Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities KAMPALA, UGANDA Urban Environmental Profile Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities KAMPALA, UGANDA Urban Environmental Profile COPYRIGHT © 2015 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. 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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities, Urban Environmental Profile for Kampala, Uganda was prepared by a core study team led by Roland White (Global Lead: City Management, Governance and Financing - Task Team Leader) and included Chyi-Yun Huang (Urban Specialist), Herbert Oule (Environmental Specialist), Martin Onyach-Olaa (Senior Urban Specialist) and a consultant team from AECOM including John Bachmann, Diane Dale, Brian Goldberg, Maritza Pechin, and Dr. Jane Turpie (Anchor Environmental). Dr. Jeffrey Wielgus Yanovich (Consultant/Environmental and Natural Resource Economist), Dr. Timm Kroeger (Senior Environmental Economist, The Nature Conservancy), Babirye Kagga (AECOM) and Dr. Charles Koojo Amooti (Urban Research and Training Consultancy) contributed invaluable technical insights, critical review and guidance. Sonia Wheeler and Annette Nabisere Byansansa offered organizational and administrative support. The document was prepared under the overall guidance of Francisco Ferreira (Chief Economist), Sameh Wahba (Practice Manager), Mukami Kariuki (Practice Manager), Philippe Dongier (Country Director) and Ahmadou Moustapha Ndiaye (Country Manager). This Urban Environmental Profile benefited immensely from close collaboration with representatives from the Government of Uganda, including the Kampala Capital City Authority (KCCA), Ministry of Lands, Housing & Urban Development, Ministry of Water & Environment, National Environmental Management Authority and National Water & Sewerage Corporation. The team would like to express its gratitude especially to Ms. Jennifer Semakula Musisi and Ms. Judith Tukahirwa Tumusiime of KCCA, for their close involvement and guidance, and to their team represented by Dr. Najib Lukooya Bateganya and Mary Karooma for their support and important contributions made. The study would not have been possible without the generous financial contribution of Korean Green Growth Partnership. CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 A. Methodology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 B. Summary of Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 II. BACKGROUND AND CONTEXT.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 III. QUALITY OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSETS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 A. Aquatic Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 B. Terrestrial Ecosystems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 C. Air Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 IV. DIRECT DRIVERS AND CAUSES OF ENVIRONMENTAL VULNERABILITY AND DEGRADATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 A. Informal Settlements.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 B. Effluents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 C. Stormwater Runoff .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 D. Solid Waste .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 E. Air Emissions .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 V. INSTITUTIONAL CHALLENGES .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 A. Overview.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 B. Prevailing Institutional Landscape. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 VII. KEY FINDINGS.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 VIII. BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 IX. APPENDIX. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 FIGURES Figure 1  Political Boundaries of the KCCA (area within red outline and the GKMA (entire area of light gray, including KCCA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Figure 2  Topography and Slope Analysis of GKMA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Figure 3  GKMA Settlement Pattern. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Figure 4  Rate of Population Growth in Kampala and GKMA.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Figure 5  Kampala Population and Project Growth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Figure 6  Spatial development from 1989 to 2010 in GKMA and KCCA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Figure 7  KCCA Undeveloped and Developed Land, 1985-2010. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Figure 8  Projected Scale of Footprint (Hectares) for Informal Areas Under Future Growth Scenarios for GKMA.. . . . . . . . . 9 Figure 9  Monthly Rainfall Recorded at Makerere University May 2012-April 2013.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Figure 10  Observed and Future Rainfall in Kampala. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Figure 11  Observed and Future Projections of Temperature in Kampala. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Figure 12  Major Drainage and Wetland Systems of Kampala. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Figure 13  Aerial View of Mayanja Wetland.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Figure 14  Aerial View of Agricultural Activity within Mayanja Wetland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Figure 15  Aerial View of Encroached Kinawataka Wetland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Figure 16  Aerial View of Nolubaga Wetland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Figure 17  Increased Costs of Water Treatment Chemicals in Gaba Water Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Figure 18  Location of Lutembe Bay, Kampala. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Figure 19  Bird Counts in Lutembe Bay, 1994-2003.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Figure 20  Natural Resources and Open Spaces in Kampala. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Figure 21  Distribution of Sample Industries in Kampala, 2012. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Figure 22  Increase in Roof Area per Catchment, 2004-2010. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Figure 23  Waste Received at Kampala’s Only Landfill. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Figure 24  Composition of Solid Waste Collected. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Figure 25  Kampala Modal Split in 2011. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Figure 26  Key Actors Involved.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Figure 27  KCCA Management Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 TABLES Table 1  Wetland Conversion Over Time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Table 2  Kampala’s Drainage and Wetland Systems.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Table 3  Forecast of Faecal Sludge (FS) Collection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Table 4  Change in Impervious Coverage via Building Indicators at Catchment Level, 2004-2010. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Table 5  Waste Generation Tables for Kampala FY 2012-2103.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Table 6  Measurement of Leachate at Mpererwe Landfill.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Table 7  Baseline Inventory of Emissions in Kampala (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Table 8  Distribution of Households by Cooking Fuel (%). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Table 9  Increase in Vehicle Use 2002-2012. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Table 10  Newly Imported Vehicles in Uganda, 2009-2013.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The City of Kampala is uniquely situated on a number of Impact of Urbanization on Environmental Assets low rolling hills linked by wide valleys of wetlands that have defined the character and functions of the city throughout 40% of the population lives in unplanned, densely its history. In past decades the city has undergone a period populated informal settlements that lack basic provision of rapid urbanization that has significantly altered the scale of water, storm drainage, sewage treatment, and solid and character of urban development as well as degraded waste collection. While an array of political, social, the quality of the wetlands and other key environment and economic factors have driven the informality of assets of the city. With an annual population growth rate development, the high demand for affordable and above or near 4% for 30 years and a large number of new accessible land for housing has been a primary cause. The migrants arriving year after year, the city’s capacity to scale of the environmental management problems, due provide adequate housing and public services for these to the vast area of informality, is clearly unprecedented new residents and to absorb them within the formal and has led to the severe degradation of the city’s economy has been severely challenged. environmental assets, particularly the quality and function of the city’s aquatic ecosystems. At the same time, climate change is further straining the city’s ability to address urban environmental problems. From 1989 to 2010, corresponding with explosive Projected changes include an increase in temperature, population growth, the area of developed land within a decrease in overall annual rainfall, and an increase in the city increased from 27% to 78%. Land conversion rainfall intensity. The increased intensity will contribute for dense housing areas has proliferated in the marginal to storm runoff levels that exceed the capacity of the land, predominantly along the wetlands. The loss of soil city’s limited infrastructure, exacerbating already chronic and vegetation coverage due to the conversion of land flooding and the spread of pollution. Such conditions have has led to severe erosion and sedimentation, which has already degraded the quality of the city’s environmental clogged urban drainage channels and degraded the natural assets and the vital ecosystem services that they provide. drainage systems. An overall objective of this undertaking is to link the While still a city of trees and gardens, Kampala has lost study of urban environmental issues with the promotion much of its urban vegetation cover to development. of more sustainable urban development. The Urban Kampala has not implemented structured open space or Environmental Profile for Kampala has been prepared urban forestry plans. Due to development, the lowland as the first component of the assignment “Promoting forests in KCCA were almost eliminated between 1983 Green Urban Development in Africa: Enhancing the and 2004. Former public open space within the city, such Relationship Between Urbanization, Environmental Assets as Kololo Children’s Park, Wandegeya Children’s Park and and Ecosystem Services,” a project being conducted under Children’s Park at Jinja Road, have also been converted to the leadership of the World Bank. The Profile summarizes urban uses. the existing quality of the wetlands and other aquatic and terrestrial environmental assets, identifies the key Kampala’s wetlands have been severely reduced in drivers of their environmental vulnerability, and the key size and function due to encroachment and pollution. institutional challenges and constraining factors that limit Nakivubo Wetland, the most dominant in the urban area, the city’s ability to address environmental management has been significantly degraded. More than 50% of the challenges. wetland has been modified by channelization in the central city and by encroachment of residential and industrial The relatively new government in the City of Kampala development as the wetland flows toward Murchison has begun to address some of the urban environmental Bay. The wetland has been used for tertiary treatment of challenges. This document is intended to be a resource municipal waste water and has received untreated effluent for municipal officials and stakeholders engaged in and storm runoff from the industrial and residential areas. environmental resource management. Their informed decision-making can lead to better safeguards of the environmental assets as the City of Kampala continues to develop as an important urban center of political, social, and economic activity.                                    Kampala, Uganda Page 1 Large-scale infrastructure projects have had significant The ambient air quality has deteriorated significantly in negative impacts on wetland quality and function. The the past two decades due primarily to the heavy reliance Nakivubo Channel project, funded by the World Bank to on wood and charcoal for cooking and the increase in improve storm water drainage and flood management the number of motor vehicles. Wood fuel is used by 78% through channelization, has increased the rate of water of households. The increase in number of motor vehicles flow and disruption of the hydrological function of the and the structural shift in the composition of vehicle stock, wetland. The Lubigi Channel drainage project, constructed from auto to higher emission emitting motor cycles (boda- to reduce impacts of extreme floods, has altered boda), are having a significant impact on air quality. vegetation, soil and hydrological functions of a section of the wetland system. The Northern Bypass, built to A Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Inventory was prepared in 2012. ease traffic congestion, has encroached on the wetlands, Employing international protocols to analyze emissions by altered hydrological function and threatened the loss of sub-sector, the inventory found that solid waste disposal biodiversity of plant species due to the impact of limestone (34%) and waste water treatment (18%) were the greatest on water chemistry. The proposed Southern Expressway, to sources of emissions due to the release of methane gas be built through the Nakivubo wetland, could cause further at the landfill and plant. Given the increase in the use of degradation, loss of habitat and overall wetland function. motor vehicles, the inventory is being revisited to address on-road transport emissions, which were found to be less The lack of a comprehensive piped sewerage network, than 1% of emissions. adequate wastewater treatment, and the subsequent discharge into the wetlands and Murchison Bay are key Key Findings drivers of degradation and loss of ecosystem services. Inadequate and ineffective planning has been a key Only 10% of the population, primarily in the Central obstacle to providing the management required to protect Business District (CBD) and affluent areas, is served by the city’s environmental assets. For decades, the city has the sewer system. Twenty percent use septic tanks and lacked an effective physical development plan to guide the remaining 70% rely on on-site sanitation, which is growth and development. Historically, there has been discharged untreated into the natural environment. As sectoral planning in silos, each with separate goals, targets a result, Murchison Bay, the primary source for potable and planning horizons. New procedures are underway water for the city of Kampala, is the recipient of surface to establish a more integrated urban planning approach. runoff, sewage effluent, industrial wastewater. However, This will be essential to implementing more sustainable new wastewater treatment facilities are being planned to solutions. The stakeholder engagement process can be address the service deficit. Bugolobi Sewage Treatment developed to bring a broad array of considerations into the Plant Expansion and new facilities at Lubigi and Kinawataka planning process. have been proposed. Little protection for the city’s environmental assets has The city’s storm water drainage system has not kept up been afforded under the current regulatory regime. with the rapid urban growth and the development of Environmental regulations have created the enabling informal settlements. The increase in impervious surface framework for protecting the wetlands, but essential area from dense, compacted land uses, rooftops and actions such as survey and delineation of wetland areas roads has resulted in an increased volume and coefficient have not been implemented due to political, social and of storm runoff, which carries sediment and pollutants to economic implications of restricting land use. Regulations the wetlands and rivers. A large increase in the number for discharge of effluent, particularly to control industrial of buildings within the 10 year flood line has further discharge, have not been widely enforced, and the reduced the ability to manage storm water. Higher rates of enforcement capacity of institutions charged with precipitation and increasing storm events due to climate environmental management is generally limited. change will exacerbate conditions. The land management system requires significant Approximately 35% of the total solid waste generated financial outlays for public acquisition of land for within the city is not properly removed. A great deal of infrastructure and service facilities, which constrains solid waste is thrown or carried by runoff into drainage delivery of sanitation, solid waste and drainage services. channels and wetlands, causing blockage and backups of The current system limits the supply of developable land, drainages as well as water quality degradation. However, driving informal development to marginal areas and to waste collection rates have increased from 54% to environmentally sensitive areas. It distorts the spatial 65% over the past two years and KCCA and NEMA are structure of the city and complicates and delays urban implementing commercial ratepayer collection services. planning and development. Page 2 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities Foremost, Kampala is a rapidly growing city: the built Key steps for the future include: environment will continue to expand and there will inevitably be some amount of natural resource and • Development of a profile of natural assets at ecosystem loss. Kampala has arguably pursued a “build the metropolitan scale and a broad strategy everywhere” approach. Development has proceeded to address pressures on these assets; with little awareness or sensitivity of the overall impacts • Identification of specific opportunities for on ecosystems. There has not been a serious attempt to Green Urban Development interventions integrate protection or enhancement of critical natural supported by thorough action planning asset systems within physical development. to these opportunities forwards; Development has not been guided by a strategic concept • Institutional actions move to regulate, enforce or framework for what might be called the “grand and protect assets in line with what is already in bargain”—a planning mechanism that identifies the current policy and law and the development of more critical natural assets and prioritizes them—so that there sophisticated measures to address ecosystem loss. is a structure to balance development and mitigate the loss of assets, or to preserve or even enhance them. A strategic concept would provide the platform for the city to use innovative tools; such as development offsets, now being considered. Wetland degradation is the primary example. Historically, the Kampala region has been uniquely bestowed with an abundance of this highly valuable natural resource. Within KCCA, this resource is now largely gone—resulting in what could be described as the very the opposite of “Green Urban Development.” Development in Kampala and its environmental impacts needs to be considered at the metropolitan scale. The broader metropolitan region still has critical natural assets, such as the large area of wetlands east of Murchison Bay, which should be protected and conserved as urbanization expands. Proper consideration of proposals for development in the context of the remaining assets can allow the city to avoid the mistakes of the past. Valuable ecosystems are under acute pressure, and action will need to be taken soon if their continued deterioration is to be arrested. From a fiscal perspective, Kampala will have limited resources to invest in gray infrastructure that is required to offset the degradation of the green asset base. Given these constraints, leadership and institutional actions—feasible and capable of addressing key problems—are particularly important.                                    Kampala, Uganda Page 3 Page 4 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities I. INTRODUCTION A. Methodology The city of Kampala has undergone a period of rapid The Urban Environmental Profile was developed based on urbanization that has contributed to the degradation of the collection of data using the Rapid Urban Environmental the city’s natural environment. The arrival of thousands Assessment (RUEA) tool developed jointly by the United of in-migrants year after year has overwhelmed the city’s Nations Development Programme, United Nations Centre ability to deliver adequate public services, housing, and for Human Settlements (UNCHS – Habitat), and the World jobs. Unplanned, densely populated informal settlements Bank (Leitmann, 1994). The purpose of the RUEA is to that lack basic water, sewer, and waste services now cover document available data and identify gaps in knowledge. much of the city’s land area. A questionnaire was developed to guide the collection of data and to generate a baseline of environmental Climate change is placing further strains on the city’s ability information. to manage the urban environment. Increasing levels of rainfall from climate change contribute to storm runoff The RUEA questionnaire includes numerous charts to be levels that exceed the capacity of the city’s infrastructure, populated with specific data on sanitation, solid waste, causing flooding and the spread of pollution. Such energy, and other urban systems and services. While conditions have degraded the quality of the city’s natural the questionnaire was used as a starting point for data environment and the vital ecosystem services that it collection, the team found that for the most part the provides. information was not available in this format and that the focus of the questionnaire was more narrow than that of The Urban Environmental Profile for Kampala has been the study. However, while the questionnaire often could prepared as the first component of the assignment not be answered directly within the format or specific units “Promoting Green Urban Development in Africa: Enhancing requested, it did guide the team towards the intended the Relationship Between Urbanization, Environmental data, provided that the team considered the purpose or Assets and Ecosystem Services,” a project being conducted intention of each question. under the leadership of the World Bank. An overall objective of this project is to link the study of urban Identification of the key environmental assets and key environmental issues with the advancement of more drivers of environmental degradation within the city sustainable urban growth. The Profile summarizes the required a more comprehensive review of reports on existing quality of the wetlands and other aquatic and urban planning and infrastructure services. The required terrestrial environmental assets, identifies the key drivers information was too complex to fit into the RUEA that are the cause of their vulnerability, and describes questionnaire format. Therefore, the process evolved to the key institutional challenges and constraining factors the definition and annotation of an outline for the profile that limit the city’s ability to address environmental that was then developed into this document. management challenges. There is limited environmental data available on Kampala. For instance, the city of Kampala does not have data on the status of urban vegetation, wildlife, land, soil, or air quality. There is considerable information available on Kampala’s wetlands as they have been the subject of academic research. But the available information typically addressed individual wetlands, while the specific focus of the research topic rather a comprehensive review of the wetland system. For example, a table developed for the Profile provides a summary of the condition of the eight major wetlands systems by referencing nine sources. The most current and comprehensive inventory of the wetland system was last completed in 1999.                                    Kampala, Uganda Page 5 B. Summary of Report The city has recently made progress in the development of The Urban Environmental Profile is organized as follows: key infrastructure systems such as solid waste management and sanitation. The available information has frequently Section II: Background and Context sets the background been generated for an environmental impact statement and context for Kampala, providing an overview of the for specific projects and is therefore limited in geographic impacts of rapid urbanization and climate change, drawing scope. There also has been little development of baseline linkages to urban environmental assets. inventory or analytics of the city’s environmental assets. Section III: Quality of the Environmental Assets of Consultation with key stakeholders informed the drafting Kampala describes the state of the key environmental of the profile. A kick-off workshop held in Kampala in assets, including the terrestrial assets, aquatic assets, and September 2014 introduced relevant municipal officials air quality, and attempts to infer the associated historic and and stakeholders to the objectives and intentions of current trends. the study. Participants provided overall direction on Section IV: Drivers of Environmental Vulnerability and relevant secondary sources of environmental data, such Degradation describes the key issues that are driving as municipal development plans and strategic planning degradation and the impacts caused. Drivers include documents and reports prepared by national-level informal settlements, effluent, stormwater runoff, solid ministries, the World Bank, and United Nations (UN). waste, and emissions. Information was also gathered from interviews with municipal officials. Section V: Institutional Issues and Challenges describes the key factors that constrain Kampala‘s ability to A PowerPoint presentation summarizing the intermediate effectively address environmental management challenges. findings was presented during a second workshop in December 2014. During the event, key stakeholders Section VI: Summary provides a synthesis of key findings. provided preliminary comments and feedback that guided the refinement of the Profile. Page 6 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities II. BACKGROUND AND CONTEXT Kampala has experienced decades of significant urban growth and is currently the second-fastest-growing city in Eastern Africa. As Uganda’s capital city, Kampala is the industrial, commercial, and education center and vital to the country’s economic growth. As shown in Figure 1, the city (referred to as the Kampala City Center Area or KCCA), is within the Greater Kampala Metropolitan Area (GKMA), which also includes the inner suburbs, the outer dormitory towns and suburbs, peripheral towns, and peri- KCCA urban extension to the south-west towards the Entebbe community (referred to as the KMTC) (KCCA, 2012). KCCA consists of five urban divisions, including: Central, Kawempe, Makindye, Lubaga and Nakawa. Collectively, these divisions cover a total of 189 square km, with 169 square km of land and approximately 20 square km of water. The GKMA is a 970 km2 area roughly defined by a 20km radius from Kampala City Centre that includes 171 parishes, of which 99 are in Kampala District, nine in Mukono District and 63 in Wakiso District (Uganda Ministry of Works and Transport, 2008). The city of Kampala developed on hills linked by wide valleys of wetlands and river channels that flow into the Figure 1   Political Boundaries of the KCCA (area within red outline Murchison Bay on Lake Victoria. and the GKMA (entire area of light gray, including KCCA) Source: KCCA, 2012 Kampala has grown outward from the urban center along upland corridors, with development spreading down the slopes of the city’s 24 hills into the low-lying wetland areas (Figure 2, N.B. darker colors indicate areas of steep topography). This growth has led to an increasingly inefficient pattern of development that encroaches into wetland areas. This pattern has furthermore presented difficulties for provision of adequate sanitation, drainage, flood control and environmental asset protection in addition to proving costly for the government to service (KCCA, 2013; Fichtner, 2014). About 23% of the GKMA is fully urbanized, a significant portion (60%) is semi-urbanized, and the remainder consists of rural settlements. These rural areas are those generally not represented by color overlays (Figure 3) (KCCA, 2014b). By contrast, the KCCA is almost entirely developed, with less than 10% of the land mass vacant. Approximately 7% of the GKMA area is wetlands (KCCA, 2012). Murchison Bay A consequence of rapid urbanization has been the overall decline in the quality of the urban natural environment. The impacts of climate change have exacerbated the rate and extent of environmental degradation and have made the city’s efforts toward environmental management all the more challenging. Figure 2   Topography and Slope Analysis of GKMA Source: KCCA, 2012                                    Kampala, Uganda Page 7 Urbanization Kampala has experienced rapid population growth for decades. The current annual population growth rate of the urban area of Kampala is 3.9% (above the national rate of 3.3%) (KCCA, 2012). The rate of growth in the urban center has been above or near 4% for 30 years (see Figure 4). As illustrated, the overall rate of growth in Kampala, reflecting KCCA, has slowed since 1980-1991. The absolute number of urban residents will continue to increase at high levels. In 1970, Kampala had a population of 330,700. Nearly 20 years later, in 1991, the population had more than doubled, to 774,241 (UBOS, 1991). In 2002, the population of the city was 1,189,142 (UBOS, 2002). In 2014, Kampala’s population was approximately 1,516,210 (UBOS, 2014). The GKMA region’s population was a little over 3 million in 2012 and is projected to reach approximately 5 million by 2020 and 13 million by 2040 (see Figure 5) (KCCA, 2012). Kampala’s rate of growth reflects both push and pull factors. The country’s political instability in the 1970s and 1980s led to the deterioration of public services that was experienced more pronouncedly in the rural areas, pushing people away from the countryside. Rural populations were also pulled to Kampala as Uganda’s capital city Figure 3   GKMA Settlement Pattern Source: KCCA, 2012 and commercial and economic hub. Kampala is a key driver with respect to growth in the Great Lakes Region, contributing approximately 60% of Uganda’s GDP, and accounting for 80% of the country’s industrial sector (KCCA, 2012). 12% Kampala Population and Projected Growth 14000000 10% 12000000 8% 10000000 8000000 6% Kampala 6000000 4% GKMA 4000000 2% 2000000 0 0% -2% City GKMA 1912-1948 1948-1959 1959-1969 1969-1980 1980-1991 1991-2002 2002-2011 Figure 4   Rate of Population Growth in Kampala and GKMA Figure 5   Kampala Population and Project Growth Source: KCCA, 2012 Source: KCCA, 2012 Page 8 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities As Kampala’s population has increased, open space and undeveloped land in the city center has been replaced with development that has often occurred in environmentally vulnerable areas. Figure 6 illustrates Kampala spatial development from 1989 to 2010. Prior to 1989, most development occurred within upland areas of the urban core and along major transportation corridors, which represented 27% of KCCA’s total land area (Abebe, 2013). With the increase in population, particularly the in-migration of the rural poor, development spread to unplanned areas on the lower slopes and low-lying drainage corridors and marginal areas: areas are often prone to flooding and are environmentally vulnerable. From 1989 to 2010, the area of developed land increased from 27% to 78% (Abebe, 2013). Figure 7 illustrates the trend in the conversion of land from undeveloped Figure 6   Spatial development from 1989 to 2010 in GKMA and KCCA to developed within the past 25 years. The majority of Source: Abebe, 2013 Kampala’s urban development has been residential, which covers approximately 23% of the GKMA landmass (over 60% of the total developed areas in the GKMA) and approximately 64% of the KCCA land area. Employment- associated land uses account for 3% of the GKMA land area and 10% of the KCCA. Public services and facilities land uses are 2% of the GKMA and 6% of the KCCA (KCCA, 2012). A recent survey estimated that 40% of the city population, and much of the recent migration, live in informal settlements and/or slums that lack basic infrastructure services for the provision of water, storm drainage, sewage treatment, and solid waste collection (KCCA, 2012). While an array of practical and social factors have driven informality, the demand for affordable and accessible Figure 7   KCCA Undeveloped and Developed Land, 1985-2010 housing has been key. Planning scenario projections Source: AECOM created chart with data from Abebe, 2013 indicate that the demand for land could vary between 200,000 ha in the worst case scenario to around 100,000 ha in the best case scenario by 2040 (Figure 8).The dense informal settlements predominate at the edges of the wetland corridors throughout the city and, as later sections of this document will discuss, have become one of the key drivers of environmental degradation of the water quality in wetlands and drainage courses. Figure 8   Projected Scale of Footprint (Hectares) for Informal Areas Under Future Growth Scenarios for GKMA Source: KCCA, 2012                                    Kampala, Uganda Page 9 Climate Change As Kampala is located near the equator, there is little fluctuation in the average temperature throughout the year. Temperatures range from average lows in the mid-60s F to average highs in the low 80s F. However, the tropical rainforest climate provides variation, with two annual wet seasons. There is a long rainy season from August to December and a short rainy season from February to June that has substantially heavier rainfall per month. The average annual rainfall is between 1,750 and 2,000 mm, with monthly rainfall ranging from approximately 50mm to 260mm (World Meteorological Organization, 2013 in UN Figure 9   Monthly Rainfall Recorded at Makerere University Habitat 2013) (Figure 9). Recent climate projections for May 2012-April 2013 Uganda conclude that while overall rainfall totals for the Source: UN Habitat, 2013 country may remain similar to the present, and Kampala’s total rainfall may decrease (Figure 10), the seasonality of rainfall may see a longer wet season that extends from September through to the start of the February rainy season (Baastel, 2014, Baastel, 2014b). Projected climate change impacts for Kampala anticipate an increase in temperature and decrease in overall precipitation, threatening water supplies (Baastel, 2014). Recent analysis focused on Kampala suggests a temperature increase of 1.5ºC to 3.0ºC by 2095 (Figure 11) and a 20 mm decrease in precipitation by 2095 (Figure 10) under a moderate greenhouse gas emissions projection. (Baastel, 2014). Furthermore, a rise in mean annual Figure 10   Observed and Future Rainfall in Kampala temperatures could intensify an urban heat island effect Source: Baastel, 2014 that where built-up areas absorb and generate more heat than nearby rural areas. This combination of higher temperatures could strain water resources by reducing flows and degrading quality. Figure 11   Observed and Future Projections of Temperature in Kampala Source: Baastel, 2014 Page 10 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities The city has already experienced an increase in rainfall during extreme climate events. Rainfall data is being developed at a weather station installed at Kampala’s Makerere University as part of a flood modeling program. While there is limited modeling and few weather stations, the analysis indicates an increase in intensity of rainfall and greater likelihood of extreme weather effects that can cause harm to human and natural systems (UN-Habitat, 2013). The increase in rainfall has already exacerbated existing chronic urban environmental management conditions due to rapid urbanization without corresponding development of urban services. The City of Kampala’s Carbon Disclosure Photo: Floods from heavy rains exacerbate degradation of environmental assets Report (CDP) 2013 Report notes that changes in the through water pollution. seasonality of rainfall are already a serious risk, affecting Source: Daily Monitor November, 29 2014 the predictability of planting and harvesting and increasing already-chronic flooding (CDP, 2013). Low-lying areas of informal settlements will continue to be the most vulnerable as they are already located in hazard prone areas and are subject to flooding and or high storm runoff from the adjacent hills (UN-Habitat, 2012). During heavy rains in June and November, 2014, there were news reports of trees uprooted and latrine slabs lifted and carried by floodwaters, polluting waters with human waste (Daily Monitor, June 10, 2014; UGO News, 2014). Public health challenges from increased flooding include the rise of cholera outbreaks during the rainy season (Lwasa, 2010). Although new information about climate change specific to Kampala is underdevelopment (Baastel, 2014), the city’s efforts to address climate change mitigation and adaptation actions have been limited. There is a Climate Change unit within the Ministry of Water and Environment, but a national policy on climate change has yet to be produced. However, there is no local adaptation policy to comprehensively address climate change issues in an integrated and strategic manner. There is an inherently low capacity to adapt to climate change given the large population of urban poor, the un-serviced informal settlements, and inadequate urban services in general (Lwasa, 2010).                                    Kampala, Uganda Page 11 Page 12 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities III. QUALITY OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSETS Kampala’s key environmental assets are predominantly the network of wetland waterways that course throughout the city, delivering a suite of ecological services, including flood attenuation, water purification, and wastewater treatment. The quality and function of the city’s aquatic system has been significantly degraded. The city’s terrestrial assets are composed of hills, open spaces, and trees. These areas are being rapidly developed and lack formal protection and environmental management. While there is limited data available about the city’s air quality, existing findings show increased degradation due to the rise in vehicle emissions. Furthermore, the lack of national air quality standards will continue to delay establishment of baseline monitoring. A. Aquatic Ecosystems Photo: Housing Encroaching Upon Wetlands. Source: AECOM The City of Kampala and the GKMA are rich with aquatic environmental assets. The urban fabric has been shaped by the wetlands and the waters that flow into Murchison Bay on Lake Victoria (Figure 2). These aquatic ecosystems provide floodwater attenuation, sewage treatment, water purification, food, and building materials, while areas such as Lutembe Bay, designated an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International, provide critical habitat for the city’s biodiversity. Wetlands The City has relied on Kampala’s wetlands throughout the settlement’s history to provide numerous ecological services that support the City: • Wetlands have served as the city’s primary Photo: Farming in Wetlands. Source: AECOM infrastructure for physically and biologically cleansing water, filtering out sediments and nutrients that enable the raw drinking water to be cost-effectively treated for human consumption. • The wetland system has also served as the city’s primary sponge for absorbing stormwaters, slowly releasing and cleansing waters by discharging into Lake Victoria or recharging groundwater flows. • Wetlands have provided the city’s predominant human waste processing function by receiving raw sewage and mechanically treated waste water, processing nutrient loads, and releasing waste water downstream with a higher degree of treatment. • Wetlands have provided food, fuel, and building materials. Additionally, the wetlands help support the fisheries that provide livelihoods for approximately 1,200 people at Portbell, Ggaba and Munyonyo (KCCA, 2014).                                    Kampala, Uganda Page 13 However, the steady decrease in wetland area is driving Analysis of wetland encroachment (Table 1 and Table 2) overall wetland system decline. Once a large and vital reveals that most of the encroachment is occurring ecosystem, the remaining area of wetlands constitutes within the KCCA. Known encroachment of permanent and approximately 9% of the total Kampala City surface area, seasonal wetlands is illustrated in the purple and blue according to recent spatial analysis based on satellite areas, while the built-up areas at the edges of wetlands imagery (KCCA, 2012). are shown in red. Most of the major permanent wetlands have settlement that is approaching the wetland edges. Unfortunately, the city’s wetland resources are now While wetland areas outside the KCCA have received less mostly characterized by their state of degradation. encroachment, these areas are under future threat due Urbanization; encroachment; indiscriminate disposal to increasing population settlement anticipated in GKMA of wastewater from the settlements, industries, and areas (see “II. Background and Context, Urbanization”). commercial establishments; and the illegal dumping of solid waste have led to degradation of almost all of Compared to the wetland area of early Kampala Kampala’s wetlands to some extent in past decades and settlement, the degradation of wetlands is significant. disrupted the ecological functions the city has relied on By 1993, 8 km2 or 25% of the original wetland area was throughout its history. converted for development, and by 1999, 46 % of the original wetland areas of Kampala had been converted for Wetland conversion to developed land has progressed urban development. Of the remaining wetland area, only quickly over the past few decades. Wetlands within about 8% remains highly functioning (KCCA, 2014b). Due the GKMA have been consistently encroached upon by to the expanse of urbanization and increased runoff, there development, causing a steady decrease in wetland area, a has been increasing pressure to develop in low-lying flood direct indicator of overall wetland system decline. prone areas (i.e. within the 1 in 10 year flood line) with substantial amounts of construction occurring inside this Table 1 notes the amount of wetland area that has flood line between 2004 and 2010 (UN-Habitat, 2013). been converted to development between 1989 and 2010, indicating a significant growth in area of wetland The wetlands are used by the residents of informal encroachment. While the change in percentage of wetland settlements and slums for domestic and small-scale encroached during each time period has decreased income-generation uses. Yam, sugarcane, cassava, sweet from 2003 to 2010, it is important to note that as the potatoes, mixed vegetables and matoke are grown; area of wetlands that are available to be encroached papyrus is harvested, and brick-making and fish farming decreases, the percent of change in encroached area will also occur (Emerton, 1998). While this local use of wetland also decrease. The extent of encroachment in the past goods and services is an important source of livelihoods decade also indicates limited enforcement and monitoring for the residents, these activities also directly contribute to activities in the wetlands despite the development of degradation of the wetland and its functions. environmental regulations protecting wetlands from encroachment (see section IV). Kampala’s wetlands have been further modified and compromised by drainage enhancements, cultivation, and extraction of natural resources. The city has numerous wetlands that serve as tributaries within broader wetland systems. The Table 2 shows a general status of the city’s major drainages and associated wetlands. Table 1   Wetland Loss Over Time Permanent Wetlands Seasonal Wetlands Study Period Area Change Change Area Change Change (ha) (ha) (%) (ha) (ha) (%) 1989 45 - - 79 - - 1995 118 73 162 183 104 132 2003 375 257 218 878 695 380 2010 658 283 75 1639 761 87 Source: Abebe, 2013 Page 14 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities Table 2   Kampala’s Drainage and Wetland Systems Number Name of Wetlands within General Condition Corresponds Major the Drainage to Drainage Wetland and System Area Map Drainage System1 1 Nakivubo Nakivubo 50% modified; 2 Significant loss of surface area due to encroachment in upper sections by industry and housing; downstream areas retain functionality; heavy effluent loading; water purification uses 3,4 2 Lubigi Lubigi; Jugula; Heavily degraded and modified along eastern sections by settlement and Nabisasiro; drainage works; good condition along western-most sections; 5Nabisasiro Nsooba; Bulyera; is considered 100% modified 6 Kyabatola 3 Nalukolongo Nalukolongo; Heavily encroached by industry and settlement along upper reaches; most Mayanja; vegetation has been modified through agriculture and settlement, threats from drainage;7 lower reaches in good condition; 8 4 Kansanga Kansanga 60% modified from road construction, settlement, nursery production; 9 water purification uses 4a Gaba Kansanga 60% modified from road construction, settlement, nursery production; 10 water purification uses 5 Mayanja/ Mayangj; At least 50% modified with significant loss of surface area for drainage Kaliddubi Kaladdubi; and subsistence agriculture; conversion to settlement; 11,12Mayanja shows Kawaga; considerable encroachment from agriculture 13 6 Kinawataka Kinawataka; Significant loss of surface area in upper section due to industrial and Bukasa housing encroachment; heavy effluent loads also present and contributing to invasive species growth; water purification dependence; 14significant effluent loading and degradation from upstream industry 15 7 Nolubaga Nalubaga; Good condition with limited modification; subsistence agriculture along Nyanjarede edges; 16,17 7a Nokelere/ Good condition with limited modification; subsistence agriculture along Nolubaga edges; 18,19 8 Walufumbe Walufumbe 20% modified; 20some subsistence cultivation; impacts from upstream agriculture; 21threatened by development and cultivation 8a Mayanja North Mayanja North 100% modified; 22 Source: AECOM, 2014; 1 Kampala Sanitation Program ESIA, 2009; 2 MWE, 2014; 3 Kansiime, 2007; 4 MWE, 2014; 5 UNRA, 2011; 6 Namakambo, 1999; 7 Kampala Sanitation Programme ESIA, 2008; 8 MWE, 2014; 9 KCCA, 2012; 100 KCCA, 2012; 11 Namakambo, 1999; 12 Google Earth, 2014; 13 Google Earth, 2014; 14 MWE, 2014; 15 Walakira, 2011; 16 Namakambo, 1999; 17 Google Earth, 2014; 18 Namakambo, 1999; 19 Google Earth, 2014; 20 KCCA, 2012; 21 Namakambo, 1999 22 Namakambo, 1999                                    Kampala, Uganda Page 15 The Kampala Drainage Master Plan (Figure 12) designates the central city has been channelized for drainage 8 major wetland systems. The steady decrease in wetland and flood control that has resulted in an increased area is driving overall system decline. Between 2002 and rate of runoff and limitation on pollutant purification 2010, the area of wetlands declined from 18% to 9% of city functions. Although more than 50% of the wetland surface area. Only one (Nolubaga and Nokelere/Nolubaga has been modified, the lower part of this wetland drainage) of the city’s eight major wetland systems is is in a relatively better condition than the upstream generally observed to be in good condition (see Table 2) sections. This wetland is earmarked for protection (KCCA, 2014b). through the National Wetlands Programme (MWE, 2014). Rehabilitation and enhancement of the Bugolobi Sewage Treatment Works, anticipated to start in 2014, could improve nutrient management in the lower Nakivubo (NWSC, 2013). • System #2, the Lubigi wetland, is located along the existing Northern Bypass road and reflects a mixture of conditions common within each of Kampala’s wetlands. The portion of the wetland along the westernmost section of the bypass has a high level of species richness and overall function, while areas of the wetland toward the northeast sections of the bypass are increasingly degraded (UNRA, 2011). The westernmost sections have been modified significantly for a flood control project that has been constructed within the wetland, altering vegetation, soil quality, and hydrological function (UNRA, 2011). A sewage and fecal sludge treatment plant (SFSTP) is under construction in the Lubigi wetlands alongside the Northern Bypass in one of the sections Figure 12   Major Drainage and Wetland Systems of Kampala that is already degraded (NWSC, 2014; NWSC, Note: Map numbers of each drainage system correspond to Table 2. Source: Kampala Drainage Master Plan, 2003 2013). This facility is anticipated to collect and remove nutrients from on-site sanitation systems The character and conditions of these wetland systems are located throughout the catchment that would summarized in Figure 2 and as follows: otherwise be loading into the Lubigi. However, the construction of the facility within the wetland • System 1, the Nakivubo wetland, is the most has resulted in the loss of wetlands area. dominant wetland of the urban area and one of the major wetlands on the north-western shores of Lake • System #3, the Nalukolongo wetland, which is Victoria. The Nakivubo forms the boundary between connected to the Lubigi Wetland system, is located Nakawa and Makindye Divisions in the valley between in Lubaga and generally runs alongside and south Bugolobi, Mpanga, and Muyenga hills. The Nakivubo of Masaka Road. Unlike the Nakivubo and the has permanent water and is fed by the Nakivubo Kinawataka, which flow into Lake Victoria, the channel. With an original surface area of 5.29 km2 Nalukolongo wetland feeds Lake Kigoya to the and a total catchment extending over 40 km2, the north of Kampala. It comprises both permanent and area of wetland has since been reduced to 2.8 km2 by seasonal wetland stretching along the Nalukolongo 1991 and 0.69 km2 in 2007 (Kansiime et al., 2007). and Mayanja rivers. Most of the original vegetation has been modified through agricultural activity and • Papyrus and Mischanthus sp. dominate the plant settlements, but there is still some papyrus and community at Nakivubo, although the less wet areas sedge habitat. The area floods excessively during have been modified by the cultivation of yams and peak rains, affecting many homes and industries. sugar cane, especially around Namuwongo and The wetland is gazetted as an industrial area by the Bugolobi. The slum close to Namuwongo is expanding Kampala City Council in its Urban Planning Structure into the wetland, and the wetland is used for tertiary Plan. A large part (the Mayanja to the south) of treatment of effluent from the National Water this wetland falls outside the Kampala District. and Sewerage Corporation, by farmers cultivating Although approximately 50% modified, the lower crops and harvesting papyrus, and by brick-making part is in relatively good condition (MWE, 2014). operations. A portion of the Nakivubo wetland in Page 16 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities Figure 14   Aerial View of Agricultural Activity within Mayanja Wetland Figure 13   Aerial View of Mayanja Wetland (Right) Aerial image of Mayanja wetland reveals (Left) An aerial image of the mouth of Mayanja wetland, outlined in red, at the outlet to Inner Murchison Bay reveals extensive agricultural cultivation in center of the extensive disturbance within the center of this wetland. See Figure 14 inset image. wetland near the outlet to Inner Murchison Bay (see Source: Google Earth, downloaded December 2, 2014. Image dated July 5, 2014 Figure 13 for location context of this image). Source: Google Earth, downloaded December 2, 2014. Image dated July 5, 2014 • System #4/4a, the Kansanga/Gaba wetlands, feed • System #6, the Kinawataka - Bukasa wetland is the Murchison Bay and the Lake Victoria watershed second major wetland after Nakivubo wetland, with catchment. This wetland system also directly dense vegetation thickets and riverine trees. The influences Murchison Bay’s Gaba Water Treatment wetlands are dominated by papyrus downstream, intake plant near Gaba beach, close to the outlet of with patches of Phragmites sp, Typha sp, Echinochloa this wetland system. The wetland is considered mostly sp and Afromomum sp (MWE, 2014). The wetland degraded, approximately 60% modified by settlement, serves to protect the Inner Murchison Bay from the agricultural cultivation, and construction of drainage catchments of Mutungo, Mbuya, Nakawa, Ntinda, channels that have collectively altered the system’s Kyambogo, Banda, Kireka, Bweyogerere, Namboole, hydrology and function (KCCA, 2012; Daily Monitor, Kirinya, and Butabika. Similar to conditions at 2012). The wetland has been partially converted to Nakivubo, these catchments are heavily industrialized other uses upstream and has observed populations and densely populated, leading to release of nutrient- of monitor lizards and the swamp-dwelling antelope rich effluents, which are potential pollutants to Lake called a sitatunga. Papyrus, Miscanthus sp., Typha Victoria. sp. and Phragmites sp. were also observed as dominant vegetation downstream, while relics of The Kinawataka wetland has been found to serve as swamp forest dominated by Phoenix sp. and sedges an effective sponge for retaining nitrates, phosphates, were common upstream (Nanakambo, 1999). and other nutrients that enter the wetland from • System #5, Mayanja/Kaliddubi wetlands are located upstream industry and sewage effluent (Busulwa, just south of the Kansanga/Gaba system. This system 2002). However, water testing has concluded that feeds into Murchison Bay and the Lake Victoria water pollution levels are too high for human catchment. There is little information available on consumption and for irrigation of vegetable this wetland system. However, an analysis of aerial production (Walakira, 2011). Upstream factories imagery of the wetlands’ largest section, the area that are contributing untreated effluents into the closest to the Bay, reveals degradation (see Figure 13 Kinawataka include fish filleting, foods, beverages, and Figure 14) that covers most of the widest and plastics, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, iron, and steel most extensive area of this wetland. Closer analysis factories (Walakira, 2011). reveals considerable filling of land for agriculture.                                    Kampala, Uganda Page 17 • System #8/8a, Walufumbe and Mayanja North wetlands are located about 10km north and north east of the city center. These wetlands drain into the Victoria Nile catchment and were considered to be in good condition when surveyed by Nakambo in 1999. As this system is located in one of GKMA’s fastest growing areas, it is likely to experience a fair threat of encroachment and decline (UN Habitat, 2013). Large-scaled infrastructure projects that involve filling in wetlands, the clearance of wetland vegetation, and Figure 15   Aerial View of Encroached Kinawataka Wetland Source: Google Earth, 2014 channelization and/or redirection of the flow of water and drainage have impacted wetland flood absorption and decreased wetland health. Wetland encroachment for In addition to the industrial effluents, the streams roadway and other infrastructure construction, particularly of Kinawataka, Mayindo, Kasokoso, and Namboole along the Northern Bypass, has also reduced the capacity are major carriers of raw sewerage effluents draining of the wetland areas to capture, store, and dissipate storm from the catchment. However, development of a new water (UNRA, 2011). waterborne sewerage treatment system is planned for a location within/adjacent to the Kinawataka that will serve the eastern part of KCCA (NWSC, 2013). The Kinawataka-Bukasa wetland also faces encroachment from housing and petty trading, such as illegal car washing and settlement activity (Speech by National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) Exec Director, 2011). Figure 15 shows how the green strip of the Kinawataka wetland’s western section (the left side of the image) contains industrial development lining the wetland with the Kinawataka slums encroaching the wetland along the eastern side of the image. The wetland’s flow to the southeast is significantly compromised by filled land and a roadbed. • System #7/7a, the Nolubaga/Nokelere Nalubaga wetlands are a small system located in the northeast section of Kampala that measures approximately .74km2 (surveyed by Nakambo, 1999). This system Figure 16   Aerial View of Nolubaga Wetland feeds the Victoria Nile catchment. While considered Aerial image of a portion of Nolubaga wetland system in Northeast Kampala, which in good condition when surveyed in 1999, this area shows settlement and agricultural encroachment Source: Google Earth, 2014 of GKMA has experienced significant development in recent years (Flood Risk Management, 2013). Aerial imagery analyses from Google Earth 2014 reveals considerable levels of agriculture and settlement encroachment as shown in Figure 16 (Nakambo, 1999; Google Earth, 2014). Page 18 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities The 2001 Lubigi Channel Drainage Improvements, Murchison Bay and Water Supply implemented by the World Bank’s Institutional and Infrastructure Development Program, has reduced impacts The City of Kampala sits on the shores of Murchison Bay, of extreme floods however, the intervention has inhibited a shallow embayment in the north-western part of Lake future wetland restoration potential by significantly altering Victoria. Murchison Bay covers a total area of about 62 km. the vegetation, soil, and hydrological functions of this The bay is described as the Inner Bay and the Outer Bay. section of the wetland system (LVP, 2001; KCCA, 2012). The Inner Murchison Bay (IMB), which is most directly impacted Nakivubo Channel project, also funded by the World Bank by Kampala City, has an area of about 18.4 km and an to improve stormwater drainage and flood management average depth of 3.2 m. Its catchment area is composed through channelization, has altered the rate of water flow of both wetlands and urban areas of the city, with the and has degraded the function of the wetland. Nakivubo channel and wetland serving as the largest drainage outlet into the IMB, carrying water and wastes The Southern Expressway, proposed to be built through from the City (Akurut, 2014). the Nakivubo wetland, is anticipated to cause further disturbance to the wetland’s function and hasten its decline, while expansion of the Northern Bypass road is expected to further contribute to loss of habitat and loss of overall wetland function. In particular, road construction at Lubigi is anticipated to reduce the diversity of plant species due to construction materials such as limestone which alters wetland water chemistry. The reduced wetland size will reduce the wetland’s overall capacity to store and slowly release storm water and filter sediment and pollutants from inflowing water. Also, increased use of the road will result in higher traffic noise levels, affecting nesting/reproductive success for birds in which mates Photo: Murchison Bay. depend on sound for pairing and bonding (UNRA, 2011). Source: AECOM Photo: Murchison Bay. Small-scale agriculture is also a threat to the wetland Source: AECOM system’s overall health and function and is observed The Inner Murchison Bay is the primary drinking water as a threat in most of Kampala’s wetlands. Uprooting supply source for Kampala City and Mukono and Wakiso wetland vegetation and converting the land to agriculture districts. Across Kampala, the daily production levels for can compromise a wetland’s nutrient cycling functions the National Water and Sewerage Corporation (NWSC), the by reducing its ability to treat wastewater. While the main utility for urban centers in Uganda, average 98,700 cocoyam is commonly cultivated in Kampala’s wetlands m3/day with approximately 1,881,000 persons connected by removing native-grown papyrus, the papyrus has a (Fichtner, 2014). NWSC operates three treatment plants higher wastewater treatment potential, removing 95% of (Gaba I, Gaba II and Gaba III) within IMB which pipe water nutrients from wastewater compared with the cocoyam’s to secondary, hillside reservoirs that have a capacity of 65% rate of nutrient removal (Kansiime et al., 2007). approximately 65,220 m3 or 35.6% of current treatment capacity (Fichtner, 2014; MWE-DWD 2010, 2012). This water supply serves approximately 70% of the city population with drinking water (NWSC, 2010). The distribution network throughout Kampala consists of 1,350km of pipes with an average age of 40 years (Fichtner, 2014). The KPDP Household Survey and other surveys of informal settlements and slums indicate that there is an increasingly high rate of access to piped water (>90 %). In 2002, there were 44,000 connections, and in 2009, there were 133,000 connections (LVP, 2009). However, the quality of the piped water is a continuous problem, and it is estimated that only 17% have access to reliably safe water (UBOS, 2002).                                    Kampala, Uganda Page 19 Degradation of the Nakivubo and its deteriorating water quality has caused the National Water and Sewerage Corporation (NWSC) to relocate their raw water intake and treatment facility as a result of increased treatment costs (see Figure 17). The major challenge facing drinking water treatment in Kampala is pollution of the water source at Gaba, which is heavily saturated with effluent discharges from Nakivubo Channel (MOE Dir of Water, 2010). The treatment costs at the Gaba Water Works facility near the outlet of the Nakivubo increased fourfold over the last 10 years as a result of the encroachment of Nakivubo and degrading water quality (Kansiime et al., 2007; NEMA Exec Dir speech, 2011). The potential of the Nakivubo wetland to provide some natural pre-filtering has been almost Figure 17   Increased Costs of Water Treatment Chemicals in Gaba entirely lost (African Development Fund, 2008). Water Treatment Source: Mwanuzi et al., 2005 The NWSC has upgraded the water intake facilities at Gaba to more effectively treat contaminated water. As an In the mid-1950s, Lake Victoria had approximately 350 additional measure to reduce water treatment costs, the species, of Haplochromine cichlids (Witte et al. 2000). NWSC has plans to install an offshore pipeline at a distance As part of an initiative to improve declining fish stocks of of 1.5km into Lake Victoria at a depth of 11m, to enable (O. esculentus and O. variabilis), non-indigenous species the treatment plants to draw a better-quality raw water of Nile perch (Lates niloticus) and tilapiines (Nile tilapia (Water Technology, download 2014). The Corporation has Oreochromis niloticus, O. leucostictus, Tilapia zilli and also commenced the implementation of the Kampala Lake T. rendalli) were introduced. While native species were Victoria Watsan Project, which will entail the refurbishment already in decline, this species introduction program of the Gaba II Water Treatment Plant. (NWSC, July 2014) contributed to further decline of native stocks as more Approximately 20% of Kampala’s population uses than 200 species have disappeared from the lake since the groundwater, springs, wells and other unimproved water 1960s. Nile perch catches in the late 1990s and early 2000s sources, where piped water is not available (Fichtner, 2014). have stagnated at around 90,000 tons annually (MWE, 2014). Due to inadequate provision of waste water and sewage treatment services, Murchison Bay is the defacto recipient Kampala has approximately 33 kilometers of shoreline for surface runoff, sewage effluent, and industrial and along Lake Victoria. While the land condition can be municipal wastes, which have steadily increased with the classified into a variety of levels of degradation, numerous rapid population growth of the city. The majority of these plans are being developed for converting the lakefront area wastes are transported through the Nakivubo Channel, the into leisure and recreational resorts. While the recently largest drainage outlet of the Bay. The surface waters of the opened Speake Hotel and Conference Center is an example Nakivubo Channel have high levels of pollution attributed to of lakefront economic development, the development the discharge of untreated and partially treated wastewater of the hotel appears to have required extensive filling and solid waste, including more than 85% of the nitrogen of wetlands. This trend of lakefront development loads coming from wetlands feeding the Bay (MWE, 2014), could threaten wetland and lake health if similar-scale (Ramsar, 2005). 33% (2,700 m³/d) of industrial discharge development proceeds along the lakefront (MWE, 2014). flowing into the Bay comes from Nakivubo Channel while Luzira/Port Bell, mostly un-sewered with major industries (Uganda Breweries and Ngege Fish), contributes about 40% of the Bay’s partially treated discharge (Akurut, 2014). Another significant source of partially treated effluent comes from the Bugolobi Sewerage Treatment Works (BSTW), which discharges wastewater into the Nakivubo Channel (NWSC, 2004). Page 20 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities Bird Hotspot Pockets of biodiverse habitat exist and are protected within the greater Kampala area, such as Lutembe Bay. However, threats from development and natural resource Lutembe extraction are pressuring this sensitive environmental Bay asset. Lutembe Bay, a 8 km2 site between Kampala and Entebbe alongside Murchison Bay (see Figure 18), is an internationally recognized Birdlife International Important Greenhouse Flower Farm Bird Area and Ramsar Convention wetland. The site supports 20,000 – 50,000 roosting waterbirds as well as events of more than 1,000,000 White winged black tern (Chlidonias leucopterus) on muddy islets between Figure 18   Location of Lutembe Bay, Kampala Source: Google Earth, 2014 October and February when the water level is low (Birdlife International data, download Nov 24, 2014). The highest count was 2,639,567 birds in December 1999, with counts exceeding 1 million birds on five other occasions (March and August 2000, April and October 2002, and March 2003) (Byaruhanga and Nahlanga, 2006). Figure 19 illustrates a ten-year period of Lutembe Bay accommodating thousands of birds each month. Because of its richness in biodiversity, the site was identified by the Ramsar Convention as one of the minimum critical sites that have to be protected if Uganda is to conserve its wetland biodiversity. The Bay has among the region’s highest count of wetland-dependent plants and supports most of the region’s wetland macrophytic plant species, with 18 genera and 19 species (Ramsar, 2005). It is one of the most important migration stop-over Figure 19   Bird Counts in Lutembe Bay, 1994-2003 sites in the Lake Victoria basin, with other notable species Note: Numbers in parentheses are the number of counts that took place in each including Caspian Tern, Hottentot Teal, Temminck’s Stint, month. and the recently recorded Great Knot and Broad-billed Source: Byaruhanga and Nahlanga, 2006 Sandpiper (Birdlife International, 2014). Regular waterfowl counts coordinated by NatureUganda While a 2012 assessment determined that more than and Wetland Inspection Division show a total of 108 water 90% of the site’s remaining habitat is in good condition, bird species supported by the system, of which 26 species Lutembe Bay faces degradation of its ecological are Palaearctic migrants and 15 species are Afro-tropical character: agro-chemicals used by five flower farms close migrants and other resident species. More than 100 to the Bay have been detected in its waters (Byaruhanga species of butterflies have been recorded in the wetland and Nahlanga, 2006). The development of large-scale, system, including three rare species (Acraea pharsalus, industrial greenhouse flower farming along the wetland’s Belenois solilucis, and Cacyreus virilis), which have not Western edge has impacted Lutembe’s water quality due to been recorded in any other of the 30 Important Bird Areas the farms’ development of the wetland buffer, extraction for Uganda (Ramsar, 2005). of water for irrigation and discharge of effluents (See Figure 18) (New Vision, 2013a). Although the flower farm has a wastewater treatment facility, media reports suggest pollution has still been observed (New Vision, 2013a). The 2012 assessment by Birdlife International also noted that quarrying, mining, water extraction, pollution, housing, and commercial development are occurring at low levels and represent growing pressures on this sensitive asset (BirdLife International, download Nov. 24, 2014).                                    Kampala, Uganda Page 21 Based on the overall assessment of the city’s wetland assets (see Table 2) which cites 9 different sources, there has been no comprehensive inventory of the city’s aquatic systems within the 15 years. The mosaic of independent data points shows that most of the city’s wetlands are facing considerable encroachment threats. More alarming though, as observed from aerial imagery analysis are 2014 images showing more extensive encroachment than has been documented in academic, National Ministry and city documents (e.g. Manyaja wetland discussion above) (Google Earth, 2014). Aerial imagery analysis of other Photo: Massing of waterbirds at Lutembe Bay. wetland systems shows that the amount of visible wetland Source: Nature Uganda, download from website 2014 modification from encroachment is higher than currently documented in published reports, suggesting urgent action Alien invasive species threaten Lutembe Bay’s ecological needed to prevent further wetland deterioration (Google health as well as other wetlands in Kampala. Alien species Earth, 2014). are invading wetlands in Kampala including the Lutembe wetland (UNRA, 2011). Three invasive species of plant The lack of a comprehensive baseline inventory of were recorded in Lubigi wetland and threaten its long- wetland health with periodic updates prevents a timely term health, as disturbance of the wetland can further understanding of aquatic asset health that can empower exacerbate invasive species growth: decision-makers to avert further losses of ecosystem services. • Mimosa pigra • Xanthium strumarium; • Lantana camara B. Terrestrial Ecosystems Mimosa pigra and Lantana camara have a large potential Kampala’s terrestrial ecosystems include hills and a to expand their coverage throughout city wetlands, once patchwork of forests, urban tree canopy, and lowland disturbances are chronic (Cronk & Fuller 1995, Kalema & forests/floodplain forests alongside wetlands that Bukenya-Ziraba 2005). collectively provide habitat for a considerable diversity of birdlife. Available information is limited about the state of the city’s terrestrial environmental assets; however, spatial Overview of Aquatic Asset Trends analysis shows that the amount of undeveloped land in The quality of Kampala’s aquatic assets has declined Kampala decreased more than 50% between 1989 and considerably in recent decades with significant loss of 2010, indicating a significant overall degradation of the wetland area and associated wetland vegetation and city’s terrestrial assets. Combined with the conversion of ecosystem services. With all but a few of the city’s protected open spaces and gardens into development, this wetlands in a relatively unmodified state (e.g. Nalubaga, loss of soil, vegetation, habitat, and biodiversity constitutes Nyanjarede, Walufumbe and Nokelere) and Inner a significant threat to the city’s overall ecological health. Murchison Bay experiencing considerable nutrient loads that are deteriorating water quality, Kampala’s overall Land & Soil aquatic assets have become heavily degraded. While the topography of Kampala provides a distinct Kampala’s aquatic assets, notably the Nakivubo and Lubigi urban character and identity for the city, it has presented wetland systems, have received considerable analysis a difficult physical setting for the expansion of the city from environmental, planning and economic perspectives that has been costly and challenging to manage and has associated with infrastructure development projects. It is contributed to the degradation of the city’s ecosystems. clear that these systems have experienced decline in the The city is characterized by a varied topography of low hills past decade and face considerable threats that will limit that are separated by wide shallow valleys with papyrus the ability of these wetland systems to slow degradation swamp wetlands and drainage courses. Historically, the and reverse trends towards improved ecological health. important institutional purposes, such as the government, Although sites rich in biodiversity, such as Lutembe Bay, churches, universities, were located on the hill tops in are still in good ecological health, threats from greenhouse the central city, while the slopes were developed with flower farming suggest that future environmental quality commercial and residential uses. will continue to deteriorate. Page 22 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities The regulatory context for the development of the land during the colonial period established conditions that led to further environmental degradation beyond the challenges of working with the physiography. Urban development of the land under the control of the British Crown was subject to formal planning, while the area occupied by the local African population evolved organically without formal physical planning (Koojo, 2005). Decades of expanding urban development has led to the clearance of much of the natural vegetation on the hill tops and slopes. This has destabilized the soil and caused increased runoff, erosion, siltation, and flooding in the low lying areas between. The topography has also made it very challenging to Photo: Hillside Development in Kampala. develop a well-organized road and/or public transport Source: AECOM system. For ease of construction and to reduce costs, the transport infrastructure is located in low-lying areas. The impacts of road construction, the disturbance of land on either side of the road, increased runoff, the parcelization of wetland sections, and the disruption of hydrology functions have also contributed to the degradation of wetlands. At the same time, low-lying roads also facilitate the informal settlement of wetland edges alongside new roads (i.e. Northern Bypass). Vegetation Kampala does not have a structured, contiguous, maintained, and protected open space system or an urban forestry program to protect and monitor resources. Photo: Industrial rail line running through Nakivubo Wetland. Residential and industrial development has reduced the Source: AECOM land area of low land forests in the KCCA from 7.6% in 1983 to 0.4% in 2004 (Nyakaana, et al. 2004). Forest lands Kampala was once known as “the garden city of Africa.” have been virtually eradicated from the KCCA with only While much vegetation has been lost to development, 58 ha remaining (KCCA, 2012). Forest lands cover only it remains a city of trees and gardens (KCCA, 2012). The 3% of the GKMA landmass (KCCA, 2012). There is little few developed and maintained gardens in the city are city-specific information available. The National Forestry concentrated in the City Centre and generally closed off agency addresses forestry at the country-scale. Notable in from the public (KCCA, 2014b). Kampala Golf Course is too Figure 20 is the limited area of the GKMA that has been far from the center to satisfy the needs of the growing city. identified as natural resource and open space area for a Other former public park spaces have been converted to metropolitan area of this size and population. urban development; Kololo Park is now a shopping plaza, and Shoprite Game is now a shopping plaza and convention A significant number of trees within Kampala are located center. While the wetland areas are used for recreation, on private lands and alongside roads. Primarily shade and such use leads to infilling, i.e., for playing fields, that ornamental plantings, commonly planted trees include contributes to their further degradation. Most residential Cassia agnes, Markhania platycalys, Cassia gradus and neighborhoods lack public open space, gardens, parks, and Jacaranda mimosifolia. Other plant species include playgrounds that allow city residents to escape from the Bougainvillaea spp, Acalypha spp and grasses such as congestion and density of urban life. Brachiaria spp, and Hyparrhenia spp (UNRA, 2011).                                    Kampala, Uganda Page 23 The Namanve Forest Reserve is a formally gazetted area of forest located in Kira district, approximately 15km east of Kampala’s city center. While approximately 1,000 ha were de-gazetted in 1997 and allocated to the Uganda Investment Authority for development, approximately 1,200 ha remained as gazetted. While there are numerous reports in local media concerning development activities occurring within the forest reserve, such as tree plantations and housing settlements, the state of this environmental asset is not widely documented (New Vision, 2013c; Daily Monitor, 2013; Observer, 2013). Kampala’s seasonal rains (August to December and February to June), which generate pollutant-laden stormwater runoff that spreads across the land, also influence the diversity of vegetation growth by season. For example, vegetation studies of the city’s Mapererwe Landfill area at Kiteezi reveal that while there are 108 plant species observed growing in the area during the dry season, an additional 37 plant species were recorded growing during the wet season (AWE, 2013). Additionally, eight of the dry season species are specially adapted to growing only in dry conditions and are not present during Figure 20   Natural Resources and Open Spaces in Kampala wet season conditions (AWE, 2013). This increase in species Source: KCCA, 2012 composition during wet seasons is partially attributed to higher level pollutant loads that accumulate on slopes following stormwater runoff events (AWE, 2013). Plants In addition to extensive birdlife located in Kampala’s natural such as Cynodon dactylon, Penninsetum purpureum, areas (see Aquatic Assets), a considerable variety of wildlife Leucaena leucocephala, Vernonia amygdalina and Solanum has also been observed at an area of significant human mauritianum are tolerant of high pollution levels and high disturbance, the Mpererwe Landfill in Kiteezi Parish. The levels of salt, which can be deposited by stormwater runoff 35 acre site containing mainly open trash mounds also (AWE, 2013). contains some wetland and is home to an observed 52 bird species with the most abundant species noted as those commonly seen throughout Kampala: marabou storks, Wildlife cattle egrets and speckled pigeons (AWE, 2013). Also observed at the Landfill were two globally threatened bird Given its relatively small geographic size, Uganda is species, the Grey Crowned Crane and Hooded Vulture; considered to have a fairly high number of bird species 18 species of butterfly; and mammals including vervet (Pomeroy, 1993) with more than 1,040 bird species monkeys and striped-ground squirrel (AWE, 2013). currently recorded (Carswell et al, 2005, R Skeen, pers comm), making it one of the most species-rich areas in Agriculture is a threat to terrestrial environmental assets, Africa (UNRA, 2011). The seminal publication of Bird Life as it is readily observed within and along the edges of the in Kampala Area in 1986 remains the most comprehensive city’s wetland areas in proximity to informal settlements, accounting of birds for the city, with 577 bird species listed. and frequently contributes to degradation within wetlands While at least 11 species listed in the 1986 book have not (see Aquatic Assets section). Agriculture has decreased been seen in decades and have limited likelihood of being from 62% of total land area in 1993 to approximately 40% seen again, at least 19 newly observed species have been of the remaining undeveloped land in the City (Nyakaana, added to the list. These additions might be due to either an et al. 2004; KCCA, 2014b). increase in the number of people observing birds and/or population expansion of these species. Page 24 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities Overview of Terrestrial Asset Trends C. Air Quality Within recent decades, Kampala’s forested hillsides, large There is limited information about local air quality tracts of undeveloped land, and lower slopes alongside conditions and risks for Kampala. There is limited data, wetlands have since become considerably fragmented, sample collection and public information available on type deforested and settled. This significant decline in overall and concentrations of particulate matter (PM) in Kampala’s forest coverage and associated topsoil erosion has left air, and studies of the associated human health impacts Kampala with only a few areas of extensive, contiguous are extremely limited (Schwander et al. 2014; World Bank forest habitats and upstream catchments (see Namanve Sub-Saharan Study, 2009). The lack of finalized air pollution Forest Reserve and outer GKMA district areas far from standards by NEMA also contributes to a limit of available major roadways). While there is limited data regarding data required to be monitored and regularly collected. wildlife counts, it is likely that the loss of forest habitats has also contributed to a decrease in overall diversity of wildlife The results of a 2014 pilot study are indicative of living in Kampala. unhealthy air and suggest that exposure to ambient air in Kampala may increase the burden of environmentally Despite the limited availability of forest coverage data, induced cardiovascular, metabolic, and respiratory analysis of aerial imagery reveals that while there are diseases, including infections. The observed PM2.5 mass extensive swaths of deforested lands, the landscape still concentrations in Kampala are three and four times higher retains patches of tree canopy coverage, particularly than the US 24-hr PM2.5 National Ambient Air Quality ornamental trees within private yards, which provide Standards (NAAQS; 35 μg/m3) and the WHO air quality an array of ecosystem services (Google Earth, 2014). guidelines (25 μg/m3), respectively (Source: Schwander Furthermore, the diversity and resilience of plant species et.al, 2014). within the region demonstrates that there are numerous tree species adapted to the higher temperatures, vehicle Various anthropogenic sources appear to contribute to impacts and varying water regimes of urban growing the elevated course particle and PM2.5 levels in Kampala, conditions. The city’s ability to sustain existing tree canopy such as soil dust disturbed by vehicles on unpaved roads, and increase the overall tree canopy coverage in urbanized vehicle emissions particles, and burning of biomass areas can likely improve the overall quality of Kampala’s (Schwander et al., 2014). One World Bank study noted that terrestrial assets and lead to improvements of Kampala’s the approximately 274 kg firewood burned per Kampala aquatic assets and air quality. resident per year is a key contributor to the high level of PM emissions (ICF, 2009). Furthermore, the lack of comprehensive, baseline data documenting an inventory of terrestrial assets in Kampala Deteriorating air quality also has implications for public makes it challenging to understand the current state of health through outdoor air pollution, particularly terrestrial assets and to identify areas of significant change. automobile exhaust, particulate matter from burning, road While there is limited data on vegetation and wildlife, dust, and factory emissions (US EPA, 2014). This trend is it appears to be generated for discrete projects, largely indicated by Mulago Hospital admitting approximately through environmental impact assessments covering 2,500 people with asthma in 2009/2010, up from 1,899 the specific areas. This segmented pattern of available data previous two years (Daily Monitor, 2011). inhibits a broader, more comprehensive view of overall urban environmental health. Air quality measurements at the Mpererwe Landfill conducted in 2013, the city’s only formal landfill for receiving waste collected from throughout Kampala and a neighboring community, found that the air quality conformed to the draft national limits (AWE, 2013). While Uganda does not have any national standards for nuisance odor levels, measurements at the landfill recorded high levels of nuisance odor at 7 OU. According to a survey of regulatory agencies worldwide, an acceptable odor range is considered to be 2 OU to 7 OU (AWE, 2013).                                    Kampala, Uganda Page 25 Kampala prepared a greenhouse gas (GHG) inventory in 2012, using 2012 as the inventory base year. Solid waste and wastewater discharge sectors contributed the greatest amount of GHG emissions, 42% and 23% respectively. These numbers reflect the lack of mechanisms for capturing methane, a high-intensity greenhouse gas, at the city’s Mpererwe Landfill. Furthermore, the significant amount of emissions from sanitation reflects the use of pit latrines, septic systems, and other non- central sewage collection systems that release methane without any capture by treatment facilities (Lwasa, 2013). Transportation-related emissions are likely to increase with improvement in roads as well as the rise in private modes of transport within the city-region (Lwase, 2013) (See discussion of Emissions as a driver of air quality degradation). Photo: Kampala on a clear day. Source: Schwander et al, 2014 Overview of Air Quality Trends Based on the limited data available from a pilot study and media reports, Kampala’s local air quality appears to show signs of poor quality with regard to particulate matter from vehicles, road dust and biomass burning. While data from air quality measurements at the city landfills in the outer-lying area of the city conforms to the draft national standards, it is likely that additional air quality monitoring of Kampala’s urbanized areas, similar to the 2014 Schwander et al. study, will continue to show a correlation of poor air quality where there is significant vehicle and road presence. The absence of adopted, national air quality standards will likely delay any significant efforts to generate comprehensive baseline data with periodic monitoring of the city’s air quality. Photo: Kampala on a day with extensive air pollution. Source: Schwander et al, 2014 From a greenhouse gas (GHG) perspective, Kampala’s establishment of a 2012 GHG baseline is a strong start for assessing future GHG emissions trends and evaluating impacts from GHG mitigation activities, such as the proposed landfill gas capture infrastructure for Mpererwe Landfill. Given the growth of vehicles in Kampala (see Drivers section on Air Emissions), it is anticipated that GHG emissions from vehicles will grow. Future GHG inventories will be needed to evaluate whether improved solid waste management and construction of new wastewater treatment facilities with higher levels of overall sewerage treatment will be effective in capturing GHG emissions and preventing their release into the atmosphere. Page 26 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities IV. DIRECT DRIVERS AND CAUSES OF ENVIRONMENTAL VULNERABILITY AND DEGRADATION Photo: Informal settlement along drainage corridor at Northern Bypass. Source: AECOM As described in Section II, Kampala’s environmental assets By their very nature, these settlements have developed have been significantly degraded by anthropogenic actions. without any formal urban planning or organization – While ancillary drivers certainly exist, this section of the although they are structured and organized by informal Urban Environmental Profile documents the direct drivers social and economic systems. The dense and un-serviced of environmental vulnerability and degradation. informal settlements are lacking basic public infrastructure such as water, sewage, solid waste collection, and transit services. Limited services available have tended to be A. Informal Settlements provided adhoc and do not comply with urban and environmental standards. The KCCA documented 31 A significant consequence of the decades of rapid slums in 2011 (KCCA, 2012). The majority of the informal urbanization is manifest in the vast area of informal settlements are populated by the urban poor and have settlements that have proliferated in Kampala and have evolved primarily as areas of extremely dense slums in increasingly encroached into the wetlands and drainage these marginal and low-cost areas of the city. corridors. The scale and density of informal settlements are unprecedented and have overwhelmed the capacities of the city’s urban and environmental management systems. The physical and human impacts of this type of development are one of the most significant drivers of vulnerability for Kampala’s environment and ecosystems.                                    Kampala, Uganda Page 27 The density and location of the informally settled slum There is no national or local government mechanism areas are driven by the lack of an adequate supply of currently in place to address the challenges of the informal accessible and affordable land for residential, industrial, settlements, either to prevent the development of new infrastructure, utility, and service facility development. slums or to find solutions to existing ones (KCCA, 2012). Land area exists on a scale to meet current housing needs, but it is unavailable for development due to the land tenure system, the inefficiencies of the real estate B. Effluents and property market, gross income inequality, and the effective absence of a residential construction industry, The lack of a comprehensive effluent management system, as well as the absence of adequate long-term planning including adequate waste water treatment facilities, and implementation. Kampala has a gross density of point source pollution controls, and controls on non- approximately 89 persons per km2 and is projected to reach point effluent discharge, degrades the city’s wetland a gross density of some 100-plus persons per km2 as the system and contributes to a loss of its ecosystem services. population increases to 2 to 2.25 million (KCCA, 2012). Effluents from both formally planned and informally settled residential areas and commercial and industrial discharges Given the constant demand for cheap inner-city housing, are the primary source of pollution and degradation of the its limited supply, and the decreasing supply of available city’s water resources and of the Murchison Bay. land, settlements are constructed as tenements (Muzigo) in increasingly high densities. They lack public or private open space, with only narrow paths or lanes providing Waste Water Treatment pedestrian access while doubling as outdoor “kitchens,” Approximately, 10% of the population of Kampala is “shop fronts,” or play areas for children (KCCA, 2012). served by the sewer system (figures vary), which covers Rental costs in these areas can be an expensive option. the Central Business District and the affluent areas, For example, the rental cost per square meter in an inner while 90 % of the population, mainly the urban poor, city Muzigo was found to be one of the most expensive of relies on various forms of on-site sanitation (figures housing options in Kampala (KCCA, 2012). vary): pit latrines (55-65%), improved (VIP) pit latrines The density of settlement and the lack of public (27.5%), septic tanks (20%), public toilets (1%), and open infrastructure present significant public health issues defecation (African Development Fund, 2008; KCCA, 2012; that primarily affect the poor, particularly during periods (KCCA, 2014a). These untreated effluents are discharged of flooding. Spring and surface water supply is easily into the environment, flow through the Nakivubo contaminated by sanitary conditions and flooding. Floods channel and, ultimately, into the Inner Murchison Bay of cause frequent outbreaks of water-borne diseases, such Lake Victoria. While wetlands can retain nutrients from as cholera, which had outbreaks recorded in 1997, 1999, wastewater and cleanse wastewater of nutrient loads, the 2004, 2006, and 2008 due to the increased floods in the degradation of wetland vegetation and encroachment of city. Heavy rains can be followed by an upsurge of malaria, wetlands by development reduces this nutrient cycling while flooding is followed by diarrheal diseases. During capacity (Kansiime et al, 2007). drought, the population is predisposed to meningitis The city’s main treatment plant, Bugolobi Sewage epidemics and other diseases caused by lack of water for Treatment Plant (BSTP), with a capacity of 200 m3/day, adequate sanitation, such as eye and skin infections. is highly inefficient and ineffective due to its location, The floods contribute to crop failure, food insecurity, requiring siphons and pumping stations for moving and even malnutrition. The frequency of public health more than 55% of the sewage sent to Bugolobi. In other challenges is expected to increase in rainfall and flooding instances, operational problems, such as the frequent due to climate change. An estimated 45% of the health blockages of the siphons and low performance of the units of Kampala are located in flood-prone areas, pumping stations, result in sewage discharged untreated furthering the implication of flooding on public health. into the environment. The facility does not comply Despite the risks of living within the floodplain, the with nutrient and coliform removal standards (African marginal land within the city is occupied by settlements to Development Fund, 2008). After passing through BSTP, provide better proximity to employment opportunities in partially treated sewage is mixed with the untreated or around the city centre. effluents already in the drainage channels before entering the wetlands. The Nakivubo Channel, which passes through informal settlements, slums and commercial areas, contributes a significant pollution load into Inner Murchison Bay. The Nakivubo Channel is also among the largest recipient of organic matter discharged from un- Page 28 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities sewered areas, in the form of solid waste and wastewater costs which can disincentivize collection, use of unlined (Kizito, 1986)(MWE, 2014). The Nakivubo Channel has pits which do not allow mechanical emptying and limited been found to transport domestic wastes equal to the raw capacity for fecal sludge disposal (Fichtner, 2014). Table 3 sewage from an estimated 100,000 households and is the shows that the rate of daily faecal sludge collected will source of approximately 75% of the nutrients entering the more than double by 2040. wetland. (COWI/VKI 1998) (IUCN, 2003). Table 3   Forecast of Faecal Sludge (FS) Collection Just under a tenth of households (John van Nostrand Associates, 1994) and approximately two thirds of medium Collected FS 2014 2020 2025 2040 and large industrial facilities in Kampala (COWI/VKI 1998) by Population are connected to the BSTP (Emerton, 1998). Thus, up to Type (kg TS/d) 8,000 households discharge domestic wastes into the wetland as runoff into the surface waters that enter it Inner Ring 7,100 8,800 12,300 21,800 Population or through groundwater inflows from the infiltration of rainfall on hills beside the swamp, from pit latrines, Transient 4,400 4,300 4,300 3,100 septic tanks, soak pits, and leaking waste pipes. At least Population three other point sources of wastes enter southern parts Outer Ring 2,700 3,500 5,300 11,100 of the wetland directly, including effluents from Uganda Population Breweries and two sewage outflows from Luzira Prison Total Population 14,000 17,000 22,000 36,000 (Emerton, 1998). (rounded) Source: Fichtner, 2014 It is estimated that 99% of the domestic resident population and 85% of the institutional, commercial and KCCA provides each division with a vacuum tanker as part industrial sector are using onsite sanitation treatment of the Kampala Urban Sanitation Project for emptying (Fichtner, July 2014). On-site sanitation generates fecal service to households. In addition, the collection service sludge which, depending on the technology, may need to is provided with 32 trucks that belong to private cesspool be removed from the site and treated elsewhere once the emptiers, with a total capacity of 120 m3. According to pit is full. While on-site sanitation can be a cost effective Kampala Sanitation Program, the average collection volume solution to sewage management, inadequate pit design of fecal sludge per truck is 4.6m3. While the collected and lack of collection can cause pits to collapse or overflow sludge will be discharged at the newly Renovated Lubigi or lead to disposal outside of designated collection plant in 2014, the Lubigi plant has already experienced facilities, contaminating environmental assets such as overloading with the mean daily sludge volume reaching groundwater, soil and downstream surface water. A lack 600 m3/day while the plan’s capacity is 400 m3/day of sludge collection from pits requiring sludge removal can (Fichtner, 2014). Clogging of the sedimentation tanks’ also cause pits to become abandoned, consuming valuable pumping station and clogging of drying beds have space below ground that becomes more congested for contributed to the overloading (Fichtner, 2014). Once installing future pit latrines. The most common form of treated, the final sludge disposal is provided to farmers as on-site sanitation in Kampala is the simple pit latrine which an agricultural soil amendment (Fichtner, 2014). is difficult to empty (representing 64% of households in a 2014 survey) (KCCA, 2014a). The inability to empty a simple Future Sewage Treatment Facilities pit latrine enables fecal sludge to remain available in the environment for potential contamination of ground and Kampala currently has a sewer network of 143 km with surface waters (KCCA, 2014a). 135km in the Nakivubo/Bugolobi catchment and 8km in the Lubigi catchment (Fichtner, 2014). High investment and The inadequate collection and disposal of fecal sludge is an maintenance costs and the low prioritization of sanitation environmental issue due to spills and incomplete treatment services within the city have led to deferred investment and disposal of sludge that lead to a high pollution in sanitation and compounded the sanitation challenges load into Kampala’s wetlands and Inner Murchison Bay Kampala faces (KCCA, 2014b). (Fichtner, 2014). Only 43% (390 m3/day) of fecal sludge generated in the city is collected (KCCA, 2014a). While 99% There are several measures planned or underway in the of the fecal sludge collected comes from lined facilities, KCCA, and while these measures would provide very 74.5% of the fecal sludge generated from these lined significant improvements to the sanitation systems, facilities is collected. (KCCA, 2014a). the development of the systems has been plagued with financing problems driven by both inability and There are currently numerous challenges to increasing unwillingness of the population to pay for appropriate the rate of fecal sludge collection, such as high transport facilities (KCCA, 2012).                                     Kampala, Uganda Page 29 Point-Source Pollution “Wet” industries are those that discharge wastewater into sewers or storm water drainage channels that eventually enter surface water (Matagi, 2002). Most of these industries have obsolete technologies, which in most cases are environmentally polluting. None have pre-treatment facilities for their wastewater before it is discharged into either the environment or public sewer. As noted previously, Nakivubo Channel has the highest concentration of “wet” industries. Photo: Emptying fecal sludge at Bugolobi WWTP. Since many industries (Figure 21) do not treat the Source: PEAU, Feb 2014 effluents generated before discharge, the direct release Measures planned or underway in the KCCA include the into wetlands is resulting in severe accumulation of following: contaminants. The Nakawa-Ntinda Industrial area is within the Kinawataka wetland’s watershed and broader inner • Completion of the Sewage and Fecal Sludge Murchison bay catchment. This industrial area’s discharges Treatment Plant (SFSTP) in the Lubigi wetlands from food industries, heavy metals, and pharmaceutical alongside the Northern Bypass in 2014 provides industries are degrading water quality with high Biological 400 m3 per day capacity for faecal sludge Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), treatment (Fichtner, 2014). The Lubigi facility color, pH, TN and turbidity (Walakira and Okot-Okumu, also includes a sewage treatment plant for the 2011). Lubigi catchment with a capacity for 5,000 m3/ day and can be extended to a 12,500 m3/day. Many industries were set up without implementing an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) or completing • Rehabilitation and expansion of the city’s waterborne mandatory periodical Environmental Audits (EA). sewerage system by rehabilitating the existing sewage Therefore, most industries do not have an environmental treatment works (STW) at Bugolobi and abandoning management policy and environmental management plan the proposed STW in the Nakivubo wetland due for managing the wastewater generated (Walakira and to incompatible soil conditions (NWSC, 2013). Okot-Okumu, 2011). Uganda has established a National • Development of a new waterborne sewerage Cleaner Production Centre in partnership with UNIDO- system at Kinawataka to serve the eastern UNEP for reducing pollution intensity of industrial output part of KCCA. This Kinawataka system will while promoting economic competitiveness (UNEP, 2009; connect to the rehabilitated Bugolobi STW and UNEP-UNIDO, 2010). A 2011 study, however, was unable to include a pumping station (Fichtner, 2014). identify any industries in one of Kampala’s major industrial • Additionally, the KPDP recommends a piped areas, Ntinda-Nakawa, that were operating within Cleaner sewer network for the Lubigi catchment, in Production standards (Walakira and Okot-Okumu, 2011). addition to those of Kinawataka and Nakivubo, and to undertake planning for additional sections of the Nakivubo system. While construction of new and enhanced sewage treatment has been proposed at multiple locations, including Nakivubo and Kinawataka wetlands (African Development Fund, 2008), the NWSC is proceeding with rehabilitation of the sewage treatment facility at Bugolobi (NWSC, May 2014). Photo: Point source pollution from informal settlements. Source: AECOM Page 30 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities Collectively, it is estimated that pollution sources around Kampala City amount to high levels causing water quality impairment, including 6.34 tons of BOD, 1.5 tonnes of nitrogen, and 1 tonne of phosphorus, that discharge daily into Murchison Bay and Lake Victoria (Okwerede et al. 2005). A consequence to the wetland system and its services of untreated and unmanaged discharge from multiple sources is represented in the escalating cost of treating raw water drawn from the Nakivubo drainage at the Gaba drinking water treatment facility (See Figure 17) (Mwanuzi et al., 2005). As noted previously, these escalating costs have caused the National Water and Sewerage Corporation to invest in a new drinking water production facility located farther from the Nakivubo drainage outlet at Katosi (NWSC, 2013). Ooyo (2009) confirms findings that to reduce the water treatment cost at Gaba, there is a need to reallocate the raw water abstraction point to the outer bay. It has also been found Figure 21   Distribution of Sample Industries in Kampala, 2012 Source: Walakira et al, 2011 that high organic nutrient concentrations in the Nakivubo channel have impaired the self-purification capacity of The most heavily polluted areas are adjacent to the the Nakivubo (Oyoo, 2008). The KPDP also endorses this industrial slum areas of Kisenyi and Katwe, home to most concept by recommending the commissioning of new of the city’s car repair garages. Chemical wastes from the water treatment plants (KCCA, 2012). car repairs are dumped directly into streams. Other point Non-point source pollution from auto shop areas is a driver sources of wastewater within the IMB catchment enter of water quality degradation in the Kinawataka wetland from the Luzira Prison. These are numerous small, medium, system. Downstream lead concentration can be attributed and larger- scaled industries that discharge high organic, to the high concentration of vehicles in this zone due to nutrient-rich effluent laden with other metal pollutants into the numerous car sale depots and vehicle parking lots that the surface water. discharge (leak) fuel and contaminated engine oil into the environment (Walakira and Okut, 2011). Non-Point Source Pollution Along Kinawataka stream, samples with high lead values Non-point source pollutants flowing into the city’s aquatic from the Kampala Pharmaceutical Industry site are 14 resources largely consists of storm runoff during the wet times the NEMA-acceptable value for effluent. While season, which increases the concentrations of all nutrients, these readings could be due to point-source pollution by in turn affecting water quality (Banadda 2011). Runoff pharmaceutical facilities, the study finds that these high during the wet season increases the concentrations of lead levels could also be originating from non-point sources ammonia, phosphorus, nitrites, and nitrates. (Ammonia such as the leaded fuel in the industries and the chemicals varied from 0.1 to 0.19 mg/L, phosphorus from 0.01 to as well as disposal sites for old batteries left at petrol 0.18 mg/L, nitrites from 0.01 to 0.05 mg/L and nitrates 0.02 stations (Muwanga and Barafijo, 2006). to 0.36 mg/L.) Field measurements confirmed that nutrient concentrations decrease as one moves deeper from the shores into the lake due to dilution. High BOD levels within the city’s wetland channels can also degrade aquatic assets, as observed pollution has reached levels sufficient for producing ammonia and hydrogen sulphide that can kill fish (Oyoo, 2008).                                    Kampala, Uganda Page 31 C. Stormwater Runoff Expansion of the city’s drainage system has not kept up with the rapid urban growth and development of informal settlements. As previously stated, Kampala has seen a 197% increase in the number of buildings constructed in the city from 2004-2010. The extent of impervious surfaces and compacted land area, the higher rates of precipitation and increasing storm events, and poor maintenance of the existing drainage system collectively have caused an increase in the volume and coefficient of runoff. This lack of an adequate drainage system required to manage storm water runoff and flooding is a key driver of Kampala’s environmental asset degradation. A reduction in pervious land creates greater storm water runoff volumes, leading to increased flooding and increased pollution of waterways as storm water collects solid and liquid waste from settlement areas and roads, transporting pollutants into the city’s wetlands. Between 2004 and 2010, Kampala’s amount of impervious roof area has grown 262% across the city with substantial increases in each drainage area (Figure 22) (Table 4). Also, Figure 22   Increase in Roof Area per Catchment, 2004-2010 the buildings have generally increased in size, leading to an Source: UN, 2013 even higher rate of increase in roof area. These conditions have increased the frequency and severity of flooding problems throughout the city. A detailed case study analysis as part of the Kampala Flood Risk Management Report 2013 shows that the amount of impervious surfaces in a catchment is a major determinant of the volume and speed of surface water runoff and therefore flooding (UN- Habitat, 2013). Table 4   Change in Impervious Coverage via Building Indicators at Catchment Level, 2004-2010 Catchment No. Buildings No. Buildings % Change Buildings Roof area Roof area % Change 2004 2010 2004-2010 2004 2010 Roof Area (sq.m) (sq.m) 2004-2010 Kansanga 15,522 35,253 227 1,313,902 3,887,729 296 Kinawataka 9,854 27,413 278 983,637 3,147,210 320 Lubigi 51,870 85,728 165 3,291,477 9,170,916 279 Mayanja 8,545 20,803 243 629,495 2,020,945 321 Nakivubo 31,714 50,252 158 4,155,398 7,556,993 182 Nalubaga 3,086 12,808 415 152,044 1,411,113 928 Nalukolongo 13,861 28,557 206 1,212,545 3,083,009 254 Walufube 4,358 12,171 279 251,366 1,138,757 453 Total 138,810 272,985 197 11,989,864 31,416,671 262 Source: UN, 2013 Page 32 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities Inadequate stormwater management facilities threaten Review and update of the 2002 Kampala Drainage Master to degrade the quality of Kampala’s remaining high- Plan is anticipated to improve response to environmental quality wetlands. Drainages such as the Kinawataka, management challenges associated with storm water Walufumbe, Nalubaga and Mayanja that have received runoff. The 2002 plan has been ineffective because the the largest growth in impervious coverage between 2004 analysis has not been based on detailed rainfall intensity and 2010, also contain the city’s least degraded wetlands data. It also became outdated due to the change in the (see Aquatic Assets). However, this staggering growth in drainage pattern and increase of built up areas in the impervious surface coverage suggests that these peri-urban upland and lowland areas of the city (KCCA, 2014b). The wetland assets could be considered highly threatened due World Bank has provided funding under the Kampala to increasing runoff velocities and volumes, erosion and Institutional and Infrastructure Development Project Phase sedimentation, nutrient enrichment, and pollutant-heavy (KIIDP2) program for review and update of the Drainage non-point source runoff. Master Plan and to guide investment (World Bank, 2014). UN-Habitat has also conducted a Flood Risk Assessment to demonstrate how flood risk can be addressed by the Flooding city in an integrated and comprehensive manner and with stakeholder participation (UN-Habitat, 2013). Poor quality and maintenance of the existing drainage system contributes to flooding. Storm water runoff KCCA plans to address sustainable urban drainage from upland and overland flow discharges into drainage through enhancement of primary channels and secondary channels and then flows to the wetlands where, under drainages, including: environmentally healthy conditions, runoff would be stored and flood peaks would be attenuated. Drainage systems • The redevelopment of The Nakivubo Channel, and wetlands are frequently overtopped, however, and implementing sustainable drainage management flooded when they are impeded by solid waste, filled by plans for the precincts, construction of the secondary sediment/siltation, and overwhelmed by the volume of and tertiary channels, and creation of public parks flow. Channelization of some of Kampala’s wetlands has and an animal sanctuary to boost eco-tourism. occurred in an effort to reduce the negative effects of • Complete construction of the Lubigi drainage flooding (UN-Habitat, 2013). channel, including secondary and tertiary Most drainage systems in the built areas of the city flow drainage channels and an extension to in open culverts along the roadside. The open culverts are the River Mayanja on Mityana Road. frequently used as dumping grounds for waste disposal, • Other drainage system enhancements which clogs the systems and causes flooding and health for the Nalukolongo, Kinawataka, and risks (KCCA, 2012). Low-lying settlement areas, such as Kansanga wetlands (KCCA, 2012). Bwaise, Kinawataka, Natete, Ndeeba, and Katwe, are increasingly prone to levels of flooding that destroy houses, roads, and culverts as well as contaminating the water supply (Lwasa, 2010). There were five observed flood events in 1993, which increased to nine in 1997. There were eight flood events in 2007 (Lwasa, 2010).                                    Kampala, Uganda Page 33 D. Solid Waste Approximately 34.8% of the total waste generated is not The city’s only formal landfill at Mpererwe (Kiteezi properly removed by the city. The amount of solid waste Parish), is anticipated to reach capacity within a few generated overwhelms the capacity of the city to collect years, requiring expansion or construction at another site. and dispose of it and, as a result, a great deal of the solid Waste loads to Kampala’s only landfill, the 35 acre site a waste is thrown or carried by runoff into the drainage Mpererwe (also referred to as Kiteezi), steadily increased channels and wetlands. Because of the limited funds from April 2011 through December 2012, whereas that have been allocated to solid waste management in increased collection efficiency within 2013 is expected to Kampala, only the central business district and affluent have increased the average daily load approximately 30% neighborhoods in the city receive adequate solid waste more (totaling 1,400-1,500 metric tons per day of waste) collection (AWE, 2013). compared to the December 2012 load of 950 metric tons per day (Figure 23) (N.B. 2013 figures not yet available) A large percentage of solid waste that is generated (IFC, 2013). Opened in 1996, the 35 acre landfill contains is not properly collected or disposed. In 2009, 40% of 29 acres under current landfill activities with an extension the 1,200–1,500 tons of garbage generated daily was of 6 acres that are being developed for landfilling (AWE, collected. The collection rate increased to 54 percent by 2013). Extensions to the Kiteezi Landfill, anticipated to be 2010, and by 2013 solid waste collection had increased to constructed through 2015, will increase the Landfill’s total 65% (WaterAid Uganda, 2011; Madinah et al., 2014). This capacity by 620,000 m3, however, this is only expected to means, however, that in 2013, 35 percent of garbage still provide two additional years of capacity for the landfill (IFC, was not properly collected and disposed. 2013). The KCCA has worked with NEMA to implement a While there are no recycling or composting facilities in the program in which commercial businesses pay for solid KCCA, the nearby municipality of Mukono has an effective waste collection services while KCCA offers free solid waste compositing facility, and Entebbe has plans to waste collection to slum locations, including Kawempe, develop a facility. In addition to households dumping waste Kampala central, Lubaga, Makindye, and Nakawa divisions into stormwater channels, sewers, or public areas, there is (Madinah et al., 2014). Early analysis shows that solid illegal dumping and burning by refuse collectors or building waste management efficiency of collection has improved contractors. There is very little organized waste collection by approximately 10% in the last 2 years (Madinah et al., and disposal in KMTC. Medical and other toxic waste is 2014). untreated and is generally discarded with other solid waste The lack of solid waste collection across most of the urban (KCCA, 2012). Evidence also shows that toxic smoke from area contributes to the degradation of the city’s land, the burning of solid waste might be a contributor to air wetlands, and air. Solid waste not properly disposed of quality degradation in Kampala (Schwander et al., 2014). causes blockage and backup of the limited drainage system While there is limited consistency of available data and natural drainage corridors, thereby contributing to regarding solid waste generation trends for Kampala, data the flooding problem. Rotting and/or burned waste cause available for FY 2012-2013 provides a baseline for future odors and air pollution. These consequences contribute to measurement of waste generation trends (Table 5). poor health and the spread of disease (KCCA, 2012). Table 5   Waste Generation Tables for Kampala FY 2012-2103 Quarters KCCA Private Total Quarter 1 58,816 27,304 86,119.8 (68.30%) (31.70%) Quarter 2 56,414 31,615 88,029.1 (64.09%) (35.91%) Quarter 3 56,414 33,627 87,556.18 (64.09%) (38.41%) Quarter 4 56,668 32,603 89,270.3 (63.48%) (36.52%) Figure 23   Waste Received at Kampala’s Only Landfill Source: IFC, 2013 Source: Madinah et al., 2014 Page 34 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities The waste that is collected, transported and disposed The high organic composition of Kampala’s solid waste at the city’s only landfill at Mpererwe contributes to is a driver of water quality degradation. According to degradation of water and air resources. Inefficient Madinah et al, 2014, almost 74 percent of the garbage leachate treatment at the landfill results in effluent that generated in the city is organic, while the rest is inorganic, does not comply with national standards while the lack comprising glass, plastic, paper, metals, and construction of landfill gas collection results in release of methane, a and demolition waste (Figure 24). The high composition high-intensity greenhouse gas emission (IFC, 2013). Table 6 of organic solid waste can cause considerable nutrient shows the general lack of environmental compliance of loading of drainage channels and wetlands, once the waste leachate treatment effluent, which degrades environmental is transported into Kampala’s water bodies. The resultant assets and adjacent community resources when the nutrient concentrations contribute to algae growth and leachate is carried away from the landfill via groundwater, other indicators of high nutrient levels observed in the stormwater and soil erosion. During heavy rains, the waters near Gaba treatment works and other wetlands lack of a stormwater management system contributes to throughout the city (Ooyo, 2009). flooding of the leachate treatment system which enables untreated leachate to mix with stormwater and move off site (AWE, 2013). The landfill’s leachate discharged into groundwater, without full treatment by reed beds, has posed a significant health risk to the adjacent community. Specifically, water analysis from three nearby community boreholes that access an aquifer adjacent to the landfill showed that the levels of lead were 20, 80 and 90 times, respectively, higher than the national standard for potable water (AWE, 2013). Lead exposure, particularly for children, can cause numerous health effects and have a harmful impact on children’s learning and behavior (WHO, 2014). The high levels of lead at the landfill are attributed to Figure 24   Composition of Solid Waste Collected alloys, paints and batteries (AWE, 2013). The landfill also Source: Madinah et al, 2014 emits methane from the decomposition of wastes. While a system was designed to capture the landfill’s methane and convert the gas into an energy source, the system has not yet been installed, enabling this high-intensity GHG to contribute to global climate change (AWE, 2013). Table 6   Measurement of Leachate at Mpererwe Landfill Dry Season Wet Season Chemical Measurement National Standard Measurement National Standard pH 8.37 6.5- 8.5 8.53 6.5 -8.5 Chemical oxygen demand (COD) 1587 mg/l 100 mg/l 165 mg/l 100 mg/l 5-day Biochemical oxygen demand 280 mg/l 50 mg/l - - (BOD5) 5000 213150 5000 Faecal coliform bacteria - CFU/100ml CFU/100ml CFU/100ml Ammonia-nitrogen 33 mg/l 10 mg/l 24 mg/l 10 mg/l Total phosphorus 13 mg/l 10 mg/l 26 mg/l 10 mg/l Lead 0.6 mg/l 0.1 mg/l - - 2773 800 4771 800 Alkalinity mg as CaCO3/l mg as CaCO3/l mg as CaCO3/l mg as CaCO3/l Source: AWE, 2013                                    Kampala, Uganda Page 35 Solid waste is also a driver of drinking water quality There has been a steady increase in use of wood fuel in degradation for Kampala’s water intake system at Gaba. Kampala’s informal settlement areas, due to the lack of Solid waste flushed into drains contributes to water quality feasible alternative energy services, see Table 8. Wood degradation in wetlands such as the Nakivubo Channel, fuel is used by approximately 75% of households, 10% of Murchison Bay, and the inlets near Kampala’s water intake commercial establishments, and 5% of industry. Overall, plants at Gaba (Ooyo, 2009). An NWSC representative charcoal production meets approximately 10% of energy notes that most solid waste near Gaba Beach ends up in a needs in the city (KCCA, 2012). The high dependency on drainage channel, which then pollutes the lake water that wood fuel and charcoal has implications on the increased is drawn into the treatment facilities Gaba II and Gaba III release of carbon through deforestation as well as the (DW.DE, 2012). carbon dioxide emission through combustion (KCCA, 2012). An increasing number of vehicles in Kampala degrade E. Air Emissions the environment through greenhouse gas emissions and related mobile source pollution. In 2012, Kampala had an In regards to GHG mitigation activities, the Ministry of estimated 465,000 motor vehicles in use. In the last ten Water and Environment’s Climate Change Department is years, vehicle use has increased as follows: light transport the designated national authority that approves projects on 5.7%, automobiles 7.4%, mini buses 12.6%, buses 5.4%, the basis of reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions trucks 9.2%, and motorcycles 15.8% as shown in Table 9 (CDP Cities, 2013) while a 2012 GHG Inventory established. (UBOS, 2012). The increase in the number of motor vehicles has increased consumption of petroleum products. The majority of Kampala’s emissions of PM10, PM2.5, SOx, There is not an efficient public bus system to mitigate the NOx and Benzene are generated from domestic sources and city’s congestion or to reduce the number of automobiles transportation activities, per Table 7 (ICF, 2009). Domestic or small vans used for informal transit. GHG emissions from source emissions specifically include open-air burning of transportation are relatively high and likely to increase with household wastes, wood, and charcoal. Transportation improvement in roads as well as from the rise in private activities are also driving the majority of the city’s local modes of transport within the city-region. Mode, vehicle- emissions from passenger cars, trucks, and motorcycles. kilometers traveled, energy use, and number of trips per Re-circulation of roadway dust by passing vehicles is also a day per person are all factors driving GHG emissions from primary driver of PM10 and PM2.5 emissions (ICF, 2009). motor vehicles (Lwasa, 2013). Table 7   Baseline Inventory of Emissions in Kampala (2009) Emissions (% of Total Pollutants) Source Type PM10 (t/y) PM2.5 (t/y) NOX (t/y) SOX (t/y) Benzene (t/y) 14,686 1,627 Roadway Dust - - - (47.5%) (10.0%) 15,587 14,028 2,676 273 Domestic Sources - (50.4%) (86.5%) (39.9%) (30.9%) 618 556 3,984 1,747 610 Vehicle Sources (2.0%) (3.4%) (59.3%) (68.8%) (69.1%) 10 9 55 793 Industrial Sources - (0.0%) (0.1%) (0.8%) (31.2%) 30,901 16,220 6,715 2,540 883 Total (tpy) (100.0%) (100.0%) (100.0%) (100.0%) (100.0%) Source: ICF, 2009 Page 36 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities Table 8   Distribution of Households by Cooking Fuel (%) As vehicle ownership increases, greenhouse gas emissions and other forms of mobile source pollution from Fuel Type 2005/2006 2009/2010 transportation will also increase. In 2011, there were 635,656 registered vehicles in Uganda, approximately 50% Charcoal 77.7% 74.5% of which are located in Kampala (Schwander et al, 2014). Firewood 5.8% 2.4% Newly registered vehicles in Uganda increased by 18.5% Kerosene 5.2% 7.8% from 2010 to 2011 (UBOS, 2012 as cited in Watundu, Electricity 1.4% 3.4% 2013). While no data is available to identify the proportion of this increase that is specific to Kampala, the previous Other 9.9% 11.9% citation from 2011 of 50 percent of Uganda’s registered Source: UBOS, Community Survey, 2005/6, 2009/10 vehicles being located in Kampala gives an idea of the potential increase in the study area. Most of the newly registered vehicles are second-hand vehicles purchased from Japan. To date, there are no age restrictions or Table 9   Increase in Vehicle Use 2002-2012 emissions requirements for vehicles in Uganda (Schwander Mode Share 2002 - 2012 et al, 2014). Light Transit 5.7% The degradation in air quality from mobile-source pollution, oxides of nitrogen, and volatile organic Mini Buses 12.6% compounds promotes formation of ground-level ozone Buses 5.4% that can be harmful to people, animals, crops, and other Trucks 9.2% materials by inhibiting respiratory systems and altering Motorcycles 15.7% cellular formation (US EPA ground level, 2014). Ground Source: UBOS, 2012 level ozone can also interfere with the ability of sensitive plants to produce and store food; visibly damage the leaves of trees and other plants; lead to increased susceptibility of sensitive plant species to disease, damage from insects, pollutants, competition, and harm from severe weather; and have adverse impacts on ecosystems, including loss of species diversity and changes to habitat quality and water and nutrient cycles (EPA Ozone, 2014). Photo: Road Congestion in Kampala. Source: KCCA, date unknown                                    Kampala, Uganda Page 37 Table 10   Newly Imported Vehicles in Uganda, 2009-2013 Vehicle Type 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Total Tractor head/trailer 607 627 827 1,268 1,157 4,486 Mini bus 2,950 3,260 2,164 2,033 3,533 13,940 Saloon (sedan) 22,133 31,879 24,897 28,179 29,397 136,485 Lorries 8,293 9,453 7,536 7,751 8,254 41,287 Total vehicles 33,983 45,219 35,424 39,231 42,341 196,198 Motorcycles 63,734 69,717 101,736 69,368 85,183 389,738 Total 131,700 160,155 172,584 147,830 169,865 782,134 Source: Ministry of Works and Transport, 2014 Another factor in air quality in Kampala is the large number of motorbikes (or “boda-bodas”) driven in the city. Motorcycles have a significant impact on air quality as they generate more pollution per Km than other vehicles. Boda-boda usage data is variable. In Uganda, since 2009, approximately twice as many boda-bodas have been imported compared to all other vehicles combined (Table 10). KCCA Strategic Plan recently noted that a free registration exercise recorded 55,000 motorcycles (KCCA, 2014b). In 2011, boda-bodas accounted for 42% of vehicles on Kampala’s roads but only carried 8.5% of the passengers (Figure 24) (KCCA, n.d.a). The inability to build road infrastructure that keeps pace Figure 25   Kampala Modal Split in 2011 Source: KCCA, date unknown with the expanding number of vehicles in the city has led to traffic congestion. Vehicles idling in traffic contribute to greenhouse gas emissions in addition to GHGs released when moving to the destination point. In 2011, a baseline of automobile traffic flow on Kampala roads was recorded at 181,216 vehicles per day (KCCA, 2011 as cited in Watundu, 2013). Limited availability of data inhibits a comparison of average traffic counts in Kampala from additional years. Page 38 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities V. INSTITUTIONAL CHALLENGES A. Overview In discussing the key drivers and causes of environmental With the overall understanding established in the first part, vulnerability and the promotion, or lack thereof, of green the second half of the section explores the key institutional urban development, the threads converge onto governance KAMPALA challenges and issues related to these four areas. Finally, and institutional issues. This section, therefore, seeks to the section concludes by offering some suggestions and first characterize the prevailing institutional landscape recommendations for improvements to decision makers around promoting CHALLENGES INSTITUTIONAL green urban development in Kampala, and practitioners. thereby highlighting key institutional factors or challenges that A.mayOverview foster or hinder green urban development, and The methodology undertaken comprised mainly: (i) data finally offer some possible suggestions for improvements. collection through desk-research on the background of In discussing To provide morethe key examples, tangible drivers and causes we for Kampala, the selected of environmental agencies/institutions vulnerability and the for the institutional promotion, or lack focused on the environmental assets of land and water and mapping and conducting face-to-face interviews with thereof, of green urban development, the threads converge onto governance and institutional issues. on the issue of protection, use and restoration of wetlands. senior technical staff in some of the agencies/institutions; This section, therefore, seeks to first characterize These are discussed within a broader context of urban andthe prevailing context institutional (ii) institutional landscape analysis using around information planning and green promoting urban development in Kampala, thereby highlighting key institutional factors or development. mainly drawn from the interviews and any supplementary challenges that may foster or hinder green urban documents development,or data collected. and finally offer some possible The first half of the section will present an overview of suggestions for improvements. the prevailing institutional To provide landscape through more tangible a rapid examples, The discussion here for does not seek towe Kampala, focused on the be comprehensive environmental institutional mapping assets of land organized and water around and four main on the areas: and does (i) issue not cover all of protection, relevant use stakeholders, of and restoration given wetlands. institutional structure, (ii) relevant regulatory environment, significant data and time constraints. Instead, through the These are discussed within a broader context of urban planning and development. (iii) typical processes and interactions and (iv) capacity qualitative and anecdotal evidence provided by focused The first half of the section will present an overview discussions, and resources (as below). The selected key agencies it serves to highlight and reveal some of the of the prevailing institutional landscape through a or institutions involved in the planning, execution and main institutional obstacles, to candidly surface issues rapid institutional mapping organized around four main being areas: faced and institutional (i)reflect structure, honest opinions, (ii) in the relevant hopes of management related to the environmental assets of land regulatory and water are environment, introduced. (iii) typical processes and feeding interactions and into larger (iv) capacity ongoing and resources debates, assisting (as with tackling below). The selected key agencies or institutions involved the challenges of green urban in the planning, development execution and identify and management areas for deeper analysis. related to the environmental assets of land and water are introduced. With the overall understanding established in the first part, the second half of the section explores the key institutional challenges and issues related to these four areas. Finally, the section concludes by offering some suggestions and recommendations for improvements to decision makers and practitioners. The methodology undertaken comprised mainly: (i) data collection through desk-research on the background of the selected agencies/institutions for the institutional mapping and conducting face-to- of the agencies/institutions; and (ii) institutional face interviews with senior technical staff in some                                    context analysis using information mainly drawn from the interviews and any supplementary documents Kampala, Uganda Page 39 or data collected. B. Prevailing Institutional Landscape Institutional Structure, Capacity and related to the environmental issues of Kampala are Resources described below: For Kampala, the key institutional actors include both i. Department of Land Registration: responsible the national and city level agencies and can be broadly for issuance of certificates of titles, general considered under three areas: (i) urban planning and conveyance, keeping custody of the national development, (ii) service provision (especially water and land register, coordination, inspection, sewerage) and (iii) environmental management. monitoring and back-up technical support relating to land registration and acquisition processes to local governments. National Level Two main ministries (Ministry of Lands, Housing & Urban ii. Department of Land Administration: Development and Ministry of Water & Environment) responsible for supervision of land and their agencies/departments play a critical role in the administration institutions and valuation of preservation and development of urban environment of land and other properties. Kampala. Their institutional structure, relevant mandates and capacity are briefly described here. iii. Department of Land use regulation and compliance: responsible for formulation of land use related policies, plans and a. Ministry of Lands, Housing & Urban Development regulations. It also provides technical support (MoLHUD): responsible for providing policy and guidance to Local Governments in the direction, national standards and coordination field of land use regulation, monitoring and of all matters concerning lands, housing and evaluation, and systematization of the land and urban development for the country. It guides KAMPALA use compliance monitoring function and directs policy, legal aspects and sets the regulatory practice. This department has approximately agenda on land, housing and urban development 20 staff including 5 support staff. (Reference to ensure sustainable land management promote into larger ongoing debates, assisting with tackling the challenges of green of organogram Ministry urban and and of Lands, Housing development sustainable housing for all and foster orderly urban Urban Development). identify areas for deeper analysis. development in the country. Politically, the ministry B. structure Prevailing one Minister who has Institutional gives the overall Landscape b. Ministry of Water & Environment (MWE): political guidance and direction with support of responsible for setting national policies and three Ministers of State for Lands, Housing Institutional Structure, Capacity and Resources and standards, managing and regulating water Urban Development respectively. Within the resources and determining priorities for water there ministry,the For Kampala, keyare three directorates institutional actorsand multiple include development both the national and city and management. level agencies It also and monitors can be broadlydepartments considered as shown under in the organogram three areas: (i) below. urban planning andand evaluates sector development development, (ii) service programs provision to Departments that are particularly relevant and keep track of their performance, efficiency and (especially water and sewerage) and (iii) environmental management. effectiveness in service delivery. Figure 26   Key Actors Involved Figure: Key Actors Involved Source: World Bank Staff Source: World Bank Staff National Page 40 Level Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities Two main ministries (Ministry of Lands, Housing & Urban Development and Ministry of Water & i. National Environmental Management of the sewerage and water supply network, Authority (NEMA): A semi-autonomous targeting coverage for all urban centers in parastatal agency (officially under the Ministry Uganda. Currently, it operates and provides of Water and Environment) established in water and sewerage services for 23 large urban 1995 under the National Environment Act. It centers across the country including Kampala. is responsible for coordinating, monitoring, Its current staff strength is around 2500 people regulating and supervising environmental country-wide, with 1600 staff focusing on management in the country. Its regulatory Kampala (mainly on water supply). functions and activities focus on compliance and enforcement of the existing legal and institutional frameworks, covering both City Level - Kampala Capital City Authority green and brown issues of environmental (KCCA) management. It oversees the implementation of all environment conservation programs The Kampala Capital City Authority (KCCA) is mandated and activities of the relevant agencies both with the delivery of public services for Kampala that at the national and local Government level. enable residents and businesses to function in a conducive (Reference Appendix B organogram of Ministry environment that supports development. Specifically, the of Water and Environment). authority is obliged to plan, implement, and monitor the delivery of public services, and guide city development. One key regulatory function of NEMA is the review and The Authority is charged with a duty of initiating and approval of Environmental Impact Assessments and formulating relevant policies, setting service delivery Environmental Impact Statements as well as Environmental standards, determining taxation levels, monitoring Audits. Further on the management of wetlands, NEMA general administration and provision of services in the is empowered as the authority, in consultation with the divisions, enacting legislation, and promoting economic lead agencies, District Environment Committees and local development. It is further responsible for constructing and environment committees, to establish guidelines for the maintaining main roads and major drainages, installing and sustainable management of wetlands, to identify wetlands maintaining street lights, organizing and managing traffic, of local, national, and international importance and to physical planning and development control, and monitoring declare wetlands to be protected wetlands. There are of the delivery of service within the area of jurisdiction. around 65 NEMA staff (of which around 35 are technical The Authority is also charged with maintenance of law, staff and the rest non-technical staff) to cover its entire order and security, mobilization of residents for community portfolio. development and local taxation purposes, and registration of residents’ births and deaths (KCC Act 2010). ii. Department of Wetlands Management: KCCA was formed in 2010 to replace the Kampala City Directly in charge of monitoring, supervision, Council (KCC) and had a status equivalent to a national enforcement and compliance of wetlands government agency. There are two wings within KCCA and ensures the conservation of wetland - a political wing headed by the Lord Mayor and an resources for sustained utilization. Within the administrative wing headed by the Executive Director (ED) department, there are two divisions: (i) Policy, at the rank of a Permanent Secretary. Overall, a Minister is planning and enforcement – for M&E (eg responsible for the Capital City and he is the authority to encroachment), EIAs report review, auditing whom the executive director and the Lord Mayor report. and standards; and (ii) awareness-raising, information and management – for R&D, Under the Lord Mayor, there are five divisional Mayors assessment and inventory (coverage and info), (Makindye, Nakawa, Rubaga, Kawempe and Central district supervision (training and technical Division) who are elected by their electoral constituencies; support). Currently the department has only and around 240 councilors representing different localities 20 technical staff covering the entire country, at different councils in the city. On the other hand, the with 1 staff in each district. administrative wing is headed by the ED and consists of ten Directorates. Each of the directorates report to a standing iii. National Water & Sewerage Corporation committee of KCCA. In turn, the chairman of the standing (NWSC): is a public utility company (100% committee presents the quarterly directorate performance state-owned), under the Ministry of Water and with guidance from the director to the KCCA during Environment, that is responsible for providing quarterly performance review meetings. efficient and cost effective water supply and sewerage services and for the maintenance                                    Kampala, Uganda Page 41 The ten Directorates are: Administration and Human Regulatory Environment Resources Management; Treasury Services; Engineering and Technical Services; Public Health and Environment; Education and Social Services; Legal Affairs; Revenue Overall Collection; Gender, Community Services and Production; Internal Audit and Physical Planning. These are responsible Generally, there is a basic array of legal tools such as for city planning, management and day-to-day operations policies and regulations to guide urban development and and policy implementation. The two Directorates most the protection of urban environment at both the national relevant to this discussion are the Public Health and and local level. Major changes in environmental policy Environment Directorate and the Directorate of Physical and the water sector took place around the 90s with the Planning. adoption of a National Environment Management Policy and the National Environment Statute in 1994 and 1995 As the KCCA is a relatively young organization, its staff respectively, and the adoption of the Water Action Plan strength has not reached full capacity – currently at (WAP), a water policy and two new laws: the Water Statute around 70% of the approved establishment (including 1995 and the National Water and Sewerage Corporation both permanent (around 400) and temporary (around Statute 1996. However, the national level guidance on 500) staff). The staffing level also varies in the different urban development and land management evolved only directorates. For example, for Physical Planning Directorate, in recent years (eg. the National Land Policy was approved it is currently only at 40% staffing level and thus poses in 2013). Interviewees have also highlighted several areas significant capacity constraints. In terms of resources, it which are desired but still being developed (for example, is highly dependent on National Government funding, the National Urban Policy and Act are still under draft, and although it is making significant improvements in the own a Wetlands Act is desirable). source revenue collections (an average annual growth rate of around 12% since FY06). KAMPALA KCCA Management Structure Figure: Figure 27   Figure: KCCA Management Structure Source: Adapted from KCCA Website Source: Adapted from KCCA Website Regulatory Environment Overall Page 42 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities Generally, there is a basic array of legal tools such as policies and regulations to guide urban development and the protection of urban environment at both the national and local level. Major The key national level documents currently in place Wetlands Management include: National Development Plan, National Environment Act (established NEMA), National Environment Regulations Wetlands have traditionally been marginalized as (covering various areas including wetland and lakeshore “wasteland” or “no-man’s land”, open to exploitation. management, minimum discharge standards for effluents Up until 1988 when Uganda acceded to the Ramsar etc.), National Environment Water Act and Water Statute, Convention, the legal regime over wetlands have been National Policy for the Conservation and Management unclear. With the establishment of the National Wetlands of Wetland Resources 1995 (National Wetlands Policy), Conservation and Management Programme in 1989, the National Environment Waste Management Regulation, process of policy and legislative review began. However, Public Health Act, National Land Policy (2013) and Land adoption of the National Wetlands Policy only took place in Acts, Physical Planning Act 2010, National Physical Planning 1995 after rounds of revisions. Standards and Guidelines, Local Government Act etc. The National Wetlands Policy has clearly laid down the At the local Kampala level, there are various local guiding principles and strategies which supports the government ordinances and regulations which supplement conservation and sustainable management of wetlands. the national level ones, such as Building Regulations, Urban Those of particular importance include: Agriculture Ordinance, Solid Waste Ordinance etc. After KCCA was formed in 2010, a new wave of strategies and • Government is not supposed to lease land or policies have been put in place to guide the development give land tenure in wetlands. “All wetlands of Kampala and improve service delivery and governance are a public resource to be controlled by the in various areas. These include the Kampala Capital Government on behalf of the public. There shall Cities Act 2010, the KCCA Strategic Plan (updated yearly, be no leasing of any wetland to any person or and each valid for a 5-year period; spells out clearly the organisation in Uganda at any given moment development objectives, performance standards, strategic and for whatever reason.” “All future land tenure projects and budgets etc.), and the introduction of results- documents including maps and layouts will indicate driven working culture in KCCA (eg. performance based whether the area contains a wetland and will compensation system) by the new leadership team that accordingly exclude these wetlands from tenure.” included a dynamic and aggressive approach to addressing • Any development in the wetland is subjected to EIAs governance and anti-corruption issues. Substantial and the continuous monitoring of their impacts. improvements in governance and citizen’s satisfaction with “… all proposed modifications and restorations service delivery and the urban environment have been on wetlands be subject to an EIA, the result of observed since the change to KCCA. which will determine whether such restoration or modification should proceed and if so to what extent.” “All planned new wetland developments Physical Planning and Development will be subjected to an EIA process to determine the required environmental controls.” “Those, which The Kampala Physical Development Plan was finalized and have been subjected to ElAs, will continuously be approved in 2013 which provides the basic framework monitored to assess their impact on the environment and structure to guide the development of the city. and where the impact is detrimental, Government However, further translation of the structure plan into will require that such a development be halted.” detailed physical development plans are still underway. (The latest KCCA Strategic Plan 2014/2015-2018/2019 • There are varying categories of wetlands, including outlined the first key strategy and project for the coming 5 fully protected wetland areas and those for partial years as the development and implementation of detailed use. “Government will establish fully “Protected neighborhood precincts and embark on the “Detailed City Wetlands Areas” of important biological diversity.” Physical Development Plan Project”.) The detailed plans “Any wetland serving as a source of water supply would be essential to operationalize the overall structure or receiving effluent, as part of a designated plan, coordinate development of infrastructure and public service to any human settlement shall be declared amenities and direct socio-economic investments. The a fully protected wetland from any encroachment, detailed plans would be a key regulatory tool to provide drainage or modification.” “Government may the legal basis for clear, objective, transparent, plot-by-plot also establish certain wetlands, which will be guidance to developments. used for partial exploitation such as research.” • Government may permit the use of wetlands only for certain non-destructive functions and in a sustainable manner. “Wetlands may be utilised in                                    Kampala, Uganda Page 43 such a way that they do not lose traditional benefits Wetlands Conservation and Management presently obtained from them.” “Any decision to use wetlands must consider the requirements of As described earlier, multiple agencies are involved in the all other users in the community.” “Only those conservation and management of wetlands, including the uses that have been proved to be non-destructive local government, NEMA and the wetlands department to wetlands and their surroundings will be allowed under MWE. The regulatory framework provided guidance and/or encouraged. These include water supply, on the roles and responsibilities for the respective entities, fisheries, wetland edge gardens and grazing.” the core of which are: local government for day-to-day development control, approval of planning application In addition, the management of wetlands has and enforcement; NEMA for review and approval of been regarded as an integral part of environmental EIAs; wetlands department to be consulted whenever management. The National Environment Statute of 1995 a development application/EIA involves wetlands. The included specific provisions on wetlands, in addition to interactions amongst these agencies is mainly through pollution, environmental restoration orders, environmental the issuance process of planning permits and EIAs easements, public awareness and enforcement of the where inter-agency consultations have to be done. Joint law. The statute thus set in place a framework but the inspections have also been conducted when there are various provisions would need to be further developed in applications related to wetlands and these have been regulations to be applicable as law on the ground. found to be effective, enhancing coordination and reducing frictions between issuance of various permits. However, Process & Interaction interviewees reflected that such processes may not always be conducted in the proper sequential order or completely following the due process in reality. Land Management and Physical Planning C. Institutional Key Findings Land management (such as the issuing of land titles) is largely centralized and is the function of MoLHUD. However, MoLHUD has established zonal offices and at Institutional Challenges various places, co-locates its officers with local government for the processing of land titles and the Land Information System. For example, there is one MoLHUD officer residing 1. Institutional fragmentation – overlapping mandates, with KCCA to oversee such matters and issue relevant weak integration and coordination. As described land titles for Kampala. Typically, private developers or earlier, both national-level (MoLHUD, MWE, NEMA, the local government submit the requests to MoLHUD for Wetlands Department) and city-level agencies (KCCA) issuance of land titles. Having the close physical proximity are directly involved in different aspects of land and of MoLHUD officer in KCCA enhances the coordination and urban environment management and their regulatory interaction during this process. scope and responsibilities overlap. Physical planning, on the other hand, is largely As Kampala has a unique physical characteristic of decentralized. Physical Planning Committees are numerous low rolling hills linked by wide valleys of established at the district, urban and local levels and wetlands, the balance between developing on the hills charged with the development of their respective local and protecting the integrity and functions of the wetlands physical development plans, approval of development are especially important for the sustainable development applications and other related development control of the city. However, there are multiple institutional functions (in this case under the charge of the KCCA fragmentation with regards to the management of Physical Planning Directorate). A pre-requisite to submitting wetlands – at both the national level and also vertically a planning application is the proof of land title. with the local level. Thus far, data and information on land and physical At the national level within MWE, functions of NEMA and planning are not consolidated in one database, although the Wetlands Department with regards to the management there are moves towards using the GIS platform to allow of wetlands are overlapping and the division of work this. The interactions between the MoLHUD and local unclear. While NEMA is clearly the key agency presiding governments are largely based on individual issues or over the EIA process, it is also specifically empowered projects – for example during application processes, or the to manage wetlands as established under the National local government may submit minutes of relevant meetings Environment Statute. At the same time, the Wetlands to the Ministry or the Ministry may conduct supervision Department is the primary department overseeing wetland trips to investigate certain issues. matters. The horizontal integration or alignment between Page 44 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities the two is sorely lacking, leading to much conflict and less the population lives in unplanned and densely than optimal resource use. populated informal settlements which lack basic In terms of service delivery and the management of urban service provision. The high level of informality environment especially wetlands, the regulatory scope and contributes to severe degradation of environmental responsibilities of national level agencies also overlap with assets. While an array of political, social and that of the city-level agency – KCCA. For example: environmental factors are behind the informality, the lack of proper physical planning and effective • The NWSC is the agency directly charged with development management process is a key providing and maintaining the water supply and driver. Further, rapid and uncontrolled urban sewerage services and network for Kampala growth also leads to environmental degradation (backed by the National Water and Sewerage (eg. exacerbating the loss of soil and vegetation Corporation Act) while KCCA also has the coverage due to conversion of land). Currently, mandate to deliver such services for its Kampala Kampala lacks detailed physical development residents (backed by the Kampala Capital City Act plans and development is only guided by general 2010) - including the planning, implementation, and broad planning standards and guidelines monitoring of such services, as well as setting (often at the national level) and issued on an relevant policies such as service delivery standards, ad-hoc basis, mainly through the process of determining taxation levels and so on. development planning applications. It is thus, difficult to coordinate and implement infrastructure • KCCA also has the function to “enact legislation for and public amenities and other economic-socio the proper management of the Capital City” and its investments. Further, environmentally sensitive Metropolitan Physical Planning Authority has the areas are not adequately demarcated, identified responsibility and power to “veto physical plans or and further protected through the associated activities inconsistent with the Metropolitan Authority regulatory planning tools such as structured open Development Plan or land use policy”, and “ensure space plan (often part of detailed physical plan) or that the land use in the City and the metropolitan zoning. The absence of detailed plans also means area follow designated plans, irrespective of the that development decisions are largely subjected tenure of land”. With respect to wetlands within to the discretion of individual planners and are Kampala, KCCA thus has the authority to monitor thus contentious and could be easily challenged. and enforce that such land are used in accordance Enforcement proves even more difficult without the with the designated land use zone (“Natural Wetland clear legal backing of detailed plans. Reserve”). This is in addition to the similar mandate given to both Wetlands Department and NEMA b. Weak regulatory environment around wetlands - to monitor, supervise and enforce wetlands. conservation and management. While the key As it stands, these overlapping mandates, unclear lines of strategies and objectives have been laid out in the reporting create ambiguity in terms of accountability and National Environment Statute and Wetlands Policy, complicate the processes for planning, implementation, the reality currently is that different government monitoring and enforcement of the urban environment. agencies may act contrary to such guidelines and While it may not be necessary to eliminate overlapping principles. For example, on occasions, the Land functions, there needs to be clear understanding of the Commission has leased wetlands or MoLHUD roles and responsibilities of each, whether there is or needs has given land titles on wetlands. These may in to have a reporting structure or relationship between part, be due to the absence of clear demarcation agencies/departments. In addition, better coordination of wetland boundaries (not all wetland areas and streamlining of the processes and reinforcing the are surveyed/accurately mapped) and/or a complementarity of roles would lead to better ultimate comprehensive wetlands inventory, as well as results. insufficient integration with development related plans and database (eg. landuse plans and land 2. Weak development guidance at city level and overall titling database). In addition, while there are weak regulatory environment around wetlands sectoral laws that refer to some aspects of wetlands conservation and management. While the basic array such as water, or land or prevention of pollution, of legal tools is available at both the national and local there is an absence of a comprehensive law or level, two key weaknesses are: act for the effective management of wetlands in correspondence with the Wetlands Policy. The a. The lack of detailed physical development plan various provisions under the Environment Statute for Kampala. Currently, around forty percent of would merit further translation into enforceable regulations.                                    Kampala, Uganda Page 45 3. Loose adherence to development approval process. On the other hand, the Wetlands Department has neither Current coordination and integration vertically between a dedicated enforcement department nor enforcement the national and city-level agencies are weak especially officers. While joint inspections (conducted by the related with regards to the issuance and enforcement of departments) have been found to be effective, it is done on related permits and approvals for development (EIA a selective basis largely due to capacity constraints. certification, land title, user permit, planning permit); As compared to economic and social development this is exemplified by developments in wetland causes, environmental issues tend to be given a relatively areas. The instituted due processes may not always lower priority or even perceived as a “burden” when it be conducted in the proper chronological order or comes to resource allocation and political backing. As followed in reality. For example, inter-governmental such, the resultant general lack in financial resources for consultation does not work effectively: whenever a environmental causes is another major challenge. For development application or EIA permit application example, the Wetlands Department could not execute the involves wetland, the Wetlands Department should ongoing program to properly survey, map and delineate be consulted, but in practice, it does not always wetlands, an expensive endeavor, due to lack in financial happen. Or, agencies do not reinforce each other’s resources. Or where NEMA is trying to catch up and correct mandate throughout the development process. the pre-1995, pre-NEMA era issues to cancel land titles Rather, the current observation is that once a potential issued in wetland areas; there are insufficient funds for development obtained one of the government issued compensation. title/permit/document (be it land title, or EIA or planning permit), this is cause for demanding all the other related government licenses, even those undue. Suggestions and Recommendations 4. Constraints in current capacity and resources; and 1. Consolidate and reinforce institutional structure and competing priorities for resource allocation. The lack mandates. At the national level within MWE, there in both financial and staff capacity and resources is a is a need to clarify and consolidate the functions common challenge highlighted by all institutions. The and responsibilities between NEMA and Wetlands current situation is critical on several fronts. In terms Department over the management of wetlands. of staffing, both the overall staffing level (for example: Vertically between the national and city-level agencies, KCCA – only around 30% permanently staffed, and 40% clearer delineation in terms of the roles and functions in physical planning department; Wetlands Department and in correspondence to the development chain of only has 20 technical staff, or 1 staff per district; NEMA activities would be beneficial. For example, one model only has around 35 technical staff) and recruiting is to have the local authority, KCCA, carry out the staff timely and with necessary skills are a challenge. day-to-day functions and be the first line of initiation The difficulty in staff recruitment could partially be and response; while national-level agencies should attributed to the institutional process; for example, serve the overall policy and regulation setting role, ministry level staff had to be recruited centrally through provide backstopping support and reinforcement when the Ministry of Public Services. called upon, as well as coordinate functions to ensure alignment between agencies/sectors and compatibility Obviously, the lack in staff capacity poses serious constraint to national level goals. This division of work could on effective management and especially in enforcement. apply to the entire chain of activities from planning Even with all necessary structure and regulations in place, to management and enforcement. It is imperative to enforcement is often the greatest challenge. For wetlands, clarify institutional roles, functions and mandates to the policing and enforcement has been especially weak. empower the various agencies with the necessary At the permit stage, even when conditional approvals authority and power to plan, implement and enforce were given, there may not be cross checks between their regulatory functions. Enabling this may require departments for consistency, or to ensure that conditions amendment of existing laws or a commitment to of conditional permits were met eventually. At times, enforce them and establishing new ones. even when physical markers for wetlands are put up, the next round of inspection to ensure the integrity of the 2. Complete the system, regulations and tools boundary may only occur after a year or more. Often, surrounding detailed physical development plans encroachment or development with irreversible impacts for Kampala and on wetlands. As mentioned would have occurred. KCCA has the primary responsibility previously, KCCA is on the right track to develop the for enforcement (it conducts its own inspections) and detailed physical development plans for Kampala, is structured to have enforcement officers at the ward/ and starting with priority areas (which could include parish level. However, it is often not able to carry this out. environmentally very sensitive areas). This should Page 46 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities be encouraged and momentum kept up. In terms of 5. Conduct public education and communication wetlands, while there are various ideas and initiatives initiatives. Creating public awareness and even around more effective management of wetlands, enabling community/self-policing would be another most of these have been underway or ongoing for good way to strengthen the enforcement of relevant many years. To tackle this issue, there is a need to environmental regulations. The objectives of advance and complete these initiatives especially: (i) conducting public education and communication a set of legal regulations specifically around wetlands initiatives could be multi-fold. The first objective management, (ii) complete the survey, mapping and is to demonstrate and publicize the benefits of demarcation of wetland boundaries, and integrating green urban environment and the direct positive with other information systems for development (eg. impacts to communities (eg. improvements to public land info database), (iii) where necessary, establish health, increase in property values etc.). Secondly, district/local level by-laws for the proper management responsibilities of various government agencies should of wetlands. be clarified to create transparency and build trust with the public. The public should be able to direct queries 3. Improve inter-agency integration and coordination and report any misconduct to the relevant authority across the full chain of development processes. and hold it accountable, and see that appropriate Related to the sorting out of the institutional structure actions are taken. Conversely, the relevant authority and mandates, the processes around development would have the power to enforce its mandate without control and permitted use on wetlands should be unnecessary interference. Therefore, each agency could improved. This starts with integrated planning (develop embark on a communication campaign to outline its city-wide detailed plan and planning guidelines), mandate, responsibilities, assessment methods (eg. sharing of information and aligning database for licensing or permits) and publish public guideline compatibility and information coherence amongst documents through means (illustrations, pamphlets, agencies, to realizing mandatory consultations, aligning websites etc.) easily accessible and understandable (in procedures and requirements for the issuance of plain language free of jargons) by the general public. In relevant permits and licenses and closing the loop on addition to the public at large, the management team conditional ones, and finally to effective enforcement in each agency and the local leaders should be the (conducting joint inspections where necessary and first target group to obtain the alignment in thinking. build in joint reporting at the right forums). In Once these leaders are on board, it would be easier addition, coordination between all relevant agencies at to rely on them to disseminate the correct messages various steps of the process should be strengthened, and communicate directly with their own reports/ potentially through reinforcing standard operating constituents to strengthen the cause. procedures, or setting up of regular forums or specific task forces. (One possibility is to revive an earlier 6. Strengthen capacity and boost resources. In addition initiative – the “Pollution Control Task Force” and to macro level improvements such as increasing improve upon it.) Kampala’s own source revenue or improving education and skills training, other steps could be taken to 4. Institute accountability and track performance. strengthen capacity and boost resources. While Within each agency, it would be useful to devise capacity and resources are always scarce, the economic monitoring and evaluation indicators and system to case of environmental resources and initiatives could track development cases, permits/licenses issued be better justified such as through commissioning and conditions attached to them, in addition to an relevant analytical work (eg. the Ministry of Finance associated follow-up plan. This would allow better had once requested the Wetlands Department to monitoring and enforcement of the necessary present the economic value of wetlands to justify requirements and procedures. Audit mechanisms could government allocation of resources and funding). In also be considered to assess the performance of both addition, consolidating institutional functions and national level and local governments on aspects such structure, better planning to align staff numbers and as environmental regulation enforcement, together skills with development priorities, or smart use of with built-in incentives or disincentives related to technology could help to increase efficiency for carrying performance as determined by the audits. out the necessary tasks. Each agency, especially the local governments, should also have control over its own budget and staffing plan and decisions, in line with their functions and obligations.                                    Kampala, Uganda Page 47 Page 48 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities VII. KEY FINDINGS for development and establish a balance in the tradeoffs as they consider the interests of development and the Foremost, Kampala is a rapidly growing city: the built impacts on the natural environment. This approach is also environment will continue to expand and there will essential if the city pursues innovative planning tools such inevitably be natural resource and ecosystem loss. As as offsets. the capital of Uganda, Kampala is an important political, cultural, and economic center. It will continue to draw new The degradation of the city’s wetlands provides a primary residents and new activity that will fuel the city’s continued example: historically, the Kampala region has been uniquely growth as an important economic engine. Thus, it is not bestowed with an abundance of this highly valuable natural the urbanization and growth of Kampala that is at issue; resource. Within KCCA, this resource is now largely gone as it is the nature of the urban development that is revealed the impacts of development were allowed to directly and in this study of the city’s environmental assets that is of indirectly exploit the natural resources without recognition concern. of the full value of the natural assets. The approach to development in the past decades can The city lacks the tools to evaluate the tradeoffs of be characterized as a “build everywhere” approach. large-scaled infrastructure projects, which are conceived It has spread down the city’s hills to the lowlands and to solve drainage and flooding but have resulted in has encroached well into the city’s most important significant negative impacts on the overall quality of the environmental assets, its wetlands. Development has city’s wetland system. A strategic planning framework, proceeded with little awareness or sensitivity of the overall with clear development and conservation goals and impacts on ecosystems. Along the way, it has reduced the priorities, would provide context for a fuller assessment of urban forest and open landscape space, degraded the the environmental impacts of large-scaled infrastructure land and soil, and failed to provide essential infrastructure projects, such as those described in the Profile, that are services that are essential to managing the impacts of intended to improve public services and support economic urban development. The city has not made a serious development. attempt to integrate the protection or enhancement of The continued development of informal settlements critical natural asset systems within physical development. within the Kampala and the Greater Kampala Development has not been guided by a strategic Metropolitan Area is inevitable. Urban spatial planning planning framework such as a “grand bargain” – a will need to address where informal settlements will be planning mechanism that identifies the critical natural located and how they will be provided basic services. assets and prioritizes them - so that a structure could Without intentional urban planning interventions, the balance development and mitigate the loss of assets, informal settlements will continue to be a primary source or to preserve or even enhance them. Inadequate of environmental degradation. Kampala will continue and ineffective planning has been a key obstacle to to attract residents that cannot afford housing and are providing the management required to protect the city’s without the means to participate in the formal economy. environmental assets. For decades, the city has lacked an The impacts of informal settlement on the environmental effective physical development plan to guide growth and assets that have been described in the Profile will only development. As a result, the city lacks detailed urban expand if the city does not take an active role in the planning and urban design concepts to guide development. designation and servicing of areas for informal settlements. There is little guidance or tools available to offer specific Since urbanization and population growth has spread to direction to the city agencies as they consider the city, the larger metropolitan area, there is the opportunity to holistically, as districts, or on a project by project basis. think beyond jurisdictional lines and collaborate on the development of policies for informal development that will A first generation of strategic level planning documents has benefit the region. been generated in the past several years, but they remain high-level and lack both baseline data and analytics. There Data to inform environmental planning and management is much more comprehensive spatial planning required that is limited within the city. Development of baseline employs a process to effectively integrate transportation environmental data would be an important tool to and infrastructure planning with land use planning. support the strategic planning approaches being advocated in these findings. Availability of environmental A strategic planning framework would provide spatial data that is specific to the city is limited. The city does definition to both the development and conservation not have programs or information addressing urban priorities of the city. With a comprehensive and city-wide vegetation, open space and landscape, land soil, wildlife, strategic framework in place, the city would have the or air quality – although there are some national level platform to more successfully evaluate individual proposals                                    Kampala, Uganda Page 49 sources of information. There is considerable information Valuable ecosystems within the city of Kampala are available on Kampala’s wetland as they have been the under acute pressure; action will need to be taken soon focus of considerable academic study. However, the studies if their continued deterioration is to be arrested. The have typically addressed individual wetlands and there Profile has highlighted the key drivers of environmental has not been a comprehensive inventory since 1999. degradation within the city. Much of the degradation The Wetland Atlas that is under development will be an of the environmental asset base is coming from the important step in establishing a framework for protection lack of adequate sanitation and drainage infrastructure. and conservation. However, from a fiscal perspective, Kampala will have limited resources to invest in the grey infrastructure that The planning and technical information that is available is required to offset the degradation of the environmental is often developed for a specific project or environmental asset base. There is opportunity to integrate green impact assessment, resulting in a patchwork of information infrastructure within the city to mitigate some of the rather than a comprehensive assessment of the city and its impacts, particularly within the urban landscape to capture systems as a whole. and attenuate storm water runoff. However, even green infrastructure approaches will require a balance of grey The relationship of the Nakivubo wetland, historically a infrastructure to address the magnitude of the drainage unique and important green infrastructure spine of the issues in Kampala. city, to the form and pattern of the urban development is close to being lost. Restoration of Nakivubo as a Given these constraints, leadership and institutional actions vital green landscape element of the city will require - feasibility and capacity for addressing key problems - are a comprehensive study of the wetland as a complete particularly important. ecosystem. The Nakivubo, the primary wetland that flows through the urban center, has been severely degraded Little protection for the city’s environmental assets has by impacts of urbanization. In the center of the city, the been realized under the current regulatory regime. An wetlands’ natural flow and drainage course has been essential first step in environmental protection is the altered and channeled within hard edges. The remainder of enforcement of existing environmental regulations. the wetland has been heavily encroached upon by informal Environmental regulations have created the enabling settlements and industries. The cumulative effects of framework for protecting the wetlands but essential urbanization, along with the outputs of storm water runoff, actions, such as survey and delineation of wetland areas, discharge of effluents, and the disposal of solid waste, has have been delayed due to political, social, and economic been grave. implications of restricting land use. Regulations for discharge of effluent, particularly to control industrial Preliminary urban concepts call for the reconnection of discharge, have not been widely enforced and in general, the Nakivubo as an important landscape element within the enforcement capacity of institutions charged with the city. Restoration of the wetland will require a large- environmental management is limited. A recent action by scale planning initiative that includes a full analysis of the the agency charged with protection of the wetlands has different sources of pollution and the steps – or tradeoffs highlighted the issue of capacity to balance the interests of - that will need to be taken to return the wetland to a economic development and environmental protection. healthy state. Key steps for the future include: Development in Kampala and its environmental impacts needs to be considered at metropolitan scale. As the • The development of a profile of natural assets city develops a strategic planning framework, it should at the metropolitan scale and a broad strategy look beyond its boundaries to the broader metropolitan to address pressures on these assets. region and evaluate the impacts of urban development • The identification of specific opportunities for Green of the regional environmental assets. The metropolitan Urban Development interventions supported by well- regional still has critical natural assets, such as the large analyzed actions to progress these opportunities. area of wetlands east of Murchison Bay, that should be protected and conserved as the city continues to expand. • Institutional actions taken to regulate, enforce and The strategic framework will assist the city in giving proper protect consistent with what is already in current consideration of proposals for development in the context policy and law; and the development of more of the remaining assets. A broader view of environmental sophisticated measures to address ecosystem loss. assets can allow the city to avoid making the same types of   mistakes that have been made in the past. Page 50 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities VIII. BIBLIOGRAPHY Abebe, Aweke Gezahegn, 2013. 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Page 56 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities KAMPALA Annex: Summary of Institutional Analysis Prevailing Institutional Landscape Institutional Challenges Suggestions and Recommendations Institutional • Both National-level (MoLHUD, MWE, NEMA) and City-Level agencies • Institutional • Consolidate and Structure (KCCA) are directly involved in aspects of urban/land and urban fragmentation – reinforce institutional environment management overlapping mandates, structure and mandates weak integration and IX. APPENDIX coordination. Regulatory • Basic array of legal tools available at both national and local level • Weak development • Complete the system, Environment guidance at city level regulations and tools • On urban development, lacks: National Urban Policy and Act,; and overall weak surrounding detailed Detailed physical development plan for Kampala regulatory physical development • Need to strengthen wetlands management through enacting a environment around plans for Kampala and Wetlands Act (to complement National Wetlands Policy), clear wetlands conservation on wetlands demarcation of wetland boundaries and/or a comprehensive and management. wetlands inventory. Appendix A: Summary of Institutional Analysis Processes and • Land Management and Physical Planning – Issuance of land titles • Loose adherence to • Improve inter-agency Interactions largely centralized and a function of MoLHUD. Physical planning development approval integration and largely decentralized and under purview of local government. process. coordination across the full chain of • Data and information on land and physical planning are not development processes consolidated in one database. Interactions between the MoLHUD and local governments are largely based on individual issues or projects. • Institute accountability and track performance • Wetlands Conservation and Management - local government for day- to-day development control, approval of planning application and 14 Kampala, Uganda Page 57                                    KAMPALA enforcement; NEMA for review and approval of EIAs; wetlands Page 58 department to be consulted whenever a development application/EIA involves wetlands. • Interactions mainly through issuance process of planning permits and EIAs where inter-agency consultations have to be done. Joint inspections have also been conducted. Such processes may not always be conducted in the proper chronological order or followed in reality. Capacity and • General lack in capacity and resources especially staff and financially. • Constraints in current • Conduct public Resources eg: capacity and resources; education and and competing communication o NEMA: 35 technical staff for entire country priorities for resource initiatives o Wetlands Department: 25 technical staff (1 in each district only); allocation • Strengthen capacity wetland demarcation and inventory is an expensive exercise; and boost resources Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities o KCCA only 70% staffed (for permanent staff, only 30%); Physical Planning Directorate only 40% staffed 15 iii. Department of Land use regulation and KAMPALA compliance: responsible for formulation of land use related policies, plans and regulations. It also provides technical support and guidance to Local Governments oversees in the field of the implementation land ofall use regulation, environment monitoring conservation and and evaluation, programs activitiesand of the systematization of the land use compliance monitoring function relevant agencies both at the national and local Government level. and practice. This department Appendix has approximately B: Institutional Figures20 staff including 5 support staff. One key regulatory function of NEMA is the review and approval of Environmental Impact Assessments and Environmental Impact Statements as well as Environmental Audits. Further on the management of wetlands, NEMA is empowered as the authority, in consultation with the lead agencies, District Environment Committees and local environment committees, to establish guidelines for the sustainable management of wetlands, to identify wetlands of local, national, and international importance and to declare wetlands to be protected wetlands. There are around 65 NEMA staff (of which around 35 are technical staff and the rest non-technical staff) to cover its entire portfolio. ii. Department of Wetlands Management: Directly in charge of monitoring, supervision, enforcement and compliance of wetlands and ensures the conservation of wetland resources for sustained utilization. Within the department, there are two divisions: (i) Policy, planning and enforcement – for M&E (eg encroachment), EIAs report review, auditing and standards; and (ii) awareness-raising, information and management – for R&D, assessment and inventory (coverage and info), district supervision (training and technical support). Currently the department has only 20 technical staff covering the entire country, with 1 staff in each district. iii. National Water & Sewerage Corporation (NWSC): is a public utility company (100% state- owned), under the Ministry of Water and Environment, that is responsible for providing efficient and cost effective water supply and sewerage services and for the maintenance of the sewerage and water supply Figure: Organogram network, of Ministry targeting of Lands, Housingcoverage for and Urban all urban centers in Uganda. Development Currently, it operates provides andmost (with water relevant and sewerage departments services for 23 large urban centers highlighted) Staff interpretation Source:including across the country Kampala. adapted from MoLHUD Its current website is around 2500 people staff strength country-wide, with 1600 staff focusing on Kampala (mainly on water supply). b. Ministry of Water & Environment (MWE): responsible for setting national policies and standards, managing and regulating water resources and determining priorities for water development and management. It also monitors and evaluates sector development programs to keep track of their performance, efficiency and effectiveness in service delivery. i. National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA): A semi-autonomous parastatal agency (officially under the Ministry of Water and Environment) established in 1995 under the National Environment Act. It is responsible for coordinating, monitoring, regulating and supervising environmental management in the country. Its regulatory functions and activities focus on compliance and enforcement of the existing legal and institutional frameworks, covering both green and brown issues of environmental management. It 3 KAMPALA Figure: Organogram of Ministry of Water & Environment (with most relevant departments and4agencies highlighted) Source: MWE website ity Level - Kampala Capital City Authority (KCCA)                                    Kampala, Uganda Page 59 he Kampala Capital City Authority (KCCA) is mandated with the delivery of public services for Kampala hat enable residents and businesses to function in a conducive environment that supports development.