SWP719 The Training and Visit Extension System An Analysis of Operations and Effects Gershon Feder Roger H. Slade Anant K. Sundaram WORLD BANK STAFF WORKING PAPERS Number 719 inkE OP WORLD BANK STAFF WORKING PAPERS Number 719 The Training and Visit Extension System An Analysis of Operations and Effects Gershon Feder Roger H. Slade Anant K. Sundaram RiNATIOHAL MONETARY FUND JOINT LIBRARY l4LNATIONAL N1¶I FO ,LCOrn UCCIlON Al, D 4r LLOpIZNT v71F'2-.llGTGil" D.C. 31 The World Bank Washington, D.C., U.S.A. Copyright (© 1985 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printing January 1985 This is a working document published informally by the World Bank. 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Gershon Feder is an economist in the Research Unit of the Agriculture and Rural Development Department, and Roger H. Slade an economist in the Projects Depart- ment of the South Asia Regional Office, both in the World Bank. Anant K. Sundaram is a consultant to the Bank. Library of Congreas CE inloging in Publiomn Dz/g Feder, Gershon, 1947- The training and visit extension system. (World Bank staff working papers ; no, 719) Bibliography: p. 1. Agricultural extension work-°India, I. Slade, Roger, 1941= , IIo Sundaram, Anant K. (Anant Kumar), 19540 , III. Title. IV. Series. S544150I5F42 1985 630'.7'15054 84-29945 ISBN 08213-0497-6 -iii- ABSTRACT The paper analyzes several aspects of the operation and effects of the T&V extension system. Specific questions related to the supply of, and demand for, extension agents (VEW) visits, the presence or absence of farm size bias in VEW visits, seasonal and longer-term variations in the pattern of VEW visits, the relative importance of the VEW as a source of information to farmers, and the crop yields obtained by farmers in relation to their main sources of agricultural advice are addressed in detail. The analysis is based on extensive empirical evidence from India. In particular, data collected and reported by several state government monitoring and evaluation units are used in conjunction with data collected during a detailed case study of T&V extension conducted by the World Bank in collaboration with the Haryana Agricultural University at Tissar. The paper draws the following main conclusions. Most (85%) contact farmers are visited regularly, and the majority of noncontact farmers also have some interaction with VEWs, suggesting that the supply of extension services is adequate. Although a statistically significant bias in favor of larger farmers is detected in the pattern of VEW visits, the absolute size of this bias is very small. VEWs appear to be more active in the dry season than in the rainy season, which may be attributable to the past tendency of the research system to concentrate on irrigated crop technology. As experience with the T&V system increases, contact farmers appear to receive fewer visits from VEWs, but visits to noncontact farmers increase. Overall there is an increase in the absolute number of farmers receiving visits from extension agents. VEWs play a more important role as disseminators of information in areas operating the T&V system than in areas relying on the older community development system of extension. The role of the VEW also increases in importance the more expensive or costly the recommended cropping practice. Finally, crop yields of farms that rely on the VEW as the main source of information are higher than of farms that rely mainly on other sources of information. The yields in farms that depend on other sources do not appear to differ greatly from one another, but information from any source, in terms of crop yields, appears to be better than none. -iv- CONDENSE Le present document analyse plusieurs aspects du fonctionnement et des effets du systeme de vulgarisation base sur la methode de formation et de visites. I1 examine en detail les questions sp6cifiques concernant l'offre et la demande de visites d'agents de vulgarisation, la presence ou l9absence, au cours de ces visites, de distorsions fondees sur la taille de 19exploitation9 les fluctuations saisonnieres et a long terme et la structure des visites , l'importance relative de ces dernieres en tant que source de renseignements pour les exploitants9 ainsi que les rendements de cultures obtenus par les exploitants par rapport a leurs principales sources de conseils agricoles. L'analyse se fonde sur l'examen d'un grand nombre d'exemples empiriques pris en Inde. En particulier, les renseignements rassembles et publi6s par plusieurs organismes publics de suivi et d'evaluation sont utilis6s en conjonction avec des donnees reunies au cours d'une 6tude de cas detaillee portant sur la vulgarisation par la m6thode de la formation et des visites, et realis6e par la Banque mondiale en collaboration avec l'Universite agricole d'Haryana, a Hissar. Le document pr6sente plusieurs conclusions dont voici les principales. La plupart des agriculteurs de contact (85 %) recoivent des visites regulieres et la majorite des autres agriculteurs sont egalement en rapport avec les agents de vulgarisation effectuant les visites, ce qui tend a suggerer que l90ffre de services de vulgarisation est ad6quate. Bien que les statistiques fassent apparaitre dans la structure des visites une distorsion marquee en faveur des gros exploitants, cette distorsion est minime. I1 semble que les agents de vulgarisation effectuant les visites soient plus actifs au cours de la saison seche qu'au cours de la saison des pluies, en raison peut-etre de la tendance qu'avait dans le passe le systeme de recherche a se concentrer sur la technologie des cultures irrigu6es. A mesure qu'augmentent l'application du systeme de formation et de visites et l'exp6rience acquise, il semble que le nombre des visites aux agriculteurs de contact diminue, alors que les visites aux autres agriculteurs deviennent plus nombreuses. Dans l1ensemble, on note un accroissement du nombre absolu d'agriculteurs recevant des visites d9agents de vulgarisation. Ces derniers jouent un r6le plus important dans la diffusion de renseignements dans les zones oui a 6te mis en place le systeme de formation et de visites que dans celles oiu le systeme de vulgarisation plus ancien, ax6 sur le d6veloppement communautaire, est utilis6. L'importance du role des agents de vulgarisation effectuant les visites augmente aussi en proportion du cout et de I9ampleur des pratiques culturales recommand6es. Enfin, le rendement des cultures est plus eleve sur les exploitations qui s'en remettent, comme principale source d'information, aux conseils prodigues par les agents de vulgarisation au cours des visite que sur les exploitations qui comptent surtout sur d'autres sources de renseignements. Pour ces derni6res, le rendement ne parait pas fluctuer de facon sensible d'une exploitation a l'autre, mais il semble que, en termes de rendement des cultures, une information, quelle qu'en soit la source, vaut mieux que l'absence totale de renseignements. EXTRACTO En este documento se analizan varios aspectos del funcionamiento y efectos del sistema de extensi6n agricola mediante capacitaci6n y visitas. En 61 se abordan en forma detallada cuestiones especificas relativas a la oferta y demanda de visitas de los agentes de extensi6n, a la existencia o ausencia de un sesgo relacionado con el tamanio de las explotaciones agricolas en las visitas de los agentes, a las variaciones estacionales y a mas largo plazo en la modalidad de las visitas, a la importancia relativa de los agentes como fuentes de informaci6n para los agricultores y a los rendimientos agricolas obtenidos por los mismos en relaci6n con sus principales fuentes de asesoramiento. El analisis se basa en abundantes datos empiricos provenientes de la India. En particular, los datos recopilados y transmitidos por las unidades de seguimiento y evaluaci6n de varios gobiernos estatales se han usado juntamente con la informaci6n recogida durante un minucioso estudio prActico de servicios de extensi6n mediante capacitaci6n y visitas llevado a cabo por el Banco Mundial en colaboraci6n con la Haryana Agricultural University, en Hissar. En el documento se llega a las siguientes conclusiones principales. Casi todos (85%) los agricultores de enlace son visitados regularmente, y la mayoria de los demas tambi6n tienen cierto contacto con los agentes de extensi6n, lo que indica que la oferta de servicios de extensi6n es suficiente. Aunque en las visitas de los agentes de extensi6n se observa un sesgo estadisticamente significativo en favor de los agricultores mas grandes, la magnitud absoluta de ese sesgo es muy pequeiia. Los agentes de extension parecen ser mas activos en la estaci6n seca que en la lluviosa, lo que puede atribuirse a la tendencia anterior del sistema a concentrarse en la tecnologia de la agricultura de regadio. A medida que aumenta la experiencia con el sistema de capacitaci6n y visitas, al parecer los agricultores de enlace reciben menos visitas de los agentes de extensi6n, en tanto que aumentan las visitas a los demas. En general, hay un incremento en el ntunero absoluto de agricultores que reciben visitas de los agentes, los que desempeiian una funci6n mAs importante en la difusi6n de informaci6n en las zonas con servicios de capacitaci6n y visitas que en las que dependen del sistema de extensi6n mas antiguo del desarrollo comunitario. Ademas, la funci6n de los agentes es mAs importante cuanto mas costosa o riesgosa es la practica de cultivo recomendada. Por ultimo, los rendimientos en las granjas cuya principal fuente de asesoramiento son los agentes de extensi6n son mayores que los de las que dependen principalmente de otras fuentes de informaci6n. Los rendimientos de estas ultimas no parecen variar mucho de una a otra, pero, en t6rminos de dichos rendimientos, es evidente que el disponer de alguin tipo de asesoramiento es mas eficaz que el no disponer de ninguno. -vii- TABLE OF CONTENTS Section PaRe No. I. INTRODUCTION ........................................ 1 II. THE FOCUS OF THE PAPER .............................. 2 III. SUPPLY OF AND DEMAND FOR EXTENSION AGENT VISITS ..... 7 IV. EXTENSION AGENTS IN RELATION TO OTHER SOURCES OF INFORMATION ...................................... 18 V. INFORMATION SOURCES AND FARM PRODUCTIVITY .... ....... 27 VI. CONCLUSIONS ......................................... 32 FOOTNOTES ........... ........................................ 34 REFERENCES ........... ....................................... 35 I. INTRODUCTION Agricultural extension has long been the handmaiden of agricultural research and usually a poor one. To some extent this has been due to the lack of conviction regarding the ability of extension to bring about the sharp increases in agricultural productivity heralded by the growing quantity of new or modified technology emerging from agricultural research institu- tions. Accordingly, increasing attention has been given, in recent years, to ways of improving the management and efficiency of extension systems. One result has been the emergence of the Training and Visit (T&V) Extension System which was originally tested in Turkey in the late sixties. This system which is comprehensively described in Benor and Baxter (1984) is being introduced in a number of developing countries often with the assistance of the World Bank. 1/ It has been most widely adopted, since 1977, in India where it has progressively replaced the prevailing system of multipurpose village level workers. Our purpose in this paper is to analyze several aspects of the opera- tion of the T&V extension system and sore of the resulting effects. In the next section we delineate a number of questions worthy of study. In par- ticular, we discuss three related matters: (i) the supply of, and demand for, extension services, (ii) the role of extension agents relative to other sources of agricultural information, and (iii) farm productivity in -1- relation to sources of information. The subsequent three sections of the paper address these issues in order and in some detail, drawing or. a rich data base provided by Monitoring and Evaluation reports on the implementation of T&V extension issued by several states in India and a study undertaken by two of the authors in conjunction with the HaryAna Agricultural Unliversity at Hissar, India. Finally, in section six we summarize our principai conclu- sions. 110 THE FOCUS OF THE PAPER The early literature on T&V extension (von Blanckenburg et0al. 1980; von Blanckenburg 1982; Cernea 1981; Cernea et.al. 1983; Howell 1982a, 1982b; Jaiswal 1983; Moore 1984, Shingi et.a10, 1982; Singh 1983) has been mainly qualitative in nature and more often than not, a review of first experienceso Hence, there are several issues worthy of further study and we have chosen three0 First is the supply of and demand for extension services as measured by the frequency of VEW visits0 2/ Specific questions are: (a) Is the supply of extension services close to its potential? Is demand as high as supply? (b) Is there a difference in the extension agents' interaction with farmers belonging to different farm-size categories? (c) Is there a difference in the pattern of visits between the two major cropping seasons, namely, kharif, (rainy season) and rabi (dry season)? (d) How does the pattern of interaction change as the newv form of extension becomes more established? Regarding the questions in (a), we presume that when the 'T&V system functions properly, there should be a high supply of extension services since -3- the system allows inter alia for effective supervision. Technically, we define "high supply" as being close to the designed frequency of agents interaction with contact farmers. Demand, as measured by extension agent interaction with non-contact farmers, is bound to be lower than the observed level of interaction with contact farmers, since such farmers are less aware of the availability of extension services. Demand should, however, be higher in areas with T&V extension than in non-T&V areas. This is due to the fact that the cost to the farmer of information search and acquisition will be lower in an area of intensive extension coverage because agents are more numerous (Feder and Slade, 1984b). There may, however, be a demand-reducing effect because non-contact farmers under the T&V system are supposed to obtain information passed on from contact farmers and this could weaken their motivation to meet with the VEW (i.e., lower their apparent demand for exten- sion services). In areas without T&V extension however, there are no formally designated contact farmers and hence this demand reducing tendency may not exist. In examining question (b), evidence suggests that extension agents are traditionally biased towards the more wealthy and influential farmers (see for example, Howell 1982a; p. 10). The factors and motivations gener- ating such a bias in the supply of extension services could still be present under the reformed extension system. On the demand side, tVe economics of information-acquisition suggest that demand by smaller farmers will be less than that by larger farmers (Feder and Slade 1984b). Concerning (c) above, it is expected that the VEW will play a more significant role in the dry season (i.e., rabi) if there are a significant number of farmers with access to irrigation0 This is because agricultural research in countries like India has traditionally been directed towards improv.ing technology for irrigated rather than rainfed crops. Hence, for irrigated crops there is a greater quantum of proven technology available for delivery to farmers by t1he extension service. However, as we hypothesize below, the greater riskiness of rainfed agriculture could serve to increase the demand for accurate and proven information during the wet (Inarif) season. In relation to question (d), it is conceivable that as initial enthusiasm and institutional support diminish, various aspects of extension operations, such as visits to farmers, slackien. On the demand side, any favorable experience with extension advice and increased awareness of exten- sion availability wjill tend to increase farmers' interaction with extension, while disappointment with recommended practices may result in diminished demand. These four questions are explored further in Part III below0 The second set of questions concerns the VEW as an information source in relation to other sources of information (e.g., other farmers, radio, etc.) and the extent to which the VEW is a preferred source for more expen- sive or complex agricultural practices0 Specifically, we ask ti'e following questions. (e) How important is the extension agent as a source of information in relation to other sources in areas covered by T&V extension? How does this compare with the role of an extension agent in a non-T&V extension system? (f) What is the nature of the interaction betw-Jeen extension agents and other sources of information? -5- (g) Is the T&V agent more important than other (non-personal and non-specialized) sources of information the more expensive/riskier an agricultural practices become? Concerning (e), we expect the VEW, if the training and upgrading of staff skills called for under the T&V system are effective, to be the most important source of information, since he is a personalized and specialized means of information transmission to farmers while also being more readily available due to the schedule of frequent visits. We also hypothesize that the importance of the agent under the T&V system outweighs that of an exten- sion agent in a non-T&V setting, because of superior training, more frequent availability and higher visibility. In considering issue (f), our approach is exploratory. We attempt to examine other information sources as either complements to or substitutes for personalized extension. For example, Orivel (in Perraton et al, 1983, p. 31) quoting another study related to India (Shore, 1980) states that although radio was the medium most equitably distributed, its use had no impact on the introduction of agricultural innovations. He suggests that it could, however, be complementary and if used as a means of transmitting information to VEWs it might also reduce training costs. Finally, regarding question (g), the expected answer is positive, since the value of specific and accurate information should increase for riskier, more expensive, or complicated practices. Hence, risk, cost and complexity should increase the importance of the VEW, as he is a specialized and personal information source, with access to subject matter specialists in case of doubt or to assist him to answer additional enquiries from farmers. 6- The three questions reviewed above are explored further in Part IV below0 Our third and final set of questions relates to farm productivity. Specifically: (h) Are yields higher for farmers who report the extension agent to be their main source of information? Does this hold for irrigated as well as non-irrigated farms? If extension is delivering a flow of proven and acceptable technology then the adoption of that technology is likely to be greatest amongst those farmors who depend most heavily on extension for information. Hence there should be a discernible and positive effect on crop yields for such farmers. Folloving the arguments above, we also expect this effect to be greater in irrigated than in rainfed farms. Moreover, we hypothesize that this will hold even if the information provided by extension in rainfed and irrigated areas had equal expected value as the inherent riskiness of rainfed agriculture is greater than that of irrigated agriculture0 This question is explored fur- ther in Part V0 The data for our analysis pertain to India and are drawn from two main sources: primary data collected by the Haryana Agricultural University (HAU) in a case study in North India, sponsored and supervised by the World Bank between 1981 and 1983, 3/ and the Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) reports produced by twelve of the thirteen states in India where T&V has been progressively instituted since 1977. Wherever relevant we indicate w^lhich source we have used. -7- III. SUPPLY OF AND DEMAND FOR EXTENSION AGENT VISITS The interactions of the VEW with contact farmers can be viewed as a system determined "supply" of extension services. "Supply" is a relevant concept because the T&V system requires the VEW to provide these services to contact farmers regularly. Contact farmers, in turn, are expected to disseminate this information to non-contact farmers. Thus for non-contact farmers, the interactions between farmers and extension agents are likely to be "demand" determined -- i.e., non-contact farmer meetings with the exten- sion agent may reflect the farmer "demanding" the information, since it is not a system imperative that the VEW visit regularly farmers other than contact farmers. 4/ The VEW is expected, however, to accommodate requests for information from all farmers. It is also expected that non-contact farmors will occasionally attend meetings between the VEW and contact farmers. For the purpose of examining the broad differences in the quantum of visits by the extension agent to contact and non-contact farmers, data from M&E reports from seven states in India over a number of years are sum- marized in Table 1. These reports have been produced more-or-less regularly by the states where T&V has been instituted. The data are comparable across states because all M&E units use the same sampling design, definitions and questionnaire (for details, see Slade and Feder, 1981). The reference period for visit frequencies as reported in the Table is one month, but it is pos- sible that non-contact farmers, since they do not receive regular visits, had a longer time horizon in mind, thus generating an exaggerated per mensem visit frequency. The critical indicator is the percentage of farmers who report not seeing extension agents. For contact farmers, this ranges from lo2 to 34.7 percent, while for non-contact farmers, it ranges from 2104 to 5902 percent. Across all seven states the average percentage of 'no-visits reported by contact farmers is 15.4 percent (i.e., about 85 percent of contact farmers were visited at least once in the reference month), Dwyhile 34.5% of the non-contact farmers reported no interaction with extension (see Table 2)o The demand for T&V extension services as measured by non-contact farmers interaction with extension agents thus appears significant. Considering that some share of 'no-visits' must be due to factors such as agent illness, vacant posts, contact farmer non-availability, etc. (factors that SFeder and Slade, 1984a, PO15D refer to as "normal friction") the actual supply of T&V extension services seems adequate relative to the potential supply. -9- Table 1: FREQUENCY OF VEW VISITS AND FARM SIZE C ONTACT FARMRS NO-OTACT FARMRS--- states/seasonsa i Monltoring or Sample I No, of Visits Within ISample I Me00. iof Visits Within anLd opera ted I Konitoring I Size I the atFu ek Stane I the Past Four Weeks Farm Size I u valuatiLon I I 0 1 2 or morel I 0 1 2 or note I I I ---- percent - - - -- trerent Rahi 1981-82 H Snail Farme !/ 251 17.1 14.0 68.9 333 48.6 27.9 23.5 Large Fatus 202 15.9 12.8 71.3 138 45.7 29.7 24.6 Ilharif 1982-83 H Small Faetu 232 16.4' 17.2 66.4 309 40.4 35.9 23.7 Large Farms 219 10.0 20.1 69.9 138 45.6 21.0 33.3' Kharif 1982-83 McE Small farms 64 7.8 21.9 70.3 658 52.3 24.5 23.2 Large Farms 64 6.2 17.2 76.6 267 49.8 21.3 28.9 flbhi 1981-82 N Small Farms 2024 15.4* 17.3 67.3 1482 30.2 21.8 48.0* Large Farms 1143 12.3 20.6 67.1 530 32.6 26.4 41.0 Rebi 1981-82 MCI Small Farms 86 17.4 16.3 66.3 395 40.3 21.8 37.9 Large farms 159 11.4 17.6 71.0 493 40.2 25.8 34.0 Ibarif 1982-83 N Snall Fakrms 1499 10.1 10.8 79.1* 1869 28.0 16.2 35.8* Large Farus 1133 10.9 14.7 74.4 760 25.8 25.8 4.8.4 [harnf 1982-83 McE Small farms 307 13.0 24.1 62.9 2065 50.7 19.7 29.6 Large Fetus 235 8.9 27.2 63.8 712 50.6 20.5 28.9 Rabi 1982-83 N Small Farms 1280 13.0 21.6 65.4 1621 28.2 24.6 47.2 Large Farms 988 14.0 15.0 71.0' 698 27.8 22.7 49.3 Rahi 1982-83 MCI Small Farms 69 18.8 23.2 38.0 606 579*9 18.0 24.1 Large Farms 168 11.3 17.3 71.4* 544 48.7 20.8 30.5* [h&rif 1983-84 H Small Farms 1157 20.4* 13.9 65.7 1593 36.4' 18.8 44.8 Large Farms 944 15.4 18.6 66.0 648 31.3 19.4 49.3 Kharnf 1981-82 H Small Farms 503 33.2 19.9 46.9 - 0 .a - - . LArge Forms 328 28.6 21.6 49.7 n . a -. …--- [harnf 1981-82 MC! Small Farms 298 8.0 19.5 72.5 - o . a -. …--- Large Farms 237 8.0 20.7 71.3 - n-- . a -. …--- Rtabi 1981-82 M Small Farms 527 23.9 17.5 58.6…- n.-- a -. …--- Large Farms 308 20.1 14.0 65.9' …o--- . a -. …--- Rab& 1981-82 MC! Small Farme 208 8.6 14.9 76.5…-----a. a -. …--- Large Farms 184 12.0 20.1 67.9 -----a. a -. …--- [harnf 1982-83 M Small farms 498 24.3 14.3 61.4…--- a . a -. …--- Large Farms 337 19.3 14.2 66.5…--- 0 . a -. …--- Kharif 1982-83 NCR Small farin 394 12.4 15.0 72.6…--- a . a -. …--- Large Farms 375 13.1 20.3 66.6…-----n. a -. …--- Rabi 1982-83 M Small Farms 481 21.9 18.8 59.3 n . a -. …--- Large Farms 354 20.2 22.1 37.7 n . a -. …--- Kharnf 1982-83 MC! Small Farms 394 27.3' 9.6 63.0 423 48.0' 22.7 29.3 Large Farms 332 11.2 18.0 70.8* 308 21.4 9.1 69.5' m4bargebtra Labi 1983-84 M Small Farms 1200 14.0', 12.2 73.8 n . a -. …--- Large Farms 735 10.2 11.4 78.4' -- -. a -. …-- Bihar Kharnf 1983-84 M small Forms 734 32.2 17.5 50.3 854 59.2 15.2 25.6 Large Farms 352 34.7 16.8 48.5 249 55.0 16.1 28.9 Summer 1982 M Small Farms 347 2 4.6 A3.1 - a.- a -. …--- Large Farms 83 1.2 8.4 90.4 n.-- - a -. …--- Khanif 1982-83 M Snell Farms 1317 3.4 2.8 93.8 - a.-- a -. …--- Large Farms 248 2.8 3.6 93.6 -a.-- a -. …--- *Significant at 5 percent probability level n.a. - not available Small farms were defined as less than 5.1 hectares in Haryana and Gujarat 4.1 hectares in Tamil nadu and Karnataka, 3.1 in Madhya Pradesh and Bihar and 2.1 hectares in Assam. -o1- Table 2: FREQUENCY OF VEW VISITS TO CONTACT AND NOW-CONTACT FA2aiERS: ALL STATES AND ALL CROPPING SEASONS /a Contact Farmers Non-contact Farmers One or More One or More No Visits Visits No Visits Visits …=-------------------- --Percent-- 15.39 84.61 34.49 65.51 (3,321) Lb (18,219) (4,268) (8,117) La During the four weeks preceding the interview for contact farmers. For non-contact farrers the reference period may be longero /b Figures in parentheses indicate sample sizes, Source: Nonitoring and evaluation reports of State Governments in India. As expected, the demand for extension services (measured by agent's interaction with non-contact farmers) is significantly lower than the supply (measured by agent visits to contact farmers)0 But the actual supply avail- able to non-contact farmers must be less than that which is available to contact farmers, thus there is not necessarily a significant level of unused capacity. Further, the demand for extension services in a T&V area is far higher than the demand in a non-T&V area -- data for a section of Huzaffar- nagar district in the State of Uttar Pradesh, which is not covered by the T&V system, show that between 89 and 97 percent of the farmers were not visited by (or did not seek out) the extension agent during the reference period (Feder and Slade, 1984c, po 16)o Because a distinction cannot be drawn between contact and non-contact farmers in non-T&V areas, this could be the result of either low demand or low supply0 It is know^m however that the extension agent/farmer ratio is lowder in non-T&V areas than in areas ewith T&V and that in the former areas agents have many duties other than eKtension. -11- Hence it is possible that in areas without T&V extension the low supply of extension increases the cost to the farmer of acquiring information from extension and thereby reduces the amount of interaction between farmers and extension agents. As a partial check on the accuracy of the data from tile M&E reports we compared the M&E results with those from the HAU/World Bank study. Specifically, we compared the incidence of 'no-visits to large and small, contact and non-contact farmers, in the whole of Haryana (all 12 districts) with those from the HAU/World Bank study in Jind and Karnal districts of Haryana for Rabi 81-82, the only season for which comparable data are avail- able. The M&E reports indicate (see Table 1) that 17 percent of small con- tact farmers and 16 percent of large contact farmers are not visited, while the HAU/World Bank data (see Feder and Slade, 1984c, p. 16) show 17 and 14 percent, respectively. For non-contact farmers, the M&E figures are 49 percent for small farmers and 46 percent for large farmers, while the HAU/World Bank figures are 69 and 52 percent, respectively. These are com- parable results although in the HAU/World Bank study area it seems that small non-contact farmers are visited significantly less frequently than their counterparts elsewhere. In addition, the definition of the reference period was quite strict in the HAU/Bank study, while it may have been less so in M&E reports. Table 3 summarizes data on visits and 'non-visits by farm size. Prima facie, there is remarkable similarity between large and small farms amongst both contact and non-contact farmers. Amongst contact farmers, 15.9 percent of the small farms and 14.5 percent of the large farms are not -120 visited, a difference of 14 percent. Similarly, for non-contact farmers, the difference is only 3.2 percent. While these differences are statisti- cally significant at the 99 percent level (see Table 3), their ai^e indicates that the bias in favor of large farmers is not grzet enough to wiarzant serious concern. 5/ Moreover, since non-contact farmers' interactions with extension agents are probably demand-driven, the difference between large and small farmers may merely indicate, as ?redicted by theory (Feder and Slade 1984b), the tendency of larger farmers to invest more in information gathering. Table 3: FARM SIZE AND VEW VISITS TO CONTACT AND NON-CONTACT :ARNERS: ALL STATES AND ALL SEASONS la Contact Farmers Non-contact Farmers One or More One or More No Visits Visits No Visits Visits -----------------------Percent…-----------…--------------- Small /b 15.91 84.09 35044 64o56 (2,098) /c (11,000) (3,038) (5,532) Large 14049 85.51 32017 67.83 (1,223) (7,219) (l,230) (2n594) /a See footnote /a in Table 20 lb See footnote la in Table lo /c Figures in parentheses indicate sample sizes0 Tests of Significance for 'No-visits' (Large vs Small Farmers) "t" Value Contact Farmers 2o823) ) Botn significant at 99 percent Non-contact Farmers 3.535) Source: Monitoring and evaluation reports of State Governments in India. -13- Further corroboration of the lack of substantial farm size related discrimination is provided by Feder and Slade (1984c). Using Logit analysis, they exam'ined factors that explain the probability that a contact farmer will be visited by an extension agent. Amongst others "area of land owned" was entered as an independent variable and was found to be a positive though not significant explanator of the probability that a contact farmer would be visited. Earlier, we hypothesized that visit frequencies would be greater in the dry (rabi) season compared to the kharif. Data for both contact and non-contact farmers (Table 4) indicate that the incidence of no-visits during the rabi season is significantly lower than in the kharif, although the absolute difference is small. This result is consistent with an analysis conducted by Feder and Slade (1984c, pp. 30-32), which shows that knowledge diffusion rates tend to be higher for dry season crops than for rainy season crops. These findings support the hypothesis that the extension agent plays a greater role in the dry season although the cause may be more closely associnted with the available technology and the riskiness of rainfed agriculture than the efficiency of the extension system. Another explanation may be that the rainy season reduces the mobility of extension agents. -14- Table 4: CPOPPING SEASON AND VISITS OF VEW TO CONTACT AND NON-CONTACT FARMERS: ALL STATES /a Rabi Kharif (dry season) (rainy season) -- - - -- -Percent--- -- - - No visits 14045 16025 Contact (3.522) lb (l0799) Farmers One or more visits 85.55 830i5 (9,038) (9,231) No visits 32.60 36.00 (2,854) (2D414) Non-contact Farmers One or more visits 67.40 64.30 (3,836) (4,290) la See footnote /a in Table 20 lb Figures in parentheses indicate sample size. Tests of significance for 'no-visits' (Iharif vs Rabi) "t" values Contact farmers: 144 (significant at 90 percent) Non-contact farmers: 2.31 (significant at 99 percent) Source: Monitoring and evaluation reports of State Governments in India. We next examine the trend in extension visits as experience with the ThV system increases. The results, summarized in Table 5 and Figure 1, form a mixed picture0 The proportion of contact farmers not visited goes up significantly: amongst projects which are four or more years old nearly one in five contact farmers are not visitedo This may, in part, be due to the VEW replacing those contact farmers who are deemed inadequate with other farmers without formally notifying the original contact farmers of the change0 On the other hand, the proportion of non-contact farmers not visited declines equally significantly, from about 48 to 36 percent0 This may be due -15- to the fact that as projects mature, knowledge about the availability of regular extension visits spreads and more non-contact farmers take advantage of the service. As mentioned earlier, in the T&V extension system the VEW is expected to respond to all farmers who approach him with queries (Benor and Baxter, 1984). Remembering that contact farmers form only about 10 percent of the farming community, the most important finding is that the proportion of farmers visited is the greater, the older is the project. 6/ D~~~~~~~~c 0 -16-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~E ':4 -17- Table 5: PROJECT LIFE, FARM SIZE AND VEW VISITS: /a ALL SEASONS AND ALL STATES /b Project All Life Visits Small Farms /c Large Farms Farms Sample Sample Percent Size Percent Size Percent Contact 0 5.01 96 7.50 40 5.74 > 1 94.99 1,819 92.50 493 94.26 < 1 year Non-contact 0 48.65 162 45.65 63 47.81 > 1 51.35 171 54.35 75 52.19 Contact 0 17.13 830 13.93 431 16.04 > 1 82.87 4,016 86.07 2,663 83.96 2 years Non-contact 0 32.34 607 36.27 371 33.83 > 1 67.66 1,270 63.73 652 66.17 Contact 0 14.26 592 14.06 448 14.17 > 1 85.74 3,560 85.94 2,739 85.83 3 years Non-contact 0 28.08 980 26.75 390 27.70 > 1 71.92 2,510 73.25 1,068 72.30 Contact 0 22.18 344 14.26 186 19.44 > 1 77.82 1,207 85.74 1,094 80.56 > 4 years Non-contact 0 38.83 783 28.14 269 36.09 > 1 61.17 1,233 71.86 687 63.91 /a See footnote /a in Table 2. /b Excludes Bihar because of great diversity in project initiation dates for different districts. For all other states, the most predominant starting date (in terms of number of districts covered) has been chosen. /c See footnote /a in Table 1. Source: Monitoring and evaluation reports of State Governments in India. =18- IV. EXTENSION AGENTS IN RELATION TO OTHER SOURCES OF INFOR-ATION It is reasonable to presume that farmers tend to prefer &irect9 specialized, personal and easily accessible sources of information, provided that they see such sources as being reliable and professional. Therefore; in areas with a large supply of professional entension agents wie expect the role of extension as a means of information dissemination to increase. Thus9 we pose the following questions (i) are T&V agents the most important informa- tion source in areas covered by T&V extension? and (ii) do extension agents play a more important role in such settings compared to those operating where a less intensive system of extension iS present? We also wish to examine how the role of the extension agent changes in relation to other information sources as farmers gain increasing "access" to extension0 Finally, we hypothesize that extension becomes more important to the farmer the riskier, the more complex or the more expensive an agricultural practice becomes. We first examine how important the extension agent is as a source of information, in ThV and non-TIV areas. Table 6 summarizes primary data from the RAU/World Bank study which was collected from geographically con- tiguous T&V and non-T&V areas in 1982. -19- Table 6: RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF SOURCES OF AGRICULTURAL INFORMATION Karnal District (State of Haryana) T&V District Muzaffarnagar District Non-Contact (State of Uttar-Pradesh) Main Contact Farmers Farmers Non T&V District Information Source Small Large/a All Small Large/a All Small Large/a All (N=59) (N=101) (N=160) (N=93) (N=73) (N=166) (N=45) (N=45) (N=90) …----------------…Percent------------------- ---------Percent-------- Extension Personnel 42 45 44 11 16 13 0 3 2 Demonstra- tion Days 2 5 4 1 1 1 13 9 11 Other Farmers 27 20 22 48 43 46 49 42 46 Radio 16 17 16 18 22 20 20 25 23 Sales Personnel 9 7 8 15 11 13 12 8 10 Research Personnel 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 0 0 Other /b 2 4 4 5 5 5 6 13 8 All 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 /a Larger farmers were defined as those owning ten or more acres. lb Includes written materials, demonstrations, group meetings and miscellaneous. Source: HAU/World Bank Study, 1982. There is a dramatic difference between the two districts. In Karnal (a T&V district) 44 percent of the contact farmers and 13 percent of the non-contact farmers indicate that extension agents are the main source of information. In Muzaffarnagar (a non-T&V district) only 2 percent of the -20- farmers (all large farmers) are of the same opinion. For non-contact farmers in Karnal, and for all farmers in Muzaffarnagar, "other farmers" are the most important source of information, followed by the radio. "9Other farmers0' are an important source of information for contact farmers as well; slightly more so than radio. Sales personnel of firms marketing agricultural inputs also constitute a significant source of information for all farmers. Since other farmers are the most frequently cited source of agricul- tural information, and given the impracticality of reaching all farmers directly by extension, it is logical to base an information dissemination strategy on the principle of a two-step flow, wuhereby some farmero initially get continuous and frequent extension visits. Through the natural process of information diffusion, these farmers may subsequently be expected to transmit this information to other farmers. These data also reveal the relative shares of different information sources (see Figure 2). Ranking farmer categories by access to the TMV agent we see that the share of the VEW goes up from 2 to 44 percent with increasing access to T&V extension. It is then of interest to know which sources decline in importance0 Among contact farmers, as the importance of the VEW increases the importance of "other farmers0° declines sharply. This is as expected, since contact farmers are in a pocition to obtain informatioa first-hand rather than through intermediaries0 Among non-contact farmers, however, "other farmers"0 continue to play a significant role, w^hich is again as expected0 This relationship betw-ieen VEWs and "other farmera" aS cources of information is consistent with the two-step communication flow charac- terizing the T&V system. -21- The share of radio remains more-or-less constant regardless of access to extension services. This is compatible with the hypothesis that radio is a source of information that complements the role of the VEW (as suggested by Orivel in Perraton et. al., 1983). The lowest ranked sources of information are "sales personnel" and "demonstration days". The former seem to be an important source for farmers in non-T&V areas suggesting that they serve as a partial substitute for visits by extenbion agents. These five sources of information account for a little over 90 percent of the information needs of all classes of farmers. To examine whether there may be differences related to farm-size, a similar analysis was conducted for large and small farmers separately. As can be seen from Figure 3, the results are almost exactly the same for both classes. There is a slightly higher preference among larger farmers for information from extension agents (irrespective of whether they were contact or non-contact farmers in T&V areas or farmers in non-T&V areas) but the differences are not statistically significant. -22-- o~~~~t 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-tc T~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~O -23- Figure 3 100Z O t h e rs__ ___________100%________ 0 0 a) CUMULATIVE SHARE OF INFORMATION SOURCES - LARGE FARMERS 100% 100% Farmers Farmers Farmers b) CElAIESROF INFORMATION SOURCES - SMALL FARMERS We also examine data on the T&V system drawn from seven atateo in India. These data are taken from the ME reports produced by the State Governments and record the main source of informa-tio, namely the "VEW", DOother farmero", "gother sources", and "no advice" for contact and non-contact farmers0 We preoume that the category "no advice" meano "inimal advice" or the acquiaition of information through observation or casual converzation. From Table 7, we see that 80 percent of contact farmers and 54 per- cent of non-contact farmers claim eatension agents to be their maia source of informationo Those who claim to take "no advice", comprice about 9 percent of contact farmers and nearly 19 percent of non-contsct farmeras "Other fazme-os"° age the main source of information for 20 perceat of non-contact farmers, but less than 7 percent of contact farmeroo These data support the finding that eatension agents are the most iapoztant source of agricultural information in areas 'aith T&V eatenaion0 Table 7: FARMER'S HAIN SOURCE OF INFOLM2ATIOZ .1 STATES WITH THE T&V EXTENSION SYSTEN Main Sources Contact Non-contact of Information Farmers Farmers ----- ercent- … - - 7°° vyE 79.66 53.58 Other farmera 6o87 l5992 Other sources 4o66 7061 Wo advice 8o8l 18.69 All 100000 100000 Source: Nonitoring and evaluation reports of State Governments in India. -25- In contrast, data from a study in a non-T&V setting on the socio-economic constraints to rainfed agriculture in Thailand (Hutanuwatr et. al., 1982) indicate that extension officers are the 4th ranked source of information -- the most important being "relatives and neighbors" (equivalent to our category of "other farmers") followed by radio programs and community leaders. The authors also report that "... more than half of the farmers sampled felt that extension officers could not help them solve any agricul- tural problems" (p. 25). We next examine the question of whether extension agents become more important as information sources the more expensive or complicated a practice becomes, by calculating "information source ratios" for two increasingly expensive categories of agricultural practices. 7/ "Expensive" means the opportunity loss resulting from wrong application of the practice as well as the simple financial cost. The information source ratio is an indicator of the relative importance of two information sources: the VEW and "other farmers" (i.e., first-hand versus second-hand sources). Relevant data are shown in Table 8. We note that in areas without T&V extension the VEW plays a very minor role in relation to both groups of practices -- the ratios for less expensive practices and more expensive practices are 0.04 and 0.09 respectively. In areas with T&V extension the comparable ratios for non-contact farmers are 0.27 and 0.47, while those for contact farmers are much higher at 3.98 and 5.14. Reflecting the more favorable "supply" conditions, the ratios become higher as access to exten- sion increases. -26 Table 8: WEIGHTED AVERAGE INFORLATION SOURCE RATIOS FOR UHEAT PRACTICES /a Non-T&V Farmers T6V Non-contact Farmers T6V Contact Farmers Less More Less M9ore Less More Expensive lb Expensive Expenoive Expensive Expensive Eupensive Practices /c Practices /d Practices tc Practices /d Practices /c Practices /d Small 0000 000 0.20 0.28 3.51 4,43 Large 0.07 0.16 0.36 0.58 4.27 7.50 All 0.04 0.09 0.27 0.47 3.98 5.14 la The "Source Ratio" is the ratio of the number of times that a VEW is cited as the main source of information to the number of times that "gother farmers" is cited. Lb "Expensiveness" refers to the opportunity loss resulting from the incorrect appli- cation of the agricultural practices as well as their cost, or complextity0 /c Less expensive (variety choice, seeding rate and spacing). /d More expensive (use of phosphate, potash and %inc, seed treatment against termites, seed treatment against disease, timing of nitrogen application). Source: RAU/World Bank Study, Rabi 1982/83. There is also a distinct pattern with respect to farm size -- the source ratios are consistently higher for larger farms. This may result from larger contact farmers having somewhat greater access to the VEW (see Table 3) and larger non-contact farmers investing more in information acquisition. Moreover the VEW is likely to be a more expensive source (in terms of time taken to locate and meet him) than "other farmers". In short, irrespective of farm size the data show that all classes of farmers prefer to receive advice about the more "expensive" practices from the VEW, Similar viewzs are expressed by Howell [1984, pp. 174, 175]. We also examined evidence contained in a detailed report on a study of ThV extension operations in the indian State of Madhya Pradesh conducted by the National Council for Applied Economic Research (NCAER, 1983). Data in the report (pp. 49-51) generally support the contention that VZWs play -27- an important role as sources of knowledge about recommended practices for both contact and non-contact farmers. Further, the NCAER data suggest that the importance of the VEW rises as the riskiness or complexity of agricul- tural practices increases. V. INFORMATION SOURCES AND FARM PRODUCTIVITY The process by which extension influences crop yields involves a wide range of intervening variables. The effect is indirect and not easily measured. However, if extension efforts are successful, this success must eventually result in an increase in output per unit input and/or reduced costs per unit of product. Since the contact point between the extension system and the farmer is the village extension worker, it is essential that the VEW, as a first-hand information source, be "better" than other second-hand or non-personal sources of information. It would be hard to justify the expense of an intensive agricultural extension system under any other circumstances. A testable hypothesis is therefore implied, namely, that farmers whose main information source is the extension agent will have higher productivity than those who rely on other information sources, ceteris paribus. Of course, there may be some systematic relationship between farmers who are more inclined to utilize extension as a main source of information and other inherent attributes (e.g. intelligence) which make them better farmers who obtain higher yields. Unfortunately, the data do not permit all other relevant attributes to be held constant and therefore the analysis below is suggestive rather than definitive. 2 8- Drawing again on the state ,i&E reports in India, we use data on crop yields in the kharif and rabi seasons disaggregated by informatioa source. For kharif, we use rice yields and for rabi, wiheat, under both irrigated and unirrigated conditions. State average yields were calculated by applying weights based on the sample sizes for irrigated and unirrigated farms and contact and non-contact farmers. The resulting overall average for each etate was set equal to 1000 Subsequently, each subset of yields was expressed as an index numhaer relative to the overall state average. This conversion permits rice and wheat yields to be compared (since they differ in absolute magnitudes) and heavily damps differences in agro-climatic and socio-economic factors between states. The net result of this conversion is a series of inAde2 numbers that is comparable across states, crops and cropping seasons0 A summary of the data for irrigated, unirrigated and all farms, disaggregated by main source of farmer information, is shown in Table 9o -29- Table 9: YIELD INDICES BY MAIN SOURCE OF INFORMATION /a Main Source of Information Other Other No VEW Farmers Sources Advice 116.25 89.52 92.64 93.22 Irrigated (13) /b (13) (13) (13) 114.75 101.90 103.29 /c 79.88 Unirrigated (13) (13) (13) (13) 114.50 99.08 95.77 86.11 All (15) (15) (15) (15) La The actual sample base in terms of numbers of farmers is more than 1,500; the sample sizes in the table refer to the number of average yield index figures and hence represent a mean of means. /b Figures in parentheses indicate sample size. Sample sizes differ because, for two states, data disaggregated by irrigated and unirrigated farms were not available. /c One state, in one cropping season, had an unduly high yield figure and the sample base was extremely low in relation to the rest and hence was insignificant in the computation of weighted average yields for "all" farms. However, in computing the average across unirrigated farms in all states, this number receives equal weighting. Hence this particular figure should be considered an overestimate. Source: Monitoring and evaluation reports of State Governments in India. Farmers whose main source of information is the VEW have the highest yield index of 114.5. This is followed by those whose source is "other farmers" and their yield index is close to the average. "Other" sources (e.g., radio, demonstration days, sales personnel, etc.) have a lower yield index of 95.77 and those farmers who receive "no advice", 86.11. Prima facie, it would appear that those using the VEW as the main source of infor- mation have yields that differ substantially from all other sources, but the difference between "other farmers" and "other sources" is much less marked. --30- All three, however, appear to be better compared to those farmers receiving "rno advice".a 'e test these results more rigorously in a multiple regression framework (equivalent to an analysis of variance since all explavatory vari- ables are categorical), suppressing the variable against which we test for significance. We specify the dependent variable (yield) in its logarithm as conventionally done in production analysis0 8/ The first set of results, for irrigated and unirrigated farms and all farms,, are show:n separately in Table 10. In these results we have controlled for 'other sources', that is to say the coefficients of the remaining explanatory variables represent deviations from the effect of 'other sources'. Table 10: YIELD INDEX AND INFORIVATION SOURCES, CONTROLLING FOR "OTHER SOURCES" Dependent Variable: Log (YIELD INDEX) Parameter Estimate Independent (t' values in parentheses) Variable All IrKiRated& Ujj irrEg ed Intercept -0.061 (-10419) -00003 (-0O55) 4.584 (66A8O9) VEW MolO ( 3.119) O.R41] ( 2.1140) 0.151 ( ,.552 Other Farmers 0044 ( 0M721) -3.119 (lI02) Oo010 ( 00105) No Advice -0.107 (-1750) o-0.90 (°o.303) -00223 (20296) F 8.4l8 6.425 5.053 R2 00266 002953 002402 All three regressions have significant F values (at > 99 percent levels), suggesting reasonable overall explanatory power0 As suraised, y4elds for farmers receiving information from VEWs are significantly higher than those for farmers who depend on "other sources". There is significant -31- difference at the 99 percent level for all farms; for unirrigated farms the difference is significant at a little less than 90 percent and for irrigated farms at 95 percent. "Other farmers" do not constitute a source of informa- tion that has a productivity effect significantly different from "other sources" for all farms and unirrigated farms. Receiving "no advice" is significantly worse than receiving advice from "other sources" for all farmers and unirrigated farmers, but not significantly worse (though the direction of the relationship is negative) in the case of irrigated farms. Table 11: YIELD INDEX AND INFORMATION SOURCES, CONTROLLING FOR "NO ADVICE" Dependent Variable: Log (YIELD INDEX) Parameter Estimate Independent (t values in parentheses) Variable All Irrigated Unirrigated Intercept -0.168 (-1.536) -0.076 (-1.536) 4.361 (63.561) VEW 0.297 ( 4.870) 0.215 ( 3.193) 0.373 ( 3.848) Other Farmers 0.151 ( 2.471) -0.055 (-0.826) 0.233 ( 2.401) Other Sources 0.107 ( 1.750) 0.073 ( 1.072) 0.223 ( 2.296) F2 8.418 6.641 5.059 0.3039 0.3022 0.2402 Similar results, when "no advice" is the control variable, are presented in Table 11. In this set of regressions the coefficients of the explanatory variables represent deviations from the productivity effect of Ino advice'. VEW advice is significantly better than "no advice" in all three cases. "Other farmers" and "other sources" come out significantly better than "no advice" for all farms and unirrigated farms, and better, but not significantly so for irrigated farms. 9/ VI. CONCLUSIONS The foregoing analysis of an extensive set of aggregate &nd farm level data mostly pertaining to T&V extension operations in India permits the following conclusions to be drawn. (a) Approximately 85 percent of contact farmers are visited at least once a month, suggesting that "supply" of extension serv2.cesD taking normal "friction" into accountD, is reasonable. A&nongst non-contact farmers 65 percent have interacted with extencion workers at least once during the reference period, suggeoting that demand is substantial0 (b) The data indicate that there is a statistically significant bias in favor of visits to large farmers; however, the absolutfe size of this bias is very small. (c) T&V agents appear to be more active and in higher demand ia the dry as opposed to the rainfed cropping season; this is probably explainable by the fact that research has traditionally emphasized dry-season cropping technology and this has resulted in more reliable advice in the rabi season0 (d) Visits to contact farmers decrease with the age of the p-oject, while they increase for non-contact farmerso lith lengthening project life, there is a sizeable increase in the absolute number of farmers meeting with extension agents0 (e) VEWs play a more important role in the dissemination of iaform- ation in areas covered by TIV extension than they do in non-T&V settings; in both situations they are relatively more important to large farmers than to small0 (f) The VEW and radio are probably complementary information sources0 (g) "Other farmers" qua information sources appear to play a role consistent with a two-step communication flowo In a nor-T&V setting they are the most important information source0 In areas covered by T&V extension they are the major information source for non-contact farmers and a relatively minor one for contact farmers0 These results hold for both large and small farmers0 (h) VEWs become increasingly important information sources the more expensive or complicated an agricultural practice becomeos; their role is somewhat greater in the case of large farmso -33- (i) Yields in farms that rely on the VEW as the main source of information are higher than in farms that rely mainly on other sources of information. The other sources do not appear to differ greatly from one another, but any source of information appears to be better than receiving no advice. As more information starts to emerge from T&V projects in other countries, future research should focus on comparisons between experiences in differing socio-economic and cultural environments. Such comparisons may provide insights into the ways in which extension systems may be further adapted and improved. -34- F OOTNOTES 1/ By 1984, it had been adopted by about 40 countries in Eastern and Western Africa, South and Southeast Asia, the Middle East, Europe, Central and South America (Benor and Baxter, 1984, po 4). 2/ The terms "0extension agent" and "village e2tension workers 'SVEW)` are used interchangeably throughout the remainder of the paper. 3/ Two geographically adjacent areas one w^ith T&V and one without - in the Indian states of Haryana and Uttar Pradech, respectively, were chosen. A sample survey amongst 972 farmers was conducted. For details, see Feder and Slade, i984a, ppo7-8o 4/ In a recent case study of ettension in India [Howell (1984)iL a similar distinction between supply and demand is made. Powever, the indicators used' for supply and demand are different, and no distinction is maintained between contact farmers and other farmers0 5/ The statistical test used is based on the large sample normality of the test statistic: Z I X P2)/ (1 ')°[(J/N) 4 (l/E ) where P. is the proportion of farmers with a certain characteristic within sample i, Ni is the sample sizes, y the population proportion. 6/ This can be verified by calculating the weighted average for all farmers (contact and non-contact) of the proportion of farmers with °ino visit00, using the weights .2 and .9 for contact and non-contact farmers, respectivelyo 7/ The "information source ratio" ia merely the ratio of the number of times a VEW is cited as the main source of information to the number of times °°other farmers°° is cited0 8/ This transformation does not at all alter our results; the same regressions run for non-logarithmic data produced ident-ical results, 9/ A test of the difference between the mean yield indices from farmero who depended on the VEW and farmers who depended on °°other farmers00 for advice produced a 't' statistic of 3.14, which was significant at 99 percent, suggesting that yields are significantly higher for farmers who depend on VZhs as opposed to °°other farmers000 -35- REFERENCES 1. Benor, Daniel and Michael Baxter, 1984, "Training and Visit Extension", Washington, D.C.: The World Bank. 2. von Blanckenburg, P., C. Sivayoganathan, M.W.A.P. Jayatilake and K.K. Navaratnam, 1980, "Some Observations on Agricultural Extension: The Training and Visit System in Sri Lanka", Faculty of Agriculture, University of Perdenia, Mimeo. 3. von Blanckenburg, Peter, 1982, "The Training and Visit System of Agricultural Extension - A Review of First Experiences", Quarterly Journal of International Agriculture, Vol. 21, No. 1. 4. Cernea, Michael M., "Sociological Dimensions of Extension Organization: The Introduction of the T&V System in India", Extension Education and Rural Development Vol. 2: International Experience in Strategies for Planned Change, Bruce R. Crouch and Shankarian Chamala, eds., John Wiley and Sons, Ltd., Chichester, 1981. 5. Cernea, Michael M., J.K. Coulter, and J.F.A. Russell, eds., 1983 "Agricultural Extension by Training and Visit. The Asian Experience." A World Bank and UNDP Symposium. Washington, D.C. The World Bank. 6. Feder, Gershon and Roger Slade, 1984a, "Contact Farmer Selection and Extension Visits - The Training and Visit Extension System in Haryana, India", Quarterly Journal of International Agriculture. Vol. 23. No. 1. 7. , 1984b, "Acquisition of Information and Adoption of New Technology", American Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 66, No. 3. 8. , 1984c, "Aspects of the Training and Visit System of Agricultural Extension in India: A Comparative Analysis". Staff Working paper No. 656, The World Bank, Washington, D.C. 9. Howell, John, 1982a, "Managing Agricultural Extension: The T&V System in Practice", Overseas Development Institute (London), Agricultural Administration Unit Discussion Paper No. 8. 10. , 1982b, "Strategy and Practice in the T&V System of Agricultural Extension", Agricultural Administration Unit, Overseas Development Institute (London). Discussion Paper No. 10. 11. , 1984. "Small Farmers Services in India: A Study of Two Blocks in Orissa State", Overseas Development Institute (London), Agricultural Administration Paper No. 13. -36- 120 Hutanuwatr, Narong, Suchint Simaraks, Rrirkkiat Phipatseritham, Chalong Bunthamcharoen, Arnone Yamtree, l982. "Socio-economic Constraints in Rain-fed Agricultural Production in the Lower North-East Thailand", Faculty of Agriculture, Rohn Kaen University, Thailand. 130 Jaiswal, NOKO, 1983, "Transfer of Technology under T&V - Problem Identification", Background Papers: Workshop on Mianagement of Transfer of Farm Technology under the Tranin& and Visit System, National Institute of Rural Development, Hyderabad. 140 Noore, Michael, 1984, "Institutional Development, The World 3ank and India's New Agricultural Extension Programme", The Journal of Development Studies, Vol 20, No. 4. 15. National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER), 1983, "Evaluation of the Training and Visit EZtension Service in Madhya Pradesh'8, New Delhi. l6o Perraton, Hilary, D.T. Jamison, J0 Jenlins, 7. Orivel and LEurence Wolff, 1983, "Basic Education and Agricultural Extension Costs, Effects, Alternatives", Staff Working Paper, Noo 564, The World Bank, Washington, D.C. 170 Reports on Monitoring and Monitoring-cum-Evaluation Surveys of T&V System0 Various State Governments, India, 1979-l9830 l80 Shingi, Prakash M., Sanjay Wodx^walar and Gurindar Iaun, 1982, "Management of Agricultural Extension: Training and Visit System in Rajasthan0" CoMoAo Monograph, No0 96, Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad. 19o Singh, R0N0, 1983, "T&V in Chambal Command Area (Kota District): Some Observations" in Background Papers: Workshop on Mianagement of Transfer of Farm Technology under the Trainina and Visit Svstem, National Institute for Rural Development, Hyderabad. 200 Slade, Roger and Gershon Feder, 1981, "The Mionitoring and Evaluation of Training and Visit Extension in India: A Manual of Instruction." The World Bank, Washington, D.C. Mimeo W orld Bank The Agricultural Development their productivity. Valuable to policy- Experience of Algeria, makers, project designers, rural sociol- Pub licaO W Morocco, and Tunisia: A ogists, extension workers, and other of Rdated Comparison of Strategies for agncultural researchers. of Reated ~ ~~~~Growthf 1984. 176 pages. Interest Kevin M. Cleaver ISBN 0-8213-0301-5.Stock No. BK 0301. Compares agncultural expenence of $ 50. Algena, Morocco, and Tunisia. Pro- vides insights into the importance of food and agnculture for development, and determinants of agncultural NEW Adoption of Agricultural growth. Agricultural Extension: The Innovations in Developing Staff Working Paper No 552. 1983 55 Training and Visit System Countries: A Survey pages. Daniel Benor, James Q. Harrison, Gershon Feder, Richard Just,and ISBN 0-8213-0120-9 Stock No. WP 0552. and Michael Baxter David Silbermnan $3. David Silberman $3. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Contains guidelines for reform of agri- Staff Working Paper No 542 1982. 65 cultural extension services along the pages. lines of the training and visit system. ISBN 0-8213-0103-9 Stock No. WP 0542 The central objective-making the $3 The Agricultural Economy of most efficient use of resources avail- Northeast Brazil able to governments and farmers-is Agrarian Reform as Unfinished Gary P. Kutcher and Pasquale L. achieved through encouraging and fa- Scandizzo ciitating feedback from farmers to re- Business-the Selected Papers This study, based on an agricultural search workers through extension per- of Wolf Ladejinsky survey of 8,000 farms, assesses the ex- sonnel who visit and advise farmers Louis J. Walinsky, editor tent and root causes of pervasive rural on a regular, fixed schedule, thus Studies in agranan pohcy and land re- poverty in northeast Brazil. The au- helping research to solve actual pro- form spanning four decades, grouped thors review a number of policy and ductfon constraits ced by the chronologically according to Ladejin- project options; they conclude that fanner. sky's years in Washington, Tokyo, and courageous land reform is the only ef- Explains the complex relationships in Vietnam and while at the Ford Foun- fective means of dealing with the training and visit extension and draws dation and the World Bank.Oxford problem attenhon to the range of considera- University Press, 1977 614 pages (in- The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982 bons that are important to implement- cluding appendixes, index). 288 pages. ing the system. LC 77-24254 ISBN 0-19-920095-5, Stock LC 8147615. ISBN 0-8018-2581-4, Stock 1984 95 pages No OX 920095, $32.50 hardcover, ISBN No. IH 2581. $25 00 hardcover ISBN 0-8213-0140-3. Stock No. BK 0140. 0-19-920098-X, Stock No OX 920098, S5. $14 95 paperback Agrarian Reforms in Agricultural Land Settlement Developing Rural Economies NEW Theodore J. Goering, coordinating Characterized by Interlinked author Credit and Tenancy Markets Agricultural Extension by Examines selected issues related to the Avishay Braverman and T.N. Training and Visit: The Asian World Bank's lending for land settle- Srinivasan Experience ment and gives estimates of the global Staff orkingPaper o 433 980 32Edited by Michael M. Cermea, rate of settlement andthe world's ulti- Staff Working Paper No 433 1980 32 JonKC e,adJh .mate potentiaey aranbdle lan ld. sub pages (ncludig refeTnces).John K. Coulter, and John F A.maeptnilyraelnd RusseUl A World Bank Issues Paper. 1978. 73 Stock No WP-0433. $3 Captures nearly ten years of expen- pages (including 4 annexes). English, ence with the Training and Visit Ex- French, and Spanish. Agricultural Credit tension System Addresses five issues. Stock Nos. BK 9054 (English), BK 9055 Outlines agncultural credit practices farmer participation, the research-ex- (French), BK 9056 (Spanish) $5 paper- and problems, programs, and policies tension Imkage, traimng, system man- back. in developing countnes and discusses agement, and monitoring and evalua- their implications for World Bank op- tion. Within this framework, extension erations. system managers and evaluators from Agricultural Price Management A Word Ban Pa pr. 175 85pages(in- six Asian countries and six discussants in Egypt Al dWirld Bank Papexr 1975 85 pages (tn- present their experience and analyses. William Cuddihy cluding 14 annex tables)Notes the World Bank's strong corn- Stock No BK 9039 (English), BK 9052 mitment to agricultural development Staff Working Paper No. 388 1980. 174 (French), BK 9053 (Spanish) $5 paper- in its member countries and to helping pages (including annex, bibliography). back. least advantaged farmers to improve Stock No WP-0388 $5. AACURquR 1nce IPoMeo is ad Stock Nos. BK 9074 (English),BK 0160 e llDeveRopin, Counties (French), BK 0161 (Spanish). $5 paper- _ - George Tolley, Vinod Thomas, and bck. Chung Ming Wong , D AnnRyoio This book first considers price policies James E. Austin A f, I..- Oc 7F ia t in Korea, Bangladesh, Thailand, and Provides and illustrates a framework Venezuela, bringing out the conse- for analyzing and designing agro-in- I., quences for govemment cost and reve- dustyial projects. nue, farm income, and producer and E S i c D \ 1 consumer welfare. Other effects, in- EDI Series in Economc Development. cluding those on agricultural diversifi- The Johns Hopkiz.s University Press, | cation, inflation, economic growth, 1981.2nd printing, 1983. 224 pages (in- and the balance of payments are also cluding appendixes, bibliography, and discussed The second part of the book index). provides a methodology for estimating LC 80-550. ISBN 0-8018-2412-5,Stock '1 T I these effects in any country Opera- No JH 2412, $16 50 hardcover; ISBN 0- I honal tools for measunng the effects 8018-2413-3, Stock No. IH 2413, $7.50 I i jI on producers, consumers, and govern- paperback. v, ment are developed and applied. French: L'Analyse des p7olets agroindus- L k The Johns Hopkins University Press 1982 trnels. Economica, 1982. ISBN 1-7178- 256 pages 0480-3, Stock No. IB 0537 $7.50 paper- LC 81-15585 ISBN 0-8018-2704-3, Stock back l©ir lo1ir: A Mzuiai r No IH 2704, $25 hardcover, NEW ISBN Spanish: Analisis de proyectos agroindus- Q¢t.lII1 L 0-8018-3124-5, Stock No IH 3124, $9 95 triales. Editorial Tecnos, 1981 ISBN 84- lntemnaton?l Fiinance Corp. paperback 309-0882-X, Stock No. IB 0520, $7 50 pa- Decisionmal&ng tool for entrepreneurs perback. and project rranageLs considering in- vestments in integrated poultry pro- NErW jects. Use thti guide to conduct on-site AgricluniRMa IDrces iin Ciina ivestigation of proposed project. Fig- Nicholas R. Lardy All nativ AS zfrliR WITfLmEIflm ure production costs and determine Analyzes recent adjustments to PoRid6e in &e Repinilc o fixed asset and worling capital for China's agricultural pncing systems NoI eL: The@iz FM91RACZHon0 §v broiler operetions. Analyze market and and its effects on urban consumers GefvesAenll llnec(Dme accurately forecast market pnces This and overall production pattems. De- lMnna e comprehensive guide tells how to fines price ratios from key inputs and manage inteErated broiler operations, outputs and examines prnce/cost rela- ?ramenms gives specifications for broiler and hons in view of the institutional set- Avishay Braverman, Choong Yong breeder houses and summanzes pro- brng for price policy. Ahn, Jeffrey S. Hammer duction costs. Staff Working Paper No 606 1983 84 Develops a two-s2ctor multimarket Technical Papez No. 10. 1983 110 pages. pages model to evaluate agricultural pricing ISBN 0-8213-0165-9.Stock No BK 0165 ISBN 0-8213-0216-7 Stock No WP 0606. policies, replacing insufficient standard $5 $3* operational methods. Measures the impact of altemative pncing policies The f- C(rHAC: Alfn6l11luraR Iteseadllri on production and consumption of rice G D ite ley Points out that developing countnes and barley, real income distnbution, FH A?nnaI I?OIIy must invest more in agncultural re- import levels of rice, self-sufficiency in Edited by .oger D. Norton search if they are to meet the needs of rice, and public budget. Provides a their growing populations. Notes that valuable synthesis of the work that has andLeopolc:o Solis M. studies in Brazil, India,Japan, Mexico, been done to date on agricultural The pnncipal tool of analysis is the and the United States show that agn- household models. Helps economists sector model CHAC, named after the cultural research yields a rate of return evaluate the impact of alternative pnc- Mayan rain god. This model can be that is more than two to three times ing policies aimed at reducing deficits. used throughIout the sector to cover greater than retums from most alter- Based on the experience of the Grain short-cycle cr-ops, their inputs, and native investments and cites some of Management Fund and the Fertilizer their markets. It can also be broken the successes of the high-yielding van- Fund in Korea. down into submodels for partcular lo- eties of rice and wheat that were de- Staff Working Paper No. 621. 1983. 174 calities if more detailed analysis is re- veloped in the mid-1960s. Discusses pages. quired. The model helps planners the World Bank's plans to expand its ISBN 0-8213-0275-2.Stock No. WP 0621. weigh the costs among policy goalIs, lending for agncultural research and $5 which can vary from region to region. extension, particularly for the produc- This volume :eports the expernence of hon of food and other commodities AleliaL: coumzffy Cnsme ZUy using the CHAC model and also pre- that are of importance to low-income of A llc6wallk2is 1 S 1 sents purely methodological material. consumers, small farmers, and re- and su$ndns The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983 source poor areas. Lucio G. Reca 624 pages (including maps, bibliographies, Sector Policy Paper 1981 110 pages (in- Staff Working Paper No.386. 1980. 72 index) cluding annexes) English, French, and pages (including 3 annexes). LC 80-29366. ISBN 0-8018-2585-7, Stock Spanish Stock No. WP-0386. $3. No. IH 2585. 535 hardcover. Building National Capacity to The Design of Rural Economic Aspects and Policy Develop Water Users' Development: Lessons from Issues in Groundwater Associations: Experience from Africa Development the Philippines Uma Lele Ian Carruthers and Roy Stoner Frances F. Korten Analyzes new ways of designing rural Staff Working Paper No 496 1981. 110 Staff Working Paper No 528 1982 v + development projects to reach large pages (including annex, bibitography) 69 pages (including references) numbers of low-income subsistence Stock No. WP-0496 $5 ISBN 0-8213-0051-2 Stock No WP 0528 populations. The third paperback Economic Retum to Investment $3 ~~~~~~~~printing contains a new chapter by the EcnmcRtrtoIvs et author updating her findings in Irrigation in India Bureaucratic Politics and The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975, Leslie A. Abbie, James Q. Incentives in the Management 3rd printing, 1979 260 pages (including Harrison, and John W. Wall of Rural Development glossary, appendix, maps,bibliography, in- Staff Working Paper No. 536 1982 52 Richard Heaver dex) pages ISBN 0-8018-1769-2, Stock No JH 1769, ISBN 0-8213-0083-0 Stock No WP 0536 Analyzes management problems in $9 95 paperback $3 implementing rural development from a bureaucratic polihcal standpoint French Le developpement rural l'experi- Farm Budgets: From Farm Emphasizes the need to take account ence Africa7e Economica, 1977 ISBN 2- ncome Analysis to of informal interests in managing pro- 7178-0006-9, Stock No lB 0545, $9 95 Icm nlsst grams Suggests possible methods for paperback Agricultural Prow ect Analysis assessing incentives Economic Analysis of Maxwell L. Brown Staff Workgng Paper No 537 1983 74 Agricultural Projects farmn income analysis and the broader Pages Second edition, completely revised field of agncultural project analysis ISBN 0-8213-0084-9. Stock No WP 0537 and expanded and emphasizes the more practical as- $3 J. Price Gittinger pects of project preparation Gives Sets out a careful and practical meth- guidance to those responsible for plan- NEW odology for analyzing agncultural de- ning in agnculture. velopment projects and for using these EDI Senes in Economic Development. The Common Agricultural analyses to compare proposed invest- The Johns Hopkins University Press, Policy of the European ments. It covers what constitutes a 1980 154 pages. Community: A Blessing or a "project," what must be considered to LC 79-3704. ISBN 0-8018-2386-2,Stock Curse for Developing identify possible agncultural projects, No IH 2386, $15 hardcover, ISBN 0- the life cycle of a project, the strengths 8018-2387-0, Stock No IH 2387, $6 50 Countries? and pitfalls of project analysis, and the paperback Ulrich Koester and Malcolm D. calculations required to obtain financial Spanish Presupuestos de fincas Editoral Bale and economic project accountsSpns:PeuetodefcaEiorl Baleand economic r oject accounts Tecnos, 1982 ISBN 84-309-0886-2, Stock Examines the importance of the Euro- The methodology reflects the best of No. IB 0522, $6 50 paperback pean Community (EC) in global agn- contemporary practice in govemnment cultural trade Points out that the EC agencies and international develop- Fishery is the leading importer of agricultural ment institutions concemned with in- Highlights the importance of fishenes goods and is the dominant exporter of vesting in agnculture and is accessible to the economies of developing coun- a number of agncultural products Em- to a broad readership of agricultural tnes and recommends that the World phasizes that policymakers in develop- planners, engineers, and analysts Bank provide assistance to those coun- ing countnes must understand the im- This revision adds a wealth of recent tnes that have the fishery resources plications of the EC's common project data, expanded treatment of and are willing to develop them fur- Agncultural Policy Spells out how this farm budgets and the efficiency pnces ther policy operates and categorizes impor- to be used to calculate the effects of an Sector Policy Paper 1982 tant commodities investment on national income, a glos- ISBN 0-8213-0138-1 Stock No BK 0138, Staff Working Paper No 630. 1984 64 sary of technical terms, expanded ap- $5 paperback pages pendixes on preparing an agncultural Stock No WP 0630 $3 project report and using discounting Forestry tables, and an expanded, completely Graham Donaldson, coordinating The Design of Organizations annotated bibliography. author for Rural Development EDI Series in Economic Development. Examines the significance of forests in Projects: A Progress Report The Johns Hopkins University press July economic development and concludes William E. Smith, Francis J. 1982 2nd printing, March 1984 528 that the World Bank should greatly in- Lethem, and Ben A. Thoolen pages (including appendixes and glossaryl crease its role in forestry development, Staff Working Paper No 375 1980. 48 index) both as a lender and adviser to gov- pages English and French LC 82-15262 ISBN 0-8018-2912-7, Stock ernments Stock Nos WP 0375 (English), BK 9241 No. iH 2912, $37 50 hardcover, ISBN 0- Sector Policy Paper 1978 63 pages (in- (French) $3 ~~~~~8018-2913-5, Stock No JH 2913, $13 50 cluding 7 annexes) English, French, and paperback Spanish Spanish Analisis economico de proyectos Stock Nos. BK 9063 (English), BK 9064 Prices subject to change without notice agricolas Editorial Tecnos, S A. ISBN 84- (French), BKL 9065 (Spanish) $5 paper- and may vary by country. 309-0991-5 $13 50 back major policy options open to the pages (including 3 annexes, appendix, ThEW World Bank in this field. map). 7Q)Tes$z$ Tema--lrminoRogie A World Bank Paper 1975. 73 pages (in- Stock No. WP-0332. $5. (&IDTys2oah cluding 2 annexes). mnA$zilg 3 m& EVhnaHn ol English-French; Francais- Stock No. BK 9042. $5 paperback. AcpaUT Em(1 LmzaR Anglais. LEFd Yemze Syotema aml Presents terminology related fo for- 5oCA1 Cao IF $zS07 Dennis J. Casley and Denis A. estry development and erosion control Deekpmenl eZOTLMO Lury in arid and semiand lands. Since fuel- Michael M. Cernea This book pzovides a how-to tool for wood problems and deserification the design and implementaoon of have become serious, particularly in Staff Working Paper No 452. 1981 35 motitonng and evaluation systems in Western Afnca, the World Bank has pages (including references, bibliography). rural development projects Because become increasingly involved in wood- Stock No WP-0452 $3 rural development projects are com- based energy and erosion-control and plex, they seek to benefit large num- in forest-management projects. Assists jEW bers of peop!e in remote rural areas, translators and researchers who work and they involve a variety of invest- in this field. ments. Tre need for monitonng and A World Bank Glossary-Glossaire de evaluating tirem dunng implementa- la Banque mondtale ,7- -, tion has been accepted in principle, 1984. 48 pages but effective systems have not hereto- ISBN 0-8213-0175-6. Stock No BK 0175. ~~~~fore been formnulated. The concepts of ISBN 0-8213-0175-6. Stock No BK 0175. monitoring and evaluation are differ- $5 t)rt X SgLoentiated and issues that need to be EmpZav,An=ageed I considered in designing systems to 4zm seliltra? Ln$2nklizoFainX * 1 W l m onitor and evaluate specific projects At~~~r~~~: ~~n~~~ifruLional ~~~~~~are outlined, emphasizing the timeli- LIT D airz &he S1mgl lFazrmeir ness of the monitoring functions for Daniel W. Bromley -- effective management Elaborates on Staff Working Paper No 531 7982. 96 - such techn-cal issues as selection of in- pages. dicators, selection of survey methodol- ogy data analysis, and presentation. It ISBN 0-8213-0064-4 Stock No WP 0531 i E is directed primnarily to those working 53 D9elze61a&iovn Anrt AgyAculii&rnA with specific projects and will be use- Irait: Il t)e~1 mar ti1 §n SUply nt L;Dgegllg ]?Zcj $ Mi to project appraisal teams, to de- Plruope¢&s Icy AgRCM&Me John Seidensticker signers of monitonng and evaluation James Q. Harrison, Jon A. Outhnes precedures for managing ele- systems, and to pro.ect staff who work Hitchings, and John W. Wall phants in and around project areas as Y Staff Working Paper No 500 1981 133 part of the project design. Helps proj- The Johns Hopkins University Press 1982 ptages (incluing 5Pappendixes, r1erences ect designers plan activities that will 145 pages pages (including 5 appendixes, references, protect wildlife and prevent financial LC 82-7126 ISBN 0-8018-2910-0, Stock annex). loss from damage by animals. Illus- No. JH 2910. $8.50 paperback. Stock No WP-0500 $5. trates methods used to investigate ele- phant behavior and ecology. Notes that careful scheduling of project activ- An EZS 5 ities is required to ensure that ele- Guido Debo2ck and Ronald Ng C1h¢xtinn: A R w sf t1he phants are not isolated in production Staff Workirg Paper No. 439 1980. 91 areas. pages (including annexes). James E. Nickum Technical Paper No. 16 1984.50 pages. Stock No WP-0439 53 Analyzes irrigation management in the ISBN 0-8213-0297-3. People's Republic of China. Major top- Stock No. BK 0297 $3 IVEWA ics covered are the institutional envi- ronment, the organizational structure, nmammin monnaenltO ff syrt2eE anm water fees and funding, and water al- RU ZR DeVe? EMenq- AIC9 location The report is based on Chinese-language materials published Om Snsrem Al?Om the in China and now available in the Guido Deboeck znd Bill Kinsey United States. Staff Working Paper No. 379. 1980. vio + Agncultural economists, planners, and Staff Working Paper No 545. 1983. 106 70 pages (including 5 annexes, index) field workers will find this 19S3 case pages Stock No WP-0379 $3. study report a practical guide for de- ISBN 0-8213-0110-1. Stock No. WP 0545 signing efficient monitonng and evalu- $5. MeEMUzaMP LFZCD-eCR LMRICt ation systems for imahon and similar moniawnslane 1EwaRw2flan An projects. It illustrates the practical ap- La2ndl lRelm the HIIID1EIR LIW2 DevekpmemR plication of the principles covered in Examines the characteristics of land re- Piru~eca-mezi(= the 19S2 publication Monitoring and Evaluation of Agriculture and Rural De- form, its implications for the econom- Mchael M. Cernea velop;ment Projects. Highlights the prob- ies of developing counties, and the Staff Working Paper No. 332. 1979. 137 lems as well as the successes 1983 162 pages. World Bank Staff Working Paper No 387 permitting a full social cost-benefit ISBN 0-8213-0059-8 Stock No BK 1980 108 pages analysis of the project 0059 $5. Stock No WP-0387 $5 The Johns Hopkins University Press. 1982 336 pages (including maps and index) NEW Project Evaluation in Regional LC 81-48173 ISBN 0-8018-2802-3, Stock Perspective: A Study of an No. IH 2802, $30 hardcover Opportunities for Biological Irrigation Project in Northwest Control of Agricultural Pests in Malaysia Rethinking Artisanal Fisheries Developing Countries Clive Bell, Peter Hazell, and Roger Development: Western D J Greathead and J. K. Waage Slade Concepts, Asian Experiences Descnbes how to use living organisms This innovative study develops quanti- Staff Working Paper No 423 1980 107 as pest control agents, either alone or tative methods for measunng the di- pages (including references) as one component of pest manage- rect and indirect effects of agncultural Stock No. WP-0423 $5. ment. Biological control offers hope of projects on their surrounding regional long-term-permanent-results, causes and nahonal economies. These meth- Rural Development no pollution, poses no nsk to human ods are then applied to a study of the Discusses strategy designed to extend health and is often cheaper than Muda irngation project in northwest the benefits of development to the ru- chemical controls Gives methods and Malaysia A linear programming ral poor and outlines the World Bank's costs Specifies controls for specific model is used to analyze how a project plans for increasing its assistance in crops found in developing countnes changes the farm economy, and a so- this sector. Technical Paper No 11 1983 55 pages cial accounting matrnx of the regional Sector Policy Paper, 1975, 89 pages (in- ISBNO-823-014-0 tockNo B0164 economy is then estimated This pro- cluding 14 annexes) ISBN 0-8213-0164-0 Stock No BK< 0164 vides the basis for a semi-input-output $3 model, which is used to estimate the Stock No. BK 9036 $5 paperback indirect effects of the project on its re- Prices, Taxes, and Subsidies in gion Thereafter, a similar methodol- Pakistan Agriculture,1960-1976 ogy is used to estimate the project's NEW Carl Gotsch and Gilbert Brown effects on key national vanables, thus Rural Financial Markets in Developing Countries NEW J. D. Von Pischke, Dale W. Adams, and Gordon Donald Rural Development in China Selected readings highlight facets of Rural Development in China rural financial markets often neglected Dwight H. Perkins and Shahid Yusuf i , o in discussions of agricultural credit in developing countries Considers the Looks at China's rural development China's rural development policy. performance of rural financial markets expenence,as a whole since 1949 Ana- Helps clanfy both the strengths and and ways to improve the quality and lyzes China's agncultural performance weaknesses of a self-reliant strategy range of financial services for low-in- and traces it back to the technology of rural development. come farmers Also reflects new think- and other sources that made that per- ing on the design, administration, formance possible. Goes beyond the evaluation, and policy framework of conventional sources of growth analy- rural finance and credit programs in sis to examine the political and organi- developing countres zational means that enabled the The Johns Hopkins University Press 1983 Chinese to mobilize so much labor for 430 pages. development purposes ISBN 0-8018-3074-5 Stock No lH 3074 Descnbes the successes and failures of $32 50 hardcover Rural Poverty Unperceived: Problems and Remedies Robert Chambers Staff Working Paper No 400 1980 51 -0 8 w8 pages (including references) Stock No WP-0400 $3 Rural Projects through Urban Eyes: An Interpretation of the World Bank's New-Style Rural Development Projects The Johns Hopkins University Press. 1984. . - Judith Tendler 232 pages World Bank Staff Working Paper No 532 LC 83-049366 ISBN 0-8018-3261-6 Stock a ' 1982 100 pages. No lH 3261 $25 hardcover. ISBN 0-8213-0028-8 Stock No WP 0532 $3 ANEW most important determinant of overall ISBN 0-8213-0268-3 Stock No WP 0561 economic growth, has been sluggish in (English) $3 She: anad Gca in Sub-Saharan Afnocan countries dunng ISBN 0-8213-0269-8. Stock No. BK 0269 e ~~~~~~~~~the past two decades. This overview (French) $3 Ceve olpilan COGUInes: Thenzr takes a three-pronged approach to un- WFTeOen2 anMd lFo enfRlRolle derstanding the problems of aggncul- Winrock Intemational Livestock tural productio:r in the 47 countnes Research and Training Center that make up the region It outlines NEW Sheep and goats are viewed as an in- domestic and global constraints; sum- tegral component of complex agricul- manzes price, trade, and consumption 7yain:no aind V$a ni tural systems. This comprehensive forecasts for major agricultural exports; Daniel Benor and Michael Baxter analysis leads to recommendations on and project trends. Contains a comprehensive explanation the need for a balanced production Staff Working Paper No 608 1983 172 of the organization and operation of system approach for research, training, pages (including more than 75 tables and the training and visit system of agn- and development programs Assesses charts). cultural extension Emphasizes sim- the role of sheep and goats in food ISBN 0-8213-0221-3 Stock No WP 0608 plicity and decisiveness. Defines or- production systems by examining ad- $5 ganization and mode of operation and vantages and disadvantages, aid/donor allows continuous feedback from farm- support, constraints on contnbuhons, ers to exteiision and research workers. and overcoming constraints. Empha- A Sys$em 01 MDiiwi a This method has been adopted in sizes the need for a combination of EvaMflna M3 AgHCUiRUTaIR some 40 countnes in Asia, Afnca, Eu- support activities and marketing and . . rope, and Central and South Amerca. pricing policies for small ruminants Mcal M. Crica Useful to extension staff at all levels, and their products Reviews ongoing Mihe .Cre n ejmnagricultural research personnel, train- projects. J. Tepping ers, and staff of agncultural organiza- Technical Paper No. 15 1983 109 pages. Staff Working Paper No. 272. 1977 121 tions, as well as universities and train- ISBN 0-8213-0272-8. pages (including 9 annexes, bibliography) ing institutions involved in agncultural Stock No BK 0272. $5 Stock No. WP-0272 $5 and rural development and public ad- ministration. §SCEiD£Es]1Z;g 2 n$2 O6t 1984. 214 pages. ofDeVeRojpnrg § Thnal1: m .se ln Ouy ISBN 0-8213-0121-7 Stock no BK 0721. IFAn$eirne$:ID nves: eies Aal6sl:ff&l llri md D3vp'rRre $15 Richard B. Pollnac Trent Bertrand Staff Working Paper No. 490. 1981 64 Staff Working Paper No 385. 1980 243 War rn l he § pages (including references) pages (including 2 appendixes) se6c2ir: 7?,C1M(n3 a Stock No. WP-0490 $3. Stock No WP-0385 $5 NEW and HsuzehoM llD¢nncginzHn HeIRL r Some AspecQs ol Wheaa a¢ad Yailotnzlnai 1L.az,, 7enmze ?a& Meena Acharya and Lynn Bennett 6e Einic¢e Policy in Ilcndia Land Use Syr2ems nn Hie Fascinating analysis of the complex so- Raj Krishna and G.S. llDesnsne sD: Am6uRhraX IRzoDe62$ cial, demographic,and economic fac- Raj Krishna and G.S. ~esigr off AopkuaEl~ lpoe2 tors that affect women's decisionmak- Raychaudhun Raymond Noronha and Francis J. ing role in the subsistence sector. Data Staff Working Paper No 381. 1980 62 Lethem collected from seven villages show pages (including 2 appendixes, 6 tables, The feasibility of agncultural projects women piay a major role in agncul- bibliography) and their intended impact are often tural production, both as laborers and Stock No WP 0381. $3. determined by traditional patterns of managers. Bringing women into the tenure and land use This paper pro- market economy would make better NVEW vides agricultural project designers use of local resources and improve with an analytical basis and rationale their status and economic secunty in for examining svstems and suggests Nepal. §nna°S~itaharan Airn6aRlre: how to use such information in de- Staff Working Paper No. 526 1983. 160 Syzahesis and Tadle Pospecas signing projects pages Shamsher Singh Staff Working Paper No 561 1983 54 ISBN 0-8213-0024-5 Stock No WP 0526. Agricultural production, the single pages. $5 The World Bank Publications Order Form SEND TO: YOUR LOCAL DISTRIBUTOR OR TO WORLD BANK PUBLICATIONS (See the other side of thts form) P.O. BOX 37525 WASHINGTON, D.C. 20013 U.S.A. Date Name Ship to: (Enter if different from purchaser) Title Name Firm Title Address Firm_ City State_ Postal Code Address Country .Telephone ( ) City State_ Postal Code_ Purchaser Reference No. Country Rilephone Check your method of payment. 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