses stated information and identifies or setting are briefly described. two-syllable words (because). knowledge of number facts up to the common message in two Correctly punctuates some Identifies an error, then correctly 10x10 to determine equal values. posters. Makes inferences about sentences with both capital letters spells common compound words Continues a number pattern a character’s actions in a story. and full stops. May demonstrate (overnight). based on subtraction. Identifies a 4 Locates information in a longer correct use of capitals for names Recognises common grammatical common 2D shape made when illustrated factual text. and some other punctuation. conventions such as the correct another shape is divided and Correctly spells most common use of adjectives and prepositions. identifies a prism displayed in an words. Identifies the structure of a everyday context. question. Connects clearly stated informa- Attempts to write a story Spells common two-syllable words Reads time and recognises the tion from different parts of a text. containing a few related events, with regular spelling patterns. position of hands on a clock at Makes connections between the although these are usually not Recognises common grammatical the half-hour. Identifies a specific words and pictures in a story. elaborated. Correctly orders the conventions such as the correct date on a calendar. Identifies the 3 Finds clearly stated information in words in most simple sentences. use of adverbs and pronouns. most likely outcome of a simple a story and a poster. May experiment with using Recognises some correct use of chance event. complex sentences but with little punctuation in written English. success. Orders and joins ideas using a few connection words but the links are not always clear or correct. Source: Australia Curriculum and Assessment Reporting Authority 2008. 264 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality A p p e n d i ce s 265 APP E N D I X L. APPENDIX M. SUP P O R T I N G R E SE A R C H A N D EVALUATION C ountry examples of using objective OF P U B L I C E X A M I N A T I O N S information from national assessments to improve curriculum The Ministry of Education should support a long-term research and evaluation program designed to enhance the quality of the public examination system and the effects of recent innovations. To date the Tests and Examinations Administration National and some state assessment findings have been associated with Department has conducted inter-rater reliability studies of 2008/09 papers in curriculum changes in a number of countries. In Brazil, the findings of a state the Arabic language and pure mathematics. Such a program, which would be inde- assessment on how students perform in the major curriculum domains, and pendent of the examination system, might evaluate key aspects of the examination the difficulties they exhibit, were used to provide guidance to teachers on their system. This program could include the following elements: instructional strategies. In Thailand, the poor performance of students in areas n Establish the amount of time students require to answer the multiple-choice of mathematics and science led to greater emphasis in curricula on teaching section of each examination. process skills and the application of knowledge. In Guinea, national assessment results prompted the development of a national reading initiative to promote n Evaluate the content validity of the grade 12 examinations. instruction in the early grades. In Bhutan, a report prepared following the 2003 n Identify aspects of the official curriculum that have been ignored or neglected grade 6 national assessment identified curriculum overload as a problem. A in the examination process. strategic revision of the mathematics syllabus was recommended, as well as a suggestion “…to place less (or no) emphasis on algebra and geometry, or at least n Evaluate the quality of moderation focusing on tasks/activities, scoring not at the level of sophistication currently expected of learners� (Bhutan Board criteria, weighting and teachers’ understanding of marking rubrics. of Examinations, 2004, p. viii). The views of stakeholders in interpreting assess- n Assess cognitive levels tested in the key subject examinations. ment results can point to the need for curriculum reform. In Ethiopia, for example, n Compare marking standards and variations across subject areas and feedback from teachers, students and parents was used in conjunction with an across districts for the continuous assessment and written components of analysis of student performance on national assessment tests to reach decisions the examination. about curriculum change. n Monitor the effects of the examination on student enrollment and dropout. Source: Kellaghan et al. 2009. n Evaluate the validity and the educational merits of the student project and the extent to which it represents the student’s own efforts. n Assess the effectiveness of the written examination and the graduation project as predictors of tertiary level performance. n Conduct a study of gender item bias in examination questions. n Assess the extent to which school-based assessment is used to give feed- back to teachers and students. 266 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality A p p e n d i ce s 267 APP E N D I X N . EXA M P L E S O F R E SE A R C H A N D EVALUATION CENTERS Table N.1 Table N.2 Educational Research Centre, Ireland New Zealand Council for Educational Research Established 1966 Established 1934 Management A functionally autonomous unit within a large College of Management Board: Six elected members and one appointed by the Education. The centre has an informal reporting relationship Governor General on the recommendation of the Minister with the Government Department of Education of Education Staff 25 (17 researchers, 5 in administrative/support roles but with a research component, 3 involved in the sale and Staff 58 staff of whom 22 are researchers distribution of tests to schools) or research assistants; includes a statistics team Income Government Department of Education grant: 50% Income Government: 18% (based on 2009 Funds for particular projects mostly carried out for the (based on 2009 Competitive research contracts: 47% figures) department: 33% figures) Sales: 25%, includes tests, books and journals, and Sales of tests: 15% income from services such as the online marking service Other: 2% for schools. Other: 10% Research and Includes: Development Activity Evaluations of initiatives and new programs Evaluations of services and existing provision in schools Research and Includes: Critical analysis of issues in education Development Activity Assessment resource banks Analysis of public examination results Assessing adult literacy and numeracy National assessments of educational achievement Teaching and learning International assessments of educational achievement Competent children Development of assessment instruments Learners longitudinal study See overview page of www.erc.ie for elaboration of activities Curriculum listed. Educational institutions and educational policy Information and Communications Technology (ICT) Outputs Research reports, conference papers, journal articles, Mäori education literature reviews, books, book chapters, formulae for Secondary transition resource allocation based on statistical models, tests and Gender and career decision making other assessment material Teachers’ work Partnerships in learning between young people Student engagement in learning Address Educational Research Centre Building better schools through business partnerships St Patrick’s College Dublin 9 Ireland Outputs Research reports, conference papers, occasional papers, Phone 00353 1 8373789 journal articles, literature reviews, books, book chapters, Fax 00353 1 8308997 conference proceedings and classroom resources Email info@erc.ie Website www.erc.ie Website http://www.nzcer.org.nz/default.php?cPath=21 268 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality A p p e n d i ce s 269 APP E N D I X O . Table O.2 Specialist Teachers by Subject and Region, 2008/09 (%) TEA C HE R S A N D Q U A L I T Y O F EDUCATION Mathe- Chemi- Islamic Biology Physics English Arabic Table O.1 matics stry studies Percentage of Teachers Qualified by Subject, 2008/09 AL-Buraimi 14 3 4 4 13 17 13 AL-Dakhlyah 14 3 5 9 13 14 11 Number of Teachers AL-Dhahirah 13 3 4 5 13 15 11 Subject Grades % Upper AL-Sharqiah (North) 14 2 5 5 13 14 11 Diploma Total diploma AL-Sharqiah (South) 13 2 5 5 13 14 12 Islamic studies 5-12 2,980 - 2,980 7 AL-Wusta 13 2 4 5 13 15 11 Arabic 5-12 4,644 - 4,644 11 Batinah (North) 13 2 5 6 13 16 13 Chemistry 5-12 1,759 - 1,759 4 Batinah (South) 15 2 5 6 13 15 12 Physics 5-12 2,021 - 2,021 5 Dhofar 13 2 5 5 12 14 12 Biology 5-12 802 - 802 2 Musandam 13 2 6 7 12 13 12 Mathematics 5-12 4,428 - 4,428 10 Muscat 14 2 4 5 13 15 13 1-4 897 623 1,520 Total 14 2 5 6 13 15 12 English 5-12 4,051 - 4,051 Source: MOE Human Resources database 2009. Total (1-12) 4,948 623 5,571 13 Physical education/ sports 1-12 1,105 453 1,558 4 Figure O.1 1-4 390 54 444 Intake to the College of Education at Sultan Qaboos University, 1986 to 2009 Learning difficulties 5-10 56 - 56 800 771 Total (1-10) 446 54 500 1 719 1st Field 1-4 2,583 4,013 6,596 15 700 658 658 2nd Field 1-4 2,383 1,509 3,892 9 602 600 571 575 1-4 370 355 725 504 512 478 490 480 IT 5-11 1,054 24 1,078 500 Total (1-11) 1,424 379 1,803 4 393 400 379 379 368 354 Fine Arts 1-12 1,094 280 1,374 3 340 300 300 Geography 5-12 1,843 - 1,843 4 300 273 252 253 234 History 5-12 1,364 - 1,364 3 200 Life Skills 1-12 1,843 333 1,176 3 Music skills 1-12 810 122 932 2 100 Total 43,243 100 0 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Source: MOE. Source: MOE Human Resources database 2009. Note: The data in this table differs from the data in tables 5.1 and 5.2 because it was obtained from the live MOE Human Resources database at a different time in the year. 270 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality A p p e n d i ce s 271 Figure O.2 Table O.3 Frequency Distribution of Student-Teacher Ratios in Schools, 2009 Academic Staff at the College of Education at SQU, 2008/09 Doctoral Master Number Department Total qualification level of schools Curriculum and teaching methods of Arabic 4 4 8 200 Curriculum and teaching methods of English 7 2 9 Curriculum and teaching methods of Islamic 3 0 3 180 Curriculum and teaching methods of Mathematics 3 0 3 160 Curriculum and teaching methods of Science 5 1 6 Curriculum and teaching methods of Social Studies 4 2 6 140 Curriculum and teaching methods of Physical Education 3 0 3 Curriculum and teaching methods of Art Education 2 1 3 120 Art education 8 6 14 100 Physical education 8 6 14 Early childhood 4 0 4 80 Instructional and learning technologies 6 1 7 Educational foundations and administration 14 3 17 60 Psychology 20 7 27 40 Islamic Sciences 13 3 16 Total 104 36 140 20 Source: MOE. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Box O.1 Student-teacher ratio Components of the Teacher Induction Program: Oman Source: MOE. 1. Administrative rules and regulations 2. Teacher roles and responsibilities 3. Teacher work ethics: Employee rights and obligations 4. Teacher guide (from the supervision department) 5. Continuous assessment system 6. School education development 7. Teenagers and how to deal with them 8. Teacher problems and how to deal with them 9. Curriculum content and analysis 10. Classroom activities and evaluation. 11. Preparing educational media (audio visual aids) 12. Televised training pack (viewing recorded exemplary lessons) 13. New teaching methods 14. Classroom activities 15. Relations between the teacher, student and administration 16. Further education opportunities and how to apply for them Source: MOE. 272 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality A p p e n d i ce s 273 Table O.4 APPENDIX P. Average Class Size by Region, 2009 DESCRIPTION OF THE VOCATIONAL TRAININ G Cycle one coeducational Girls’ Boys’ Total AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION SYSTEM schools schools schools Al-Batinah (North) 26 31 31 29 Figure P.1 Al-Batinah (South) 26 31 30 29 Vocational Training and Technical Education System Al-Buraimi 21 31 30 26 Al-Dakhiliyah 25 30 30 28 Year 4 Al-Dhahirah 24 29 27 26 Professional Quality Assurance Bachelor of Technologist Al-Sharkiyah (North) 26 28 28 27 of Vocational Technology Al-Sharkiyah (South) 24 29 27 26 Training and Technical Al-Wusta 17 - 23 18 Education Labour Market Year 3 Dhofar 17 29 25 22 Higher Diploma Technologist Musandam 22 25 24 23 Occupational Muscat 27 32 31 30 Standards Total 24 30 29 27 and Skills Year 2 Skilled Diploma Technician Source: MOE. Table O.5 Bridging for the Year 1 Limited - Skilled Highly Qualified Certificate Technician Average Class Size, International Comparisons, 2006 Graduates Primary education Lower secondary Foundation Year WEI average 28.3 34.2 OECD average 21.4 24.1 United Kingdom 24.3 21.0 Vocational Colleges of Competency Advance Training Technology United States 23.1 24.3 Certificate Year 3 General Education Labour Market Chile 31.2 31.8 (Craftsman) Certificate Germany 22.1 24.7 (According to the Vocational Specified Marks for Intermediate Admission) Competency Source: UIS 2006. Training Certificate (Skilled Worker) Year 2 General and Basic Education Vocational Graduates Table O.6 Competency Basic Training Tenth Year Official Instruction Time in Oman, 2009 Certificate Year 1 and above (Limited Skilled Worker) Length of Periods Days Hours Basic Education period per week per year per year Vocational Training Less than the Tenth Year Basic education (grades 1-9) 40 40 180 960 Centers General education 40 35 180 840 Double shift schools (grades 1-6) 35 35 180 735 Post-basic education 45 40 180 1,080 Source: MOE 2009a. 274 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality A p p e n d i ce s 275 Figure P.1 (continued) APPENDIX Q. Technical Colleges DISTRIBUTION OF HIGHER EDUCATION GRADUATES BY FIELDS OF STUDY Foundation Table Q.1 Program Distribution of Higher Education Graduates by Fields of Study, Selected Countries, 2006/07 (%) Admission Exam First Year Enhancement Certificate Oman Bahrain Estonia Korea,Rep. Lebanon Malaysia Mauritius Saudi UAE Training 6-12 weeks Arabia Certificate 2007 2006 2007 2007 2007 2006 2006 2006 2007 GPA 2.25 Agriculture 1.0 - 2.1 1.3 0.6 3.9 0.7 0.6 0.1 Second Year Education 40.3 5.4 10.7 8.3 3.7 11.3 42.9 5.5 11.9 Enhancement Diploma Labour Maket (on Job Training 8 Weeks) Training 6-12 weeks Engineering, manufacturing and 9.6 10.3 10.6 26.4 13.3 28.4 11.9 7.1 9.4 construction GPA 2.5 Health 8.2 9.4 10.9 12.3 11.9 3.7 - 7.1 5.1 Humanities and arts 5.9 9.1 10.4 18.2 12.6 11.4 15.9 33.6 13.4 Third Year Enhancement High Diploma Science 11.8 7.6 10.5 7.4 9.9 16.7 6.8 24.6 23.4 (on Job Training 8 Weeks) Training 6-12 weeks Services - 5.0 8.9 6.1 1.4 2.3 - - 1.2 GPA 2.75 Social science, business, law 17.0 41.4 35.8 19.9 46.6 22.2 21.8 17.8 35.4 Unknown or unspecified fields 6.2 11.8 - - 0.0 0.0 - 3.7 - Fourth Year Enhancement Bachelor’s Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 (on Job Training 8 Weeks) Training Degree Source: UIS. 276 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality A p p e n d i ce s 277 APP E N D I X R . LAB O R M A R K E T S: A C T I V I T Y R ATES AND L A B O R P R O D U C T I V I T Y Table R.1 Table R.2 Economic Activity Rates 15+ years, by Gender in Selected Countries, Various Years Sectoral Share of Labor Force/Sectoral Share of GDP in Selected Countries, Various Years (% and ratio) Men/ Oman Estonia Hong Kong Korea Mauritius Singapore Turkey UAE Total Men Women Women (2003) (2003) (2004) (2004) (2004) (2003) (2003) (2005) OMAN (2003) 55.3 76.9 24.6 3 Agriculture 4.2 - - 2.7 1.7 - 2.6 2.2 Bahrain (2001) 65.7 86.0 35.5 2 Industry 0.5 1.1 1.3 0.7 1.1 0.7 1.1 0.7 Estonia (2000) 56.4 64.4 49.9 1 Iran (2005) 46.6 73.8 19.2 4 Services 1.3 0.4 1.0 0.1 0.1 1.1 0.7 0.1 Hong Kong (2003) 61.4 72.0 51.6 1 Source: Authors’ calculations based on LABORSTA and World Bank data bases. Korea (2003) 61.4 74.6 48.9 2 Lebanon (2004) 44.0 68.9 20.4 3 Mauritius (2004) 58.2 77.4 39.7 2 Turkey (2003) 48.3 70.4 26.6 3 UAE (2005) 77.5 92.7 37.8 2 Source: LABORSTA. Note: Data for Oman excludes armed forces. Figure R.1 Economic Activity Rates for Males and Females 15+ Years by Age Groups, Oman, 2003 (%) Male Female 100 80 60 40 20 0 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70-74 75+ Source: LABORSTA, based on Population Census 2000. 278 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality A p p e n d i ce s 279 APP E N D I X S . APPENDIX T. EDU C A T I O N A L L E V E L O F T HE LABOR FORCE UNIVERSITY INTERNATIONAL RANKINGS Table S.1 Table T.1 Labor Force (15+ Years) by Level of Educational Attainment in Selected Countries, Circa 2000 Number of Universities Ranked among the Top 500 in Selected Countries (% of total) Less than Primary Secondary Tertiary QS-Time Webometrics 2010 ARWU 2009 Country Year 1 year of education education education (top 500) (top 500) (top 500) schooling Estonia 2000 1 12 46 41 Hong Kong 4 5 0 Singapore 2000 13 25 25 37 Iran 1 - 1 Korea, Rep. 2000 0 33 44 24 Korea 10 4 9 Hong Kong 2002 1 33 45 21 Malaysia 4 - 0 Qatar 2004 38 24 19 19 Saudi Arabia 2 3 1 Kuwait 2003 32 25 26 17 Singapore 2 2 2 United Arab Emirates 2005 25 29 29 17 Taiwan 8 11 - OMAN 2000 26 35 25 14 Thailand 4 5 0 Turkey 2000 0 71 19 10 Turkey 4 1 1 Source: ILO on EdStats (January 2011). Source: QS-Time (http://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2009/results); Note: Oman figures include Omani nationals only. Webometrics (http://www.webometrics.info/) and ARWU (http://www.arwu.org/ARWU2009.jsp). Note: Taiwan is not included in the ARWU ranking. Figure S.1 Labor Force aged 25–29 with Completed Tertiary Education in Selected Countries, Various Years (%) 80 Males 70 Females 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Singapore Korea, Rep. Hong Kong Estonia Oman Latvia Turkey UAE Tunisia (2003) (2001) China (2003) (2000) (2002) (2003) (1995) (1997) (2002) Source: Source: ILO. 280 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality A p p e n d i ce s 281 Table T.2 APPENDIX U. Top Arab World Universities JOB SEEKERS’ EXPECTATIONS Continent World Figure U.1 University Country Rank Rank Percentage of Job Seekers (15 years and over) Who Have Never Worked Before and 1 King Saud University Saudi Arabia 199 Have Attended a Short-term Vocational Training King Fahd University of Petroleum 2 Saudi Arabia 404 & Minerals Male 70 3 King Abdulaziz University Saudi Arabia 496 Female 60 4 Imam Muhammad bin Saud University Saudi Arabia 835 50 5 Umm Al-Qura University Saudi Arabia 1,050 40 6 American University of Beirut Lebanon 1,361 30 7 Cairo University Egypt 1,387 20 8 King Faisal University Saudi Arabia 1,527 10 9 American University in Cairo Egypt 1,614 0 Pre-Primary Primary Preparatory Secondary Diploma Post-diploma 10 An-Najah National University Palestine 1,616 (6 grades) (3 grades) (3 grades) 11 Kuwait University Kuwait 1,691 Source: LFS 2008. 12 Ain Shams University Egypt 1,713 13 United Arab Emirates University U.A.E. 1,736 14 Qatar University Qatar 1,886 15 King Khalid University Saudi Arabia 2,227 16 Birzeit University Palestine 2,255 17 Higher Colleges of Technology U.A.E. 2,269 Figure U.2 Proportion of Job Seekers Looking for a Desk Job by Level of Education, 2008 18 Najran University Saudi Arabia 2,297 19 Sultan Qaboos University Oman 2,407 100 Al Quds University the Arab University 20 Palestine 2,561 in Jerusalem 80 Male Source: Webometrics (http://www.webometrics.info/). 60 Female 40 20 0 Illiterate Read and Primary Preparatory Secondary Diploma University Master’s write (6 grades) (3 grades) (3 grades) degree Source: LFS 2008. 282 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality A p p e n d i ce s 283 APP E N D I X V . APPENDIX W. ME T A C O G N I T I V E S K I L L S COST OF GRADUATION The following abilities are metacognitive skills: Table W.1 Cost of Graduation, 2008 n Integrate formal and informal learning, declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge. Grade 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Total n Access, select and evaluate knowledge in an information-soaked world. Total enrollment 43,943 44,256 43,971 43,786 45,695 49,756 51,983 52,729 52,269 53,856 49,598 46,659 578,501 n Develop and apply forms of intelligence beyond strictly cognitive processes. Repeaters 0 0 0 0 2,680 1,695 1,704 1,179 835 2,790 1,862 528 13,273 n Work and learn effectively in teams. Total enrollment net of 43,943 44,256 43,971 43,786 43,015 48,061 50,279 51,550 51,434 51,066 47,736 46,131 565,228 repeaters n Face, transform and peacefully resolve conflict. Unit cost (RO) 1,137 1,137 1,137 1,137 1,137 1,137 1,227 1,227 1,227 1,697 1,697 1,697 15,594 n Create, transpose and transfer knowledge. Cost for total enrollments n Deal with ambiguous situations and unpredictable problems. 50.0 50.3 50.0 49.8 52.0 56.6 63.8 64.7 64.1 91.4 84.2 79.2 755.9 (RO mn) Cost without repeaters 50.0 50.3 50.0 49.8 48.9 54.6 61.7 63.3 63.1 86.7 81.0 78.3 737.6 Source: Adapted from World Bank 2005. Difference (RO mn) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.0 1.9 2.1 1.4 1.0 4.7 3.2 0.9 18.3 Difference (US$ mn) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.9 5.0 5.4 3.8 2.7 12.3 8.2 2.3 47.6 Source: Authors’ calculations based on MOE 2008c and 2009a. 284 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality A p p e n d i ce s 285 APP E N D I X X . APPENDIX Y. STA F F R A T I O S B Y R E G I O N DISTRIBUTION OF CIVIL SERVICE EMPLOYEES B Y G R A D E Table X.1 Table Y.1 Staff Ratios by Region, 2008/09 Distribution of Civil Service Employees by Grade, 2007 Students Students Students Teachers Adminstrators Grade per per per per per Teacher Administrator Class Class School A-E, 1, 2, 4, 5 10, 11 13 Special 7 Total Muscat 13.8 7.0 30.0 2.2 6.6 and 3 and 6 and 12 and 14 Grade Al-Batinah (North) 13.6 7.0 29.2 2.1 6.6 Ministry of Education 103 6,473 43,084 2,280 886 4,454 57,280 Al-Batinah (South) 13.6 7.2 28.8 2.1 6.4 Al-Dakhliyah 13.0 6.8 28.1 2.2 6.4 Percentage (%) 0.2 11.3 75.2 4.0 1.5 7.8 100 Al-Sharkiyah (South) 11.6 7.0 26.2 2.3 6.1 Al-Sharkiyah (North) 12.7 6.5 27.4 2.1 6.3 Ministry of Health 1,263 1,676 7,145 5,078 6,265 1,387 22,814 Al-Buraimy 11.3 7.1 26.2 2.3 5.7 Al-Dhahirah 11.3 6.1 26.2 2.3 6.1 Percentage (%) 5.5 7.3 21.3 22.3 27.5 6.1 100 Dhofar 9.7 5.8 21.7 2.2 5.0 All Civil Servants 2,392 6,667 16,398 7,951 15,973 7,963 57,344 Al-Wusta 7.5 6.9 17.8 2.4 4.7 Musandam 9.4 6.8 23.5 2.5 4.9 Percentage (%) 4.2 11.6 28.6 13.9 27.9 13.9 100 Total 12.5 6.7 27.5 2.2 6.1 Source: MOE 2009a. Source: MONE 2008. 286 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality A p p e n d i ce s 287 APP E N D I X Z . APPENDIX AA. SHA R E O F S E L E C T E D E X P E N D I TURE ITEMS A GOVERNANCE OF EDUCATION FRAMEWOR K IN T O T A L HO U S E HO L D B U D G E T BY Good governance and management in education encompasses multiple dimensions. The concept is EDU C A T I O N ST A T U S O F HO U S EHOLD HEAD likely to take on somewhat different meanings in different political and cultural contexts. It generally includes the capacity of the ministry of education to formulate sound educational policies; allocate and Figure Z.1 ensure the efficient use of resources to provide good quality educational services; develop effective Share of Selected Expenditure Items in Total Household Budget business processes that allow parents and stakeholders to monitor educational delivery; hold providers by Education Status of Household Head, 2007/08 (%) accountable; and ensure the acceptance and respect of citizens for the institutions that provide the educational services. Effective governance in education requires enabling conditions: the existence of standards, information Total food on performance, incentives for good performance and accountability. Education policies refer to all the Housing 30 Transport guiding policies concerning the organization, level and methods of funding, and delivery of education Education services in the country, which are approved by parliament, adopted by Government, and used by the Ministry of Education to guide the processes of education service delivery. Education management processes and practices refer to the processes and practices designed to achieve the objectives set 20 for various levels of the education system. It involves assigning responsibilities to all stakeholders in the system, defining how the various subsystems communicate with each other, and articulating how performance is evaluated and monitored A diagram outlining the key players in an education system and the relationship among them is outlined 10 in figure AA.1 Figure AA.1 A Governance of Education Framework 0 Above secondary Secondary Primary Below Primary Central Government Local Government M A Source: Authors, based on Income and Expenditures Survey. P M A Education Ministry of M Service Service Education Providers A Beneficiaries In ce flu en en flu Other ce A= Accountability, In M= Management Processes Stakeholders & Practices P= Education Policies Source: Authors. Good governance in education requires accurate system-level information. This might be reflected in clear definitions of system outputs and outcomes and its constituents combined with accurate data on performance and results collected at regular intervals. Such information enables managers to monitor and reward good performance and to impose sanctions when specified standards are not 288 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality A p p e n d i ce s 289 met. Ideally it should include standards, transparent and publicly known criteria and/or benchmarks APPENDIX AB. used to assess and inform education policy, service provision and performance. Some schools systems consider incentives as a key aspect of good governance. These are normally positive (or negative) finan- THE NATIONAL EDUCATION COMMISSION (N E C ) cial or nonfinancial rewards (such as status, recognition or promotion) that motivate a specific type OF SRI LANKA of behavior or action. Positive incentives usually encourage a certain desired behavior, while negative incentives tend to deter it. In more recent years some education systems, for example in Chile, England and parts of the United States, associate good governance with accountability. This approach, which The National Education Commission of Sri Lanka was established under the National Education has aroused considerable debate (Ravitch 2010), usually involves holding public officials and service Commission act No. 19. of 1991 to make recommendations to the President on educational policy in providers including teachers, principals and schools answerable for outcomes defined by the standards all its aspects with a view to ensuring continuity in educational policy and enabling the education system and imposing sanctions if such outputs and outcomes are not delivered. to respond to changing needs in society. Vision Supporting the development of a comprehensive national policy framework for a sound education for all, ensuring fairness and adaptability for maintaining Sri Lankan identity. Mandate Deliberate on National Education Policy and make recommendations ensuring continuity in all segments of the education system in the context of changing needs of Sri Lanka. A Comprehensive National Education Policy includes the following matters: Aims and goals of education; the structure of the educational system: preschool, primary, secondary, tertiary, higher, technical, vocational, informal, nonformal, adult, special, professional and religious; Establishment, location and distribution of educational institutions, including methods and criteria for admission of students and recruitment of teachers; content of education, including medium of instruc- tion, diversification of curricula, text books and learning materials, the place of religious knowledge, observance and practice, assessment and evaluation; Monitoring of the examination system, certificates, diplomas and academic awards and recognition of qualification; recruitment, placement, disciplinary control and professional growth of education service personnel, including teachers, paraeducation personnel, supervisors and administrators; Mobilization of resources for education, including the mobilization of community participation and ancillary services for education, such as midday meals, health and dental services, physical education and sports. Function Make recommendations to the President on educational policy in all its aspects with a view to ensuring continuity in educational policy and enabling the education system to respond to changing needs in society, including an immediate review of educational policy and plan or plans and the making of recom- mendations to the President on a comprehensive National Education Policy. Review and analyze periodically the National Education Policy and plan or plans in operation and where necessary recommend to the President changes in such policy, plan or plans. Advise the President on any other matter relating to education, which may be referred to NEC by the President for NEC’s advice. Source: http://www.nec.gov.lk. 290 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality A p p e n d i ce s 291 APP E N D I X A C . Figure AC.1 A Policy Development and Implementation Framework A F R A M E WO R K F O R E D U C A T I ON POLICY DEV E L O P M E N T A N D I M P L E M E NTATION 3.A. A structured framework for education policy development and implementation is a logical systematic Policy approach to policy development that helps ensure that the policies identified have been selected Execution through a rigorous process and subjected to careful scrutiny using a comparative framework based on evidence-based criteria and indicators. The framework, outlined in Figure AC.1, involves the following 1. 2. 4. Policy Policy Policy four phases: Section Planning Evaluation 3.B. Policy Selection: This phase involves the following elements: Execution n Preliminary formation of the policy development team Monitoring & Control n Identification of the policy domain and its dimensions n Identification of all relevant stakeholders and their interest in the policy 3. n Development of a preliminary comparative framework for analysis of policy options that includes Policy Implementation tools, such as cost-benefit analysis, SWOT Analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Source: Authors. Threats) and results-based analysis n Holding of stakeholders conference to identify possible policy options n Optimizations of the comparative framework n Application of the comparative framework to the policy options Policy Implementation: The policy implementation plan involves two major components being imple- n Selection of the “best� policy option mented interactively: policy execution and monitoring and control. The first involves the allocation of all the resources (financial, human, physical and knowledge resources) to execute the various programs Policy Planning: This phase will involve the development of a comprehensive plan for the implementa- and activities defined in the policy plan. This is obviously the most difficult phase of the process and tion of the selected policy. The plan development will utilize accepted project management methodologies requires considerable capacity and experience in managing projects and similar initiatives. The execu- to define the policy plan and will include the following components: tion monitoring and control involves the application of methodologies to monitor the progress of policy n Policy scope and decomposition execution against the policy plan, assess the “gap� between the planned and implemented or earned effort and take corrective actions to close the gap. These two components of the policy implementation n Policy implementation phases, sequencing and scheduling are interdependent, and their execution requires considerable experience in policy implementation, but n Resource allocation and optimization it is also critically dependent on starting with a realistic policy plan. n Cost estimating and budgeting n Five-year base line Evaluation of Policy Implementation: At the designated end of the policy implementation period (often five years in education, as is the case in Oman), an evaluation of the outcome and impact of the n Risk assessment and management plan policy is undertaken by both an internal, as well as, by an external entity to ensure that an independent, n Resource acquisition and procurement plan unbiased and evidence-based perspective is provided to all stakeholders that can inform decision n Quality assurance plan making about the future of the policy. The evaluation also contributes to the development of the collec- n Communication plan tive knowledge base and a databank of good practices in education. 292 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality A p p e n d i ce s 293 APP E N D I X A D . A survey of SBM projects in fifteen countries in Latin America, USA, Australia, New Zealand, and Africa identified and prioritized 17 distinct functions based on SCHO O L -B A S E D M A N A G E M E N T frequency of occurrence (figure AD.1). The most frequent SBM-related activities were (1) the procurement of school educational materials and supplies, (2) the hiring and firing of teachers, (3) school budget oversight, (4) school’s administra- tive activities, and (5) maintenance of school buildings. On the other hand, the five least frequently School Based Management (SBM) involves the decentralization of authority from cited were (1) establishing school fees, (2) establishing school calendar, (3) setting classroom hours, central government to the level of school districts and individual schools. (4) funding teacher training, and (5) changing methods of instructions. It is a form of decentralization that recognizes the school as the primary entity of decision making in education. It shifts the decision-making authority over school operations to the principals, teachers, parents and other community stakeholders. This shift is typically achieved through the formation of Figure AD.1 school committees, management committees and school councils. In general the adoption of SBM Occurrence of School Council Functions in 15 SBM Projects (%) results in the transfer of some level of authority from the central or local bodies to school actors over one or more of the following: (1) budget allocation and control, (2) hiring and firing of teachers and school staff, (3) monitoring, evaluation and promotion of teachers, (4) monitoring of student learning Hi r i n g a n d F i r i n g T e a c h e r s outcomes, (5) curriculum development and review, (6) procurement of textbooks and other educational Buying School Materials resources, and (7) infrastructure refurbishment. Admin Activities Views on the effectiveness of SBM vary. Proponents of SBM argue that it (1) facilitates education Budget Oversight as service, (2) improves students’ achievement, (3) promotes performance and accountability, and Building Maintenance (4) promotes transparency, and reduces corruption and poor practice. SBM’s perceived weaknesses Budget Allocation include (1) loss of clearly understood authority and changes in power dynamics, (2) potential for abuse Selecting Textbooks/Curriculum of power by new stakeholders, and (3) changes in teachers’ roles, responsibilities and workload. Supervising and Evaluating Teachers Payment of Staff Salaries The Domains of School Leaders Responsibilities Hi r i n g a n d F i r i n g A d m i n S t a f f Research has shown that school leaders can make a difference in school if they are granted autonomy Methods of Instructions to make important decisions. However, autonomy alone does not automatically lead to improvements Pedagogical Decisions unless it is well supported. In addition, it is important that the core responsibilities of school leaders be Establishing Icentives for Teachers clearly defined and delimited. School leadership responsibilities should be defined through an under- E s t a b l i s h i n g Sc h o o l F e e s standing of the practices most likely to improve teaching and learning. E s t a b l i s h i n g Sc h o o l C a l e n d a r S e t t i n g C l a s s R o o m Ho u r s The domains of school leaders’ responsibilities include the following: Funding Teacher Training n Supporting, evaluating and developing teacher quality: School leaders have to be able 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 to adapt the teaching program to local needs, promote teamwork among teachers and engage in teacher monitoring, evaluation and professional development. Source: World Bank 2008a. n Goal setting, assessment and accountability: Policy makers need to ensure that school leaders have discretion in setting strategic direction and optimize their capacity to develop school plans and goals and monitor progress, using data to improve practice. n Strategic financial and human resource management: Policy makers can enhance the financial management skills of school leadership teams by providing training to school leaders, establishing the role of a financial manager within the leadership team or providing financial support services to schools. In addition, school leaders should be able to influence teacher recruit- ment decisions to improve the match between candidates and their school’s needs. n Collaborating with other schools: This new leadership dimension needs to be recognized as a specific role for school leaders. It can bring benefits to school systems as a whole rather than just the students of a single school. But school leaders need to develop their skills to become involved in matters beyond their school borders. 294 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality A p p e n d i ce s 295 APP E N D I X A E . Figure AE.1 Methodology for Translating Strategic Goals into a Portfolio of Projects FRA M E WO RK S F O R S T R A T E G I C PLANNING AND B U S I N E S S P R O C E S S M A NAGEMENT I. Visioning and Development of Strategy A) Strategic planning: The Balanced Score Card (BSC) 3. 1. 2. Strategy: The Balanced Score Card (BSC) is one of a number of business-related approaches to facilitate strategic Vision: Mission: What are our X What is our Vision? Why we exist? planning. The BSC methodology, originally introduced at Harvard University in the early 1990s to assess strategic goals? the performance of private sector enterprises in the implementation of their strategic plans, has been modified and adopted widely by public sector organizations in education, health care, transportation and other vital public sector services. For every strategic goal of an organization, the BSC framework II. Development of Strategic BSC Plan identifies enabling objectives, measurable indicators, target for indicators and associated initiatives (projects) along four interrelated perspectives: (1) the stakeholders’ perspective, (2) the internal busi- ness processes perspective, (3) the resources perspective, and (4) the financial perspective. The BSC 4. 5. 6. approach allows organizations, such as a Ministry of Education, to translate a five-year strategic plan Translate strategy Develop BSC Develop BSC Y into BSC objectives strategy maps score cards into a portfolio of relevant interrelated projects with clearly defined objectives and targets. The typical methodology for translating the strategic goals of an organization like the MOE into BSC measurable objectives and related portfolio of projects is outlined in Kaplan and Norton (1996). III. Development and Implementation of Projects B) Business Process Management (BPM) BPM is a management approach focused on aligning all aspects of an organization with the wants and 8. 7. 9. needs of its stakeholders. It is a holistic approach that promotes effectiveness and efficiency while striving Develop BSC for innovation, flexibility, and integration with technology. Business process management attempts to Identify BSC projects portfolio and Implement and F initiatives or projects control projects improve processes continuously. It is argued that BPM enables organizations to be more efficient, more secure funding effective and more capable of change than a functionally focused, traditional hierarchical management approach. BPM helps organizations respond to changing stakeholders’ needs and demands quickly and effectively. It also allows organizations to (1) baseline the process or the process improvement, Source: Authors. (2) simulate the change to the process, (3) compare the various simulations to determine an optimal improvement, (4) select and implement the optimum improvement plan, and (5) monitor the improve- ment in real time and feed the performance information back into the simulation model in preparation for the next improvement iteration. Figure AE.1 presents an outline of the BPM approach. 296 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Refe r e n ce s 297 References Australia Curriculum and Assessment Reporting Authority (ACARA). 2008. National Assessment Program Literacy and Numeracy. Sydney: ACARA. Al Balushi, A., B. Al Manthri, T. Al Ismaili. 2009. “What Makes an Ideal School? A Study of Service Quality in the Schools in the Sultanate of Oman.� Glasgow: University of Strathclyde. Al-Barwani, Chapman and Ameen, 2009. “Strategic Brain Drain: Implications for Higher Education in Oman.� Higher Education Policy 22: 415–432. Allais, Stephanie. 2010. The Implementation and Impact of National Qualifications Frameworks: Report of a Study in 16 Countries. Geneva: International Labor Organization. Benavot, A. with M. Amadio. 2004. “A Global Study of Intended Instructional Time and Official School Curricula, 1980–2000: Background Paper Commissioned by the International Bureau of Education.� UNESCO-EFA Global Monitoring Report (2005): The Quality Imperative. Geneva: IBE. Benveniste, L. 2002. “The Political Structuration of Assessment: Negotiating State Power and Legitimacy.� Comparative Education Review 46: 89–119. Bhutan Board of Examinations. 2004. National Educational Assessment in Bhutan: A Benchmark of Student Achievement in Literacy at Class 5, 2003. Thimphu: Ministry of Education. Bologna Expert Conference. 2010. “National Qualifications Frameworks and the European Overarching Frameworks: Supporting Lifelong Learning in European Education and Training: Report.� Dublin Castle, Ireland, April. http://www.nqai.ie/qualificationsframeworksconference2010.html Brozo, W. G., G. Shiel, and K. Topping. 2007. “Engagement in Reading: Lessons Learned from Three PISA Countries.� Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy 51: 304–15. Canedcom International Corporation. 2004. Final Report for Evaluation of Cycle One Basic Education. Toronto: Canedcom International. Carneiro, Pedro and James Heckman. 2003. “Human Capital Policy.� National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper 9495. www.nber.org/papers/w9495 Center for British Teachers (CfBT). Under preparation. Report on Development of Standards. Muscat, Oman: CfBT. Center on Education Policy. 2009. State High School Exit Exams: Trends in Test Programs: Alternate Pathways and Pass Rates. Washington DC: Center on Education Policy. Chapman, D. W. 1990. “The Role of Education Management Information Systems.� In Improving Educational Quality, ed. D. W. Chapman and C. A. Carrier. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Cotton, K. 2003. Principals and Student Achievement: What the Research Says. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD). Creative Associates International. 2005. Middle East Partnership Initiative: Oman Secondary School Assessment Report. Washington, DC: Creative Associates International. Curtain, H. 1990. Foreign Language Learning: An Early Start. Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics. 298 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Refe r e n ce s 299 Darling-Hammond, Linda and Gary Sykes. 2003. “Wanted: A National Teacher Supply Policy for Harlen, W., ed. 1994. Enhancing Quality in Assessment. London: Chapman. Education: The Right Way to Meet The “Highly Qualified Teacher� Challenge.� Education Policy Analysis Archives 11 (33). Hassan, A. 2005. Early Childhood Care and Education Policy in Oman. Report prepared for UNESCO, Doha, Qatar. Drader, J., J. Edwards, and C. MacKay. 2004. Student Achievement Analysis of Assessments, Tests and Questionnaires. Unpublished document. Toronto: CANEDCOM International Corporation. HEAC (Higher Education Admission Center). 2009. Higher Education Admission Statistics for the Academic Year 2008/09. Muscat, Oman: HEA Drucker, Peter. 1966. The Effective Executive. New York: Harper and Row. Higham, Rob, David Hopkins and Elpida Ahtaridou. 2007. Improving School Leadership: Country Educational Research Centre. 2008. Progress in Mathematics: Using Class-level Performance Background Report for England. London: London Centre for Leadership in Learning, Institute of Bands and Monitoring Progress over Time. Dublin: Educational Research Centre. Education, University of London. Available at: http://www.erc.ie/documents/dpmt_combined_documents.pdf http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/33/45/39279379.pdf Economist Intelligent Unit (EIU). 2008. Oman: Country Profile 2008. London: EIU. International Bureau of Education. 2006. World Data on Education: Oman: Profile of the Education Sector. Geneva: UNESCO. Ernst and Young. 2006. “Expenditure Rationalization and Optimization Study for the Council for http://www.ibe.unesco.org/en/access-by-country/arab-states/oman/profile-of-education.htm. Higher Education.� Muscat, Oman: Council for Higher Education. International Labour Organization (ILO). 2010. ILO’s Global Employment Trends 2010. Geneva: ILO. European Commission. 2007. “How to Stick to Medium-term Budgetary Plans.� In Public Finances in EMU-2007, Part III: 131–167. Kaga, Yoshie. 2007. Jordan’s Strategies for Early Childhood Education in a Lifelong Learning Framework. UNESCO Policy Brief on Early Childhood, 39 (July/August). European Commission. 2009. Structures of Education and Training Systems in Europe: Germany. 2009/10 edition. Available at: Kaplan, R. and D. Norton. 1996. The Balanced Score Card. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice/documents/eurybase/structures/041_DE_EN.pdf Kellaghan, T. and V. Greaney. 1992. Using Examinations To Improve Education. A Study In Fourteen Funding Education. 2010. Grants for Schools. African Countries. Washington DC: World Bank. http://www.fundingeducation.co.uk/grants-for-schools.html Kellaghan, T. and V. Greaney, 2004. Assessing Student Learning in Africa. Washington DC: Ganson, H. 1998. “Report on the Statistical Analysis Consultancy Visit to the Examinations World Bank. Administration Department of the Ministry Of Education.� Author memo. Kellaghan. T., V. Greaney, and T.S. Murray. 2009. Using the Results of a National Assessment Gopinathan, S., Steven Tan, Fang Yanping, Letchmi Devi, Catherine Ramos, and Edlyn Chao. 2008. of Educational Achievement. Vol. 5. National Assessment of Educational Achievement Series. Transforming Teacher Education: Redefined Professionals for 21st Century Schools. Report Washington DC: World Bank. prepared for The International Alliance of Leading Institutes. Singapore: National Institute of Education. Killeavey. 2006. “Induction: A Collective Endeavor of Learning, Teaching, and Leading.� Greaney, V. 2006. “Textbooks, Respect for Diversity, and Social Cohesion.� In Promoting Social Theory into Practice 45 (2). Cohesion through Education, ed. E. R. Roberts-Schweitzer with V. Greaney and K. Duer, 47–69. Washington, DC: World Bank. Kim, J., ed. 2007. From Line-item to Program Budgeting. Global Lessons and the Korean Case. Seoul: Korea Institute of Public Finance. Greaney, V. and T. Kellaghan. 1996. “The Integrity of Public Examinations in Developing Countries.� In Assessment: Problems, Developments, and Statistical Issues, ed. H. Goldstein and T Lewis, Krachen, S., M. Long, and R. Scarcella. 1979. “Age, Rate and Eventual Attainment in Second 167–88. Chichester, England: Wiley. Language Acquisition.� TESOL Quarterly 13 (4). Greaney, V. and T. Kellaghan. 2008. Assessing National Achievement Levels in Education. Vol 1. Kusek, J. and R. Rist. 2004. Ten Steps to a Results-Based Monitoring and Evaluation System. National Assessment of Educational Achievement Series. Washington DC: World Bank. Washington, DC: World Bank. Griffith, D. 2004. “Detailed Guidance on Moderation at Grades 11 and 12.� Memo. Muscat, Oman: Kuwait Ministry of Education. 2007. Education Indicators in the State of Kuwait. Kuwait City, Kuwait: Ministry of Education. Ministry of Education. Guthrie, J. and V. Greaney. 1991. “Literacy Acts.� In Handbook of Reading Research (Second edition), Le Metais, J. 2003. “International Trends in Primary Education.� International Review of Curriculum ed. R. Barr, M.L. Kamil, P. Mosenthal and P. D. Pearson, 68–96. New York: Macmillan. and Assessment Framework (INCA) Thematic Study 9. London: Qualification and Curriculum Authority. Hanushek, E. 2005. “Why Quality Matters in Education.� Finance and Development (June): 15–19. Manpower, Inc. 2009. Manpower Employment Outlook Survey. Milwaukee: Manpower, Inc. Harlen, W. 2004. A Systematic Review of the Evidence Of Reliability and Validity of Assessment by Teachers Used for Summative Purposes. London: EPPI-Centre, Social Science Research Unit. Martin, M.O., I.V.S. Mullis, P. Foy, with J.F. Olson, C. Preuschoff, E. Erberber, A. Arora, and J. Galia. 2008. Cited by J. Wilmut and J. Tuson in Statistical Moderation of Teacher Assessments. A Report to the TIMSS 2007 International Science Report: Findings from IEA’s Trends in International Mathematics Qualifications and Curriculum Authority. 2005. London: Qualifications and Curriculum Authority. and Science Study at the Fourth and Eighth Grades. Chestnut Hill, MA: TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Lynch School of Education, Boston College. 300 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Refe r e n ce s 301 Marvel, J., D.M. Lyter, P. Peltola, G.A. Strizek, and B.A. Morton. 2006. Teacher Attrition and Mobility: Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE). 2008. The General Statistical Book for Higher Education Results from the 2004–05 Teacher Follow-up Survey. U.S. Department of Education, National Center Institutions in the Sultanate of Oman, Academic Year 2007/08. Muscat, Oman: MOHE. for Education Statistics 2007–307. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 2009. The General Statistical Book 2008/09. Muscat, Oman: MOHE. McBeath, A. 2006. “Getting Districtwide Results.� Presented at the Getting Districtwide Results Conference, Long Beach, CA, February 6. Ministry of National Economy (MONE). 2004. Selected Data and Indicators from 1993 & 2003 Censuses. Muscat, Oman: MONE. McKinsey and Company. 2007. How the World’s Best School Systems Come Out on Top. http://www.mckinsey.com/App_Media/Reports/SSO/Worlds_School_Systems_Final.pdf 2006. Seventh Five-year Plan 2006–2010. Muscat, Oman: MONE. Ministère de l’Education, de l’Alphabétisation et des Langues Nationales, Ministère de l’Enseignement 2006. Statistical Year Book 2006. Issue 34, (October). Muscat, Oman: MONE. Supérieur et de la Recherche Scientifique, Ministère de l’Emploi et de la Formation Professionnelle. 2010. 2007. Long-term Development Strategy (1996–2020): Vision for Oman’s Economy Programme d’Investissement pour le Secteur de l’Education – Cadre des Dépenses à Moyen Terme (Oman 2020). Muscat, Oman: MONE. (2010–2012). Bamako, Mali. 2008. Statistical Year Book 2008. Issue 36, October 2008. Muscat, Oman: MONE. Ministry of Education (MOE). 2002. Evolution of Educational Statistics In The Sultanate, 1970–2001. (Arabic), cited by S. Rassekh. 2004. Education as a Motor for Development: Recent Education 2009. Statistical Year Book 2009. Issue 37, November 2009. Muscat, Oman: MONE. Reforms In Oman with Particular Reference to the Status of Women and Girls. Geneva: International 2010. Statistical Year Book 2010. Issue 38, November 2010. Muscat, Oman: MONE. Bureau of Education. 2011. Eighth Five-year Plan 2011–2010. Muscat, Oman: MONE. 2003. Report from the Consultancy Study on the Reform of Years 11 and 12. Muscat, Oman: MOE. Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation, Yemen. 2009. A Perspective to Recruit and Absorb Yemeni Labour Force in the Labour Markets of the Cooperative Council for the Arab States 2004. National Report on Quality Education in Oman. Muscat, Oman: MOE. of the Gulf. Sana’a, Yemen: Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation. 2006. From Access to Success: Education for All (EFA) in the Sultanate of Oman Mullis, Ina V.S., Ann M. Kennedy, Michael O. Martin and Marian Sainsbury. 2006. PIRLS 2006 1970–2005. Muscat, Oman: MOE. Assessment Framework and Speci�cations, 2nd Edition. Chestnut Hill, MA: TIMSS & PIRLS 2007a. Education for All in the Sultanate of Oman: Midterm Report. Muscat, Oman: MOE. International Study Center, Lynch School of Education, Boston College. 2007b. Educational Statistical Year Book 2006/07. Muscat, Oman: MOE. Mullis, I.V.S., M.O. Martin, P. Foy, with J.F. Olson, C. Preuschoff, E. Erberber, A. Arora and J. Galia. 2008. TIMSS 2007 International Mathematics Report: Findings from IEA’s Trends in International 2007c. General Document for Students’ Learning Assessments. Translated from Arabic Mathematics and Science Study at the Fourth and Eighth Grades. Chestnut Hill, MA: TIMSS & PIRLS version. Memo. Muscat, Oman: MOE International Study Center, Lynch School of Education, Boston College. 2008a. Inclusive Education in the Sultanate of Oman: National Report of the Sultanate Murphy, J, J. Yff, and N. Shipman. 2000. “Implementation of the Inter-state School Leaders Licensure of Oman 2008. Muscat, Oman: MOE. Consortium Standards.� International Journal of Leadership in Education 3: 17–39. 2008b. National Test Report for Grade 7, 2006–07. Education Evaluation Directorate. National Qualifications Authority of Ireland. 2009. National Framework of Qualifications. Muscat, Oman: MOE. http://www.nqai.ie/nfq/en/ 2008c. Educational Statistical Year Book 2007/08. Muscat, Oman: MOE. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 1994. Vocational Education and Training for Youth: Towards Coherent Policy and Practice. Paris: OECD. 2008d. Education Indicators, Academic Year 2007/2008. Muscat, Oman: MOE. (www.moe.gov.com). 2002. “The Teaching Workforce: Concerns and Policy Challenges.� Education Policy Analysis. 2008e. Post-basic Education Programme, Grades 11 and 12. Muscat, Oman: MOE. Paris: OECD. 2009a. Educational Statistical Year Book 2008/09. Muscat, Oman: MOE. 2004a. Equity in Education Students with Disabilities, Learning Difficulties and Disadvantages. Paris: OECD. 2009b. National Assessment for Grade 10. Unpublished document. Education Evaluation Directorate. Muscat, Oman: MOE. 2004b. Programme for International Student Assessment, Learning for Tomorrow’s World: First Results from PISA 2003. Paris: OECD. 2009c. Continuous Assessment Survey. Unpublished document. Education Evaluation Directorate. Muscat, Oman: MOE. 2005. Teachers Matter: Attracting, Developing and Retaining Effective Teachers. Paris: OECD. 2009a. Evaluating and Rewarding the Quality of Teacher: International Practices. Paris: OECD. 2009d. The General Statistical Book for Higher Education Institutions in the Sultanate of Oman. Muscat, Oman: MOE. 2009b. Education at a Glance 2009. Paris: OECD. 2010. Post-basic Education Program, Grades 11 and 12. Muscat, Oman: MOE. 2010. Education at a Glance 2010. Paris: OECD. 302 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Refe r e n ce s 303 Okagaki, L. 2001. “Triarchic Model of Minority Children’s School Achievement.� Wilmut, J. and J. Tuson. 2005. Statistical Moderation of Teacher Assessments: A Report to the Educational Psychologist 36: 9–20. Qualifications and Curriculum Authority. Nottingham: Centre for Developing and Evaluating Lifelong Learning, University of Nottingham. Pennycuick, D. 1990. “The Introduction Of Continuous Assessment Systems at Secondary Level in Developing Countries.� In Changing Educational Assessment. International Perspectives And Trends, World Bank. 2000. Cost Effectiveness Study for the Education Sector. Washington, DC: World Bank. ed. P. Broadfoot, R. Murphy and H. Torrance, 106–118. London: Routledge. 2003. Education for All: Including Children with Disabilities. Washington, DC: World Bank. Pont, Beatriz, Deborah Nusche and Hunter Moorman. 2008. Improving School Leadership: Volume 1: Policy and Practice. Paris: OECD. 2005. Expanding Opportunities and Building Competencies for Young People. A New Agenda for Secondary Education. Washington, DC: World Bank. Rassekh, S. 2004. Education as a Motor for Development: Recent Education Reforms In Oman with Particular Reference to the Status of Women and Girls. Geneva: International Bureau of Education. 2006. Meeting the Challenges of Secondary Education in Latin America and East Asia. Improving Efficiency and Resource Mobilization. Washington, DC: World Bank. Ravitch, D. 2010. The Death and Life of the Great American School System: How Testing and Choice 2008a. What is School-based Management? Washington, DC: World Bank. are Undermining Education. New York: Basic Books. 2008b. The Road Not Traveled: Education Reform in the Middle East and North Africa. Rogers, Alan. 2005. Training Adult Literacy Educators in Developing Countries. Background paper Washington, DC: World Bank. prepared for the Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2006: Literacy for Life. Paris: UNESCO. 2009. Implementation Completion and Results Report on a Loan in the Amount of Rowe, K.J. and K.S. Rowe. 1999. “Investigating the Relationship between Students’ US$120 million to the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan for an Education Reform for Knowledge Attentive-inattentive Behaviors in the Classroom and Their Literacy Progress� International Journal of Economy I Project. Report No: ICR00001208. Washington, DC: World Bank. Educational Research 31 (2). 2010. Show Us the Money: A Guide to Public Expenditure Tracking Surveys (PETS) Sanders, W.L. and J.C. Rivers. 1996. Cumulative and Residual Effects of Teachers on Future Student Washington, DC: World Bank (forthcoming). Academic Achievement. Knoxville, Tennessee: University of Tennessee Value-added Research and Assessment Center. Young, Mary Eming. 2009. “Early Human Development: Critical Path to Economic Growth – A Proposed Strategy for the MENA Region.� Issues Paper. Washington, DC: World Bank. Shiel, G. 2010. “Linking Test Data to Policy Related Variables.� In Analyzing Data from a National Assessment of Educational Achievement, ed. V. Greaney and T. Kellaghan. Washington, DC: World Bank, in preparation. Taylor, A. 2007. “Pathways for Youth to the Labour Market: An Overview of High School Initiatives.� Ottawa: Canadian Policy Research Network. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). 2009. Human Development Report 2009. New York: UNDP. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). 1994. The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education. Paris: UNESCO. 2000a. The EFA 2000 Assessment: Country Reports: Oman. Paris: UNESCO. http://www.unesco.org/education/wef/countryreports/oman/rapport_1.html 2000b. The Dakar Framework for Action: Education for All: Meeting Our Collective Commitments. Paris: UNESCO. 2006a. International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) 1997. Paris: UNESCO. 2006b. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2007 Strong Foundations: Early Childhood Care and Education. Paris: UNESCO. 2010. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2010: Reaching the Marginalized. Paris: UNESCO. UNESCO Institute for Statistics. 2006. “Education Counts. Benchmarking Progress in 19 WEI Countries.� World Education Indicators, 2006. Montreal: UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Wang, Y. 2010. “Education in a Changing World: Flexibility, Skills and Employability.� Research Paper (forthcoming), World Bank, Washington, DC. Published in 2012 by the Ministry of Education, Sultanate of Oman Photography by Ibrahim Al Busaidi, Saif Al Saadi, Abdulrahman Al Balushi, Jawaid S Mohammed Ministry of Education Publication No. 23/2012 Ministry of Information Publication No. 233/2012 Design by Erika Pfaller, Sanaa Al Mahfudhi © Ministry of Education, Sultanate of Oman, 2012 Printed by Oman Printers & Stationers Ltd.Co.LLC. Education in Oman The Drive for Quality In 1970 school enrollments in the Sultanate of Oman numbered 900; today there are over 600,000 students in the country’s schools. The dramatic growth in education participation rates over the last forty years has meant that, in terms of both access to and completion of education, the levels in Oman compare favorably with other countries in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. The focus of the Government has now shifted from concerns about access to education, towards improving the quality and relevance of teaching and learning. The center-pieces of its reforms have been the introduction of new basic education (grades 1–10) and post- basic education (grades 11–12) systems. Among the main tasks ahead towards reaching the goal of improved education quality are to establish a culture of high standards and to develop the pedagogical capacity of the teaching force. Aimed at policy makers and practitioners, this report draws on evidence and information from a wide variety of sources to explore the current status of the Sultanate of Oman’s pre-tertiary education sector. Prepared in collaboration with the Sultanate’s Ministry of Education, the report examines aspects of access to education, quality of learning, teachers and teaching methods, relevance of education to the labor market, and the financing and management of the education system. The report makes a number of recommendations for the future improvement and development of the Sultanate’s education sector. Jointly prepared by The Ministry of Education and The World Bank www.moe.gov.om