En v i ronm en t an d S o c i a l D ev e lopm en t— Ea s t A s i a an d pac i f i c R e g i on D i s c September 2006 u s s i Lessons from o n P a p Tree Planting Initiatives e r s M O N G O L I A 37795 MONGOLIA Lessons from Tree Planting Initiatives September 2006 © 2006 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20433 USA September 2006 All rights reserved. This study was prepared by the Environment and Social Development Unit (EASES) of the East Asia and Pacific Region, and was funded by The World Bank’s Netherlands-Mongolia Trust Fund for Environmental Reform. Environment and social development issues are an integral part of the development challenge in the East Asia and Pacific (EAP) Region. The World Bank’s Environment and Social Development Strategy for the region provides the conceptual framework for setting priorities, strengthening the policy and institutional frameworks for sustainable development, and addressing key environmental and social development challenges through projects, programs, policy dialogue, non-lend- ing services, and partnerships. The EASES Discussion Paper series provides a forum for discussion on good practices and policy issues within the development community and with client countries. This publication is available online at www.worldbank.org/eapenvironment. Suggested citation: Mühlenberg, M., T. Batkhishig, Ts. Dashzeveg, L. Drößler, B. Neusel, and J. Tsogtbaatar. 2006. Lessons From Tree Plant- ing Initatives in Mongolia. Mongolia Discussion Papers, East Asia and Pacific Environment and Social Development Department. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. 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Contents Foreword v Acronyms vii Acknowledgments ix Executive Summary xi Introduction  Mongolia’s Forest Resources 1 Depletion and Degradation of Forest Resources 2 Planting Initiatives in Mongolia 4 Study Site Selection 7 Chapter : Tree Planting in Northern Mongolia  Methods 7 Results 7 Discussion 17 Chapter : Tree Planting in Southern Mongolia  Methods 21 Results 23 Discussion 29 Chapter : Recommendations  Planning 33 Site Preparation 33 Research 33 Partnerships 34 Financial Management 35 Alternatives 35 iii Mongolia – Lessons from Tree Planting Initiatives Bibliography  Figures 1 Area of Mongolia’s Territory Planted With Trees, 1980–2004 5 2 Map of Mongolia With Locations of the Tree Planting Sites Studied 8 3 Length of Shoots of Planted Pine Trees 16 4 Length of Shoots of Planted Larch Trees 16 5 Proportions of Different Tree Species Naturally Regenerating on the Planting Sites 17 6 Direct comparison Between the Height of the Tallest Planted and Naturally Regenerated Trees on each Study Plot 18 7 Comparison of Saxaul Survival Rates One Year After Planting and in 2005 25 8 Comparison of the Average Planting Density of Three Different Types of Planting Project and the Seedling Density in Natural Forest 26 9 Comparison of the Amount of Water Added Annually per ha by Precipitation and by Irrigation in the Green Wall Program (Juulchin Gobi) 27 10 Comparison of the Mean Implementation Costs (Tg) of the Different Projects in Southern Mongolia 29 11 Mean Basal Area per ha and the Maximum Amount of Harvestable Dry Saxaul at Utilized and Pristine Locations 29 Tables 1 Biogeoclimatic Zones of Mongolia 2 2 Climate Characteristics of Mongolian Arid Regions 3 3 Fee Schedule for Planting Activities Financed by the State 6 4 Tree Planting Sites (declared and measured), and Details of Ownership 9 5 Ecological and Physical Characteristics of Tree Planting Sites 11 6 Planted Tree Survival Rates, Density, Percentage of Sites with Living Planted Trees, and Maximum Planted Tree Density 12 7 Planting Activity Visible on the 30 Sample Plots of Each Surveyed Site 13 8 Fire and Grazing in Planting Sites 15 9 Number of Planted Trees in Comparison with Natural Regeneration 18 10 Overview of the Saxaul Planting Sites 24 11 Overview of Green Wall Planting Sites 25 12 Comparison of Cost Factors in Southern Planting Programs 27 13 Inventory Data of Natural Saxaul Forests at Eight Different Locations (focusing on regeneration) 28 Box 1 Natural Regeneration of Forest Landscapes 34 iv Foreword M ongolia’s forests are of vital importance, encourage natural regeneration, not investing in costly both to the citizens and businesses planting programs. Where planting is undertaken, that rely on timber and other forest however, sensitive planting site selection, strong products, and for the protection of technical assistance, training for workers, and care Mongolia’s fragile environment. Forested landscapes of the seedlings for a number of years after planting can maintain a high quality water supply, stabilize are all crucial if the seedlings are to survive. It was soils, and provide habitat for wildlife, and if man- also found that programs for planting in remote areas aged effectively can also provide a secure supply are vulnerable to corruption, especially if inspections of forest products to meet the needs of Mongolia’s cannot be carried out regularly. growing population. Promoting the recovery of forest landscapes has been identified as a key priority by the We hope this report provides a basis for continuing Government of Mongolia. dialogue on how to care for and support—whether through policies or programs—one Mongolia’s most This report on tree planting initiatives in Mongolia precious resources; its forests and trees. is one of the many activities carried out under the Netherlands-Mongolia Environment Trust Fund for Environmental Reform (NEMO), which has touched Magda Lovei on several aspects of environmental management in Environment Sector Manager Mongolia in 2005/6. It responds to a request from the East Asia and Pacific Region Ministry of Nature and Environment to the World The World Bank Bank for support for the Green Wall program and for other planting initiatives in northern Mongolia. Arshad M. Sayed Mongolia Country Manager The report finds that the best, most lasting means The World Bank of restoring forest landscapes for the lowest cost is to v Acronyms AAC Annual Allowable Cut Dzud is the collective term for a range of winter weath- GPS Geographic Positioning System er-related conditions that prevent domestic animals GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische from foraging in open grazing. Dzud is a fact of life for Zusammenarbeit (German Agency for Technical Cooperation) Mongolian herders, who have developed strategies for MNE Ministry of Nature and Environment coping with and adapting to their harsh environment. NFP National Programme on Forestry Heavy accumulations of snow or ice crusts covering NGO Nongovernmental organization pastures are the most common form of dzud (white NSO National Statistical Office of Mongolia Tg Tugrug, the national currency. $1 = 1,100 Tg (2006) dzud). In situations where this precipitation is the UNEP United Nations Environment Program primary source of drinking water for livestock, the USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics absence of snow or ice at winter pastures is also a type of dzud (black dzud). Since forage production Notes: All dollars are U.S. dollars; all tons are on natural pastures is almost entirely dependent on metric tons. rainfall during the short summer growing period, dzud conditions are exacerbated by drought in the Aimag (= province) is the largest sub-national admin- preceding summer, so that there is less forage available istrative unit; below the aimag is the soum (= district), for over-wintering animals. Historically, major dzud which is divided into bag (= sub-district). In the have occurred roughly every seven years, but more capital city districts are called duureg and sub-districts experienced herders are not surprised when they occur khoroo. in consecutive years as has happened recently. vii Acknowledgments T his report was prepared in partnership with In Ulaanbaatar, the logistics of the fieldwork were the GTZ, with the research undertaken coordinated by Hans Hoffman of GTZ. by the Centre for Nature Conservation, University of Göttingen. The final text of this report benefitted greatly from the comments provided by the peer reviewers; Many thanks are due to the two field work teams: Ulrich Schmidt (EASRD) and Robert Ragland Lars Drößler (University of Göttingen) and Batkhishig Davis (LCSEN). Bryony Morgan (EASEN) handled Tsengel (National University of Mongolia) in northern revisions, incorporation of additional information, and Mongolia, and Benjamin Neusel (University of the publication process. Design and desktop of the Göttingen) and Prof. Dr. Ts. Dashzeveg (Institute publication was by The Word Express. of Geoecology) in southern Mongolia. The work was supervised by Dr. J. Tsogtbaatar of the Institute The work was managed by Tony Whitten, Envi- of Geoecology, Mongolian Academy of Sciences, ronment Sector Coordinator (Mongolia), East Asia and Prof. Dr. Michael Mühlenberg of the Centre and Pacific Region of the World Bank. for Nature Conservation, University of Göttingen. ix Executive Summary M ongolia’s forestry sector is in disarray, provided. In most planting sites, few of the trees with illegal and unsustainable logging survived; the mean survival rate was just 12 percent. depleting and degrading resources Survival rates were above 50 percent in only two sites. in accessible areas of forest, particu- Fire damage, cattle grazing and water stress were the larly those near urban areas. Despite Mongolia’s low main stress factors identified. Some 30 percent of the population density, there is increasingly high demand trees in the planting sites studied were damaged by for timber, both for use in construction and manufac- grazing—predominantly by large animals, rather than turing, as well as for fuelwood to support a growing hares or rodents, suggesting that this could be greatly population. Both the forests of the north of the reduced with basic fencing. The siting of the projects country and the saxaul shrub forests of the south are may also have been a factor affecting survival, with under pressure; the former for commercial timber and the majority of the planting sites located on flat, easily construction of houses and fuelwood, and the latter accessible planting sites, rather than on the northern predominantly for fuelwood and some construction. slopes where forested areas are generally found. There are concerns that the depletion and degrada- tion of the southern forests may be contributing to In future tree planting initiatives in northern areas, desertification. The timing of this study is relevant, the use of fencing and fire protection strips would as the Government of Mongolia has responded to greatly improve survival rates, but the utility of natural concerns over the state of forest resources by funding regeneration should not be underestimated. In at least and encouraging others to support planting initiatives, one case, natural regeneration had been removed to both in the northern forests and in the desert steppe plant seedlings—with subsequent low survival rates. region. In 2005, the government decided to direct Natural regeneration of deciduous trees (birch and considerable investment into a large-scale planting poplar) can shelter under-planted conifers, accelerate scheme in the Gobi—the “Green Wall” project—to natural succession, and then be harvested after 50 reduce soil erosion and dust storms, and mitigate what years. In sustainable forestry programs, maintaining is perceived as desertification. In this context, it is continuous forest cover will allow faster regeneration important to evaluate the success of past efforts and by sheltering the seedlings that replace the harvested identify the elements needed for a successful program. trees. To design such programs, it is necessary to In the predominantly coniferous forests of 1 northern Mongolia, the success of planting programs1 Planting in this context may include both reforestation (the re- planting of areas that are known to have been forested within the at 23 planting sites was examined. Three of these last 20 years) and afforestation (the planting of areas that were could not be located by their owners, suggesting that either deforested many decades ago, or in extreme cases, have never they had never been planted despite funding being supported forest communities). xi Mongolia – Lessons from Tree Planting Initiatives determine the maximum rate of tree removal in old- of the trees will further increase water stress in the growth forest that will still allow reliable regeneration. area—potentially negatively affecting livelihoods. In southern Mongolia, seven tree planting sites If planting projects are necessary in southern were examined in desert steppe and true desert Mongolia, it is best to support small projects at specific regions, where water availability limits tree growth. locations close to groundwater. They will require a Planting sites included those with pure saxaul (a long-term budget that finances the salary of reliable well-adapted, characteristic tree of the region), and people to care for the seedlings after planting. Prior those with mixed plantings with seedlings imported to starting these projects, the availability of seed and from China. In the first year after planting, all sites seedlings of locally adapted trees such as saxaul should had a high survival rate. However, of the four planting be increased. In addition, experience with planting sites where survival in the longer term could be evalu- projects in Mongolia must be improved through ated, success was minimal. Two planting sites had research programs and collection of data from other no trees alive after one and three years, respectively. countries. It would be more appropriate to support The highest seedling survival rate at a site was only regeneration and protection of the 2.02 million 8 percent. Reasons for failure were insufficient or no hectares of natural saxaul forest before embarking on irrigation, and browsing by livestock. The three Green any planting programs. Naturally regenerating plant- Wall planting sites reported high success rates in the ing sites have a denser distribution of seedlings than first year of planting; long-term success has not yet are planted on planting programs, are more vigorous been determined. than seedlings in planting efforts, and require less resources. Projects with the support and involvement A comparison of the Green Wall planting sites of the local community should be supported for the and the pure saxaul planting projects shows that greatest long-term sustainability. much larger amounts of funding and resource inputs are being provided in the Green Wall sites. The The maximum success in restoring forest Green Wall planting sites are estimated to cost over landscapes for the lowest cost would be obtained by 2 million Tg / ha, more than thirty times as much designing programs that promote natural regeneration as the pure saxaul projects. The very limited success of degraded forest landscapes, rather than investing of the previous projects makes it hard to justify this in costly planting programs, which have met with expenditure. Although the Green Wall planting sites little success to date. When programs are designed, are conducted with greater professionalism, this input several factors are critical for positive results, including must be maintained in the long-term, and there are planting site selection on ecological grounds, technical many risks. An irrigation pump malfunctioning for a assistance and training for workers, and care of the week will cause total failure. Well-maintained fences seedlings for a number of years after planting. In are also vital, and are required for years—almost several cases, planting sites that had been reportedly impossible to assure for large planting sites. It is crucial planted could not be found; others were smaller than to base planting site selection on ecological grounds, as reported, or suffered from poor quality workmanship. trees need sufficient water resources; neither the saxaul This suggests that planting programs are providing nor the Green Wall planting sites were in the natural an easy opportunity for stealing funds. Increased tree-growing zone. Transplanted seedlings require attention needs to be given to protection of the large amounts of irrigation; the Green Wall planting existing forest resources from illegal and unsustainable site at Dalanzadgad consumes 1.3 million liters of harvesting. In areas characterized by heavy harvesting water per year, around 1.5 times the amount of natural pressure on limited forest resources, programs to rainfall. Removal of groundwater to meet these needs promote sustainable alternative fuel sources would be can contradict the aims of the program by further beneficial. lowering the groundwater table, and the transpiration xii Introduction M ongolia’s geographic location as a degraded forest and 1.8 million ha of non-forest land. landlocked Central Asian country The forested regions within this estate can be broadly results in a harsh continental climate, divided into the predominantly coniferous forests of characterized by sunny days, long the north (boreal, montane, and mixed-forest steppe), and cold winters, low precipitation and large annual, and the saxaul (Haloxylon ammodendron) shrub forests seasonal, monthly, and diurnal fluctuations in air of the southern desert and desert steppe. temperature. Temperatures may reach highs of 40°C (104°F) in summer and lows of -45°C (-50°F) in Mongolia spans the transition zone between the winter. Mongolia is also one of the world’s highest deserts of Central Asia and the boreal taiga of Siberia, countries, with over half of the territory more than and no less than six major biogeoclimatic zones can be 1,400 meters above sea level. Although population found within the country. These zones reflect a general size has increased rapidly over the last century, human trend from drier and warmer at lower elevations in the population density is still very low—with a land area south to moister and colder in the north and at higher of approximately 1.56 million square kilometers, and elevations. Annual precipitation ranges from an aver- a population of 2.3 million people, density is ap- age of 400 mm in mountainous regions, to less than proximately 0.6 people per square kilometer (Dore and 100 mm in desert steppe; about 75 to 85 percent of the Nagpal, 2006). The rate of population growth, which precipitation falls during the three summer months. varied during the 20th century, has slowed since 1989. The six zones, from lower latitudes and elevation to In 2000, around 57 percent of the population lived higher latitudes and elevations, are listed in Table 1. in urban areas. The vast majority of these are in the capital city of Ulaanbaatar, where currently 38 percent The northern forests are found in the last three of the entire population officially resides, although of these zones, all of which exhibit varying depths the true figure may be much higher due to the large and distributions (from continuous to sporadic) of numbers of unregistered migrants. permafrost. The boreal forest and forest steppe zones contain a coniferous component; Siberian larch (Larix siberica) is the predominant species, followed by Scots Mongolia’s Forest Resources pine (Pinus sylvestris) and Siberian pine (Pinus siberica). In addition to the conifers, there is a smaller broad- Despite the low population density, demand for timber leafed component composed primarily of birch (Betula in Mongolia is relatively high and growing (Crisp et platyphylla), aspen (Populus tremula), and poplar al., 2004; Erdenechuluun, 2006). It is estimated that (Populus diversifolia). On average, the coniferous and less than 12.4 million ha of Mongolia’s forest can be broad-leaved northern forests are comprised of 72 classed as intact today, with a further 3.6 million ha of percent larch, 11.1 percent birch, 9.5 percent Siberian 1 Mongolia – Lessons from Tree Planting Initiatives Table 1: Biogeoclimatic Zones of Mongolia Zone Vegetation type Area (million km2) Percent of total area Desert Largely unvegetated. 0.297 19 Desert Steppe Short-grass prairie with sparse shrubs and scattered small trees. 0.329 21 Steppe Tall-grass prairie with a significant forb component. 0.407 26 Forest Steppe Mixed forests on northerly slopes and grasslands on southerly slopes. 0.125 8 Boreal Forest Coniferous forests with a variable broad-leafed component. 0.063 4 Montane Mixed sub-alpine coniferous forests, krummholz2, alpine meadows and tundra. 0.344 22 Source: Crisp et al., 2004 pine, and 6.3 percent Scots pine, with a variety of Management Project Centre, 1997, in Crisp et al., species accounting for the remainder (Dorjsuren and 2004). Almost all of the saxaul forests are contained Sainbayar, 2004). However, this varies throughout the in five aimags—Umnugovi (46 percent), Govi-Altai region, with broadleaf species virtually absent in the (27 percent) Khovd (12 percent), Bayankhongor (8 higher elevations of western Mongolia. The montane percent), and Dornogovi (6 percent) (NSO & MNE, forest is a zone in which the larch and Siberian pine 2000, in Crisp et al., 2004). of the boreal and steppe forest gradually give way to sub-alpine forests of Siberian spruce (Picea obovata) and Siberian fir (Abies siberica). Over 90 percent of Depletion and Degradation northern forests are contained in seven aimags—Khu- of Forest Resources vsgul (29 percent), Selenge (16 percent), Bulgan (14 percent), Khentii (11 percent), Tuv (10 percent), Statistics on forest loss are confusing, but it is Arkhanghai (8.5 percent), and Zavkhan (5 percent) estimated that Mongolia lost approximately 4 million (NSO & MNE, 2000, in Crisp et al., 2004). ha of forest in the last century, an average of 40,000 ha annually. Deforestation rates increased to 60,000 Desert and desert steppe regions (Table 2) are ha annually in the 1990s, when the collapse of the generally tree-less, because the low precipitation, high Soviet state resulted in loosening of controls over the evaporation, critical groundwater depth, and low water forestry sector (World Bank, 2003). The vast majority storage capacity of the soil prevent tree growth. A few of the forested land is in the north of the country, and tree species can be found, however, where conditions is under increasing pressure from unsustainable and are appropriate—namely in association with moist widespread illegal commercial logging, as well as use ephemeral depressions and stream courses. Availability as domestic construction timber and fuelwood for of water is the major factor limiting distribution. The local residents—collection of which is not in accor- most characteristic is the saxaul, which is still found in dance with any long-term strategy. The saxaul forests a belt across the southern Gobi, though only a shadow of the south—which protect the land against erosion of its former glory in terms of height, density, and and desertification—are not at risk from commercial extent. Secondary species such as tamarix (Tamarix logging, but are under pressure as a source of seasonal spp.) and peashrub (Caragana spp.), are also present, livestock fodder and fuelwood. In addition to direct to a much lesser extent. The southern forest resources exploitation of Mongolia’s forest resources, a long-term are significant—saxaul comprises some 16 percent of the total area of Mongolia’s intact forest, although less than one percent in terms of volume (Forest 2 Low, dense trees stunted by wind. 2 Introduction Table 2: Climate Characteristics of Mongolian Arid Regions Critical Average air Sum of depth of temperature temperatures Precipitation Evaporation Dryness ground (oC) above 10oC (mm/yr) (mm/yr) index water (cm) January July Steppe Desert –18.7 23.1 2763 112 707 5.8 209 True Desert –18.2 24.0 2996 90 761 7.1 217 Arid Desert –17.0 28.0 3648 43 911 18.6 249 Source: Adapted from Pankova, 1998 and cyclic drying of the climate is causing a slow tion, vary widely due to lack of reliable data. All northerly retreat of its forests (World Bank, 2003). available evidence indicates that the volume of timber Other factors that can negatively affect forest health currently being extracted from the forest estate (for are grazing of young trees by livestock, forest fires, and both industrial use, and for domestic construction disease and insect infestations—although fire, disease, and firewood) cannot be maintained in the long term, and insect pests also are important natural influences especially as forest use concentrates on mostly acces- in forest renewal and regeneration. sible areas of forest (Erdenechuluun, 2006). Central blocks of forest often do not have access roads, and Estimates of the sustainable annual allowable cut are largely legally protected; an example is the interior (AAC) in Mongolia, and also annual wood consump- Transport of illegally felled timber. 3 Mongolia – Lessons from Tree Planting Initiatives of the Khentii Mountains in northern Mongolia. The Planting Initiatives in Mongolia past mismanagement of the forest estate may mean that—in the short to medium term—large amounts of Forest management is the responsibility of the timber can be harvested through thinning exercises, Ministry of Nature and Environment, while the which are necessary to fireproof the northern forests. industrial aspects of the sector are the responsibility However, the slow growth rate of trees and unpredict- of the Ministry of Trade and Industry. A National ability of future timber demands mean that serious Forest Policy was prepared in 1998 that focused on thought should now be given to forest regeneration forest utilization, forestry resources, conservation, and and planting activities in order to maintain the forest social welfare concerns. Three of the seven principle resources in this region for the long term. objectives of the document dealt with exploitation and utilization of forest resources, illustrating the preoc- In the south, heavy pressure on the limited cupation of the government at that time. With the resources from grazing and timber collection is leading revision of the forest policy in 2001 into the National to severe depletion of the shrub forests in many Programme on Forestry (NFP), government priorities accessible regions. Land degradation and soil erosion shifted away from utilization and toward conservation are a major concern of the Government of Mongolia, and protection. Reforestation is one of several key leading to priority being placed on schemes to combat objectives under the NFP. The others are institutional desertification in this area. The concept of desertifica- restructuring, forest fire and pest management, and tion is a controversial one, and there are conflicting enhancing the quality and efficiency of timber process- opinions over the extent to which this is occurring ing (The key threat to Mongolia’s forests, unsustain- in Mongolia. The extent of Mongolian territory able and illegal exploitation, is in fact not emphasized covered by sand (including dunes) appears to have as a key priority.) Under this program, aims include been remarkably stable over the last 40 years, having increasing seed collection from both trees and shrubs; increased by just 0.02 percent (World Bank, 2003). developing seed storage and seedling nurseries; If this narrow interpretation of desertification is used, increasing reforestation and afforestation efforts to then the area said to be desertified in Mongolia is in cover at least 10,000 hectares of land annually; and fact very limited indeed. Estimates of the extent and building shelter belts and windbreaks for the purpose degree of land degradation in Mongolia vary widely of combating desertification and soil protection of according to the criteria used by different agencies, agricultural lands. which are in turn often not clearly defined, and there- fore these estimates must be interpreted skeptically.3 It is generally accepted that human activities, both from human-induced climate change and also from overgrazing, loss of saxaul-tree cover, and breaking of soil surface through ploughing, mining, and sharp animal hooves, are contributing to the worsening of sand storms. These are natural in origin, and can have major negative impacts in local regions and even in neighboring countries, although the situtaion is complex as the sand is also a source of nutrient input to the seas east of Mongolia, can neutralize the local effects of acid rain, and can have a cooling effect on the climate (World Bank, 2003). 3 It is not clear, for example, whether the definitions refer to changes in range vegetation cover or species composition; whether they are based on field observations, and if so, from how many experimental plots; and whether or not the processes of vegetation change are thought to be irreversible (World Bank, 2003). A small nursery producing larch and pine seedlings for central aimags. 4 Introduction The Government of Mongolia has had a planting To date, efforts have mostly focused on the program for over 30 years, and has established northern aimags, where commercial logging contrac- nurseries around 10–15 ha in size, with a capacity tors are required to replant as part of their permits, of around 80–100,000 seedlings, in Arkhangai, although they often get paid (for reasons that are not Bulgan, Dornod, Zavkhan, Zuunharaa, Uvs, Selenge, clear) and continue to be issued with cutting permits and Uverkhangai aimags and also in the capital city even when they do not plant. Payments are also made of Ulaanbaatar (Dorjsuren and Sainbayar, 2004). to contractors for the afforestation of areas that have Forestry offices have also been established in aimags not supported forest in the recent past. Funding is also of the Gobi, in order to expand efforts in the southern available for activities to “facilitate natural regenera- region. The level of investment is currently around tion.” Detailed guidelines appear to be lacking, but $400,000–600,000 per year (Crisp et al., 2004), with this generally involves soil cultivation by hand or by 516.1 million Tg provided from the state budget in tractor. The fee schedule was set in 1999, and has not 2004 (Dorjsuren and Sainbayar, 2004). Additional been revised since despite high rates of inflation and financing is provided from local budgets, the organiza- increasing costs (Table 3). Fifty percent of the fee tions conducting the planting, and national and is advanced and the rest paid after survival surveys. international donors. The state budget is controlled by Payment of the remaining fee is based on the following MNE and shared with aimags according to approved formula: if survival is greater than 40 percent the plans; implementation is by environmental protection whole balance is paid; if survival is 25 to 40 percent, agencies at the aimag level, which can contract with 50 to 100 percent of the balance is paid; and if survival individuals, businesses, and other organizations such is below 25 percent, the advance must be returned. as NGOs to carry out the activities. The area of land planted has steadily increased (Figure 1). In 2004, Although payments for planting activities are approximately 9,861 ha were planted, using 33 million supposedly connected to seedling survival, no clear seedlings (Dorjsuren and Sainbayar, 2004). Of this procedures for survival surveys (particularly where area, 585 ha were seeded, 5,300 ha were planted with seeding is employed) have been established, and it is seedlings, and a further 3,976 ha were prepared for apparent that authorities often just take the contrac- natural regeneration. tors’ word for both the area planted and the survival Figure 1: Area of Mongolia’s Territory Planted with Trees, 1980–2004    "SFBQMBOUFE IB                  :FBS Source: Dorjsuren and Sainbayar, 2004 5 Mongolia – Lessons from Tree Planting Initiatives rates. Moreover, regeneration surveys (if done) and suggested that no economic or financial methodology final payment are completed in the fall, though in (such as net present value) justifies planting com- a summer-wet climate such as Mongolia’s the main mercial tree species in a climate where they are not planting mortality is likely to occur in the dry period expected to become merchantable for 130 to 150 years from late fall to early spring. It does not appear that (Crisp et al., 2004). natural regeneration surveys precede a decision to plant a site, and there are examples of advanced However, tree planting programs in Mongolia natural regeneration being either destroyed by plant- remain popular and are set to expand. In 2005, a ma- ing operations, or even dug up to provide the bulk jor new national initiative—the “Green Wall”—was of the planting materials for the tree-planting sites launched in the south. The objective of this program is (Bretenoux, 2001). Even if survival rates were found to create a belt of planted trees in the transitional zone to be high, the ecological and economic rationale for of the Gobi and steppe regions in an attempt to reduce the reforestation program is in serious doubt. Many of the “present intensification of loss of forest reserves, the planting sites are chosen for accessibility in order desertification, sand movement and dust and sand to limit costs. This often means that they are on forest storms, caused by climate change and inappropriate edges and in drier, more open sites where survival, anthropogenic activities” (MNE, 2005). The Green let alone growth, would be expected to be poor, Wall will extend for 2,500 kilometers from the east to particularly at a time of long-term, cyclical climatic the west of the country, with a width of at least 600 drying (World Bank, 2003). In addition, it has been meters, covering 90,000 ha, and will be planted with a mixture of saxaul and other species such as elm (Ulmus sp.), poplar, willow, and tamarix. In this context of increasing interest in, and funding for, planting Table 3: Fee Schedule for Planting Activities Financed initiatives, this study evaluated the success of planting by the State. sites planted in recent years. Maximum payment Activity per ha Study Site Selection Planting with coniferous seedlings in forest steppe zone 100,000 Tg This study conducted separate evaluations of planting Planting with deciduous seedlings such 104,000 Tg sites in the north and in the south of Mongolia. Field- as saxaul and elm in steppe, gobi zones work was limited by the short duration of the study Planting with deciduous seedlings in 135,000 Tg period available—two months—and the difficulties of forest steppe working in remote locations with poor transport links. Planting with seeds The maximum number of possible sites were surveyed, working within these limitations. Survey methodology • Coniferous trees 91,000 Tg differed between the sites in the north and the south, • Saxaul 66,000 Tg due to the very different ecological characteristics of the forest types, and the differences in extent of the Facilitating natural regeneration 57,000 Tg planting programs in the two areas. Source: Dorjsuren and Sainbayar, 2004 6 1. Tree Planting in Northern Mongolia I n the north, planting activities to date have planted and the tallest naturally regenerated tree were been primarily concentrated in the Khangai and measured. Vitality was determined in three classes (-, Khentii mountains. The latter was chosen as a o, +). Damage by grazing or by rodents and strong representative area to survey sites established competition with grass were also recorded for the during the last decade. The survey was carried out tallest individual trees. in the Selenge, Khentii, and Tuv aimags, where the Khentii Mountains extend over 200 km northeast The soil of each planting site was also classified. from Ulaanbaatar toward the Russian border. Using questionnaires, owners were asked about the planting method, the fire history, and the source and amount of money invested. Methods Tree planting initiatives in the Khentii Mountains Results (Figure 2) took place in two periods, 1995–99 and 2004–05. The study evaluated a stratified random Planting Site Descriptions sample of 23 tree planting sites from the 177 sites in the region listed by government agencies, aiming to Three of the 23 planting sites could not be found. In sample each of the three aimags equally. one of these cases, a responsible person in MNE did not want his own site to be studied. Thus the number The sample planting sites were located and the of ecologically surveyed planting areas was reduced to area measured using GPS. Thirty sample plots (15 x 20, of which two were planted as a joint venture and 15 m) were systematically distributed throughout each treated as one (Site 3/4). Therefore, detailed observa- site by calculating coordinates for the center of the tions were made for 19 planting sites: 11 with pine, sample plots and locating them using GPS. Within and eight with larch. the sample plots, each tree was recorded and its species determined, differentiating between planted trees and In addition to the three sites that could not be naturally regenerated trees. All naturally regenerated found and are assumed not to have been planted, seven trees, regardless of size, were recorded. Survival of of the measured areas were smaller than declared in planted trees was calculated by comparing living trees official documents (Table 4). In total, the real refor- with planted tree density, which according to the ested area amounted to 86 percent of the declared area. information supplied by planters was the government- Sometimes sites were planted communally by several specified density of 2,500 stems/ha. In each sample companies (Sites 1, 3, and 4). Small companies planted plot, height and yearly sprout shoots of the tallest areas together with former state forest companies, 7 Figure 2: Map of Mongolia with Locations of the Tree Planting Sites Studied 8 Mongolia – Lessons from Tree Planting Initiatives Table 4: Tree Planting Sites (Declared and Measured), and Details of Ownership Size Size Year declared measured Responsible Logging Site no. established Name of owner (ha) (ha) Site owned by person company Selenge Aimag 1 1998 Narsan Togol Chamtlag 10 (160) Company and state administration State forester No 2 2004 Zuun Choid Asiin Oin Chuulgan 150 170 Company and state administration State forester No 3 2005 Oi Bajasach 15 (155) Several companies, and state State forester No administration 4 2005 Monstend 10 (155) Several companies, and state State forester No administration 5 1999 Dulaan Khaan 10 10 Company and state administration State forester No 6 2004 Norgon Alt Chamtlag 10 20 Company Private forester Yes 7 1996 Zuunchara Prison 100 80 Prison Private forester No Tuv Aimag 8 1997 Shagdarjav 20 Could not find No 9 1998 Mongol Algii Chuulgan 12 12 University State forester No 10 2005 Titim Oi 20 10 Company Private forester Yes 11 1996 Batsumber Oin Angi 15 11 Company Private forester Yes 12 2004 Titim Oi 20 17 Company Private forester Yes 13 2004 Butimsh Uul 10 10 Company Private forester No 14 2005 Ikh Ailchin 10 Could not find Yes 15 1995 Mjandas 10 Could not find No Khentii Aimag 16 2004 B. O. Ch. Cholboo 10 10 Company Private individual No 17 2004 Bajan Adarga Soum 10 10 Company Private forester Yes 18 1998 Balschchan 10 10 Company Private individual Yes 19 1997 Chuw Chumuus 35 25 Company Private forester No 20 1995 Taiga Chortscho 8 5 Company Private individual Yes 21 2004 Binder Oi 20 20 Company Private individual Yes 22 2004 Bold 30 15 Company Private individual Yes 23 1995 Ganbat 8 8 Company Private individual No 9 Values in brackets are joint ventures, where the declared site was part of a larger one and could not be distinguished from it. Tree Planting in Northern Mongolia Mongolia – Lessons from Tree Planting Initiatives because the state companies own tractors. Sites varied had no prior training or experience in planting, the in size but most were fairly small (5–20 ha). This is team being established solely for the purposes of the typical of the projects in Mongolia—in fact, there are planting project. In all cases, funds were paid according fewer sites over 100 ha in area than might be suggested to the set fee schedule and were paid by the aimag by the proportion surveyed within this study. Smaller administration, with the exception of one planting site sites are more common due to the poor organization (Site 16, four poor families) where no money was given within the forestry sector, and the risks involved for to the people by the aimag administration due to a companies that may have to wait to be paid, or receive mistake in MNE. The soum administration finally gave only a proportion of the expected fee. Seedlings were each person $7 for 2 weeks’ work. generally planted at two years old, supplied from the state nurseries in the region. They were planted in May, Table 5 shows slope gradient, aspect, mean annual and were not watered at the time of planting—neither precipitation, and soil types. In most years, annual was there any after-care, apart from in Tujiin Nars, precipitation is below 300 mm, with the majority of where the ranger attempted to keep cattle out of the the rain falling in July and August. All of the cambisol area for two years following the planting. soil types encountered can be classified as “permafrost soils of forest-steppe in mountains” after Ogorodnikov Planting sites 1–5 were located within the Tujiin (1981), and do not exclude forest cover. All sites were Nars Nature Reserve, and were organized by the state established close to existing forest stands. On sandy nature conservation administration in partnership with soils, less nutrients are available than on clayey soils, private companies. Such an active degree of involvement and parachernozems have the best nutrient availability. by the state in planting projects is relatively unusual; The majority of the sites were established on relatively the majority are privately owned with little advice flat slopes, with only five on a gradient of more than available from the government. In a number of the sites, 10°. The aspect of the sites covered a broad range of the planting was organized by a logging company. In directions—although as most were not on steep slopes, the majority of cases, the key person responsible for the they often did not face a particular direction. site was a trained forester; however, most of the sites surveyed in Khentii aimag were established by citizens Tree Survival with no formal training in forestry. The people who worked on the sites were from the local areas—season- Tree survival rates in a planting site were calculated ally unemployed people, families, students—and mostly by dividing mean density of living planted trees by the density of trees planted. The latter figure was taken as the government-specified density of 2,500 trees per hectare for all sites, as this was the information provided by planters and it was not possible to confirm or refute this figure based on the surveys. The mean survival rate for all 19 sites was 12 percent. The survey showed that the survival of planted trees was less than 10 percent in 12 of the 19 cases. The trees in these areas are unlikely to survive in the long term. In the remaining seven cases, the mean survival rate amounted to 29 percent, and there is a chance that these areas will become forested. This tree planting site in Selenge had a seedling survival rate of around 15 percent. 10 Tree Planting in Northern Mongolia Table 5: Ecological and Physical Characteristics of Tree Planting Sites Mean annual Site type (species precipitation at nearest Affected Site no. planted and elevation) Slope gradient Aspect meterological station (mm) Soil type by fire 1 Pine (lower elevation) 0° 225 Sandy podsolized cambisol 2005 2 Pine (lower elevation) 3° NW 225 Sandy podsolized cambisol 3/4 Pine (lower elevation) 1° W 225 Sandy podsolized cambisol 5 Pine (lower elevation) 3° WNW 225 Sandy podsolized cambisol 6 Pine (lower elevation) 5° SE 320 Clayey podsolized cambisol 7 Pine (higher elevation) 4° SE 320 Clayey podsolized cambisol 9 Pine (lower elevation) 5° NW 240 Clayey podsolized cambisol 2000 10 Larch (higher elevation) 15° SW 240 Clayey podsolized cambisol 11 Larch (higher elevation) 13° SSW 240 Podsolized cambisol 2001 12 Larch (higher elevation) 10° W 240 Clayey podsolized cambisol 13 Larch (higher elevation) 23° S 260 Parachernozem 16 Pine (higher elevation) 4° NNW 250 Podsolized cambisol 17 Pine (higher elevation) 7° NW 250 Sandy podsolized cambisol 18 Pine (higher elevation) 8° SW 250 Sandy podsolized cambisol 19 Pine (higher elevation) 14° NE 250 Podsolized cambisol 20 Larch (higher elevation) 2° SW 250 Podsolized cambisol 21 Larch (higher elevation) 9° N 250 Podsolized cambisol 22 Larch (higher elevation) 18° NW 250 Parachernozem 23 Larch (higher elevation) 5° ESE 250 Podsolized cambisol Higher elevation refers to sites more than 1000 m above sea level. Pine trees demonstrated better survival rates than or alive—over half of the area, but one quarter was well larch trees; pine trees had a mean survival rate of 19 stocked. This site was a cooperative effort between four percent, as opposed to only 3 percent of larch trees. families, but only one family had planted successfully. There was considerable variation in survival rates Table 6 shows the estimated percentage area of the site among the two types of sites. Seven of the eight larch without living planted trees (calculated as the percent- sites had a survival rate of 2 percent or less, but the age of sample plots with no living planted trees), as well eighth was relatively successful with 19 percent. The as the maximum tree density found on the sample plots most successful pine sites were the four surveyed in within the planting site. the Tujiin Nars Nature Reserve (Sites 1–5), where on average 37 percent of trees survived.4 This figure may Evidence of Planting Activity well have been higher, had many trees not been killed by a fire in Site 1 in 2004. In the other pine sites, In Table 7, planting activities are summarized. Where mean survival rates were 9 percent. a tractor had been used to plough, stripes were still easily visible after ten years. Manual planting by spade Even within individual sites, tree survival varied leaves no sign two years after planting. greatly. In one case (Site 16), there were no trees—dead There was no sign of any planting activity in 30 4 Planting activities are not conducted in accordance with the percent of the surveyed area, but there was great varia- protection status of an area. tion within single sites. In almost half the cases, lack 11 Table 6: Planted Tree Survival Rates, Density, Percentage of Sites with Living Planted Trees, and Maximum Planted Tree Density 12 Mean number of Percentage of site Maximum measured tree planted and regenerated Year Species Survival declared Survival measured Mean tree density with no living density (planted stems/ha) trees / ha (only including Site no. established planted one year after planting in 2005 (planted trees / ha) planted trees within site species planted) 1 1998 Pine 76.0 6.0 151 53 755 160 2 2004 Pine n.i. 50.5 1264 3 2844 1469 3/4 2005 Pine — 66.5 1664 0 2755 1708 5 1999 Pine 85.0 23.5 588 0 1467 596 6 2004 Pine n.i. 10.3 256 50 1378 484 7 1996 Pine 57.0 0.1 3 77 89 13 8 1997 Could not find n.i. 9 1998 Pine 55.0 9.2 230 37 844 244 Mongolia – Lessons from Tree Planting Initiatives 10 2005 Larch — 2.0 50 43 222 77 11 1996 Larch n.i. 0.1 1 97 44 1 12 2004 Larch “well done” 0.0 0 63 667 19 13 2004 Larch 70.0 0.4 9 80 44 9 14 2005 Could not find — 15 1995 Could not find 65.0 16 2004 Pine 42.0 6.8 170 57 667 175 17 2004 Pine 41.5 1.5 37 70 222 107 18 1998 Pine 42.7 18.6 465 0 1067 465 19 1997 Pine n.i. 14.2 356 10 1644 433 20 1995 Larch 51.0 1.2 30 57 133 31 21 2004 Larch 62.0 0.3 7 97 222 19 22 2004 Larch 59.0 0.1 1 77 89 19 23 1995 Larch 41.0 18.9 473 0 1200 533 In 2005 survival rates were not yet determined by official inspection. n.i. = no information available. Natural regeneration in this context refers only to the same species as was planted. Table 7: Planting Activity Visible on the 30 Sample Plots of each Surveyed Site Plots without visible Plots with no obvious Time without forest Plots without visible forestry activity, but explanation for lack Planted cover before Site no. Year established Method of planting forestry activity silviculturally justified of forestry activity twice planting (years) 1 1998 Plowed by tractor 0 14 2 2004 Plowed by tractor 2 2 9 3/4 2005 Plowed by tractor 6 5 1 9 5 1999 Plowed by tractor 4 4 4 6 2004 Plowed by tractor 15 12 3 Yes 15-20 7 1996 Plowed by tractor 11 8 3 Yes Unknown 9 1998 Plowed by tractor 1 1 No forest before 10 2005 Manual 8 6 2 7 11 1996 Manual 29 (fire) 20 12 2004 Plowed by tractor 6 2 4 Yes > 10 13 2004 Manual 4 4 No forest before 16 2004 Manual 10 7 3 No forest before 17 2004 Manual 19 14 5 Yes No forest before 18 1998 Manual 0 20-25 19 1997 Manual 2 2 Possible 10 20 1995 Plowed by tractor 1 1 > 10 21 2004 Manual 29 2 27 15 22 2004 Manual 26 8 18 Yes > 20 23 1995 Manual 1 1 > 10 Total: 174 74 71 “Silviculturally justified” in this context means that there was a potentially valid reason why the sample plot did not show signs of planting, such as natural regeneration, presence of seed trees, or more than 50 percent deadwood cover. 13 Tree Planting in Northern Mongolia Mongolia – Lessons from Tree Planting Initiatives of planting could be justified by natural regeneration, presence of seed trees, or by more than 50 percent deadwood cover. A high degree of planting was apparent at ten sites (1, 2, 3/4, 5, 9, 10, 13, 18, 20, 23). In two planting sites, activity was insignificant (22, 21) and, in one, forest cover had been destroyed by fire (Site 11). In another (Site 5), there were signs that natural regenera- tion had been destroyed in some parts by the planting activities, which were done using a tractor. In total, there were no planting activities visible on 174 of the 570 surveyed sample plots, but in 74 cases the decision not to plant was silviculturally justifi- Site affected by fire (Site 1). able and a further 29 plots were destroyed by fire. Therefore, it is likely that planting activities had been neglected in at least 12 percent of the plots (71 of 570 A distinction between damage by cattle and by surveyed plots). deer is difficult, but in 13 sites a great deal of cattle excrement was found. In at least four cases (Sites 6, This tree planting site was unsuccessful—the 9, 10 and 23), heavy damage by cattle was evident. marks of the plough are visible, but the seedlings have In winter, hares can also damage young trees. There died. were few observations of damage by rodents. On average, 30 percent of recorded trees were damaged Factors Aff ecting Survival and Growth of Seedlings by grazing. The main factors affecting survival and growth of seedlings appear to be neglect of seedlings, unskilled Growth and Competition planting, fires, cattle grazing, and a government order To assess the growth of planted trees, the annual to plant in spring (when there is low precipitation). increase in shoot length was measured. Figure 3 Table 8 shows the occurrence of fire and grazing in shows that the mean length of new shoots one year different sites. Three of the 19 sites were affected by after planting was 11 cm. After eight years, the mean fire, and had a mean tree survival of about 5 percent. length of shoots measured about 27 cm, but with great The study covered a total area of 758 ha, of which 183 variation; the longest shoots reached 50 cm. The shoot ha were affected by fire. length of larch trees differed even more strongly, but on average the length of shoots in the first year after planting was less than 6 cm (Figure 4). After 10 years, the mean length was less than 15 cm. The height of the tallest planted tree was also compared with the height of herb vegetation. Seventy- three percent of the planted trees were taller than grass. Those trees surrounded by tall grass did not seem to suffer from competition, and in fact, the grass cover seemed in some cases to shelter the planted trees. Forest fire. 14 Tree Planting in Northern Mongolia Table 8: Fire and Grazing in Planting Sites Damage from grazing Survival of planted Information from planters observed (percent) trees (2005) Fire before Fire after Cattle Game Site no. planting planting grazing grazing 1 1991 2005 Yes No 14 6.0 2 1997 No No No 31 50.5 3/4 1997 No No No 3 66.5 5 1995 No Yes Hare 17 23.5 6 ca. 1985 No Yes No 10 10.3 7 n.i. No Yes No 43 0.1 9 Repeatedly 2000 Yes Hare 58 9.2 10 1995 No Yes No 35 2.0 11 1976 2001 Yes Hare 100 0.1 12 1988 No Yes Hare 82 0.0 13 No No Yes No 33 0.4 16 2001 No Yes Yes 15 6.8 17 1998 No No Hare 33 1.5 18 1996 No Yes Hare 27 18.6 19 1978 No Yes Hare 11 14.2 20 No No No Mouse 100 1.2 21 1998 No No No 0 0.3 22 1998 No No No 0 0.1 23 1993 No Yes No 60 18.9 Natural Regeneration In Figure 6, the heights of the tallest planted and naturally regenerated trees are compared for each Planted trees were found on half of the 570 sample sample plot. The dotted red line shows equal heights plots, and two-thirds of the surveyed sample plots also for planted and naturally regenerated trees. This figure had natural regeneration. The natural regeneration clearly shows that in 90 percent of the sample plots comprised nine species (Populus tremula, P. diversifo- the largest naturally regenerated tree is taller than the lia, P. laurifolia, Salix caprea, Betula platyphylla, Pinus largest planted tree. The tallest naturally regenerated sylvestris, P. sibirica, Larix sibirica, Picea obovata). The tree was selected for measurement regardless of age most common were poplar/aspen (72 percent), willow or species; the two trees are therefore not directly (12 percent) and birch (11 percent), with conifers comparable in terms of growth vigor, but the results accounting for only 5 percent (Figure 5). In 10 sites, do illustrate the degree of competition faced by the the number of naturally regenerated trees was higher planted trees. than the number of planted trees (Table 9). 15 Mongolia – Lessons from Tree Planting Initiatives Figure 3: Length of Shoots of Planted Scots Pine Trees 4DPUTQJOF  NFBO SBOHF   -FOHUIPGTIPPU DN                "HF ZFBST Figure 4: Length of Shoots of Planted Larch Trees  NFBO SBOHF   -FOHUIPGTIPPU DN                "HF ZFBST 16 Tree Planting in Northern Mongolia Figure 5: Proportions of Different Tree Species Naturally Regenerating on the Planting Sites $POJGFST  #JSDI 1PQMBSBTQFO   8JMMPX  Table 9: Number of Planted Trees in Comparison with Natural Regeneration (NR) Site no. Planted trees / ha Natural regeneration trees / ha Poplar / aspen Birch Willow Conifers NR RA NR RA NR RA NR RA 1 151 5000 4482 631 496 40 22 2 1264 3563 3011 947 365 4 187 102 3/4 1664 653 373 16 280 203 5 588 212 203 29 9 2 6 256 489 254 191 44 7 3 113 94 66 19 7 21 15 9 230 0 10 50 402 379 23 7 11 1 6 1 5 12 0 61 51 10 13 9 5 5 16 170 1173 1117 2 54 17 37 693 564 35 94 18 465 1765 1577 124 64 19 356 727 333 352 42 815 20 30 1 1 21 7 5093 4398 564 131 22 1 1811 705 117 989 9 23 473 3 1 2 NR is the figure for natural regeneration in parts of the sites without evidence of forestry activity. RA is the natural regeneration in areas where there had been forestry activity (planting or uncovering of mineral soil). 17 Mongolia – Lessons from Tree Planting Initiatives Figure 6: Direct Comparison Between the Heights of the Tallest Planted and Naturally Regenerated Trees on each Study Plot    )FJHIUPGOBUVSBMSFHFOFSBUJPO DN               )FJHIUPGQMBOUFEUSFFT DN Discussion Grass fires are also a major destroyer of young trees (Hilbig, 1987; Sommer, 2003). A ground fire can be The main disturbance factors in the planting sites were stopped by a 3m-width strip cleared of vegetation. This fire and grazing by livestock. The hare has been de- method is successfully applied in European pine stands, scribed as a major driving force in boreal forest dynamics but requires intensive management. (Krebs et al., 2001). Damage by hares does sometimes occur in the Khentii Mountains in winter, but the extent Careful, ecologically based site selection is im- was low compared to cattle grazing. Fencing to exclude portant to increase the chances of success for planted large animals is vital, while more expensive fencing to areas. Most of the planting sites were located on more exclude small animals is less important. Pitterle (2003) or less flat sites. Only Tujiin Nars (Sites 2 and 3) also saw fencing as being crucial to increase survival. had relatively high success for pine seedlings in these Naturally regenerated pine in Tujiin Nars, approximately seven years old. 18 Tree Planting in Northern Mongolia conditions. Survival rates might increase if northern planted larch trees instead of pine, with greater success slopes were used; in the transition zone between forest than other pine sites studied. Usually pine trees grow and steppe, conifer forests exist naturally only on well on poor planting sites, while larch should be the northern slopes and at higher altitudes. Southern planted on parachernozems at higher altitudes. The slopes and valleys are generally covered by steppe annual shoot length of larch trees demonstrates slow vegetation (Walter and Breckle 1986; Hilbig, 1987; average growth rates. The annual shoot length of Dulamsuren, 2004). Treter (1996) compared the pine trees demonstrates a good growth in height once relative radiation of northern and southern slopes trees are well-established. The great variation in shoot with flat areas. On 40° northerly slopes, the relative length for both species indicates that some trees are radiation amounts to 37 percent of radiation on flat not growing to their full physiological potential. The areas. On 40° southerly slopes, the radiation amounts highest risk of failure due to physiological stress factors to 140 percent. Use of slopes for pine trees is limited, (excluding fire and grazing) occurs during the first however, by tractor accessibility. According to Zhou three years after planting. (2000), the uncovering of mineral soil—for example, by ploughing—greatly improves growing conditions. Most of the sites investigated showed signs of natural regeneration—often at higher densities Success of planting initiatives might be improved than the planted species. The main stress factors by timing planting to coincide with a period of high identified for planted seedlings (water stress, grazing precipitation, but the law currently requires planting to and fire damage) can also be expected to apply to be done in May, which is a time of very low precipita- natural regeneration. However, naturally regenerating tion. Some ecologists suggest planting in August, when seedlings are likely to have considerable advantages rainfall is double that in May (Savin et al., 1988). over planted stock, as a naturally placed seed will These authors also report high water stress resistance germinate when conditions are favorable, and can for larch trees located close to steppe, which was not “grow into” the local conditions as the root will find apparent from the results of this research. Neverthe- available water and grow at a rate dictated by water less, in one case a responsible forester in Tujiin Nars supply. Planting a seedling with established water Ten years after a fire on this planting site, there are a variety of pioneer species but few planted trees remain. 19 Mongolia – Lessons from Tree Planting Initiatives requirements and an unnaturally shaped root system openings with larch trees by hand. This underplanting into the ground is likely not to work, especially if the imitates the natural process (Kuper, 1994). The removal timing does not coincide with the period of maximum of natural regeneration in favor of planting conifers water availability. Also, a seedling growing naturally should be avoided at all costs; maximum efficiency will be protected from grazing in the initial stages as would be obtained by using planting capacity in areas the surrounding ground vegetation will make it less without natural regeneration. conspicuous, whereas a seedling planted in cleared ground will be readily visible. Incorporating manage- Another option to enhance forest regeneration ment practices to promote natural regeneration of is to avoid clear-cutting. Pitterle (2003) stressed the Mongolia’s forests may be of great benefit, requiring a importance of avoiding clear-cuts in order to ensure a lower initial investment than tree planting programs, sustainable use of forest resources in Mongolia if for and potentially less opportunity for corruption. no other reason than the harsh climatic conditions. Unfortunately, it is not known how much shelter is The natural process of succession for southern taiga necessary for reliable regeneration in these “pseudo- forests as starting after fire or clear-cutting has been taiga” forests (Korotkow, 1976). Walter and Breckle described by Krauklis (1987). If this process is not (1986) observed that pine seedlings in Siberia show the interrupted by cattle grazing, the herb vegetation will best growth rates under canopy, if the relative radiation be replaced by deciduous trees after several years. Birch amounts to 63 to 71 percent compared to conditions trees and poplar will dominate the composition of forest without forest cover. A good long-term investment during the next 100–150 years. Under the canopy pine, to support forest regeneration would be research into larch and fir conifers will grow and slowly replace the the comparison of shelterwood cuttings with different deciduous trees. In the surveyed sites, which were up to radiation regimes on the forest floor. A study could be 11 years old, about half of the area was already covered made of five stands, for example, where 50, 60, 70, 80, by young deciduous trees. At this stage, the admixture and 90 percent of stocking timber volume is removed, of conifers may not be optimal, because the evapotrans- with the remaining seed trees equally distributed in piration of the existing young trees is probably greater the stand. Over the next five to ten years, the survival than for the herbaceous vegetation, so any planted of seedlings and their growth rates could be observed. seedlings suffer a shortage of water. In these cases, the This would enable determination of the maximum silvicultural recommendation is to wait 30 to 50 years, rate at which trees could be removed from old-growth then remove utilizable birch trees and underplant small forest that would still allow reliable regeneration. Ten years after a fire on this planting site, there are a variety of pioneer species but few planted trees remain. 20 2. Tree Planting in Southern Mongolia A ll the southern planting sites investigated tions were made of evidence of planting activity and were located in steppe desert and true the condition of any fences present. desert regions. The choice of sites was much more limited than for the northern In addition, eight areas of natural saxaul forest regions, as few planting initiatives have taken place were investigated, by establishing four 900 m2 (30 in this region in recent years. The first research on × 30 m) rectangular sample plots at every study site. the possibility of using saxaul in planting programs Some of these study sites were utilized by the local in southern Mongolia was carried out in the 1960s population for fuelwood, while others were inacces- and 1970s, but was found to be of limited use and sible and classified as pristine. At each site, the soil ceased soon after. Only five saxaul planting projects type was determined. The stem diameter and height in Mongolia have been established in recent years of the saxaul trees were measured. Young trees less (Tsogtbaatar, pers. comm. 2006), although the number than 30 cm in height and 1 cm in stem diameter were is set to expand with the implementation of the Green classified as regeneration. For an approximation of a Wall program. possible non-destructive fuelwood harvest, the weight of dead trees and wooden debris on the ground was estimated. Methods Saxaul Planting Site Descriptions Seven planting sites were sampled in three southern aimags—Gov-Altai, Ömnögov, and Dundgov (Figure Sites 1–3: These were all planned and conducted by 2 p.8). At the four pure saxaul sites, survival rates the same dedicated professional forester, Ms. Byambaa. of planted trees were assessed. At the three Green All the planting was done with 3–4 year-old seedlings Wall sites, it was too early in the project to determine taken from the nursery and experimental planting survival. A systematic sampling method was used, site at the aimag center of Mandal Gobi. This is counting the surviving trees of every fourth planting currently the only saxaul nursery in Mongolia. The row to give a sampling intensity of 25 percent. Due to saxaul seeds were harvested in October of the year the extremely small size of many of the surviving trees, before planting and originate from the northernmost height measurements were taken only at Site 3 which population of saxaul in Mongolia, about 170 km south had the highest survival rates. At all planting sites, of the aimag centre at Ulaat. The seed collection is no information was collected on the time of planting, longer organized by the state, as it was in the 1970s cost of planting, tree species used, density of planting and 1980s, resulting in a shortfall of seedlings for the or seed sowing, use of irrigation after planting, and nursery. The planting sites examined were dictated survival rates in the first year after planting. Observa- by the government, and seem not to have taken into 21 Mongolia – Lessons from Tree Planting Initiatives account conditions like good water access and distance nearby, but according to the bag governor, the planting from permanent livestock. Prior to planting, the site site itself was always free of saxaul. Seeds were buried was prepared by digging planting trenches with a trac- 10 cm deep into the sandy soil, with 1 m between tor and by building a fenced enclosure. Fences for Sites seeds and 2 m between the lines. The work was done 1 and 2 were constructed from pine poles, which were by the local community without expert advice. The transported from northern Mongolia, with two strands seeds were collected in October and planted in May. of barbed wire, at heights of 1 m and 1.5 m. These No fence was built and emerging seedlings were not were not an effective barrier against livestock, and watered. camels especially were easily able to get over the fence to browse the seedlings. In addition, parts of the fences Green Wall Planting Site Descriptions were stolen and not replaced. Site 3 had no fencing at all, probably because of its large area. On all three Site 5: This is part of the Green Wall program and planting sites, the seedlings were watered by hand in is located near the bag center of Gurvansaikhan. It is the year of planting, with the water transported to the divided into two planting areas of 0.5 ha with a pump sites by tractor. All the work was undertaken by 20 station in the center and a fence enclosing both areas. workers who were all seasonal employees of the tree Four tree/bush species were planted—sea buckthorn nursery. (Hippophae rhamnoides), silverberry (Eleagnus murcrofti), poplar, and Siberian elm, all planted as Site 1 is located 24 km southeast of Mandal Gobi 2-year-old seedlings, 2 m apart, with 4 m between the at an elevation of 1,100 m. The planting of 2,500 rows. saxaul, 2,500 elm, and 2,500 willow (2–3 years old) seedlings began in 2004. The land is flat and shows Site 6: This is also part of the Green Wall program, apparent signs of overgrazing, as there is only a very and is located just 500 m west of Dalanzadgad. sparse grass cover. The fence enclosing the plantation The reason for planting so close to the town was to is partly missing and in poor condition. The planting create a barrier against dust storms. It is an 80-ha site trenches are about 15 cm deep and show signs of bordering a state tree nursery established in 1980. erosion. Site 2 comprises pure saxaul and is located The nursery grows poplar, Siberian elm, silverberry, 17 km away from Mandal Gobi. It was started in and tamarix. The planting site has been planted with 2002 when, according to the local forester, about Siberian elm, most of which originated from the 9,000 2–3 year-old saxaul seedlings were planted nursery or elsewhere in Mongolia, but many of the on 60 ha. The land slopes slightly to the south. The seedlings were imported from China.5 The fence con- ground is covered by medium-sized gravel and has struction, well drilling, irrigation system, and planting patches of grass. The trees were planted 3 m apart, in rows 20 m apart. Some of the area was planted using seeding. Site 3 is the oldest existing saxaul site and was established in 1989 and extended in 1996. It covers 120 ha and is located 130 km southwest of Mandal Gobi. A water pump in the center of the site stopped working in 1995. It is located on flat land on the bottom of a valley. School children helped with the first project, which covered 20 ha and was part of a government-funded community development program. The second project, covering 100 ha, was initiated by the local forester using 2–3 year-old seedlings. Site 4: This 4-ha site was initiated in 2003 by a local bag governor in Erdene soum, Gobi-Altai, in 2003. It is located 100 m north of the bag settlement close to Green Wall planting sites are funded by the Mongolian government and a small oasis. Intensively utilized saxaul forests grow Korean NGOs. 22 Tree Planting in Southern Mongolia were supported by Korean NGOs. At the start of the planted in separate holes together with the original soil project, in 2003–04, 5,300 seedlings were planted. In and manure. The holes, 30 cm deep and 80 cm across, the following year, another 20,000 trees were planted. were dug with a plough. The depth of the hole provides The planting distance is 2 m between seedlings and 3 enough shading for the saplings and allows effective m between rows. Groundwater is pumped up from a irrigation. All these sites had fences that were adequate depth of 30 m and stored in a large tank. to exclude livestock; the wire stretched from ground level to about 1.5 m and was in good condition. They Site 7: This Green Wall site is located 35 km southwest also have permanent wells, which pump groundwater of Dalanzadgad and is named Juulchin Gobi. About from 50 to 100 m to water taps every 50 m. Irrigation 60 ha have been fenced, and up to August 2005 about ranges from 40 to 100 liters per week per seedling. 8,000 trees, mostly Siberian elm from China, had To avoid water loss due to evaporation, the watering been planted. It is intended to plant 30,000 more trees usually takes place in the evening or at night. Full- on the same site. An irrigation system, which provides time workers are responsible for watering the trees and a water tap every 50 m, is supplied by a 90 m well. the practical management of the site. If trees die, they All work was assisted by Korean Rotarians, and was are replaced the following year. It is planned to reduce executed by local citizens. the volume of water used over the years to encourage the trees to adapt to the arid conditions. Sites 5–7 are all part of the Green Wall program and are managed with expert advice from the Institute of Geoecology (Mongolian Academy of Sciences). Not Results surprisingly, they were all well prepared for planting. The young trees were transplanted from the nursery The results of the site assessments are shown in Table at 2–3 years of age at a height of about 60 cm, and 10 and Table 11. Survival rates were assessed only for the saxaul planting sites; the long-term success rates of the Green Wall planting sites are not yet known. Survival Rates In the first year after planting, the success rate of all the projects was very high, with a minimum reported survival rate of 70 percent. These figures were evalu- ated by a governmental working group six months after the planting and determined the payment of the second half of the allocated budget. In the case of Site 4, the survival numbers were evaluated by the initiator of the project (the local bag governor). In Sites 2 and 4, no trees were alive after one and three years respectively. Site 1 had a survival rate of 0 percent for the planted elm and willow seedlings. The 2,500 saxaul trees at this site showed no above-ground biomass, but 100 of the roots (4 percent) had shoots and could develop into trees again if protected from grazing (Figure 7). 5 The Chinese seedlings (used in the Korean-financed sites) are less expensive than seedlings from native trees but are less adapted to the arid local environment. Th is is especially true for species of elm Green Wall sites are generally well prepared, and have wire fencing. and poplar. 23 24 Table 10: Overview of the Saxaul Planting Sites Size of the Financing Costs at time Success in first year Success in Reasons Site no. Location Trees Authority Time of planting project institution of planting Cost per ha Supervision (reported rate) 2005 for failure 1 Mandal Saxaul, Aimag May 2004 15 ha Government 1 million 66,700 Tg Local forester 60 percent growing 0 percent Livestock Gobi elm, Tg in the year success (elm, saxaul) survival of and limited willow 2004 elm and willow. irrigation 4 percent of Mongolia – Lessons from Tree Planting Initiatives saxaul trees survived. 2 Mandal Saxaul Aimag May 2002 60 ha Government no data No data Local forester 70 percent 0 percent, no irrigation Gobi no trees visible 3 Mandal Saxaul Aimag First planting 120 ha Government 6 million Tg 50,000 Tg Local forester 75 percent On the 100 ha Livestock Gobi (trial project) April 1989, for 100 ha in planted in 1996, and limited second planting the year 1996 8 percent survived, irrigation in May 1996 mean height 43 cm. 4 Gobi Saxaul Bag May 2004 4 ha Local no direct no direct Bag governor unknown 0 percent, Livestock Altai governor community costs costs no seedlings and no visible. irrigation Tree Planting in Southern Mongolia Table 11: Overview of Green Wall Planting Sites Costs at Success in Time of Size of the Financing time of Cost per the first year Site no. Location Trees Authority planting project institution planting ha Supervision (reported rate) 5 Mandal Gobi Sea buckthorn, Green Wall May 2005 1 ha Mongolian No data No data 2 full-time 95 coordinate silverberry, Program Government employees percent 45o32’965” N poplar, elm with Korean 107o 04’811” S NGOs 6 South Gobi, Elm Green Wall 2003 80 ha Mongolian 120 million 1.5 million 7 full-time 70 percent next to Program Government Tg Tg employees Dalanzadgad with Korean NGOs 7 South Gobi Elm Green Wall 2005 60 ha Mongolian 160 million 2.6 million 6 full-time 77 percent 35 km south of Program Government Tg (not Tg employees Dalanzadgad with help from complete) Korean Rotarians The highest survival rate, 8 percent, was found the surviving trees were found within 150 m of the at Site 3. The surviving seedlings were all part of access point. This might be caused by poor irrigation the latest planting in the year 1996; no seedlings or by incomplete planting further away from the have survived from the 1989 planting. Compared access point. with seedlings of the same diameter class (1–3 cm) at the home nursery and in natural forests, the surviving ones at the saxaul sites are much shorter, 6 The data of the natural forests is derived from eight locations with with an average height of 43 cm compared to 58 very different site conditions, and hence great variability. The cm in natural forests,6 and 71 cm at the nursery numbers are an indication of the importance of irrigation and site (where the trees were irrigated). About 80 percent of selection if saxaul is planted. Figure 7: Comparison of Saxaul Survival Rates One Year after Planting and in 2005  4VSWJWBM    PCTFSWFEJO 3FQPSUFETVSWJWBM    POFZFBSBGUFSQMBOUJOH   4VSWJWBMSBUF        4JUF 4JUF 4JUF 4JUF 25 Mongolia – Lessons from Tree Planting Initiatives Number of Trees Planted are a result of the higher professionalism and a much greater resource input (Figure 10; Table 12). Irrigation A comparison of the number of trees planted per ha at systems and fences at the Green Wall planting sites the saxaul sites in Mandal Gobi and at the Green Wall together with the salaries of the permanent workers sites shows that the tree density is about 137 trees per (about 40,000 Tg each per month) were important ha higher in the latter (Figure 8). At the tree-planting contributing factors. The water used for the irrigation site in Gobi Altai, 1,250 seeds were sown per ha, but is free, so only the cost of pumps (or manual distribu- according to the bag governor only a small percent- tion) is included. The cost for manual distribution of age germinated. The estimated number of natural water differs according to distance and frequency of regeneration (seedlings up to 30 cm height) per ha irrigation, as they are mainly transportation costs. The in natural saxaul forests is approximately 845 (mean imported seedlings are less cost-intensive, as they are density value of seven inventoried sites, excluding one mass-produced in China. site with extremely high density, Table 13). Natural Regeneration Irrigation The results of the inventory of eight natural saxaul Saxaul trees need sufficient water in the juvenile planting sites (Figure 2) are shown in Table 13. phase of their development, requiring a great deal of irrigation. The Green Wall program sites at Dalan- It was not possible to derive even qualitative data zadgad consume about 1.3 million liters of irrigation on the impact of fuelwood harvesting on the ecology water per ha annually. This is about 1.5 times the of saxaul forests from this inventory, as the different amount of natural precipitation, assuming annual site factors and the limited extent of the study made a rainfall of 100 mm (Figure 9). direct comparison between the different forests very difficult. Differing parameters like basal area and Costs the number of stems / ha vary with site conditions and cannot be causatively linked to the harvesting of The higher costs (about 30 times) of the Green Wall saxaul. program compared to the earlier saxaul plantings Figure 8: Comparison of the Average Planting Density of Three Different Types of Planting Project and the Seedling Density in Natural Forest   %FOTJUZ USFFTPSTFFETIB     4BYBVMQMBOUJOHTJUFT (SFFO8BMMQMBOUJOHTJUFT 4BYBVMQMBOUJOHTJUF /BUVSBMTBYBVMGPSFTU TFFEMJOHT EJSFDUTFFEJOH SFHFOFSBUJPO The figures for the saxaul and the Green Wall sites are mean values. The numbers for the natural forest are mean values from the natural regeneration plots. 26 Tree Planting in Southern Mongolia Figure 9: Comparison of the Amount of Water Added Annually per ha by Precipitation and by Irrigation in the Green Wall Program (Juulchin Gobi)    8BUFS NJMMJPOMJUSFTIBZFBS      *SSJHBUJPOBU(SFFO8BMMTJUF 1SFDJQJUJPOJGBOOVBMSBJOGBMMJTNN 1SFDJQJUBUJPOJGBOOVBMSBJOGBMMJTNN Table 12: Comparison of Cost Factors in Southern Planting Programs Higher cost Lower cost Permanent water pump Water brought out manually = no investment costs High quality fencing Poor quality fencing (wire fence from China) Permanent workers No workers Mechanized implementation Planting by hand Locally grown seedlings Imported seedlings According to the observations made, people harvest mainly dry, dead saxaul trees for fuelwood. The forest locations where people harvest fuelwood showed a much lower amount of harvestable saxaul than pristine forests, indicating the large amount of biomass that is extracted from the ecosystem by the harvesting operations (Figure 11). Tree planting schemes in arid areas require vast amounts of irrigation if they are to successfully establish. 27 Mongolia – Lessons from Tree Planting Initiatives Figure 10: Comparison of the Mean Implementation Costs (Tg) of the Different Projects in Southern Mongolia          $PTUIB 5H       (SFFO8BMMTJUF 4BYBVMQMBOUJOHTJUF The costs are total, not per year. Some of the figures were not derived from official sources and may be inaccurate, but any inaccuracies are not expected to significantly impact the enormous cost differential. Figure 11: Mean Basal Area per ha and the Maximum Amount of Harvestable Dry Saxaul at Utilized and Pristine Locations   )BSWFTUBCMFXPPE LHIB #BTBMBSFBN      LHIB N         6UJMJ[FE 4JUF 6UJMJ[FE 4JUF 1SJTUJOF 4JUF  1SJTUJOF 4JUF 1SJTUJOF 4JUF 28 Table 13: Inventory Data of Natural Saxaul Forests At Eight Different Locations (Focusing on Regeneration) Mean height of Regenerating regenerating seedlings / ha Harvestable seedlings Basal area Total number (root collar class dead wood (root collar class Site no. Location Soil m2/ ha of stems / ha <1 cm) Kg / ha <1 cm) Seed trees/ ha Stump germination / ha Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD) 1 N:44041’302” Sand /Brown 1.33 (0.63) 6321 (4488) 1828 (3374) n.d. n.d. 35 (24) n.d. (n.d.) n.d. (n.d ) E:103041’882” Desert Soil 2 N:44037’247” Sand 3.42 (2.44) 3227 (1664) 678 (1289) 74.5 (2.36) 54.61 (8.92) 36.08 (57.59) 130 (21) E:97021’574” 3 N:44049’071” Gray Brown 2.18 (0.35) 882 (353) 593 (304) 489.5 (17.6) 43.81 (15.71) 55.50 (28.66) 22.2 (9.06) E:97020’579” Desert Soil 4 N:44018’696 “ Gray Brown 5.3 (5.33) 2464 (601) 1190 (659) 2369 (69.33) 59.53 (34.76) 8.33 (16.65) 2.75 (5.5) E:97007’154” Desert Soil 5 N:44023’262” Gray Brown 1.93 (0.52) 688 (171) 155 (60) 1072.5 (36.7 ) 35.65 (3.66) 0 (0 ) 0 (0 ) E:97003’789” Desert Soil 6 N:44023’964” Solonchak 0.72 (0.35) 840 (429) 352 (241) n.d. n.d. 24.71 (3.54) 24.71 (1.71) 58.28 (18.96) E:101015’711” 7 N:44023’978” Sand 3.17 (0.75) 18159 (8913) 13891 (7914) n.d. n.d. 94.10 (38.28) 0 (0 ) 0 (0 ) E:101015’834” 8 N:44007’381” Sandy Clay 3.4 (3.0) 1332 (454) 1118 (756) 3324.75 (153.93) 98.22 (31.14) 230 (65.59) 13.88 (5.55) E:101043’095” All 2.68 (1.67 ) 2251* 845* 1466 (55.9) 43.5 (17 ) 71 (21.2) 45.3 (12.0) * Mean value excluding Site 7, which had extremely high density. 29 Tree Planting in Southern Mongolia Mongolia – Lessons from Tree Planting Initiatives Planted seedlings can survive, but only if irrigation is sufficient and they are protected from livestock. Discussion irrigation is required for at least three years (Odsurin, nursery manager, pers. comm., 2005). The removal of A major reason for the high mortality rates of the groundwater in large quantities can be contradictory saxaul seedlings is that the growth of a normal to the initial aims of the Green Wall program, taproot may inhibited by the shape of the nursery thus accelerating the already observed lowering of seedling container. Consequently, the seedlings easily the groundwater table in southern Mongolia (UN dry out shortly after planting. Most of the remaining Report, 2005). The transpiration of the trees will lead saxaul seedlings which survived planting died after to a further lowering of groundwater. the watering stopped. At the three planting sites at Mandal Gobi, the seedlings were only watered twice The second major cause of failure is due to graz- after planting. According to the supervisor, the small ing by livestock. As reported by other authors (e.g. budget restricted irrigation, as the transport of water Walter and Breckle, 1986) and also as indicated by to the planting sites was difficult and expensive. In the results of this study, saxaul grows easily from its natural forests, regeneration is most frequent after stumps. This is probably an adaptation to browsing, a winter with greater-than-average snow (white as the tree is often the only source of green biomass dzud) or with rain early in the year. The survival in arid regions. However, seedlings are vulnerable of container-transplanted saxaul seedlings can be and must be protected if the planting initiative is to increased by 33 percent if post-planting irrigation be successful. At Sites 1 and 2, the last seedlings were with five liters is applied three times (Lalymenko, browsed after the fencing was breached following lack 1998). After the trees have established a sufficiently of maintenance and theft. The relatively high survival extended root system, they are extremely drought- rate of 8 percent at Site 3, despite the lack of fencing, resistant and can survive without precipitation for is explained by the remoteness of the location, and more than a year (Walter and Breckle, 1986). Species because livestock herders had left after the well pump like Siberian elm and poplar, which are planted in broke. However, even this minimal success cannot the Green Wall program, need to be hardened off in justify the investment in the project. In Gobi Altai their juvenile growth stages in order to adapt to the (Site 4), there was no fencing or irrigation, and accord- arid conditions, meaning that the amount of water ing to the bag governor the few seeds that germinated supplied at least twice a week is slowly reduced. But soon dried up and were browsed. Saxaul seedlings and 30 Tree Planting in Southern Mongolia trees are especially favored by camels. Goats are more desertification, planting may actually reduce ground- of a threat to species of elm, willow and tamarix. water, causing a loss of agricultural production and the drying up of wells, which in turn leads to further Of the four saxaul sites investigated, none was cho- concentration of livestock in certain areas and a further sen for its ecological suitability for tree growth. Water decline of the natural vegetation. is the most important factor; the success of planting in arid lands depends largely on an adequate water supply A comparison of the monetary and resource (Lamprecht, 1990). The natural growing conditions input of the saxaul plantings and the Green Wall of saxaul are determined by the availability of ground- program indicates that if a large-scale planting project water, the moisture content of the soil, and the soil in southern Mongolia is to be successful, a highly salinity. That these conditions are not met everywhere professional multiyear input is needed. It is very in southern Mongolia is indicated by the disjunct difficult to justify these projects, taking the high risk distribution of saxaul. Only at planting sites close to of failure into account; a water pump malfunction- groundwater with grey soils of loamy and sandy texture ing for just one week can cause the total failure of (grey desert soils) can the tree reach heights of 5 to 6 a project. The integrity of fencing is also vital. A m (Walter and Breckle, 1986). The different densities large-scale tree-planting site of 10 ha, typically 100 m at which saxaul occurs naturally in southern Mongolia by 1,000 m, needs 2,200 m of fencing. It is nearly (Table 13) is also an indication of how sensitive the impossible to assure the integrity of such a fence trees are to local conditions. This has also been shown for, say, up to five years. If saxaul planting projects by investigations in natural saxaul forests in China, are necessary, it is better to plan and support small where differences in stand densities and regeneration projects at specific locations close to groundwater. of up to 90 percent were observed between different They require a long-term budget that finances the planting site conditions (Liang, 1999). The saxaul sites salary of responsible persons to assure adequate post- were located in areas 150 km from the nearest natural planting management. Local initiatives, (e.g. at Site saxaul forest at Ulaat, which is very isolated from the 4) that are not driven by the expectation of financial main saxaul area in southern Mongolia (see Figure 2). benefit should be supported technically. Small-scale The planting of saxaul or other trees in southern areas planting projects could perhaps be integrated into a long way from settlements is of very little ecological agroforestry systems, where the trees can improve the benefit, as the results are very likely to be the opposite growing conditions for agricultural crops. of what is intended. For example, instead of reducing The limited availability of seed is a major obstacle to saxaul planting projects in southern Mongolia. Site 4 used a direct seeding approach with a density of only 1250 seeds / ha—this is incredibly low given the expected high mortality of this approach. It is extremely difficult to obtain enough seeds for the production of seedlings, as the former government-organized collections no longer exist. At all four saxaul sites, the quality of the work and the indication of former planting activity decreased with the distance from the access point. This suggests that only part of the area was actually planted, which was probably because of a lack of seedlings. The existing nursery in Mandal Gobi should be supported and extended. In addition, there is really very little experience with saxaul planting projects in Mongolia (Tsogtbaatar, pers. comm., 2006), so it is necessary to start research programs and collect data from other countries. China and countries of the former USSR have long and successful experience of conducting Many of these planting projects meet with little success, and the consider- able investment is not justified. arid land planting, and specific knowledge of the saxaul 31 Mongolia – Lessons from Tree Planting Initiatives than to put much effort into the planting of naturally tree-free areas that will, even if successful, cover only a small part of the desert steppe. The reported lowering of the groundwater table and the decrease of precipita- tion in the context of climate change are probably one reason for the decline of natural saxaul forests. Another is the intensive utilization of the forests for fuelwood. Removal of dead wood for fuel severely interferes with the nutrient cycles, having a negative effect on the growth of the saxaul forests. Despite the increase of aridity, there is still natural regeneration of saxaul forests, and there is an indication that extreme climatic events like heavy snowfall enhance the regeneration of these forests. Areas of intense natural regeneration should be protected from browsing and fuelwood collection. Trial projects of this kind have been established by the New Zealand Nature Institute in the Bulgan region. Harvest of saxaul could be reduced if there was an increased focus on using fuelwood efficiently, and if alternative energy resources were made available. Seedling survival rates were poor at evaluated sites. Administrative buildings and schools that still rely on saxaul for their energy should be enabled to implement different heating systems. Several projects have focused on the manufacture of fuel briquettes, such as a project tree and its management. There are also examples in Shinejjist which produced them from dung, clay, from the desert regions of Turkmenistan, where recent and coal fragments. These briquettes can decrease successful saxaul planting projects have been conducted fuelwood harvests, facilitate income generation for on sandy areas by the low-input method of seeding. local people, and in some cases have been shown to reduce indoor air pollution. However, it should be However, much better than investing in planting noticed that the use of dung in briquettes impacts projects, it is more appropriate and effective to support carbon and nutrient cycling in the soil. Over the long the growth of trees growing naturally. The area of term this can cause depletion of soil nutrients, and it natural saxaul forest in Mongolia is more than 2 mil- must be ensured that fuel briquettes are made from lion ha. It is more reasonable to protect these resources sustainable sources. 32 3. Recommendations T he most effective means of restoring forest Site Preparation landscapes for the lowest cost would be through designing programs to promote Natural regeneration should never be removed when natural regeneration of degraded forest preparing a planting site. In the case of the northern landscapes, rather than investing in costly planting forests, natural regeneration of deciduous trees (birch programs that have met with little success to date and poplar) can be utilized after approximately 50 in either the northern or southern regions. For the years to shelter under-planted conifers and accelerate planting sites studied in southern Mongolia, naturally natural succession. Water supplies are crucial and regenerating sites had a denser distribution of seedlings should be maximized; the planting should be timed to than the planted sites, were more vigorous than take place during the season best-suited for planting, planted seedlings, and required no intervention other and sufficient water for irrigation must be available. than protection. However, if planting programs are Pumps must be well-maintained, as even short-term regarded as a (political) necessity, then success can be failure of a pump in southern planting sites would increased and the wastage of state and other resources likely result in the complete failure of the project. decreased if the following recommendations are Steps to minimize disturbance to the planting site adopted. should be taken—for example, in northern forests, fire protection strips would decrease fire damage, although this requires maintenance to be successful and hence is Planning costly. In both northern and southern areas, protection from grazing is important, and well-maintained fences Before embarking on a planting program, there must will greatly improve survival rates of the seedlings. be sufficient supplies of locally adapted seeds and Most vital, a secure budget should be provided for seedlings. In addition, planting sites must be selected responsible people to care for the sites for several years on the basis of ecological considerations. Northern after the planting. planting sites may be more successful on north-facing slopes in areas that have supported forests in the recent past. Southern planting sites should be located at Research locations close to groundwater and within the natural range of the vegetation. Experience with planting projects in Mongolia should be increased through targeted research on long- term study plots, and the collation of data from comparable 33 Mongolia – Lessons from Tree Planting Initiatives sites outside Mongolia. In the northern forests, which are part of the natural ecosystem dynamic and continuous-cover forestry is likely to be most appropri- can be beneficial to the forest stand. ate, as the remaining trees will shelter seedlings for faster recovery of the forest. To design such programs, it will be necessary to determine the maximum rate of Partnerships tree removal in old-growth forest that will still allow reliable regeneration. This should be studied in the Projects with the support and involvement of the context of the impacts of different intensities of fire, local community should be supported for the greatest Box 1: Natural Regeneration of Forest Landscapes Conifers Initiatives for the restoration of forest landscapes in Mongolia would do well to take advantage of natural regeneration processes. In northern forests, it was clear from the study that many of the planted sites were already supporting young naturally regenerated trees, although broadleaf species were more common than conifers. This is the natural route succession on open sites, and it must be accepted that coniferous trees may not be the best suited to grow, at least initially, on many sites where mature forests were found previously, be- cause site conditions may make it difficult for them to become established. To accelerate the recovery of the site to a conifer forest, it may be justified to underplant regenerated broadleaved trees (when they are 30 to 50 years old) with conifer seedlings, clearing openings to allow for their rapid growth. This would mimic the process of natural succession, with the broadleaved trees providing shelter for the conifer seedlings. However, human-assisted regeneration of this type would need careful supervision for quality of work and care after planting, for example clearing vegetation competing with the seedlings. There is also the risk that the activity of planting out seedlings will trample naturally-regenerated seedlings. One of the key factors which prevents landscapes from becoming forested is the presence of grazing animals. Keeping livestock out of an area should enhance natural regeneration and therefore fencing—or strict and agreed grazing management—is vital. It is not really practical to fence large areas—and if fencing were done with timber, this could result in further pressure on forest resources. Fenced areas should concentrate on priority sites—for example, logged sites prone to erosion—and materials should be durable and re-useable where possible. Protection of regenerating sites from grass fires in their early years would also be of benefit, and fire protection stripes could be created. Both fencing and fire protection stripes would require ongoing maintenance, and the investment is likely to be worth- while only in areas which are accessible for supervision, or in places where the local community have vested interests in the long-term outcome of the project. Preparation of sites to enhance natural regeneration may also be a possibility—exposure of mineral soil through ploughing can enhance regrowth, as can the incorporation of forest litter (organic matter) into the soil. State programs in Mongolia already include payments for regeneration activities, but more specific research on which management regimes are most effective, and how a program could be supervised, is required. It may be that such activities are only cost-effective when as part of a legal logging operation. Ongoing logging operations can also be managed to ensure the best chances of successful natural regeneration. Clear-cutting should be avoided and is in fact no longer legal in Mongolia. Remaining trees can be used to provide shelter for seedlings, and are also a source of seed. Before logging, the strongest and healthiest ‘mother trees’ should be selected to remain. Logging of a site can also be timed to coincide with a year of high seed crop—it is possible to determine this earlier in the year by examining developing cones. Site preparation may also be of benefit, although the logging operation itself may disturb the soil enough to allow good seeding establishment and growth. Research is needed to identify the maximum rate at which trees could be removed from old-growth forest that would still allow reliable regeneration. Saxaul Saxaul forests are under pressure from harvesting and grazing from livestock, and for regeneration to succeed these pressures must be eased. Fencing areas to prevent livestock from entering, and developing agreements with local communities not to harvest from these areas would be necessary. Developing an agreement whereby local residents have the right to benefit from the regenerated forests, by sustainably using the resource for fuel or grazing in times of severe drought is key to such a program, as it will require long-term involve- ment of the communities in terms of keeping animals out of the area, respecting the agreement not to harvest, and being involved in the maintenance of fences. 34 Recommendations long-term sustainability. In those areas where local of their tree-planting sites and transparent financial community members are employed as a source of labor reporting should be introduced. for the initial implementation of the project, but have no interest in the long-term outcome of the project, a valuable partnership is lost. Alternatives Most importantly, scarce financial and human Financial Management resources need to be directed toward protecting and managing the forest resources that still exist in In several cases in northern Mongolia, it appears that Mongolia. This requires increased attention to the some sites that had been reportedly planted, had not. prevention of illegal and unsustainable harvesting. In Others were smaller than reported, or had suffered areas of heavy harvesting pressure on limited forest from poor quality of workmanship. This suggests that resources, programs to promote sustainable alternative planting programs are providing an easy opportunity fuel sources and increased efficiency of fuelwood use for stealing funds. In future, financial support for would be of great benefit. any planting company should depend on the success 35 Bibliography Bretenoux, J-G. 2001. Aff orestation in Mongolia. A Japan Forest Technical Association (JFTA). 1998. 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