Report No: ACS7985 . Republic of the Philippines Gender and Development Mainstreaming Country Gender Assessment 2012, Philippines . March 2014 . EASPS EAST ASIA AND PACIFIC Document of the World Bank Standard Disclaimer: . This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/ The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. . Copyright Statement: . The material in this publication is copyrighted. 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Country Gender Assessment 2012 Philippines 1|CGA 2012 Philippines: Contents Preface .......................................................................................................................................................... 6 Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 7 Socio Economic Overview of the Philippines ................................................................................................ 9 CHAPTER 1: Endowments: Gender Equality and Human Development ..................................................... 16 CHAPTER 2: Economic Empowerment: Promoting Equal Opportunities ................................................... 27 CHAPTER 3: Agency: Increasing Women’s Voice and Participation in Development ................................. 39 CHAPTER 4: Directions for Policy ................................................................................................................ 48 Endowments ............................................................................................................................................... 49 Economic Opportunities ............................................................................................................................. 52 Agency ......................................................................................................................................................... 54 Annex 1: Philippines Human Development Goals ................................................................................ 56 Annex 2: Laws and Policies on Gender Equality and Women Empowerment in the Philippines ........ 60 Data Sources ......................................................................................................................................... 62 Works Cited .......................................................................................................................................... 62 2|CGA 2012 Philippines: ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The preparation of the Country Gender Assessment (CGA) 2012 was led by World Bank Office in Manila with substantial guidance from the various members of the Overseas Development Assistance Gender and Development Network (ODA-GAD). Mr. Jaime Antonio Jr. (consultant) was the lead writer. The Philippine Commission on Women, led by Chairperson Remedios Rikken and Executive Director Emmeline Verzosa, provided substantial guidance from the concept stage of the CGA preparation as well as co-organized the multi-stakeholder consultations. The following members of the ODA-GAD Network provided data, reports and other inputs as well as comments to the draft CGA: Asian Development Bank (ADB); Embassy of Spain - Agency for International Cooperation for Development (AECID); Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID); Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA); Delegation of the European Union to the Philippines; Deutsche Gesellschaftfuer Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ); United States Agency for International Development (USAID); International Labour Organization (ILO); Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS); United Nations Development Programme (UNDP); United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA); United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF); United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment (UN Women) Philippines Project Office; World Health Organization (WHO); National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA). They also participated assisted in the multi-stakeholder consultations. Special appreciation for Myrna Jarillas (CIDA) as convenor of the ODA-GAD Network. Helena Carlsson Rex (Senior Social Development Specialist and EAP Gender Coordinator of WB) served as peer reviewer and provided invaluable insights and comments to the draft report. Asian Development Bank supported the conduct of the national multi-stakeholders consultations through the facilitation of Sonomi Tanaka (Lead Social and Development Specialist) and Uzma Hoque (Senior Social Development Specialist). AusAID, through the facilitation and support of Badette Cariaga, conducted a rapid study on the gender dimension of disability. The World Bank also conducted an FGD with representatives of the LGBT to understand emerging gender-base violence. With deep appreciation, the team acknowledges the more than 100 representatives of national government, non-government organizations, and women’s organizations from around the country who shared their views, experiences, and case studies. Although there were extensive consultations for the CGA preparations, the views expressed in this book are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of World Bank, its Board of Governors or the governments they represent or the any of the ODA-GAD Network. The term “country” does not imply any judgment by the authors or the organizations. 3|CGA 2012 Philippines: Abbreviations ADB Asian Development Bank AECID Embassy of Spain - Agency for International Cooperation for Development ANC Antenatal Care ARMM Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao AusAID Australian Agency for International Development BDR Benefit delivery ratio BLES Bureau of Labor and Employment Statistics BSP Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (Central Bank of the Philippines) CALABARZON Cavite-Laguna-Batangas-Rizal-Quezon Economic Zone CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women CGA Country Gender Assessment CHR Commission on Human Rights CIDA Canadian International Development Agency CSO Civil Society Organizations DOH Department of Health DOLE Department of Labor and Employment EO Executive Order EU Delegation of the European Union to the Philippines FHS Family Health Survey FP Family Planning GAD Gender and Development GBV Gender Based Violence GDI Gender-related Development Index GDP Gross Domestic Product GEM Gender Empowerment Measure GEWE Gender Equality and Women Empowerment GIZ Deutsche Gesellschaftfuer Internationale Zusammenarbeit HDI Human Development Index HRM Human Resources Management HUDCC Housing and Urban Development Coordinating Council ILO International Labour Organization / International Labour Office ISS Informal Sector Survey JCGA Joint Country Gender Assessment KRA Key Result Area LFS Labor Force Survey LGBT Lesbians, gays, bisexuals and transsexuals persons MCW Magna Carta of Women (Republic Act 9710) MDG Millennium Development Goal MMDA Metro Manila Development Authority MMR Maternal Mortality Rate NDHS National Demographic and Health Survey NEDA National Economic and Development Authority NGO Non Government Organization 4|CGA 2012 Philippines: NHA National Housing Authority NHIP National Health Insurance Program NSCB National Statistical Coordination Board NSO National Statistical Office NUDHF National Urban Development and Housing Framework ODA Overseas Development Assistance OFW Overseas Filipino Worker PCW Philippine Commission on Women PESO Public Employment Service Office PHIC Philippine Health Insurance Corporation PLEP Philippine Labor and Employment Plan PLHIV People living with HIV PNAC Philippine National AIDS Council PNHA Philippine National Health Accounts PPGD 1995 - 2025 Philippine Plan for Gender Responsive Development 1995 - 2005 RA Republic Act UDHA Urban Development and Housing Act UN Women United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment UNAIDS Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNFPA United Nations Population Fund UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund USAID United States Agency for International Development VAWC Violence Against Women and Children WAGI Women and Gender Institute WB World Bank WDR World Development Report WHO World Health Organization 5|CGA 2012 Philippines: Preface This report examines the state of gender equality in the Philippines, highlighting both recent progress and pending challenges. It clarifies the relationship between gender equality and development and outlines an agenda for public action to further promote gender equality in the Philippines. This report was in part inspired by and an attempt to localize the World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development. Its envisioned contribution is distinct in several ways: first, the analysis in the report focuses specifically on those issues and policy challenges that are most pertinent to the Philippines. Second, the report examines the gender implications of several key emerging trends in the country: labour migration, reproductive health, population aging and VAWC. These trends have important gender dimensions that are not commonly recognized by policy makers, but will generate a distinctive set of challenges for promoting opportunities and managing gender-specific risks. Third, by focusing in detail on gender, development, and public policy, this report aims to contribute significantly to the development of basic indicators and analysis on gender, development, and public policy that have not been available previously. The report presents key progress, challenges, conclusions and policy recommendations. 6|CGA 2012 Philippines: Introduction Just as development means less poverty or better access to justice, it also means fewer gaps in well- being between males and females. Women’s empowerment and gender equality are development objectives in their own right, as embodied in the Millennium Development Goals. It is espoused as well in the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), ratified by the Philippines in 1981; the convention established a comprehensive framework for the advancement of women and has been mainstreamed in the Magna Carta of Women, RA 9710. Gender equality is smart economics: it can enhance economic efficiency and improve other development outcomes in three ways: first, removing barriers that prevent women from having the same access as men to education, economic opportunities, and productive inputs can generate broad productivity gains. Second, improving women’s absolute and relative status contribute to many other development outcomes, including those for their children. Third, leveling the playing field—where women and men have equal chances to become socially and politically active, make decisions, and shape policies—is likely to lead to more representative, and more inclusive, institutions and policy choices and thus to a better development path. Women in wage employment was placed at 41.9 percent in 2009 (DOLE, 2011 p.11), 50 percent of workers in agriculture are women (BLES, 2008-2010), and more than half of the country’s university students are women1. All these considered, gender equality can have large impacts on productivity for the Philippines. Worker productivity in the Philippines and the rest of the East Asia and the Pacific region has the potential of expanding by 18 percent if women are given wider space and equal opportunities with men. Presently, Filipino women only get 76 percent of what men earn and women farmers lack security of land tenure, as they do in most parts of rural Philippines, the result of which is lower access to credit as well as to inputs; inefficient land use thus reducing yields. (World Bank 2012). For the economy to be functioning at its optimum, women’s skills and talents should be engaged in activities that make the best use of those abilities. But, as the stories of many women illustrate, this is not always the case. Women in the Philippines are more likely to work in small firms, the informal sector and lower-paid sectors. In countries and regions with rapidly aging populations, like China and Europe and Central Asia, encouraging women to enter and remain in the labor force can help dampen the adverse impact of shrinking working-age populations. Although in the Philippines, traditional and cultural mindset associated with the aging population will mean expanding the care economy to accommodate the care needs of senior citizens, as oppose to finding innovative means to make them productive and part of the labor force even in their senior years. The World Development Report (WDR) 2012 notes that greater control over household resources by women leads to more investment in children’s human capital, with dynamic positive effects on economic growth and in today’s globalized world, countries that reduce gender-based inequalities, 1 Source: CHED 7|CGA 2012 Philippines: especially in secondary and tertiary education and in economic participation, will have a clear advantage over those that delay action. The WDR 2012 also state that women’s lack of agency—as seen in domestic violence—has consequences for their children’s cognitive behaviors and health as adults. Medical research from developed countries has established a link between exposure to domestic violence as a child and health problems as an adult—men and women who experienced violence in the home as children are two to three times more likely to suffer from cancer, a stroke, or cardiovascular problems, and five to ten times more likely to use alcohol or illegal drugs than those who did not (World Bank, 2012). Numerous studies also document how experiencing violence between parents as a child is a risk factor for women experiencing violence from their own partners as adults, and for men perpetrating violence against their partners (World Bank, 2012). Agency is about one’s ability to make choices— and to transform them into desired actions and outcomes. Across all countries and cultures, there are differences between men’s and women’s ability to make these choices, usually to women’s disadvantage. These gendered differences matter for women’s well-being but also for a whole set of outcomes for their families and for society in general. Women’s agency influences their ability to build their human capital and take up economic opportunities. Women’s agency also matters for the welfare of their children. Conversely, when women and men do not have equal chances to be socially and politically active and to influence laws, politics, and policy making, institutions and policies are more likely to systematically favor the interests of those with more influence. Institutional constraints and market failures that feed gender inequalities are less likely to be addressed and corrected, leading to their persistence. As highlighted in the WDR 2012, an “inequality trap” may thus emerge, preventing generations of women from getting educated and taking up economic opportunities on a par with men, reducing their ability to make informed choices and to realize their potential as individuals (World Bank, 2012). 8|CGA 2012 Philippines: Socio Economic Overview of the Philippines 1. Geography. The Philippines is a diverse and culturally rich country of some 7, 100 islands which are clustered into three major islands (i.e., Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao). Located in the Pacific Rim of Southeast Asia, it entered middle-income country in 20102. While it is predominantly a Roman Catholic country, indigenous peoples groups and Moro peoples are spread all over the country, providing a rich diversity of cultural traditions and social practices. The country is administratively divided into 17 regions, 80 provinces, 143 cities, 1,491 municipalities, and 42,027 barangays3. 2. Population. The Philippines is one of the most populous countries in the world, ranked number 12. Based on the 2010 Census on Population and Housing, current household population is at 94 million. The annual population growth rate was 1.9% for 2000–2010, down from 2.04% for 2000-2007. Children, youth and young adult (ages 0 – 29) make up a little more than half of the population. Median age for males is pegged at 22.9 years, while that for females is at 23.9 years. The voting-age population (18 years old and over) is 60.3 percent. Senior citizens (60 years old above) constitute 6.8 percent of the household population, females (55.8 percent) outnumbered the males (44.2 percent) (The Age and Sex Structure of the Philippine Population (Facts from the 2010 Census) 2012). Table 1. Philippines Population by Age Group and Sex 2010 and 2015 Projections Age Group Age 2010 2015 Both Sexes Male Female Both Sexes Male Female Total 94,013,200 47,263,600 46,749,600 102,965,300 51,733,400 51,231,900 Children 0-4 10,984,800 5,619,400 5,365,400 11,386,600 5,828,500 5,558,100 5-9 10,370,300 5,289,200 5,081,100 10,950,900 5,595,100 5,355,800 Adolescent 10-14 9,801,500 5,006,300 4,795,200 10,343,600 5,269,700 5,073,900 4 and Youth 5 Core Youth 15-19 9,603,300 4,900,900 4,702,400 9,757,800 4,978,600 4,779,200 20-24 8,857,500 4,478,600 4,378,900 9,544,900 4,865,300 4,679,600 25-29 7,892,000 3,940,800 3,951,200 8,795,500 4,439,500 4,356,000 Adult 30-34 7,001,500 3,474,900 3,526,600 7,842,700 3,910,200 3,932,500 35-39 6,008,400 3,013,200 2,995,200 6,942,200 3,439,600 3,502,600 40-44 5,442,300 2,737,600 2,704,700 5,924,800 2,962,400 2,962,400 45-49 4,702,100 2,376,700 2,325,400 5,330,100 2,669,800 2,660,300 50-54 3,931,600 1,974,500 1,957,100 4,554,700 2,285,500 2,269,200 55-59 3,050,800 1,521,500 1,529,300 3,747,900 1,860,500 1,887,400 Senior 60-64 2,307,800 1,122,800 1,185,000 2,843,700 1,392,700 1,451,000 Citizens 65-69 1,559,300 735,700 823,600 2,055,900 973,200 1,082,700 70-74 1,189,400 533,700 655,700 1,305,700 593,200 712,500 75-79 700,500 298,500 402,000 904,200 384,000 520,200 80+ 610,100 239,300 370,800 734,100 285,600 448,500 Source: NSCB. 2012. http://www.nscb.gov.ph/secstat/d_popnProj.asp Age group segregation for CGA 2012 2 The World Bank classifies middle income countries as those with per capita income of US$1,000 to US$10,000. 3 The Barangay (village) is the smallest political unit in the Philippines. 4 Republic Act 8044 definition and based on the classification of NYC as explained in the 2012-2016 Philippine Youth Development Plan. Page 12. 5 Ibid. 9|CGA 2012 Philippines: 3. Politics. The Philippines has a presidential-unitary system of government with some administrative functions devolved to its local government units. The country prides itself as being Asia’s first democracy. However, more than a century after it gained independence, the country faces an uphill climb in consolidating its democratic institutions. Corruption and patronage-driven political economy discourage investor confidence and erode public trust in the Government6. Recent political analysis concludes the return of cronyism7. Political dynasties have become more evident. However, reforms are underway; the Platform of Government of President Benigno S. Aquino III is anchored on transformational leadership to effect change. The President’s social contract with the Filipino people underscores his mission of being the nation’s first and most determined fighter of corruption. The social contract also mentions gender equality, specifically concern for gender disparities and shortfalls and the promotion of equal gender opportunity in all spheres of public policies and programs8. 4. Economy. In 2011, GDP per capita was at US$ 2,346.00. Poverty headcount ratio at national poverty line (percent of population, 2009) is 26.5 percent. Table 2 provides a snapshot of selected socioeconomic indicators. Latest government data shows the economy at its most vibrant pace in decades. The country's growth, which is measured by the rise in the gross domestic product (GDP), is one of the strongest in the region. The economy is set to expand by 6 percent for 20139. Household consumption which currently amounts to roughly 70 percent of GDP is set to expand to 5.1 percent and is expected to contribute a little under 4 percent to overall economic growth. Analysis shows that household consumption will be underpinned by moderate global growth, through remittances from overseas labour and continued government transfers10. Table 2. The Philippines at a Glance - Selected Socioeconomic Indicators Indicator Estimate Reference year Source GDP per capita (US$, current prices) 2,346 2011 NSCB; BSP GDP growth rate (%) 3.7 2011 NSCB Share of GDP, by sector (%) Agriculture 12.8 2011 NSCB Industry 31.5 2011 NSCB Services 55.7 2011 NSCB NSO, 2010 Census of Population and Population (millions) 92.3 2010 Housing Annual population growth rate (%) 1.9 2000-2010 NSO 2.34 1990-2000 NSO Poverty Incidence (% of population) 26.5 2009 NSCB Note: US$1 = Php average in 2011 Source: World Development Indicators, World Bank 6 ADB et.al. Paradox and Promises: Joint Country Gender Assessment 2008. Page 1. 7 Based on the conversation of Dr. Winnie Mosod and Former President Fidel V. Ramos in GMA 7 Walang Pasaway. 8 A Social Contract with the Filipino People: Platform of Government of President Benigno Aquino III 9 Economist Intelligence Unit 2012. 10 Ibid. 10 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : 5. Poverty incidence. Poverty incidence steadily declined from 1991 to 2003, but rose again from 26.4 percent in 2006 to 26.5 percent in 2009. This increase in poverty occurred during a period when the economy grew by 5.4%. In 2003, there were 19.8 million poor Filipinos (a 24.9% poverty incidence) compared to 23.1 million in 2009 (a 26.5% poverty incidence). The actual number of poor people has increased. There were 3.3 million more poor people in 2009 than there were in 2003. As with most socioeconomic indicators in the Philippines, there are major regional disparities in poverty levels. Comparing poverty incidence to poverty magnitude paints a very different picture of these disparities. The list of the poorest provinces becomes quite different. Most of the provinces with the highest poverty incidence over 2003–2009 are in Mindanao, as well as some of provinces in the Visayas. There has been a substantial variance in the top 10 poorest provinces over this period, but one common feature is that they are mostly the provinces with relatively small populations11. The top five poorest provinces over 2003–2009 in terms of poverty magnitude come from the Luzon and Visayas areas. These five areas account for nearly one fifth or 18 percent (based on 2009 figures) of all poor people in the Philippines. The poverty incidence of families slightly decreased from 21.1 percent in 2006 to 20.9 percent in 2009, or from 26.4 percent of the population in 2006 to 26.5 percent in 2009. However, this improvement is limited, considering the slow growth of incomes, increase in household formation, natural disasters and inflationary pressures mainly from rising fuel and food prices. In 2009, more than a quarter of the 23.1 million poor Filipinos lived in four regions. While only one-third of poor Filipinos came from Mindanao, more than half of the provinces in the bottom cluster are located in the island group. This situation can be attributed to the armed conflict and unsettled peace and order situation.12 Income inequality remains high. The Gini concentration ratios showed only slight and slow improvements, from 0.4605 in 2003 to 0.4580 in 2006 and 0.4484 in 2009. The regions with the most unequally distributed income are Regions 7, 8, 9, 10 and 13 (CARAGA), as these regions have Gini ratios higher than 0.45.13 Table 3. Poverty Trends Poverty Indicator 1991 2003 2006 2009 Number of poor people (millions) na 19.8 22.2 23.1 Number of poor families (millions) na 3.3 3.7 3.9 Poverty incidence, population (%) 33.1 24.9 26.4 26.5 Poverty incidence, families (%) 28.3 20.0 21.1 20.9 Source: NSCB na = not available Note: In February 2012, the government revised the methodology for estimating poverty in the Philippines. Comparable estimates using this new methodology are currently available only for 1991, 2003, 2006, and 2009. 11 Note that in the 2008 JCGA, the Provinces of Ifugao and Apayao from the Cordillera region of Luzon belonged to the 5 poorest provinces. 12 Philippine Development Plan 2011-2016. Chapter 8. Page 233. 13 Ibid. 11 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : 6. Simple Literacy Rate (SLR) and Functional Literacy Rate (FLR). Based on 2008 data, the Simple Literacy Rate for females stand at 96.1 percent and 95.1 percent for males14. And the Functional Literacy Rate for females stands at 88.7 percent and 84.2 percent for males15. Women are ahead by 1 percentage point in terms of SLR and significantly, 4.5 percentage points for FLR which assumes a higher level of literacy compared to men. FLR are lifelong literacy skills that can translate to higher survival skills necessary, for instance, in the conduct of women’s reproductive roles such as dispensing remedies at home or community leadership and volunteering. Data compiled by UNICEF show that the literacy rate among children and young people aged 15-24 years old from 2005-2010 is higher for females, at 98 percent, and 97 percent for males (PLAN;WAGI, 2012 p.21). 7. The MDG. According to the Philippine Development Plan (PDP): 2011-2016, the Philippines is on track in pursuing the MDGs on poverty, gender equality, child health, disease control and sanitation16. However, the Philippines Midterm Progress Report on the MDG would point to “a low probability of achieving the targets for universal primary education, improving maternal mortality, and increasing access to reproductive health care by 2015.”17 This same issues has been pointed out in the 2008 JCGA18 and based on 2001 data, would show very little progress in relation to the 2015 target. Please Annex 1 for details regarding MDG status. 8. Labour and employment. From 2008 to 2010, employment grew at slow pace on the average at 2.4 percent (1.6 in 2008; 2.9 in 2009; 2.8 in 2010)19, which was not consistent with the steady growth in GDP. Employment data for 2010 showed that more than half (51.8%) of the employed were in the services sector. The share of agriculture, forestry and fishing sector stood at 33.2 percent while that of industry was 15.0 percent. In the same year, the biggest employment contribution came from agriculture, hunting and forestry (29.1%); whole sale and retail trade (19.5%); manufacturing (8.4%); and transport, storage and communication (7.6%). The smallest shares were attributed to mining and quarrying (0.6%); electricity, gas and water (0.4%); financial intermediation (1.1%); and health and social work (1.2%)20. Employment has shifted from agriculture to services21. Labour force participation has remained stable for the last decade22. Unemployment levels remained unchanged (7.4% in 2010) and 14 NSCB. 2008 15 NSCB. 2008 16 Philippine Development Plan 2011-2016, Chapter 8, page 232. 17 Ibid, p.26 18 Paradox and Promise in the Philippines, A Joint Country Gender Assessment (2008) by Asian Development Bank, Canadian International Development Agency, European Commission, National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women, United Nations Children’s Fund, United Nations Development Fund for Women, United Nations Population Fund 19 DOLE. 2011. The Philippine Labor and Employment Plan 2011 – 2016. 20 DOLE. 2011. Philippines Labor and Employment Plan 2011-2016. Page 5. 21 ILO. 2012. Decent Work Country Profile: Philippines. International Labour Office. Geneva: ILO, 2012. 22 Ibid. 12 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : disproportionately affect the youth and the more educated23. A quarter of young people (25%) remain both out of work and out of training and education24. According to ILO’s Decent Work Country Profile, gains in gender equality have been uneven. Occupational segregation (by sex) is high, as is gender gap in some occupations.25 Growth in wage employment has been minimal and 15 percent of the employed are in precarious work26. The Decent Work Country Profile also states that more than 4 in 10 workers are in vulnerable employment (sum of unpaid family workers and own-account workers as a percentage of total employment)27. They are the least likely to have formal work arrangements, are the least likely to have social protection and safety nets to guard against economic shocks, and often are incapable of generating sufficient savings to offset these shocks.28 Despite Philippines’ recent robust economic growth, unemployment rates for men and women remain high with young women experiencing higher unemployment rates than younger men, indicative of “jobless growth”. This trend indicates that the recent growth in the Philippines economy was weak on job creation to compensate for the loss of jobs in agriculture and industry, and meet new demands in the labour market. This means that the economy is unable to effectively promote inclusive growth that will benefit women (Celis, Magsombol and Sobritchea 2012). 9. Budgets for basic services. The share of social services to GDP has substantially increased to 6.1 percent in 2012 and at comparable rate with that in 2000. The 2008 Joint Country Gender Assessment (JCGA) observed that the budgets for health and education are below international standards. The WHO benchmark for health expenditure in developing countries like the Philippines should at least be 5 percent of GDP, while UNESCO prescribes a standard of 6 percent of gross national product for investments in education alone. Increase in the allocation for social services will create jobs and generate livelihood opportunities for local women who mostly participate in delivering basic services at the community level and can increase money for discretionary spending, which can come useful during emergency or disaster occurrences. However, increasing allocations for social services can also affect mandated expenditures, such as the wage bill- salaries of government workers where 58.7 percent are women, interest payments for loans on poverty alleviation and social services infrastructures, and local government unit transfers accounts. 10. GAD Planning and Budgeting. The Philippine GAD Budget Policy responds to two (2) gender budget categories: (i) ODA-funded programs and projects and; (ii) the domestic budget that intends to finance GAD mainstreaming in Philippine bureaucracy. The policy is expected to influence how the total budget of government agencies is allocated and spent (Jeanne Frances I. Illo 2010). The Department of Budget and Management (DBM) issued annual budget circulars since 1997 that support implementation of GAD budgets at the local level. The 2012 local budget circular on internal revenue allotment requires agencies to apply a minimum of 5% of the funds for a project to address gender issues. In 2001, the Philippine Commission on Women or PCW (then NCRFW), Department of 23 Ibid. 24 Ibid. 25 Ibid. 26 Decent work country profile: Philippines. International Labour Office. Geneva ILO. 2012. 27 Ibid. 28 World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development. 2011. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development 13 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : the Interior and Local Government (DILG), and DBM Management issued a joint memorandum circular to all local government units (LGUs) containing guidelines for integrating GAD in the local planning and budgeting system. This included detailed instructions on how to formulate a GAD plan and budget and spelled out monitoring and reporting obligations. The local budget memorandum of June 2007 also required LGUs to undertake GAD planning in the normal course developing their programs, activities, and projects for the 2008 financial year. LGUs report having mixed experiences in GAD planning and budgeting. Common complaints are technical difficulties and political issues in trying to allocate funds. Budget calls continue to provide guidelines for the preparation of the GAD budget and the process seems to be adhered to by a majority of government agencies and offices that submitted their GAD budgets, at least for 2007 and 2008 (68 percent and 65 percent, respectively) (Jeanne Frances I. Illo 2010). This budget call have been reiterated by the PCW through its Memorandum Circular No. 2012-01 11. Policy Environment for Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment. Numerous laws have been institutionalized to remove barriers that impede women and girls access to their rights in terms of productive capital, justice, economic and participation in development. Gender equality and the institutional empowerment of women can be traced backed to 1975 with the establishment of the National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women (NCRFW). With the passage of RA 9710 in 2010 (Magna Carta of Women), NCRFW was re-named as the Philippine Commission on Women (PCW). Earlier progress from previous administrations has been driven by significant policy actions such as the Philippine Plan for Gender-Responsive Development (PPGD 1995-2025) formulated under the administration of President Corazon Cojuanco Aquino. The PPGD 1995-2025 is the 30-year plan which carries the long term vision of women’s empowerment and gender equality of the Philippines and mandates the crafting of time-bounded framework plans for women. Sweeping legislative changes took place in the 1980s and 1990s recognizing gender equality across a wide array of domains. The 1987 constitution reinforced earlier constitutions by giving added emphasis to the notion of gender equality. The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law of 1988 assured equal rights to ownership of land. And a 1989 act amended the Labor Code to protect women from discrimination in hiring and pay (World Bank, 2012). In 1996, GAD budget policy was introduced and full representation of women in the NAPC was institutionalized. The first Framework Plan for Women was formulated in 2004. The framework plan was implemented until 2010 and it was in 2009 that the hallmark law for women and gender equality (i.e., Republic Act 9710 or the Magna Carta of Women) was passed including the swift approval of its IRR. The MCW is a comprehensive women’s human rights law that seeks to eliminate discrimination against women by recognizing, protecting, fulfilling and promoting the rights of Filipino women, especially those in the marginalized sectors. The MCW also expanded the role of PCW as oversight for gender equality and designates the Commission on Human Rights as gender ombud. Following the passage of RA 9710 Magna Carta of Women, significant milestone include RA 10151 An Act Allowing the Employment of Night Workers in 2011, the passage of RA 10354 Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012 and RA 10361 An Act Instituting Policies for the 14 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : Protection and Welfare of Domestic Workers 2012. Please see Annex 2 for the list of significant laws and policies on gender equality. The current administration sees gender equality as necessary to attain the goals of transformative leadership and inclusive growth. With the PDP 2011 - 2016, the government is ever more committed to gender equality. Consolidating the gains of previous administrations, recent policy gains are on women’s reproductive health through the passage of RA 10354 Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012; and women’s economic empowerment through the passage of RA 10151 An Act Allowing the Employment of Night Workers 2011 and RA 10361 An Act Instituting Policies for the Protection and Welfare of Domestic Workers 2012. The present administration also see the formulation and the start of implementation of the Women’s Empowerment, Development and Gender Equality Plan 2013– 2016, the 2nd Framework Plan for Women, and the second time slice plan of the PPGD 1995-2025. Despite a robust policy for gender equality, there are still discriminatory provisions in some laws that are in force in relation to RA 9710 (MCW) and the CEDAW which the country ratified in 1981. These conflicting provisions can be found in the Family Code of the Philippines; Revised Penal Code; Rules of Court; Code of Muslim Personal Laws; and in RA 8353 and RA 10158. Advocates believe that there are laws that need to be passed to further gender equality in the country; for instance, versions of the Anti Discrimination and the Divorce Bills remain pending in congress. 15 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : CHAPTER 1 Endowments: Gender Equality and Human Development Endowments is defined here as human capital and other productive assets that will allow women and men, boys and girls to live healthy and productive lives. This chapter focuses on housing and security of tenure, education and health, well-being of children, well-being of senior citizens, social protection, and land as productive asset. 12. Education. Education is one of the fundamental mechanisms by which women and men create better economic opportunities for themselves. For women, education leads to increased decision- making power in the household and in their communities. The 1987 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines (1987 Constitution) sets out that the education sector be given the highest budgetary allocation, however, the JCGA in 2008 observed that the sheer number of school enrollees each year compels the Government to prioritize expenditure on quantity, which leaves little room to improve quality. Access to education differs between males and females in terms of enrollment, survival and completion rates, literacy, academic level, and choice of discipline. Interestingly, the gender gap in education in the Philippines tends to be the reverse of what is found in many other countries. Enrolment rates for girls and all other education indicators surpass those of boys. In pre-primary education, gross enrolment from 2007-2010 is higher for females, at 49 percent, compared to 48 percent for males. Similarly, enrolment in secondary school is also higher for females, at 66 percent, compared to 55 percent for males for the same period (PLAN;WAGI, 2012). In 2009, the combined gross enrolment ratio for girls (at 83%) was higher than for boys (at 79%), with the gender parity index for elementary level for both public and private schools at 1.03. The gap was widest in the secondary level, with cohort survival at only 56.73 percent for boys and 67.80 for girls (PLAN;WAGI, 2012). Net attendance also shows a higher percentage for females, at 70 percent, compared to 55 percent for males. Girls are also consistently performing better than boys in terms of elementary and high school enrolment, attendance, retention, and attainments, and are now beginning to perform better in mathematics and science, which were traditionally considered to be a male domain (PLAN;WAGI, 2012). This trend may be attributed to how young boys are expected to drop out of school because they need to work in order to supplement the income of their parents or, in many instances, because they become the primary income earners. (PLAN;WAGI, 2012). Although tuition is free in public schools, resources are still needed to pay for other expenses, such as books, school supplies, uniforms, etc. The lack of such resources in many families results in high drop-out rates in school and is often the cause of low motivation levels in boys (PLAN;WAGI, 2012). 16 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : Figure 1. Ratio of female to male gross enrollment Figure 2. Ratio of female to male gross enrollment in secondary education, most recent year in tertiary education, most recent year On the other hand, in a study conducted by the Philippine Institute for Development Studies, 26 percent of girls surveyed indicated housekeeping as the reason for dropping out of school (PLAN;WAGI, 2012 p.23). The NDHS for 2008, correlate education with decreased fertility rates; women who have gone to college have an average of 2.3 children, while women with only elementary education have 4.5 children29 and women with high school and college education are much more likely to delay childbearing than women with only elementary education30 The NDHS 2008 had the following major findings:  One-third of women age 15–49 have gone to college.  More than 90% have completed at least elementary school.  Women living in urban areas, especially those in the National Capital Region, are most likely to have attended college.  Education among women is increasing over time.  More than 40% of women age 20–24 have attended college compared to only 32% of women age 45–49.  Almost all (97%) Filipino women are literate31. Despite the increase in women’s education rates and completion, they continue to participate in the areas that women are traditionally occupied in reflecting continued systemic segregation in education. At the tertiary level, a pattern of gender stereotyping in the chosen area of study persists. Women continue to choose fields that perpetuate their socially ascribed roles. They 29 NDHS, NSO. 2008. Page 3. 30 Ibid. 31 NDHS. 2008. Page 2. 17 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : dominate the education, medical, and allied fields, and business administration. On the other hand, very few women take engineering and technology courses (see Table 5). The JCGA 2008 noted that a higher percentage of women pass the board examinations in criminology, fisheries technology, forestry, geodetic engineering, geology, mechanical engineering, metallurgical engineering, mining engineering, naval architecture, marine engineering, electrical engineering, and sanitary engineering (JCGA 2008). However, the GLMS points that increase in education levels of Philippine women does not necessarily contribute to equal opportunity in the labour market because women remain concentrated in their traditional field of study such as nursing, hotel and catering, and are underrepresented in areas such as law, information technology, engineering, agriculture and architecture. These gender differences in the field of study contribute to the occupational and industrial segregation by sex. This means that unless Philippine women branch out of their traditional education fields, the inefficiencies in the allocation of labour in the economy will remain (Celis, Magsombol and Sobritchea 2012; ADB GLMS). Table 5. Higher Education Enrollment and Graduates by Discipline Group and Gender (Public + Private), Academic Year AY 2005/06 - AY 2009/10 Discipline Group Male Female TOTAL GENERAL 5,493 8,705 14,198 EDUCATION SCIENCE AND TEACHER TRAINING 91,678 260,368 352,046 FINE AND APPLIED ARTS 8,656 8,026 16,682 HUMANITIES 12,416 15,673 28,089 RELIGION AND THEOLOGY 5,469 1,474 6,943 SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES 26,315 50,231 76,546 BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION AND RELATED 272,509 451,706 724,215 LAW AND JURISPRUDENCE 10,943 9,201 20,144 NATURAL SCIENCE 9,176 14,951 24,127 MATHEMATICS 5,060 7,094 12,154 IT-RELATED 181,218 167,244 348,462 MEDICAL AND ALLIED 134,030 306,305 440,335 TRADE, CRAFT AND INDUSTRIAL 2,192 1,641 3,833 ENGINEERING 256,473 88,189 344,662 ARCHITECTURAL AND TOWN-PLANNING 13,213 7,228 20,441 AGRICULTURAL, FORESTRY, AND FISHERIES 31,299 28,393 59,692 HOME ECONOMICS 947 4,202 5,149 SERVICE TRADES 7,714 28,641 36,355 MASS COMMUNICATION AND DOCUMENTATION 8,451 22,543 30,994 OTHER DISCIPLINES 85,111 32,337 117,448 MARITIME 87,476 974 88,450 Total 1,255,839 1,515,126 2,770,965 Source: CHED 18 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : 13. Children and child labour. An NSO and ILO 2011 survey reported that there were 5.49 million working children, aged 5-17, in the Philippines. About 58.4 percent, or an estimated 3.21 million of them, were considered as child laborers.32 Of the 3.21 million, 2.99 million are in hazardous labor, while 217,000 are in other forms of child labor. Of the 2.99 million children in hazardous labor, 1.999 million are boys, while 994,000 are girls. Among girls in hazardous labor, 61.8 percent are unpaid workers in household-operated farm/business, while 20 percent are workers in private establishments. While child labor is predominantly a phenomenon of the male child, the latest figures showed the patent sex-segregation of work in the household and communities, which often continues until adulthood. In the agricultural sector, the girl child and other female members in the family usually assume the role of an unpaid worker, since the tasks assigned to them are deemed to be extensions of their roles in the household (PLAN;WAGI, 2012 p.28). 14. Health. The World Health Organization (WHO) cites notable accomplishments in the Philippine public health system, including the approach to the primary health care system and the devolution of health services to the local level. Nonetheless, there are major geographic inequities in access to health facilities and services. Local government budgets do not usually prioritize health. Despite the National Health Insurance Act of 1995 (RA 7875), users of health services still largely pay expenses out of pocket, a system that further burdens the poor. Table 6. Selected Health Indicators Year Source/Notes Crude birth rate (per 1,000 popn) 21.6 2008 NDHS 2008 Crude death rate (per 1,000 popn) 6 2010 WDI as of Nov 2012 Maternal mortality rate (per 100,000 live births) 95-163 2010 NSCB MDG Watch Total fertilty rate (births per woman 15-49 y.o.) 3.3 2008 NDHS 2008 NDHS 2008. For the 10-year period Infant mortality rate (per 1,000 live preceding the survey (approximately births) 31 2008 calendar years 1999-2008). NDHS 2008. For the 10-year period preceding the survey (approximately U5 mortality rate (per 1,000 live births) 41 2008 calendar years 1999-2008). Share of women who gave birth in health facility 44 2008 NDHS 2008 Share of women who gave birth with assistance from health professional 62 2008 NDHS 2008 Contraceptive prevalence rate (share of women 15-49 y.o.) 52 2008 NDHS 2008 Share of access to safe water supply 85 2010 NSCB MDG Watch Hospital bed (per 1,000 people) 0.5 2009 WDI as of Nov 2012 Health worker density (per 1,000 people) 2012 DOH Maternal mortality rate (per 100,000 live births) 99 2010 WDI as of Nov 2012 32 These figures significantly differ with that in the PDP 2011-2016 which puts the number of “economically active children (aged 5-17) to 2.1 million only and majority of those aged 15-17 are boys (DOLE BLES) 19 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : 15. Reproductive Health. Fertility has gradually decreased over the past 20 years from 5.1 children per woman in 1983; to 3.5 in 2003; 3.3 in 2008 and 3.1 in 2010 (NSO;ICF Macro, 2009). Women in the Philippines have an average of 3.3 children; 2.8 in urban areas and 3.8 in rural areas (NSO and ICF Macro, 2009). Fertility varies with mother’s education. Women who have gone to college have an average of 2.3 children, while women with only elementary education have 4.5 children. Similarly, fertility varies with women’s economic status as measured by the wealth index33. The poorest women have more than twice as many children as women who live in the wealthiest households (5.2 versus 1.9 children per woman)34. Table 7. Total Fertility Rate 1970 1990 1993 1998 2003 2008 2010 Births per woman 15-49 y.o. 6.3 4.3 4.1 3.7 3.5 3.3 3.1 Sources: 1970, 1990, and 2010 from UN Data (data.un.org); 1993, 1998, 2008 and 2003 Philippines NDHS. Government statistics on female adolescent pregnancies indicated that the total number teenage pregnancies rose 70% from 114,205 in 1999 to 195,662 in 200935 and is now the highest in the Southeast Asia. Furthermore, data from the Young Adult Fertility and Sexuality Survey (YAFSS) for the period 1994-2002 indicated that the overall prevalence of pre-marital sexual activity increased from 18 percent to 23 percent. It is likewise observed that twice as many females than males experienced reproductive health (RH) problems. It is also noted that there was an increase in serious RH problems among females as compared to males due to the increasing proportion of females engaging in sexual risk behaviors and the low level of contraceptive use. The 2006 FPS results also showed that 6.3 percent of women 15-19 years old had begun childbearing and majority of them were poor and from the rural areas. Other studies showed that teenage pregnancies accounted for 17 percent of induced abortion cases.36 In the National Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS), 10% of women age 15–19 are already mothers or are pregnant with their first child37. The 2008 NDHS also showed that the median age at first birth for all women is 25–49 is 23.2 years old38 and women in urban areas have their first birth two years later than women in rural areas (24.2 years versus 22.2 years)39. The NDHS also concludes that women with high school and college education are much more likely to delay childbearing than women with only elementary education40. 33 The NDHS 2008 calculated household wealth through household assets collected from DHS surveys—i.e., type of flooring; source of water; availability of electricity; possession of durable consumer goods. These are combined into a single wealth index. Households are then divided into five groups of equal size, or quintiles, based on each household’s relative standing on the wealth index. 34 Ibid. 35 Philippine News Agency. “Teenage Pregnancies in the Philippines Rise 70 -percent over 10 years-UNFPA”. http://www.interaksyon.com/article/30434/teenage-pregnancies-in-philippines-rise-70-percent-over-10-years-- -unfpa Accessed October 3, 2012. 36 Source: http://www.undp.org.ph/?link=goal_5 accessed on November 12, 2012 37 NDHS, NSO. 2008. Page 3. 38 Ibid. 39 Ibid. 40 Ibid. 20 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : The age at first marriage presented by the 2008 NDHS showed that 16 percent of women in the Philippines are married by age 1841. The median age at first marriage is 22.2 for women age 25–4942. Women in urban areas marry two years later than women in rural areas (23.2 years versus 21.0 years)43. Women with more education marry later than those with less education44. According to the 2008 NDHS, the mean ideal family size (desired family size) for Filipino women is 2.8 children. Ideal family size varies by region, from a low of 2.6 in CALABARZON and the National Capital Region to a high of 5.1 in ARMM45. Women with no education want the most children (5.0), while women with high school or college education want the fewest (2.7)46. Citing results of the 2008 NDHS, more than 90 percent of Filipino women receive at least some antenatal care (ANC) from a skilled provider, most commonly from a midwife (51%) or doctor (39%)47. More than 85 percent of women received some ANC except in ARMM where only 47 percent of women received ANC48. More than three-quarters of women had the recommended four or more ANC visits and 54 percent of women had antenatal care in the first trimester of pregnancy, as recommended. Further, the 2008 NDHS showed that 82 percent of women took iron tablets or syrup during their last pregnancy, and more than two-thirds of women (69%) who received ANC were informed of the signs of pregnancy complications. Three-quarters of Filipino births are protected against neonatal tetanus. The 2008 NDHS on delivery and postnatal care reveals that less than half of births in the Philippines (44%) occur in health facilities—27 percent in the public sector and 18 percent in private sector facilities. Fifty-six (56%) percent of births occur at home. Home births are much more common in rural areas (70%) than urban areas (40%). Overall, 62 percent of births are delivered by a skilled provider (doctor, nurse, or midwife). Another 36 percent are assisted by a traditional birth attendant or hilot. Postnatal care helps prevent complications after childbirth. More than three-quarters of women received a postnatal checkup within two days of delivery. However, 9 percent of women did not receive any postnatal care within 41 days of delivery. The 2011 FHS49 results reveal that unmet need for family planning (FP) among married women in the Philippines remains high at 19.3 %, 10.5 % for birth spacing and 8.8 %for limiting births. In the 2006 Family Planning Survey, unmet need for FP50 was 15.7 %, 8.4 % for spacing and 7.3 % for limiting births. Total unmet need for FP is substantially greater among women considered poor (25.8 percent) compared to non-poor women (16.6 %). In particular, 13.1 % of poor women as compared 41 Ibid. 42 Ibid. 43 Ibid. 44 Ibid. 45 Ibid. 46 Ibid. 47 NDHS, NSO. 2008. Page 8 48 Ibid. 49 The 2011 Family Health Survey is a nationally representative survey of about 53,000 households and 53,000 women of reproductive age (15-49 years old) which aims to collect data on fertility, family planning practice, maternal and child health, and maternal mortality. The 2011 FHS is a stand-alone survey and funded mainly by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). 50 Unmet need for FP refers to the proportion of currently married women who are not using any method of family planning but do not want any more children or prefer to space births. 21 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : to 9.4 % of non-poor women have unmet need for spacing, and 12.6 % of poor women as compared to 7.2 % of non-poor women have unmet need for limiting births. Currently married women in ARMM have the highest unmet need for family planning (35.8 %), specifically for birth spacing (28.2 %). As expected, unmet need for FP decreases with woman's age, from 37.0 % among women age 15-19 to 7.8 % among women age 45-49. Unmet need for spacing is higher for younger women (under age 35), while unmet need for limiting births is higher for older women (aged 35-49). Unmet need also decreases with increasing education; it is highest for currently married women with no education at all (29.2 %) and lowest for those with college or higher education (17.6 %). Among women who had attained high school or higher level of education, unmet need for spacing births is higher than for limiting births. Table 8. Contraceptive Prevalence rate (% of women aged 15-49) 1998 2003 2008 Modern method 32.8 38.5 41.5 Traditional method 27.2 27.3 31.3 Contraceptive prevalence rate 43.4 47.3 51.6 Sources: 2003, 2008 NDHS 16. Maternal Mortality (MMR). The Philippines committed to lower the maternal mortality rate to 52 per 100,000 live births by 2015. However, the following MMR decline has slowed down considerably and appears to be the MDG that is the least likely to be achieved for the Philippines. 1993 – 209 deaths51 1998 – 172 deaths52 2006 – 162 deaths53 2009 – 162 deaths54 2011 – 221 deaths55 Out of three (3) million pregnancies that occur every year, half were unplanned and one-third of these end in abortions, according to a 2006 report of the Allan Guttmacher Institute conducted in the Philippines. Induced abortion was the fourth leading cause of maternal deaths. Young women accounted for 17 percent of induced abortions. Over half of births occurred at home and one-third of them were assisted by traditional birth attendants (TBAs). Around 75 percent of the poorest quintile did not have access to skilled birth attendants (SBAs) compared to only 20 percent of the richest quintile. The increase in MMR may be traced to inadequate access to integrated reproductive health services by women, including poor adolescents and men. 51 NDHS, NSO and Macro International. 1993. 52 NDHS, NSO and Macro International. 1998. 53 Family Planning Survey (FPS). NSO. 2006. 54 DOH. 2009. 55 DOH. 2011 22 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : 17. Child Mortality. The country has been improving slightly on child mortality. The country’s child mortality rate has declined to 30 per 1,000 live births from 32 in 2009, 31 in 2008.56 This moves the Philippines closer to meeting its MDG of 27 deaths per 1,000 live births by 2015. The decrease is attributed to the sustained immunization of babies and school children in the country. 18. Senior citizens and aging population. The elderly population in the Philippines has been steadily increasing in both size and proportion. The 2010 Census enumerated about 6.3 million persons aged 60 years and above. It represents the 6.8 percent of the 92.1 million total household population in 2010.57 For the period 2010 to 2020, the life expectancy of a Filipino man is expected to increase by 2.5 years; while the life expectancy of a Filipino woman is expected to increase by 1.9 years. In 2012, the life expectancy of a Filipino man is 67.3 years and the life expectancy of a Filipino woman is 72.9 years. The life expectancy of women will remain relatively higher compared to their male counterparts.58 The Philippine Plan of Action for Senior Citizens 2012-2016 forecasted that there will be approximately 19.6 million senior citizens by 2040, out of the projected 141.7 million Filipinos. The projection on the share of senior citizens to total population is increasing over time, from 5.3 percent in 1980 to 6.8 percent in 2010 to 13.8 percent in 2040. 59 In countries and regions with rapidly aging populations, like China and Europe and Central Asia, encouraging women to enter and remain in the labor force can help dampen the adverse impact of shrinking working-age populations. In the Philippines however, traditional and cultural mindset associated with aging require expanding the care economy to accommodate the care needs of senior citizens, as oppose to finding innovative means to make them productive and part of the labor force even in their senior years. In their senior years, Filipino women and men live with their immediate families; this situation is borne out of culture and tradition. Elders are held in high esteem by Filipinos and this is usually demonstrated by caring and providing for their needs. However, this cultural practice can be a burden for families who are not prepared to take on the responsibilities of looking after their aging family members and do not have the economic means. Because of tradition, aging women and men and their families fall into an obligation and entitlement trap; where families feel obligated to care for their aging family members (no matter how un- prepared they are) and aging men and women expect such entitlements because of their senior status. This trap can breed inequalities in the household and make senior members vulnerable to being treated as helpless, unproductive and a burden. 56 World Bank. Selected Health Indicators. Sources: NDHS 2008, NSCB MDG Watch, WB World Development Indicators 57 The Philippine Plan of Action for Senior Citizens 2012-2016. Page 5. 58 Ibid. Page 8. 59 Ibid. Statistics are from World Population Prospects: The 2010 Revisions, UN Population Division, Census of Population (and Housing) and Census of Population of the National Statistics Office (NSO) and National Statistics Coordination Board (NSCB) – Technical Staff special computations using the Population Projections of NSO 23 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : The issue of care work is at the core of discussions pertaining to the aging population. Care of senior citizens is often delegated to women and girls; this impacts on women’s labor force participation (care of the elderly family members is full time work and often unpaid work) and on girl’s school participation. On the other hand, care work for the elderly also breeds inequalities based on gender, race/ethnicity and sexual orientation. For instance, in the Philippines, the distribution of unpaid care work is often delegated only among women but paid care work can be delegated to men; also, the right to receive care work is often determined on economic status. In the Philippines, the absence of policies in distributing care work of the elderly is not yet being seriously addressed such as defining the roles of immediate families, barangay health center, and the community and assigning contributions from national agencies. Incentives for workers with family responsibilities such as caring for elderly are not yet standard practice as in other countries (e.g. additional leave from work for doing care work) and social protection for the elderly is at most, wanting. 19. STI, HIV and AIDS. According to DOH, number of HIV cases rose to 79% as of January 2013. The Philippine AIDS Registry of the National Epidemiology Center of DOH reported 6,015 HIV Ab Sero- Positive Cases as of December 2011. The 2008 NDHS revealed the following major findings:  almost all women (94%) have heard of AIDS. However, knowledge of HIV prevention methods is lower. Only 53% of women age 15–49 know that HIV can be prevented by using condoms and by limiting sex to one faithful partner. Only 22% of women have comprehensive knowledge of HIV60.  Most Filipino women have only one sexual partner during their lifetime. Only 11% of these women reported using a condom with that partner.61  About half of women know where to get an HIV test, but only 2% have ever been tested and received the results.62 Women with higher levels of education are most likely to have ever been tested.63  Young people are not very knowledgeable about HIV/ AIDS. Only 21% of young women age 15 – 24 have comprehensive knowledge of HIV. Almost two-thirds of young women know a condom source.64  Seventeen percent of young women (age 18–24) had sexual intercourse by age 18. Among young women who have had sex, only 4% used a condom at first sex. The large majority (94%) of never-married Filipino young women have never had sex. Among those who have had sex in the past year, 14% report using a condom at last sex.65 60 According to the criteria set by the NDHS 2008, an individual with comprehensive knowledge knows that consistently using condoms during sexual intercourse and having just one uninfected partner reduces the risk of getting HIV, knows that a healthy-looking person can have HIV, and knows that people cannot become infected through mosquito bites or by sharing food with an HIV-infected person. 61 Ibid. 62 Ibid. 63 Ibid. 64 Ibid. 65 Ibid. 24 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : 20. Food Security. The Philippines Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC) Version 2.0 concluded that the Mindanao Island is experiencing acute food security situation. The analysis covers 25 provinces of the Mindanao Island Group of the Philippines. The areas depicting high levels of acute food insecurity problems are mainly located in Region IX (Zamboanga Peninsula), in ARMM (Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao), as well as in the highly natural disaster prone belt along the east coast of Mindanao and in Lanao del Norte (IPC 2012). Standard gender analysis would show that women and children are disproportionately affected by food insecurity especially when the factors, as the 2012 IPC analysis shows, point to high incidence of poverty, underemployment, increased food prices, displacements due to typhoons, flooding, landslides, and drought, and in some areas prolonged armed conflict. Over and above experiencing hunger, women and children are also overburdened when physical access to markets and food is an additional issue in geographically isolated areas such as the island provinces or the mountainous interior of provinces where there are poor or no roads at all. Poor food utilization plays an important role for populations that have very limited access to improved water sources and sanitary toilets. 21. Housing and security of tenure. According to the PDP 2011-2016, total housing need, which includes housing backlog and housing for new households, is estimated to reach about 5.8 million units by 2016. The NUDHF 2009-2016 indicate that Regions 3, 4B and NCR account for about half of the total housing need.66 Already, urban population is at 66.4 percent of total population as of 2010, or 6 of every 10 Filipinos now live in urban areas and half on these are females. The phenomenon of urban slums and informal settlements have been characterized by unsanitary conditions, congestion and limited access to basic urban services, like health centers, schools, waste disposal and safe water supply.67 All these affect the reproductive roles of women and girls as well as their general health conditions, especially reproductive health. Globally, gender inequalities are prevalent in housing and security of tenure. For example, women as a group are widely marginalized by administrative institutions in respect of land, property and inheritance. Women are systematically excluded from decision-making and control over household resources. This has a historical dimension where access to land and property predominantly has been a male domain. As a result women have been denied access, ownership and right to property and inheritance. Several factors have contributed to this - discriminatory policies and laws which include traditional/customary laws and practices; limited implementation of laws and policies; land registration of land laws in favour of the man; lack of representation on decision-making bodies; and lack of awareness.68 The gender dimensions of housing and security of tenure have not been deeply recognized by housing and shelter agencies in the Philippines. A rigorous gender analysis needs to be done by shelter agencies for them to know the extent of women exclusion and/or involvement in terms of decision making, influence, and benefits of housing and secure tenure programmes. 66 Philippine Development Plan 2011-2016. Page 244. 67 Ibid. 68 UN HABITAT. Gender Equality Dimensions of Housing and Secure Tenure. Gender Mainstreaming in Local Authorities: Best Practices. 2008 25 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : 22. Social protection. The 2007 PNHA revealed that 54 percent of the total health expenditure comprised out-of-pocket expenses, and only 9 percent from social health insurance. Total health expenditure was only PhP234.3 billion, or 3.2 percent of the GDP, which is below WHO benchmark of 5 percent of GDP for developing countries.69 High out-of-pocket expenses and low prepayment schemes reflect unevenness, if not an inequity, in health care financing. The results of the BDR by the DOH and PHIC highlighted the need for PHIC to increase its enrolment coverage, improve the availment of its benefits and increase the support value for its claims, for the NHIP to provide Filipinos with financial risk protection.70 Moreover, benefit delivery for the sponsored program is lowest among member groups. As of 2011, the BDR is only 8 percent (see Annex 8.6 of PDP 2011- 2016). BDR refers to the cumulative likelihood that any Filipino is (a) eligible to claim; (b) aware of entitlements and is able to access and avail of health services from accredited providers; and (c) is fully reimbursed by PHIC as far as total health care expenditures are concerned. The PDP 2011-2016 states that the current social protection system is characterized by a series of fragmented and uncoordinated programs and observes that multiplicity of programs and involvement of many government agencies often result in poor coordination, redundancy in providing services and overlapping of program beneficiaries.71 The PDP 2011-2016 cites as an example, that there are 21 agencies involved in the implementation of 65 social protection programs and projects.72 Social protection programs were found to be inadequately funded, and most are short-lived.73 The country’s national government spending on social protection was much lower (0.8% of GDP in 2007) than the mean spending of 87 developing and transition countries on safety nets (1.9% of their GDP from 1996-2006).74 69 Philippine Development Plan 2011-2016. Page 245. 70 Ibid. 71 Ibid. 72 Development Academy of the Philippines 2009. Cited in the Philippine Development Plan 2011-2016. Page 245. 73 Manasan, 2009. Cited in the Philippine Development Plan 2011-2016. Page 245. 74 Weigand & Grosh Survey, 2008. Cited in the Philippine Development Plan 2011-2016. Page 245. 26 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : CHAPTER 2 Economic Empowerment: Promoting Equal Opportunities The discussion on economic opportunity will focus on the ability of women to fully and freely participate in and receive returns from their work in the economy. This chapter will highlight a range of economic indicators, including labor force participation, earnings, and employment segmentation, whether in the labor market or in own-run enterprises. 23. Labor force participation rate (LFPR) of women and men. Based on the new data series, the LFPR has shown little change between 2005 (64.7%) and 2010 (64.1%) (Table 42-A). The LFPR of men also marginally dipped during this time, from 79.6 percent to 78.5 percent, while that of women fluctuated between 48 and 50 percent. The labour force participation gap during the six-year period remained the same. ILO observes that the downward trend in the LFPR can be attributed largely to the declining trend in participation among the youth (48.0 percent to 45.4 percent). The LFPR of those in the prime age bracket varied within a narrow band of 76.4 to 79.9 percent. The findings of the ADB assisted Philippines Gender Labour Market Study (GLMS) (Celis, Magsombol and Sobritchea 2012) conducted in 2012 on the other hand concludes that the source of gender employment across sectors has changed gradually, corresponding with the transformation of the Philippine economy in the last 10 years from an agriculture and industry based one, towards services. Basically fewer women are now employed in the declining manufacturing sector (women’s employment fell from 13.3 to 9%) where they enjoyed better employment conditions. The same trend is happening in agriculture which remains a more important source of employment for men (40.5% of employment) than women (21.8%). Nevertheless, more women - mostly tertiary educated young women are getting employed in the growing BPO industry, which requires a different set of skills but has demanding and stressful work conditions such as night shifts that impact negatively on women’s health and home and social life. There is also an interesting trend in LFPR by age with the LFPR being higher in the middle age groups and lower in the younger age groups (15-19 years and 20-24 years). This trend is likely to reflect the increased enrollment of women in education compared to men, and the difficulties young women face raising children and working in the paid labour market. High fertility rates and child care and domestic responsibilities dampen women’s participation in the labor force (Celis, Magsombol and Sobritchea 2012). Tables 9-A and 9-B show the trends in sectoral employment for women and men by sector. Substantial employment growth for women in 2006-2010 was registered in sectors that have been perceived as male dominated such as fishing, electricity, gas and water supply, construction, transport storage and communications, public administration and defense. Conversely, employment share of women was low compared to men in male-dominated sectors. The trend in employment growth for men for the same period also show substantial growth in sectors that have been perceived as traditionally female such as in manufacturing, hotels and restaurants, education, health and social work and in private households. 27 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : The employment sectors with high concentrations of informal economy and are traditional dominated by women show minimal growth such as agriculture, wholesale and retail, community/social and personal work and negative growth as in the case of manufacturing. The difference in terms of employment share of women and men in these sectors is minimal. This will also show that women with less education will most likely be employed in traditionally female ascribed sectors or in traditionally male sectors where little education is required (such as fishing) albeit with high concentrations of informality/informal economy. Women tend not to be choosy with jobs, while educated men or even those with little education would opt for formal employment and a certain degree of job security and regular pay (such as being employed in private households), as regular earning is traditionally expected among men/husbands. Table 9 - A. Employment by Major Industrial Sector, Women and Men, Philippines, 2006 and 2010 Women Employment Employment Employment Employment Employment (In ‘000s) (In ‘000s) Growth (%) Share (%) Share (%) 2006 2010 2006-2010 2006 2010 Agriculture, Hunting and 2872 2943 2.47 22.75 20.85 Forestry Fishing 101 127 25.74 0.8 0.9 Mining and Quarrying 14 17 21.43 0.11 0.12 Manufacturing 1400 1313 -6.21 11.09 9.3 Electricity, Gas and Water 21 25 19.05 0.17 0.18 Supply Construction 29 45 55.17 0.23 0.32 Wholesale and Retail Trade 3738 4233 13.24 29.61 29.99 Hotels and Restaurants 484 574 18.6 3.83 4.07 Transport Storage and 154 182 18.18 1.22 1.29 Communications Financial Intermediation 196 226 15.31 1.55 1.6 Real Estate, Renting and 275 413 50.18 2.18 2.93 Business Activities Public Administration and 558 737 32.08 4.42 6.21 Defense Education 750 877 16.93 5.94 6.21 Health and Social Work 260 323 24.23 2.06 2.29 Other Community, Social and 397 451 13.6 3.15 3.2 Personal Private Households with 1374 1627 18.41 10.89 11.53 Employed Persons Total 12622 14114 11.82 100.01 100.98 Employment Concentration 62.37 Ratio-top 3 (%) Source: Promoting Gender Equality in the Labor Market for More Inclusive Growth Philippine Report. ADB. Compiled from Philippines. BLES. DOLE. Gender Statistics on Labor and Employment, Table 3.8. http://www.bles.dole.gov.ph 28 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : Table 9 - B. Employment by Major Industrial Sector, Women and Men, Philippines, 2006 and 2010 Men Employment Employment Employment Employment Employment (In ‘000s) (In ‘000s) Growth (%) Share (%) Share (%) 2006 2010 2006-2010 2006 2010 Agriculture, Hunting and 2872 2943 2.21 22.75 20.85 Forestry Fishing 1327 1342 1.13 Mining and Quarrying 14 17 45.6 0.11 0.12 Manufacturing 1400 1313 4.05 8.26 7.85 Electricity, Gas and Water 108 125 15.74 0.54 0.57 Supply Construction 1648 1971 19.6 8.23 8.99 Wholesale and Retail Trade 2465 2801 13.63 1232 12.78 Hotels and Restaurants 402 488 21.39 2.01 2.23 Transport Storage and 2329 2541 9.1 11.64 11.59 Communications Financial Intermediation 148 174 17.57 0.74 0.79 Real Estate, Renting and 508 733 44.29 2.54 3.34 Business Activities Public Administration and 927 1110 19.74 4.63 5.06 Defense Education 249 299 20.08 1.24 1.36 Health and Social Work 99 128 29.29 0.49 0.58 Other Community, Social and 406 462 13.79 2.03 2.11 Personal Private Households with 239 299 25.1 1.19 1.36 Employed Persons Total 20013 21921 9.53 100.01 100 Employment Concentration 58.79 Ratio-top 3 (%) Source: Promoting Gender Equality in the Labor Market for More Inclusive Growth Philippine Report. ADB. Compiled from Philippines. BLES. DOLE. Gender Statistics on Labor and Employment, Table 3.8. http://www.bles.dole.gov.ph 24. Share of women and men in wage employment. As reflected in the Philippine Labor and Employment Plan (PLEP):2011-2016, the share of women in wage employment hardly changed. During the years 2008-2010, employment rates for men and women have remained more or less the same. The share of women in wage employment in 2009 was placed at 41.9% which is of little change from 41.2 percent in 2001.75 For young people, their employability correlates with their educational attainment. Peculiarly, employment rates decrease with educational level, a pattern that is reversed only at the completion of a college degree (and then mainly for women). Employment for women who have not finished high school decreases steadily over multi-year period (2006-2010); for college graduates employment rates increased gradually over the same period from (20.2 in 2006 to 21.4 in 2010). The explanation for this phenomenon may be found in the types of available jobs. Many jobs do not 75 DOLE. 2011. Philippines Labor and Employment Plan 2011-2016. Page 11. 29 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : require formal education such as in the agriculture and MSMEs, and jobs of these types are not sustained, decreasing jobs for non high school graduates. On the other hand, as a result of the growing number of college graduates, many business establishments now require a college degree even for factory, sales, or clerical jobs. There are women college graduates who cannot afford to be unemployed and as such are not too selective about jobs. Women's consistent edge in literacy over men is subverted in the area of employment. Over time, women tend to lag behind men in the work force. In addition to gender discrimination in many institutions, particularly in higher paying jobs, there are often inadequate facilities that would enable women to combine work and family responsibilities. Mismatches between education and the job market; forms of work-place inequities that keep women in and from certain kinds of jobs; high maternal and neonatal mortality rates; and cultural and economic pressures that compel educated women to stay at home and care for the family are among some of the oft-cited reasons.76 25. Women and men unemployment. Notwithstanding 2005, when men’s and women’s rates were close to one-another, women in the Philippines have since the mid-1990s seen higher rates of unemployment than men. Beginning in 2006, however, female unemployment rates fell below those of men. This decline came with a concomitant improvement in their EPR during the same period, indicating and overall improvement in employment opportunities for women77. Unemployment is a particular problem for young people in the Philippines. Young women, in particular, are disproportionately affected by unemployment: in 1995, unemployment among young women stood at 24 percent – some 6.4 percentage points higher than men. By 2010, however, this gap had declined to 3 percentage points (19.5% against 16.5%). In 2010, youth (aged 15-24 years old) comprised only one-fifth (21.3%) of the labour force but more than half (51.1%) of the total unemployed. Youth jobless rates were more than twice the national rates and more than three times the adult (ages 25 and over) unemployment rates (in both the old and new data series). Unemployment rates of the prime and elderly age groups averaged at 5 percent and 2 percent, respectively, as against that of the youth which stood at 17 percent, based on new data series.78 76 Ibid. 77 Decent work country profile: Philippines. International Labour Office. Geneva ILO. 2012. Page 11. 78 Ibid. Page 13. 30 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : Table 10. Labor Force Participation Rate, Employment rate, and Underemployment Rate, 1998-2012 Labor Force Participation Employment Rate Unemployment Rate Rate Both Men Women Both Men Women Both Men Women Sexes Sexes Sexes 1998 64.6 81.2 48.1 89.7 90.2 89.0 10.3 9.8 11.0 1999 65.1 81.1 49.2 90.2 90.3 90.0 9.8 9.7 10.0 2000 63.6 79.6 47.7 88.8 89.1 88.4 11.2 10.9 11.6 2001 67.1 82.4 51.8 88.9 89.2 88.4 11.1 10.8 11.6 2002 67.4 82.0 52.8 88.6 88.9 88.2 11.4 11.1 11.8 2003 66.7 82.2 51.4 88.6 89.0 88.1 11.4 11.0 11.9 2004 67.5 83.8 51.2 88.2 88.5 87.6 11.8 11.5 12.4 2005 64.7 a/ 79.6 a/ 49.9 a/ b/ b/ b/ 7.8 a/ 7.8 a/ 7.8 a/ 2006 64.2 79.3 49.3 92.0 91.8 92.4 8.0 8.2 7.6 2007 64.0 78.8 49.3 92.7 92.5 93.0 7.3 7.5 7.0 2008 63.6 78.8 48.6 92.6 92.4 92.9 7.4 7.6 7.1 2009 64.0 78.6 49.4 92.5 92.4 92.8 7.5 7.6 7.2 2010 64.1 78.5 49.7 92.7 92.4 93.1 7.4 7.6 6.9 2011 78.5 49.7 92.4 93.1 7.6 6.9 2012 78.5 50.1 92.8 93.9 7.2 6.7 a/ The NSO adopted the new (ILO) definition of unemployment in the LFS questionnaire starting with the April 2005 survey round. As the data for January 2005 were based on the old definition of unemployment, averages for 2005 were computed using the data from April, July and October survey rounds. Due to the change in methodology, labor force data series for 2005 and onwards are not comparable with the old. b/ 2005 average cannot be computed due to the adoption of the new unemployment definition starting April 2005 of the LFS, per NSCB Resolution No. 15 dated October 20, 2004. The revision affects the composition of the labor force which is the base for the computation of the employment rate. Hence, data for employment rate starting April 2005 onwards are not comparable with prior survey rounds/averages. Source: DOLE BLES Source of basic data: National Statistics Office, Labor Force Survey, Public Use Files. 26. Employment opportunities for women and men. The agriculture sector, which includes forestry and fishing, continues to employ large numbers of workers in the Philippines, although it does so at a declining rate (Table 11). New jobs are instead found in other workplaces, mainly in export-oriented economic zones and BPOs. The fastest-growing employment sectors are the services industries. The global trend of increased trade in services, especially in business processing outsourcing— sometimes also called the call or contact center industry—has benefited the Philippines. Service firms in information and communication technology have absorbed an increasing number of workers over the past decade. The domestic tourism industry has also experienced a strong expansion. More men than women work in the agriculture sector, though there is an increase in women’s unpaid family work in agriculture. However, in many of the new workplaces, more women 31 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : than men are employed. But the number of “new jobs” is not substantial to narrow the gap between male and female unemployment rates. Table 11. Percentage of Women in the Unpaid Family Workers in Agriculture 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Share of women (%) 49.95 50.39 51.30 52.00 50.67 50.85 51.31 52.13 52.22 Source: BLES, Gender Statistics on Labor and Employment (2008 and 2011) Interestingly, the Decent Work Country Profile 2012 assessment on work, family and personal life states that a rising trend in the proportion of men becoming economically inactive due to household/family duties contrast the declining trend in women in similar situations which may suggest that men are now sharing in these duties and represents a break from tradition and a possible advancement in terms of gender equality in the labour market. The country profile also shows that while the proportion of married men who are employed remained unchanged, a growing proportion of married women are now in employment. On the downside, an increasing trend of economic inactivity is observed among the youth (15 to 24 years) and this was accompanied by a high proportion of youth who are neither in school nor in employment, particularly among women.79 The Decent Work Country Profile 2012 notes family structures are also changing, with a decline of employed men who are household heads, and an increase in the proportion of women who take on this role.80 A disturbing trend is the increasing use of casual laborers by sectors such as wholesale and retail and restaurants which is seriously disadvantaged women in terms of low pay and lack of job security and continuity. Data showed an increase in the share of casual workers, and a decline in the share of permanent workers, indicating a decline in work security and a reduction in wages. This aspect, which is a growing trend in the Philippines, seriously exploits women’s labour, especially young women (Celis, Magsombol and Sobritchea 2012; GLMS, sub section iii, page 24). 27. Women’s and men’s wages. Based on the 2008 NDHS, of total respondents, 60% of married women age 15–49 are employed. Eighty-five percent of employed women receive cash only, while 6% are not paid at all. Over the period 2001–2005, both men and women experienced an increase in average nominal daily basic pay but the increase for females was lower by 1%. The JCGA 2008 also stated that in agriculture and non-agriculture industries, men are paid considerably more on a daily basis than women. Private households has a very high proportion of low-paid employees at 63.7 percent in 2001, rising to 75.5 percent in 2009 then decreasing to 73.8 percent in 2010.81 Standard gender analysis would often point that most of those who are employed in private households are women. 79 Decent work country profile: Philippines. International Labour Office. Geneva ILO. 2012. Page 39. 80 Ibid. 32 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : The Decent Work Country Profile (2012) Philippines noted that for four years (2001-2004), women reported a higher average than men as regards real daily basic pay. However, from 2005 to 2008, men’s pay surpassed women, and in 2009, women’s pay was marginally higher and continued to slightly increase in 2010.82 Overall, as the Decent Work Country Profile (2012) of the Philippines would show- the average daily basic pay of women in real terms was generally lower than that of their male counterparts, except in occupation group that includes plant, machine operators and assemblers. Women in this group demonstrated the lowest employment share (less than 10%) and the narrowest gender wage gap compared to other occupational groups. This means that although women account for only a small proportion of workers in this occupational group, their basic pay was relatively higher than that of their male counterparts.83 This trend is reinforced by social and cultural norms to a large degree and the lack of legislation or enforcement supporting equality of pay for women. The 2012 GLMS cites the CEACR finding that there is a disconnect between the national law (in relation to the combination of Article 135(a) of the Labor Code and the 1990 Implementing Rules of RA No. 6725) and the international standards set and principle of “equal pay for work of equal value” (Celis, Magsombol and Sobritchea 2012). 28. Women Migrant Workers. Overseas labour migration has continued to offset some of the effects of weak domestic job growth. The large number of OFWs is a key feature of the Philippine labour market. The annual flow of OFWs reached the one million mark in 2006 (1.063 million), followed by robust growth rates in 2008 (14.7% or 1.236 million) and 2009 (15.1% or 1.423 million). About three- fourths of OFWs are land based workers.84 Over the 9 year period (2001-2009) women were dominant in three (3) major occupation groups: services e.g. domestic workers and caregivers (55.7%); professional and technical workers e.g. nurses and teachers (27.7%); and production e.g. factory workers (11.2%).85The 2011 survey on OFWs conducted by NSO on the other hand, will show not much difference in terms of the number of women and men OFWs. During the survey period, NSO states that there were more male OFWs (1.1 million or 52.2% of the total OFWs) than female OFWs (47.8%). However data would show that there are more women for the largest proportion of OFWs which is the age groups of 25 to 29 years and the 30 – 34 age group.86 Female OFWs were younger compared to male OFWs. About 26.6% female OFWs were in age group 25 to 29 years, and 24.8% were in age group 30 to 34 years. Among the male OFWs, the largest proportion was in age group 45 years and over (22.9%).87 81 Decent work country profile: Philippines. International Labour Office. Geneva ILO. 2012. Page 23. 82 Ibid. 83 Ibid. 84 The Philippine Labor and Employment Plan 2011-2016. DOLE. 2011. Page 12. 85 Ibid. 86 NSO. 2011. Survey of OFWs 2011. 87 Ibid. 33 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : Most of the male OFWs were employed either as plant and machine operator and assembler (23.8%) or as trade and related worker (23.5%), while more than half (55.5%) of female OFWs were laborers and unskilled workers.88 An emerging concern is the return and reintegration of women migrant workers. This aspect of migration carries with it enormous potentials to empower women economically considering the skills and knowledge that have been acquired during years of work abroad. Another aspect of labour migration deals with the issue of de-skilled professionals and their concomitant reintegration into the formal economy. At the moment, the National Reintegration Center for OFWs (NRCO) is the office mandated to look into reintegration of migrant workers. 29. Women in the private sector. The private sector in the Philippines represents 95% of the economy and accounts for 85% of total expenditure from 1991–2002. It employs more than 90% of the country’s total workforce. Of the 825,000 registered private companies, 91% are microenterprises and 8.5% are small and medium-sized enterprises, while only 0.5% are large enterprises. A study by the Women’s Business Council showed that women owners of micro, small, and medium sized enterprises can be found in manufacturing (41%); jewelry, garments, and furniture (37%); marketing (9%); and real estate (7%).17 However, a lack of training and access to credit are perennial issues. Women owners are also pressured to balance managing their business and family life. 30. New Work Places for Women. The JCGA 2008 provided a substantial analysis on new work places for women which included information technology (IT) intensive business processes. The call center industry employed almost 50,000 of the 82,000 workers in the BPO industry. For instance, in 2005 the 75 call centers had almost 50,000 employees and 58.8 percent of them are women. Other important BPO industries for women were data processing with a share of 65.2 percent of women and the medical transcription industry with a share of 74.5 percent. These new types of industries show a clear preference for employing women (ADB 2008b: 28f; NSO 2009c). In 2005, more than half of the employees in the BPO industry were women. At the same time these workplaces are linked to new occupational health hazards such as long working hours and sleep deprivation and caffeine dependence, stress and exposure to different types of chemicals.89 The case study on BPOs in the GLMS (Section IV, page 60) showed that, despite being a new industry, the existing social and cultural biases are prevalent. Women are employed in the low skilled and low paying jobs (e.g.; voice services, data entry, technical support, business analysts, accounting, clerical) while men are employed in the high skilled and higher paying jobs such as IT engineers, hardware trade, quality officers and supervisory/management. The BPO industry is also characterized by high attrition rate because workers are young, over-qualified, they regard the employment as being temporary, and the nature of the work with night shifts, as being stressful and demanding. Nevertheless, a recent report by IBM Global Locations Trend stated that the Philippines has surpassed India as the leading country in the world in the BPO industry with employment growth predicted to increase by 25% by 2016. The BPO industry offers strong employment prospects for women in future (although not in massive numbers) but special interventions are needed to make it more inclusive for women where they are able to also freely compete in jobs in men’s traditional domain in the BPO sector. A useful intervention would be to promote programs on 88 Ibid. 89 GTZ and DTI. Enhancing Competitiveness through Gender Mainstreaming: The role and status of women and men in MSME development in the Philippines. 2010. Page 34. 34 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : educating women on labour market trends, HR demand and supply and job prospects and remuneration. This will enable women to make informed choices about their education and career paths. Sex-disaggregated data should be collected and disseminated through effective channels for this purpose (Celis, Magsombol and Sobritchea 2012). 31. Women in the Informal Economy. The World Bank estimates that up to 80 percent of economic activity (globally) takes place in the informal economies. Excessive bureaucracy and regulation may prevent firms from entering the formal sector.90 There were about 10.5 million informal economies operators in the Philippines as identified in the 2008 Informal Sector Survey, a nationwide survey conducted by the NSO. Of the total number, 6.8 million (66%) are males and 3.5 million (34%) are women (Table 47 – A). Self employed numbered to about 9.1 million while employers at 1.3 million. Many women, especially in lower income groups, work in the informal economy or in vulnerable employment, where activity is often untaxed and usually not counted by the authorities. It is where labor rights and contracts cannot be enforced. While informal employment can lead to short term gains, these may be outweighed by informality’s long term negative impact on economic growth and job creation.91 Economic participation of women in the informal economy is lowest in the ARMM, low participation is also observed in Cagayan Valley, Ilocos Region and the Cordillera Administrative Region. In the NCR estimates of women in the informal economy is almost equal with that of men (49%) and substantial estimates (above 35%) in Central Luzon, CALABARZON, Central Visayas, and Northern Mindanao, these are regions with high agricultural activities and with highly urbanized cities (Table 48 – A). Majority of men and women in the informal economy belong to the 25 – 54 age group (Table 47 – B). Given the distribution of male and female in the informal economies as shown by the 2008 ISS, it can be estimated that 50 percent of women in the informal economy are in agriculture and around 30 percent are in wholesale and retail trade. The remaining 20 percent are distributed in other informal economic activities such as manufacturing, hotel and restaurants and household/domestic work. Based on the NSO 2008 ISS, the nature of employment for women in the informal economy can be characterized by the following:92  72 percent do not have formal written contract of employment, most of the women are employed through verbal agreements only.  54 percent receive salaries without the standard payslip.  70 percent are not covered by social insurance (SSS/GSIS). 90 World Bank 2010: Women, Business and Law. Measuring Legal Gender Parity for Entrepreneurs and Workers in 128 Economies, Washington DC. 178p. 91 Spaeth, Brigitte; Franco, Jean; Raras, Sam. 2010. Enhancing Competitiveness through Gender Mainstreaming: The role and status of women and men in MSME development in the Philippines. 2010. PSP SMEDSEP, GTZ, German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development. Page 23. 92 These observations/computations are based on the NSO 2008 ISS Table 11. Employees: (Type of production unit, Informality) By Conditions of Employment of Primary job by Sex, Philippines: April 2008 (Estimates in thousands) 35 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s :  83 to 85 percent are not provided with paid leave, no paid sick leave, no paid maternity and paternity leave.  50 percent are not covered by any form of protection from dismissal.  80 percent of the women will not be compensated upon their dismissal.  Most of the women in the informal economy are high school graduates (39%), followed by elementary graduates (17%) and college graduates (14%). Elementary, highschool and college undergraduates account for the rest 39 percent.93 32. Micro-Small-Medium Enterprises (MSMEs). Expectations have been raised that MSMEs particularly in manufacturing and services could become the key to new dynamism in economic development94. The assessment conducted by GIZ and DTI in 2010 on the role and status of women and men in MSME development in the Philippines, notes that about one half of the enterprises are owned and managed by women. Most of these enterprises are small consisting of only the owner/manager without any employees. Most of them are motivated out of necessity. They are founded with little capital below PHP 10,000.0095 in activities with low entry barriers, such as retail trade, food stalls or personal services, but also with low productivity.96 The MSME sector is extremely heterogeneous. The technologically backward sweatshop can be found alongside highly flexible and innovative small enterprises97. Although, the statistics are not always up to date and reliable as desired98 the following tendencies can be concluded for MSMEs in the Philippines:  as in most countries MSMEs constitute the vast majority of enterprises in the Philippines;  in 2006 the share of MSMEs of all enterprises was 99.7 percent and they provided almost 70 percent of the jobs generated by all enterprises99;  micro and small enterprises constitute often the only source of new employment and serve as a safety net not only for the urban poor;  four out of ten Filipinos aged 18 to 64 are engaged in business which is half of the Philippine labor force100. Integral in the above mentioned tendencies is the fact that women play a significant role as entrepreneurs and operators101 and as part of the labor force102 of MSMEs. 93 These observations/computations are based on the NSO 2008 ISS Table 3. Employed Persons: Type of Production Unit by Highest Grade Completed, by Primary Job by Sex: April 2008 94 GTZ and DTI. Enhancing Competitiveness through Gender Mainstreaming. The role and status of women and men in MSME development in the Philippines. 2010. 95 Equivalent to 167 EUR or 218 USD 96 GTZ and DTI. Enhancing Competitiveness through Gender Mainstreaming. The role and status of women and men in MSME development in the Philippines. 2010. Page 9. 97 GTZ and DTI. Enhancing Competitiveness through Gender Mainstreaming. The role and status of women and men in MSME development in the Philippines. 2010. Pages 44-45. 98 Ibid. Page 44. 99 Ibid. Pages 29-30. http://www.dti.gov.ph/dti/index.php?p=321 accessed on 26 April 2010. 100 Ibid. Page 40. GEM Philippine Report 2006-2007. 101 Ibid. Pages 56-61. 102 Ibid. Page 26. 36 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : There is evidence that MSMEs of different sizes are interlinked as a result of tightened industrial tissues through which various forms of business linkages (subcontracting, franchising, value chain and cluster development, etc.) happen. This linkage would enable better use of the potential of the different enterprises103 and the linkages that are in turn formed among women entrepreneurs can be the key to furthering the issue of women’s economic rights and gender equality into the forefront of MSME development. 33. Women’s access to land and property. Increasing women’s access to land and securing their property rights provide improved economic security and welfare. In the Philippines, access to land is still an elusive goal for women because of the cultural preference for men to be caretakers and inheritors of land. In 2003, a mere quarter of all the emancipation patents distributed went to women. Likewise, certificate of land ownership awards were granted to less than 16,000 women compared to more than 33,000 grants to men (CGA 2008 Table 1.9). The legal framework does not give women full rights to property. Article 96 of the Family Code of the Philippines (EO 209) provides that the administration and enjoyment of the community property shall belong to both spouses jointly. In case of disagreement, the husband’s decision shall prevail, subject to the wife having recourse to the court for proper remedy, but she must bring her action within 5 years from the date of the contract implementing such decision. This provision was actually culled from the Civil Code of 1949, which was drafted by an all-male Civil Code Commission. According to its proceedings, the rationale for privileging the husband is that “tradition and experience show that, in very serious matters concerning family, it is usually the husband who makes the ultimate choices.” Despite the lack of an operational sex-disaggregated land information system, some land administration agencies are able to provide data on the gender profile of their beneficiaries, albeit intermittent and outdated. Available data indicate a gender gap in holders of land tenure instruments, especially among married men and women according to data of Second Land Administration and Management Project (LAMP2). Land tenure accomplishment reports of the Department of Agrarian Reform for 2006 and Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) for 2003 to 2007 show a gender gap in the list of beneficiaries of agrarian reform and land patent issuances, respectively. In 2006 women comprised only 25% of the total number of recipients of Certificates of Land Ownership Awards and Emancipation Patents in the whole country. In the same year, only 18% of leasehold contracts (for land areas exempted from agrarian reform) included women as leaseholders. From 2003 to 2007, only 39% of the recipients of public land patents issued by DENR were women. A World Bank study examined literatures on women’s customary access to land in some provinces of the Philippines (Judd & Julnuan, 2001). This literature survey found rural women in the studied provinces and regions to be equal with men in rights to land ownership, although in many areas it is the men who administer or manage the conjugal property. This situation is supported by sex- disaggregated data on holders of patents issued by the Provincial Environment and Natural Resources Office (PENRO) in Leyte in 2010 under LAMP2. A study commissioned under LAMP2 showed private organizations to have a stronger preference for the hiring of men in land administration positions (SMART Research Services, Inc., 2007). More than half of the study’s respondents from the private sector said that they preferred men for land use 103 Ibid. Page 10. 37 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : planner, survey aide, engineering assistant, project engineer, geodetic engineer, civil engineer, and drafters. The gender distribution of land administration personnel in the private sector is 81.9% males and 18.1% females. The situation is however different in the public sector. Only one-third or less of the respondents from the public sector shared the same view although one-half of them preferred men for project managers. The data on LAM personnel in the public sector show an almost gender balanced distribution, with 54.2% males and 45.8% females. Records of the Bureau of Local Government Finance on applications for certifications of training hours on real property appraisal/valuation for LGU land assessors and appraisers as of July 2011 also reflect an almost gender balanced distribution, with 52.94% females and 47.06% males. 34. Taxation. Government decisions and directions on taxation (fiscal policy) can either promote gender equality or further inequalities. This is because taxation policies and taxes affect women and men differently. However, constant is the appreciation that women can pay taxes if only employment opportunities are predictably available and when taxation policies take into account existing gender biases affecting women at home and in the world of work. The PDP 2011-2016 states that generation of employment is a contribution expected from the private business sector. Government’s responsibility however – through fiscal and monetary policies – is to create an environment for vigorous economic activity, as well as to ensure that enough gains from growth are set aside for larger social purposes or channeled into social investments that facilitate future growth, including addressing gender biases in the world of work and taxation. These social gains, will be dependent on government decisions regarding the size and direction of public spending and taxation (fiscal policy) and by decisions regarding the control of the nation’s money supply (monetary policy) (PDP 2011-2016, page 36). Enhanced gender analysis could make decisions regarding the control of the nation’s money supply more aware of the gender biases that exist in fiscal policy and monetary policy. Lack of awareness and low gender competence, preclude the BIR from instituting gender responsive tax reforms. 38 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : CHAPTER 3 Agency: Increasing Women’s Voice and Participation in Development The discussion on agency, defined as the ability of women and men to express themselves (exercise voice) in accordance with their preferences and to take actions on their own behalf (to influence their surroundings), focuses on multiple dimensions: agency within a household and in several aspects of the public domain, including civil society, the private sector, and politics. The assessment also focuses on safety and security as a dimension of agency, defining violence against women as the extreme deprivation of agency. 35. Decisions on managing women’s earnings. The 2008 NDHS shows that more than half (54%) of women expressed that they make joint decisions with their husbands about the wife’s earnings, while 42% say that they make decisions about those earnings by themselves. Table 12 shows that a slightly higher percentage of females aged 15 and above with accounts at a formal financial institution compared to men. This higher percentage may also be attributable to the government’s conditional cash transfer programme since majority of accounts are registered under the name of the mother. Table 12. Account at a formal financial institution by sex (% age 15+) 2011 Female Male Account at a formal financial institution 34 19 Account used for business purposes 7 4 Account used to receive government payments 7 4 Account used to receive remittances 15 10 Account used to receive wages 9 8 Account used to send remittances 6 5 Source: The World Bank Group 36. Violence against women and children (VAWC). Gender-based violence poses physical and mental health risks to women and children. The observation made in the JCGA 2008 was that the number of reported cases remains low (see JCGA 2008 Figure 1.13). However, the figures for 2009 – 2011 would show substantial increase in the reported cases (Table 13). The passage of the Anti-Violence Against Women and their Children Act of 2004 (RA 9262) and the sustained advocacy and information campaign involving both men and women could have improved public understanding of VAWC. Structures for reporting that are in place, such as the Women’s and Children’s Desk in PNP precincts could have also influenced the increase in reporting. Rape and beating (physical injuries) consistently constitutes the highest number of reported cases. In order to know the extent of the problem, the National Statistics Office, conducted the 2008 NDHS which included a module on violence against women entitled "Women's Safety Module". The module generated statistics and information on women's experiences of violence from their spouses/boyfriend or dating partner, incidence of violence against women by geographical area, 39 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : demographics of the victims and perpetrators, including services availed104. The major findings are as follows:  20% of women age 15–49 have experienced physical violence since age 15105.  7% experienced violence in the past 12 months106.  4% of women who have ever been pregnant report having experienced physical violence during pregnancy107.  4% of women who have ever had sex had their first experience of sexual intercourse forced against their will.  9% of women have ever experienced sexual violence.  women with higher levels of education and those from wealthier households are less likely to report having experienced physical violence. Spousal violence was also included as a sub module in 2008 NDHS and would show that:  18%108 of women who have ever been married have experienced physical or sexual violence by a husband109.  10% of women experienced spousal physical or sexual violence in the past 12 months.  49%110 of women whose husbands get drunk very often report that they are victims of physical or sexual violence.  About one-fifth of women report that they have fought back physically, while 27% have fought back verbally.  18% have sought help from an outside source such as their own family or a friend/neighbor.  16% of women report that they have ever committed physical violence against their husbands when he was not already physically hurting her.  One in seven women agreed that a husband is justified in beating his wife for certain reasons.  The most common reason for justifying wife beating is neglecting the children (12%).  The current or former husband/partner is the person most often committing the violence. Fathers, mothers, and other relatives are also commonly cited as perpetrators of violence.  Pushing, shaking, and slapping are the most commonly reported forms of physical violence. Women from the poorest households are most likely to experience physical or sexual violence by their spouse. College-educated women are least likely to experience spousal violence. Another area of concern is violence against young girls in the school. The 2009 State of the Filipino Children Report by the Council on the Welfare of Children stated that, out of 10,000 child abuse cases reported by the Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD) in the years between 1998 and 2004, 5-8 percent was committed by teachers. Aside from teachers, children suffer in the hands of janitors, bus drivers, and school personnel. Children also experienced violence committed 104 Source:http://sgdatabase.unwomen.org/searchDetail.action?measureId=15529&baseHREF=country&baseHREFI d=1039 accessed on July 2012. 105 NDHS, NSO. 2008. Page 13. 106 Ibid. 107 Ibid. 108 Almost one fifth of the women survey. 109 NDHS, NSO. 2008. Page 13. 110 Almost half of those interviewed. 40 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : by their fellow students, such as bullying, or as participants of gang-related fighting. Types of violence experienced by children include verbal, physical, and sexual abuse.111 Table 13. Annual Reported Cases of Violence Against Women 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Reported cases in the PNP 6,271 5,374 4,882 5,729 6,905 9,485 15,104 12,948 Details: Rape 997 927 659 837 811 770 1,042 832 Incestuous Rape 38 46 26 22 28 27 19 23 Attempted Rape 194 148 185 147 204 167 268 201 Acts of Lasciviousness 580 536 382 358 445 485 745 625 Physical Injuries 3,553 2,335 1,892 1,505 1,307 1,498 2,018 1,588 Sexual Harassment 53 37 38 46 18 54 83 63 RA 9262 218 924 1,269 2,387 3,599 5,285 9,974 9,021 Threats 319 223 199 182 220 208 374 213 Seduction 62 19 29 30 19 19 25 15 Concubinage 121 102 93 109 109 99 158 128 RA 9208 17 11 16 24 34 152 190 62 Abduction / Kidnapping 29 16 34 23 28 18 25 22 Unjust Vexation 90 50 59 59 83 703 183 155 Source: Philippine National Police - Women and Children Protection Center (WCPC) in Philippine Commission on Women (pcw.gov.ph) The LGBT also experience domestic violence and gender based violence. The FGD112 conducted for the CGA 2012 with representatives of the sector reveals that male children, who show physical manifestations and behaviors usually attributed to femininity (the Bakla or Bading, as they are labeled derogatorily) and female children who show physical manifestations and behaviors usually attributed as masculine (the Tomboy or Tibo, as they are labeled derogatorily) are most likely to experience gender based violence and this is usually perpetuated by men which can also include their fathers or older brothers, male neighbors and playmates. The violence is usually justified as a 111 Because I Am A Girl, PLAN International, WAGI. The National Situationer of Girl Children in the Philippines 2012. 2012. Page 21. 112 CGA 2012 FGD with LGBT. December 4, 2012. World Bank Knowledge Center, Ortigas, Mandaluyong City, Manila, Philippines. 41 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : corrective measure to “discipline” the child into behaving according to the norm expected of his sex. This same children would most likely to experience gender based violence such as bullying in schools and public/commercial spaces.113 In the case of lesbians, there are reported risk of being victims of “corrective” rape, another measure to “discipline” them into behaving according to the norm expected of her sex.114 The CSO UPR Report on the situations of LGBTs in the Philippines (2011) showed that research (conducted by the Philippine LGBT Hate Crime Watch) revealed 141 documented cases of hate crimes115 from 1996 to August 2011 of which ninety-five cases involved gay men, twenty-six involved transgenders, sixteen involved lesbians, and four involved bisexuals. From an average of ten LGBT people murdered between 1996 and 2008, the number has risen to twelve in 2009, 26 in 2010, and 27 from January to May 2011.116 The UPR CSO Report (2011) also cited an ISIS research exposing systematic rape117 of lesbians by men to “correct” and to remind lesbians that they are “still women”. Reporting gender based violence to the police and authorities is a hurdle that LGBT victims face, the FGD conducted for the CGA 2012118 with representatives of the sector reveals that:  Reporting of violence perpetuated on LGBTs is a problematic area. Majority of PNP officers are not aware of SOGI issues and are not aware of gender issues confronted by the LGBT persons.119  Reporting of corrective rape and gender based violence inflicted on transwomen and transmen are coursed through usual crime reporting procedures- there is no capacity to note GBV of LGBTs as similar to VAWC and this capacity gap is also noted among social workers and health personnel.120  Gay men and lesbians reporting GBV to PNP often get discriminated on the basis of their gender identity- they are even often blamed for the violence they encountered, deserving 113 Ibid. 114 Ibid. 115 Hate crimes generally refer to criminal acts that are seen to have been motivated by bias against persons belonging to a certain social group, usually defined by race, religion, sexual orientation, disability, class, ethnicity, nationality, age, gender, gender identity, social status or political affiliation. (http://thephilippinelgbthatecrimewatch.blogspot.com/) cited in Submission of the Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) Coalition Report on the situations of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) persons in the Philippines for the 13th Session of the UN Universal Periodic Review For the Philippines (May 21 – June 1, 2011) 116 Aside from the 141 cases there are 31 cases of LGBT killings that are in the process of being reviewed and verified as of Aug 2011. (http://thephilippinelgbthatecrimewatch.blogspot.com/2011/09/in-beginning-posted- sometime-in-june.html) accessed 2011-11-25, cited in Submission of the Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) Coalition Report on the situations of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) persons in the Philippines for the 13th Session of the UN Universal Periodic Review For the Philippines (May 21 – June 1, 2011) 117 Surfacing Lesbians, Bisexual Women and Transgendered People’s Issues in the Philippines: Towards Affinity Politics in the Feminist Movements. 2010. page 16. cited in Submission of the Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) Coalition Report on the situations of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) persons in the Philippines for the 13th Session of the UN Universal Periodic Review For the Philippines (May 21 – June 1, 2011) 118 CGA 2012 FGD with LGBT. December 4, 2012. World Bank Knowledge Center, Ortigas, Mandaluyong City, Manila, Philippines. 119 Ibid. 120 Ibid. 42 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : such circumstances because of the way they present themselves (look, manner of dress, behavior and manner of speech).121 The UPR CSO Report (2011) also found that lesbians are not afforded the same mental and psychosocial support and protection as heterosexual women. The language use of “women” in RA 9262 and RA 9710 does not comprehensively include lesbians and bisexual women and made transgender women invisible as evidenced in the Implementing Rules and Regulations of RA 9710 where it made reference to sexual orientation122 but not to gender identity. According to the UPR CSO Report (2011), the major challenge in addressing Hate Crimes has been the lack of a legal framework in the Philippines as well as the definition of “extra-judicial killings” which is limited to politically motivated crimes. Table 14. Research conducted by Iwag Dabaw Inc. in Davao City- 97 LGBT Respondents Types of Abuse Within Family Police / Military Intimate Public Places Relationship Physical 56.00% 28.00% 48.00% 18.00% Economic (theft 36.00% 33.00% 24.00% 4.00% victims) Sexual 14.00% 50.00% 40.00% 4.00% Verbal 76.00% 78.00% 88.00% 76.00% Total (in person) 59 (61%) 18 (19%) 25 (26%) 64 (66%) Source: http: outragemag.com online tag davao -lgbts accessed: anuary 29, 2013 37. Trafficking of women and children. There is progress in halting human trafficking. The Philippines is now at Tier 2 Status in the Global Trafficking in Persons Report and no longer in the Tier 2 Watch List Status. The global community now recognize the efforts both government and civil society have made to combat human trafficking at home and abroad. 38. Early marriages. Traditional early marriages are still in practice in few areas or indigenous groups in the country. Some of the marriages are forced and brought about by abduction of women and girls.123 39. Women’s political participation. While there is a long history of women’s participation in politics, there is still a considerably low level of representation of women, in comparison with men. There is also an existing paradox in women’s representation in the Philippines –two (2) women have been elected as Presidents of the state and numerous women appointed in cabinet posts – but women, in general, continue to be in the lower levels of government hierarchy. 121 Ibid. 122 Magna Carta of Women Implementing Rules and Regulations 2010 pp 3, 37, 45, & 65 (http://pcw.gov.ph/index.php/downloads/doc_download/376-republic-act-9710-magna-carta-of-women) accessed 2011-11-25, cited in Submission of the Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) Coalition Report on the situations of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) persons in the Philippines for the 13th Session of the UN Universal Periodic Review For the Philippines (May 21 – June 1, 2011) 123 UN WOMEN Mindanao Consultation – Scoping Mission and FGD in Davao City, September 2011. Unpublished Notes by Eleanor Conda 43 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : Table 15. Number of Elected Women and Men by Position and Sex: 1998, 2001, 2004, 2007 and 2010 Position 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men President 0 1 .. .. 1 0 1 0 0 1 Vice- 1 0 .. .. 0 1 0 1 0 1 President Senators 2 10 1 12 3 9 1 11 2 10 Congressmen 20 188 33 172 32 179 45 173 48 174 Governors 13 65 15 62 15 62 18 62 16 60 Vice- 9 69 10 67 7 71 13 67 10 65 Governors Board 93 629 120 607 125 623 123 635 120 614 Members Mayors 233 1,374 241 1,301 244 1,352 274 1,320 294 1210 Vice-Mayors 174 1,433 192 1,356 222 1,375 230 1,365 245 1260 Councilors 2139 11,007 2198 10,467 2251 10,881 2329 10,797 2314 10103 TOTAL 2,684 14,776 2,810 14,044 2,900 14,553 3,034 14,431 3,049 13,498 Source: House of Representative and Senate As the 2008 JCGA previously stated, the Philippine Government has made significant efforts in making its governance institutions accessible to women. There is marked increase in the number of elected women, particularly in the House of Representatives. The number of women mayors has also consistently increased since 1995. While on the surface these developments are positive, politics is still a male domain. The presence of women in electoral politics frequently has more to do with a political dynasty. A 2004 study by the Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism found that 70% of the women in the House of Representatives in 2001 were members of political clans. This finding suggests that women in politics may be “benchwarmers” (place holders) for male relatives who are awaiting their turn or eligibility to run for office. Women party list continue to hold seats in congress and other party list are fielding women representatives. LGBT Filipinos are now closer to being represented and participating in government through the party list. Table 16. Elected Members of Congress, 1998-2010 Election Years Election Year Chamber Positions No. of Elected Legislators Filled Women Men 1998 Senate 12 2 10 House of Representatives 208 20 188 2001 Senate 13 1 12 House of Representatives 209 33 176 2004 Senate 12 3 9 House of Representatives 210 32 178 2007 Senate 12 1 11 House of Representatives 218 45 173 2010 Senate 12 2 10 House of Representatives 222 48 174 Source: Commission on Election 44 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : 40. Women in the civil service. As of December 2010, the government personnel inventory conducted by CSC will show that there are 1,409,660 government personnel. An increase of 96,122 based on 2008 figures (1,313,538). Female employees accounted for 58.7 percent (numbering 827,157) while the number of male employees totaled 582,503 or 41.3 percent of the total government workforce.124 Table 17 presents the distribution of male and female employees by region and sex. Table 17. Number of Government Personnel by Region and by Sex: 2010 Region Male Female Total 1 25,922 39,519 65,441 2 19,219 23,409 42,628 3 38,549 76,442 114,991 4A 44,138 83,124 127,262 4B 14,106 26,490 40,596 5 23,776 50,048 73,824 6 37,253 65,493 102,746 7 30,784 53,272 84,056 8 24,015 45,190 69,205 9 19,462 31,441 50,903 10 19,576 35,517 55,093 11 16,064 29,328 45,392 12 17,364 31,107 48,471 NCR 222,656 193,612 416,268 CAR 10,956 16,318 27,274 CARAGA 13,210 24,326 37,536 ARMM 5,453 2,521 7,974 TOTAL 582,503 827,157 1,409,660 Source: CSC 2010 Inventory of Government Personnel Of the total workforce, 1,266,285 are career personnel, of which 772,027 or 54.8 percent are women and 489,258 or 34.7 percent are men. The remaining 148,375 personnel, are non-career and males number at 93,245 or 63 percent while females total 55,130 or 37 percent.125 Government career personnel number 1,261,285 or 89.5 percent of the overall government workforce. Of this, women outnumber the men by 61 percent as against 38.7 percent respectively. Non career personnel total 148,375, where a reverse in terms of distribution will show 63 percent in favor of men and women account for only 37 percent.126 Table 18 shows that women dominate the second level posts at the LGUs, SUCs, NGAs and GOCCs, with the exception of LWDs where the men outnumber women by 117. Even so, men dominate the first and third level posts for all government agencies.127 124 http://excell.csc.gov.ph/cscweb/2010IGP_stat.pdf 125 Ibid. 126 Ibid. 127 http://excell.csc.gov.ph/cscweb/2010IGP_stat.pdf 45 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : Table 18. Distribution of female and male employees by type of government agency and by level of position Agency First Level Second Level Third Level TOTAL M F Total M F Total M F Total LGUs 82,863 78,580 161,443 35,743 61,090 96,833 331 257 588 258,864 LWDs 6,442 1,722 8,164 1,655 1,538 3,193 28 5 33 11,390 SUCs 7,732 4,618 12,350 12,731 19,916 32,647 70 58 128 45,125 NGAs 12,768 10,101 22,869 255,530 528,917 784,447 44,239 36,566 80,805 888,121 GOCCs 5,878 2,233 8,111 16,036 20,764 36,800 7,212 5,662 12,874 57,785 Source: PCW - TSD, data reflects the sum of Tables 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 of the 2010 Inventory of Government Personnel A total of 148,375 or 10.5% of the total government staff complement are non career posts. LGUs account for the most number of non-career personnel at 72% of the total non-career workforce and of this, 36 percent are women. The 2010 figures will show that parity have been reached for non career positions in the SUCs at 50-50% for both women and men. For the rest of the agencies, men dominate coterminous positions.128 41. Women in the judiciary. The judiciary is male dominated, though this dominance is slowly easing. A significant breakthrough in 2012 is the appointment of the first woman Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. For the period 2007 to 2010, male judges outnumber the female judges at the regional trial courts, metropolitan trial courts, municipal trial courts-in-cities, municipal trial courts, municipal circuit trial courts, shariá district courts and shariá circuit courts. The 2011 Annual Report of the Supreme Court still show unequal distribution of female and male judges. These figures hardly changed since the JCGA of 2008 (Table 19). Table 19. Justices/Judges in the Judiciary by Sex as of December 31, 2011 Courts Female Male Total Total Total Incumbent Number of Number Judges Vacancies of Judicial Positions Supreme Court 3 20% 12 80% 15 0 15 Court of Appeals 23 36% 41 64% 64 5 69 Sandiganbayan 2 14% 12 86% 14 1 15 Court of Tax Appeals 5 56% 4 44% 9 0 9 Regional Trial Court 254 33% 511 67% 765 206 971 Metropolitan Trial Court 32 52% 29 48% 61 34 95 Municipal Trial Court in Cities 72 43% 95 57% 167 48 215 Municipal Trial Court 117 42% 159 58% 276 108 384 Municipal Circuit Trial Court 110 37% 191 63% 301 171 472 Shari’a District Court 0 0 0 0 0 5 5 Shari’a Circuit Court 3 10% 26 90% 29 22 51 GRAND TOTAL 621 37% 1,080 63% 1,701 600 2,301 Source: 2011 Annual Report, Supreme Court 128 Ibid. 46 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : 42. Structures for gender equality and women’s empowerment. PCW is the country’s oversight agency for gender equality and women empowerment. With the passage of RA 9710 MCW, PCW is poised to strengthen its partnership with the CHR as the mandated Gender Ombud of the country. It is expected that this partnership will usher the improvement of systems for ensuring women’s rights and gender equality as required by MCW and CEDAW. At the national level, women sectoral representation is recognized in the NAPC and this structure is also evident in the RDC where a committee on GEWE is created. Even if this committee is represented by government agencies’ representatives, usually gender focal persons from DSWD, DOH, DepEd, DOLE, in some regions, a number of women’s NGOs also participate in the committee. Inter-agency committees have also been created at the meso level where women NGOs and CSOs are given wider space to participate such as the RIACAT, to monitor progress in halting trafficking of women and girls, the regional VAWC committee, and the committee for the protection of children. The formation of local sectoral representation for women has been a common practice for some LGUs in the country and local legislative councils assigns a committee on the welfare of women and children and family. This committee is usually chaired by an elected council member and by tradition is assigned to a woman council member. The GAD Focal Point Systems have been created by NGAs with the broad mandate to mainstream gender equality and women empowerment actions in the agencies’ programmes and projects. In 2011, PCW issued Memorandum Circular No. 2011-01 to further strengthening of the GAD Focal Point System. Its primary task is to prepare GAD plans and budgets and conduct consultations among women and men internally (within the agency) and with its external clients (constituents). The GAD focal points are also expected to institute a GAD capability-building and advocacy programs to promote gender awareness and participation of officials and staff in gender mainstreaming efforts. 47 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : CHAPTER 4 Directions for Policy This final Chapter will focus on policy and gender mainstreaming recommendations in the light of recent progress and challenges to gender equality. 43. Laws to end all forms of discrimination need to be passed and revise discriminatory provision consistent with CEDAW. Four (4) versions of the Anti Discrimination Bill has been filed in the House and Senate; two (2) versions in the lower house are authored by Bayan Muna and Akbayan, and two (2) versions in the Senate, authored by Sen. Miriam Defensor Santiago and Sen. Ramon Revilla Jr. Pending versions of the Anti-Prostitution Bill in the House and Senate targets the demand side of prostitution by criminalizing those who exploit and engage in prostitution and human trafficking. This bill would have a far-reaching impact in the protection of women from violence. There is also a push for the passage of Gender Balance Bill. The Philippines ratified the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) in 1981. There are discriminatory provisions in some laws that are currently enforced viz CEDAW and RA 9710 that needs to be reviewed; being a State Party to CEDAW, the government, should initiate revisions on: a) Family Code of the Philippines (i) Article 14: on the provision on giving preference to the father’s consent to the marriage of children between the ages of 18 and 21; (ii) Articles 96 and 124: on the provision on giving preference to the husband’s decision, in case of disagreement with the wife, on the administration and enjoyment of community and conjugal properties; (iii) Article 211: on the provision of giving preference to the husband’s decision, in case of disagreement with the wife, over the persons of their common children; (iv) Article 225: on the provision on giving preference to the husband’s decision, in case of disagreement with the wife, on the exercise of legal guardianship over the property of unemancipated common child; (v) Article 55, No.1: on the requirement for repeated physical abuse and grossly abusive conduct as a ground for legal separation. b) Revised Penal Code (i) Articles 333 and 334: on adultery and concubinage; (ii) Article 202: on the definition of vagrants and prostitution; (iii) Article 351: on premature marriages; and (iv) Article 247: on death inflicted under exceptional circumstances; c) Rules of Court - Rule 131 Section 3 (jj), on disputable presumptions. d) Code of Muslim Personal Laws; e) RA 8353, on removal of criminal liability of rapist when victim marries him. f) R.A. 10158, or the revision of Article 202 of the Revised Penal Code will continue to criminalize women and girls in prostitutes (unlike male prostitutes and vagrants), while men who participate in their exploitation are not held liable for prosecution. 48 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : 44. Accelerate the implementation of RA 9710 (MCW) through the Women’s EDGE Plan 2013 – 2016. The implementation of RA 9710 remains a challenge for PCW and CHR. In particular, majority of the MCW provisions are yet to be mainstreamed in agencies and LGUs plans and budgets. The expanded oversight role of PCW and CHR as gender ombud will require upgrading of institutional capacities in terms of budget, human resource, management systems and M & E. The ODA GAD support efforts towards addressing deficiencies in capacities and the UN will squarely address the need to strengthen capacities of PCW and CHR as indicated in the UNDAF 2012-2018 Outcome Area 3.6. Under the leadership of PCW, the Women’s EDGE Plan 2013 – 2016 have been formulated and is expected to be the gender equality guiding plan for the Philippine Development Plan 2011 - 2016. The plan goals are anchored on the CEDAW and RA 9710 (MCW) and its implementation is expected to drive gender mainstreaming in the NGAs and LGUs. However, capacities of national and local GAD focal points must be built in order for the targets to be mainstreamed in GAD plans and budgets as well as in the regular agency and LGU plans. Endowments The challenge faced by the Philippines in human development manifest in the un-equal access of women and men to basic endowment and opportunities specifically education and health, basic services and even basic needs. Access by girls and boys and women and men to education- basic, secondary and tertiary- show positive correlations in employment and incomes (economic opportunities) and participation in development (agency). Boys and girls dropping out of school early will most likely become child laborers (where girls are most likely to be home based unpaid workers). Juvenile delinquency has been associated among boys’ who are not in school. And girls who are not in school will most likely marry or get pregnant early and have more children. High maternal mortality rates indicate women’s and girl’s poor awareness and access to basic and reproductive health care. Low health seeking behavior among men and boys also indicate poor awareness and lack of access to health care. Data and analysis would how that the unequal access to education and health contribute to population growth, rise of informal settlements, food insecurity, maternal mortality, teen age pregnancy, high prevalence rate of STI and HIV transmission, violence against women and children, leaving no resources towards more strategic endowments such as social protection that will benefit the most vulnerable and marginalized women and men such as those with disabilities, rural poor, urban poor, IP groups and Moro communities. The present conditions of inequalities surrounding education and health, other basic services and basic needs such as food, have become major obstacles and constraints in allowing women and men, girls and boys, to live healthy and productive lives. Addressing the gaps in education and health is therefore strategic to increase economic opportunities and agency of women and men. 45. Addressing barriers that impede the attainment of MDG targets. The Philippines Midterm Progress Report on the MDG point to “a low probability of achieving the targets for universal primary education, improving maternal mortality, and increasing access to reproductive health care by 2015.” This same issues has been pointed out in the 2008 Joint Country Gender Assessment129 and 129 Paradox and Promise in the Philippines, A Joint Country Gender Assessment (2008) by Asian Development Bank, Canadian International Development Agency, European Commission, National Commission on the Role of Filipino 49 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : current data (2011) would show very little progress towards the 2015 target. The lack of budget, lack of capacities and lack of political will appear to be major barriers in achieving the targets for universal primary education, improving maternal mortality, and increasing access to reproductive health care. 46. Addressing underperformance in educational outcomes for boys. Improving enrolment and survival rates of girls and boys in terms of education across all levels should remain at the top of concerns that need to be urgently addressed by government. Consistent underperformance in educational outcomes for boys results in high juvenile delinquency and perpetuation of inequalities and wrong notions of masculinities that can lead to violence in the future and could potentially affect women and girl children. There are still more boys dropping out of school because of lack of interest as well as the need to work. 130 A review of the curriculum and classroom/school practices in the context of boys’ lack of interest and the factors surrounding the need to work, should lead to innovative solutions such as expanding the social role of schools and enriching the learning/teaching rubric to capture and/or regain child interest while providing options to protect poorest boys and girls from child labor, exploitation and abuse. 47. Urgent implementation of the RH Bill. The immediate implementation of the reproductive health (RH) law is absolutely critical for the Philippines. With rising maternal mortality, teenage pregnancy and HIV and STI transmission, the RH law as it was designed would empower women to make all-important choices for themselves and for their families. The Aquino administration should continue unwavering support and monitoring of the implementation of the reproductive health and responsible parenthood law as it is a crucial element in the pursuit of inclusive development. 48. Making housing, shelter and secure tenure projects affordable to women. The country’s housing and shelter agencies will benefit by knowing and internalizing the gender equality dimensions of housing and security of tenure. A rigorous gender analysis needs to be done to know the extent of women exclusion and/or involvement in terms of decision making, influence, and benefits of housing and secure tenure programmes. The PDP 2011-2012 recognizes the need for investing in mass and socialized housing and increase the number of housing loans and strengthening of HGC through equity infusion from the government to establish a stronger guaranty system that will encourage the funding of socialized and low-cost housing projects by the private sector and housing developers. Funds for housing can be secured and sustained, only if there is a viable system of guarantees for both the government and private financial institutions that cater to the funding requirements of housing production and end-user financing. The HGC can guaranty loans granted by financial institutions and developers for housing up to 20 times its net worth. What is clear is that socialized and low-cost housing projects will benefit more women as they are usually affordable. The challenge is how to design loan packages that are accessible to women’s incomes and guarantees for women availing housing finance. Women, United Nations Children’s Fund, United Nations Development Fund fo r Women, United Nations Population Fund 130 National Situationer of Girl Children in the Philippines 2012 (Because I Am A Girl, PLAN International, WAGI). 2012. Page 23. 50 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : 49. Expanding social protection. The PDP 2011 – 2016, concludes that the benefits of existing social protection programs are compromised by weak targeting systems resulting in high leakage to the nonpoor, undercoverage of the poor, low program impact and wastage of scarce resources. Existing social protection programs are inadequate in terms of coverage. While partnership with nongovernment organizations (NGOs) and other stakeholders have succeeded in making social services accessible to the poor, NGOs tend to flock to selected advocacies like children’s causes, leaving behind other sectors, such as the disabled and elderly, wanting.131 The Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Programm is a step in the right direction as it not only addresses practical but strategic gender needs as well. Further work is needed, however, to consolidate social protection programs and complement these with the CCT. The bigger challenge is the expansion of the CCT to make it the core program in the convergence of social protection initiatives to ensure sustainability of beneficiaries’ gains.132 Indigenous Peoples (IPs) living in highly fragile and vulnerable ecosystems, people in the Cordillera highlands and in Mindanao Island, are among the poorest in the country and this brings to mind another important dimension of social protection which is property ownership and inheritance rights of women- this is particularly significant for rural women and IP women. In Mindanao, the Moro struggle for ancestral domain as carried out by the MNLF and MILF133 has caused the displacement of nearly two million people from 2000 and 2006134. The recent siege of Lahad Datu in Sabah, Malaysia by the Royal Army of the Sultanate of Sulu also caused the displacement of many families. Most IDPs in Mindanao, especially in the ARMM135 are Muslim women and children who suffer from the lack of food aid and medicines, blockades, insensitive and inadequate service delivery.136 Local Government Units (LGUs) in ARMM have relatively weak capacity for the protection of women victims137. It is in this context that social protection for moro women and women in conflict situations in the ARMM becomes an important component for peace frameworks. Also, a review of gender-differentiated access to pension and other insurance mechanisms and the conditional cash transfer mechanisms should be done in the context of national and local legislation to determine appropriate mechanisms for social protection that will impact positively on the lives of women and children. 50. Investing in pro-poor and gender responsive infrastructure. The government has devoted considerable resources to deliver social services to those lacking access to health care and education. However, poor households in isolated areas have difficulty in going to health centers and 131 ADB, 2009. Cited in the Philippine Development Plan 2011 – 2016. Page 245. 132 Ibid. 133 Moro National Liberation Front and Moro Islamic Liberation Front 134 Armed conflicts include clashes between the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP), the Moro Islamic Liberation Front, The Moro National Liberation Front, and the New People’s Army 135 ARMM - Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao 136 UN WOMEN. 2010. Presentation of Atty. Laisa Masuhod Alamia, Program Manager, Nisa Ul-Huqq Fi Bangsamoro, Consultation on the Maguindanao Province Gender and Development Code, Sardonyx Hotel, Cotabato City. September 27, 2010. 137 http://www.pcco.org.ph/downloadables/GEForum07/3_LGSPA%20Gender%20Initiatives%20CIDA%20Forum%2 0final.pdf 51 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : schools, even when services are offered for free or at highly subsidized rates. Clearly, poor infrastructure provision, aside from being a hindrance to investment and business activity, also prevents women and girls physical access to basic services. Economic Opportunities Given the data and analysis on labor force participation rates and average daily basic pay, men are still at an advantage over women in terms of economic gains from formal employment. Gender gap is also pronounced in access to productive resources, specifically land ownership, favoring the men. The other indicators of employment tend to favor women in terms of number (participation) such as overseas employment and participation in the informal economy and MSMEs. However, analysis of the data and its implications to equal economic opportunities would show that women OFWs are confined to low paying jobs such as in the services and manufacturing sector compared to men who dominate the professional and technical categories where pay are higher. Further, women OFWs also face inequalities in overseas employment that has been characterized by trafficking, work related harassment and sexual abuse. Women in the informal economy, over and above low wages, also face vulnerabilities in terms of job insecurity and lack of or absence of social protection. These vulnerabilities add up to social costs for women and children. The challenge to promote equal economic opportunities in the Philippines is to shift focus towards providing more opportunities for women and keeping them in the labor force during their productive years, ensure employment of women OFW upon their return, and increase productivity of women who dominate the informal economy and MSMEs. Labour policies will have to be reviewed in relation to decent work principles, the RA 9710 and RA 10354 to encourage more women to participate in the labour force alongside gender sensitive men. The review of labour policies and revisions of laws should also take into consideration the already positive education outcomes for women in the country. 51. Accounting women’s contribution to the economy. The PDP 2011-2016 states that Filipino women are relatively advanced in comparison to women in other developing countries in the areas of education, profession, politics and legislation. However, women and girls contribution to economic development is not yet accounted in current economic analyses/frameworks and the effect of improved economic development has not been analyzed in terms of its impacts on women and girls and gender equality and changes in the informal structures such on the traditional roles of women and men. GAD mainstreaming should consider institutionalizing the practice of analyzing gender equality impacts and how these affect differently among women and men (benefits) as well as how development processes harnesses the contribution of women and men (influence), as a reference to policy making at the national and local levels and basis for development planning. 52. Addressing women economic disadvantages and discrimination at the workplace. As pointed out by an ILO study138, there is a serious need to analyze and address barriers that impact on gender differences in employment patterns of women compared to men (i.e. labour force participation rates, employment, unemployment and underemployment rates, types of jobs and occupations available, work status, etc.); gender-based discrimination in the terms and conditions of women’s work which refers to hours of work, wages, maternity or paternity benefits, occupational health and safety, opportunities for training, career promotion, recruitment and other employment practices; 138 Lazo, Lucita. 2008. A gender perspective in labour market governance. ILO Asia-Pacific Working Paper Series. Subregional Office for South-East Asia and the Pacific 52 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : and, gender differences in participation in labour market governance which refers to the availability of social space for women to have a voice in policy making on the management of the labour market139. The need to enact and amend certain laws and/or legal provisions to address discriminatory acts to women in labor and employment is now very much needed. The failure of existing legislation140 to recognize real differences between sectors and groups, which fall short to international standard of “equal pay for work of equal value”, should be resolved. Women who are concentrated in industrial sectors suffering low daily wage are by this reason, further disadvantaged compared to their male counterparts (Celis, Magsombol and Sobritchea 2012; page 92). The 2012 GLMS notes that decent wage cannot be achieved through mere standardization of salaries or straightforward merit promotion plans as what is the current platform in the Philippines. Salary standardization lacks the competency or adequacy to determine decent wage highlighting the need to draft a more comprehensive job evaluation scheme that cuts across industries and sectors. Furthermore, the Salary Standardization Law, establishing Minimum Wages, and the Wage Rationalization Act (RA 6727) need to be reviewed so that the work of women is appropriately analyzed and evaluation methods that are objective and free from gender bias are applied. Also, according to the 2012 GLMS, current increasing trend of casual labor is seriously disadvantaging women. Data shows an increase in the share of casual workers, and a decline in the share of permanent workers, indicating a decline in work security and a reduction in wages. This is a growing trend in the Philippines which needs to be further examined because it seriously exploits women’s labour, especially young women. This could be partially addressed through legislation. The 2012 GLMS also recommends addressing the issues of workers in the informal economy. While proper laws and mechanisms are being put into place to transition workers from the informal to formal employment, workers in the informal economy should not be deemed as outside of the protection of labor laws. The right to labor should be recognized in workers engaged even in unregistered businesses and will entail policy change to ensure their right to social protection in terms of coverage in basic social services (SSS, Pag-ibig Fund, Philhealth), right to training and development, the right to file complaints against abuses and recognizing and acknowledging the contributions and potential for growth is essential to boost productivity as well as confidence of workers in the informal economy. 53. Reducing vulnerabilities of women OFWs. The need to review the government’s stand and DOLE’s policy track regarding the deployment of OFWs in vulnerable employment and in countries with high violations of women’s rights has been a persistent call made by GEWE advocates and labour migration watch groups. Overseas migration is a gendered phenomenon in the Philippines. Jobs available to women OFWs in the global market are high in care work, particularly domestic work where they are often vulnerable to abuses. The capacity of OWWA to implement gender responsive return and reintegration programmes for returning women and men workers need to be addressed immediately. 54. Gender responsive tax reforms. The Philippines may benefit in reducing income taxes on women and increase, by less, income taxes on men in a way that holds total tax revenue constant. The 139 Ibid. 140 Article 135 (a) of the Labor Code and Republic Act 6758, as discussed in Part IV of this report. 53 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : debate in the EU, where this policy has been proposed, argues that this policy would simultaneously reduce overall tax distortions and increase women’s participation in the labour force, thus achieving the goals of quotas and affirmative action but in a more efficient way. While quotas impose quantitative constraints that prevent agents from equalizing costs and benefits at the margin, gender-based taxation changes relative prices but let agents free to optimize at the margin (Alesina, Ichino, & Karabarbounis, 2007). Agency Data and evidence will show that women representation is in place at the national and local levels. There is marked increase in the number of elected women, particularly at the Mayoralty posts and in the House of Representatives. Women’s party list continues to hold seat in congress. Women in the civil service almost equal in number with the men and hold decision making positions. However, despite the promising gains for women representation and participation, VAWC is still a persistent issue all over the country and manifest across economic classes, poor and rich women are victimized, young and old. VAWC silences women, drowning their voices. This appears to be a major barrier for women and girls to participate in governance at the local level and make intelligent choices for their own development and that of their children. 55. Intensify measures to prevent child labor and protect the rights of the girl child. Many girls drop out of school because of housekeeping responsibility.141 There is a great need to intensify efforts to prevent girl children from child labor through the urgent implementation of the Kasambahay Law , and the International Labor Convention 189, on Domestic Work. 56. Intensify measures to stop VAWC and GBV. Current efforts on VAWC, though laudable, do not yet impact at the community and household levels.142 Empowering women and girls is an important success indicator in preventing VAWC. Also, current studies143 point to the effectiveness of programmes addressing men and boys and masculinities which is not yet a standard practice in the Philippines. 57. Intensify measures to stop violence against children in school. Out of 10,000 child abuse cases reported by the DSWD in the years between 1998 and 2004, 500-800 cases are committed by teachers, janitors, bus drivers, and school personnel. Children also experience violence committed by students, such as bullying, or as participants of gang-related fighting (UNICEF, Plan International, WAGI, 2012). The baseline study on violence against children in public schools conducted by UNICEF with Plan International and the Council for the Welfare of Children in 2009, acknowledges the need to probe on the extent of violence against LGBT children and cited as a recommendation to “look into gender-based discrimination in schools, particularly as it related to actual or perceived sexual orientation of a child” as an important area of study (UNICEF, Plan International, WAGI, 2012). 58. Increase women’s political participation. A study conducted 2008-2009 by Paz y Desarrollo (PyD), in partnership with Enjambra144 and supported by AECID on women’s political participation in seven selected countries in Asia including the Philippines surfaced several issues that deter women from participating in politics. Barriers point to limited access to resources, particularly social and political 141 Ibid. 142 For further validation. 143 Partners for Prevention (UNDP, UN WOMEN, WHO) 144 Enjambra contra la explotación sexual 54 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : networks. Absence and lack of capital and financial resources precludes women to run for public office. Structures and systems of political parties are male-oriented and, as such, are not necessarily responsive to the needs and situations of women. Women, also, have limited access in decision- making within these structures. The study also identified political dynasties, corruption, and violence as the backdrops of the political environment that deter women from participating in and carrying out political work (Enjambra contra la explotacion sexual and Paz y Desarrollo, 2009). The need to impose affirmative action and temporary measures to ensure more women participation in politics can be carried by imposing quotas in the fielding party list representatives. Women quota can also be imposed in the election/appointment of officials of political parties and in the nomination of local and national party candidates. 55 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : Annex 1: Philippines Human Development Goals Philippines Human Development Goals Probability Goals/Targets/Indicators Baseline Target Latest * GOAL 1. ERADICATE EXTREME POVERTY AND HUNGER target 1.A Halve, between 1990s and 2015, the proportion of people whose income is less than one dollar a day indicator 1.1A Proportion of population below 33.1 16.6 26.5 Medium national poverty threshold ** 1991 2015 2009 indicator 1.2 Poverty gap ratio ** 8.6 4.3 2.7 High 1991 2015 2009 indicator 1.3 Share of poorest quintile in national 6.2 increasing 6.2 consumption 1991 2009 target 1.B Achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all, including women and young people indicator 1.4 Growth rate of GDP per person 1.6 increasing 0.5 employed 1990 2011 indicator 1.5 Employment-to-population ratio 59 increasing 60.1 1990 2011 indicator 1.6 Proportion of employed population 20.5 decreasing 22.4 living below the national poverty 2003 2009 threshold indicator 1.7 Proportion of own-account and 51.3 decreasing 41.2 contributing family workers in total 1990 2011 employment indicator 1.7a Proportion of own-account (self- 35.6 decreasing 29.6 employed) workers in total 1990 2011 employment indicator 1.7b Proportion of contributing (unpaid) 15.7 decreasing 11.6 family workers in total employment 1990 2011 target 1.C Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from hunger indicator 1.8 Prevalence of underweight children 26.5 13.6 20.2 Medium under 5 years of age using Child 1992 2015 2011 Growth Standards (CGS) indicator 1.9 Percent of household with per capita 74.2 37.1 66.9 Low energy less than 100% adequacy 1993 2015 2008 indicator 1.9a Proportion of population with mean 73.3 one-day energy intake less than 100% 2008 adequacy indicator 1.9b Proportion of population below 16.5 8.25 10.8 High national subsistence (food) threshold 1991 2015 2009 ** GOAL 2. ACHIEVE UNIVERSAL PRIMARY EDUCATION target 2.A Ensure that, by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling 56 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : indicator 2.1 Net enrolment ratio in primary 84.6 100 89.9 Low education 1990 2015 2010 indicator 2.2 Proportion of pupils starting grade 1 69.7 100 74.2 Low who reach grade 6 (Cohort Survival 1990 2015 2010 Rate) indicator 2.2a Primary completion rate 64.2 100 73.1 Low 1990 2015 2010 indicator 2.3 Literacy rate of 15 to 24 years old 96.6 100 97.8 Low 1990 2015 2008 indicator 2.3a Ratio of literate females to males of 1 1 1 High 15-24 year-old 1990 2015 2008 GOAL 3. PROMOTE GENDER EQUALITY AND EMPOWER WOMEN target 3.A Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education preferably by 2005 and to all levels of education no later than 2015 indicator 3.1a Ratio of girls to boys in primary 1 1 1 High education 1996 2015 2010 indicator 3.1a.1 Ratio of girls to boys in elementary 1 1 1 High participation rates 1996 2015 2010 indicator 3.1b Ratio of girls to boys in secondary 1.1 1 1.1 Medium education 1996 2015 2010 indicator 3.1b.1 Ratio of girls to boys in secondary 1.2 1 1.2 Low participation rates 1996 2015 2010 indicator 3.1c Ratio of girls to boys in tertiary 1.3 1 1.2 Low education 1993 2015 2010 indicator 3.2 Share of women in wage employment 40.1 50 41.9 High in the non-agricultural sector 1990 2015 2009 indicator 3.3 Proportion of seats held by women in 11.3 50 21.4 Low national parliament 1992 2015 2010 GOAL 4. REDUCE CHILD MORTALITY target 4.A Reduce by two-thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the under-five mortality rate indicator 4.1 Under-five mortality rate 80 26.7 33.5 High 1990 2015 2008 indicator 4.2 Infant mortality rate 57 19 24.9 High 1990 2015 2008 indicator 4.3 Proportion of 1 year-old children 77.9 100 90.6 Medium immunized against measles 1990 2015 2009 GOAL 5. IMPROVE MATERNAL HEALTH target 5.A Reduce by three-quarters, between 1990 and 2015, the maternal mortality ratio indicator 5.1 Maternal mortality 121-207 30.3-51.8 95-163 Low (based on 7-12 PMDF*** range) 1990 2015 2010 indicator 5.2 Proportion of births attended by 58.8 100 74.3 Low skilled health personnel 1990 2015 2009 target 5.B Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS indicator 5.3 Contraceptive prevalence rate 40 100 50.7 Low 57 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : 1993 2015 2008 indicator 5.5a Antenatal care coverage (at least one 91.2 increasing 95.8 visit) 1993 2008 indicator 5.5b Antenatal care coverage (at least four 52.1 increasing 77.8 visits) 1993 2008 indicator 5.6 Unmet need for family planning 26.2 decreasing 22.3 1993 2008 GOAL 6. COMBAT HIV/AIDS, MALARIA AND OTHER DISEASES target 6.C Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the incidence of malaria and other major diseases indicator 6.6a Prevalence associated with malaria 118.7 0 13.3 High 1990 2015 2008 indicator 6.6b Death rate associated with malaria 1.4 0 0.2 High 1990 2015 2006 indicator 6.8a Prevalence associated with 246 0 273.1 Low tuberculosis 1990 2015 2008 indicator 6.8b Death rate associated with 39.1 0 29.7 Low tuberculosis 1990 2015 2006 indicator 6.9a Proportion of tuberculosis cases 53 70 72 High detected under directly observed 2001 2015 2008 treatment short course (DOTS) indicator 6.9b Proportion of tuberculosis cases 73 85 79 High cured under directly observed 2001 2015 2008 treatment short course (DOTS) GOAL 7. ENSURE ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY target 7.A Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies & programmes to reverse the loss of environmental resources indicator 7.1 Proportion of land area covered by 20.5 increasing 23.9 forest 1990 2003 indicator 7.2 Consumption of ozone-depleting CFCs 2981 decreasing 236 (ODP tons) 1990 2009 indicator 7.B Reduce biodiversity loss, achieving, by 2010. a significant reduction in the rate of loss indicator 7.5a Ratio of area protected to maintain 8.5 increasing 13.5 biological diversity to surface area 1990 2010 indicator 7.6a Number of species threatened with 183 decreasing 209 extinction 1992 2011 target 7.C Halve, by 2015, the proportion of population without sustainable access to safe drinking water and improved sanitation indicator 7.7 Proportion of families with access to 73 86.5 84.8 High safe water supply 1990 2015 2010 indicator 7.8 Proportion of families with sanitary 67.6 83.8 92.5 High toilet facility 1990 2015 2010 target 7.D By 2020, have achieved significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers indicator 7.9 Proportion of families with access to 91 increasing 90.8 58 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : secure tenure 1990 2010 GOAL 8. DEVELOP A GLOBAL PARTNERSHIP FOR DEVELOPMENT target 8.D Deal comprehensively with the debt problems of developing countries thru national & international measures in order to make debt sustainable in the long term indicator 8.12 Debt service as a percentage of 27.2 decreasing 11.2 exports of goods and services 1990 2010 target 8.F In cooperation with the private sector, make available the benefits of new technologies, especially information and communications indicator 8.14 Telephone lines subscribers per 100 1.5 increasing 3.7 population 1990 2011 indicator 8.15 Cellular phone subscribers per 100 0.1 increasing 95.2 population 1991 2011 Probability of Achieving the Goal:  Low ; Pace of Progress is less than 0.5  Medium ; Pace of Progress between 0.5 and 0.9  High ; Pace of Progress is greater than 0.9 Source: MDG Watch, NSCB as of 12 September 2012 59 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : Annex 2: Laws and Policies on Gender Equality and Women Empowerment in the Philippines Laws and Policies on Gender Equality and Women Empowerment in the Philippines Index Number Title Year Enacted Significance and Relevant Provisions into Law RA 7192 The Women in Development and Nation Building Act 2002 RA 9710 Magna Carta of Women 2009 Act to Recognize, Protect, Promote the Rights of Indigenous Communities - RA 8371 1997 Section 26. Provisions on the rights of indigenous women Endowments RA 7875 National Health Insurance Act of 1995 1995 RA 7883 Barangay Health Workers’ Benefits and Incentives Act of 1995 1995 Act prohibiting demand of deposits or advance payments for the confinement RA 8344 1997 or treatment of patients in hospitals and medical clinics RA 8508 Health Research and Development Act of 1998 1998 RA 8508 Philippine Aids Prevention and Control Act of 1998 1998 Philippine AIDS Prevention and Control Act of 1998 addressing the conditions RA 8504 that aggravate AIDs and HIV infection such as poverty, gender inequality, 1998 prostitution, marginalization, drug abuse and ignorance RA 10354 Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012 2012 RA 9994 Expanded Senior Citizens Act of 2010 2010 RA 8972 Solo Parents Welfare Act of 2000 2000 Expanding Economic Opportunities An Act Strengthening the Prohibition on Discrimination Against Women with RA 6725 Respect to Terms and Conditions of Employment Amending for the Purpose 1989 Art. 135 of the Labor Code, as Amended An Act Providing Assistance to Women Engaging in Micro and Cottage Business RA 7882 1995 Enterprises and for other Purposes RA 8042 Migrant Workers and OFW Act 1995 RA 8289 Magna Carta of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises 1997 RA 8291 GSTs Act of 1997 1997 Social Reform and Poverty Alleviation Act – identifies women as basic RA 8425 sector/disadvantaged sector which this act addresses. Also led to creation of 1997 the National Anti-Poverty Commission and microfinance facilities for the poor. An Act Amending Republic Act No. 8042 otherwise known as the Migrant Workers and Overseas Filipinos Act of 1995, As Amended, Further Improving RA 10022 2009 the Standard of Protection and Promoting of the Welfare of Migrant Workers, Their Families and Overseas Filipinos in Distress and for other Purpose RA 10151 An Act Allowing the Employment of Night Workers 2011 RA 10361 An Act Instituting Policies for the Protection and Welfare of Domestic Workers 2012 Agency Local Government Code – Women Representation in Local Development RA 7160 1991 Councils and Local Special Bodies RA 7941 Party-List System Act of 1995 1995 RA 8187 Paternity Leave Act 1996 RA 8425 Social Reform and Poverty Alleviation Act 1997 RA 8552 Domestic Adoption Act of 1998 1998 Providing for the Repatriation of Filipino Women who have lost their Philippine RA 8171 ???? citizenship by marriage to aliens or who are natural born 60 | C G A 2 0 1 2 P h i l i p p i n e s : RA 8369 Family Courts Act RA 8508 Rape Victim Assistance and Protection Act of 1998 1998 An Act Declaring November Twenty-Five Of Every Year As “National RA 10398 Consciousness Day For The Elimination Of Violence Against Women And ???? Children" Anti-sexual Harassment Act of 1995 RA 7877 1995 Resolution No. 94-2854: Policy on SH in the Workplace RA 8353 Anti-rape Law of 1997 1997 RA 9208 Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act of 2003 2003 RA 9262 Anti-Violence Against Women and Their Children Act 2004 Special Protection of Children Against Child Abuse, Exploitation and RA 7610 Discrimination Act RA 8044 Youth in National Building Act 1995 Prohibiting the Employment of Children Below 15 Years of Age in Public and RA 7658 Private Undertakings RA 6972 Barangay-Level Total Development and Protection of Children Act 1990 RA 7600 Rooming-In and Breastfeeding Act of 1992 1992 RA 8296 The National Children’s Broadcasting Day 1997 Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labor and Affording Stronger RA 9231 Protection for the Working Child RA 1997 Children’s Television Act of 1997 1997 RA 8980 The Early Childhood Care and Development Act 2000 Youth in Nation Building Act - that creates the National Youth Commission RA 8044 tasked with, among others, integrating the concerns of the girl-child/young 1995 women (ages 15-30 years old) in the Medium Term Youth Development Plan PNP Reform and Reorganization Act of 1998 - creation of women’s and children’s desks in all police stations - formulation of a GST program - equal opportunities for women in the PNP RA 8551 1998 - prevents sexual harassment in the workplace - prohibits discrimination on the basis of gender and sexual orientation - requires 10% quota of the PNP’s annual recruitment, training and education for women. 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