MONITOR 2004 THAILAND ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 The draft of this Thailand Environment Monitor 2004 was prepared by the Centre for Conservation Biology at Mahidol University,Bangkok,whoalsomadetheirowncontributionstotheprocess.ThatworkwasledbySompoadSrikosamatara, with Warren Y. Brockelman, Anak Pattanavibool, John Milne and Phillip Round. Information was provided to the Mahidol team by a number of individuals: Somsak Panha (Chulalongkorn University), Theerapat Prayurasiddhi (Min- istry of Natural Resources and Environment), Porntip Pancharean (Department of Environment Quality Promotion), Suraphol Duangkae (Wildlife Fund Thailand - WFT) and Oy Kanjanavanit (Green World Foundation), and a number of graduate students helped to fill in information gaps, especially Chutamas Sukhontapatipak, Nattha Wattanaratchakit, Nopphadol Prayong and Aung Pyeh Khant. The drafting has been complemented by a World Bank team comprising Valerie Hickey, Patchamuthu Illangovan, Sirinun Maitrawattana, Tanyathon Phetmanee, Nat Pinnoi, and Tony Whitten, assisted by peer reviewers Susan Shen, Asmeen Khan, and Maria Isabel Braga. Magda Lovei, Dan Biller, Julien Labonne, and Andrew Murray also provided detailed comments. The team received guidance from Maria Teresa Serra, Sector DirectorofEnvironmentandSocialDevelopment,andIanC.Porter,CountryDirector-Thailand.TonyWhittenmanaged the production of this Monitor. The government counterparts were the National Park, Wildlife and Plant Conservation Department and the Department of Marine and Coastal Resources, under the enthusiastic leadership of the respective Directors General, Somchai Pienstaporn and Maitree Duangsawasdi. A Consultation on an earlier draft of this document was held in Bangkok on October 18, 2004 and was attended by staff from a wide range of agencies who have helped to enrich this Monitor. Those agencies were the Department of Marine and Coastal Resources, Department of Fisheries, Royal Forest Department, Office of Natural Resources and Environmen- tal Policy and Planning, Department of Livestock Development, Bird Conservation Society of Thailand, Green World Foundation, Wild Animal Rescue Foundation of Thailand, Seub Nakhasathien Foundation, Wildlife Conservation Soci- ety, Western Forest Conservation Club, Wildlife Fund Thailand, World Conservation Union (IUCN), United Nations Environment Program, Japan Bank for International Cooperation, US­Asia Environmental Partnership, Thailand Envi- ronment Institute, Kasetsart University, and Mahidol University. Information for the CD-ROM was provided by the National Park, Wildlife and Plant Conservation Department, Depart- ment of Marine and Coastal Resources, Phuket Marine Biological Center, Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning, Royal Forest Department, Department of Environmental Quality Promotion, Japan Bank for Inter- national Cooperation (JBIC), Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), The World Conservation Union (IUCN), Wildlife Fund Thailand (WFT), Bird Conservation Society of Thailand, and Biodiversity Research and Training Program (BRT). Sorachai Nanthawatcharawiboon and Yok Dechamorn were responsible for the design and layout. ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ This volume is a product of the staff of the World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paperdonotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsoftheExecutiveDirectorsofTheWorldBankorthegovernmentstheyrepresent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denomina- tions, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgement on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION MONITOR 2004 Thailand has been endowed with rich and diverse biodiversity in its seas, coasts, rivers, swamps, caves, forests, hills and mountains. From large wildlife such as elephants to tiny bats, giant forest trees to exquisite orchids, and from the relatives of domestic chickens to traditional rice varieties, the variety of life has sustained the Thai people in their daily lives. Thailand's economic development has been rapid but not without ecological costs, as was shown by the failure of many of the coastal areas cleared of mangrove forests to establish shrimp ponds, and the major loss of forest cover leading to a ban on logging in natural forests in 1989. Thailand, as a party to the Convention on Biological Diversity, has implemented many measures to protect biodiversity and has allocated government budgets to the tasks of biodiversity conservation, awareness raising and research. In addition, Thailand has taken upon itself a regional leadership role in biodiversity research and commitment to control illegal trade in wildlife. At the recent Conference of the Parties to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES COP13) held in Bangkok, Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra proposed Thailand to be a coordinator for a regional network to combat wildlife trafficking. By the end of the meeting this had become an official ASEAN-wide declaration of intent to suppress the trafficking, with Thailand taking the lead in implementing it and training of the ASEAN partners. The Thailand Environment Monitor Series seeks to present a snapshot of key environmental trends in the country. It seeks to engage and inform stakeholders of environmental conditions and changes, in an easy-to-understand format, and to provide benchmarked indicators for the subject they cover. Previous volumes have covered broad environment issues (2000), water quality (2001), air quality (2002), and solid and hazardous wastes (2003). The Thailand Environment Monitor 2004 assesses the status, trends, lessons and challenges related to biodiversity and its conservation. The report is in six sections. Section 1 provides an overview of Thailand's biodiversity and why its conservation is a national concern. Section 2 looks at the biodiversity in the four major ecosystems of the country, especially at the threatened species, while Section 3 describes the ways in which conservation is both planned and executed. Section 4 focuses on awareness and interest in biodiversity conservation. Section 5 assesses biodiversity in the context of the legal framework, institutions, and current expenditures. Finally, Section 6 outlines the challenges faced by Thailand. Information for this Monitor has been compiled from a variety of sources including published and unpublished data and reports by government agencies, universities, non-governmental organizations, individuals, the World Bank, and inter- national partners. H.E. Suwit Khunkitti Ian C. Porter Minister Country Director Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment East Asia and Pacific Region World Bank THAILAND ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 BRT Biodiversity Research and Training Program CBD Convention on Biodiversity DANCED Danish Co-operation for Environment and Development DANIDA Danish International Development Assistance DEQP Department of Environmental Quality Promotion DMCR Department of Marine and Coastal Resources DNP National Park, Wildlife and Plant Conservation Department DOF Department of Fisheries EC European Community GDP Gross Domestic Product GIS Geographic Information System GWF Green World Foundation IBA Important Bird Area ICDPs Integrated Conservation and Development Project JBIC Japan Bank for International Cooperation JoMPAs Joint Management of protected area MoE Ministry of Education MoNRE Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment MP Marine Park NBSAP National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan NGO Non-Governmental Organization NSO National Statistical Office NTFPs Non-timber Forest Products NP National Park ONEP Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning PA Protected area PTT Petroleum Authority of Thailand RTG Royal Thai Government TAT Tourist Authority of Thailand TBC Thailand Biodiversity Center TEI Thailand Environment Institute THB Thai Baht UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization WEFCOM Western Forest Complex Ecosystem Management Project WFT Wildlife Fund Thailand WS Wildlife Sanctuary WWF World Wide Fund for Nature BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION MONITOR 2004 Thailand's natural endowment of biodiversity - the variety in genes, species, and ecosystems - is both rich and naturally abundant. The country stretches nearly 2000 km from north to south and boasts forested mountains, very wet and very dry climates (and great variety in-between), various types of wetlands, a complex coastline with crystal clear waters around teeming coral reefs, and turbid waters lapping productive mudflats. The biodiversity of Thailand has significant economic value. While the direct values through agriculture, fisheries and forestry are obvious, the indirect values of biodiversity to climate regulation, water quality and quantity, erosion control, sediment retention, soil formation, and nutrient cycling have yet to be fully appreciated or integrated into development planning. Thailand's biodiversity also has value for future generations. Many see the conservation of biodiversity as a responsibility which moves into the realm of spirituality and ethics. In Thai Buddhist culture conservation is increasingly an active and practical response to fundamental teachings. Despite all the good reasons to conserve biodiversity, biodiversity in Thailand is subject to attrition and loss, and its contributions to the well-being of Thai people at various scales are deteriorating. After decades of heavy exploitation and loss, Thailand's area of natural forests is now quite stable. After a logging ban was imposed in 1989, the Thai timber industry has become reliant on imports, and extensive tree plantations have been established. Even though these are the merest shadow of the original forests in terms of biodiversity, careful planning and management can help plantation forests contribute to biodiversity conservation through their use as corridors between fragmented forest areas, or as areas of extended tree cover around nationals parks and other pro- tected areas. Limestone hills are slowly being recognized as having more value than just their rocks that supply the cement and construction industries. They are places with high endemism and unique assemblages of highly-adapted plants and animals. They also offer interesting and unique landscapes with both historic and aesthetic values for recreation and tourism. Initiatives by local people have already started to capitalize on the hills' broader assets and have thereby helped to conserve them. Large areas of wetlands have been converted to rice fields and urban sprawl and suffer from pollution and other problems. Thai people have long known how to make intensive use of wetlands which provide food, fiber, water for drinking and bathing, and transportation routes. However, water quality is declining because of pollution, fish stocks are over-harvested, and invasive alien species of plants and animals have contributed to declines in local biodiversity. Pollutioncontrolprogramsnowaimtorestorethephysicalandchemicalqualityofthewater,whichcanhelpbiodiversity recover. Local people and NGOs in some areas manage water and fish resources, but they have limited power and authority to control the broader uses. Thailand's abundant and diverse marine biodiversity has suffered from destructive fishing gears in the open sea and coastal areas. Conversion of coastal mangrove forests into intensive shrimp farms creates conflicts of interest among small-scale fishermen and between fishermen and shrimp farmers. Marine Parks have also led to conflicts with fishermen. The value and purpose of marine parks in conserving marine biodiversity must be clarified so that the practical benefits are understood. A substantial number of Thai plants and animals are now threatened, but some successful site-specific pilot studies have been made to manage wildlife in an integrated manner. Lessons need to be learned from these because few species show any signs of recovery under current protection regimes, and most are steadily declining. THAILAND ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 In the aftermath of the economic crisis in 1997, national parks are recognized as assets that generate tourism income. Entrance fees to parks have been greatly increased, nonetheless some of the parks now experience problems caused by too many visitors. Even so, national parks are expected to play a greater role in the economy, especially as the tourism industry is a major income generator for the nation. New projects are bringing fresh ideas and providing more manage- ment options that create conservation incentives for the local people. The long history of biodiversity decline has stimulated efforts for biodiversity conservation. The Thai nation is increasingly aware of biodiversity issues thanks to the press, far-sighted government officials, NGOs, and provincial leaders. Universities are training more and more people in biodiversity-related subjects. Financial support is also being provided through programs such as the Biodiversity Research and Training Program, and by international NGOs, the Royal Family, the Danish government, and even local industries. However, the most critical support will be that from the general public, especially people living around protected areas, and efforts in those directions need to continue. While this Monitor indicates that there is a great deal of positive news, significant challenges remain before conser- vation and sustainable use of Thailand's biodiversity can be achieved. Those major challenges are: · To integrate biodiversity conservation into economic planning and into production landscapes. There is potential in the agriculture, forestry, tourism sectors to do much more to conserve biodiversity. For example, planning pro- cesses should account for larger areas and incorporate multiple land uses, and the potential for natural ecosystems to restore themselves if given time should be realized. · To improve protected area management. Lessons learned from projects initiated by NGOs at individual sites should be incorporated into government policies and into new legislation giving authorities new mandates for participatory and decentralized management. Incentives for local people to participate fully and willingly in con- servation management also need to be explored in the Thai context. · Toimproveenforcementofexistingbiodiversity-relatedregulations. Betterenforcementisneededtoreducepoach- ing in protected areas, local and international trade in wildlife products, especially across the long and rather porous border with Myanmar. In order to address these issues there is a need for education of local people, improved detective and legal work, international monitoring, and the enforcement of treaties. · To improve research and monitoring on biodiversity. Thailand has developed an impressive and regionally- significant research capacity, but research tends to be carried out in a fragmented and uncoordinated manner. There is a great need to make some research more policy-oriented and applied, and to encourage agencies to adopt recommendations. · To make plans for the medium- and long-term financing of biodiversity conservation. Although the government has provided significant amounts of finance for biodiversity conservation, and has had some generous support from bilateral donors, it does not yet have a medium- or long-term plan for sustainable financing. In the context of sustained government support and strategic use of donor or private sector financing, a new challenge is to plan how it should access and apply different sources of funds for biodiversity conservation. · To harness markets and the private sector in biodiversity conservation and sustainable use. There is potential to exploit certain elements of biodiversity in a sustainable manner provided that the following safeguards are put in place: target populations are strong enough to sustain any commercial use; effective regulations and enforcement mechanisms exist to curb unsustainable exploitation; and perverse incentives that promote biodiversity degrada- tion, and regulations that prevent the private sector and local communities from profiting from the sustainable use of biodiversity, are eliminated. By effectively harnessing markets and private sector involvement, public resources could then be more efficiently allocated to supportive regulatory functions, and to certain biodiversity goods and services that markets alone are unlikely to supply. BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION MONITOR 2004 Agenda Indicators Period Covered Land Resources Cultivated land area (percent of total land area) 37 2001 Forest Resources Natural forest area (as percent or total land area) 23 2002 Rate of forest loss (hectares per year) 192,425 1982-2002 Rate regrowth (hectares per year) 55,454 1991-2002 Coastal and Marine Seagrass meadow area (hectares) 10,400 2003 Resources Coral reefs (good quality reefs as percentage of total reef area) 11 2000 Protected areas National terrestrial PAs (percent of total land area) 18 2003 Total area within marine parks (km2) 6,231 2004 Annual government budget allocated to PAs ($ million) 48.56 2004 Number of corridors of tree cover designated or planted 0 2004 between pairs of PAs Institutional Capacity Full government staff allocated to protected area management 15,362 2002 (Staffing) Average full government staff per km2 of terrestrial national 0.17 2002 protected area Average full government staff per km2 of marine national 0.11 2004 protected area Budget allocation National level allocation for biodiversity (percent of total 1.5 2004 public expenditure) Environmental Education Number of students enrolled for undergraduate environ- 72,770 2001 mental studies Biodiversity papers with Thai lead author published in 256 1996-2004 English-language peer-reviewed journals THAILAND ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION MONITOR 2004 THAILAND ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION MONITOR 2004 Thailand has abundant biodiversity ... Table 1. Total number of species recorded in Thailand Thailand's natural endowment of biodiversity - the vari- Taxonomic Group Number of species ety in genes, species, and ecosystems - is both rich and Flowering plants 15,000 (estimate) naturally abundant. The country stretches nearly 2000 Mammals 292 kmfromnorthtosouthandincludesforestedmountains, Birds 938 a varied geology, very wet and very dry climates (and Reptiles 318 great variety in between), a complex coastline with crys- Amphibians 122 tal clear waters around coral reefs, and turbid waters lap- Marine fishes 2,000 ping mudflats. The biodiversity of Thailand has substan- Freshwater fishes 606 tial economic values, although they have yet to be fully Estuarine/seawater fishes 1,672 appreciated or integrated into development planning. Marine mollusks 2,000 Marine invertebrates 11,900 There are six main ecological zones ... North: a mountainous region with rivers which drain Source: ONEP 2002b towards the Chao Phraya River which flows through the lowland plains. Large areas lie above 1,000 m, but the zone ranges from 200 m up to 2,565 m on Doi Inthanon, Thailand's highest mountain. Deciduous forests1 were once prevalent at lower altitudes (but exist now only as remnants) and evergreen broad-leafed forests are found at higher elevations, often with native pine trees. West:a hilly area mainly North-South along the Burmese border. It is mainly hot and dry, and has some of the most pristine forests, mainly of mixed deciduous trees. Northeast: a dry, low plateau with very sporadic rainfall, which drains towards the Mekong. The western and southern sides of the plateau are bordered by mountains. Dry forest on the limestone hills of Mae Hong Son Province, The natural forests of open, dry dipterocarp deciduous Northern Thailand (Photo by S. Srikosamatara) woodlands are very susceptible to fire and have been al- most entirely lost to agriculture. Southeast:a lowland area with Cambodia to the East and the Gulf of Thailand to the South and West. This is one of the wetter parts of Thailand and evergreen forests but much has been lost. Central Plains: the alluvial basin of the Chao Phraya, Maeklong and Tachin. This region has been almost en- tirely deforested, with the swamplands converted to rice paddy and urban areas; the only remnant forests grow on the isolated limestone hills. Evergreen forest in Khao Luang NP, southern Thailand (Photo 1 Forests in which many of the tree species lose all their leaves at by S. Sansuk) certain seasons THAILAND ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 Peninsular Thailand: an area sharing many characteris- Figure 1. Thailand's Important Bird Areas (IBAs) tics with Malaysia to the south. Wet, largely aseasonal climate, with rainforests still present on the hill slopes. Mangrove forests, sea grass beds and mudflats are well developed in this zone. With a great diversity of native species ... The total number of species found in Thailand in each major taxonomic group is shown in Table 1. Thailand is not rich in endemic species (those found only in Thai- land) because it shares many ecosystems with its neigh- boring countries, yet, there are 12 freshwater fish species thoughttobeendemictoThailand,and120specieswhich are endemic to mainland southeast Asia. Important sites for biodiversity identified ... The largest conservation NGOs have tried to identify ar- eas of special interest for biodiverity; these include the `hotspots' of Conservation International, and the `ecoregions' of WWF. The most detailed program is the Important Bird Areas Important Bird eas Important Bird Areas program of BirdLife International, 80 0 80 160 Kilometer which has been undertaken by their national partner or- ganizations (Bird Conservation Society of Thailand). The selection of Important Bird Areas (IBAs) has been a par- ticularly effective way of identifying conservation priori- ties. IBAs are key sites for conservation, small enough to be conserved in their entirety and often already part of a protected-areanetwork.Sixty-twoIBAs(Fig.1)wereiden- tified,covering9percentofThailand.Whileitisacknowl- edged that IBAs generally reflect important conservation areas other animals as well, they do not represent all spe- Source: Bird Conservation Society of Thailand 2004 cies, as there are many groups of animals and plants whose distributions are quite different. Invasive alien species cause problems ... Thailand has a multitude of non-native animal and plant species that live and breed successfully. In most cases, like many garden plants they do no harm, but some find theenvironmentsoconducivethattheirnumbersexplode. Even so, few penetrate natural, undisturbed ecosystems, and are restricted to rural and rather degraded areas. Nevertheless, they can pose serious problems and are very hard to eradicate. Mexican sunflower at Nam Tok Mae Surin NP (Photo by S. Srikosamatara) BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION MONITOR 2004 Box 1: Cultural icon ­ the Thai elephant Surely few if any countries have such a strong link with one of their wild animals as Thailand has with its elephants. Their images are seen everywhere from business logos, postage stamps, advertisements, temple paintings and statues, tourist carvings, and hotel foyers. Wild elephants can be seen quite easily by flashlight in Khao Yai NP near Bangkok, and both wild and captive elephants can be seen at the extraordinarySurinElephantRoundUpinnorthernThailandeachNovember.Astheforestshaveshrunkoverthelast50years,sotoohave the numbers of wild elephants. There are now only about 1,500 wild elephants with the main concentrations in Khao Yai NP, and Huai Kha Khaeng in the Western Forest Complex. The irony of this is that it was elephants under the command of their human mahouts (typically members of the Suay, Shan, Karen and other northern ethnic groups) which were so effective in dragging the felled trees out of the forests. About 150 years ago there were about 100,000 elephants used as beasts of burden and for human transport. Before the railway was built, the journey to Chiang Mai from Bangkok was made half on water and half on elephant. Since the logging ban in 1989, there are only about 2300 captive elephants, and half of these work in tourism. The most famous of the Thai elephants are the rare `white' (more correctly `auspicious') elephants chang samkhan which to this day protect the reign of the Thai monarchs. The current King Bhumibol Adulyadej keeps eleven such auspicious elephants. Box 2: The world's smallest mammal discovered in Thailand 30 years ago, during a trip to collect bats in the limestone caves of Sai Yok NP in western Thailand, Kitti Thonglongya found a tiny, tailless insectivorous bat species he had never seen before. At barely 2 grams and little bigger than a bumble bee, it is a good contender for the title of the world's smallest mammal (in compe- tition with a shrew) but it is undoubtedly the world's smallest bat.NamedasKitti'shog-nosedbator Craseonycteristhongyongyai, it was found to have no known close relatives and so it was put not only into its own genus, but also into its own family. Kitti's hog-nosed bat (Photo by Suraphol Duangkhae) One alien species that has had a major economic impact In the plant world Thailand has many invasive aliens is the Golden apple or Mulberry snail Pomacea but, as with the Golden snail, very few of them are suc- canaliculatus.2 This large snail was introduced from its cessful in undisturbed natural ecosystems. One that has native South America in the early 1980s to produce 'es- negativeimpactsaroundforestsistheMexicansunflower cargot' (snail meat). However, within a few years it was at Nam Tok Mae Surin NP which makes a spectacular the second most serious rice pest after the brown display when in bloom. Unfortunately the sunflower planthopper. Various chemical and mechanical controls smothers vegetation in forest clearings and hinders re- are available but none, when used alone, is adequate. generation.Ironicallythegoldenflowersdrawmanytour- Integrated pest management offers better potential con- ists to the park to see the spectacle, and proposals to try to trol, such as handpicking of adults and egg clusters; us- bring it under control are not popular. ing stakes to attract snails for egg deposition; and apply- ing commercial molluskicides only as and when neces- sary. 2 ONEP 1997b THAILAND ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 Box 3: Asia's last wild buffalo In some of the remotest parts of the Western Forest Complex, in Thung Yai-Huai Kha Khaeng live the rarest of the four wild cattle species found in Thailand (although the Kouprey is likely to be already extinct). Along the rivers in this large area live about 50 truly wild Water buffalo Bubalus bubalis. Larger, faster and more aggressive than their domestic cousins, these animals are a price- less resource given the importance of the domestic water buffalo to farmers across all of Asia and beyond. They are threatened primarily by interbreeding with domestic stock. A herd of wild water buffalos in Huai Kha Khaeng WS (Photo by T. Prayurasiddhi) Box 4: Rice genetic diversity ­ an invaluable resource Something like 3500 varieties of rice are known from Thailand, indicating the enormous genetic wealth of this important agricultural crop. The advent of large areas planted to modern high yielding varieties (HYVs) since the Green Revolution in the 1970's in Thailand has threatenedthisdiversity.Asfarmersturnedovertheirlandaswellastheirtraditionalcultivationpracticestothesevarietiesthatrequirehigh inputs of fertilizer and pesticides, concern grew that HYVs have a low genetic base from which to fight off diseases and pests. Such seems to be the case with one insect, the rice brown planthopper (or BPH), whose feeding damages rice plants in a manner called `hopper burn' and markedly decreases their productivity. Although long known as a rice field insect, pest outbreaks of this hopper were not recorded on traditional rice varieties in Thailand. As HYVs progressively increased, losses due to BPH increased, with the earliest outbreak being recorded in 1975. Since then, rice breeding efforts have resulted in new rice HYVs that are BPH-resistant. However, this is probably a temporary measure because the insect can change genetically and overcome plant resistance. A new strategy is needed to cope with BPH and other rice pests and diseases. Rather than use genetically homogeneous rice stocks over large areas, the use of mixtures of varieties shows promise as an ecologically-effective approach to disease and pest control. Box 5: The Thai chicken industry and bird `flu Despite being the ancestral home of the domestic chicken, as well as having a large factory population, broiler and layer chickens raised in Thai intensive poultry farms are imported from a few overseas breeding companies. The genetic diversity of these stocks is extremely low, and may have a profound impact on the ability of chicken factory flocks to resist disease. At the end of 2003, the Thai poultry industry made world headlines because of the spread of a `flu virus, called H5N1 which has proven deadly not only to chickens but also to people. The resultant publicity and culling of poultry in Thailand in an effort to control the disease caused the collapse of an industry that has still not fully recovered. Although the origin of the virus cannot be ascertained, it is clear that once it establishes within a domestic population, it can be highly contagious, especially in dense populations such as those in Thai poultry farms. It is perhaps not surprising that a virus disease had such a major impact on the poultry industry. The high genetic diversity present in wild andinvillagechickensisanunderutilizedresourceinThailandandcouldcontributetowardsgeneticdiversificationoftheThaipoultryfarm population, to help ensure that epidemics such as bird `flu do not happen again. BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION MONITOR 2004 People care about biodiversity and its conservation for a Table 2. Value of NTFPs collected over one year by villagers from variety of reasons, one of which being that it has the forest-edge village of Ban Thung Yaw, Lumphun Province, northernThailand. significant economic values. NTFPs Value NTFPs Value (Baht) (Baht) Some values of biodiversity are economic ... Biodiversity has various economic values. For example, Weaver ant 282,300 Opillaceous shrubs 80,020 it has direct use values such as consumption of non-tim- eggs Frogs-toads- 46,340 Earth star mushrooms 164,940 ber forest products and ecotourism. It also has indirect fish use values as in the case of ecosystem services such cli- Snakes 1,000 Other mushrooms 80,000 mate regulation, hydrological functions3, erosion control Edibleflying 4,000 Termitomyces mush- 38,200 and sediment retention, soil formation and nutrient cy- termites rooms Scorpions 20,000 Pu Lo mushrooms 30,877 cling. Moreover, biodiversity has an `insurance' value, Spiders 20,920 Greenishmushrooms 63,170 since it is believed that the more diverse an ecosystem the Centipedes 33,600 Kha Min mushrooms 22,800 more resilient it is to shocks (e.g. natural disasters and Butterflies 43,790 Bamboo shoot 940 human disturbance), which in turn may generate eco- Wasps 11,880 Wild fruits 17,825 Vegetables 34,000 Teak leaves 1,890 nomic losses in the future (see Box 4 and 5 for Thai ex- amples)4. Total Value (Baht) 998,492 Source: Ms Phakee Vanasak in Chaitup 2003 Even the considerable direct use value of biodiversity to rural communities are rarely factored into standard eco- nomic calculations such as the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Such uses include collecting food from natural ecosystems for self consumption, shelter and medicine used extensively by local village communities, even in- formal trading. For example, it has been estimated that villagers obtain ecosystem products equivalent to 1-4 million baht per village (Table 2). With 73,467 villages in the country, that portion of biodiversity value may there- fore contribute as much as 75-300 billion baht per year or 1-5 percent of GDP5. Uses described above may also ben- efit people who are away from the forests, reefs, etc., it is often the relatively poor people living adjacent to them that rely the most on those functions and thus directly NTFPs collection at Ban Tung Yaw, Lamphun Province suffer biodiversity degradation. The value of PAs in terms of ecosystem services and tour- ist revenue can be considerable. For example, it has been estimated that Khao Chamao NP contributes about 1.6 billion baht per year through the contribution of its for- ests and streams, coastal fisheries and mariculture in- cluding shrimp farming6. Many such `hidden' economic 3 These relationships are complex, see Bruijnzeel 2004 4 OECD 2003, Perrings 1995 and OECD 2002 5 Srikosamatara 2004 6 ICEM 2003 THAILAND ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 contributions, although not the sole reason to take con- servation seriously, are worthy of greater attention be- cause they are typically far higher than most people ex- pect. But some values of biodiversity are intangible ... Another reason that people care about biodiversity is because it has some elusive - yet very important - values. Some people see these as being related to the spiritual sphere which in Thailand relates to Buddhism, the faith of about 95 percent of the population. Buddhism pro- foundly influences everyday Thai life; besides sustain- ing monastic communities, Thai temples have tradition- ally served other purposes ­ from being a seat of educa- tion to providing information on health and the environ- ment. In his own lifetime the Buddha came to understand that the notion that people exist as an isolated entity was an illusion. He concluded that all things are interrelated, everything in life arises through causes and conditions. Many Buddhists believe that the reality of the interconnectedness of human beings, society and nature will reveal itself as people cease to be possessed by anxiety and fear. In order to effect this change, people must restore themselves by seeking the kind of lifestyle that is free from the typical destruction of humanness. An innovative Buddhist ceremony for protecting forest (photo by Suraphol Duangkhae) The relationship between Buddhist ideals and biodiversity should be with biodiversity or nature as Teacher of both spiritual force and of lifestyle. Buddha taught that respect for life and the natural world is essential. By living simply one can be in harmony with other creatures and learn to appreciate the interconnectedness of all that lives. This simplicity of life involves developing openness to our environment and relating to the world with awareness and responsive perception. Although monks in many parts of Thailand are becoming increasingly active in forest conservation, the best known are the monks of Doi Suthep-Pui NP near Chiang Mai, where monks of the ancient Wat Pratat temple, have ordained trees by wrapping robes around their trunks to dissuade people from cutting the forest. BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION MONITOR 2004 Box 6: The World Bank engages with Thai Buddhists The World Bank has engaged with Buddhists in Thailand by supporting the Khorat Initiative based in Thailand's largest province, Nakon Ratchasima, which is now spread across four zones encompassing 47 small forest blocks. Sixteen temples now form the core of the community management project, and their compounds and monastic lands are used for education and health centers, tree nurseries, meeting places for forestry and heritage groups and training centers on forest management skills. The conservation message inherent in the Buddhist Dhamma underpins this project and the traditional respect and authority given to the monastery has enabled this initiative to be particularly effective. Amongst many of the activities, are forums on the Buddhist teachings in environmental education. One of these focuses on forest issues and includes members of the Royal Forest Department who increasingly work with monasteries. Activities for the development of community forestry include the training of forest volunteers from local villages who are taught by forester monks or by lay forestry trainers. Advice is given on germination, seedling management, planting, organic fertilizers, irrigation, agro-forestry, and forest and water. THAILAND ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION MONITOR 2004 ThenaturalvegetationofmostofThailandisforestwhich, Figure 2. Decline and stabilization of forest cover over the last 40 under proper management, is able to yield a range of years benefits. Poor management resulted in a ban on logging in 1989 and since then management of all forest types has improved. A variety of forest types ... There are two main types of forest found in Thailand: the deciduous forests found in the drier (<1500 mm of rain), seasonal areas, and the evergreen forests in the wetter (>1500 mm), aseasonal areas. Further subdivision is possible with deciduous forests being found as mixed See text for caveats on interpretation. and dry dipterocarp7 forests. Evergreen forests encom- Sources: Charuppat 1998, Henderson 2003; Alpha Research 2004. pass the rainforests of the south, the monsoonal ever- Forest Area Assessment 2000, Forestry Department. Landsat7 2002, green forests of the south and southeast, dry evergreen UNDP release scale 1:250,000. forests,montaneforestsaboveabout1000m,andthespe- cialized mangrove, peatswamp and limestone forests. With forest cover stabilizing... Since 1989, there has been no legal logging of natural Giving a precise description of forest cover in Thailand forests in Thailand because all the concessions were is fraught with problems. Figure 2 shows the decline and revoked. Wood production declined dramatically, and apparent stabilization of the forest area between 1990 wood consumption, which had increased up to 1994, de- and 2002, but not too much should be made of the pre- clined rapidly because of the economic turndown. Most cise points in the most recent years because of the differ- construction wood is now imported but the environmen- ent definitions, approaches, and maps used. The avail- tal impacts of this outside Thailand are not fully under- able data indicate that cover of closed forest in 2002 was stood. about 23 percent of Thailand's land area of 511,770 km2, whereas in 2000 the forest cover was reported by FAO to During the 1997 economic crisis hundreds of thousands be 29 percent. The official Forest Department figure of 34 of people who lost their city jobs returned to their rural percent in 2000 is not directly comparable because the family homes and in desperation some of these en- map scales used in calculating the figures were different, croached or poached in the Kingdom's natural forests with smaller patches being included. Nevertheless, it is and protected areas.8 likely that the forest area is quite stable at this time be- cause any losses through encroachment in remote areas Regrowing trees does not necessarily help... are more or less balanced by regeneration and regrowth Reforestation areas have been increasing dramatically of disturbed forest areas. The 7th 5-year National Eco- since 1995. The main impetus for this was the reforesta- nomic and Social Development Plan adopted 40 percent tion project which was part of the commemoration of the as the national target for forest cover, and 25 percent as Royal Golden Jubilee of the King's Coronation, under conservation forest. which an ambitious 8,000 km2 of trees were planted. Due totheeconomiccrisis,however,theexpectedrateofrefor- estation slowed. The project has been extended and it is 7 A dominant family of trees 8 World Bank 2000 THAILAND ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 expected that the goal will be met by the end of 2004 (Fig. Figure 3. Growth in reforestation area over the last 15 years. (RGJ 3). The consumption of paper for packaging, newsprint is Royal Golden Jubilee Project, see text). and other media (e.g. books) has increased, which has stimulated the expansion of fast-growing, high-yielding plantation areas to support the pulp and paper industry. Reforestation projects often have unclear aims, but from a biodiversity perspective it is important to assess how increases in the area of forest plantations impact the land- scape, its biodiversity, and the local people. Forest plan- tations that increase the supply of NTFPs9 to rural com- munities will help to alleviate poverty, for example, it is clear from Figure 4 that the incidence of poverty is often highintheremoterareaswhereforestremains,especially in northern Thailand. These benefits will reduce the ulti- mate costs of government projects designed to help the poor. However, it seems that most plantations have lim- ited ecological benefits and are designed almost exclu- sively to supply industrial needs, or to produce goods for Figure 4. Distribution of poverty across Thailand export.Yetbiodiversitybenefitscouldbeincreasedifplan- tations were planned at the landscape level (i.e. consid- ering the wider context and different land uses). For ex- ample, different combinations of trees and under-storey plants(designerforests)couldbedevisedtolinkprotected areas (PAs), extend the forest cover around a small pro- tected areas, or established a relatively biodiverse island of created `forest' in a sea of arable agriculture. The Forest Restoration Research Unit at Chiang Mai University is developing techniques to restore natural forests on de- graded land specifically to enhance biodiversity10, and it is hoped that this and other research will contribute to a richer and more diverse tree cover under future planta- tion investments. Natural regeneration processes should be allowed to re- store areas that have become over-utilized, polluted, or degraded. So long as sources of seeds are close enough, forests (and indeed other natural systems) have great ca- pacitytorestorethemselvesifgiventhechance,andtodo so without heavy investment. As the His Majesty King Bhumipol Adulvadej remarked after visiting a project in Source: UNDP 2002 9 RECOFTC 2001 10 Elliot et al. 1998 BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION MONITOR 2004 Rajburi Province: "That project was begun about seven years ago. I went to see it about two years ago, after the forest had been left on its own for five years. There, nothing has been Oftendisregarded,limestoneecosystems-bothcavesand done, but the forest had regenerated and become a luxuriant hills ­ are in fact important biodiversity hotspots which forest. Not a single new tree had to be planted. That means that are under pressure from small- and large-scale quarry- reforestation can be done mainly by leaving the forest alone; ing for cement, lime and hardcore. Increasingly, people the trees will grow by themselves. In other words, don't disturb from villagers to planners are recognizing their values. the trees; don't ill-treat the trees. Just give them some protec- tion and they will grow by themselves".11 This approach is Small hotspots of biodiversity ... already part of the management rationale behind the Limestone hills occupy less than five percent of WEFCOM landscape and should be pursued in other PA Thailand's land area, and are found in 16 major clusters clusters. across the country. Limestone supports an intriguing flora and fauna which has adapted to demanding habitat conditions. The vegetation has evolved the ability to withstand long periods of drought and an almost complete lack of soil. Plants acquire a tenacious foothold in small crevices where moisture and small quantitiesofnutrientsfromdecomposingleavesareavail- able. As the roots and stems grow so they often sheer off parts of the rock face. Plants thus help carve away at the rock in much the same way that water expanding into ice splits rock in colder climates. Among the many plant species that grow on limestone are primitive cycads, slipper orchids, begonias, and fan palms (at least one of which is endemic to Thai limestone Reforestation program executed by the private sector for the King hills). Thailand's endemic limestone flora also includes (photo by PTT) 34 species of ferns, and 28 species of flowering plants. There are even some species of figs which are able to colonize limestone environments and these provide an abundance of small fruits for numerous species of birds and primates. Among the endemic animals found in or on limestone hills are two rats (Neill's rat Leopoldamys neilli and Lime- stone rat Niviventer hinpoon), and at least seven cave fish. Theseexhibitdifferentdegreesofextreme adaptationto the pitch blackness in the caves such as no eyes, no pig- ment, and long appendages. All but one of these fish species appear to be restricted to a single cave system, and one of those, Cryptotora thamicola, crawls out of the water and over rocks beside waterfalls. But the richest, 11 From an address given to well-wishers on the Royal Birthday Anniversary at Dusit Palace, December 4, 1994 THAILAND ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 most diverse animals with the highest rates of endemism are the snails. For example, the small pupillid snails are easily found living on limestone walls but some unusual species occur in the total darkness of caves. Recently nearly 100 species were reported from a number of Thai caves, and half of them were new to science. Threatened by quarrying ... The Department of Mineral Resources has shown that more than 20 percent of limestone hills in Thailand have being been quarried for cement, lime, and hard core for roads, and some of them have disappeared from the A quarry site in Saraburi Province (Photo by Somsak Panha) landscape. The precise impacts of these activities on biodiversity have not been systematically measured but itseemsasthoughatleastthecriticallyendangeredcycad Cycas tansachana has declined precipitously in numbers and populations at its only known site in Saraburi, and the rarest endemic snail species occurring in lowland limestonehillsincentralThailand,Antroapiculuspendulus and Montapiculus proboscidea have become endangered. Two endemic crown snails found only in southern Thailand (Photo by Somsak Panha). The two crown snails, Macrochamys diadema and M. asamurai, are beautiful in both shell structure and color. These two species are endemic to a few small lime- stone areas in southern Thailand, but they are not yet threat- ened. Box 7: Minimizing impacts of limestone quarrying on biodiversity Experience has shown that sites for limestone quarrying should12: · avoid isolated limestone hills (remote from other limestone hills) since such hills are usually rich in site-endemic species; · be located in the largest limestone areas, and leave a substantial part of it untouched; · be located in limestone deposits that have already been impacted by other use, or by accidents; · be dolomitic limestone and/or limestone with limited natural erosion if possible; · where one large quarry affecting part of a limestone area can replace a number of small quarries throughout the area: · be at the foot of limestone massifs to avoid unnecessary damage. · avoid sites with caves, small voids, underground streams and springs. · be placed to control sedimentation in stream and local drainage systems. 12 Vermeulen and Whitten 1999 BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION MONITOR 2004 Box 8: Values of limestone ecosystems 1. Mineral products: aggregate for concrete construction, cement, marble, filters, animal feed supplement for poultry, lime dressing for acidic soil improvement etc. 2. Natural products: birds' nests, guano, ornamental plants and medicinal plants; 3. Clean water: Source of freshwater for small scaled and medium size agriculture. 4. Scientific: flora and fauna, much of which remains to be investigated; 5. Scenic and tourism: landscapes inspire and promote tourism notably in Krabi, Loei, Doi Chieng Dao at Chieng Mai; 6. Cultural: religious sites and festivals at the caves, and legends associated with particular hills; 7. Historic: paleontological and archeological sites, extending into the historical period in Mae Hong Son areas and 23 sites of cave art, rock art or pictographs throughout Thailand, dated roughly about 5,000 to 3,000 years ago. Box 9: Local communities and the conservation of limestone hills Limestone hills close to Bangkok are under pressure for quarrying. However, in 2002, villagers in Saraburi Province, protected Pra Put Ta Bat Noi limestone hill from being destroyed - a landmark achievement. Four villages with a total of about 1,000 households formed a network to protect 960 ha comprising the hills and its surroundings, using the traditional cooperation between villages, temples, and schools. As a result, endemic flora and fauna have been protected, such as the Limestone Wren-babbler Napothera crispifrons, Serow wild goats, Dragon plant Dracaena loureiri, and a slipper orchid Paphiopedilum sp. The villagers see not only the value of their unique flora and fauna; they also evaluate the benefits they receive from the limestone hill. They obtain food, herbal medicine, and water from the hill; it has been estimated that at least 13.5 million liters of spring water with a value of 54,000 baht per year were provided to 50 households living next to the hill. The local community has decided to protect the hill, and to stop burning, cutting trees and collecting rare plants from the hill. They are also using water from the hill for commercial drinking water, and are promoting local ecotourism. The Limestone wren babbler Napothera crispifrons is confined to limestone hills. This race, calcicola, is confined to Saraburi, Lopburi and a small part of Nakhon Ratchasima Provinces (Photo by Kanit Khanikul) THAILAND ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 Thailand's freshwater ecosystems ­ rivers, swamps and Table 3. Number of different wetlands. ponds - provide livelihoods for millions of its citizens. Wetland System Number The range of their products used by people is remark- Rivers and tributaries 25,008 able, as is the diversity of species that live within them. Lagoons 14,128 However, all but the most resilient of species are under Lakes and flooded plain 1,993 pressure from land use changes and changes to water- Coastal wetlands 1,256 ways. No classification 268 Total 42,653 Thousands of wetlands ... TherearesixmajorriversystemsinThailand:theSalween Source: ONEP 1999 and Maeklong in the west, the small rivers of the south- Table 4. Fish species richness in selected river systems. ern Peninsula, the southeastern rivers, the Chao Phraya of the central plain and north, and the Mekong River. A River system Number of species total of 42,653 wetlands have been counted (Table 3), the Salween 110 majority of which are riverine habitats and tributaries. Southeast Thailand 120 Sixty-onemajorwetlandsareconsideredtobeofinterna- Chao Phraya 250 tional importance, and 208 of national importance. The Mekong (Thai portion) 289 most famous freshwater wetlands are Phru Khuan Khi Sian in Phattalung Province, Bung Khong Lon in Nong Source: Vidthayanon et al. 1997 Khai Province, and Nong Bong Khai in Chaing Rai Prov- ince. With hundreds of fish and other animals ... There are about 606, 63, 50 and 12 species of freshwater fish, crabs, shrimps and turtles known from Thailand, although further surveys would doubtless reveal more. TheMekongharborsoneoftheworld'smostdiverseand rich fish faunas with about 570 species known (see also Table 4). Loss of forest cover in the foothills resulting in loss of organic inputs and overly warm water, damaging fishing methods, agricultural chemicals and overfishing have caused the abundance of many fish to decline over the last few decades, with inevitable economic, health and social impacts on the riparian villagers, especially amongthepoorestsegmentsofthecommunitieswhorely on these `free' goods. Wild capture fisheries are very important to people living along larger rivers (Photo by Zeb Hogan) BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION MONITOR 2004 Box 10: The (terminal?) decline of the Mekong giant cat fish population The sight of fishermen at Chiang Khong district, Chiang Rai province, capturing Mekong giant catfish (Pangasianodon gigas) of up to 3 m in length and 300 kg was very popular among Thai people. The total number of these enormous fish captured between 1981-1999 was 450, with a peak of 69 in 199013 - but numbers have declined and there have been none captured since 2001. Spawning adults migrate up the Mekong river each year and arrive in northern Thailand in April or May. Since 2003, their IUCN Red List status has been raised from `endangered' to `critically endangered'14. It has also been listed as an Appendix I (`no trade') species under CITES. Due to their transboundary migratory behavior, their conservation requires international cooperation. In 1994, Wildlife Fund Thailand initiated a project to raise public awareness of the fish's plight among countries where they are found. Representatives from Thailand, Lao PDR and Cambodia got together to find out about what is known about the fish and their conservation needs. The main issue that arose was how very little is known about their natural migratory activities and spawning behaviors. Due to lim- ited technical ability and little interest among various stakehold- ers, very little happened until 2000 when a catch-and-release project was initiated, mainly in Cambodia which is now the last place in the world where the giant catfish is captured on a regular basis15. To maintain the natural breeding pattern, the connectivity between spawning grounds and nursing areas is absolutely vital. In the meantime, the Thai Department of Fisheries has concen- trated on artificial breeding, cryo-preservation and in vitro fertili- zation, and they have successfully released fry in various places since 1983. Unfortunately, there is no evidence that artificially- reared catfish have ever bred. A Giant Catfish being taken to market. (Photo by Zeb Hogan) Bangkok's Chao Phraya has biodiversity value ... The 380 km Chao Phraya is the life blood for northern and central Thailand including Bangkok. Despite its socio-economicvalueandtheverylargeagriculturalarea which it serves, the Chao Phraya basin has maintained a high diversity of fishes from which local communities can earn an average income of 88-134 baht per day. At least 329 fish species can be found in the Chao Phraya and its tributaries, among them ten threatened species, one of which, the freshwater `Batfish' (Oreoglanis siamensis) is endemic. When ONEP conducted the Na- tional Inventory of Wetlands in Thailand Project in 1995, the Chao Phraya River was listed as one of 48 wetlands Bung Boraphet is a potential candidate to be designated as a of national importance. Ramsar Site of International Importance (Photo by P.D. Round) Within the Chao Phraya basin are a number of signifi- cant wetlands. Bung Boraphet, Nakhon Sawan Province, is a large (212.38 km2) freshwater lake which is in the 13 Meng-amphan 2002 14 IUCN 2003b flight path of various migrant birds and some 20,000 15 Hogan et al. 2004 THAILAND ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 birds of more than 187 species nest here. About 150 fish species are recorded from the lake16. Not surprisingly, Bung Boraphet is a potential candidate to be designated Thailand's long coastline, sizeable sea areas and varied as a Ramsar Site of International Importance. Bung habitats are home to a host of species (Table 5) many of Boraphet also has a high economic value to villagers which are of considerable economic importance either who live around it. Fishers have an average annual in- through direct exploitation or through the tourism that come of 11,460 baht, and the annual catch of fish reaches is attracted to coral reefs and beach habitats. However, 400-500 tons. past exploitation has compromised the capacity of these areas to produce generous sustainable yields of a range Watershed management tends not to consider of products (Table 6, 7). biodiversity ... Watershed management needs to incorporate more Table 5. Number of Thai species in four groups of marine life biodiversity elements than just forest cover, and more Taxonomic group Number of species needs to be understood about biodiversity, ecosystem function, and their role in peoples' livelihoods. Water is Sponges 50 obviously very important for various human activities, Hard Corals 270 and serious conflicts in water use can arise among the Soft corals 15 various stakeholders within any given watershed. Large Sea fans 16 projects in Thailand are typically planned in a relatively Source: Thumrongnavasawat and Tipanan, 1998 top-down fashion with inadequate consideration of how villagers' lifestyles depend on traditional uses of water. Table 6. Area (sq. km.) used for coastal aquaculture Success stories of sustainable and people-centered projects tend to be found in small-scale community-led 1985 1995 2000 projects that involve participatory planning and man- 374 716 715 agement. Even in these, however, biodiversity manage- Source: NSO ment tends not to be addressed. Table 7. Number of households in each year dependent on marine and coastal resources Major Number of households activities 1985 1995 2000 Marine fishery 51,702 52,116 56,859 Coastal aquaculture 5,889 28,588 37,045 Total 57,591 80,704 93,904 Source: NSO Even traditional water management systems such as this wooden dam in northern Thailand give little thought to biodiversity, but their replacement with concrete equivalents have greater impact (Photo by S. Srikosamatara) 16 ONEP 2002c, Jintanukul 1993 BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION MONITOR 2004 Many types of habitats ... The Gulf of Thailand and the Andaman Sea, have total areas of 304,000 and 116,280 km2, respectively. The total coastline in Thailand is about 2,600 km, with 1,650 of this being in the Gulf of Thailand. In the peninsular South, the western coast has been submerged while the eastcoasthasbeenuplifted.Lessregularshorelines,more bays and more islands are found in the west, and there is a considerable range of coastal habitats - head lands, marine terraces, tidal flats, mud flats, sand dunes, run- nels, estuaries, deltas, lagoons, marshes, swamps and off shore bars ­ each of which harbors a different suite of biodiversity. Large areas in the coastal zone have been converted to Mangrove forests are under pressure ... aquaculture (Photo by P.D. Round) Mangrove forests comprise up to 35 species of plants ­ about 25 of them trees - but the species composition de- pends on the soil type, tide characteristics, distance from Figure 5. Decline in the area of mangrove forest the sea, salinity and degree of disturbance17. They are thus relatively simple communities and are able to ex- ploit the ever-changing dynamic of the interface between the marine and terrestrial worlds. They have high pro- ductivity, as shelters and nurseries for many aquatic animal species, as important food sources for commer- cially important species, and as physical protection for coastlines against strong winds and waves. Coastal com- munitiescanearnincomefrommangroveforestsbygath- Sources: Royal Forest Department and National Statistical Office, ering charcoal, poles for scaffolding, fuelwood, medici- 1980 and 1990 data from http://www.fao.org nal plants, tree bark for tannin production, fish, shrimps, crabs, mollusks, and honey. These special forests used to cover about 3,680 km2 in 1961, but by 2002 there were only 2,400 km2 (and possibly less) remaining, and much of that was poor quality. The major causes of loss of mangrove forest in Thailand are timber and charcoal industries while some areas were converted for urban- ization, agriculture and ­ between 1985-1990 in particu- lar ­ aquaculture (Figure 5). Mangrove reforestation by PTT. 17 Aksornkoae 1993 THAILAND ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 Economic value of mangrove forest high ... Table 8. Coastal zone affected by coastal erosion generally as a High financial returns have attracted people to convert result of the loss of mangrove forests, seagrass meadows or coral reefs. More than 5 m loss/year is considered as very severe while mangrove forest to intensive shrimp farms. Thailand 1-5 m loss/year is less severe. earns more than $1.2 billion annually from exporting fro- Coastal length (km) zen shrimps, and so commercial shrimp farming is ex- Severitylevel Gulf of Thailand panding by about 6,000 ha per year, with serious im- Andaman Sea pacts on coastal communities, mangrove forest and its Very severe 180.9 23 wildlife. An interesting study in Surat Thani Province, Less severe 305.1 90.5 southern Thailand, showed that the economic benefits of Source: DMCR 2004 conserving mangrove forest are significantly higher than the economic returns of intensive shrimp farming18. Table 9. Abundance and percentage cover of seagrasses around Thailand's coasts The tide is turning for mangroves ... Percentage Area Percent After some major reforestation projects the area under Status of seagrass cover (km2) `mangrove forest' is increasing, although the original lev- els of biodiversity do not seem to be regained, perhaps Veryhealthy-healthy >60 - 100 62 60 because of the small range of species planted. In 2003 a Fair 40 - 60 21 20 broad mangrove project was initiated to commemorate Degraded 5 -<40 21 20 the 72nd birthday of Queen Sirikit. The project has the Source: Data from PMBC goal of managing 115,000 ha of mangrove in 23 prov- inces, including reforestation and the setting aside of tively shallow water (1-7 m), although they can grow 48,000 ha of good quality mangrove as PAs. In late 2004 down to 30 m depth in the offshore islands where water a five-year Action Plan for Mangrove Management in the is clearer. Dense seagrass meadows, mangrove forests Gulf of Thailand was established. This has five main el- and coral reefs can provide protection against shore ero- ements19: sion (Table 8). · Conservation and restoration to increase the area under mangrove trees, Although most seagrass meadows are in good condition · Promotion of sustainable use of mangrove resources, (Table 9), these meadows have suffered from inshore · Coordinated participation in the development of the pushnets and trawlers as well as from pollution and mangrove resources eutrophication from tourist resorts. A recent campaign · Databases and research to help conserve, restore, and on seagrass conservation included the following: use mangroves sustainably · Building public awareness and giving education on · Evaluationandmonitoringoftheresultsofmangrove seagrasss conservation to various stakeholders management. including local people and fishermen so that they appreciate the importance of seagrass ecosystems as Responsibility for different sets of actions fall to DMCR, nursery grounds, shelter and feeding habitat for local government organizations, academic institutions, marine life; schools and communities which will be judged against a · Eliminating all fishing methods which degrade set of performance indicators. seagrass beds and promoting fish traps and gill nets; · Zoning seagrass areas to preserve feeding habitats Seagrasses, productive underwater meadows ... for dugongs and sea turtles and also reduce conflict There are about 104 km2 of seagrass meadows in Thai- between small scale fisheries and commercial push land comprising some 12 species in seven genera. They nets and trawlers; and are highly productive and serve as a feeding and nursery · Improving law enforcement and participatory area for many marine animals, some of which also pro- management between government officers and local vide food for humans. Most seagrasses are found in rela- volunteer for coastal resource watchers. 18 Sathirathai & Barbier 2001 19 UNEP/GEF/SCS 2004 BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION MONITOR 2004 Coral reefs ­ `rainforests of the sea' ... Figure 6. Thai reefs at risk in 2002. (Total reef area = 1,787 km2) Coral reefs are sometimes called the `rainforests of the seas' because of the profusion of different life forms in staggeringabundance.Allthesespeciesinteractwitheach other to form extremely complex and little-understood communities. Coral reefs are made up of the compacted and cemented skeletons and skeletal sediment of seden- tary organisms which are then smothered by other or- ganisms ­ up to seven phyla of both sessile and mobile invertebrates(suchascorals,worms,mollusks,seasquirts, sea stars and bryozoans) - in a single area of reef. The outermost layer of a coral reef is living tissue comprising primarily hard corals and algae with their tissues im- pregnated with limestone. Source: WRI 2002 As is well known, the exquisite beauty of undisturbed Fig 7. Change of coral reef area and status in Thailand during reefs can be marketed and this has made them extremely, 1992 and the early 2000s. andincreasingly,valuabletothetouristindustry.Indeed, Thailand promotes the excitement, wonder and fulfill- ment of diving or snorkeling over reefs as one of their major attractions for domestic and foreign tourists. The diving off Thailand is world class, and thousands of people,includingmanyinternationally-respectedexperts, go there each year solely to dive, having no interest in other aspects of Thailand or its culture. But it is not just their beauty which is notable because they protect coasts from erosion, and many of the larger animals and plants associated with them have major direct and indirect eco- nomic value. There are 154 km2 of coral reef in Thailand divided into 79 km2 around 130 islands and a few mainland locations in the west, and 75 km2 around 250 islands in the Gulf of Thailand. Source: WRI 2002 Like forests, coral reefs are under pressure ... The status of coral reefs west and east of Thailand in 2002 is shown in Fig. 6. From 1992 to 2000, reef condi- tions deteriorated, especially in the Andaman Sea. Coral reefs in the western part of the Gulf of Thailand have fared better (Fig. 7). Both natural and man-made factors damage the reefs. The natural factors include: · Catastrophic storms such as the southwest monsoon in the Andaman Sea in 1986, and Typhoons Gay and Linda in the Gulf of Thailand in 1989 and 1997. THAILAND ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 · Periodic outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns starfish · Damage caused by anchors of tour boats. Mooring (Acanthaster planci) in the Andaman Sea during buoys have now been installed in most tourist sites. 1984-1986. This has effectively reduced the impact from · Increases in sea temperature in 1991, 1995, 1998 and anchoring. Trampling on corals in shallow water by 2003 which caused coral bleaching in the Andaman snorkelers and boat groundings are still major Sea and the Gulf of Thailand. Coral bleaching in 1991 factors causing reef damage. and 1995 caused 10 percent coral mortality in the Andaman Sea while the reefs in the Gulf of Thailand Dynamite blasting for fish was common in the past but it were severely damaged by coral bleaching in 1998. is now illegal and rare. However, fishing for trash-fish (foranimalfeed),netscoveringcoralreefsandcoraltram- The human factors include: pling by fishermen searching for shellfish are still com- · Sedimentation, such as at Phuket Island in the mon. Andaman Sea in the 1980s, caused by off-shore tin mining. Box 11: Songkhla Lake Development Project Songkhla Lake in the south of Thailand was formed by the natural enclosure of an off-shore sand bar in the Gulf. It is 80 km long and 20 km at its widest with a total area of 974 km2, and actually comprises a series of four interconnected lakes called Thale Noi, Thale Luang, Thale Sap and Thale Songkla. Freshwater flows into the northern end, and changing tides bring sea water into the outlet at the south- ern end. The lake drains a basin of 8,495 km2. Forty species of fishes, 30 species of freshwater and marine shrimp, and Irrawady dolphin occur in this shallow (about 4m) lake. A new species of small crus- taceanPagurapseudopsisthailandicawasrecentlybeendiscoveredhere. About 1.3 million people live around the lake, many of them fisher- men using traps and push nets. Over-fishing, industrial develop- ment and pollution are harming the lake. Part of Songkhla Lake is becoming shallower (Photo by S. Srikosamatara) In 2002 the Thai Government initiated a mega-project to improve the lake by deepening it, and also initiated a major tourism project around it. The controversial action of blocking the tidal flow through the lake to make it more fresh has adversely affected fishes and the endangered Irrawaddy dolphin. The deepening of the lake floor is disturbingthedemersalanimalse.g.acrustacean:Apsueudessapensis, which are important in the food chains of the lake, and it is clear that the production of fishes and other animals adapted to the daily and seasonal flows of water and living things will fall. This new species of small crustacean Pagurapseudopsis thailandica was recently discovered in Songkla Lake (Photo by S. Aungsupanich) BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION MONITOR 2004 Box 12: Coastal Habitats and Resources Management (CHARM) Project The use of coastal habitats for capture fisheries, aquaculture and tourism has intensified in the last two decades of rapid economic growth. Activities tend to be carried out in a largely unrestricted manner, with free access to habitats and resources, a lack of regulatory supervision and enforcement, and an extensive but non-integrated legislative framework that hampers effective management. As a result, Thailand's coastal biodiversity is being rapidly degraded and social conflicts over resource use have increased. Urgent action was needed to support and encourage environmentally sustainable coastal resource use and habitat conservation. It was within this context that in 2003 the Coastal Habitats and Resources Management (CHARM) Project of the Thai Department of Fisheries (DOF) was developed, with financial support from the European Commission (EC). CHARM seeks to develop a co-management approach to coastal resource management among the RTG, the private sector and local communities in two areas of southern Thailand: Ban Don Bay in the Gulf of Thailand, and Phang Nga Bay in the Andaman Sea. However, unlike traditional sectoral projects, which address only fragments of the issues, CHARM integrates all important aspects of coastal management. This comprehensive project aims to integrate science with policies, bottom-up with top-down resource management ap- proaches, large- with small-scale management, and short- with long-term time scales, and to enhance integration among the different sectors and disciplines, which have a stake in coastal resources. The project works at building a core group of professionals that can sustain a coherent co-management process into the future. The goal of CHARM is to promote a process that involves all stakeholders in managing the biodiversity and other coastal resources of these two areas, a process that could in due course be extended to other coastal areas of Thailand. Source: Henocque & Tandavanitj 2004 The loss of habitats and the continued pressure on them, together with hunting and gathering of specific species of animals and plants has resulted in large numbers of Thailand's animals and plants becoming threatened with extinction. One large mammal, the endemic Schomburgk's deer Cervus schomburgki, has already be- come extinct, mainly because of uncontrolled hunting. Increase in number of threatened species ... In 2003, the list of threatened20 species of Thai plants and animals included 84 plants, 37 mammals, 37 birds, 19 reptiles, 35 fishes, and 1 mollusk21 (Fig. 8). The num- Antlers of an extinct species, Schomburgk's deer, in a private museum (photo by S. Srikosamatara) ber of threatened and endangered species has greatly increased during the last decade (Fig. 9). Perhaps the Figure 8. 2003 Threatened plants and animals (Total species = 213) saddest news is that illegal shipments of pangolins to China from south Thailand and Indonesia seem to con- tinue almost unabated. However, there is good news as well as bad news for wildlife conservation in Thailand. 20 `Threatened' species are those whose populations are under some pressure and causing concern. `Vulnerable', `Endangered', and `Critically Endangered' define levels of threat. 21 IUCN 2003a THAILAND ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 For example, the gaur, a large forest ox, has recovered in Figure 9. Numbers of threatened species in Thailand areas where poaching has stopped, and this shows how, if pressures are reduced, many species' own natural re- silience can help build new populations. Populations of pileated gibbons continue to decline ... Pileated gibbons are found mainly in SE Thailand and Cambodia, although a small population can be found in southern Lao PDR. In 1987, the total area of Pileated gib- bon habitat, closed canopy forest, in Thailand was about 6,258 km2, which was estimated to be 30-40 percent of the original area available to them. It was estimated then that within this reduced area there were 7,500 breeding groups. Since 1987, the area has been further reduced to 2,000-3,000 km2 (Fig. 10). The hunting pressure has also been high, as NTFP collectors often trap and shoot them while camping in the forests. This affects serious impacts Source: IUCN 2003a on gibbon populations because of their slow reproduc- tive rate and monogamous habit. Figure 10. The dramatic reduction of forest cover in SE Thailand Wildlife for economic gains ­ but ... has had serious consequences for lowland forest species such as the pileated gibbon The decline in wildlife populations has made some people think about captive breeding and reintroduction as possible solutions. The idea of captive breeding of animals and cultivation of plants for commercial pur- poses has been advocated as a strategy to reduce the hunting/collecting pressure on wild species, and has been stimulated by the success of a few wildlife breeding programs, e.g. crocodiles and orchids (both of which have high direct-use economic value) for commercial purposes. However, there are no clear indication of gains for conservation in these programs. Nevertheless, the idea of breeding programs has been supported by gov- ernment officials, who see them as a possible source of income for villagers living close to PAs. The present policy now is to permit certain species to be bred for com- mercial purposes but, again, there is little indication that wild populations benefit. Wildlife is still traded illegally across borders ... Wildlife used to be a major export of Thailand, for ex- ample, there are historical records of a major trade in deer skins. This intense exploitation is likely to have been a major factor in the decline of three species of deer in Source: UNDP 2002 Thailand: Schomburgk's deer (now globally extinct), Eld's deer and hog deer (both still found in small num- BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION MONITOR 2004 bers outside Thailand). Thailand has for a long time been Figure 11. Numbers of pangolins confiscated in Thailand during the past two years (Data compiled by S. Srikosamatara). The purple a trans-shipment country, and a direct consumer of wild- indicates annual confiscations, the red the cumulative totals. life products from neighboring countries. A recent ex- ample of the size of this trade is given by the numbers of Asian anteaters or pangolins having been confiscated, 21,654, in the three years up to March 2004(Fig. 11). But gaur population is recovering at Khao Yai NP ... Asia's largest wild cattle, the gaur Bos gaurus, number around 1,000 in the whole country. The species is classi- fiedas`Vulnerable'intheIUCNRedList.TheThaipopu- lation is highly fragmented, with major herds in Thung Yai and Huai Kha Khaeng WSs, and in the surrounding PAs that comprise the Western Forest Complex. In 1991 Khao Yai NP was home to only about 100 gaur, but the NP is currently estimated to support a gaur population of 100-200. As the secondary growth areas they favor were better protected so the population increased. Al- the provincial conservation forums for stakeholders to though they are occasionally reported to be poached, the discuss matters related to WEFCOM conservation and recovery of the herd at this northeast corner of Khao Yai management. marks a success of the joint management of PAs (JoMPA) by government, locals, and NGOs. Marine species also under threat ... Several fishes, spiny lobsters, giant clams, sea turtles, World Heritage Site ecosystem management ... dugong, dolphins, and whales are among the threatened The Western Forest Complex is the last major strong- marine species for which Thailand shares responsibil- hold for viable populations of globally threatened and ity and concern. The main threats are local and commer- endangered fauna and flora in mainland southeast Asia. cial fishing activities. The total population of the vulner- With 17 contiguous PAs totalling over 18,000 km2 and a able dugong in Thai waters is about 200, but about 12 total forest cover of over 80 percent, the Western Forest animals are found dead each year, mostly as a result of Complex is one of the largest protected area systems in accidents with nets and propellers. the region. The core area, Thung-Yai and Huai Kha Khaeng WSs, has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site Twenty-three species of dolphins and whales have been since 1991. recorded in Thai waters. Rare species include Indo-Pa- cific Humpbacked dolphin, Bryde's whale and Pygmy In 2000 the Western Forest Complex (WEFCOM) Ecosys- killer whale. The popular Irrawaddy dolphins are threat- tem Management Project was launched as a collabora- ened by a number of pressures, including gill nets, fish tive project between the Thai and Danish Governments, traps and marine theme parks (as display animals). One local academics, local communities, and NGOs. The aim of the proposals by the Thai government during the re- is to encourage Complex-wide planning and collabora- cent Conference of the Parties to the Convention on the tionamongstakeholderssharingacommonconcernover International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), the long-term status of the region. The project has pro- which was approved by the other delegates, was a ban duced first-rate tools such as comprehensive GIS maps on trade for display. with reliable distributions of fauna and flora and hu- man settlements, and has stimulated the formation of THAILAND ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION MONITOR 2004 National Wildlife Management Master Plan 2004­2013 OveritsfirstyearMoNREhaspreparedanumberofplans National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans ... to address biodiversity conservation, as well as forest Two National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans management and restoration, PAs, comprehensive water (NBSAP), have been produced by the Biodiversity Sec- management, and wildlife (below). tion of ONEP, for the periods 1998-2002 and 2003-200722. The first five-year plan contained 446 proposed projects In 2003-2004, the government set up a broad committee with a total cost of $140 million to be implemented by 67 to draft the `National Wildlife Conservation Master Plan'. agencies using internal funding. Unfortunately, due to Previously wildlife conservation in Thailand had been the economic crisis in 1997, almost nothing of the first executed under the `Wildlife Preservation and Protection plan was implemented. For the second plan, the esti- Act', no master plan had ever been available to guide mated budget is 7.54 billion baht (or $188.5 million) and national activities, set targets, and evaluate results. The the status and success of NBSAP is to be monitored by duration of the plan was set for 10 years and the pro- the National Committee is emphasized. Its priorities are: posed budget was estimated to be $450 million. The plan · Building capacity of institutions and their staff, contains four approaches, 18 strategies, and 40 proposed · Enhancing the efficiency of PA management, projects. The `approaches' are, 1) wildlife study, research, · Improving the incentives for conservation at the local and databases; 2) integrated wildlife conservation and level, management; 3) conservation of diverse wildlife species · Conserving species, populations and ecosystems, and habitats; and 4) sustainable wildlife utilization. At · Controlling and monitoring processes and activities the project level, each activity is specified with respect to that threaten existence and richness of biodiversity, objectives, duration, budget, evaluation indicators, and · Promoting management of biodiversity in urban, involved agencies. The Master Plan will be presented to rural and traditional cultural environments, and the Cabinet for approval in late 2004. · Promoting cooperation between international and national institutions. What could be BETTER as a result of the master plan? If the plan is followed it should ensure: · better wildlife management based on research and technology both in situ and ex situ, · better collaboration by strengthening joint research and management among government agencies, academics, NGOs at national and international levels, · better administration and law enforcement by reforming wildlife conservation agencies' structure, amendingthewildlifelaws,improvingwelfareoflaw enforcement officers and guards, · better expertise by improving technical capacity of wildlife managers, researchers, and NGOs' members · better welfare for wildlife by launching population and habitat rehabilitation, restoration, and re introductionprogramsforthreatenedandendangered Two NBSAPs published by ONEP in 1997 and 2002. species, · better wildlife farming systems by approving and supportingqualified,largeandsmallscaleenterprises for certain species, and 22 ONEP 1997, 2002d, Vivajsirin et al. 2002 THAILAND ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 · better local utilization by promoting wildlife popula the total land area. Between 1997 and 2003, the number tion management by local communities outside PAs. of terrestrial national parks increased from 82 to 102 as more regenerating forest and watershed areas were re- classified. In the near future, it is expected that an addi- tional 47 national parks, 4 wildlife sanctuaries, and 6 non-huntingareascoveringanadditional21,760km2 will be added to the conservation estate. The total area of na- tional parks is expected to increase significantly more in the future, consistent with the policy of promoting in- creased tourism in the Kingdom. By 2003, about 100 management plans for PA units had beendrafted,includingfor60nationalparks.Theirimple- mentation has been carried out by the Land and Forest Resources Division of RFD with collaboration from Kasetsart and Mahidol Universities, the Thailand Insti- Various drafts of National Wildlife Management Master Plan tute of Scientific and Technological Research (TISTR) and 2004-2013. private companies. And in the marine and coastal realms ... As of 2004, Thailand's 24 MPs protect coastal and ma- Protected areas (PAs) are the cornerstones of conserva- rine areas that encompass 6231 km2 and include six per- tion without which the fullest possible range of cent of the coastline. Most (17) of these are located in the biodiversity has little chance of enduring. AndamanSea,therestareintheGulfofThailand23.These PAs contain diverse and important biological resources, A solid foundation of staff ... including habitats such as mangrove forests, coral reefs, Thailand's PA system was created by legislation in 1961, seagrass beds, soft sediment communities and beaches. and has developed a high degree of professionalism and Thailand's marine PAs not only provide homes for many growth. The system was modeled according to IUCN important marine species; they also give subsistence ben- guidelines, and its officials must have university educa- efits to the local people and contribute to the valuable tions and pass competitive civil service exams. Many of- tourism and fishery industries. Whereas more than 50 ficials have had graduate training abroad. Guards and rangers also receive special technical training to assist them in their duties, although greater professionalism could be developed in conservation crime investigation and law enforcement. A solid foundation on land ... Thailand has 102 national parks, 55 wildlife sanctuaries and 55 non-hunting areas covering 48,000, 36,000 and 4,450 km2 respectively totalling just under 18 percent of Conservation Mobile unit of TEAM Project managed by WFT 23 Chettamart & Emphandhu 2002 during 1987-1992. BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION MONITOR 2004 percent of all coral reefs in Thailand are included in ex- isting MPs, substantially less of other marine and coastal habitats occur in the MPs. For instance, only about 15 Despite rarely being particularly suitable for agriculture, percent of the remaining mangrove forests are included PAsalmostalwaysfacetheproblemofencroachmentfrom incoastalMPs.Furthermore,evenwhereMPsareinplace farmers. The relationships between people and PAs is thebiodiversityofmanyareasisbeingdegradedthrough complex and demanding, requiring flexible approaches overuse by the tourism and fishery industries. togetherwitheffectiveenforcement. Major threats to marine biodiversity include encroach- Rights and responsibilities of forest communities ... ment for resorts and shrimp farms, illegal fishing within It has been estimated that there are at least 10,400 com- prohibited zones, as well as infrastructure development munity forests country-wide. Within these, three catego- withinparksthatisincompatiblewithconservationprac- ries are recognized: tice. · those managed by traditional practices which are handed down through generations; PTT engages in conservation ... · those recently set up by local communities to meet The Petroleum Authority of Thailand (PTT) constructed conservation needs for natural resources; and the first gas pipeline from Myanmar to the Gulf of Thai- · those initially set up by outsiders such as government land and became involved in forest rehabilitation efforts agencies or NGOs to help strengthening community along the route. With the participation and support of management of forest resources. the Biodiversity Research and Training Program (BRT), PTTagreedtobroadentheirsponsorshiptoincludesmall- scale PA management24. The focus is Thong-Pha Phum NP, a strategic area where three major ecoregions con- verge, and part of the important WEFCOM complex that serves as an important corridor between the forests in the north of Thailand with those on the peninsula. Monitoringtheeffectivenessofprotectedareamanage- ment ... While it is widely believed that the management of pro- tected areas in Thailand (and elsewhere) is improving overtime,therehavebeennoobjectivemeansofshowing trends.InordertodealwiththisissuetheIUCN,theWorld Scenery of a village within a protected area in Northern Thai- Bank and WWF produced a tracking tool (a series of ques- land (Photo by S. Srikosamatara) tions with scored answers)25. This tool has been trans- lated into Thai and, it is hoped, will soon be applied across the country. Its use in Thailand would allow indi- vidual PAs to track improvements over time, as well as seeinghowThaiPAsingeneralarefaringrelativetoother countries. 24 Srikosamatara & Thanthalakha 2004 25 Forest community movement (Photo by Suraphol Stolton et al. 2003 Duangkhae) THAILAND ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 The Community Forest Bill, which has not yet come into force, is designed to secure legal recognition for commu- nity forest management, an issue that has remained un- resolvedforsometime. In1998,therewere460,000households­mainlyhilltribes in northern and western Thailand ­ living inside PAs. They use the forests for food, herbal medicine, fuelwood, and construction materials, and practice rotational culti- vation of different intensities and hunt wildlife to differ- Consultative meeting among local community representa- ent degrees. According to the law, harvest of these prod- tives and Senators on the draft Community Forest Bill in ucts in NPs and WSs is illegal, and the policy of the RFD 2003 (Photo by WFT) has steadfastly been to resettle hill tribes outside of PAs. This is largely because experience has demonstrated that the hunting of wildlife by such ethnic groups is not sus- tainable. There is a move to have the Community Forest Bill allow the right of such people to continue to use the forest under certain conditions. This is controversial, however, and has divided the conservation community. Opposing opinions on the ability of the local people to sustainably use forest resources, and on the inviolability of protected area legislation, has caused the Bill to stall in Parliament. The Lisu are one of the hill tribes living in protected areas in northern Thailand (Photo by S. Srikosamatara) Piloting joint management of PAs shows promise ... 2004 marked the beginning of an innovative program on Figure 12. Location of JoMPAs PA management in Thailand. DNP launched a project entitled `Joint Management of PAs' (JoMPAs) supported by the Danish government through the Danish Interna- tional Development Agency (DANIDA) during 2004- 2008. The goal is for DNP to work with local communi- ties and NGOs to seek suitable mechanisms to establish integratedconservationandmanagementofselectedPAs based on ecosystem concepts. DNP has chosen pilot PAs that include six NPs, two MPs, and a WS (Fig. 12). Fur- thermore, work on the WEFCOM project will continue with implementation of management strategies in col- laboration with the Sueb Foundation and DNP. These projects are experimental and their experiences ­ good andbad­willhelptodeterminefuturedirectionsofpolicy and practice. BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION MONITOR 2004 Figure 13. Numbers of Tourists in Thailand and Chiang Mai, 1995-2004 Thailand is well endowed with fascinating and educa- tional experiences for tourists seeking new sights of cul- ture and wild nature, and it is not surprising that tour- ism has grown rapidly since the 1970s. Tourism is a large and growing sector ... The numbers of international tourists visiting Thailand have increased from 7.22 million in 1997 to 12 million anticipated for 2004. Government projections show that this figure should reach 20 million within a few years. While the number of Thai tourists declined slightly after the economic crisis of 1997, it quickly recovered and in 2003, Thais took 65.1 million trips (Fig. 13). International and Thai tourism together contribute about 10 percent of GDP at country level and 37 percent in Chiang Mai. The Thai government increasingly recognizes that its biodiversity and wild places could be a major resource to encourage and sustain a niche market in tourism. Source: TAT, 2004 While Thailand's beaches may be the greatest single magnet for tourists, most visitors also seek cultural at- tractions and natural environments. About 100,000 people per year visit northern Thailand to trek in the mountains, raft on rivers, and visit the hill tribes. What is ecotourism? ... IUCN-TheWorldConservationUniondefinesecotourism as "Environmentally responsible travel to natural areas, in order to enjoy and appreciate nature (and accompanying cul- tural features, both past and present) that promote conserva- tion, have a low visitor impact and provide for beneficially active socio-economic involvement of local peoples." It is clear that much of the travel under the name of `ecotourism' does not really fit the definition because it has little em- Students from a nature conservation club visiting a national phasis on conservation, education, traveler responsibil- park (Photo by S. Srikosamatara) ityoractivecommunityparticipation. `Ecotourism'tends to be used loosely for any tourism to any wild or natural destination. Tourism to such places without appropriate planning and management can become a threat to the integrity of both ecosystems and local cultures. Large numbers of THAILAND ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 peoplecanleadtodamagetoinfrastructuresuchaspaths, PAs attract tourists (and money) ... and disturbance to wildlife. However, appropriate tour- In 2003 there were about 12.5 million tourists who vis- ism creates significant opportunities for both conserva- ited 118 terrestrial national parks, and 1.8 million tour- tion and for the people who service it. Such ecotourism ists who visited 27 marine parks. Doi Suthep-Pui NP was can provide revenues which can be fed back into the PAs, themostintensivelyusedwith4.1millionvisits,although and can offset restricted access to resources borne by this figure may be misleading as many locals visit this people living around the PAs. famousmountaintoworshipatthetempleonDoiSuthep. After Doi Suthep-Pui, Khao Yai NP was the next most- Trends towards better environmental management ... visited park with 0.76 million visitors. For MPs, Khao Thailand's `ecotourism' began in the 1970s with adven- Laem Ya ­ Mu Ko Samed MNP is the most popular with turoustrekkers,mostlyforeigners,seekingunusualnatu- 0.265 million visitors. The peak months for visiting ter- ral and cultural experiences in the highlands of the north restrial NPs are December and April, and April is the around Chiang Mai. This type of tourism has saturated only one peak for MPs. The number of national parks (and increasingly despoiled) many of the previously fa- with accommodation has increased from 52 before 2004 vored undisturbed areas. There are still remote, under- to 94 now, and rooms for visitors increased from 306 to visited areas, but the most accessible areas are now `over- 697. If all the accommodation space were filled, total in- crowded' by ecotourism standards of this sector and cre- come would reach 1,555,250 baht per day. The total value ate negative impacts on the physical, biological and so- of recreation in certain national parks was estimated in cial environments. To a degree this tourism is self-limit- 2003;1.9billionbahtperyearforKoSamedNP;and0.427 ing but over time the clientele becomes less discerning, billion baht per year for Khao Chamao NP. and now rather tame activities such as elephant-riding and calm river-rafting are offered by the numerous tour Five percent of park revenue (mainly from entrance fees) agencies in Chiang Mai. Even so, the tourism industry is sent to Sub-District (Tambon) Administration Organi- can charge a premium for opportunities for tourists who zation through the Ministry of Interior's Department of wish to be relatively `alone', away from crowds in wild Local Administration. Of the remaining revenue, 10 per- andbeautifulnature,anditisimportantthatvisitornum- cent goes back to the park to improve visitor facilities, 50 bers and routes are managed to allow for this. percent returns to the park for protection and capacity building, and 40 percent is sent to the NP Revenue Fund National parks ­ significant tourism resources ... and is distributed to NPs according to project proposals Most NP managers know little about the desires of for- managed by the DNP Revenue Committee. eign hikers and campers, and most officials still regard trekking overnight in the forest as too dangerous for visi- How many tourists can national parks serve? ... tors, especially as there are few suitably trained bilingual There have been several studies on the carrying capacity guides. Relatively few parks offer visitors more than a ofPAs.Decisionscanbemadetolimitnumberoftourists, one-dayhikethroughtheforest.Onlyafew,suchasKaeng but the main problem is actually management of tourist Krachan NP, have promoted trekking and nature tour- activities. For example, at the Thi Lo Su Waterfall in ism in wilderness areas. Also, the relative scarcity native Umphang WS (the `Niagara of the East'), the number of tribal peoples who live in national parks and lack of tourists has increased dramatically from just a few thou- guideswithanintimateknowledgeoftheforest,thistype sand a year to 15,000. Managers now try to limit the num- of tourism faces serious constraints. Once this has been bers of tourists visiting the waterfall to 500-700 tourists addressed, tourist activities will need to be carefully during the peak holiday periods, but numbers can ex- planned and zoned to stay within local carrying capaci- ceed 1,000. Some space (32 hectares) was prepared for ties. camping, but the grounds soon overflowed and became BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION MONITOR 2004 covered with litter during the high season. More needs to Figure 14. Rising numbers of Thai tourists visiting their national be done to limit the number of tourists and control unco- parks operative tour operators. DNP is currently conducting carrying capacity studies in five national parks. Thai tourists becoming a vital constituency ... Ecotourism is becoming increasingly popular among Thais, especially student groups (Fig. 14). Camping ar- eas in the few parks that have them, such as Khao Yai, are full of tents on weekends. Another sign is the popu- larity of magazines featuring parks, other natural areas, and outdoor activities such as camping, biking, and bird- and butterfly-watching. Local ecotourism is sure to grow rapidly and will become more of a challenge for manage- ment authorities to regulate because of its much greater volume. These people will increasingly become a vital constituency for the support of biodiversity conservation in Thailand. Box 13: Solid waste disposal is a biodiversity issue ... DNP is endeavoring to tackle the increasing volume of solid waste created by visitors in NPs because it is unsightly, dangerous to wild- life,anddetersothervisitors.ThroughaJBIC-fundedstudy,sixparks: Doi Suthep-Pui, Chae Son, Khao Yai, Erawan NPs and Sirinat and Kao Lam Ya-Mu Ko Samet MPs, formulated Operational Guidelines for solid waste management. In Samet Marine NP waste separation was initiated to reduce the amount of waste to be landfilled; in Sirinat MP the existing dumping site within the park was closed and the waste disposal was contracted out to the local administration. DNP is making efforts to increase environmental awareness of tourists as well as their staff and is encouraging all NPs to prepare their own operational guidelines for solid waste management. GarbagemanagementinMuKoSurinMP(PhotobyNarioSaito) THAILAND ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION MONITOR 2004 Success varies, but the overall impact at the national level is still far from satisfactory. This is evident in the results of `Nam Sai Tau Thai' project (`Clear Water All Over Thai- Conservation is the enduring responsibility of the whole land') organized by the Thai Farmers Bank in coopera- nation, not just of PA managers26. Indeed, maintaining tion with the MoE to commemorate Queen Sirikit's 72nd PAs over the decades and centuries ahead will require birthday in August 2004. As part of this project, schools commitment from all sectors of society. Moreover, sus- throughout Thailand were asked to propose EE projects taining the ecosystems and biodiversity in the other 80 for the conservation of local water sources. From almost percent of the nation outside PAs will require more com- 5,000 proposals, very few showed any understanding of mitment and capacity than is now present. activeEEandsustainabledevelopment,andthesetended to be from schools which had direct links with either an The media has played a significant role ... NGO or a university. Most Thais are certainly aware of their natural heritage, and are aware of many of the benefits to humans of sav- Promoting `Stream Detectives' ... ingit.Itisofcoursedifficulttomeasuregrowthinaware- One EE program initiated and developed by the Green ness, although the increasing attention that newspapers World Foundation (GWF) in 1997, has developed simple and feature magazines give to the environment is an en- techniques for the bio-monitoring of stream water qual- couraging sign. Thailand has an active and professional ity. With funding from DANCED in 1998-2003 on a press, especially as concerns environmental issues, and project known as `RiverSPY', GWF worked with 50 sec- this has been a major factor in increasing public respon- ondary schools in the Upper Ping River Catchment sibility and awareness. However, the readership of Thai around Chiangmai and Lampoon Provinces to make the newspapers and magazines are still quite low by inter- first `People's Map' of river water quality. Empowered national standards, and very few people buy them in the with their new skills, the schools then linked with local countryside. communities to promote awareness in their respective localities. The project has generated wide interest, lead- Television has also become more effective in presenting ing to further applications of the techniques in educa- conservation and natural history to the public. Report- tion at all levels, including local research, and conserva- ing, photography and information content have all rap- tion of local water courses. In some cases, such as in idly improved over the past few years because new tech- Rayong Province in the east, the technique and approach nology is incorporated much more rapidly now than it of Stream Detectives have involved the whole of civil so- was in the past. Even so, the dynamic relationship be- ciety, including small local NGOs, to the local munici- tween awareness and the willingness to take action on a pality, and the private sector. conservation issue is not straightforward. Growing environmental education programs ... Box 14: Thai Society of Environmental Journalists Much interest has been given to environmental educa- This society was established in 1994 through the initiation of the tion (EE) in Thailand during the past ten years,and there Thai Journalists Association with the financial support of Pri- vate Agency Collaboration in Thailand. Its primary aim is to have been a number of efforts to develop and strengthen strengthen networking of environmental journalists from vari- it,bothbygovernmentagenciesandNGOs.Projectsrange ous media. Since 2001, DEQP has supported its annual report from national interventions, such as the Dawn Project by ofimportantenvironmentalissues.Membersofthesocietyhave the Thai Environment Institute (TEI) in cooperation with reported environmental issues regularly, and they also cooper- the Ministry of Education (MoE), to small local efforts at ate when some issues require campaigning. They also publish the community level. stand-alone pieces such as `A Land on Fire: The Environmental Consequences of the Southeast Asian Boom'. 26 Srikosamatara & Brockelman 2002 THAILAND ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 A solid base of taxonomists ... Although it is difficult to know how many taxonomists a biologically-rich country such as Thailand requires, it is clearthattherearenotenough.Somecomfortcanbetaken in knowing there are 277 taxonomists in 49 institutions and 217 para-taxonomists in 39 institutions, but there are not nearly enough to catalogue and monitor all of the country's biodiversity. Most of the taxonomists have re- ceived master's degrees, and half are female. Eighty-two taxonomists work on plants, 70 on invertebrates, 47 on vertebrates, 51 on micro-organisms, 10 on plankton, 9 on algae, 6 on parasites and 2 on protozoa (Fig. 15). The different types of biodiversity collections held in Thai- land are shown in Figure 16. Student activities during a RiverSPY session (Photo by Oy Kanjavanit) Professionalism in research is increasing ... In 1995 the, government-supported, Thailand Research Figure 15. Percentage of active Thai taxonomists in by major Fund (TRF) and the National Center for Genetic Engi- taxon neering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC) jointly set up the Biodiversity Research and Training (BRT) Program. This body almost immediately became the dominant granting agency for studies in ecology and systematic biology. It has funded both graduate student and senior scientist projects, and also educational and local community ac- tivities related to projects that have been carried out uti- lizing a total of several million dollars. The administra- tion of these projects has been highly professional and efficient, and pressure is put on grant recipients to pub- lishresultsinEnglish-languagejournals.Theresultshave beenimpressivecomparedwithwhatwaspublishedpre- viously, but there is still room for improvement. Source: ONEP 2002a University-based research is strong ­ but ... Figure 16. Different types of biodiversity collections in various national institutions Biodiversity research capacity in universities is strong in a regional sense, but it has to compete (as in other coun- tries) with other fields such as medicine and biotechnol- ogy. Biodiversity field work has been mainly directed to- ward environmental management and pollution stud- ies. Limited manpower and low institutional support for field work has hindered the development of the neces- sary capacity for biodiversity studies and conservation. More and deeper area-based, action-oriented research which emphasizes training and capacity building at na- tional and local levels is needed27. A small project orga- nized by BRT at Thong Pha Phum may extend to other areas, e.g., Khao Luang Ecosystem in Southern Thailand. Source: ONEP 2002a 27 Srikosamatara & Thanthalakha 2004 BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION MONITOR 2004 The research can extend area-based concepts from the top of the mountain to the sea. Most ecological studies in Thailand are simple natural history studies and surveys by systematists. For ecosys- tem studies, forest ecologists are the strongest group fol- lowed by marine and then freshwater ecologists. Foreign collaboration can be seen in most projects (Fig. 17). Given the high diversity of ecosystems and complexity of eco- logical work at multiple scales, Thailand still needs many more ecologists28. Research capacity of local people is being developed ... TheSocialInvestmentFund(SIF)hassupported500com- munity networks with a total of 2 billion baht. TRF has also supported more than 400 research projects for local Some annual reports and publications by BRT. empowerment or community-based research since 1998. In 2003 alone, 131 projects in 121 local communities Figure 17. Ministries and organizations involved in biodiversity within 35 provinces received funding totalling 47.44 mil- research in Thailand (2003) lion baht29. (Total projects = 784, Total agencies = 100) Local knowledge of biodiversity is being captured. There have been attempts to use more local knowledge to manage biodiversity. Most successes have been seen where tacit knowledge is pooled together. As there is no written tradition embedded in Thai society, the oral com- munication is the dominant means for spreading knowl- edge. The Knowledge Management Institute (KMI) was set up in 2003 with funding from the TRF and other Thai sources. Professional social scientists have been used to recording tacit or implicit ecological knowledge of local communities. Combined with explicit knowledge, some good examples of environmental and biodiversity man- agement principles among local communities have been revealed, such as management of the Nan River, Mae Ta Chang Watershed in Chiang Mai, the Mae Lao River in Chiang Rai, and Mae Hong Son Province. 28 Brockelman 2003, Srikosamatara 2000a Source: Hutracharern and Cunningham (2003) 29 Sitthisantisuk 2004 THAILAND ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 English is not yet widely understood in Thailand. En- land, but it was not until the release of the beautifully- glish language materials on biodiversity from abroad are illustrated Trees of Northern Thailand36 (also supported by not incorporated into the local curricula or knowledge theWorldBank)thatagoodfieldreferencetoatleastpart unless they are translated into Thai. While this is occur- of the flora became available in both Thai and English. ring quite rapidly, and the situation is better than in most East Asian countries, the number of titles of relevance to The shortage of identification guides is partly due to lack Thai biodiversity is limited. Examples of original and of funding, aggravated by poor distribution. By their na- translated biodiversity titles are shown in the accompa- ture, original comprehensive and authoritative identifi- nying photos. cationguidesarequitecostlyandtime-consumingtopro- Fieldguides are essential tools ... While new guide books to plants and animals of Thai- land are produced each year, most of these tend to be popular introductions to very common species, or re- packagingsofpreviousworks.Accurateandcomprehen- sive illustrated identification reference books are still too few, and there is no coverage at all, in English or Thai, for many groups of animals and plants. The late Dr. Boonsong Lekagul was the pioneer in this field. Over 30 years ago, he co-authored a number of En- glish-language identification guides which are still highly regarded today, especially his classic A Guide to the Birds of Thailand30. Unfortunately, disputes over copy- right after Dr. Boonsong's death stalled attempts to pub- lish a Thai edition. More recent original contributions include the bilingual Turtles of Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia and Vietnam31 (fi- nanced by the World Bank), Peatswamp Fishes of Thai- land32 , and Mammals of Khao Yai National Park33 ; and the Thai-language Guide to the Amphibians of Thailand34 (fi- nanced by the World Bank) and the Guide to the Butterflies Some important Thai fieldguides of Thailand35. Plants are poorly served. The National Her- barium has an on-going project to produce a series of English-only monographs known as the Flora of Thai- 30 Lekagul & Round 1991 31 Stuart et al. 2001 32 Vidthayanon 2002, 2004 33 Srikosamatara & Hansel 1996 34 Chan-ard 2003 35 Nabhitabhata & Suwannapak 2001 36 Gardner et al. 2000 BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION MONITOR 2004 duce. Field guides are not yet a viable investment for pri- vate publishers, and few funding agencies (except the World Bank) have provided meaningful support to such initiatives. The origin of Thai NGOs ... Non-government organizations (NGOs) have grown in Numbers of websites on Thai biodiversity ... professionalism, budgets and effective action during the There is a surprising range of Thai and English language past few decades. The international NGO World Wild- websitesonbiodiversityinThailand.Someareecotourism life Fund (WWF) helped spawn a local branch back in sites, covering Thai national parks and PAs as well as the 1970s, which has become Wildlife Fund Thailand, a nature related activities such as trekking, bird watching, thriving, and now totally independent organization, al- butterfly watching, and diving, and there are many though WWF maintains a large and active program. The biodiversitywebsitesthataddressbiodiversityasanedu- Bangkok Bird Club, founded by the famous conserva- cationalsubject.Theircontentvariesfromgeneralknowl- tionist Dr. Boonsong Lekagul in the 1970s, now attracts edgetospecificinformation.Forspecificknowledge,there hundredsofeagerbirdwatchersandhasbecometheBird is information available on ecosystems, groups of spe- Conservation Society of Thailand. Several societies are cies, and environmental law. Many websites, especially devoted to the protection and conservation of elephants. those hosted by NGOs or community networks address The list of conservation societies is long, and each fills a ecosystem issues in their focal areas. An annotated list of particular niche. The list of websites in Annex 1 pro- websites is provided in Annex 1. vides information on the major NGOs. The numbers and roles of NGOs are increasing ... While the number of NGOs in Thailand is large and in- creasing,asthereisnosingleNGOwhicheffectivelyrep- resentstheconservationestablishmenttothegovernment. WFT occasionally approaches this status, as its position on issues is frequently reported in the press. NGOs are also not so effective in bringing issues to the courts for legal action, as few if any have the necessary legal capac- ity. However, on large conservation issues like decisions to build large dams, NGOs do speak in unison and are given good press coverage. The past decade has seen growth in the establishment of Training organized by WEFCOM for forest rangers (photo by international NGOs in Thailand. This had started with WEFCOM) WWF-Thailand, and has been followed by, for example, Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), WildAid, and Greenpeace. Perhaps with the exception of Greenpeace, activities undertaken often overlap with existing pro- grams run by local NGOs. This has created an impact on Thai NGOs. While at times they helped to provide some support to the activities of local organizations, at other times the arrival of international NGOs has resulted in competition for funding and qualified personnel. Thai NGOs are often out-competed due to lower salaries that they can offer. They also tend to be less focused as many are expected to act as public watchdogs on the Thai envi- ronment. THAILAND ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION MONITOR 2004 Thailand pays special attention to the legal aspects of biodiversity. Many laws concerned with forest, wildlife, plants, PAs and genetic materials have been passed, but theirexecutionandenforcementcanbedifficult.Respon- sibility for biodiversity is spread over a number of gov- ernment institutions, although MoNRE, specifically the Department of National Park, Wildlife and Plant Con- servation Department (DNP), is the main agency. Conservation legislation has a long history ... The Royal Forest Department was established in 1896 H.E.. Suwit Khunkitti, the Minister of MoNRE, a ministry and in 1900 a law was promulgated governing the con- with DNP which is the main agency responsible for biodiversity conservation in protected areas (Photo by servation of wild elephants, the first wildlife species to MoNRE). be protected. The deterioration of the forests in the 1930s caused the Forestry Act to be passed in 1941. In 1958 the Institutional mosaic for conservation ... Ministers of Agriculture and Interior were directed to Within the context of Thailand's various laws affecting establish national parks and other protected areas and biodiversity, government institutions with responsibil- to draft their enabling legislation. With the help of IUCN ity for certain aspects are in some degree of flux with and the US National Park Service 14 sites were selected regard to their roles. Mechanisms of central funding sup- to become national parks, and in 1961 the Wild Animals porting biodiversity research, training and policy stud- Reservation and Protection Act was passed followed by ies have proven to be successful. Future development re- the National Parks Act in 1961. PAs are now managed in quires integration of laws, plans and budget allocations conformance with that Act, and also the National Forest so that biodiversity conservation is integrated with gov- Reserve Act of 1964, and Wildlife Conservation Act of ernment work across the ministries, fueled by coalitions 1992, and (for MPs) the Fisheries Act revised in 1994. of supporting organizations. In 2001 alone there were 14 Acts, two Cabinet Resolu- Currently there are at least five ministries involved with tions, five national plans and policies (including the biodiversityresearchandconservation(Fig.18).Themain NBSAP) and two departmental regulations related to the agency for biodiversity is the MoNRE which was formed conservation of biodiversity. The challenges presently in October 2002. Governmental organizations carrying facing biodiversity management are clearly not due to a the name `biodiversity' include: lack of legislation, but rather lack of efficient capacity to · the Biodiversity Section of ONEP which has a secre- implement and enforce existing laws and regulations. tariat for Biodiversity Treaties, However, this does not mean that new laws are unneces- · theThailandBiodiversityCenter(TBC)under BIOTEC sary, for example the planned Coastal Resource Man- within the Ministry of Science and Technology which agement for Sustainable Development Act and Commu- is responsible mainly for biosafety, microorganism nity Forest Act will help bring clarity for biodiversity collection networks and Biosphere Reserves, managers.37 · the National Resources and Biodiversity Center (NAREBI) under the Ministry of Agriculture and Co- operatives which serves as a mechanism to improve administration and management of natural resources andterrestrialandmarinebiodiversitythroughcloser collaboration in program implementation among 37 ICEM, 2003 THAILAND ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 MOAC line agencies in order to help recover the genetic diversity of rice, crops, livestock (including el- genetic diversity of rice, crops and livestock species, ephants), and sustainable agriculture. · Biodiversity Research and Training (BRT) Program whichisfundedbytheThailandResearchFund(TRF) Within MoNRE, matters concerning commercial forests and BIOTEC, which has supplied grants directly to fall under the Royal Forest Department (RFD) while con- 43 institutions including universities, government servation and protection activities are the responsibility organizations, and national and international NGOs, of the National Park, Wildlife and Plant Conservation and Department (DNP). Thus RFD controls the forest indus- · the Biodiversity Study Center at Kasetsart University try, and the marketing of timber and non-timber prod- and other biodiversity programs in other universi ucts, as well as the protection and restoration of their ties. forests, while the main responsibilities of DNP is the con- servation and restoration of the PAs, and of Thailand's Other areas of biodiversity conservation, including PA wildlife and plants. It also has a role in encouraging the management, wildlife, plants, marine and coastal re- participation of local people and the general public to source conservation, forestry and NTFPs, are the respon- protect biodiversity and local resources. sibility of MoNRE. MOAC is responsible for fisheries, Figure 18. Key Institutions for Biodiversity BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION MONITOR 2004 Figure 19 Budget allocation among departments within MoNRE in 2004. Total budget is 14.975 billion baht. Biodiversity conservation is supported financially from fourmainsources:governmentbudgets,donors,theThai- land Environment Fund, and the private sector. These sourcesdifferintheirscaleandcoverage,butarecomple- mentary in many other ways. Government budgets are the core ... In 2004, the total government budget was 1,028 billion baht. These resources were directed into five areas: 1) economicrecoveryanddevelopment,2)restructuringthe country to increase and sustain competitiveness, 3) so- cial development, poverty resolution and upgrading the quality of life, 4) foreign affairs and security, and 5) na- Figure 20. Budget allocation to NPs and WSs within DNP in tionaldevelopment.Activitiesrelatedtobiodiversitycon- 2004. servation are scattered across all these themes, although the most obvious one is "restructuring the country to in- crease and sustain competitiveness", where budgets al- located for nature and environment recovery amount to 15.5 billion baht (1.5 percent of the total budget). The budget received by MoNRE, the ministry most directly responsible for biodiversity conservation, was 14.975 billion baht, with the main recipient being DNP (Fig. 19). Direct government budget for PA management is 2.019 billion baht or 26 percent of MoNRE's budget (Fig. 20). Most of this budget is for infrastructure, salaries, and some training. However, the numbers of skilled and knowledgeable staff are still limited. Most personnel are hired temporary workers paid a low daily rate. There is Figure 21. Breakdown of DNP budget in 2004 (Total 2.020 billion thus little regular budget to support operational expen- baht) ditures (Fig. 21). Foreign donors provide strategic support ... In part because of Thailand's relative wealth among de- veloping countries, there are relatively few foreign gov- ernments who support biodiversity conservation here. The main foreign donors are Denmark, the EC, and JBIC. Denmark:Afterthe1992UNConferenceonEnvironment and Development, Demark decided to allocate 0.5 per- centofDanishGNPforprogramsonenvironmentalman- agement and set up the `Environment and Disaster Re- lief Fund' (EDRF) a quarter of which would be used for environmental activities in developing countries. As a THAILAND ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 rapidly-growing economy in SE Asia, Thailand was cho- sen in 1993 as a primary recipient of these funds through the Danish Cooperation for Environment and Develop- ment(DANCED).TheDanishInternationalDevelopment Agency(DANIDA)alsobecameinvolvedinparallelwith DANCED and later took over. To date, natural resource and environment management programs amounting to about 750 million baht have been supported, with most projects executed by consultant firms or NGOs (interna- tional and national). EC: The EC is providing support to the tune of Euro 29.96 millionor14.081billionbahtoverthesevenyearsof1998- Agreement between PTT and BRT on biodiversity research 2006. The EC also supports the ASEAN Regional Centre using area-based approach at Thong Pha Phum District, Kanchanaburi Province, western Thailand during 2000-2003 for Biodiversity Conservation (ARCBC). It operates (Photo by BRT) through its Headquarters in Los Banos, Philippines and through National Biodiversity Reference Units based in each ASEAN member country; in Thailand's case this is ONEP. Thailand receives grants for research, manage- ment and environmental education through this source. One example is a grant to Kasetsart University for com- munity forest management and rehabilitation as means of biodiversity conservation in the Thung Soong commu- nity forest in Krabi. The conceptual framework of the project focuses on a better understanding of mechanisms of human-environment interactions and their effects on biodiversity, which are translated into management guidelines. JBIC: A variety of work has been supported by JBIC such as the preparation of a development strategy and pilot Krating Deang Company and the Small Kids Foundation projects for PAs. By identifying tourism as an important marked new initiatives to support conservation and educa- factor for improving the Thai economy and influencing tion activities at Khao Paeng Ma carried out by WFT. biodiversity loss, the project sought to balance increas- ing the quality of visitors' experience and the volume of visitors to PAs. It also conducted a study on solid waste management and carrying capacity in NPs in collabora- tion with DNP, and supported the preparation of the in- ventoryofImportantBirdsArea(IBAs)withtheBirdCon- servation Society of Thailand. BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION MONITOR 2004 Private sector engage in biodiversity conservation ... are environmental management at Ban Don Bay, In 2003, the Petroleum Authority of Thailand (PTT) iden- Suratthani for 4.3 million baht, and forest conservation tified 1 million rai (1,600 km2) for reforestation through at Ban Dong Yai, Nakhon Ratchasima Province for 2.4 His Majesty's Royal Golden Jubilee initiative, which was million baht. proclaimed in 1994. Corporate organizations have sup- ported at least 20 percent of these projects. PTT also sup- Sustaining the flow of conservation finance ... ported biodiversity research in Thong Pha Phum Prov- To date, high inputs from the government and private inceaspartofitscorporateresponsibilityprogramlinked organizations have been necessary to safeguard and re- to the findings of the EIA on its western gas pipeline con- store biodiversity. While these mechanisms will be main- struction. The total investment of PPT has been about 120 tained, it will be difficult to measure progress if there are million baht. no clear linkages between biodiversity and the country's broadergoalsandstrategies.Tomakethefinancialmecha- nisms sustainable, clear linkages between biodiversity Since the economic crisis in 1997, local Thai companies conservation and the debt and poverty reduction pro- havefoundthemselvesfinanciallyunabletosupportcon- grams need to be established. The vast hidden values of servationactivities.However,on22Sept2004,theKrating biodiversity have to be identified so that the obvious con- Deang Company and the Small Kids Foundation marked tributions of biodiversity to society can be understood at new initiatives to support conservation and education all levels. However, in order to achieve long term activities at Khao Paeng Ma carried out by WFT. The pro- biodiversity conservation there is a need for improved gram may be enlarged to form the Wild Cattle Conserva- coordinationofexistinglaws,governmentplansandstrat- tion Fund to support research, education and conserva- egies. tion activities for wild cattle. This is perhaps a sign that Thai companies are starting to support of biodiversity conservation. Innovative trust fund for biodiversity conservation ... In 1992 the Thailand Environment Fund was established with initial capital from Thailand's Fuel Oil Fund ($180 million), the revolving fund for Environmental Develop- ment and Quality of Life ($20 million) and grants from theThaigovernment(US$50million)38.TheJapanesegov- ernment also extended a soft loan of $100 million to the Thai government for the fund. In addition, the fund col- lects pollution charges, service fees, fines etc. The primary function of the Fund is pollution abatement, but it has come to support biodiversity and other natural resource management projects proposed by civil society. In the period 1994-2002, it supported 35 projects with total funding of 164 million baht. Examples of projects being supported during the current period of 2004-2007 38 Moge 2002 THAILAND ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION MONITOR 2004 nated to be free from obstruction (along and across their length) whereas others which have already had dams The foregoing analyses of trends and responses, and an and industries should be used intensively for other such assessment of chosen case studies suggest that Thailand developments. Thus to achieve better results, consider- has several challenges ahead of it in managing its rich ation of pro-conservation actions and impacts on and valuable terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity. Thai- biodiversityshouldbebetterintegratedintotheplanning land has done well in terms of formulating and subse- activities for large-scale land use projects, such as the quently refining policy and institutional frameworks for proposed plantations of rubber trees in Northern and biodiversity conservation. However, the enabling envi- Northeast Thailand. In addition, the complex and dy- ronmentforlocalparticipation,appropriatemechanisms namic relationships between the natural resource base for financing conservation initiatives, and arresting andpovertyneedfurtherexaminationtohelpunderstand overexploitation through appropriate enforcement mea- the persistent high poverty in the Northeast Thailand. sures, remain key barriers to the realization of an effec- tive and pragmatic conservation program. The major Tourism. Thailand attracts nearly 10 million foreign tour- challenges that must be confronted in order to safeguard ists annually, and if properly planned offers opportuni- biodiversity, and at the same time to realize its potential ties for enhanced revenues as well as improved ap- to provide its stream of useful products and other ben- proaches to conservation. Tourism based on Thailand's efitsthatenrichthepeopleandeconomyoftheKingdom, biodiversity should be better planned and financed so are discussed below. that it capitalizes on the enormous natural resources na- tive to Thailand's tropical forests and seas, and also so 1. Mainstreamingbiodiversity that the sector contributes to greater conservation efforts. Theproductionlandscape.Theproductionlandscape,es- In order to achieve this, appropriate policies which al- pecially important watersheds and coastal zones, low the benefits to be directed to local communities and should be explicitly planned and managed so that a bal- conservation actions, need to be developed. Effective en- ancebetweenhumanactivitiesandnaturalareasismain- forcement of hunting regulations would allow popula- tained. For example, agricultural areas are dominated by tions of charismatic wildlife to grow and become mag- ricefields and other forms of agriculture (including live- nets for tourists. As more foreign and domestic tourists stock) together with increasing areas under large-scale explore and enjoy the country's national parks, a major tree plantations yet there is an increasing reliance on challenge will be managing their numbers, and behav- speciesorvarietieswithaverynarrowgeneticbase.While ior,toavoidthemdamagingordegradingtheverythings productive under stable conditions, these create that attracted them to the areas. In particular, effective biodiversity`deserts'andtendtobenefitlargerbusinesses waste management programs are urgently needed to ac- ratherthanlocalfarmersdue toeconomiesofscale.More commodate the rapidly increasing visitor numbers. attention through community-oriented participation in Sources of finance for this could come from the restruc- landusedecisions,extensionwork,andeducationwould turingofNPentrancefees,infrastructureusageandrental help to address this. In diverse landscapes biodiversity fees, and conservation donations, which would reflect provides assorted benefits such as pest control, food, the true costs of park management as well as visitors' medicines and other services. As currently planned, tree willingness to pay. plantations provide little benefit to biodiversity, yet cre- ative thinking ­ such as planting trees to become `corri- dors' to connect forest fragments or to extend the tree cover of PAs - could change this as well as providing social benefits. Similarly, certain rivers could be desig- THAILAND ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 2. Learning for protected area management Thailand has a long history of protected area manage- ment, and has been reasonably successful at controlling harmful practices within designated areas. However, as with all management systems, there is scope for further refinement. PA management is still primarily a central government responsibility with rather little local partici- pation. PAs, while governed by national laws restricting use, must nevertheless be managed with the participa- tion of regional and community authorities, so that local peoplecanreceivemoredirectbenefitsfromemployment, tourism, and education. Buffer zone management needs toaddressthepersistentproblemsofpovertyaroundPAs, Forest guards are the main instruments for law enforcement but it is unrealistic to expect the PAs to finance such de- in NPs and WSs. Most of them are only temporary employ- ees (Photo by MoNRE) velopment activities. Thailand can gain immensely from learning from both its own and others' experiences. Con- servation efforts have been subject to waves of different methodologies and fashion and it is important to take stock. Conservation projects have performed poorly for a variety of reasons such as defining over-optimistic goals and weak assumptions, targeting the wrong threats (e.g. the poor and vulnerable instead of the commercial ex- ploiters of natural resources), lack of attention to plans for sustaining the activities and finance, and not provid- ing adequate or appropriate benefits for surrounding vil- lagers. On the other hand, lessons from successful ex- amples of conservation indicate that success stems from adaptive approaches that explicitly incorporate research and M&E into their design, proper understanding of root H.E. Suwit Khunkitti at the training center in Khao Yai NP. causes of threats, realistic targets, approaches that are This center will be used for training law enforcement person- appropriate to the scale needed, sustained and meaning- nel (Photo by MoNRE) fulengagementwithstakeholderstocreatetrust,andpro- fessional PA management teams who are sympathetic to the problems of the surrounding people. was demonstrated at the recent 13th Conference of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Spe- 3. Making enforcement more effective cies (CITES), in Bangkok, at which Thailand proposed a Inadequateenforcementisaseriousproblemwithrespect regional network to combat wildlife trafficking. This pro- to poaching in PAs, the local sale of illegal wildlife prod- posal quickly became an official ASEAN-wide declara- ucts, and illegal wildlife trade, especially across the long tion of intent to suppress wildlife trafficking, with Thai- and rather porous border with Myanmar. Enforcement land taking the lead in implementing it and training up needs to incorporate better education of local people, de- ASEAN partners. This, together with the steps required tective and legal work, and international monitoring and to achieve regional collaboration in wildlife law enforce- enforcement of treaties. Simply because of its geographi- ment along key border regions and information sharing cal location, Thailand has a significant role to play in among relevant agencies, represent some of the most sig- controloftheillegalwildlifetrade.Indeed,itspivotalrole nificant challenges ahead. BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION MONITOR 2004 4. Making effective use of research 6. Harnessing markets and the private sector in Thailand has developed an impressive and regionally- biodiversity conservation and sustainable use. There is significant research capacity, but research tends to be potential to exploit certain elements of biodiversity in a carried out in a fragmented and uncoordinated manner. sustainable manner provided that the following factors There is a great need to make research more policy-ori- are put in place: target populations are strong enough to ented. There is a disconnect between researchers and sustain any commercial use, there is public awareness of government authorities and local communities, leading sustainability issues, effective regulations and enforce- to the lack of utilization of research findings in the de- ment mechanisms exist to curb unsustainable exploita- sign of policies, programs and projects. Authorities often tion, and perverse incentives that promote biodiversity ignore research results and recommendations, or have degradation,andregulationsthatpreventtheprivatesec- no mechanisms or responsibility for implementing them. tor and local communities from profiting from the sus- Monitoring, especially the consistent use of the World tainable use of biodiversity, are eliminated. By effectively Bank/WWFtoolfortrackingtheeffectivenessofPAman- harnessingmarketsandprivatesectorinvolvement,public agementandsimilartoolsacrossthecountry'sPAs,needs resources could then be more efficiently allocated to sup- to be incorporated into the conservation and planning portive regulatory functions, and to certain biodiversity processes. This will allow feedback into the planning goods and services that markets alone are unlikely to process, and provide indicators of achievements that supply. motivate conservation efforts and instill greater pride39. 5. Broadening conservation financing Although the government has provided a significant amount of finance for biodiversity conservation, has es- tablished an environmental trust fund (focused on the `brown'environmentbutalsosupporting`green'projects) which collects fees and fines, and has had some gener- ous support from bilateral donors, especially the Danish Government,ithasnotyetmadecost-basedplansforhow financing of biodiversity conservation will be sustained. What is the cost of maintaining the protected area net- work and what proportion of this is currently covered? Whatcostscanbeheldoveruntilsuchtimeasmoremoney becomes available? The challenge is now to devise a stra- tegic program for financing biodiversity conservation needs which incorporates the existing and likely future funding. 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World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems. Okinawa, Japan. 178 pp. Srikosamatara, S. 2000a. Ecology and indigenous knowledge. Pp. 247-271 in Baimai, V. et al. (eds.), Review of Biodiversity Research in Thailand. BRT, Bangkok. 366 pp. ( in Thai). Srikosamatara, S. 2000b. Monitoring densities and distributions of large mammals: Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand. Pp. 390-395 in Galt, A., Sigaty, T. and Vinton, M. (eds.), The World Commission on Protected Areas, 2nd Southeast Asia Regional Forum, Pakse, Lao PDR, 6-11 December 1999, Volume II ­ Papers Presented. IUCN, Vientiane, Lao PDR. 482 pp. Srikosamatara, S. 2004. Looking into the Futures of Biodiversity in Thailand. BRT, Bangkok. 86 pp. (in Thai). Srikosamatara, S. and Brockelman, W.Y. 2002. Conservation of protected areas in Thailand: a diversity of problems, a diversity of solutions. Pp. 218-231 in Terborgh, J. van Schaik, C., Davenport, L. and Rao, M. (eds.), Making Parks Work: Strategies for Preserving Tropical Nature. Island Press, Washington. 511 pp. Srikosamatara, S. and T. Hansel. 1996. Mammals of Khao Yai National Park. Green World Foundation. 120 pp. (in Thai and English). Srikosamatara, S. and R. Thanthalakha. 2004. Area-based Biodiversity Research: A Case Study of Western Thong Pha Phum Project. BRT & PTT, Bangkok. 76 pp. (in Thai) with maps. Stolton, S., M. Hockings, N. Dudley, K. MacKinnon and T. Whitten. 2003. Reporting Progress in Protected Areas: A site-level management effectiveness tracking tool. World Bank, Washington D.C. and WWF, Gland. Stuart, B.L., P. van Dijk and D.B. Hendrie. 2001. Photographic Guide to the Turtles of Thailand, Laos, Vietnam and Cambodia. Wildlife Conservation Society, New York. 84 pp. (in Thai and English) Thumrongnavasawat, T., and S. Tipanan. 1998. Thai sea. A guide to the marine life of Thai-Sea. Advanced Thailand Geographic Magazine. 184 pp. (in Thai). Tiansuwan, S. (Ed., 2003). The 1st Anniversary of Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment for sustainable development. Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Bangkok. 275 pp. (in Thai) UNEP/GEF/SCS. 2004. Action Plan for Mangrove Management in the Gulf of Thailand under the UNEP/GEF South China Sea Project. Vermeulen, J. and T. Whitten 1999. Biodiversity and Cultural Property in the Management of Limestone Resources: Lessons from East Asia. The World Bank, Washington D.C. Vidthayanon, C. 2002. Peatswamp Fishes of Thailand. ONEP, Bangkok. 136 pp. (in Thai and English). Vidthayanon, C. 2004. Handbook of freshwater fishes in Thailand. Sarakadee, Bangkok. 232 pp. (in Thai). Vidthayanon, C., Karnasuta, J. and Nabhitabhata, J. 1997. Diversity of Freshwater Fishes in Thailand. Office of Environmental Policy and Planning. Bangkok. 102 pp. Vivajsirin, S., Wawpanich, P. and Mittelman. 2002. Thailand. Pp. 265-286 in Carew-Reid J. (ed.), Biodiversity planning in Asia. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, 594+vi pp. Wells, M. and Brandon K. 1992. People and Parks: Linking Protected Area Management with Local Communities. The World Bank, WWF, U.S. Agency for International Development. Washington, D.C. 99 pp. + xii World Bank 2000. Thailand Social Monitor: Thai Workers and the Crisis. The World Bank, Bangkok. WRI (World Resources Institute) 2003. World Resources 2002-2004: Decisions for the Earth: Balance, Voice, and Power. WRI, Washington D.C., 328 pp. THAILAND ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 Biodiversity Research and Training www.brt.biotec.or.th Executive summary of activities and funding since 1996, publication lists from Program the program, Thongphaphum Special Project, Guidelines for grant application and project list Bird Conservation Society of Thailand www.bcst.or.th Under construction. Bird-home.com www.bird-home.com Information on birding, bird care, and protecting areas with birds Civil Network of Nan Province nancivil.org Nan River management Coastal Wetland Policy and Conservation www.wildlifefund.or.th/ Information of Coastal wetland resources, fishery impacts, and conservation is- Awareness Project wetlands.html sues Community-based tourism, Thailand www.vijai.org; cbt.vijai.org TRF Regional office with the program on research for local empowerment or Research Fund community-based research. Details of the projects, networking, meetings, docu- ment, database especially on community-based tourism. Department of Environmental Quality www.deqp.go.th Articles, books, Video, CD, television programs about environment. Environ- Promotion mental Research and Training Center, EE centers at provincial level. Department of Fisheries www.fisheries.go.th Announcement, fisheries statistics in 2004, organization within the department. Established in 2002 under MoNRE. Responsible for maintaining abundance, Department of Marine and Coastal www.dmcr.go.th conservation, rehabilitation and reservation of marine and coastal resources for Resources marine biodiversity and socio-economic integrity. Information on national park, wildlife sanctuary, wildlife and plants. Preserved National Park, Wildlife, and Plant www.dnp.go.th and protected animals, dipterocarp seed insects and coral. Forest herbarium, Conservation Department Flora of Thailand, Thai Forest Bulletin and Bibliography. More information in Thai pages on forest and tourist statistics, projects, research and announcements. Digital Library for SchoolNet Thailand web.ku.ac.th/schoolnet/f- General knowledge for Environmental and natural resources education snet6.htm Engineering for Environment kmitnb05.kmitnb.ac.th/ Information of environmental engineering %7Esrk/ Environmental Law Center- Thailand www.envilaw.org Environmental issues, environmental laws EnvironNET www.environnet.in.th Environmental essays, current issues, natural resources and biodiversity infor- mation, games and activities for children Fernsiam.com www.fernsiam.com Fern information, Gallery, Taxonomy Foundation for Khao Yai National Park www.khaoyai.org History, geography, biodiversity, and tourism information on Khao Yai NP Protection Green World Foundation www.greenworld.or.th Specialized in environmental education, including the River and Stream Project for youth (RSPY). Produces bimonthly Green World magazine, biennial review state of environment in Thailand, manuals and nature guides. Hornbills and birds in Thailand www.thai.to/bird/thorn.htm Information and essays of hornbills and birds in Thailand Knowledge Management Institute www.kmi.or.th Good site for documentation of knowledge management. Activities and docu- ments on knowledge management by local communities. Access to Thailand Knowledge Center under ICT Ministry. MetScience: Explore the world www.metscience.com Biodiversity of coastal and marine ecosystems and information on atmosphere Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives www.moac.go.th Gateway to various departments in the Ministry including Fisheries, Livestock etc. Ministry of Natural Resources and www.monre.go.th History of the ministry since 2002, details of various organizations within the Environment ministry: environment, natural resources, inland water and administration. In- cludes Zoological Park, Botanical Garden, Forest Industry, and Water Manage- ment. Nature Conservancy Club www.nature.thai.org Major activities are nature education through monthly talks, arranging trips to various PAs. Ex-officers and current officers of the park and wildlife divisions of the Royal Forest Department are active in the club. Information and knowledge about communal forest and natural resources management Office of Natural Resources and www.onep.go.th/bdm/ Activities organized for International Day for Biological Diversity on May 22, Environmental Policy and Planning every year. Information on CBD, wetland, Global Taxonomic Initiatives (GTI), (Biodiversity section) NBSAP, books and publications on biodiversity produced by ONEP including 11 volumes on biodiversity. BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION MONITOR 2004 Office of Natural Resources and www.onep.go.th Thailand State of Environment Report, policy and plans, Integrated Songkha Environmental Policy and Planning Lake Management Plan 2003-2007, UNEP GEF Project on reversing environmen- tal degradation trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand, World Bank Ping River Project, environmental funds, EIA and other environmental networking.Nan River management RECOFTC: Regional Comity Forest recoftc.ku.ac.th/thai/ Information and knowledge about communal forest and natural resources man- Training Center for Asia and the Pacific default.asp agement Save khlong-u-taphao www.khlong-u-taphao.com Information, essays, researches, and environmental issues of Khlong-u-Taphao, Songkhla Province Save Whale Sharks www.whalesharkthai.com Knowledge and essays on whalesharks, with observation reports, and guidance on relevant laws Savebutterfly savebutterfly.com Butterfly information, life cycles, habitats, butterfly watching, and species search Scithai.com www.scithai.com Online library, games SeubNakhasathien Foundation www.seub.or.th Specialized in western forest complex. Special program helping rangers at vari- ous PAs especially when they die on duty. Articles concerning activities that threaten PAs, e.g. tourism in PAs, effects of roads on wildlife, fence in Huai Kha Khaeng and tourist development in Doi Chiang Dao. South East Asia Rivers Network, SEARIN www.searin.org Essays and news of Mun, Mekhong, and Salween river, impacts from dams, and Thai Baan Research TalayThai (Thai Seas) www.talaythai.com Marine science knowledge, information of marine fishes and other marine ani- mals Thai Community Forest Networks www.thaico.net/thaicforest/ Current information on the activities of networking, community forestry bill, index.htm articles and some research carried on by local villagers. Map shows the overlap- ping of PAs with local communities. Thailand Biodiversity Center Biodiversity.biotec.or.th History of the center, duty, microorganism collecting network in Thailand, Bio- sphere Reserves in Thailand, biosafety and food plants program Thaiparks123.com www.thaiparks123.com Information of Thailand's national parks and ecotourism activities Thai Society for the Conservation of Wild www.tscwa.org Information on TSCWA projects which aim to improve the conservation of native Animals wild animals, the welfare of captive wild animals confiscated through law en- forcement, and other problematic animal issues in Thailand. Thaiwaterbirds.com www.thaiwaterbirds.com Information of waterbirds found in Thailand, migration routes, birding sites, and bird observation report Trekkingthai.com www.trekkingthai.com Ecotourism activities Water Watch www.thai.net/wetlab/ Water quality biomonitoring by using benthic microinvertebrate and algae waterwatch/index.html Western Forest Conservation Club www.thungyai.org Activities of the Club, news, information about WEFCOM, photo gallery, nature album Wildlife Conservation Society www.wcs.org/sw- Brief information on conservation situation in Thailand, the threats to biodiversity around_the_globe/Asia/ and description of the WCS program Thailand Wildlife Fund Thailand www.wildlifefund.or.th Information on various projects including Khao Paeng Ma, Upper Mae Ping Management and recovery, RGJ reforestation, Coastal wetlands project and envi- ronmental awareness. WWF Thailand www.wwfthai.org Information on Thai conservation issues and actions by WWF, and links to the broader WWF family. THAILAND ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 Environment Geography(CONT.) Forest: Terrain: central plain; Khorat Plateau in the east; mountains forest areas: 172,050 sq km (2001) elsewhere forest cover: 33.5 percent of land area Elevation extremes: PAs: lowest point: Gulf of Thailand 0 m PAs: 90,506 sq km (2001) highest point: Doi Inthanon 2,576 m PAs: 17.64 percent of land area Unit of PAs: 341 units (2001) Mineral resources: tin, natural gas, tungsten, tantalum, timber, lead, Water quality: fish, gypsum, lignite, fluorite. Percentage of river basins with water quality below : Good: 40 percent (2002) Environment-international agreements: Moderate: 25 percent (2002) party to: Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazard Poor: 32 percent (2002) ous Wastes, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Very poor: 3 percent (2002) Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94 and Biodiversity. Air quality: signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea Ambient in Bangkok TSP (24 hrs): 0.1 mg/m3 (2002) Economy PM10 (24 hrs): 49.4 ug/m3 (2002) CO (8 hrs): 0.9 ppm (2002) GDP: 5,433 billion baht (2002) Ozone (1 hr): 13.7 ppb (2002) GDP growth rate: 5.2 percent (2002) SO2 (24 hrs): 5.2 ppb (2002) NO2 (1hr): 23.9 ppb (2002) GDP-composition by sector: agriculture: 9.9 percent Solid and hazardous waste: industry: 45.2 percent Solid waste: 14.4 million tons (2002) services: 44.9percent (2002) Industrial hazardous waste: 0.96 million tons (2002) Industrial non-hazardous waste: 5.9 million tons (2002) Inflation rate-consumer price index: 0.7 (2002) Community hazardous waste: 0.38 million tons (2002) Unemployment rate: 2.2 percent (2002) Infectious waste: 20,000 tons (2002) Exports of good and services/GDP: 64.7 (2002) Natural disaster: Industrial production growth rate: 7.5 percent (2002) Flood: Agricultural production growth rate: 0.5 percent (2002) Number of occurrences: 14 (2001) Value of assets loss: 3,666.3 million baht (2001) Agriculture-products: rice, cassava (tapioca), rubber, corn, Typhoon: sugarcane, coconuts, soybeans. Number of occurrences: 1,061 (2001) Exports: total value: 2,955.7 billion baht (2002) Value of assets loss: 501 million baht (2001) Imports: total value: 2,778 billion baht (2002) Drought: Population affected: 18.9 million persons (2001) Gross Domestic Investment/GDP: 23.9 (2001) Value of assets loss: 72 million baht (2001) Gross national savings/GDP: 29.3 (2001) Forest fire: Total forest fire area: 933.3 sq km (2000) Society Geography Population: 63.763 million (2004) Area: 515,113.6 sq.km Population growth rate: 0.7 percent (2004) Land boundaries: Labour force: 34.2 million (2002) total: 4,863 km Birth rate: 14 births/1,000 population (2004) border countries: Myanmar 1,800 km, Cambodia Death rate: 19 deaths/1,000 population (2004) 803 km, Laos 1,754 km, Malaysia 506 km Infant mortality: 20 deaths/1,000 live births (2002) Coastline: 3,219 km Access to safe water (percent of population): 92.6 (2000) Maritime claims: continental shelf: 200-m or to depth of exploitation Access to sanitation (percent of population): 97.8 (2000) exclusive economic zone: 200 nm Life expectancy at birth: Male 69.9 years, Female 75.0 years territorial sea: 12 nm (2004) Climate: tropical; rainy, warm, cloudy southwest monsoon Literacy: 95.5 percent (2002) (mid-May to September); dry, cool northeast monsoon (November to mid-March); southern isthmus always hot National capital: Bangkok and humid. Administrative divisions: 76 provinces (changwat) Independence: 1238 (traditional founding date; never colo- nized) Source: Pollution Control Department (PCD), National Statistical Office (NSO), National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB), and Ministry of Education. Area unit: 1 rai = 1,600 sq.m. = 0.16 ha; 1 ha = 6.25 ra; 1 sq.km. = 625 rai BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION MONITOR 2004 Thailand Environment Thailand Environment Monitor 2000 Monitor 2002 presented a snapshot of general Assessed the status of air environmental trends in the quality management in the country country Thailand Environment Thailand Environment Monitor 2001 Monitor 2003 Assessed the status of water Assessed the status of solid and quality management in the hazardous waste management country in the country Thailand Environment Monitors are available in both English and Thai online at : http://www.worldbank.or.th THAILAND ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION