ENVIRONMENTALLY AND SOCIALLY SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT STUDIES AND MONOGRAPHS SERIES 23 w~~~~~~~~~~~r IS06S Work in progress for public discussion oct b "w 1q994 Bioengineering of Crops Repor-t ,, tlhe f,l A1/ / Ba,,k Pa;/ oil iiS(.Ci/' (f )ops fI( ii, 1' [1) Ar';/1a/t/i i&()" /I /)(l(/ 'Ky.1 /X{IJ/W /iK A/1;/hi/t - l, (G,o/ul, Rob/o(- Iffl11 h /(T, L R- 'vrl,, Jlr;-t '/S. ^S,/hrl/ ,,,,.UI.S. Sh"z/l/lilla/lllanl ESSD Proceedings Series 1 Culture and Development in Africa: Proceedings of an International Conference (Also in French) 2 Valuing the Environment: Proceedings of the First Annual International Conference on Environmentally Sustainable Development 3 Overcoming Global Hunger: Proceedings of a Conference on Actions to Reduce Hunger Worldwide 4 Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development: Proceedings of a Conference 5 The Human Face of the Urban Environment: A Report to the Development Community 6 The Human Face of the Urban Environment: Proceedings of the Second Annual World Bank Conference on Environmentally Sustainable Development 7 The Business of Sustainable Cities: Public-Private Partnershipsfor Creative Technical and Institutional Solutions 8 Enabling Sustainable Community Development 9 Sustainable Financing Mechanismsfor Coral Reef Conservation: Proceedings of a Workshop 10 Effective Financing of Environmentally Sustainable Development: Proceedings of the Thiird Annual World Bank Conference on Environmentally Sustainable Development 11 Servicing Innovative Financing of Environmentally Sustainable Development 12 Ethics and Spiritual Values: Promoting Environmentally Sustainable Development 13 The Self and the Other: Sustainability and Self-Empowerment 14 Meeting the Challenges of Population, Environment, and Resources: The Costs of Inaction 15 Rural Well-Being: From Vision to Action ESSD Studies and Monographs (formerly Occasional Paper) Series 1 The Contribution of People's Participation; Evidencefrom 121 Rural Water Supply Projects 2 Making Development Sustainable: From Concepts to Action 3 Sociology, Anthropology, and Development: An Annotated Bibliography of World Bank Publications 1975-1993 4 The World Bank's Strategyfor Reducing Poverty and Hunger: A Report to the Development Community 5 Sustainability and the Wealth of Nations: First Steps in an Ongoing Journey 6 Social Organization and Development Anthropology: The 1995 Malinowski Award Lecture 7 Confronting Crisis: A Summary of Household Responses to Poverty and Vulnerability in Four Poor Urban Communities (Also in French and Spanish) 8 Confronting Crisis: A Comparative Study of Household Responses to Poverty and Vulnerability in Four Poor Urban Communities 9 Guidelinesfor Integrated Coastal Zone Management (continued on the inside back cover) ENVIRONMENTALLY AND SOCIALLY SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT STUDIES AND MONOGRAPHS SERIES 23 Bioengineering of Crops Report of the World Bank Panel on Transgenic Crops Henry W Kendall, Roger Beachy, Thomas Eisner, Fred Gould, Robert Iferdt, Peter H. Raven, Jozef S. Schell, and M. S. Swaminathan The World Bank Washington, D.C. Copyright C 1997 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printing October 1997 This report has been prepared by the staff of the World Bank. The judgments expressed do not necessarily reflect the views of the Board of Executive Directors or of the governments they represent. Cover photograph by Luis Fernando Pino. A technician at the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) uses molecular markers to examine genetic variability in varieties of Latin American rice. Reprinted with permission from CIAT, Cali, Colombia. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Bioengineering of crops: report of the World Bank Panel on Transgenic Crops / Henry W. Kendall . . [et al.]. p. cm. - (Environmentally and socially sustainable development studies and monographs series ; 23) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-8213-4073-5 1. Transgenic plants. 2. Plant genetic engineering. 3. Crops- Genetic engineering. I. Kendall, Henry Way, 1926- . II. World Bank Panel on Transgenic Crops. III. Series. SB123.57.B56 1997 338.1'62-dc2l 97-40525 CIP ®3 The text and the cover are printed on recycled paper, with a flood aqueous coating on the cover. Contents About the Authors v Acknowledgments vi Introduction 1 1. World Food Supplies 3 2. Bioengineering Technology 11 3. Possible Problems 19 4. Conclusions and Recommendations 25 Appendix. Integrated Intensive Farming Systems 29 iii About the Authors Roger Beachy Henry W. Kendall Scripps Family Chair, Scripps Research Institute; J. A. Stratton, Professor of Physics, Massachusetts full member, Department of Cell Biology; Head, Institute of Technology. Chair, Union of Con- Division of Plant Biology. Co-director, Inter- cemed Scientists. Awarded 1990 Nobel Prize in national Laboratory of Tropical Agricultural Physics. Biotechnologies. Fellow, American Association for the Advancement of Science. Received 1991 Peter H. Raven Commonwealth Award for Science and Invention. Director, Missouri Botanical Garden. Professor of Member, National Academy of Sciences. botany, Washington University. Home secretary, National Academy of Sciences. Fellow, thirteen Thomas Eisner other national academies of science. Awarded Schurman Professor of Chemical Ecology and numerous honorary degrees and other awards, director, Comell Institute for Research in including the Japan International Prize for Bio- Chemical Ecology, Cornell University. Fellow, logy, and jointly received the Sasakawa Prize, the National Academy of Sciences, and several Volvo Prize, and the Prize of the Institut de la Vie. other nations' academies of science. Awarded 1994 National Medal of Science. Jozef S. Schell Director, Department of Genetic Principles of Fred Gould Plant Breeding, Max Planck Institut fur Ziuch- Reynolds Professor of Entomology, North tungsforschung. Professor, plant molecular biol- Carolina State University. Research areas: inte- ogy, College de France. Member, ten national grated pest management, population ecology academies, including the Deutsche Akademie and genetics, evolutionary biology. Consultant, der Naturforscher Leopoldina, the National Aca- International Rice Research Institute. Received demy of Sciences, and the Royal Swedish Aca- U. S. Award for Excellence in Integrated Pest demy of Sciences. Winner of numerous awards Management. and distinctions, including the Wolf Prize, the Sir Hans Krebs Medal, and the Australia Prize. Robert Herdt Director, agricultural sciences, Rockefeller M. S. Swaminathan Foundation, with responsibility for the founda- UNESCO Professor in Ecotechnology and chair, tion's agricultural work throughout the world. M.S. SwaminathanResearchFoundation, Madras, Agricultural economist, International Rice India. Fellow, Royal Society of London. Foreign Research Institute, 1973-83. Faculty member, associate, National Academy of Sciences, and sev- University of Illinois, and science adviser, World eral other nations' academies of science. Awarded Bank, 1983-86. Fellow, American Association numerous honorary degrees and other awards, for the Advancement of Science. including the World Food Prize. v Acknowledgments This volume was prepared for the World Bank important issues, leading to useful changes in and the Consultative Group on International the paper. We are grateful for their help, Agricultural Research. The authors wish to although the authors of the report remain solely express their thanks to Ismail Serageldin, vice responsible for its content. The reviewers were president for Environmentally and Socially Nina Fedoroff, Pennsylvania State University; Sustainable Development (ESSD), World Bank, Rebecca Goldberg, Environmental Defense for initiating this study and supporting it Fund; Mardi Mellon, Union of Concerned throughout its course. Robert T. Watson, Scientists; Per Pinstrup-Andersen, International Director of the World Bank's Environment Food Policy Research Institute; Alison G. Power, Department, provided aid and advice that Cornell University; and Virginia Walbot, advanced the project. Stanford University. A number of thoughtful people reviewed the We also wish to thank Barbara Corbisier for manuscript. Their comments provided an array her work in preparing and maintaining the Web of additional checks on the work and raised site that proved so useful during our work. vi -- - ----- -- . - =:_12 = Introduction T he primary objectives of the World Bank much to contribute, but it is a novel system and Group are to alleviate poverty, malnutri- possible risks need to be evaluated carefully. tion, and human misery in developing Opposition to bioengineering research and its nations while encouraging and supporting a application has already arisen, not all of it care- transition to environmentally sustainable activ- fully thought out. As the World Bank has recog- ities. The issue of providing adequate food, nized, a considered and technically competent based on sustainable agricultural practices, understanding of both the potential and the per- looms large in gaining these objectives, for fail- ceived risks of bioengineered crops is a requisite ure in this area will virtually guarantee failure to to their successful development and use. Public meet other objectives. Moreover, failure will perceptions that genetically engineered crops make certain continued misery for many of our and animal products pose specific dangers must fellow human beings. Agricultural systems are be carefully considered and addressed if such already under stress, and they will become more products are to reach widespread use. stressed as populations continue to swell and In 1996 Ismail Serageldin, the World Bank's the need for food supplies increases. vice president for Environmentally and Socially The World Bank has made important contri- Sustainable Development and chairman of the butions to the alleviation of hunger and malnu- CGIAR, initiated a study panel to assess the trition through its programs that aid agriculture potential of crop bioengineering as well as the in the developing world. Its aid was a major inherent risks. The panel was to provide the factor in making India self-sufficient in food Bank with guidance in its activities, including its production in the difficult time after World War support to the CGIAR. This is the panel's report. II. Similarly, its support to the Consultative In what follows we review the status of Group on International Agricultural Research world food supplies and the prospects and (CGLAR) was instrumental in enabling the needs for the future with emphasis on the devel- CGIAR to be a major player in introducing the oping world. We then describe bioengineering Green Revolution, which contributed so much technology and the potential contributions that to economic growth in the developing world.' transgenic crops might make to the alleviation of But despite contributions by the Bank and other problems of food security. After that we deal organizations and by nations, the need to with possible risks from the widespread deploy- enhance food security in much of the develop- ment of genetically altered crops. Finally, we ing world will remain a critical problem for offer some conclusions and recommendations. many years to come. Among the numerous approaches to Note expanding food supplies in the developing 1. Henry Owen, "The World Bank: Is 50 Years world in environmentally benign ways is the Enough?" Foreign Affairs 73 (September/October 1994): bioengineering of crops. Bioengineering has 99. 1 CHAPTER 1 World Food Supplies C urrent and future demands for food and zens with adequate food when they wish to do the pressures and stress on the world's so. Indeed, well over one-third of world grain agricultural sector generate the need to production is fed to livestock to enhance the set priorities among a cluster of problems and supply of animal protein, which is consumed available solutions, including the bioengineer- most heavily in the industrial world. ing of crops.' This section of the report sets out In the developing world, matters are differ- and assesses the challenges as they stand today ent. More than 1 billion people do not get and evaluates what the future may bring. enough to eat on a daily basis and live in what the World Bank terms "utter poverty"; about Current Circumstances half of that number suffer from serious malnu- trition. A minority of nations in the developing We are now facing the following challenges. world are markedly improving their citizens' standard of living: in some fifteen countries 1.5 Population billion people have experienced rapidly rising incomes over the past twenty years. But in more The world's population stands at 5.8 billion and than a hundred countries 1.6 billion people have is growing at about 1.5 percent a year. The experienced stagnant or falling incomes. Since industrial, wealthy nations, including Japan 1990 incomes have fallen by a fifth in twenty-one and the nations of Europe and North America, countries of eastern Europe. have about 1.2 billion people. These nations are Had the world's food supply been distrib- growing at a slow rate, roughly 0.1 percent a uted evenly in 1994, it would have provided an year. adequate diet of about 2,350 calories a day per Population in the developing world is 4.6 bil- person for 6.4 billion people, more than the lion and is expanding at 1.9 percent a year, a rate actual population.2 that has been decreasing somewhat in the past In addition to the food shortages suffered by decade. The least developed nations, with a total many in developing countries, there are wide- population of 560 million, are growing at 2.8 spread deficiencies in certain vitamins and min- percent a year. If they continue to grow at this erals. Vitamin A appears to be lacking from rate, their population will double in twenty-four many diets, especially in Southeast Asia, and years. At present about 87 million people are there is deficiency in iron, which contributes to added to the world's population each year. widespread anemia among women in the devel- oping world.3 Food: Nutrition and Malnuttrition Food prices have been declining over the past several decades, and some observers have The wealthy nations have high levels of nutri- argued that the decline is a sign that adequate tion and little problem supplying all their citi- food for all is now available. But those in utter 3 4 Bioengineering of Crops poverty do not have the resources to purchase of prime farm land for nonfarm uses, make it adequate food, even at today's prices. More essential for these two countries to adopt eco- recently, food prices have risen, while grain logically sustainable, intensive, and integrated stocks have fallen to their lowest level in thirty farming systems (see appendix). years.4 In China land is communally owned but indi- vidually cultivated under the country's House- Agriculture hold Responsibility System. In India land is individually owned and agriculture constitutes About 12 percent of the world's total land sur- the largest private-sector enterprise in the coun- face is used to grow crops, about 30 percent is try. India's population of 950 million is growing forest or woodland, and 26 percent is pasture or at about 1.9 percent annually, while China's meadow. The remainder, about one-third, is stands at 1.22 billion and is growing at 1.1 per- used for other human purposes or is unusable cent a year. China has nearly 50 percent of its cul- because of climate or topography. In 1961 the tivated land under irrigation, while less than 30 amount of cultivated land supporting food pro- percent of India's cultivated area is irrigated.6 duction was 0.44 hectares per capita. Today it is Agriculture in both countries must provide about 0.26 hectares per capita, and based on not only more food but also more employment population projections, it will be in the vicinity and income. Modern industry is frequently of 0.15 hectares per capita by 2050.5 The rate of associated with economic growth, but growth expansion of arable land is now below 0.2 per- without adequate expansion of employment. cent a year and continues to fall. The bulk of the Modern agriculture can foster job-led economic land best suited to rainfed agriculture is already growth. Therefore, farming cannot be viewed in under cultivation, and the land that is being either country as merely a means of producing brought into cultivation generally has lower more food and other agricultural commodities; productivity. instead, it must be looked upon as the very foun- Urbanization frequently involves the loss of dation of a secure livelihood. New technologies, prime agricultural land, because cities are usu- such as biotechnology, information and space ally founded near such land. Losses of prime technologies, and renewable energy, are pivotal land are often not counterbalanced by the open- to building vibrant agricultural sectors, to pro- ing of other lands to production because the ducing more from less land and water, and to infrastructure that is generally required for mar- strengthening local economies. ket access is frequently lacking on those lands. Irrigation plays an important role in global Pressures on Agricultural Systems food production. Of the currently exploited arable land, about 16 percent is irrigated, pro- Widespread injurious agricultural practices, in ducing more than one-third of the world crop. both the industrial and the developing worlds, Irrigated land is, on balance, over two and a half have damaged the productivity of land, in some times more productive than rainfed land. cases severely.7 These practices have led to The situation in India and China is particu- water- and wind-induced erosion, salination, larly acute because their people account for compaction, waterlogging, overgrazing, and nearly half of the developing world's popula- other problems. For example, the estimated loss tion. Both countries have expanding popula- of topsoil in excess of new soil production is esti- tions and diminishing per capita arable land and mated to be about 0.7 percent of the total topsoil water resources. The average farm size in both each year; this loss amounts to some 25 billion countries is one hectare or less. Agriculture, tons, equivalent to the total in Australia's wheat including crop and animal husbandry, forestry, growing area. An additional 0.7 percent annual and fisheries, has been a way of life and a means loss occurs from land degradation and the to achieve a livelihood for several thousand spread of urbanization. Erosion has made a bil- years. Expansion in population and increases in lion hectares of soil unusable for agriculture purchasing power, coupled with the diversion over past years.8 Asia has the highest percentage World Food Suepplies 5 of eroded land, nearly 30 percent, but in all a basis for a humane future or from partial or major regions the percentage exceeds 12.9 It is complete destruction of the resource base, which estimated that 17 percent of all vegetated land would bring widespread misery. was degraded by human activity between 1945 and 1990. The Future The effects of erosion on crop yield are not well documented because researching such In future years we are likely to face the follow- effects is difficult and expensive and because ing challenges. degradation can be masked for short periods of time by more intensive agricultural practices. Popuilation However certain data are available.10 Erosion can ultimately destroy the land's productive Although fertility has been declining worldwide capacity by stripping off all of the soil, as has in recent decades, it is not known when it will occurred in Haiti. "Haiti suffers some of the decline to replacement level. There is broad world's most severe erosion, down to bedrock agreement among demographers that if current over large parts of some regions, so that even trends are maintained, the world's population farmers with reasonable amounts of land cannot will reach about 8 billion by 2020, 10 billion by make a living."'1 2050, and possibly 12 to 14 billion before the end Irrigation practices continue to contribute to of the next century. Virtually all of the growth in salinization and other forms of land damage. For coming decades will occur in the developing example, more than half of all irrigated land is world. in dry areas, and 30 percent of that land is mod- erately to severely degraded. Salinization is a Food Demand serious problem in Australia, Egypt, India, Mexico, Pakistan, and the United States. Some To provide increased nutrition for a growing 10 percent of the world's irrigated land suffers world population, it will be necessary to expand from salinization. food production faster than the rate of popula- There are also serious problems with sup- tion growth. Studies forecast a doubling in plies of water-much of the world is in short demand for food by 2025-30.16 Dietary changes supply.12 Worldwide, nations with some 214 and the growth in nutritional intake that accom- river or lake basins and 40 percent of the world's pany increased affluence will contribute to mak- population now compete for water.13 Much irri- ing food demand larger than the projected gation depends on "fossil" underground water increase in population. supplies, which are being pumped more rapidly Asia, which has 60 percent of the world's than they are being recharged.14 This problem population, contains the largest number of the affects portions of Africa, China, India, the world's poor; 800 million people in Asia live in United States, and several countries in the absolute poverty and 500 million live in extreme Middle East, especially Israel and Jordan. The poverty. Projections by the United Nations Food human race now uses 26 percent of the total ter- and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the World restrial evapotranspiration and 54 percent of the Bank, and the International Food Policy fresh water runoff that is geographically and Research Institute show that the demand for temporally accessible. Most land suitable for food in Asia will exceed the supply by 2010.17 rai-nfed agriculture is already in production.15 China, the world's most populous nation, has It is now clear that agricultural production is more than 1.2 billion people and an annual currently unsustainable. Indeed, human activi- growth rate of 1.1 percent a year. The country ties, as they are now conducted, appear to be will face considerable challenges in years ahead approaching the limits of the earth's capacity. from stress resulting from major environmental These unsustainable activities, like all unsus- damage, shortages of water, and diversion or tainable practices, must end at some point. The degradation of arable lands.'8 Animal protein end will come either from changes that establish has increased in the Chinese diet from about 7 6 Bioengineering of Crops percent in 1980 to more than 20 percent today, products.22 The greatest challenges will be faced aggravating the country's food challenges. Most by nations that lack the capacity for substantial of the water available in China is used for agri- oil exports or other sources of wealth with which culture, and heavy use of fertilizers has polluted to purchase food imports. These nations include much of the water supply. Afghanistan, Cyprus, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Lester Brown and Hal Kane have argued that Mauritania, Somalia, Tunisia, and Yemen, by 2030 India will need to import 45 million tons whose combined population exceeded 125 mil- of food grain annually and China 216 million lion in 1994. Food self-sufficiency is unattainable tons to feed their growing populations."9 The for most of these countries. Oil exporting widening gap between grain production and nations will, as their oil resources dwindle, join consumption in the two countries, caused by this less fortunate group. increases in population and purchasing power, Sub-Saharan Africa is the region whose will lead to the need for such imports. Brown prospective food supplies generate the greatest and Kane have pointed out that while demand concern; since 1980 agriculture there has grown will grow, production prospects are not bright at 1.7 percent a year, while population, now at owing to stagnation in applying yield-enhanc- 739 million, has grown at 2.9 percent a year.23 ing technologies and growing damage to the Some twenty years ago, Africa produced food ecological foundations essential for sustainable equal to what it consumed; today it produces advances in farm productivity. It is apparent that only 80 percent of the food it consumes.24 With a without substantial change there will not be population growth rate of close to 3 percent a enough grain to meet the needs of the two coun- year, Sub-Saharan Africa cannot close its food tries, a conclusion that at least some Chinese gap. The gap will likely grow, requiring scholars agree with.20 increased imports of food to prevent growing Latin America, which is economically and malnutrition and increased risk of famine. If pre- demographically advanced compared with sent worldwide decreases in foreign aid persist, Africa and Asia, appears to enjoy a relatively these imports may not be forthcoming. favorable situation with respect to food sup- plies and food security. Some regions are, how- Agriculture and Irrigation ever, under stress because of economic problems and continuing high rates of popula- As described above, the current rates of injury to tion increase. Bolivia, northeast Brazil, Peru, arable land are troubling. Since 1950, 25 percent much of Central America, and parts of the of the world's topsoil has been lost, and contin- Caribbean, especially El Salvador, Guatemala, ued erosion at the present rate will result in the Haiti, and Honduras, face important chal- further irreversible loss of at least 30 percent of lenges. Latin America's population is expected the global topsoil by the middle of the next cen- to increase from 490 million to nearly 680 mil- tury. A similar percentage may be lost to land lion by 2025, and it is possible that more than a degradation, a loss that can be made up only quarter of the area's annual cereal consumption with the greatest difficulty through conversion will be imported by 2020. The major countries of pasture and forest, themselves under pres- in the region, including Argentina, Brazil, Chile, sure. In Asia 82 percent of the potentially arable Colombia, and Mexico, appear to have the land is already under cultivation. Much of the resources necessary to meet their projected food land classed as potentially arable is not available needs, but doing so will require maintaining because it is of low quality or easily damaged. stable populations and implementing success- The FAO has projected that over the next ful land management programs.2' twenty years arable land in the developing coun- Countries in the Middle East and North tries could be expanded by 12 percent at satisfac- Africa have seen demand for food outpace tory economic and environmental costs, although domestic production. Differences in oil wealth such expansion would inflict major damage to and agricultural production determine differ- the world's remaining biodiversity.? The yields ences in ability to import grains and livestock per hectare on this land would be less than on the World Food Suipplies 7 land already in production. This expansion is to production. Productivity is projected to be compared with the 61 percent increase in food increase in some areas and decrease in demand that is expected to occur in these coun- others, especially the tropics and sub- tries during the same period, according to a sce- tropics. ... There may be increased risk nario discussed by the FAO. The last major of hunger and famine in some locations; frontiers that can potentially be converted to many of the world's poorest people- arable land are the acid soil areas of the Brazilian particularly those living in subtropical cerrado, the llanos of Colombia and Venezuela, and tropical areas and dependent on iso- and the acid soil areas of central and southern lated agricultural systems in semi-arid Africa. Bringing these unexploited, potentially and arid regions-are most at risk of arable lands into agricultural production poses increased hunger. Many of these at-risk formidable but not insurmountable challenges.26 populations are found in Sub-Saharan The prospects for expanding irrigation, so Africa; South, East, and Southeast Asia; critical to the intensification of agricultural pro- and tropical areas of Latin America, as ductivity, are also troubling. The growth of irri- well as some Pacific island nations.29 gated land has been slowing since the 1970s, owing to the problems discussed above as well Further deleterious changes may occur in as to "siltation" of reservoirs and the environ- livestock production, fisheries, and global sup- mental problems and related costs that arise plies of forest products. Salt intrusion into from the construction of large dam systems. The coastal area aquifers, many of which supply problems can include the spread of disease. water for irrigation, can occur as a result of ris- An important "wild card" in any assessment ing sea levels. While important uncertainties of future agricultural productivity is climatic about climatic change and its consequences will change resulting from anthropogenic emissions remain for some years, the matter must be con- of greenhouse gases. The consequences of such sidered in assessing the prospects for expanding change touch on a wide range of technical issues nutrition in the developing world. that will not be summarized here.27 However, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Prospects (IPCC) concluded in its second assessment report that the balance of evidence suggests that Today, there are hundreds of millions of people there is a discernable human influence on climate who do not get enough food. Given the circum- and that a global warming of about two degrees stances described above, it appears that over the Celsius, with a range of uncertainty from one to next quarter century grave problems of food three and a half degrees Celsius, will occur by security will almost certainly affect even more 2100. The consequences of a two-degree warm- people, as a number of observers have pointed ing would include regional and global changes out.30 in climate and climate-related parameters such as temperature, precipitation, soil moisture, and Given present knowledge, therefore, sea level. These changes could in turn give rise to maximum realization of potential land, regional increases in "the incidence of extreme and water, supplies at acceptable eco- high temperature events, floods, and droughts, nomic and environmental costs in the with resultant consequences for fires, pest out- developing countries still would leave breaks and ecosystem composition, structure them well short of the production and functioning, including primary productiv- increases needed to meet the demand ity."28 According to the IPCC: scenarios over the next twenty years.31 Crop yields and changes in productivity The task of meeting world food needs to due to climate change will vary consid- 2010 by the use of existing technology erably across regions and among locali- may prove difficult, not only because of ties, thus changing the patterns of the historically unprecedented incre- 8 Bioengineering of Crops ments to world population that seem The application of modern techniques of inevitable during this period but also crop bioengineering could be a key factor in because problems of resource degrada- implementing many of these improvements. tion and mismanagement are emerging. These techniques are a powerful new tool with Such problems call into question the sus- which to supplement pathology, agronomy, tainability of the key technological para- plant breeding, plant physiology, and other digms on which much of the expansion approaches that serve us now. of food production since 1960 has If crop bioengineering techniques are devel- depended.32 oped and applied in a manner consistent with ecologically sound agriculture, they could As is the case now, those in the lower tier of decrease reliance on broad spectrum insecticides, the developing countries will continue to be which cause serious health and environmental most affected by shortfalls in food production. problems. This reduction could be accomplished The industrial nations and the developing by breeding crop varieties that have specific tox- nations whose economies continue to improve icity to target pests but do not affect beneficial will face acceptable costs in providing their citi- insects. Furthermore, bioengineering techniques zens with adequate nutrition. The extent of could assist in the development of crop varieties deprivation and economic and environmental that are resistant to currently uncontrollable costs remains the subject of controversy between plant diseases. At their best bioengineering tech- optimists and pessimists.33 niques are highly compatible with the goals of sustainable agriculture because they offer surgi- Meeting the Challenges cal precision in combating specific problems without disrupting other functional components The main challenge is to expand agricultural of the agricultural system. production at a rate exceeding population While it is feasible to use biotechnology to growth in the decades ahead so as to provide improve the ecological soundness of agriculture, food to the hungry new mouths to be fed. This well-informed decisions must be made regard- goal must be accomplished in the face of a fixed ing which specific biotechnology projects are or slowly growing base of arable land offering encouraged and which are discouraged. For little expansion, and it must involve simultane- example, ten years ago, when crop bioengineer- ous replacement of destructive agricultural ing was being introduced in the United States, practices with more benign ones. Thus the call some projects were focused on engineering crops for agricultural sustainability.34 Owing to the for tolerance against a dangerous herbicide. The daunting nature of this challenge, every eco- projects were dropped after environmental nomically, ecologically, and socially feasible groups protested. Projects targeted for develop- improvement will have to be carefully exploited. ing countries will have to be scrutinized to make A list of potential improvements includes: sure that their long-term impacts are beneficial. * Introducing energy-intensive farming, inclu- Not all challenges to sustainable and pro- ding, in some areas, increased fertilizer use ductive agriculture can be addressed with * Conserving soil and water, with special pri- biotechnology. For example, improving soil and ority given to combating erosion water conservation, maintaining biodiversity, * Maintaining biodiversity and improving irrigation techniques must be * Improving pest control dealt with by other means. * Expanding irrigation and making it more We must emphasize that the improvements efficient in agriculture described in this report, while * Improving livestock management badly needed, do not address all of the difficul- * Developing new crop strains with increased ties faced by the lower tier of developing yield, pest resistance, and drought tolerance nations. There is almost no dispute that careful * Reducing dependency on pesticides and planning and selection of priorities, coupled herbicides. with substantial commitments from both indus- World Food Supplies 9 13. World Resources Institute, World Resoutrces trial and developing nations, will be required to 1992-93 (Washington, D.C., 1995). provide the food supplies that the future will 14. Lester R. Brown, "Future Supplies of Land and demand, to move to sustainable agricultural Water Are Fast Approaching Depletion," in Population practices, and to alleviate hardship in now- and Food in the Early Twenty-First Century: Meeting impoverished nations. Futuire Food Demand of an Increasing Popiulation, ed. Nurul Islam (Washington, D.C.: International Food Policy Research Institute, 1995). Notes 15. Sandra Postel, Gretchen Daily, and Paul Ehrlich, "Human Appropriation of Renewable Fresh Water," 1. See H. W. Kendall and David Pimentel, Science, 9 February 1996, 785-88. "Constraints on the Expansion of the Global Food 16. Donald L. Plucknett, "Prospects of Meeting Supply," AMBIO 23 (May 1994): 198-205. Future Food Needs through New Technology," in 2. Norman E. Borlaug, "Feeding the World: The Population and Food in the Early Twenty-First Century, Challenges Ahead," in Meeting the Challenges of 207-08; Borlaug, "Feeding the World: The Challenges Population, Environment, and Resources: The Costs of Ahead." Inaction, H. W. Kendall and others. (Washington, D.C.: 17. Kirit Parikh and S. M. Dev, "Comments: Asia," in World Bank, 1996). Popuilation and Food in the Early Twenty-First Century, 3. Robert W. Herdt, "The Potential Role of Biotech- 117-18. nology in Solving Food Production and Environmental 18. Vaclav Smil, "Comments: Asia," in China's Problems in Developing Countries," in Agricutlture and Environmental Crisis-An Inquiry into the Limits of National Environment: Bridging Food Production and Environ- Development (Armonk, N.Y: M. E. Sharpe, 1993). mental Protection in Developing Countries, ed. Anthony 19. Lester R. Brown and Hal Kane, Fiull Houtse: S.R. Juo and Russell D. Freed, American Society of Reassessing the Earth's Popuilation Carrying Capacity Agronomy Special Publication 60 (Madison, Wis., (New York: W. W. Norton, 1994); Lester R. Brown, Who 1995),33-54. Will Feed China? Wake-Up Call for a Small Planet (New 4. Per Pinstrup-Andersen and James L. Garrett, York: W. W. Norton, 1995). Rising Food Prices and Falling Grain Stocks: Short-Run 20. "Malthus Goes East," Economist, 12 August 1995,29. Blips or New Trends? 2020 Brief (Washington, D.C.: 21. Tim Dyson, Population and Food (London and International Food Policy Research Institute, 1996). New York: Routledge, 1996). 5. Robert Engelman and Pamela LeRoy, Conserving 22. Thomas Nordblom and Farouk Shomo, Land: Population and Sustainable Food Production "Comments: Middle East/North Africa," in Poptulation (Washington, D.C.: Population Action International, and Food in the Early Twenty-First Century, 131. 1995). 23. World Bank, Rural Development: From Vision to 6. World Resources Institute, World Resources 1994-95 Action (Washington, D.C., 1997). A Report of the World Resources Institute 24. J. Cherfas, Science, 1990, 1140-41. (Washington, D.C., 1995). 25. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United 7. See especially D. Norse and others, "Agriculture, Nations, Agricultutre: Towards 2010; Pierre Crosson, in Land Use, and Degradation," in An Agenda of Sciencefor Popiulation and Food in the Early Twenty-First Century, Environment and Development into the 21st Century, ed. 143-59. J. C. I. Dooge and others (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge 26. Borlaug, "Feeding the World: The Challenges University Press). Ahead." 8. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United 27. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Nations, Agriculture towards 2010 (Rome, 1993). (IPCC), Radiative Forcing of Climate Change-The 1994 9. Robert W. Herdt, "The Potential Role of Report of the ScientificAssessment Working Group of IPCC Biotechnology in Solving Food Production and (New York: IPCC, World Meteorological Organization, Environmental Problems in Developing Countries," and United Nations Environment Programme, 1994); 33-54; World Resources Institute, World Resources John Houghton, Global Warming-The Complete Briefing 1992-93 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993). (Oxford: Lion Publishing, 1994). 10. David Pimentel and J. Krummel, "Biomass 28. IPCC, Summary for Policymakers: Impacts, Energy and Soil Erosion: Assessment of Resource Adaptation, and Mitigation Options, The Second Costs," BioScience 14 (1987): 15-38. Assessment Report of Working Group II (Washington, 11. World Commission on Environment and D.C., 1995). Development, Ouir Common Future (New York: Oxford 29. IPCC, Summary for Policymakers. See also ADB University Press, 1987). (Asian Development Bank), Climate Change in Asia: 12. Sandra Postel, "Water and Agriculture," in Water Executive Suimmary (Manila, 1994); David W. Wolfe, in Crisis, A Gtide to the World's Fresh Water Resources, "Potential Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture ed. Peter H. Gleick (New York: Oxford University and Food Supply" (Paper presented at the Center for Press, 1993),56-62. Environmental Information's Conference on 10 Bioengineering of Crops Sustainable Development and Global Climate Change, 33. See John Bongaarts, "Can the Growing Human Arlington, Va., 4-5 December 1995). Population Feed Itself?" Scientific American, March 1994, 30. Klaus M. Leisinger, Sociopolitical Effects of New 18; Alex F. McCalla, "Agriculture and Food Needs to Biotechnologies in Developing Countries, Food, Agriculture, 2025: Why Should We Be Concerned?" (Consultative and the Environment Discussion Paper 2 (Washington, Group on Intemational Agricultural Research, Sir John D.C.: Intemational Food Policy Research Institute, 1995). Crawford Memorial Lecture, Washington, D.C., 27 31. Crosson, in Population and Food in the Early October 1994). Twenty-First Century, 157. 34. D. L. Plucknett and D. L. Winkelmann, 32. Peter A. Oram and Behjat Hojjati, in Population "Technology for Sustainable Agriculture," Scientific and Food in the Early Twenty-First Century, 167. American, September 1995, 182-86. CHAPTER 2 Bioengineering Technology P lant scientists can now transfer genes into long been exploited by plant breeders. many crop plants and achieve stable inter- Biotechnology provides new tools to the breeder generational expression of new traits. to expand plant capacity. In the past crop breed- "Promoters" (deoxyribonucleic acid [DNA] se- ers were generally limited to transferring genes quences that control the expression of genes, for from one crop variety to another. In some cases example) can be associated with transferred genes they were able to transfer useful genes to a vari- to ensure expression in particular plant tissues or ety from a closely related crop species or a at particular growth stages. Transformation can related native plant. Genetic engineering now be achieved with greater efficiency and more rou- gives plant breeders the power to transfer genes tinely in some dicots (for example, tomatoes, to crop varieties independent of the gene's ori- potatoes) than in some monocots (for example, gin. Thus bacterial and even animal genes can be rice and wheat), but with determined effort nearly used to improve a crop variety. all plants can or will be modified by genetic engi- Bacillius thuringiensis (Bt), a bacterium that neering. produces an insect toxin particularly effective against lepidoptera (such as caterpillars and Gene Transformation moths), has been applied to crops by gardeners for decades. It is also effective against mosqui- Genetic transformation and other modern crop toes and certain beetles. Transformation of breeding techniques have been used to achieve tomato and tobacco plants with the gene that four broad goals: to change product characteris- produces Bt toxin was one of the first demon- tics, improve plant resistance to pests and strations of how biotechnology can be used to pathogens, increase output, and improve the enhance a plant's ability to resist damage from nutritional value of foods. insects.3 Transgenic cotton that expresses Bt Genetic modification to alter product charac- toxin at a level providing protection against cot- teristics is illustrated by the Flavr SarvTm tomato, ton bollworm has been developed, and a large one of the first genetically engineered plants to number of Bt-transformed crops, including corn receive approval from bthe U.S. Food and Drug and rice, are currently being field tested.4 Other Administration and to be made available for gen- strategies to prevent insect damage include eral consumption by the public; the fruit ripening using protein coding genes of plant origin, such characteristics of this variety were modified to as lectins, amylase inhibitors, protease inhibi- provide a longer shelf life.' Biotechnology has also tors, and cholesterol oxidase, that retard insect been used to change the proportion of fatty acids growth.5 in soybeans, modify the composition of canola oil, Genes that confer resistance to viral diseases and change the starch content of potatoes.2 have been derived from the viruses themselves, Natural variability in the capacity of plants most notably with coat protein mediated resis- to resist damage from insects and diseases has tance (CP-MR). Following extensive field evalu- 11 12 Bioengineering of Crops ation, a yellow squash with CP-MR resistance to cular marker techniques with exotic names such two plant viruses was approved for commercial as restriction fragment length polymorphism production in the United States.6 Practical resis- (RFLP), random amplified polymorphic DNA tance to fungal and bacterial pathogens has been (RAPD), and microsatellites. These techniques more elusive, although genes encoding enzymes allow scientists to follow genes from one gener- that degrade fungal cell walls or inhibit fungal ation to the next, adding to the tools at the dis- growth are being evaluated. More recently, nat- posal of plant breeders. In particular, the ural genes for resistance to pathogens have been techniques enable plant breeders to combine sev- cloned, modified, and shown to function when eral resistance genes, each of which may have transferred to susceptible plants.7 different modes of action, leading to longer-act- While protecting plants against insects and ing or more durable resistance against pathogens promises to increase crop yield by sav- pathogens. Marking also makes it possible for ing a higher percentage of present yield, several the breeder to combine several genes, each of strategies seek to increase the potential crop yield. which may individually provide only a weakly These strategies include exploiting hybrid vigor, expressed desirable trait but in combination delaying plant senescence, and inducing plants to have higher activity. flower earlier and to increase starch production. Several strategies to produce hybrid seeds in Ongoing Research new ways will likely contribute to increasing yield potential. Cytoplasmic male sterility was Research continues to improve the efficiency widely used long before the age of biotechnol- and reduce the costs of developing transgenic ogy, but strategies to exploit male sterility crops and using genetic markers. As this require biological manipulations that can only research succeeds, it will be applied to different be carried out using tools from molecular biol- plants and genes. ogy; several of these strategies are well By far the greatest proportion of current advanced.8 Some of the strategies entail sup- research in crop biotechnology is being con- pressing pollen formation by changing the tem- ducted in industrial countries on the crops of perature or day length. Delayed senescence or economic interest in those countries. Plant "stay-green" traits enable a plant to continue biotechnology research in the fifteen countries of producing food beyond the period when a non- the European Union is probably a fair reflection transformed plant would, thereby potentially of current global research in plant biotechnol- producing a higher yield.9 Potatoes that produce ogy. Almost 2,000 projects are under way, 1,300 higher starch content than nontransformed con- of them actually using plants (as opposed to trol potatoes have been developed.'0 plant pathogens, theoretical work, and the like). Plants have been modified to produce a About 210 of the projects using plants are on range of lipids, carbohydrates, pharmaceutical wheat, barley, and other cereals; 150 of the pro- polypeptides, and industrial enzymes, leading jects are on the potato; 125 are on oilseed rape; to the hope that plants can be used in place of and about 90 are on maize.13 microbial fermentation." One of the more ambi- The worldwide record of field trials reflects tious of such applications is the production of the focus of research activities, and the record vaccines against animal and human diseases. shows that work on cereals was started some- The hepatitis B surface antigen has been what later than work on other plants. Some 1,024 expressed in tobacco, and the feasibility of using field trials were conducted worldwide through the purified product to elicit an immune 1993; 88 percent of those trials were in response in mice has been demonstrated.12 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries, with 38 per- Gene Markers cent in the United States, 13 percent in France, and 12 percent in Canada. Belgium, the Far-reaching possibilities for identifying genes Netherlands, and the United Kingdom each have been made possible through various mole- hosted about 5 percent of the total number of Bioengineering Technology 13 field trials. Argentina, Chile, China, and Mexico techniques can be used to develop easy-to-use led in numbers of trials in developing countries, kits that can alert the farmer to the presence of but none had more than 2 percent of the total.14 deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) from the Tungro The largest number of field trials was con- virus in rice plants. Such knowledge can ducted on the potato (19 percent). Oilseed rape decrease the frustration and money spent on accounted for 18 percent of the field trials, while solving the wrong problem. tobacco, tomatoes, and maize each accounted for about 12 percent. There were more than ten Current Efforts trials each on alfalfa, cantaloupe, cotton, flax, sugar beet, soybean, and poplar. Nine tests were Most biotechnology research in industrial coun- done on rice, and fewer than nine on wheat, tries is being conducted on human health issues sorghum, millet, cassava, and sugarcane, the rather than on agriculture. Government spend- crops that, aside from maize, provide most of the ing for biotechnology research in the United food to most of the world's people, who live in States is about $3.3 billion a year, with $2.9 bil- the developing countries. lion going to health issues and $190 million to Herbicide tolerance has been the most agricultural issues."7 It is estimated that between widely tested genetically engineered trait, 1985 and 1994 $260 million was contributed in accounting for 40 percent of the field trials for the form of grants to agricultural biotechnology agronomically useful transgenes. Twenty-two in the developing world; another $150 million percent of tests were conducted on ten different was contributed in the form of loans. An aver- types of modified product quality, including age of perhaps $50 million a year has been con- delayed ripening, modified processing charac- tributed in more recent years.18 At least a third ters, starch metabolism, and modified oil con- and perhaps half of these funds have been used tent.15 About 40 percent of field trials in to establish organizations designed to help bring developing countries were for virus resistance. the benefits of biotechnology to developing Twenty-five percent of the trials were for crops countries. modified for herbicide resistance, and another Maize is the focus of much crop biotechnol- 25 percent were for insect resistance, with the ogy work in the United States. Most of this work balance for product quality, fungal resistance, or on maize is directed toward making it better agromatic traits.16 suited for production or more capable of resist- Although much of the biotechnology ing the depredations of the pests in industrial research in agriculture has focused on bioengi- countries. The International Wheat and Maize neering (that is, gene transfer), the techniques of Improvement Center sponsors the largest inter- biotechnology extend beyond this approach. national effort directed at identifying traits of The techniques involved in tissue culture have maize that could be improved using biotechnol- been advanced and refined over the past decade. ogy, but the center spends barely $2 million a These techniques can be used to regenerate year on those efforts. plants from single cells and have proven espe- There are, at present, only four coherent, cially useful in producing disease-free plants coordinated programs directed specifically at that can be propagated and distributed to farm- enhancing biotechnology research on crops in ers. The use of these plants has resulted in sig- developing countries, one supported by the nificant yield improvements in crops as diverse U.S. Agency for International Development as potato and sugarcane. (USAID), one by the Dutch government, one by Another use for biotechnology is in develop- the Rockefeller Foundation, and one by the ing diagnostic techniques. Too often, poorly per- McKnight Foundation. forming crops have observable symptoms that The USAID-supported project, Agricultural are so general that the farmer cannot determine Biotechnology for Sustainable Productivity the specific cause. For example, Tungro disease (ABSP), is headquartered at Michigan State in rice produces symptoms that match those of University and implemented by a consortium of certain nutrient deficiencies. Biotechnology U.S. universities and private companies. It is tar- 14 Bioengineering of Crops geted at five crop/pest complexes: the potato About two hundred senior scientists and and the potato tuber moth, the sweet potato and three hundred trainee scientists are participat- the sweet potato weevil, maize and the stem ing in the program. The scientists are spread borer, the tomato and the tomato yellow leaf throughout all the major rice-producing coun- virus, and cucurbits and several viruses. The tries of Asia and a number of industrial coun- ABSP is an outgrowth of an earlier USAID-sup- tries. Researchers from the group transformed ported project on improving tissue culture tech- rice in 1988, a first for any cereal. Transformed niques for crops. It builds on the network of rice has been field-tested in the United States. A scientists associated with that earlier project and significant number of lines transformed with draws on other scientists as well. agronomically useful traits now exist and are The cassava biotechnology network, spon- being developed for field tests. RFLP maps, that sored by the Netherlands Directorate General is "road maps" that allow breeders to follow for International Cooperation, held its first genes, are being used to assist breeding, and meeting in August 1992. Its goals include using some rice varieties developed by advanced tech- the tools of biotechnology to modify cassava to niques not requiring genetic engineering are better meet the needs of small-scale cassava pro- now being grown by Chinese farmers. ducers, processors, and consumers. More than The McKnight Foundation recently estab- 125 scientists from 28 countries participated in lished its Collaborative Crop Research Program, the first network meeting. Funding to date has which links researchers in less developed coun- been about $2 million. An important initial tries with U.S. plant scientists in order to activity is a study of farmers' needs for technical strengthen research in selected countries and to change in cassava. The study will be based on a focus the work of U.S. scientists on food needs field survey of cassava producers in several loca- in the developing world. The program is being tions in Africa. funded at $12 to $15 million for the first six years. Another important initiative, the Inter- While crop engineering is not the sole research national Laboratory of Tropical Agricultural tool supported by the program, it plays an Biotechnology, is being developed at the Scripps extremely important role. Institute in La Jolla, California. It is jointly Early in the effort to apply bioengineering to administered by the institute and by L'Institut crop improvement, there was great hope placed francais de recherche scientifique pour le in the potential to engineer the capacity for nitro- developpement en coop6ration (ORSTOM), a gen fixation into crops without it. After the French governmental development agency. investment of millions of dollars in public and Funding for research in the control of diseases of venture capital and many years of research, it rice, cassava, and tomato through applications has become apparent that the genetic machinery of biotechnology is provided in grants from involved in nitrogen fixation by legumes is ORSTOM, the Rockefeller Foundation, the extremely complex and beyond our current ABSP, and USAID. Most of the research is car- capacity for gene transfer and expression. At ried out by fellows, students, and other trainees some point in the future nitrogen fixation may from developing countries. be transferred to crops such as corn and rice, but The Rockefeller Foundation began to sup- such an achievement must be seen as a far-off port rice biotechnology in the developing world goal. in 1984. The foundation's program has two It is unlikely that the budgets of these four objectives: (1) to create biotechnology applicable focused crop biotechnology efforts, taken to rice to produce improved rice varieties suited together, come to more than $20 million annu- to developing country needs and (2) to ensure ally. Total agricultural biotechnology research in that scientists in developing countries know the developing world may not greatly exceed how to use biotechnology techniques and are $50 million annually.'9 Brazil, China, Egypt, capable of adapting the techniques to their own India, and a few other countries have a reason- objectives. Approximately $50 million in grants able base for biotechnology, but most develop- have been made through the program. ing countries will find it difficult to develop Bioengineering Technologty 15 useful biotechnology products without sharply links between biotechnologists and plant breed- directed assistance. Little attention will be paid ers; the ability of scientists to identify the con- to crops of importance in the developing world straints and the genes that overcome them; the or to the pests, diseases, and stresses that afflict ability of scientists to get those genes into good them unless the crops are also important to the crop varieties; and the success of plant scientists more advanced countries. That is, while the and others in crafting meaningful biosafety gains in fundamental knowledge that apply to regulations. all organisms will be available, the programs It is likely that efforts to improve the rice may not produce applications in the form of yield in Asia through biotechnology will result transformation techniques, probes, gene pro- in a production increase of 10 to 25 percent over moters, and the like. the next ten years. The increase will come from improved hybrid rice systems in China; in other Potential Contributions of Transgenic Crops Asian countries it will come from rice varieties transformed with genes for resistance to pests Transgenic crops have the potential to con- and diseases. These transformed rice varieties tribute to increased production and food quality, will raise average yields by preventing crop environmental well-being, and human health. damage, not by increasing yield potential. The reason is simple: few strategies are being pur- Potential Applications to Improved Production sued to directly raise yield potential because few and Food Quality strategies have been conceived. The use of hybrid rice is one exception. Potential ways to How will the developments of molecular biology raise yield potential revolve around increasing contribute to solving the food production prob- "sink" size and "source" capacity. Adding to lems in developing countries in the years ahead? sink size involves increasing the number of Contributions may come through two different grains or the average grain size; increasing paths: (1) research in molecular biology directed source capacity means improving the capacity of specifically at food needs in the developing world the plant to fill these grains with carbohydrate. or (2) "spillover" innovations directed at issues in Both improvements are desired, but there are industrial countries but also beneficial to food only a few investigators thinking about how production in developing countries. biotechnology might help to achieve these The preceding section shows that the improvements, especially in rice crops. While resources directed at food crop production in there is a community of scientists working to developing countries are small, especially when understand basic plant biochemistry, including compared with those directed at crops in the photosynthesis, this work as yet offers no hints industrial world. Still, some important contribu- about which genes can be manipulated to tions should come from the resources being advantage using the tools of molecular biology applied to developing countries. Training of sci- and genetic engineering. entists in developing countries under various Maize yields in developing countries may be programs means that there is a small cadre of affected by biotechnology if genes useful in trop- plant molecular biologists in a number of devel- ical countries are discovered in the course of the oping countries. The Rockefeller Foundation's great amount of research on maize under way in support for rice biotechnology should begin to the United States. Although most of the maize pay off in two to five years in the form of new research is being carried out by private firms, varieties available to some Asian farmers. In some discoveries may be made available for China varieties produced through anther cul- applications in developing countries either at no ture, a form of biotechnology, are now being cost or at low enough cost to make them com- grown on thousands of hectares by farmers in mercially feasible. Biotechnology applications rural areas near Shanghai. The speed with which beneficial to cassava are further in the future, as varieties get into farmers' hands depends are those on the smallholder banana and other largely on national conditions-the closeness of crops of importance in the developing world. 16 Bioengineering of Crops Herbicide resistance is potentially the sim- Drought is a major problem for nearly all crop plest of traits to incorporate into a plant, because plants, and the prospect of a "drought resistance application of the herbicide is an ideal way to gene" has excited many scientists. However, plant select a modified individual cell. A population scientists recognize that many traits contribute to of cells exposed to DNA that confers herbicide drought tolerance or resistance: long, thick roots; resistance can quickly be screened. A number of thick, waxy leaves; the ability to produce viable different herbicides are available, and there is a pollen when under drought stress; the ability to strong self-interest on the part of herbicide man- recover from a dry period; and others. Some of ufacturers to encourage farmers to use herbi- these traits can undoubtedly be controlled genet- cides. Thus a number of pressures are at work to ically, but little progress has been made thus far in ensure that transgenic crops with herbicide identifying the genes that control them. Salt toler- resistance are produced. Given that weeds cur- ance is often discussed along with drought toler- rently constrain crop yields in developing coun- ance because salt conditions and drought cause tries, crop yields may rise if herbicide use plants to react in similar ways. Unfortunately, increases. In addition, proper regulatory activi- some of the genes that confer drought tolerance ties may lead to increased use of herbicides that may be useless for salty conditions and vice versa. are less damaging to the environment (biode- Some early workers held that fusing cells of plants gradable herbicides, for example). In impover- tolerant to drought with nontolerant plants would ished countries cash-poor farmers typically do result in a useful combination, but that has not not have access to such herbicides, especially been demonstrated despite considerable effort. the expensive ones such as glyphosphate, for The possibility of increasing the starch content which resistance is being engineered. Thus her- of crops through genetic manipulation that mod- bicide resistance may not benefit the average ifies the biosynthetic pathways of the plant is farmer in impoverished countries unless the enticing. Some success has been demonstrated in cost of herbicides is reduced. It should be noted the case of the potato. This success holds out the that prices are decreasing as patent protection is hope that it may be possible to achieve the goal of lost. a significant increase in production potential in Prospects for incorporating pest and disease the potato and other root and tuber crops such as resistance into developing country crops are cassava, yams, and sweet potatoes.20 more favorable than prospects for increasing Prospects for achieving this goal may yields. Pest and insect problems are much sim- depend on two factors: (1) the extent to which pler to address, and much of the effort in biotech- there are alternative metabolic routes to the nology is focused on these problems. Many of the same product and (2) the extent to which control genes that resolve insect and disease problems in of plant metabolism is shared among the com- temperate crops may also be effective in tropical ponent reactions of individual pathways.21 crops. If they are, problems related to gaining "There may well be short pathways in plant access to the genes and transforming plants with metabolism where control is dominated by one them will remain, because most of the genes have or two steps, but the current evidence suggests associated intellectual property rights. In one that this is not so for the longer pathways. This case Monsanto made available to Mexico, with- conclusion has far-reaching effects on our ability out cost, the genes that confer resistance to to manipulate plant metabolism."22 important potato viruses and trained Mexican scientists in plant transformation and other skills Potential Applications to Environmental Problems needed to make use of the genes. The trans- formed potatoes are now being field-tested in Genetic engineering holds out the possibility Mexico. Monsanto has also worked with USAID that plants can be designed to improve human and KARI to develop and donate a similar virus welfare in ways other than by improving crop control technology to Kenya and Indonesia for properties or yields. For example, a biodegrad- virus control in the sweet potato. These cases are, able plastic can be made from the bacterial stor- however, exceptional. age product polyhydroxbutyrate, and the Bioengineering Technology 17 bacterial enzymes required to convert acetyl- duction of insoluble aggregates of the desired CoA to polyhydroxbutyrate have been material that require resolubization before use. expressed in the model plant Arabidopsis Plant production of such proteins would avoid thaliana. This accomplishment demonstrates the the capital investment and would in most cases possibility of developing a plant that can accu- produce soluble materials. However, the cost mulate appreciable amounts of polyhydroxbu- involved in extracting and purifying proteins tyrate.23 The optimization of such a process in a from plants may be significant and may offset plant that will produce the substance in com- lower production costs, although the economics mercial quantities has not yet been achieved. of purifying proteins from plant biomass has not At present 80 percent of potato starch is been evaluated extensively.28 This disadvantage chemically modified after harvest. If starch can to some extent be offset by expressing the modification could be tailored in the plant, costs protein in the seed at a high level.29 might be lower, and the waste disposal prob- Plants can potentially be used as the produc- lems associated with chemical modification ers of edible vaccines. The hepatitis B surface would be reduced.24 antigen has been expressed in tobacco, and the The observation that certain plants can grow feasibility of oral immunization using transgenic in soils containing high levels of heavy metals potatoes has been demonstrated.30 The chal- such as nickel or zinc without apparent damage lenges involved in the design of specific vaccines suggests the possibility of deliberately removing indude optimizing the expression of the anti- toxic substances using plants. Plants with the genic proteins, stabilizing the expression of pro- ability to remove such substances (hyperaccu- teins in the post-harvest process, and enhancing mulators) typically accumulate only a single ele- the oral immunogenicity of some antigens.3' ment and grow slowly. In addition, most have There are even greater challenges to developing not been cultivated, so their seeds and produc- effective protocols for immunization. tion techniques are poorly understood. One way around these limitations might be to genetically Notes engineer crop plants to hyperaccumulate toxic substances. Some increased metal tolerance has 1. R. G. Fray and D. Grierson, "Molecular Genetics of been obtained in transgenic Arabidopsis plants.25 Tomato Fruit Ripening," Trends in Genetics 9 (1993): 438-43. The use of plants for decontamination of soil, 2. T. A. Voelker, and others, Science 257 (1992): 72-74; water, and air is still at a early stage of research D. M. Strak, K. P. Timmerman, G. F. Barry, J. Preiss, and and development. "No soil has been success- G. M. Kishore, Science 258 (1992): 287-92. fully decontaminated yet by either phytoextrac- 3. F. J. Perlak and D. A. Fishoff, "Advanced tion or phytodegradation."26 Engineered Pesticides," in Advanced Engineered Pesticides, ed., Leo Kim (New York: Marcel Dekker, 1993),199-211. 4. F. J. Perlak and others, "Insect Resistant Cotton Potential Applications to Human Health Problems Plants," BiodTechnology 8 (1990): 939-43; see also www.aphis.usda.gov/bbep/bp, a U.S. Department of As a result of biotechnology, compounds that Agriculture site which provides biotechnology field were previously available only in limited qtuan- test information. tities or from exotic plant species or other organ- 5. D. M. Shah, C. M. T. Rommens, and R. N. Beachy, isms can nwResistance to Diseases and Insects in Transgenic sms can now be produced i domestcated Plants: Progress and Applications to Agriculture," crops. It has already proved feasible to produce Trends in Biotechnology 13 (1995): 362-68. carbohydrates, fatty acids, high-value pharma- 6. Shah, Rommens, and Beachy, "Resistance to ceutical polypeptides, industrial enzymes, and Diseases and Insects in Transgenic Plants: Progress and biodegradable plastics.27 Production of proteins Applications to Agriculture," and peptides has been demonstrated and it has 7. W. Y. Song, G. L. Wang, and P. Ronald, "A and ptehbed ottReceptor Kinase-Like Protein Encoded by the Rice been shown that plants have several potential Disease Resistence Gene," Science 270 (1995): 180406. advantages over microbial fermentation sys- 8. M. E. Williams, "Genetic Engineering for tems. Bacterial fermentation requires significant Pollination Control," Trends in Biotechnology 13 (1995): capital investment and often results in the pro- 344-49. 18 Bioengineering of Crops 9. S. Gan and R. M. Amasino, " Inhibition of Leaf 19. Brenner and Komen, "Intemational Initiatives in Senescence by Autoregulated Production of Biotechnology for Developing Country Agriculture: Cytokinin," Science 270 (1995): 1986-88. Promises and Problems." 10. D. M. Stark, K. P. Timmerman, and G. F. Barry, 20. Stark, Timmerman, and Barry, "Regulation of the "Regulation of the Amount of Starch in Plant Tissues Amount of Starch in Plant Tissues by ADP Glucose by ADP Glucose Pyrophosphorylase," Science 258 Pyrophosphorylase." (1992): 287-92. 21. Tom ap Rees, "Prospects of Manipulating Plant 11. 0. J. M. Goddijn and Jan Pen, "Plants as Metabolism," Trends in Biotechnology 13 (1995): 375-78. Bioreactors," Trends in Biotechnology 13 (1995): 379-87. 22. Brenner and Komen, "International Initiatives in 12. Y. Thonavala and others, in Proceedings of the Biotechnology for Developing Country Agriculture: National Academy of Sciences, USA 92 (1995): 3358-61. Promises and Problems." 13. L. P. Meredith Lloyd-Evans and Peter Barfoot, 23. Y. Poirier, Y. Nawrath, and C. Somerville, "EU Boasts Good Science Base and Economic Prospects "Production of Polyhydroxyalkanoates, A Family of for Crop Biotechnology," Genetic Engineering News 16 Biodegradable Plastics and Elastomers, in Bacteria and (1996). For a description of field testing being carried on Plants," Bio/Technology 13 (1995): 142-50. in the United States, see A. A. Snow and P. M. Palma, 24. Goddijn and Pen, "Plants as Bioreactors." "Commercialization of Transgenic Plants: Potential 25. R. B. Meagher and others, Abstract of the 14th Ecological Risks," BioScience 47 (February 1997): 86-96. Annual Symposium on Current Topics in Plant 14. P. J. Dale, "R&D Regulation and Field Trailling of Biochemistry, Physiology, and Molecular Biology Transgenic Crops," Trends in Biotechnology 13 (1995): (University of Missouri, 1995), 29-30. 398-403. 26. Scott D. Cunningham, William R. Berti, and 15. Dale, "R&D Regulation and Field Trailling of Jianwei W. Huang, "Phytoremediation of Con- Transgenic Crops." taminated Soils," Trends in Biotechnology 13 (1995): 16. A. F. Krattinger, Biosafety for Sustainable 393-97. Agriculture (Ithaca, N.Y.: Stockholm Environmental 27. Goddijn and Pen, "Plants as Bioreactors." Institute and International Service for the Acquisition 28. Goddijn and Pen, "Plants as Bioreactors." of Agri-Biotechnological Applications, 1994). 29. E. Krebbers and J. van de Kerckhove, 17. Office of the President, Budget of the United States "Production of Peptides in Plant Seeds," Trends in (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, Biotechnology 8 (1990): 1-3. 1992). 30. T. A. Haq, H. S. Mason, and C. J. Amtzen, "Oral 18. Carliene Brenner and John Komen, "International Immunization with a Recombinant Bacterial Antigen Initiatives in Biotechnology for Developing Country Produced in Transgenic Plants," Science 268 (1995): Agriculture: Promises and Problems," in Organisation 714-16. for Economic Co-operation and Development Technical 31. Hugh S. Mason and Charles J. Arntzen, Paper 100 (Organisation for Economic Co-operation "Transgenic Plants as Vaccine Production Systems," and Development Center, 1994). Trends in Biotechnology 3 (1995): 388-92. CHAPTER 3 - .i Xt " =-. .. --i. ' ; ' =c r . . r = Possible Problems A 11 new technologies must be assessed in wide ranges in nature and can be recognized as terms of benefits and costs. This section a result of their distinctive characteristics. The ,Aloutlines a number of potential costs or characteristics of corn, wheat, and many other problems that may be associated with develop- crops were enhanced during the course of their ing and using the new tools of biotechnology in evolution as a result of hybridization with developing countries. Some of the problems related species or weedy or cultivated strains associated with biotechnology for crop improve- that were nearby; those related, infertile, and ment are not new. Indeed, some of the problems sometimes weedy strains have also been that were faced thirty years ago during the Green enhanced genetically, in some instances follow- Revolution must be addressed once again to ing hybridization with the cultivated crop to safeguard the use of agricultural biotechnology. which they are related. The new tools of biotechnology give us more In view of these well-known principles, stud- power to make positive or negative impacts on ied for well over fifty years, it is clear that any the environment than was the case with conven- gene that exists in a cultivated crop or plant, irre- tional plant breeding technologies used during spective of how it got there, can be transferred the Green Revolution. Thus it is essential that we following hybridization to its wild or semido- review critically the potential problems that have mesticated relatives. The transfer would occur been raised by scientists and environmentalists.' selectively if the gene or genes being transferred Our intention here is to present a balanced enhanced the competitive abilities of the related review of current knowledge concerning risks strains, and the weedy properties of some kinds and problems. of plants might be enhanced in particular instances as a result of this process. If so, those Gene Flow in Plants: Crops Becoming new strains might need special attention in con- Weeds trolling such plants, just as the many thousands of weedy strains of various plants that have In most groups of plants related species regu- developed over the history of cultivation need larly form hybrids, and the transfer of genes control. between the differentiated populations that Because most crops, such as corn and cotton, such hybridization makes possible is a regular are highly domesticated, it is unlikely that any source of enhancement for the populations single gene transfer would enable them to involved. Thus all white oaks and all black oaks become pernicious weeds. Of greater concern is (the two major subdivisions of the genus, the potential for less domesticated, self-seeding including all but a few of the North American crops (alfalfa, for example) and commercial tree species) are capable of forming fertile hybrids. varieties (pines, for example) to become prob- Some of the species and distinct races that have lems. These plants already have the capacity to evolved following such hybridization occupy survive on their own, and transgenes could 19 20 Bioengineerinig of Crops enhance their fitness in the wild. For example, a less sustainable. Therefore, it is important to pine tree engineered for resistance to seed-feed- consider such gene transfer before investing in ing insects might gain a significant advantage specific biotechnology projects. Weeds can through decreased seed destruction, potentially evolve resistance to some herbicides without allowing it to outcompete other indigenous gene transfer, but the process takes much longer. species. If this happened, forest communities For example, herbicides such as glyphosate could be disrupted. (Round-Up) from Monsanto are difficult for plants to resist with their normally inherited Gene Flow in Plants: From Transgenic Crops genes. (It should be noted, however, that the to Wild Plants intensive use of glyphosate has led to weed resistance in Australia.) Crop varieties are often capable of breeding with the wild species from which they were derived. Development of New Viruses from Virus- When the two plant types occur in the same Containing Transgenic Crops place, it is possible for transgenes, like other genes in the domesticated plant, to move into Viral diseases are extremely destructive to the wild plants. In some cases these crop rela- plant productivity, especially in the tropics. tives are serious weeds (wild rices and Johnson Consequently, the genetic modification of grass, for example). If a wild plant's fitness was plants to resist viruses has been an important enhanced by a transgene, or any other gene, that objective of conventional breeding. Over the gave it protection from naturally occurring dis- past decade biotechnology has made possible eases or pests, the plant could become a worse the more rapid and precise production of indi- pest, or it could shift the ecological balance in a vidual strains resistant to particular viruses as natural plant community. Wild relatives of crops a result of the ability to move particular genes suffer from diseases and insect attack, but there into specific crop strains. One of the goals of are few studies that enable us to predict whether genetic engineering has been to identify novel the development of resistance to pests in wild virus-resistant genes that can be rapidly trans- plants would result in significant ecological ferred to many types of crops, thus easing the problems. Weeds often evolve resistance to dis- problems of the plant breeder and meeting the eases by natural evolutionary processes. needs of the farmer. As has always been the However, in some cases, gene transfer from case with such efforts, the major challenge is to crops could speed up this process by hundreds find virus-resistant genes that cannot be over- of years. come easily by the action of natural selection of Wild rices are especially important weeds in the virus. Now, however, we have the potential direct-seeded rice (direct seeding of rice is an to react more efficiently to this challenge than agricultural practice that is becoming more before. widely used in Asia). It has been shown that One potential advantage of genetic engi- genes are often naturally transferred between neering is that it may make possible the trans- domesticated rice and weedy wild rices. If a her- fer of multiple genes for disease resistance that bicide tolerance gene was engineered into a rice affect the disease organism by different mecha- cultivar, it would be possible to control the wild nisms. In many cases such a transfer would rice in commercial rice fields with the herbicide make adaptation by the disease organism more until the wild rice acquired the herbicide toler- difficult. Engineering multiple genes for disease ance gene from the cultivar. Once the wild rice resistance into crops requires advanced techni- obtained this gene, the herbicide would become cal effort, and the benefits of such an effort will useless. The wild rice would not become a worse only be seen years after the varieties are com- weed than it was before genetic engineering as a mercialized. Therefore, it is important that result of acquiring the herbicide tolerance gene. genetic engineers be given a mandate to However, this natural gene transfer would make develop genes that will protect crops for the investment in the engineering effort much extended periods of time. Possible Problems 21 Pathogen-Derived Resistance * Virus-resistant plants may have a competi- tive advantage in the field, and outcrossing To date the most widely applied genetic engi- with weed species may confer increased neering technology for controlling plant viruses competition and weediness. As indicated has been the use of genes derived from the plant above, we lack data on how important this viruses themselves. When transferred to plants, problem can be. a set of genes called viral coat protein genes * The presence of transgenic viral sequences in inhibit replication of the virus. (Other virus- large crops would increase the likelihood of derived genes can have a similar impact when creating novel viruses because of recombina- they are transferred to plants in an appropriate tion between the transgenes and other manner.) viruses that infect the plant. While it is Transgenes encoding a variety of viral genes known that many crops are simultaneously have been tested in transgenic plants over the infected by multiple plant viruses, there are past ten years with a range of effects. Plants few examples of confirmed genetic recombi- that produce viral coat proteins have been nation between different viruses. And, while tested the most widely, and some of these there is evidence of recombination between plants have received approval for commercial like viruses or virus strains, there is no evi- sale in the United States and China. In 1995 the dence that this recombination would occur U.S. Department of Agriculture proposed a with greater frequency in transgenic plants rule that would substitute a notification than in typical situations of virus infection. In requirement for the permit requirement now in conclusion there is little evidence for the con- effect for most field tests of selected genetically tention that virus recombination will cause engineered crops. If this rule is formalized, ecological problems. researchers will only have to notify the depart- * Virus coat proteins produced by transgenic ment, not obtain a permit, before field-testing crops could combine with natural viruses certain genetically engineered plants, includ- and produce more harmful strains. It has ing those that express viral coat protein genes. been concluded that while such an occur- Some have found this proposed rule contro- rence is theoretically possible, the risk of it is versial.2 The U.S. Environmental Protection too low to be considered in assessing the Agency also ruled that coat proteins are not impacts of transgenic crops. pesticidal and are safe for environmental * Virus genes other than coat protein genes release. The U.S. Food and Drug Admin- could elicit greater safety concerns. Genes istration has approved for sale and consump- encoding ribonucleic acids (RNAs) that do tion foods derived from transgenic plants that not produce proteins yet provide resistance contain viral coat proteins. are likely to receive approval because there is no scientific expectation of risk. However, it Concerns about Release of Plants Containing is unclear whether or not other genes will Genes Encoding Viral Sequences receive approval. Viral genes that have the capacity to decrease infection by one virus As research and development of plants that but increase the chance of infection by exhibit pathogen-derived resistance moved another virus will probably not receive from the lab to the field, several concerns were approval unless they are mutated and made voiced about the release of plants that encode to act only in a protective manner. viral sequences, including the following: * Virus proteins may trigger allergic reactions Effects of Plant-Produced Insecticides if included in foods. This concern has been on Unintended Targets largely abandoned, in part because many foods are infected with plant viruses and In terms of plant-produced insecticides the only have been consumed for many years without insecticidal compounds that are currently com- known deleterious effects. mercialized are proteins that are naturally pro- 22 Bioengineering of Crops duced by Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). These pro- Will the Gene Being Transferred Serve an teins are highly specific in their toxic effects. Important Function in the Targeted One group of these proteins affects only certain Geographical Area? species of caterpillars (lepidoptera), while others affect only a restricted set of beetle species. The pests of a specific crop, such as cotton or None of these proteins has been shown to have corn, vary from one geographical region to a significantly disruptive effect on predators of another. For example, the caterpillars of two pest species (beneficial insects). The proteins insect species, the cotton bollworm and the bud- degrade rapidly when exposed to sunlight and worm, are major pests to the cotton grown in the have been shown to degrade even when pro- southern United States. A variety of cotton tected by being inside crop residues. Monsanto developed by Monsanto contains a specific pro- presented data to the Environmental Protection tein derived from Bacillus thuringiensis that is Agency that confirm the safety of the protein. highly toxic to these two closely related pests. In Studies with enzymes from the human diges- Central America the major insect pest species tive system indicated that these Bt proteins are that affect cotton are the fall armyworm and the quickly digested and are unlikely to cause boll weevil. Since the toxins in the cotton devel- harmful effects. oped by Monsanto have no impact on these pests, investing in the transfer of these seeds to Ecosystem Damage Central America would be futile. Instead, it would be better to invest resources in finding Unfortunately little is known about the flow of more appropriate genes that would truly control genetic information from plants to microorgan- Central American cotton pests.3 isms, making it difficult to assess the risk of A number of companies have engineered genes spreading from plants to soil organisms. corn varieties that tolerate herbicide sprays. At It is a fact that soil organisms, especially bacte- this point the commercial corn varieties that pos- ria, are able to take up DNA from their envi- sess herbicide tolerance are developed by cross- ronment and that DNA can persist when bound ing a parent corn line that contains the transgene to soil particles. Although one can speculate for herbicide resistance with another line that about a gene-flow situation in which plant DNA does not contain the gene. Therefore, all of the is released from plant material, bound to soil commercially sold corn seeds contain one copy particles, and subsequently taken up by soil of the herbicide-resistance gene and are resistant bacteria, such a scenario is highly unlikely. Any to the herbicide. In the United States farmers potential risks of such a transfer can be elimi- buy hybrid corn seed every year and plant it nated by making transgenes that bacteria are only once so that all of their plants are tolerant unable to use (those with introns, for example). of the herbicide spray. While this system works It is even more speculative to consider the pos- well in the United States and other similar sible transfer of genes to soil-dwelling funguses economies, it will not work well in agricultural (molds), since gene transfer to funguses is gen- settings in most developing countries unless erally much more difficult than gene transfer to changes are made. For example, in El Salvador bacteria. many farmers buy hybrid corn seed only once every three years, because it is very expensive. Assessing the Cost-Benefit Ratio The first year they plant the commercial seed, of Genetically Engineered Crops and the next two years they plant the offspring from the plants. Because of genetic segregation Two questions that must be addressed before in the offspring, only three-quarters of the corn investing in a project to engineer a crop cultivar plants in the second and third year have the her- are (1) will the gene being transferred serve an bicide-resistance gene, so the farmer kills half of important function in the targeted geographical the crop by applying the herbicide. It has proven area and (2) how long will the gene continue to too difficult for seed companies to put the gene serve its function? in both parents of the plant. Clearly, an agricul- Possible Problems 23 tural plan that works in a developed country corn, cotton, and rice, that produce insecticidal may not work in a developing country. proteins are planted intensively over wide It is often said that biotechnology is a trans- areas, the chance for insect adaptation is high ferable technology because "the technology is all unless care is taken in developing and deploy- in the seeds." It is important to recognize that the ing the insect-resistant varieties. interface between seed traits and worldwide The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency crop production is not always simple. As indi- has put restrictions on the sale of cotton contain- cated above, sending herbicide-resistant corn ing Bacillus thuiringiensis to ensure that every U.S. seed to El Salvador without educating farmers farmhas some fields planted withvarieties thatdo about the problem of using the second genera- not produce the Bt proteins. These restrictions are tion seed could lead to immediate economic an example of the kinds of strategies that can be losses, and it could also lead to rejection of the employed to "conserve resistance." The fields new technology. Similarly, breeding a corn vari- planted with non-Btproducing varieties act as ety in the United States and then sending it to refuges for individual pests that are susceptible. West Africa would be useless if the corn was The insects produced in these refuges will mate resistant to U.S. pests but not to West African with resistant insects emerging from fields where pests. It should be noted that corn pests are not the transgenic varieties are planted, diluting the even the same in all West African countries, so frequency of insects that are resistant to the Bt pro- varieties must be developed by tailoring them to teins and leading to more sustainable resistance. specific problems. Instituting such practices in developing counties Once a variety is matched with local pest would probably be difficult. Furthermore, the problems, the technology may be transferable refuge strategy works best if the transgenic vari- simplyby supplying the seed, although doing so ety produces enough Bt protein to kill close to 100 does not mean that the seed will provide a sus- percent of the susceptible insects that feed on it. A tainable solution to the pest problem. There is variety developed to kill 100 percent of the pest abundant evidence indicating that pests will individuals of a species that occurs in Mexican overcome genes for pest and disease resistance, corn may kill only 80 percent of the insects in a regardless of whether the genes have come Nigerian cornfield. Therefore, attempts to build through biotechnology or classical plant breed- one transgenic corn type to fit the needs of a num- ing, unless seeds are used properly. Getting ber of countries may be misguided. farmers to use seeds properly will require edu- Adaptation problems similar to those de- cational efforts. scribed for insects may affect crops engineered for resistance to disease and tolerance of herbi- How Long Will the Gene Continue to Serve cides. Although there are some types of herbi- Its Function? cides, such as glyphosate (Round-Up), that are considered "immune" to weed adaptation, it is Insects, disease-causing organisms, and weeds not clear that this immunity will hold up when are known to adapt to most pesticides and crop there is intensive use of the herbicide.4 varieties that contain resistant genes. In some When investing in biotechnology for crop cases adaptation occurs within one or two protection, it is important to consider the global years. Some insect strains have evolved the abil- effectiveness of the protection and how long it ity under laboratory and field conditions to tol- will last. The same is true of agriculture in gen- erate high concentrations of the toxins derived eral. Improved strains of any kind of crop or from the Bacillus thuringiensis that are produced domestic animal, regardless of how the genetic by transgenic cotton and corn sold commer- modification was attained, must be carefully cially in the United States. Considerable theo- managed to be as productive as possible. retical and empirical research has assessed Integrated systems involving the best and most whether certain insect pests will overcome the sustainable practices of soil preparation; the effects of transgenic crops that produce these most conservative and appropriate use of water, insecticidal proteins. If major crops, such as fertilizers, and pesticides (if pesticides are used); 24 Bioengineering of Crops and the selection of the best and most appropri- oping countries. For example, tissue culture can ate strains of a particular crop are the key to be used to produce disease-free plants and to success in agriculture. These practices are help increase the productivity of farms in devel- important to all agricultural systems, and they oping countries. But tissue culture can also be are necessary for improving systems, regardless used to shift the production center for specialty of the exact methods used to genetically modify agricultural products from developing to indus- the crop strains being grown. trial countries. Vanilla is typically considered a Investments in new and improved crop tropical product, but recent work with tissue cul- strains must also be judged by their global effec- ture allows its production in the laboratory If tiveness, irrespective of how the strains were such innovations in tissue culture proliferate, it produced. The Green Revolution succeeded in is possible that other tropical products will be enhancing productivity in many areas because manufactured in the laboratory as well. of the system of cultivation that was built up around the new strains of crops, not solely Notes because of the properties of those strains. The design of plantings has a great deal to do with 1. A. A. Snow and P. M. Palma, "Commercialization the longevity of resistance to particular diseases of Transgenic Plants: Potential Ecological Risks," and pests, but design has not always been care- BioScience 47 (February 1997). 2. Personal communication. fully considered in efforts to introduce geneti- 3. N. Strizhov and others, "A Synthetic crylC Gene, cally engineered strains or other novel strains. Encoding a Bacillits Thutringiensis D-Endotoxin, Confers The design of plantings may need special atten- Spodoptera Resistance in Alfalfa and Tobacco," in tion in developing countries with respect to the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA particular conditions found there. (forthcoming). As mentioned above, biotechnologies other 4. J. Gressel, "Fewer Constraints Than Proclaimed to the Evolution of Glyphosate-Resistant Weeds," thanbioengineering canbe used to improve agri- Resistant Pest Management 8 (1996): 2-5; B. Sindel, culture in developing countries. But use of such "Glyphosate Resistance Discovered in Annual technologies can also have drawbacks for devel- Ryegrass," Resistant Pest Management 8 (1996): 5-6. CHAPTER 4 Conclusions and Recommendations T he panel's recommendations to the World cultural science community. Bank are based on its members' belief that It is of the greatest importance to the devel- urgent priority must be assigned to the opment of sound agriculture, based on the best expansion of agriculture and to increased pro- environmental principles, to enhance the capa- duction of food in the developing world. It is bilities of science and scientists in the develop- critically important that increases in food pro- ing world. A specific and urgent need is the duction outpace population growth. Damaging training of developing world scientists in agricultural practices must be replaced with biotechnology methods so that each nation will lower-impact, sustainable activities so that the have a cadre of scientists to assist it in setting global capacity to produce food does not and implementing its own policies on biotech- decline. Only by these means will it prove pos- nology research and biosafety. sible to lessen hunger and improve food security The education of farmers can be greatly facil- in the poorest nations in the years ahead. itated with the aid of scientists from their own Because transgenic technology is so power- nations. These scientists can contribute to the suc- ful, it has the ability to make significant positive cess of newly introduced crop strains and help to or negative changes in agriculture. Transgenic implement early warning systems to identify any crops are not in principle more injurious to the troubles that arise during the introduction of new environment than traditionally bred crops. This crops or new agricultural methods. report has outlined a number of criteria that can be used to determine whether a specific Research Programs biotechnology program is likely to enhance or detract from ecologically sound crop produc- The Bank should identify and support high-quality tion. Transgenic crops that are developed and research programs whose aim is to exploit thefavor- used wisely can be very helpful, and may prove able potential of genetic engineering for improving essential, to world food production and agri- the lot of the developing world. cultural sustainability. Biotechnology can cer- As noted earlier in this report, not all of the tainly be an ally to those developing integrated research in progress in the industrial nations pest management (IPM) and integrated crop will, even if successful, prove beneficial to the management (ICM) systems. developing world. Research should be planned The recommendations to the World Bank so that key needs are met. Much of the necessary follow. research will need to be done in advanced labo- ratories in industrial countries in conjunction Support of Developing World Science with laboratories in developing countries. Research priorities should focus on promoting The Bank should direct attention to the needfor liai- sustainable agriculture and higher yields in the son with and support of the developing world's agri- developing world as well as on decreasing the 25 26 Bioengineering of Crops variation in food production arising from, for to identify any troubles that may arise and to intro- example, environmental stresses. duce improvements in adapting new strains. Variance in production can result in food As an early warning system helped to iden- shortages with numerous attendant complica- tify troubles, it would also spot unexpected suc- tions. Crops with resistance to insects and dis- cess, so that gains could be exploited and eases, including crops developed by genetic duplicated elsewhere. The system would also modification, can decrease production variance provide feedback to speed up and optimize the if the crops are developed and deployed in ways introduction of new plant varieties. that minimize the ability of pests and diseases to overcome the resistance factors in the crop. A Investment in International Agricultural poorly conceived strategy for developing and Research Centers deploying crops can have the opposite effect if pests or diseases adapt to resistant cultivars. If The Bank should increase its support of research in farmers are taught to depend solely on a crop's biotechnology and related areas at international agri- ability to ward off pests and diseases, the farm- cultural research centers because these centers are in ers will not be prepared to use alternative means the best position to ensure that high-quality, envi- of control when pests become adapted to the ronmentally sustainable agricultural products and resistance factors in the crop. processes are developed and transferred to developing countries. Surveillance and Regulation International agricultural research centers are well placed to assist in the implementation The Bank should support the implementation offor- of many of our recommendations. Investment in mal, national regulatory structures in its client biotechnology research at these centers is mar- nations by seeing to it that these structures retain ginally low. Although some of the centers have their vigor and effectiveness through the years and healthy but small programs in place, most of by providing scientific and technical support to the them lack the infrastructure and personnel client nations as requested. needed to conduct high-quality biotechnology Effective regulatory structures will prove research. The Bank should determine how best critical should problems arise during the intro- to invest in infrastructure and personnel at each duction of transgenic crops or, indeed, of other site. The Bank should adopt a broad perspective tools of industrialized agriculture, including on biotechnology research that includes support chemical inputs, some of which may be for marker-assisted breeding, development of promoted in conjunction with genetically engi- transgenic plants, development of molecular- neered herbicide-tolerant crops. These tools can based but farmer-friendly diagnostics, and all pose problems for developing countries. genetic analysis of crop pests and pathogens. Effective, comprehensive regulatory structures Research should emphasize development of appear to exist in few nations, if any, including agricultural products and processes that are the United States. To provide the basis for a unlikely to be provided by the private sector, strong national regulatory structure, there must such as those that would alleviate problems spe- be a designated agency with a clear mandate to cific to subsistence farmers. Any increased protect the environment and the economy from investment in new agricultural technology must risks associated with the uncritical application be accompanied by significant investment in of new methods, including inappropriate new ecological and sociological research to ensure strains of crops or animals that may pose spe- that new products and processes support safe cial risks for the environment. The agency must and sustainable food production. have the technical capacity to develop compe- In implementing Bank support for interna- tent risk assessment and the power to enforce its tional agricultural research centers, two mat- decisions. ters are important. The first is for the Bank to The Bank should support, in each developing ensure that leaders of research organizations country, the deployment of an early warning system are aware of the potential and importance of Conclusions and Recommendationis 27 supporting biotechnology research. The sec- * Ensuring that adequate energy and water ond is for the Bank to ensure that the recom- become available and that procedures for mendations-to focus on liaison and to their efficient use are made known and identify and support high-quality research- adopted are adopted in the implementation of a pro- * Ensuring the introduction of modern means gram of enhanced support for international of controlling pests, including the use of inte- agricultural research centers. Increases in grated pest management systems, safe chem- funding for agricultural biotechnology should icals, and resistant crops involve cooperation with scientists from * Supporting the transition to sustainable developed countries, and any facilities that activities and the reduction of waste and loss may be built at the centers should match the in all elements of the agriculture enterprise scientific capabilities that are to be maintained * Providing the necessary education to farmers over the long term. so that they can implement the array of new techniques that are needed (integrated pest The Agricultural Challenge management, for example) * Ensuring that the changes in agriculture will The Bank should continue to give high priority to all provide the employment opportunities that aspects of increasing agricultural productivity in the will be needed in the developing world. developing world while encouraging the necessary The scale and importance of the challenge transition to sustainable methods. that the Bank faces in the agricultural sector are While genetically engineered crops can play formidable. We have concluded that the Bank an important role in meeting the goal of should establish a permanent technical and sci- improved food security, their contribution alone entific advisory group to deal broadly with the will not suffice. Their use must be accompanied goal of improving food security while ensuring by numerous other actions, as we have noted in the transition to sustainable agricultural prac- preceding sections of this report. These actions tices. The group should deal with all the ele- include: ments that comprise a successful program and - Increasing priority on conventional plant provide the required liaison to the scientific breeding and farming practices communities in the target nations. APPENDIX Integrated Intensive Farming Systems Intensive Farming water so that it can be used in conjunction with other sources of water. Where water is the major China and India, as well as numerous other constraint, technologies that can help to opti- developing nations, must achieve the triple goals mize income and jobs from every liter of water of more food, more income, and more liveli- must be chosen and adopted. Maximum empha- hoods from their land and water resources. One sis should be placed on efficient on-farm water approach that can be adopted is the integrated use and on the use of techniques such as drip intensive farming systems methodology (IIFS). irrigation to help optimize the benefits from the The M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation available water. has designed a bio-village program to convert IIFS from a concept into a field-level reality. By Crop and Pest Management making living organisms both the agents and beneficiaries of development, the bio-village Integrated nutrient supply (INS) and integrated serves as a model for human-centered develop- pest management (IPM) systems form impor- ment. The pillars of the IIFS methodology follow. tant components of IIFS. The precise composi- tion of the INS and the IPM systems should be Soil Health Care chosen on the basis of the farming system and the agro-ecological and soil conditions of the Soil health care is fundamental to sustainable area. Computer-aided extension systems intensification of agriculture. The HIFS approach should be developed to provide farm families affords the opportunity to include stem-nodu- with timely and precise information on all lating legumes such as Sesbania rostrata in the aspects of land, water, pest, and postharvest farming system and to incorporate Azolla, or management. blue-green algae, and other sources of symbiotic and nonsymbiotic nitrogen fixation. Vermi- Energy Management culture constitutes an essential component of IIFS. IIFS farmers maintain a soil health card to Energy is an important and essential input. In monitor the impact of farming systems on the addition to the energy-efficient systems of physical, chemical, and microbiological compo- land, water, and pest management described nents of soil fertility. above, every effort should be made to harness biogas, biomass, solar, and wind energies to the Water Harvesting, Conservation, maximum extent possible. Solar and wind and Management energy can be used in hybrid combinations with biogas for farm activities such as pumping IIFS farm families include in their agronomic water and drying grains and other agricultural practices measures to harvest and conserve rain- produce. 29 30 Bioengineering of Crops Postharvest Management Information, Skills, Organization, and Management IIFS farmers should not only adopt the best available threshing, storage, and processing To succeed, IIFS farms need a meaningful and measures, but should also try to produce value- effective information and skill empowerment added products from every part of the plant or system. Decentralized production systems have animal. Postharvest technology assumes partic- to be supported by a few key centralized ser- ular importance in the case of perishable com- vices, such as the supply of seeds, biopesticides, modities such as fruits, vegetables, milk, meat, and diagnostic and control methods for plant eggs, fish, and other animal products. A mis- and animal diseases. Ideally, an "information match between production and postharvest shop" should be set up by trained local youth in technologies adversely affects both producers order to give farm families timely information and consumers. As this report has noted, grow- on meteorological, management, and marketing ing urbanization leads to a diversification of factors. Organization and management are key food habits. This diversification will increase elements to success, and depending on the area demand for animal products and processed and farming system, steps have to be taken to food. Agro-processing industries can be pro- provide to small producers advantages of scale moted on the basis of an assessment of consumer in processing and marketing. IIFS farming is demand. Such food-processing industries best developed through participatory research should be promoted in villages in order to between scientists and farm families. This increase employment opportunities for rural approach helps to ensure economic viability, youth. environmental sustainability, and social and Investrnent in sanitary and phyto-sanitary gender equity in IIFS villages. The starting point measures is important to providing quality food is to learn from families who have already devel- for domestic consumers and for export. To assist oped successful HFS procedures. the spread of IIFS, governments should make It should be emphasized that IIFS will suc- major investments in storage facilities, roads, ceed only if centered on humans; a mere tech- communication, and sanitary and phyto-sani- nology-driven program will not work. The tary measures. essence of IIFS is the symbiotic partnership between farming families and their natural Choice of Crops and Other Components resource endowments of land, water, forests, of the Farming System flora, fauna, and sunlight. Without appropriate public policy support in areas such as land In IIFS it is important to give careful consi- reform, security of tenure, rural infrastructure, deration to the composition of the farming input and output pricing and marketing, small system. Soil conditions, water availability, farm families will find it difficult to adopt IIFS. agro- climatic features, home needs, and above The eco-technologies and public policy mea- all, marketing opportunities have to determine sures needed to make IIFS a mass movement the choice of crops, farm animals, and aqua- should receive concurrent attention. The pro- culture systems. Small and large ruminants gram will fail if it is based solely on a techno- have a particular advantage among farm ani- logical quick-fix approach. On the other hand mals since they can live largely on crop bio- the IIFS program can trigger an "ever-green rev- mass. IIFS farming has to be based on both olution" if mutually reinforcing packages of land-saving agriculture and grain-saving ani- technology, training, techno-infrastructure, and mal husbandry. trade are introduced. Distributors of COLOMBIA GERMANY ISRAEL NEPAL PORTUGAL SWEDEN Inloenlace Ltda. UNO-Vedag Yozmot Lierature Ltd. 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(482) 628409 Tel: (94 1)32105 Fax: (2634)(21670 Fax: (33 1) 40-69-30-08 Tel: (353 1) 601-3111 E-mail: infotec@rn.nel.mx Fax: (48 2) 621-7255 Fax (941) 432104 Fax: (353 1)475-2670 URL: h4tp:/d.naet mx E-mail: books%ipsuikp alm.com.pl E-mail: LHL@sn.lanka.net URL: h6p:wewwo .ipscg.waw.pVips/expord t 10 Enabling the Safe Use of Biotechnology: Principles and Practice 11 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification: Partnersfor Development and Conservation 12 Rural Development: From Vision to Action. A Sector Strategy 13 Integrated Pest Management: Strategies and Policiesfor Effective Implementation 14 Rural Finance: Issues, Design, and Best Practices 15 The Economics of Involuntary Resettlement (forthcoming) 16 Social Assessmentsfor Better Development: Case Studies in Russia and Central Asia 17 Expanding the Measure of Wealth: Indicators of Environmentally Sustainable Development 18 Five Years after Rio: Innovations in Environmental Policy 19 Advancing Sustainable Development: The World Bank and Agenda 21 20 Voices of the Poor: Poverty and Social Capital in Tanzania 21 The Risks and Reconstruction Modelfor Resettling Displaced Populations (forthcoming) 22 A Frameworkfor World Bank Involvement in Post-Conflict Reconstruction (forthcoming) 23 Bioengineering of Crops: Report of the World Bank Panel on Transgenic Crops Related ESSD Publications Monitoring Environmental Progress: A Report on Work in Progress Nurturing Development: Aid and Cooperation in Today's Changing World Toward Sustainable Management of Water Resources Water Supply, Sanitation, and Environmental Sustainability: The Financing Challenge The World Bank Participation Sourcebook THE WORLD BANK 1818 I1 Street, NAX. \\lshini-ton, D).(C. 2(0433. 'SA I'clcphlolln: 202-477-1234 Facsimile: 2(02-477-6391 lIclx: X1I 64145 W01Rl.I)IBAN1K1 NICI 248423 WO(RI.I)I1\Nk (Cablc.Address: INTBFR\I) NVorld \Wide \Vch: http:/i/w\ww.\% orldbank.or-r/ FI-miall: b oolks(o WE orldhank.or,g ISBN 0-8213-4073-5