A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 REDUCING DISEASE RISK IN AQUACULTURE WORLD BANK REPORT NUMBER 88257-GLB JUNE 2014 A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 REDUCING DISEASE RISK IN AQUACULTURE WORLD BANK REPORT NUMBER 88257-GLB International Coalition of Fisheries Associations International Coalition of Fisheries Associations International Coalition of Fisheries Associations International Coalition of Fisheries Associations © 2014 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington, DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org Email: feedback@worldbank.org All rights reserved This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank. 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C ontents iii CONTENTS Acronyms and Abbreviations ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � v i i Acknowledgments �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � � xi Executive Summary � � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � xiii Chapter 1 Introduction �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� 1  1.1 The Study���� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� 1 Case Study I: The Infectious Salmon Anemia Outbreak in Chile � � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� 9 Chapter 2  2.1 Origin and Evolution of the Salmon Farming Industry in Chile�� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � 10 2.2 The Infectious Salmon Anemia (ISA) Crisis �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � 14 2.3 Measures Taken in Response to the ISA Crisis � � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � 19 2.4 The Recovery and Outlook for the Future���� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � 24 2.5 Sustainability of the New Chilean Salmon Industry�� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � 29 Case Study II: The Shrimp Acute Hepatopancreatic Necrosis Syndrome Outbreak in Vietnam� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � 33 Chapter 3  3.1 Background� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � 34 3.2 Description of EMS/AHPNS� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � 37  3.3 The EMS/AHPNS Crisis� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � 38 3.4 Discovering the Cause� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � 40 3.5 Measures Taken in Response to the EMS/AHPNS Crisis� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � 41 3.6 Recovery and Planning for Improved Biosecurity � � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � 43 3.7 Summary and Conclusions� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � 44 Chapter 4 Case Study III: Shrimp White Spot Syndrome Virus Outbreak in Mozambique and Madagascar� � �� ��� � �� � �� � 47 4.1 White Spot Disease �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � 48 4.2 The Shrimp Farming Industry on the Mozambique Channel�� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � 50 4.3 The Madagascar Shrimp Farming Industry �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � 53 4.4 The WSD Outbreak on the Mozambique Channel � � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � 56 4.5 Management of WSSV Outbreaks Worldwide � � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � 59 4.6 Farm-Level Strategies for Controlling WSSV�� �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � 60 A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 iv C ontents 4.7 Hatchery-Level Strategies for Controlling WSSV�� �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � 64 4.8 Status of Farm-Level Implementation of Biosecurity Plans� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � 68 4.9 National Responses to the Mozambique Channel WSSV Crisis �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � 70 4.10 Response of the Madagascar Government� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � 72 4.11 Subregional Shrimp Aquaculture Biosecurity Plan for the Mozambique Channel� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � 73 4.12 Conclusions � � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � 80 4.13 Recommendations � � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � 82 Chapter 5 Conclusions and Recommendations �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � 87 References�� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � 93 BOXES Box 2.1: Mandatory Reporting � � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � 20 Box 2.2: A Summary of the Immediate Measures Taken by the Government (2007–2008) �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � 21 Box 2.3: Biosecurity and Sanitary Regulations Adopted by the Chilean Authorities � � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � 21 Box 2.4: Essential Changes with Long-Term Effect �� �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � 22 Results of an Analysis of Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) to the Box 4.1:  Successful Management of Aquatic Animal Health (AAH) in the Mozambique Channel �� �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � 75 Box 4.2: Mozambique Subregional Aquatic Animal Health Program Components, Elements, and Activities�� �� � �� ��� � 76 FIGURES Figure 2.1: Total Reported Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar) Aquaculture Production in 2005 � � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � 10 Figure 2.2: Evolution Phases of the Chilean Salmon Industry�� �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � 10 Figure 2.3: Volume (a) and Export Value (b) of the Chilean Salmonid Aquaculture Industry (2001–11) � � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � 11  istribution of Seawater Salmon Grow-out Farms in Chile (Regions X and XI) Comparing Figure 2.4: D 2006–07 (Pre-ISAV) versus 2009–10 (Post-ISAV)�� �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � 11 Figure 2.5: Evolution of Aquaculture Regulations in Chile Relative to Export Volume �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � 12 Figure 2.6: Timeline of Salmon Disease Occurrence, Production, and Egg Imports in Chile � � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � 13 Figure 2.7: Production and Sea Lice (Caligus) Infestation Immediately Prior to the ISA Outbreak � � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � 15 Figure 2.8: Poor Management and Decline of Productive Ratios pre-ISA �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � 16  umber of Operating Atlantic Salmon Farms, ISA Positive Farms, and ISA Prevalence from Figure 2.9: N July 2007 to November 2010� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � 18 Figure 2.10: Evolution of Salmonid Production in Chile and Projections for the Recovery���� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � 25 Average Sea Lice Load per Fish (a), ISA Confirmed Sites per Quarter (b) , and Monthly Mortality Figure 2.11:  for the 3 Salmonid Species (c) over the Course of the ISA Outbreak and Recovery. �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � 25 R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C ontents v  ccumulated Growth Rates for Atlantic Salmon Groups Harvested in 2008–10, Expressed as Figure 2.12: A SGR and GF3�� �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � 26 Figure 2.13: Productivity in Terms of Kilograms Harvested per Smolt Stocked (a) and Average Harvest Weight (b) of Atlantic Salmon, Pre- and Post-ISA Crisis� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � 26  tlantic Salmon Smolt Transfer into Seawater per Month (a) and Number of Fish in Figure 2.14: A Seawater (b), Pre- and Post-Crisis� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � 27  nemployment Rates in the Capitals of the Xth Region (Puerto Montt) and XIth Region Figure 2.15: U (Puerto Aysén)� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � 28 Figure 2.16: Economic Activity Index Reflecting the ISA Impact on Regions X and XI in 2010 �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � 29 Figure 3.1: Principal Shrimp Growing Areas in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � 3 4 Figure 3.2: Extensive and Semi-intensive Shrimp Farming in Southern Vietnam. Extensive Farms Rely on Water Exchange with the Irrigation System to Maintain Water Quality, but Permitting the Entry and Exit of Diseases. The Use of Aeration Permits Intensive Farmers to Increase Stocking Densities While Isolating the Ponds from the Adjacent Canals � � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � 35  ietnamese Ponds Often Use the Same Canals for Intake and Discharge of Water. Figure 3.3: V This Facilitates the Transmission of Disease among Farms� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � 35 Healthy and EMS-Infected Shrimp. In Healthy Shrimp Note the Full Stomach, Full Mid-Gut, Figure 3.4:  and Large, Dark Hepatopancreas. In the EMS Shrimp, Not Empty Gut and Stomach, and Shriveled, Pale Hepatopancreas � � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � 38 Impact of EMS on Global Shrimp Aquaculture Output. China and SE Asia Are the Hardest Hit, Figure 3.5:  but Recent Reports of an Outbreak in Mexico Could Adjust Downward Production from the Americas � � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � 4 0 Figure 4.1: Effect of Hyperthermia on WSD in L. vannamei � � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � 50 Figure 4.2: Major Shrimp Farming Installations along the Mozambique Channel �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � 51 Figure 4.3: Mozambique Shrimp Aquaculture Production, 2004–12�� �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � 52 Figure 4.4: Madagascar Shrimp Aquaculture Production, 2004–12 � � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � 5 4 Figure 4.5: Annual Temperature and Salinity Variation for a Madagascar Shrimp Farm. Shaded Area Is the Time Period When Water Temperatures Are Less Than 27°C � � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � 6 0 Figure 4.6: Indoor Nursery Raceway System for Head-Starting PLs � � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � 61 Figure 4.7: Crab Fencing � � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � 63 Figure 4.8: Bird Netting �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � 6 4 Figure 4.9: Steps to SPF Stock Development as Developed by the U.S. Marine Shrimp Farming Program �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � 65  urvival by Family in a WSSV Challenge Study of Genetic Lines Selected for Resistance Figure 4.10: S to WSSV by a Panamanian Shrimp Company�� �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � 6 6 Figure 4.11: Broodstock Quarantine System at the Aquapesca Nacala Hatchery � � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � 6 8  ssential Macro and Micro Components Extracted from the Handling of the ISA Chilean Figure 5.1: E Case for a Safer and Long-Term Industry � � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � 89 A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 vi C ontents TABLES  stimated Cost of Adding 5 hp/ha of Paddlewheel Aeration for a 400-ha Shrimp Farm. Table 4.1: E The Cost Includes the Installation of Generators and Power Lines to Each Pond �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � 61  stimated Cost for Installing a Microscreen Drum Filtration System with Filtration Capacity Table 4.2: E of 6 m3/sec �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� ��� � 62 Breeding Center Cost Per 1,000 PLs as a Function of the Number of PLs Produced Per Year Table 4.3:  from the Breeders and the Breeding Center Annual Budget �� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � 6 6 Salient Features of Three Different Biosecurity Improvement Strategies Compared Table 4.4:  with a Typical Farm with No Biosecurity Improvement Strategy���� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � 6 6 Table 4.5: Investment Analysis of Three Different Strategies for Improving Farm Biosecurity���� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � �� ��� ��� � �� � 67 Summary of Mozambique Channel Subregional strategy for Aquatic Biosecurity Table 4.6 :  Showing Responsibility for Implementation (National or Subregional), Time Frame for Implementation (Short, Medium, or Long), and Priority Level (Low, Medium, or High) �� ��� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � 78 R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E acron y ms and A B B R E V I AT I O N S v ii ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS AAH Aquatic Animal Health ABIF Banks and Financial Institution Association (Chile) ACIAR Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research ACOTRUCH Asociación de Productores de Salmón Coho y Trucha (Trout and Coho Salmon Producers Association; Chile) AFD Agence Française de Developpement (French Development Agency) AGD Amoebic Gill Disease AHPNS Acute Hepatopancreatic Necrosis Syndrome APCM Associação de Produtores de Camarão de Moçambique (Mozambique Association of Shrimp Producers) ASEM Asia Europe Meeting (of the European Union) and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations ASH Autorité Sanitaire Halieutique (Aquatic Animal Health Authority, Madagascar) AQUAVETPLAN Australian Aquatic Veterinary Emergency Plan AVC Atlantic Veterinary College (University of Prince Edward Island) B-cells Blasenzellen (secretory) cells contain digestive enzymes released in the hepatopancreas during digestion. BAP Best Aquaculture Practices BMPs Better Management Practices CB-UEM Centro de Biotecnologia da Universidade Eduardo Mondlane (Center for Biotechnology, Eduardo Mondlane University, Mozambique) CORFO National Promotion and Innovation Agency DAFF Australian Department of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Forestry DAH Department of Animal Health (Vietnam) DGR Daily Growth Rate DOF Directorate of Fisheries E-cells Embryonalzellen (embryonic) cells produce hepatopancreas tubule epithelial cells by mitosis. EMS Early Mortality Syndrome F-cells Fibrillenzellen (fibrous) cells are precursors of either B or R cells. A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 viii acron y ms and A B B R E V I AT I O N S FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations GAA Global Aquaculture Alliance GAP Good Aquaculture Practices GAPCM Groupement des Aquaculteurs et Pêcheurs de Crevettes de Madagascar (Madagascar Shrimp Producer’s Association) GAV Gill-Associated Virus GLFA General Law on Fisheries and Aquaculture (Chile) HCMC Ho Chi Minh City HH High Health HP Hepatopancreas HPR(0-2) Highly Polymorphic Region (0-2) HPV Hepatopancreatic Parvovirus IHHN/V Infectious Hypodermal and Haematopoetic Necrosis/Virus IIP Instituto Nacional de Investigação Pesqueira (National Fisheries Research Institute of Mozambique) - Mozambique IMN/V Infectious Myonecrosis Disease/Virus INAQUA Instituto Nacional de Desenvolvimento da Aquacultura (National Institute of Aquaculture Development) - Mozambique INIP Instituto Nacional de Inspecção de Pescado (Mozambique National Intitute for Fish Inspection) INTESAL Instituto Tecnológico Del Salmón (Salmon Technology Institute, Chile) IPN Infectious Pancreatic Necrosis IPNV Pancreatic Necrosis Virus ISA/V Infectious Salmon Anemia/Virus LES Laboratoire de Epidémio Surveillance (Laboratory for Epidemiological Surveillance) Antananarivo, Madagascar LGA Oso Farming – Les Gambas de l’Ankarana , Madagascar MARD Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (Vietnam) MBV Monodon Baculovirus MPRH Ministere de la Peche et des Ressources Halieutiques (Madagascar Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources) MRC Mekong River Commission MTSFA My Thanh Shrimp Farmers Association (Vietnam) NACA Network of Aquaculture Centers in Asia and the Pacific NGO Non-Governmental Organization OIE Organisation Mondiale de la Santé Animale, formerly the Organisation Internationale des Epizooties (World Organization for Animal Health) R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E acron y ms and A B B R E V I AT I O N S ix OTC Oxytetracycline PCR Polymerase Chain Reaction (DNA amplification and identification technique) PCR/RT Polymerase Chain Reaction / Reverse Transcription PESAAQUA Plano de Sanidade dos Animais Aquáticos (Mozambique Aquatic Animal Health Plan) PL (Shrimp) Postlarva(e) PRCC Trade Capacity Building Program PVS Performance of Veterinary Services RAMA Reglamento Ambiental de l’Acuicultura (Environmental Regulation for Aquaculture) de Chile RAF Responsible Aquaculture Foundation RESA Reglamento Sanitario de la Acuicultura (Aquaculture Biosecurity Regulation, Chile) RIA1, 2, 3 Research Institutes for Aquaculture Nos. 1, 2 and 3 (Vietnam) RLB Rickettsia-Like Bacteria RT-PCR Reverse transciptase polymerase chain reaction SEAFDEC Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center SERNAPESCA Servicio Nacional de Pesca (National Fisheries Service, Chile) SIGES Sistema Integrado de Gestión (Integrated Management System, Chile) SPF Specific Pathogen-Free SRS Salmon Rickettsial Syndrome SUBPESCA Subsecretaría de Pesca (Undersecretariat of Fisheries, Chile) UAZ (APL) University of Arizona (Aquaculture Pathology Laboratory) UNDP United Nations Development Program VASEP Vietnam Association of Seafood Exporters and Producers WSD White Spot Disease WSSV White Spot Syndrome Virus WTO World Trade Organization WWF World Wide Fund for Nature WB World Bank YHV Yellowhead Virus A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This study is an initiative of the Responsible Aquaculture Foundation, an independent public goods organization established by the Global Aquaculture Alliance, the Chilean Undersecretariat of Fisheries and SalmonChile, the Chilean Salmon Industry Association. The project was cosponsored by Allfish, a public private partnership between the World Bank, The Global Environmental Facility, the International Coalition of Fisheries Associations (IFCA and Profish, the World Bank’s global partnership for fisheries). Inquiries should be addressed to Randall Brummett (rbrummett@worldbank.org) or James L. Anderson (jlanderson8@worldbank.org). The authors of this study express our greatest thanks to all individuals and institutions that collaborated on this project. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) coordinated the regional aquatic animal health workshop in Mozambique. The Network of Aquaculture Centers in Asia and the Pacific shared knowledge about the early mortality syndrome (EMS) outbreak. Dr. Lightner received partial travel funding from the central office of the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) in Paris. Without their input this report would not have been possible. A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY x iii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This report is the result of an international effort led by the Responsible Aquaculture Foundation of the Global Aquaculture Alliance and the World Bank to bring together, synthesize, analyze and draw practical lessons from the experience of major aquaculture disease outbreaks in Chile, Vietnam, Madagascar, and Mozambique for the benefit of stakeholders throughout the aquaculture industry. It was produced by a broad spectrum of experts and engaged a wide range of industry, government, and civil society informants. The objective was not to compare how the case study countries found themselves with disease problems and then scrutinize their success in coping, but rather look for commonalities and exceptions in the history and structure of aquaculture in three regions of the world to elucidate key concepts in aquatic disease management and inform farmers, investors, and policy makers on how to prepare themselves for the inevitable. CHILE The Chilean salmon farming industry is in the process of recovering from a serious outbreak of infectious salmon anemia (ISA) which began in 2007. This outbreak caused severe impacts on Atlantic salmon production which formerly represented two-thirds of Chilean salmonid output. It also had important secondary impacts on employment, social welfare, and international market presence. For almost three decades Chile transferred, adapted, and developed technologies, products, and markets to become the second largest producer of farmed salmon in the world, with over 500 active farming sites, creating value for the entire country and for the regions where the industry operates. However, this impressive technical and commercial success was not accompanied by matching research, monitoring, and regulation to guard against foreseeable biological risks. This imbalance impaired the industry’s ability to avert and control the outbreak of ISA in 2007. Productive, economic, and social impacts of the outbreak were magnified due to the industry’s size and the rapid spread of the pathogen, facilitated by a high concentration of farms in some areas, poor husbandry, and weak biosecurity. A rapid and well-coordinated public-private effort ensured that basic infectious disease control measures were implemented and enforced as an immediate response. In parallel, longer-term efforts involving the government, the industry, and the financial sector allowed compa- nies to continue operating while new laws and regulations laid the foundations for the industry’s renewal. In spite of the new regulations and practices, there are still important issues to address including the need for: ƒƒ mechanisms to ensure that overconcentration of farming activity in certain areas is avoided, ƒƒ boundary definition of production zones, ƒƒ definition of zone carrying capacities, ƒƒ surveillance programs to detect and/or predict new environmental and disease issues before they can affect the industry. A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 xiv EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Overall lessons emphasize that aquaculture depends on the capacity of biological systems to support it and that defining the aquaculture carrying capacities of bodies of water is essential in order to set limits on the maximum production in farming areas. Unless this is done, conditions will deteriorate leading to poor fish performance and eventually to disease. Also, when bodies of water are shared, regulations are required to ensure that all parties involved are good stewards of the environment and the larger the industry is the greater the risks and the harder it is to control a problem. VIETNAM Growing out of the transformation of over 2 million hectares of rice paddy affected by saline intrusion, Vietnamese shrimp farming, 88 per- cent of which takes place in the Mekong Delta, is characterized by sprawl. Some 243 thousand, 96 percent small-scale, shrimp farms cover nearly 600,000 ha of the Mekong Delta. Overall, these low-intensity farms represent 90 percent of the shrimp farming area of Vietnam, but account for only 62 percent of produce, the 10 percent of farms that employ more intensive technology producing the balance. Low-intensity ponds maintain water quality by constantly flowing canal water through their ponds. Being open to the water supply system, all of the farms along any particular canal are effectively sharing and managing the same water. Any disease that affects one farm rapidly affects all of the others downstream. This, along with the lack of any mechanism for coordinating farmer information sharing and response to crisis, and haphazard transfer of brood and seedstock, has made the shrimp industry of southern Vietnam vulnerable to a wide range of diseases that have repeatedly infected the area. Beginning in about 2009, a new disease, early mortality syndrome or EMS (aka: acute hepatopancreas necrosis syndrome, AHPNS) began to cause significant production losses in southern China. By 2010 the range of affected farms in China had expanded, and by 2011 EMS was confirmed in Vietnam and Malaysia, with some areas losing as much as 90 percent of their shrimp crop. EMS reached Thailand in 2012. The collateral damage to employment, social welfare, and international market presence caused by EMS/AHPNS is estimated in the billions of US dollars. Lacking any coordinated system for sharing information with other farmers or the government, the ability of the industry to respond to crisis was limited. Rumors of what caused the disease were rampant, and millions of dollars were wasted on mistaken causes and remedies. Initially, environmental toxins, particularly pesticides, were suspected as the cause of EMS/AHPNS. Only through a well-coordinated local and international research and farmer outreach effort based on modern technology was the source of EMS/AHPNS resolved. The disease is now known to be caused by a unique strain of a relatively common bacterium, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, which may be infected with a phage, a virus-like particle that inserts itself into and modifies normally harmless Vibrio DNA to produce highly toxic gene products that kill young shrimp. While still ongoing, the experience of the shrimp farming sector in struggling against EMS/AHPNS in Vietnam represents a valuable case study for other sectors of global aquaculture, particularly those experiencing rapidly emerging production with lagging regulations, weak veterinary services, and a dispersed and generally small-scale farming community. It highlights the importance of collective action among and between farmers, government regulators and researchers, and the open sharing of information in identifying the causes and, thus the possible remedies, of aquatic animal diseases. MADAGASCAR/MOZAMBIQUE The shrimp farming industry along the Mozambique Channel is comprised of less than a dozen relatively large-scale farms, widely spaced and coordinated through strong national shrimp producer associations. The main production system is of high-value Penaeus monodon R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E EXECUTIVE SUMMARY xv destined for high-end European markets. Production systems are relatively extensive, with large amounts of water exchanged to maintain good growth rates. The isolation of these farms far from the main shrimp growing areas in Southeast Asia led regulators to believe that they could ignore the dangers of disease posed by an open water supply. White spot disease (WSD) is a contagious viral disease of penaeid shrimp and is caused by the white spot syndrome virus (WSSV). The shrimp industries in Mozambique, and Madagascar remained free from WSD until September 2011, when a shrimp farm in Quelimane, Mozambique, experienced an outbreak. Since then, the industry in Mozambique has virtually shut down. Eight months later, there was an outbreak of WSD in Madagascar at a farm north of Morondava, which is still out of service. Another infected Malagasy shrimp farm has been extensively modified with upgraded filtration and disinfection systems and now seems to be operating well, while a third has experienced another outbreak and is currently being upgraded. The disease is believed to have come via ballast water from previously infected areas along the Arabian Peninsula. Recovery from the WSSV crisis will require several changes at the farm level, the single most important of which is to eliminate the use of wild broodstock. This will require the establishment of breeding programs to develop Specific pathogen-free (SPF) broodstock. As a long-term strategy, SPF broodstock should be selected for resistance to WSSV. This is a time-consuming and expensive process that may be beyond the means of individual farms. Needed is a regional breeding center to produce SPF broodstock that are genetically selected for resistance to WSSV. The second most important change that farms can make is to reduce or eliminate their dependence on water exchange. The most effective way of accomplishing this is to install aeration systems in the ponds. Biosecurity on shrimp farms can also be improved by avoiding stock- ing during the winter months, filtering incoming seawater using screens of 200 microns or less, chlorinating ponds after initial filling, and installing crab fences and bird netting. At the national level the regulatory framework needs to be upgraded to include a comprehensive aquatic animal health (AAH) policy, an adequately funded regulatory agency and a national reference laboratory. National AAH plans should be developed to clearly identify the role of each stakeholder in a national biosecurity program and the strategies for responding to disease outbreaks. Disease surveillance pro- grams consistent with OIE standards should be set up and funded nationally. There is a strong need for capacity building in the public sector with respect to aquatic animal health management. Priority should be given to promoting collaboration between the producer associations and the government ministries in the development of national biosecurity policies and programs. As problems affecting one side of the Mozambique will inevitably affect the other side as well, the national AAH plans of Mozambique and Madagascar should be integrated to form a regional AAH plan. Regular meetings between stakeholder groups of both countries should be scheduled to allow for the sharing of information and the discussion of cooperative projects, such as the development of a regional breed- ing center and the sharing of surveillance data. COST-BENEFIT OF BIOSECURITY Losses to the aquaculture industry globally are estimated by FAO at about US$6 billion annually. The ISA outbreak in the Chilean salmon farming industry cost US$2 billion dollars and 20,000 jobs. The EMS outbreak in the Mekong Delta is costing what are mostly small-scale producers about US$800 million per year that they cannot afford, and this does not include the unknown number of jobs lost in the rest of the shrimp value chain. Losses from WSSV outbreaks in Asia were estimated at US$6 billion during outbreaks in 1992–93 and US$1–2 billion during 1999 outbreaks in Latin America. Diseases are ubiquitous and pretending outbreaks will not happen because they have not happened is not rational. Suiss-RE, a major agricultural crop insurer, calculates that the average insurance loss ratio for aquaculture over the period 1992–2012 was 65 percent and A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 xvi EXECUTIVE SUMMARY disease accounted for 20 percent of that (in the relatively well-managed salmon farming industry). Most aquaculture disease outbreaks have occurred in developing countries where over 90 percent of aquaculture takes place, reducing revenues, eliminating jobs, threatening food security, and undermining development goals. The generally small-scale and rural nature of aquaculture in developing countries means that the vast majority of diseases go undiagnosed, untreated, and undocumented, imposing an enormous burden on communities working to escape poverty. Required investments in biosecurity to minimize the risk of disease outbreaks will vary according to place and scale. The need for improved diagnostic and surveillance capacity of national veterinary services is one common element among all case studies. The establishment of a national and/or regional platform for communication between government and farmers is also important, but less costly. Apart from these governmental investments, in Chile, major costs for salvaging the salmon industry were associated with relocation and restocking of farm installations, costs borne mostly by the private sector. In Vietnam (and Southeast Asia more generally), the farm-level investment needed to manage EMS is not yet known, but government investment in affordable three-phase electricity would help lift constraints to the ability of lower income farmers to reduce their dependence on high levels of water exchange. Providing assistance to establish a forum for communication and cooperation among the hundreds of thousands of farmers that share a contiguous water supply will also improve monitoring of, and compliance with, farm-level and regional biosecurity protocols. Along the Mozambique Channel, farm-level improvements in biosecurity have been estimated at between US$6 and 14 million, depending upon the level of security. A basic system includes stocking SPF shrimp postlarvae (PLs), crab fencing, bird netting, probiotic usage, and structures to allow drainage of seawater distribution canals. Reducing stocking rate to allow reduced water exchange is probably unprofit- able. The addition of aeration plus bag filtration increases productivity, reduces overall operating costs, and improves the profit margin. Net returns per kg of shrimp produced are estimated at US$1.25/kg with no biosecurity plan and US$2.00/kg under this strategy. The most biosecure strategy, in which aeration and microscreen drum filtration is used, is very capital intensive with an expected investment cost of about US$14 million for a 400 ha-farm. Despite the high cost, the profit per kg of shrimp is reduced by only US$0.12/kg. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS From review of case study findings, it is clear that there are several key structural and behavioral attributes of the aquaculture industry that make it vulnerable to disease. First and foremost is that disease management transcends the boundaries of individual farms. Area manage- ment systems are essential. It is also clear that, while the species, production systems, participants, and institutions involved in the operation and regulation of aquaculture vary from place to place, the science and logic that can reduce the incidence and severity of disease are common throughout the industry. Conditions that lead to disease include: (1) close proximity among farming operations and/or shared water supply and discharge; (2) unreg- ulated transfer of animals and/or gametes among farms and from sites outside of the farming area; (3) lack of adherence to on-farm sanitary protocols; (4) inadequate diagnostic and veterinary services; and (5) failure of farmers to share information and cooperate in collective action to respect best management practices and respond to crises. Corrective measures to avoid or moderate diseases in aquaculture respond directly to the causative conditions: (1) regulate the density of farms within a designated zone so as to avoid sharing of water inputs and outfalls; (2) quarantine and carefully control movement of culture animals into the zone and between farms once introduced; (3) adoption of best aquaculture practices at farm level to reduce stress and improve animal welfare; (4) strengthen veterinary services to provide basic diagnostics and guidance to farmers; and (5) structure dialogue among farmers and between government and farmers to improve knowledge and compliance, while reducing free ridership. R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E EXECUTIVE SUMMARY x v ii As a first step in addressing constraints to aquaculture disease management, a review of the existing aquatic veterinary services is recom- mended. The OIE conducts standardized reviews of veterinary services that can identify opportunities to improve performance and capacity, and collect data for cost-benefit analysis of investments in improved biosecurity. As disease is not simply a matter of the presence or absence of pathogens, veterinary services to aquaculture need to move beyond the laboratory to explore the host-agent-environmental triad that creates the necessary conditions for disease and can illuminate management planning. Knowing the carrying capacity of the ecosystems of which aquaculture is a part is crucial to scaling of the industry that operates within it. Data and analysis are required at the local level to adapt general carrying capacity models to local conditions and the preferences of local communities. Estimation of the carrying capacity of the watershed or water body in which aquaculture is being conducted requires spatial mapping of production systems and their related hydrology. As the single greatest constraint to proper disease management in aquaculture is the lack of cohesion and cooperation among producers, encouraging management planning at the ecosystem, rather than farm, level serves not only to define the space over which biosecurity rules should be implemented, but creates a context in which farmers may be better able to understand the need for collective action. The primary lesson of these case studies is that aquaculture disease management goes beyond the limits of individual farms and requires a collective zone management approach. The salmon industry has, sometimes painfully, learned this lesson and is now raising itself to a new, more sustainable, level in Chile and elsewhere. Globally, shrimp farmers and other aquaculture producers who share a waterbody with their neighbors, need to reflect on the examples of Chile, Vietnam, Mozambique, and Madagascar and take steps to improve coordination among farmers and between the farming community and regulators so as to better manage the ecosystems in which they operate. Only through an ecosystem approach can the industry reduce volatility, improve profitability, and approach greater sustainability. A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 C hapter 1 — I N T R O D U C T I O N 1 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION RANDALL BRUMMETT, Senior Aquaculture Specialist THE WORLD BANK There are thousands of rickettsial, viral, bacterial, protozoan, and The sector-level biosecurity and response planning that is needed metazoan parasites that cause disease in farmed aquatic animals. to address problems beyond the farm gate require communication According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), disease and cooperation among farmers, extension personnel, veterinary outbreaks cost the global aquaculture industry some US$6 billion services, and government regulators. per year and represent the major farm-level risk. The shrimp industry Considering the gravity and frequency of fish disease outbreaks, alone has suffered losses on the order of US$10 billion since 1990 guidelines on the development and implementation of national and new diseases are appearing every year. Vietnam alone reports policies for their prevention, detection, and management are losing an average of US$1 billion per year to disease. The Chilean urgently needed. Hampering this is the lack of a comprehensive salmon farming industry is in the process of recovering from a overview of the practical ways and means of regulating aquacul- severe outbreak of infectious salmon anemia virus (ISAV) which ture that would permit both governments and aquaculturists to: began in 2007 and cost 350,000 to 400,000 tons of fish, US$2 billion, (1) calculate the cost-benefit ratio of investments in disease con- and 20,000 jobs. Virtually all of these catastrophes have occurred in trol and, (2) find a cost-effective strategy for the implementation developing countries where over 90 percent of aquaculture takes of best practices. place, reducing revenues, eliminating jobs, and threatening food security. The fact that most aquaculture is small-scale, rural, and found in developing countries means that the vast majority of dis- 1.1  THE STUDY eases go undiagnosed, untreated, and undocumented, imposing This initiative was launched by the Responsible Aquaculture an enormous burden on communities working to escape poverty. Foundation of the Global Aquaculture Alliance and the govern- ment of Chile to provide guidance to the global aquaculture The Global Aquaculture Alliance has estimated that US$100 bil- industry on practical measures to ensure biosecurity from some lion of new investment might be needed to meet the global food key, well-documented epidemics with a specific focus on south- security and rural development objectives set out for aquaculture. south experience sharing to support political momentum for Many investors want to engage in aquaculture, but hesitate in the change. This report should be of particular interest to the private face of risk. According to Suiss-RE, a major agricultural crop insurer, sector, the public sector, and civil society in those many develop- the average insurance loss ratio for aquaculture over the period ing countries where aquaculture is expanding rapidly, but where 1992–2012 was 65 percent and disease accounts for 20 percent of regulatory frameworks, including aquatic animal health services, total losses in the relatively well-managed salmon farming industry. are weak. From the point of view of the World Bank, these lessons Diseases do not stay on farms. While the basics of farm-level disease contribute directly to rural policies in support of enhanced and management are known, the interconnectedness among aquacul- more economically, socially, and environmentally sustainable food ture installations and between aquaculture and the external envi- production systems and help secure employment through stable ronment means that only a few careless farms can ruin an industry. aquaculture and fisheries, value chains. A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 2 C hapter 1 — I N T R O D U C T I O N Methodology coordination. In Chile, the study began when most remedial action The study is based on review of published and unpublished data sup- had already been taken, so there is a clear emphasis on the way plied by the Chilean, Vietnamese, Malagasy, and Mozambican authori- in which government and a well-organized private sector worked ties, researchers, and local aquaculture investors and other stakeholders. together to solve problems. In Vietnam, the study team was actively Meetings were held, production sites and research stations visited, and trying to understand how early mortality syndrome (EMS) became documents collected in each country and reviewed by each expert so problematic without even knowing the exact cause. The ability team. These were subsequently discussed via teleconferences among to take decisive action was constrained by the disorganized and the study team and with the many informants who contributed their generally small-scale nature of the Vietnamese shrimp industry. knowledge and experience to the analysis. To ensure confidentiality in Consequently, the emphasis in this case is on the experience of the what has been a sometimes fraught relationship among and between industry and government in assembling objective data and build- private-sector actors, governments, and civil society, we do not identify ing the public-private partnership for disease management that is our sources in the document. already well-advanced in Chile. Along the Mozambique Channel, a well-known and understood disease took by surprise a small and The analysis considered the following elements (emphasizing pre- and well-organized industry, teaching lessons about how individual post-crisis comparison): farms manage biosecurity. ƒƒ Science and technology: with emphasis on environ- The objective was not to compare how the case study countries mental and epidemiological research, monitoring, and management. found themselves with disease problems and then scrutinize their success in coping, but rather look for commonalities and exceptions ƒƒ Production factors and value chain: emphasizing production in the history and structure of aquaculture in three regions of the practices and general models applied in the case study world to elucidate key concepts in aquatic disease management countries. and inform farmers, investors and policy makers on how to prepare ƒƒ Market development: evolution of products and market lead- themselves for the inevitable. ing up to and through crisis. ƒƒ Social issues: impact of regulation and/or failure to regulate on community and workers. Expert Team Members ƒƒ Governance and regulations: principal regulations and institu- Noriaki Akazawa. Noriaki Akazawa graduated from Hokkaido tional aspects. University where he majored in Microbiology and Fish Diseases. ƒƒ Investment and financing: evolution of investment and From 1983 to 1998 he worked as a seafood purchaser and later as financing during the crisis. seafood processing plant manager in Japan, Bali, and Vancouver. In 1999, Akazawa joined Song Cheng Enterprises Sdn. Bhd., a Case Study Diversity Malaysian shrimp farm operated by the Skylark Japan restau- The selection of case studies was guided by the need to explore rant chain as Culturing and Processing Director. In 2000, he was disease outbreaks in a range of geographical and industrial devel- promoted to Managing Director. Song Cheng was bought by opment scenarios. The three case studies capture the breadth Agrobest Sdn. Bhd. and Akazawa stayed on as Managing Director. and depth of experience among farmers and governments con- He has now been managing the shrimp farm and processing plant fronted with catastrophic disease outbreaks in aquaculture. The for 15 years and has increased shrimp production from a few hun- study teams arrived at different times in the progression of the dred to more than 11,000 metric tons despite the presence of a outbreak and found that government and industry were at differ- variety of shrimp diseases. Akazawa has become a world leader in ent stages of preparedness to act. The differences reflect various managing this disease, which he is studying for a Ph.D. degree at stages in the development of regulatory frameworks and industry Kinki University. R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 1 — I N T R O D U C T I O N 3 Adolfo Alvial is a Marine Biologist from the University of Chile, who Laboratory, and Head Veterinarian at the Chilean National Fisheries received a Masters in Oceanography from Oregon State University Service where he conducted studies in the area of managerial and an MBA from Universidade Adolfo Ibáñez. He was Professor direction, quality service, goal-oriented project planning, epidemi- and Secretary General at the University of Chile-Iquique, where he ology, and the analysis of risks associated with aquatic disease at conducted research on pelagic fisheries and El Niño. In 1987 he national and international levels. He is a member of the National joined Fundación Chile as Director of Aquaculture. In that position Committee on Aquatic Animal Disease and also works on a number he led several projects to develop new business opportunities for of international initiatives of the Chilean government, in particular, the country such as turbot, abalone, and hake. In 2002 Alvial was the Chilean representation to the Organisation Internationale des appointed as General Manager of the Technological Institute of Epizooties (OIE) and the Expert Technical Commission on Aquatic salmon, the technical branch of the Chilean salmon association. Animals. Burgos worked on biosecurity aspects of trade negotia- Between 2007 and 2010 Alvial was Technical Director of Marine tions between Chile, the United States, and the European Union. He Harvest Chile S.A. He has been President of the Business Incubator has participated in the development and registration of veterinary INER, Los Lagos since 2006 and is presently General Director and co- drugs and vaccines to control ISA virus and other fish diseases. owner of his own consulting company, Adolfo Alvial Asesorías S.A. George W. Chamberlain received his PhD in aquaculture from Alvial has participated in several initiatives to develop standards for Texas A&M University. In 1990 he joined Ralston Purina Inc., where aquaculture, such as Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP) salmon stand- he directed its international aquaculture program. In 1998, he joined ards for the Global Aquaculture Alliance (GAA) and greenhouse gas Monsanto Inc., where he directed its marine shrimp program on emission standards in the seafood industry. genetic selection, soy-based feeds, and sustainable pond systems. Pierre-Philippe Blanc is Technical Assistant of APCM (Associação In 1999, he and Ken Morrison developed Black Tiger Aquaculture, de Produtores de Camarão de Moçambique), the Mozambican a successful 170-ha integrated shrimp farm in Malaysia that had shrimp producers association, and Project Manager for the failed due to WSSV under previous ownership. They managed WSSV French Development Agency (AFD) Project: Programme de through development of an specific pathogen-free (SPF) popula- Renforcement des Capacités Commerciales (Reinforcement of tion of Penaeus monodon, family-based breeding, all-in/all-out larval Commercial Capacities Program) in Mozambique. Prior to coming rearing, and zero water exchange ponds. In 2004, they established to Mozambique, Blanc was providing technical services to the Post- Integrated Aquaculture International Inc. (later rebranded as iAqua), Harvest Development and Quality Division (including laboratories a breeding and technology company with white shrimp operations and competent authorities) of the Fisheries Department (Ministry in Hawaii and black tiger shrimp operations in Brunei. Chamberlain of Industry and Primary Resources) in Brunei Darussalam. He has served as President of the World Aquaculture Society in 1996. In worked in shrimp aquaculture production, R&D, quality manage- 1997, he led the formation of the Global Aquaculture Alliance, an ment, environment and nutrition in the Indian Ocean subregion organization dedicated to the sustainability of aquaculture, which for more than 10 years. His university background includes an MSc he continues to serve as President. In 2010, he assisted in the forma- in Natural Resource Management (Cranfield University), a Diploma tion of the Responsible Aquaculture Foundation. in Agronomic and Economic Development (ISTOM), and an ISO John Forster worked on shrimp aquaculture for the UK govern- Auditor Certification. ment from 1965 to 1973 and then joined Shearwater Fish Farming José Miguel Burgos has degrees in Veterinary Medicine and Ltd, a subsidiary of The British Oxygen Company, for whom he Leadership Skills and Strategies from the Universidad de Chile. established and ran a commercial trout farm and an international Burgos is currently Head of the Aquaculture Division at the Chilean technical services business. In 1984, he moved to the United States Undersecretariat for Fisheries. His past positions include Managing to set up Stolt Sea Farm’s U.S. West Coast salmon and sturgeon Director at Aquagestión S.A., Technical Manager at Recalcine farming operations before starting his own consulting practice A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 4 C hapter 1 — I N T R O D U C T I O N in 1994. In that year, he also founded Columbia River Fish Farms Medicine of Universidad Católica de Temuco (Chile) as a full-time LLC, now the largest U.S. producer of steelhead trout, from which researcher focusing on diseases of salmonids in the freshwater stage he divested in 2005. As a consultant, he responds to the needs of their production cycle. In 2008 he joined the Salmon Research of public and private sector clients, and has a special interest in Institute—a think tank from the Chilean salmon farming industry how the lessons learned in aquaculture over the last 45 years can —as head of the Health and Production area during the ISA virus be applied to aquaculture development in the years ahead. He crisis. Throughout the ISA crisis in the Chilean salmon industry, he is a recently retired member of NOAA’s Marine Fishery Advisory coordinated and managed working groups with farms, processing Committee, serves on the executive committee of Aquaculture plants and service suppliers to implement best aquaculture prac- without Frontiers, and serves or has served on the boards of sev- tices to mitigate and prevent further ISA epidemics in the industry. eral private aquaculture companies. He is a past president of the He participates as a representative of the Chilean Salmon Producers Washington Fish Growers Association and former U.S. representa- Association (SalmonChile) in strategic public-private boards that tive to the International Salmon Farmers Association. address the main sanitary challenges of the Chilean salmon indus- try. He currently coordinates all the activities and research related to Tung Hoang is an Associate Professor at the International University fish health in the Salmon Research Institute, with special emphasis (IU) in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Hoang has 20 years of experi- on sea lice, salmon rickettsial syndrome (SRS), ISA, and surveillance ence in aquaculture education and development, particularly systems. He has participated in several research projects with public shrimp research and farming in Australia, Thailand, and Vietnam. and private funds in the area of health management, fish pathology, He served the World Aquaculture Society as President of its Asian nutrition, and epidemiology, in Chile and abroad. Pacific Chapter during 2006–08. His research interests include shrimp broodstock management, larval rearing techniques, aquaculture Le Van Khoa is Chief of Aquatic Animal Health Management in system design, and zonal management. Since early 2011, Hoang’s the Vietnamese Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development and research has focused on the early mortality syndrome in penaeid serves as the OIE/Network of Aquaculture Centers in Asia and the shrimps, ecological measures for pond management to overcome Pacific (NACA) Focal Point for Aquatic Animal Diseases in Hanoi. shrimp disease outbreaks, and most recently, the development of an He obtained his BS in Aquaculture in 1997 from Hanoi Agriculture intelligent system for effective zone management of shrimp farming University and Nha Trang University of Fisheries, and a PhD in in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam named “MTC®TOMBOOK.” Hoang is Veterinary Medicine in 2005 from Nippon Veterinary and Animal currently leading the School of Biotechnology of IU and would like Science University. He started his career as a fish pathologist at the to advance shrimp farming in Vietnam via the assistance of modern Research Institute for Aquaculture No.1 in 1997 where he served as biotechnology and communications technology. He established the head of the Fish Disease Laboratory from 2006 to 2008. His major Aquatic Resources Management Program at IU in 2010 to provide research interest is fungal diseases of aquatic animals, but has expe- more quality manpower for the local aquaculture sector. Hoang has rience in best management practices, poverty policy, and national worked actively in the field as an independent consultant for inter- aquatic animal health planning. Khoa has been involved in a series national agencies/companies and also as a local shrimp farmer to of national and international studies on EMS/acute hepatopancre- enhance his knowledge and experience, and more importantly for atic necrosis syndrome (AHPNS) since the first case of infection was the development of practical solutions for shrimp farming. observed in Vietnam. Currently, he is also vice chairperson of the Fish Health Section of the Asian Fisheries Society and an invited Rolando Ibarra, fish health specialist, INTESAL-SalmonChilen lecturer at the Hanoi University of Agriculture. (Chile). Rolando Ibarra holds a DVM from Universidad Católica de Temuco (Chile) and is an expert in health management and dis- Fred Kibenge has a Bachelor of Veterinary Medicine degree from eases of aquatic organisms. He began his career as a technician in Makerere University (1978), a PhD in Animal Virologyfrom Murdoch fish disease diagnostics and then joined the Faculty of Veterinary University (1983) and is now professor of virology, and chairman R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 1 — I N T R O D U C T I O N 5 of the Department of Pathology and Microbiology at Atlantic animal health management, aquaculture engineering, and aquacul- Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island. He has stud- ture extension. Hao’s broad experience as a scientist, aquaculturist ied Infectious Salmon Anaemia since its first occurrence in Eastern and extensionist give him a unique knowledge of the development Canada in 1997. His laboratory confirmed the first occurrence of ISA of Vietnamese aquaculture and fisheries, especially in the Mekong in farmed Atlantic salmon in Chile in July 2007 and characterized Delta. He has served as project coordinator for various provinces, min- the virus responsible for the 2007–10 ISA epizootic. Kibenge under- istries (Fisheries, Agricultures, and Rural Development, Science and took extensive post-doctoral research in virology at the University of Technology), international institutions, and universities including the Liverpool, Washington State University and Ohio State University. He United Nations Development Program (UNDP), NACA, Mekong River is a diplomat of the American College of Veterinary Microbiologists. Commission (MRC), Australian Centre for International Agricultural He has published extensively on the detection and virology of ISAV, Research (ACIAR), World Fish Center, Southeast Asian Fisheries and has spoken on these subjects at various international fora. Development Center (SEAFDEC), Norad, Danida, Sida, Asia Europe Meeting (of the European Union) and the Association of Southeast Donald V. Lightner is a shrimp pathologist in the Department of Asian Nations (ASEM), Aquaculture Platform, Stirling University, Ghent Veterinary Science and Microbiology at the University of Arizona. University, Wageningen University, and Queensland University of Professor Lightner’s career in diseases of farmed aquatic animals Technology. Dr. Hao has published books related to shrimp farming, spans more than four decades. After completing his M.S. and Ph.D. shrimp health management, and fishing gear in the Mekong Delta, degrees in Fish Pathology, he began the first shrimp pathology as well as a number of scientific articles in both national and interna- program in the United States at the NMFS Laboratory in Galveston, tional peer-reviewed journals. Texas. In 1975 he accepted a research position at the University of Arizona where he applied shrimp disease management methods to Hamisi Lussian Nikuli is Director of Aquaculture and National a prototype superintensive production system. Since 1986, he has Coordinator of Aquatic Animal Health in the Tanzanian Ministry of been a professor of Veterinary Science and Microbiology. He has Livestock and Fisheries Development. Nikuli worked as Head of the authored or coauthored more than 500 publications and presenta- Department of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries in the Newala tions on pathogen detection, disease diagnosis, and pathobiology Local Government Authority from 1998–2012. Nikuli is a registered in penaeid shrimp. He has trained over 20 graduate students. Some Veterinarian and a member of the Veterinary Council of Tanzania. He 1,500 professionals from 59 countries have received formal training has a Master of Veterinary Medicine (MVM) in Aquatic Animal Health in shrimp pathology and diagnostic methods in 27 of his Shrimp from the Norwegian School of Veterinary Science and a Bachelor of Pathology Short Courses and 39 special international workshops. Veterinary Medicine from Sokoine University of Agriculture. For 23 His laboratory became an OIE Reference Laboratory in 1993. He years, Nikuli has been directly involved in animal health and produc- has served as a member or adviser to the Aquatic Animal Health tion, policy implementation and planning. Standards Commission for 12 years and contributed to the cur- rent editions of the Aquatic Animal Health Code and Manual of Isabel Omar has been the Director of the Mozambican National Diagnostic Tests for Aquatic Animals. Institute for Aquaculture Development (INAQUA) since its creation in 2005. She was previously the head of the Aquaculture Department Nguyen Van Hao earned a PhD in Fish Physiology in Russia in 1994 and head of the Fish Inspection and Quality Control Department, and completed various training courses in applied quantitative both at the Ministry of Fisheries. Omar is also the current Chair of genetics, fish/shrimp health management, and rural extension. He is Committee for Inland Fisheries and Aquaculture in Africa (CIFAA) and currently Director of the Research Institute for Aquaculture No. 2 of a Lecturer at the Veterinary School of Eduardo Mondlane University. the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development in Vietnam. Hao Her formal education includes an MSc in Shellfish Biology & Culture started his professional career in the Ministry of Fisheries in 1979, (University of Wales) and a BSc in Biology, Stock Assessment, and focusing on aquaculture farming, breeding and selection, aquatic Management from Eduardo Mondlane University. A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 6 C hapter 1 — I N T R O D U C T I O N Luc Ralaimarindaza has worked for 20 years as a veterinarian the Atlantic Veterinary College (AVC). She has worked in the field of in the Malagasy Department of Veterinary Services. In 2006, he aquatic animal health for over 20 years and has published more than became head of the Technical Department responsible for the man- 50 peer-reviewed articles on topics ranging from fish nutrition to agement, supervision and implementation of export inspection and infectious disease control and surveillance. Prior to AVC she worked approval and epidemiological surveillance of shrimp aquaculture in for a number of government agencies including the Department the Autorité Sanitaire Halieutique (ASH), where, since November of Fisheries and Oceans in Canada; University of Guelph; the Centre 2010, he has been the Executive Director. Since the first occurrence for Environment, Fisheries & Aquaculture Science in the United of white spot disease in Madagascar Ralaimarindaza has been rais- Kingdom; and Idaho State University. She has been involved in a ing awareness within the Malagasy government of the economic number of fish disease outbreak investigations ranging from viral to impact of WSD and is leading the government in the establishment parasitic in origin in both wild and farmed animal populations. She of sanitary barriers, implementation of regulatory measures, treat- has also been actively involved in developing a number of surveil- ment of waste and effluents in crustacean processing plants, and lance programs for monitoring pathogens and assessing disease strengthening biosecurity in aquaculture farms. control strategies. In 2010 she worked with SalmonChile on design- ing a containment plan for ISA and infectious disease risk manage- Melba B. Reantaso is an Aquatic Animal Health Professional with ment for salt water salmon farms in Chile. Since her appointment more than 35 years of professional experience. She has a PhD and at the AVC she has worked on several bivalve and invasive species postdoctoral qualifications from the University of Tokyo and Nippon projects for Prince Edward Island as well as continued with projects Veterinary and Animal Science University. Taking early retirement on salmonid disease control. from her post as Senior Aquaculturist in the Philippine Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, she joined NACA as Regional Richard (Dick) Towner is a genetics and breeding consultant Aquatic Animal Health Management Specialist from 1999–2002. working with major trout, shrimp, and tilapia companies to improve She migrated to the United States in 2002 and worked as Molluscan stocks through genetic selection. He did his undergraduate work Pathologist at the Oxford Laboratory in Maryland before join- at Colorado State University and received his MS and PhD degrees ing the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations from the University of Wisconsin. Prior to starting his consult- (FAO) in 2004 as Aquaculture Officer. At FAO, Reantaso is in charge ing company, Towner was Director of Genetics Research at H&N of aquatic animal health/biosecurity. She led several aquatic dis- International GmbH for 22 years. From 1978 through 1999, Towner ease emergency investigations (for example, Koi herpesvirus in had an affiliate faculty appointment in the School of Fisheries at the Indonesia, Epizootic ulcerative syndrome in Africa and EMS of University of Washington. shrimp in Vietnam. Currently she is Lead Technical Officer of pro- jects in Suriname, Indonesia, the Western Balkans, and developing Tran Huu Loc is an Assistant Professor at Nong Lam University at Ho two inter-regional (Asia and Latin America) projects on infectious Chi Minh City, Vietnam, working in aquaculture pathology in Vietnam myonecrosis virus (IMN/V) and EMS. She is also involved in assist- since 2006. While a PhD student at the University of Arizona, he was ing FAO members in developing national and regional strategies on part of the team that discovered the causative agent of EMS/AHPND aquatic animal health as well as conducting introductory courses in 2013. He is also a Senior Consultant for Minh Phu Seafood Corp., on risk analysis for aquatic animal movements. Vietnam, the largest shrimp company in the world. He is the founder Sophie St-Hilaire received her veterinary degree from the and Director of the Minh Phu AquaMekong Shrimp Vet Laboratory, University of Prince Edward Island in 1994 and completed MSc the very first shrimp research center in Vietnam. Recently, Loc devel- and PhD degrees in veterinary epidemiology at the University of oped technologies for the production of EMS/AHPND-free post- Saskatchewan and the University of Guelph, respectively. She is cur- larvae and methods to control the disease in shrimp farms. Those rently Associate Professor and holds the Canadian Research Chair at findings are waiting for patents. R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 1 — I N T R O D U C T I O N 7 Peter M. Van Wyk has an MS degree in Aquatic and Population Marcos Villarreal has a BS degree in Biology and a Master’s in Ecology from the University of California, Santa Barbara (1981), and Business Administration. He started his career in shrimp aquaculture a Master of Aquaculture degree from Auburn University (1986). in 1986 as Manager of the Nursery System at Agromarina de Panamá While at Auburn, Van Wyk trained as an aquaculture economist, S.A. (Ralston Purina), where he became Operations Manager in 1994. manager, and analyst. During his 30-year career in aquaculture Van In 1997, he was hired as General Manager of Industrias Acuimar Wyk has designed, built, and managed shrimp hatcheries and grow- S.A. In 2005, he moved to Indian Ocean Aquaculture in Pemba, out facilities in the United States, Latin America, and Malaysia. Van Mozambique. In his role as Assistant General Manager, he managed Wyk has spent much of the last 15 years developing technology to the shrimp hatchery and assisted the General Manager in process- rear shrimp in biosecure indoor production facilities. As a project ing plant operations. From 2006 to 2012, Villarreal served as General planner, he has used his expertise in production management, Manager of Arabian Shrimp Company in Gizan, Saudi Arabia, since engineering, and aquaculture economics to develop sophisticated which time he has served as General Manager of Altrix de Panama, bioeconomic spreadsheet models to evaluate how changes in pro- S.A. (Grupo Calesa/Camaronera de Coclé S.A.). He was President of duction strategies and performance parameters affect project costs the Panamanian Shrimp Growers Association from 1995 to 1997 and and profitability. He has published several papers on the economics is an internationally recognized expert in the management of WSSV. of recirculating shrimp production systems. A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 C hapter 2 — C ase S tudy I : T he I nfectious S almon A nemia O utbreak in C hile 9 Chapter 2  ASE STUDY I: THE INFECTIOUS SALMON C ANEMIA OUTBREAK IN CHILE ADOLFO ALVIAL  FREDERICK KIBENGE  JOHN FORSTER  JOSÉ M. BURGOS  ROLANDO IBARRA  SOPHIE ST-HILAIRE OUTLINE 2.1  Origin and Evolution of the Salmon Farming Industry in Chile�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 10 Industry Development Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Production Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Industry Associations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Chilean Aquaculture Governance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Principal Health Issues Prior to ISA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2.2  The Infectious Salmon Anemia (ISA) Crisis���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 14 The Virus (ISAV). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 The Chilean ISA Index Case and the Crisis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Conditions Leading Up to the ISA Crisis and Spread of ISAV. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Possible Sources of ISAV. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2.3  Measures Taken in Response to the ISA Crisis������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 19 The Crucial Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Rapid Measures Taken with Immediate Effect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Measures Taken with Long-Term Effect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 2.4  The Recovery and Outlook for the Future������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 24 Gradual Recovery along the Value Chain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Outlook for Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Regional Social and Economic Impacts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 2.5  Sustainability of the New Chilean Salmon Industry���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 29 Key Elements for a Better Future. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Challenges on the Horizon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Industry’s Responsibilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 10 C hapter 2 — C ase S tudy I : T he I nfectious S almon A nemia O utbreak in C hile 2.1 ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE SALMON FIGURE 2.1: Total Reported Atlantic Salmon (Salmo Salar) FARMING INDUSTRY IN CHILE Aquaculture Production in 2005 (FAO 2007) 700,000 Industry Development Phases 600,000 Salmon farming in Chile started at the end of the 1970s. Fundación 500,000 Metric tons Chile, a nonprofit technology stimulation group, played a vital role in 400,000 importing and transferring aquaculture technology to support the 300,000 growth of the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) farming industry based 200,000 100,000 largely in Region X (Los Lagos), some 1,100 km south of the capital, 0 Santiago. This is a relatively young industry, 1991 being the first year Is da U Ir lia en ia e st s R e ay ng le Fa Ca om G ark Ic tes Fr d St d Au nd ec c an s te an hi ra an w ro na us a d m C re la el or when production exceeded 10,000 tons, but by 2005, Chile was the ni el N Ki d D e d te fastest-growing salmon producer in the world, having overtaken ni U Scotland (in 2000) as the second largest producer of Atlantic salmon (figure 2.1) and was on a course to overtake Norway. This rapid development, which can be characterized by the phases shown in Island, where approximately 40 percent of total salmon production figure 2.2, resulted in a noticeable cluster of saltwater farms in the was concentrated (figure 2.4). areas around Puerto Montt, Chile. Production and export of product This rapid growth was accompanied by gradual development of from 2001 to 2011 are shown in figure 2.3. regulations (figure 2.5): In 2007, the industry generated around 25,000 direct jobs and ƒƒ The Fishery and Aquaculture Law with its three major 20,000 indirect jobs associated around a nucleus of some 40 com- sectorial regulatory bodies: (1) the Environmental Regulation panies and more than 1,200 input suppliers. As mentioned above, of Aquaculture (RAMA); (2) the Sanitary Regulation of much of the production was concentrated in the coastal areas of Aquaculture (RESA); and (3) the Regulation for Aquaculture Region X, most notably along the central and east coasts of Chiloé Licenses. FIGURE 2.2: Evolution Phases of the Chilean Salmon Industry (Alvial 2011) CONSOLIDATION PHASE FAST GROWTH MARKET 2000s PENETRATION • Comprehensive COMMERCIAL 1990s regulation PRODUCTION START • Private / public cooperation • Production • Vigilance programs 1985–1990 increase • SIGES EXPERIMENTAL PHASE • Market penetration •R & D • First commercial Before 1985 scale production • Association • Specialization starts •Technology transfer R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 2 — C ase S tudy I : T he I nfectious S almon A nemia O utbreak in C hile 11 FIGURE 2.3: Volume (a) and Export Value (b) of the Chilean Salmonid Aquaculture Industry 2001–11 (Alvial 2011) Volume (ton) Value (million USD$ FOB) Atlantic Trout 450,000 Chinook 2,500 Total 400,000 2,393 Coho 2,300 2,297 2,242 350,000 2,207 2,100 2,100 2,060 300,000 1,900 250,000 1,700 1,721 200,000 1,500 150,000 1,439 100,000 1,300 1,147 50,000 1,100 964 973 0 900 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 a b 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 ƒƒ The General Basis for Environment Law, which has several ƒƒ The Navigation Law, principally aspects related to coastal aspects connected to aquaculture, particularly rules for waters, land use, and pollution control. environmental impact assessment. ƒƒ Only in the last decade can the regulations be considered to have been reasonably well integrated and complete. FIGURE 2.4: Distribution of Seawater Salmon Grow-out Farms in Chile (Regions X and XI) Comparing 2006–07 (Pre-ISAV) vs. 2009–10 (Post-ISAV) (after O Gárate unpublished) A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 12 C hapter 2 — C ase S tudy I : T he I nfectious S almon A nemia O utbreak in C hile FIGURE 2.5: Evolution of Aquaculture Regulations in Chile Relative to Export Volume (Alvial 2011) 2010 Fishery and Aquaculture General Law modifications and proposal on regulations changes 2009 Modifications of the Aquaculture Sanitary (RESA) and Environmental (RAMA) regulations 2008 Proposal of changes to the Aquaculture Sanitary and Environmental regulations 2006 Modifications to the Fishery and Aquaculture General Law 2005 Enactment of the Biological Plagues regulation 2003 Enactment of the Aquaculture National Policy 2003 Enactment of the Environmental Methodology Resolution (N* 404/01) 2001 Enactment of the Species Import and Certification regulation 2001 Enactment of the Aquaculture Sanitary (RESA) and Environmental (RAMA) regulations 1997 Enactment of the Environmental Assessment System in Chile 1994 Enactment of the General Law of the Environment in Chile 2,400 1991 Enactment of the Fishery and Aquaculture Law Exports (million US$) 2,000 1,600 1,200 800 400 0 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 98 99 00 01 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 Year Production Systems Rainbow trout, and 17 percent Coho. In October 2011, Rainbow Depending on the salmon species and life stage (egg, fry, smolt, trout comprised 38 percent, Atlantic salmon 38 percent, and saltwater grow-out, or broodstock), fish facilities are located in riv- Coho 24 percent. These changes occurred partly because of ers, lakes, estuaries, or coastal sites near shore. market demand and, more recently, due to the ISA epidemic in Atlantic salmon. There are some 30 saltwater grow-out companies with licenses to produce fish at 1,041 sites in the coastal waters of Chile. In 2007, 533 of these sites were active, approximately 72 percent Industry Associations of which are located in Region X, 27 percent in Region XI, and SalmonChile is a private sector organization that was created in 1 percent in Region XII (SERNAPESCA 2008). The salmon species 1986 to represent producers of salmon and trout in Chile. It provides farmed included Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), Coho salmon a mechanism through which the industry has been able to: (Oncorhynchus kisutch), rainbow trout (O. mykiss), and Chinook ƒƒ develop guidelines for food quality and safety, salmon (O. tshawytscha). Of the 383 active sites in Region X where ƒƒ develop policies for fish health, in 2007 the index case of the infectious salmon anemia (ISA) ƒƒ interact with local communities, outbreak occurred, 98 percent (375 sites) were farming Atlantic ƒƒ represent the industry to government and international salmon (Halwart et al. 2007). By October 2011, the distribution organizations. of salmon farms operating in seawater per region had changed: 43 percent in Region X, 51 percent in Region XI and 5 percent in SalmonChile’s 2012 membership included 28 companies produc- Region XII (SalmonChile, unpublished data). ing salmon and trout, accounting for 67 percent of Chile’s total salmonid productive capacity. Over the years, the composition of cultured salmon species also changed. In 1990, 59 percent of farmed salmon was Coho, 25 The technical arm of SalmonChile is the Salmon Technology percent rainbow trout, and 16 percent Atlantic salmon. By 2006, Institute (INTESAL), responsible for technical coordination this had changed to 63 percent Atlantic salmon, 20 percent and monitoring of the industry in fish health, environmental R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 2 — C ase S tudy I : T he I nfectious S almon A nemia O utbreak in C hile 13 responsibility, food safety, and matters important for trade at for developing regulations and rules that govern aquatic national and international levels. SalmonChile funds INTESAL’s animal resources in Chile in accordance with the General Law on Fisheries and Aquaculture (GLFA) No 18.892 and research and development through a levy on salmon exports. its subsequent amendments.1 One of the objectives of SUBPESCA is to promote the sustainable development of Trout and Coho Salmon Producers Association (ACOTRUCH) is a fisheries and aquaculture. separate association that was formed in September 2009 to repre- 2. The National Fisheries Service, Servicio Nacional de Pesca sent small- and medium-sized Coho salmon and trout producers (SERNAPESCA), is also under the Ministry of Economy, in Chile. Some of these companies were previously members of Development, and Tourism. SERNAPESCA is responsible for SalmonChile and decided to regroup as ISA in Atlantic salmon overseeing compliance with the requirements and regula- tions issued by SUBPESCA. became SalmonChile’s main focus. Other companies remain inde- pendent of either of these associations. Prior to the development of Chile’s salmon farming industry, SUBPESCA’s main focus was on the regulation of capture fisheries, Apart from these producer organizations, the suppliers are also and SERNAPESCA’s main focus was the enforcement of capture organized in associations, the main ones being those representing fisheries regulations. Both agencies had few personnel with experi- the maritime services, divers, net services, pharmaceutical labs, ence in aquaculture and fish health management. Since the devel- and environmental labs. Even though the feed producers are the opment of salmon farming, however, SERNAPESCA has been given most important suppliers in terms of the industry’s farming costs, new responsibilities and has had to reorganize its departmental they are not represented by an association. structure to reflect these changes in function, especially increasing inspection (SERNAPESCA 2009). Consequently, the agency’s staff Chilean Aquaculture Governance increased from 200 in 2007 to 729 in 2009, primarily in response The management of the Chilean aquaculture industry is the to the ISA crisis and new government regulations. Most recently responsibility of two government agencies: 1 http://www.subpesca.cl/controls/neochannels/neo_ch617/ 1. The Undersecretariat of Fisheries, SUBPESCA in the Ministry neochn617.aspx.: Full text and amendments of the GLFA (Ley General of Economy, Development, and Tourism, is responsible de Pesca y Acuicultura N° 20.560). FIGURE 2.6: Timeline of Salmon Disease Occurrence, Production, and Egg Imports in Chile (C Barros unpublished) ISA 650 600 600 Francisella spp 550 500 Vibriosis 500 450 Streptococcosis 400 400 350 300 300 IPN 250 Caligiasis ERM Kudoa 200 200 RTFS 150 SRS 100 N. salmonis 100 BKD 50 0 0 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 85 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 19 Harvest production: tons × 1,000 Imported eggs: unit × million A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 14 C hapter 2 — C ase S tudy I : T he I nfectious S almon A nemia O utbreak in C hile GLFA No 20.434 (published in April 2010) created an Aquaculture with a history of ISA. It is commonly associated with gill infections Subdivision in SERNAPESCA and reinforced SUBPESCA’s National but does not cause mortality. It also does not grow in cell culture. Direction of Aquaculture. These two organizational changes were Because this type of ISAV does not cause clinical disease and does intended to strengthen the government’s role in inspection and not grow in cell culture, infections are not regarded as significant enforcement and distinguish aquaculture from fisheries. by the regulatory agencies. The role this virus plays in the epide- miology of ISA is not clearly understood (MacBeath et al. 2009; Principal Health Issues Prior to ISA Debes et al. 2011). Prior to the ISA crisis in Chile in 2007 several other infectious diseases ISA is arguably the most economically important viral disease of were present in the industry. The first record of these is illustrated in marine-farmed Atlantic salmon in terms of production losses, loss figure 2.6 and compared to growth of production and egg imports. of export markets, and associated social impacts. Eradication of the The three primary fish diseases in the Chilean industry prior to disease and/or control of the viral infection have been priorities for 2007 were caligiasis caused by sea lice (Caligus rogercresseyi), the Atlantic salmon industry wherever the disease has occurred. Salmon Rickettsial Syndrome (SRS) caused by Piscirickettsia sal- In the Northern hemisphere, the first registered outbreak of ISA was monis, and infectious pancreatic necrosis (IPN), caused by the in 1984 in Atlantic salmon juveniles on the southwestern coast of pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV). IPNV affects fish in both fresh and Norway. The situation developed into an epidemic, which peaked salt water, while the other two diseases occur only in salt water. In with a total of 80 new cases in 1990. From 1989 to 1991, Norwegian the past, the negative impact of these diseases on production was authorities imposed a series of new biosecurity measures to try to simply accepted and compensated for by increasing smolt num- control it, including: bers in grow-out cages. SRS, the most significant disease, has no effective vaccine, but is treatable and has thus led to high levels of ƒƒ a ban on use of seawater in hatcheries. antibiotic use. Interestingly and as expected, the disease control ƒƒ a ban on movement of fish from one seawater site to measures implemented due to ISA crisis have also decreased the another. number of SRS cases in the industry. ƒƒ introduction of compulsory health certificates for aquacul- ture farms. ƒƒ disinfection of wastewater from processing plants and smolt 2.2  THE INFECTIOUS SALMON ANEMIA (ISA) CRISIS transport. The Virus (ISAV) Since 1994, the annual incidence of ISA outbreaks in Norway has ISA is a serious viral disease of marine-farmed Atlantic salmon varied between 2 and 23 (Norwegian Veterinary Institute 2013). (Salmo salar) caused by the ISA virus (ISAV). Clinical signs of ISA The disease was first reported outside of Norway in 1996, in New include pale gills due to anemia, blood-tinged fluid in peritoneal Brunswick, Canada. Subsequently, ISA was detected in Scotland in and pericardial cavities, petechial hemorrhages of the viscera and 1998, in the Faroe Islands in 1999, and in Maine, United States, in parietal peritoneum, and dark red liver and spleen (OIE 2011). 2000. The virus was also detected in marine-farmed rainbow trout ISAV belongs to the family Orthomyxoviridae, together with influenza (O. mykiss) with subclinical disease in Ireland in 2002. viruses, but is sufficiently different to be assigned its own genus, Isavirus. The Chilean ISA Index Case and the Crisis ISAV occurs in two basic genotypes (Kibenge et al. 2001a): North Although ISAV had been detected in one group of Coho salmon American (HPR) and European (EU). Further differentiation within that presented a disease named “Jaundice Coho Salmon Syndrome” these groups has been elucidated by Kibenge et al. (2007) and in Chile in 1999 (Kibenge et al. 2001b), the virus had never been Nylund et al. (2007). ISAV highly polymorphic region (HPR0) is a associated with ISA disease in the Southern hemisphere. During nonpathogenic variant of ISAV that has emerged in all countries the winter (July) of 2007, unexplained mortalities following R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 2 — C ase S tudy I : T he I nfectious S almon A nemia O utbreak in C hile 15 recovery from an outbreak of SRS were observed in premarket possible that coinfections with gill amoeba masked ISA mortali- (3.9 kg) Atlantic salmon at a grow-out site located in central Chiloé ties. In addition, sea lice, a potential vector of ISA, was problematic in Region X. This was the area in Chile where salmon production toward the end of 2006 and beginning of 2007, particularly in the was most concentrated at the time. Subsequent investigation Reloncavi Gulf and Central Chiloé. confirmed ISA in its classic presentation (Godoy et al. 2008). Fourth, according to sources in the Chilean aquaculture industry, for However, this does not mean that the index case was the first time several years prior to 2007 laboratories had detected ISAV in Atlantic that Atlantic salmon had been infected with ISAV in Chile. Based salmon2 but these results were not reported because they could not on recent interviews with key individuals in the Chilean aquacul- be confirmed. Basically, it was said that diagnostic tests for ISAV in ture industry, it is possible that ISAV had been present and causing Chile prior to 2007 were not well developed or validated, although health problems a few years before July 2007. INTESAL records techniques applied in surveillance programs were those recom- suggested an increase in “nonidentified” causes of mortality start- mended by the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE). ing around 2004, specifically in areas with a high number of farms. If ISAV was present in Chile prior to 2007, the virus was not caus- There are several reasons for suspecting that ISAV may have been ing massive mortalities. It was with the increasing number of in Chile prior to 2007. First, the phylogenetic analysis by Kibenge farms and fish density, high levels of sea lice starting around et al. (2009) showed that the Chilean ISAV was genetically similar 2006, and weak biosecurity measures between 2004 and 2007 to ISAV reported in Norway in 1996. that permitted its dispersal (Stagg et al. 2001; Halwart et al. 2007). Although the precise time when ISAV was introduced Second, the virus found in the index case in Chile had more muta- to Chile remains a topic of debate, there is no question that in tions than several other viruses isolated in subsequent cases, 2007, when the virus was officially detected, it spread rapidly which suggests the origin of these other cases predated the virus throughout the industry. found in the index case. The number of farms affected by ISA peaked at the end of Third, consistent with this is the report that several fish farms in 2008 (figure 2.7), but the economic impact of the crisis was not the same neighborhood as the index case were also experienc- ing high mortalities at the time. Many farms in the area attributed 2 The technique used then was virus isolation on cell culture in CHSE-214 the increased mortalities to amoebic gill disease (AGD) and it is cell line. As second option either EPC or BF-2 cell line. FIGURE 2.7: Production and Sea Lice (Caligus) Infestation Immediately Prior to the ISA Outbreak (C Barros unpublished) I S Harvest production tons × 1,000 Sea lice abundance: N0/fish A 30 650 600 25 550 500 20 450 400 350 15 300 250 10 200 150 5 100 50 0 0 99 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 85 92 01 86 87 88 89 90 91 93 94 95 96 97 98 00 20 20 20 20 20 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 19 A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 16 C hapter 2 — C ase S tudy I : T he I nfectious S almon A nemia O utbreak in C hile completely felt until 2009–10, when harvests and production were FIGURE 2.8: Poor Management and Decline of Productive at their lowest. Production of Atlantic salmon dropped by about Ratios Pre-ISA. two-thirds due to ISA mortality and the culling of affected farms Diseases and indicators (Asche et al. 2009). Additionally, affected sites were not restocked of poor environmental management evident with new Atlantic salmon smolts. Several companies attempted (high concentration of sites, absence of zone to compensate for these losses by raising rainbow trout and Coho management program, salmon. It is remarkable that the total salmonids net production poor sanitary control, lack of biosecurity) (tons) and exports (million US$) decreased from 2008 to 2010 by 33.3 percent and 29.6 percent, respectively. Gradual decline in The ISA virus crisis also had a significant social cost. It is estimated production that 50 percent of direct and indirect job positions were lost, indicators 2004–07... representing around 25,000 thousand workers. The last clinical outbreak was recorded September 2010 (SERNAPESCA 2010). ...Reaching a maximum when Caligus bloomed at the end of 2006 and ISA Conditions Leading up to the ISA Crisis and Spread of ISAV started in Atlantic salmon (July 2007) There is consensus that the industry grew more rapidly than the government regulations could cope with. When salmon farming first started there were few regulations in place to control dis- ease introduction and dispersion. The industry was performing health and environmental vigilance systems to its sea lice and phy- so well economically with relatively few issues that no considera- toplankton monitoring programs, as well as making a first attempt tion was given to the limitation of the biological system. Several to define production zones in Chilean waters. Additionally, in 2003, production indicators showed a gradual deterioration in Atlantic the industry established a best practices system known as the salmon performance from 2004, bottoming out between 2008 Integrated Management System (SIGES) of the salmon industry, and 2009 (figure 2.8). Among the principal indicators and their covering environment, fish health, food safety, and social aspects. observed deterioration are: harvest weight: 4.5 kg to 2.7 kg; All these efforts were voluntary. There was limited appreciation at productivity (harvested kg/planted smolt) 3.0 to 1.8; cumulative the time of the biological risks that the industry was taking. monthly mortality in seawater (in number of fish) 2 percent to 15 Basically, prior to 2007 the industry was enjoying high prices for percent (Alvial 2011). its product and increasing production. In hindsight, it is easy to The industry was also growing and providing economic stability to see where problems were occurring, but at the time there was an area that was historically deprived. Recognizing the economic reluctance to recognize them. Further, it is difficult to know and social benefits, the government implemented the National whether the industry would have made changes even if they had Aquaculture Policy in 2002 which aimed at doubling aquaculture been proposed by government. Rapid growth was the priority production by 2012 with very few restrictions or consideration and costly long- and medium-term infectious disease prevention for environmental vigilance and disease control. This goal was strategies were ignored. The general reaction was to stock more reached early (in 2005), demonstrating how fast this industry was fish to compensate for losses due to disease mortality. permitted to grow. In hindsight, several management issues were evident: However, salmon farmers recognized that disease was an issue 1. There were high concentrations of sites in some farming particularly in some areas where indicators of production had areas, especially Region X and central Chiloé. declined. In response, SalmonChile, through INTESAL, added fish 2. There was an absence of zone management programs. R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 2 — C ase S tudy I : T he I nfectious S almon A nemia O utbreak in C hile 17 3. There was poor sanitary control on farms including poorly ƒƒ Smolts were not screened for health status, so weak and regulated importation of fish eggs, no fallowing periods, sickly fish were often stocked. The incentive to increase and lack of disinfection procedures. production was stronger than the incentive to assure good 4. There was insufficient attention paid to biosecurity includ- fish performance. ing frequent fish movement between farms. ƒƒ Smoltification was often completed in estuaries where all 5. There was a lack of comprehensive government regulations three species and different age groups shared the same and control. body of water. If disease was present in this area it easily spread throughout the industry with the transfer of smolts to This resulted in a general increase in fish mortality, particularly grow-out sites. in the major production areas. The cause of death was mostly ƒƒ High stocking numbers on farms (>1.5 million fish) and high undetermined, and there was an increase in the prevalence of the densities of fish in individual cages (25 to 30 kg/m3), resulted sea lice. The increase in sea lice infestation (as well as the increase in high levels of virus being released from a farm once it was in mortality from what looked like infectious causes) may have infected with ISAV. reflected a general overpopulation of susceptible fish in the area ƒƒ Close proximity of farms in some areas. Approximately 40 with minimal area-wide disease control measures in place. percent of Chile’s total salmon production in 2007 was con- centrated in the central and east coasts of Chiloé Island, which The sea lice problem peaked at the beginning of 2007 with aver- increased the likelihood of easy and rapid spread of disease. age farm abundance levels at 30 to 50 parasites per fish.3 These ƒƒ Close proximity of farms to processing plants (<5 km). The high levels may have been exacerbated by the combination of OIE suggests sites within 5 km of an infected farm or a favorable oceanographic conditions (increased salinity due to a processing plant harvesting infected fish are at high risk of period of low rain), the development of resistance to emamectine acquiring the disease. Mardones et al. (2011) suggest that 10 km may be a more appropriate infection zone based on benzoate (the major therapeutant), and the generally poor condi- their evaluation of the Chilean epidemic, the number of fish tion of the fish as a result of crowding stress, skin damage, and on a site at the time of infection being a determining factor coinfections with other pathogens. in the size of the zone needed to contain disease. ƒƒ Mortality management did not consider pathogen inactiva- Rapid spread of ISAV during outbreaks in the northern hemisphere tion and containers in which mortalities were transported has been associated with movement of virus in hauling water, live were not adequately secured to avoid spillage or theft. fish, and the use of contaminated equipment shared among fish ƒƒ Harvest systems that could not cope with the increased farms. For example, ISAV has been transmitted from site to site demand created by the elimination of infected fish. As the by feed boats (McClure et al. 2005), by boats carrying fish, and in number of outbreaks increased, prices rose, putting more ballast water (Murray et al. 2002) via movement of infected fish upward pressure on stocking rates. (Stagg 2003), or through the water column due to proximity to ƒƒ Effluent disinfection at processing plants was not practiced other farms or processing plants with ISAV infected fish (Jarp and in 2007. Karlsen 1997). ƒƒ Unrestricted and extensive movement of fish and personnel between farms. Sharing of equipment (nets, boats, barges, Mardones et al. (2009) investigated the epidemiology of ISAV dur- and so forth) among farms and lack of disinfection and/or ing the first year of the outbreak in Region X and reported both oversight of cleaning. the clustering of cases as well as long-distance dispersion of the ƒƒ Use of “open” well boats to transport fish between farms, which means that water containing the virus would have virus, suggesting multiple routes of transmission. In Chile, all of been released along the vessel’s entire route these routes of transmission were uncontrolled in 2007 and cer- ƒƒ There was no mandatory “break” between year classes of fish tainly led to the dissemination of the virus: on a farm (that is, fallow periods were voluntary). ƒƒ High sea lice levels most likely caused by the increase in ac- 3 Compare this to the 0.5 sea lice per fish threshold for therapy under Nor- wegian regulations. tive farms in Region X. Sea lice are known to move between A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 18 C hapter 2 — C ase S tudy I : T he I nfectious S almon A nemia O utbreak in C hile farms in close proximity and can carry ISAV. Wild fish, such as Possible Sources of ISAV Robalo (Eleginops maclovinus) infested with sea lice may also The evidence suggests that the ISAV that caused the ISA outbreak have spread ISAV between farms. in Atlantic salmon in Chile originated in Norway. The ISAV in ƒƒ Prior to 2007, there was insufficient surveillance for dis- the first outbreak in June 2007 was most similar to isolates from eases on salmon farms and inadequate diagnostic labora- Norway (Kibenge et al. 2009; Vike et al. 2009; Cottet et al. 2010). tory capacity to detect health problems early in a disease outbreak. Single agent diagnostic assays such as singleplex The phylogenetic analysis of Kibenge et al. (2009) showed that polymerase chain reaction/reverse transcription-polymerase the Chilean ISAV was genetically unique, although similar to ISAV chain reaction (PCR/RT-PCR) that are used for pathogen isolates reported in Norway in 1996. surveillance/screening programs are severely limited since they are based on known pathogen nucleic acid sequence How ISAV entered into Chile is still being debated. A study by information. These assays are good in a characteristic disease Vike et al. (2009) suggested that the virus was introduced to Chile outbreak or in situations suggestive of infection with a through fish egg imports from Norway over the past 10 years. Fish known pathogen but are not ideal in the absence of clinical egg imports started to rise from 1985 with increasing aquaculture signs or in situations where a particular disease is not known production (figure 2.6); there was a significant jump in 1995 when to occur, such as ISA in Chile prior to June 2007. it reached 100 million units and remained at this level until 2001. ƒƒ Long lag time between the diagnosis of ISAV and the harvest There was a drop in 2002 and 2003, but imports returned to 100 or elimination of infected fish, which meant that infected farms served as reservoirs of infection. During the crisis, SERNAPESCA million units in 2005, and peaked at >200 million units in 2008 at estimated that on average it took 90 and 130 days for elimina- the peak of the ISA crisis (Asche et al. 2009). Although there were tion or harvest of fish, respectively (Mardones et al. 2009). some restrictions on egg imports (that is, they had to originate ƒƒ Inadequate awareness by senior management in companies from ISAV negative farms), the regulations were weak and insuf- of the problem as it was developing. ficient. It would have been difficult for SERNAPESCA to enforce these regulations on all imports with the limited number of per- In summary, there were many conditions that favored the spread sonnel they had prior to 2008. and potential outbreak of infectious pathogens in July 2007, as it finally happened (figure 2.9). FIGURE 2.9: Number of Operating Atlantic Salmon Farms (blue bars), ISA Positive Farms (red bars), and ISA Prevalence (green line) from July 2007 to November 2010 (SERNAPESCA 2010) 450 Operating farms Positive farms Prevalence 50 Number of operating and positive farms (ms) 400 45 350 40 35 300 Prevalence (%) 30 250 25 200 20 150 15 100 10 50 5 0 0 J ASOND J FMAMJ J ASOND J FMAMJ J ASOND J FMAMJ J ASON 2007 2008 2009 2010 R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 2 — C ase S tudy I : T he I nfectious S almon A nemia O utbreak in C hile 19 If imported eggs were the source of the infection, it would most Rapid Measures Taken with Immediate Effect likely have been through pseudovertical transmission, that is, Less than 1 month after the first ISA case, the industry established virus contaminating the egg surfaces or fluids, which can nor- the first voluntary agreements and initiated a series of collabora- mally be controlled through disinfection. True vertical transmis- tive actions to avoid the dispersion of ISAV and improve detection sion of ISAV has not been reproduced experimentally (Melville and depopulation of infected sites. There were many meetings and Griffiths 1999), and there has been no evidence of true ver- between companies and SalmonChile to establish these first tical transmission of ISAV in New Brunswick, Maine, and Faroe measures. Islands. In Norway, only 0.7 percent of ISA outbreaks occurred In addition, 3 months after the diagnosis of the index case, INTESAL in the freshwater stage (that is, eggs and juveniles). Export of and partners organized an international workshop to provide eggs from an infected farm in Norway to Iceland in 1986-87 did government and the industry with suggestions on monitoring, not lead to ISA in Iceland. An extensive review by a special sci- detection techniques, control measures, and regulation/enforce- entific committee in Norway concluded that true vertical trans- ment tools. This workshop helped the government and INTESAL mission of ISAV, if it occurs, is of little significance (Rimstad et al. establish the first set of control measures for ISA. This initiative was 2006). A report sponsored by the European Commission on the repeated 1 year later, bringing more information and experience issue of trading of fish eggs concluded that vertical transmission to the country. was insignificant in the epidemiology of ISAV infection (Bovo et al. 2005). INTESAL led industry efforts to establish good practices to control sea lice and ISA, which were perceived to be related. Independent of the government they developed the Salmon Industry Health MEASURES TAKEN IN RESPONSE TO 2.3  Policy, which had five objectives and contained 44 measures to THE ISA CRISIS control and prevent disease and ensure sustainable growth of the The Crucial Approach salmon industry. This policy was supported by all the associated One of the most impressive and crucial aspects of the Chilean companies and was regularly reviewed and audited. Most of the ISA recovery was the collaboration between the industry and 44 measures were integrated into formal regulation by the gov- government to construct a platform for addressing the prob- ernment several months later. lem, from both short-term and long term perspectives. After Three of the five objectives of the health policy specifically addressed the declaration of the index case, a partnership was established pathogen spread: (a) to reduce the likelihood of perpetuating fish between the government and the industry, which permitted pathogens within the industry; (b) to minimize the risk of introduc- companies, particularly those having previous experience with ing exotic pathogens via the importation of eggs; and (c) to ensure ISA control, to make technical contributions to the initial emer- the production of healthy smolts and minimize pathogen transfer gency containment and contingency plans. Later, the govern- from freshwater facilities. To achieve these objectives, the industry ment established “La Mesa del Salmon” (Salmon Committee) designed a list of recommended management practices in 10 parts where all involved public sector agencies were represented and covering all sectors of the industry. These were to be implemented consulted regarding proposed major regulatory changes. within a 5-year period by the members of SalmonChile, beginning This response by government and industry, which targeted the in 2009. Currently, about 90 percent of these measures have been factors most likely to be contributing to the spread of the virus, implemented, and most agree that the top seven measures respon- resulted in the control of the disease within 3½ years. The mea- sible for the recovery are: sures taken can be divided between those that were expected to 1. All in/all out farming with fallowing periods and zone have immediate effects and those whose benefits would be seen management in the longer term (SalmonChile 2009). 2. Restriction of fish movements A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 20 C hapter 2 — C ase S tudy I : T he I nfectious S almon A nemia O utbreak in C hile 3. Coordination of sea lice control These immediate measures taken by the government in 2007–08 4. Vaccination intensified biosecurity on farms, quality assurance of diagnostic 5. The use of good quality smolts laboratories, and mandatory reporting of ISA cases (detailed in 6. Reduction of farm stocking numbers (total biomass) box 2.1). 7. Better surveillance and better diagnostic capacities In addition to the fish health measures implemented by the Other measures included: industry and enforced by the government (boxes 2.2 and 2.3), ƒƒ Decreased use of lakes and transient estuary sites where several other changes were introduced by the salmon producers mixed species culture and holding increases the risk of themselves: pathogen dissemination ƒƒ A reduction in the number of fish on farms (from an average ƒƒ Proper inactivation of pathogens in dead fish of 1.2 million to approximately 800,000). This reduced the ƒƒ Freshwater-only rearing of Atlantic salmon broodstock number of cages used on a normal farm to between 18 and ƒƒ Weekly sea lice monitoring and treatment when average 20 and put a cap on rearing densities of 17 kg/m3 lowering abundance equals three adult lice per fish ƒƒ Two disinfections for eggs ƒƒ Single species at all sites BOX 2.1: Mandatory Reporting ƒƒ Biosecurity protocols for visitors and farm staff ƒƒ All sites must be fallowed in a coordinated way after a ORIGINAL MEASURES: 24-month period. One of the principal elements of the “Specific Sanitary Program of ISA Control and Surveillance” was the reporting of suspected The voluntary industry measures are audited by SalmonChile to or confirmed cases of ISA to SERNAPESCA: ensure compliance, and company CEOs meet monthly to discuss Mandatory reporting: salmon farms must report immedi- implementation. As was mentioned above, many of these mea- ately to SERNAPESCA any detection or reasonable suspicion of ISAV. The notification should be sent to notificacionisa@ser- sures have since been incorporated in government regulations, napesca.cl. Also, farms must send an epidemiological survey which apply to the entire salmon industry. plan (www.sernapesca.cl) within 48 hours after the notification. Any person that has information about a suspicion of the pres- Two months after the first case of ISA was detected the government ence of ISA or unexplainable mortalities should notify notifica- enacted a contingency plan to control ISA, and shortly afterward a cionisa@sernapesca.cl. plan to control sea lice. These plans were based on an intensive collab- Diagnostic and references laboratories: any laboratory that suspects or has diagnosed ISA in official or private moni- oration with foreign institutions and companies who had experience toring must immediately notify SERNAPESCA. The notification dealing with these diseases, and targeted preventing and control- should be sent to diagnosticoisa@sernapesca.cl. ling the spread of infectious disease. Also, SERNAPESCA increased its REGULATION IMPROVEMENT: inspection capacity by reallocating resources and meeting frequently • Independent auditing of labs and farms. with the industry. These government measures were aimed at: • Surveillance to include increased sampling of wild fish in both fresh- and seawater. 1. Reducing the spread of ISAV and sea lice between farms by identifying and eliminating cases early in the disease • Increased sanctions for individuals that violate regulations. process and preventing the introduction of the virus to uninfected sites. • Increased capacity and power of SERNAPESCA to monitoring sanitary measures and other regulations. 2. Reducing the likelihood of introducing ISAV from foreign sources. • Restriction of smoltification of Atlantic salmon in lakes and estuaries to prevent mixing of populations. 3. Early detection through increased surveillance and manda- tory removal of infected fish to prevent the spread to other • All information on ISAV test results are made available to the public. farms. R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 2 — C ase S tudy I : T he I nfectious S almon A nemia O utbreak in C hile 21 the amount of virus produced by infected farms and reduc- and Coho salmon are not as susceptible to the ISA disease ing the infectious zone around these farms. as Atlantic salmon (Rolland & Winton 2003). Mardones et ƒƒ There was a change in the species farmed from predomi- al. (2011) recently reported that within Region X, ISAV was nantly Atlantic salmon to Coho and trout. Rainbow trout reported in 4/80 (5.0 percent) trout farms, and in Region XI BOX 2.2: A Summary of the Immediate Measures Taken by the BOX 2.3: Biosecurity and Sanitary Regulations Adopted by the Government (2007–08). Chilean Authorities Implementation of an ISAV surveillance program including: • Testing of fish for List 1 and List 2* pathogens within • Site visits every 3 months to all salmonid farms and 15 days of any fish movement more frequently for farms in close proximity to any • A ban on movement of smolts from potentially virus positive farm. infected zones to zones thought to be free of infection • Mandatory testing of 30 fish from each farm, at least (all diseases) every 3 months with sampling biased toward selec- • Requirement that a designated fish health professional tion of weaker fish. be appointed for each company • Individual testing of all broodstock (screening • All-in all-out stocking, that is no mixing of separate broodstock for ISAV and disinfecting eggs was year classes. Fish stocking at a site is to be completed effective in eliminating ISAV in freshwater facilities within a 3-month period after 2008). • Mandatory fallowing between year classes • Mandatory reporting (see box 1.1). • Designation of neighborhood zones, with coordinated • Regular surveillance of wild fish in fresh and salt water. fallowing within zones Implementation of an ISAV control program that: • Minimum distance between salmonid farms of 1.5 • Establishes specific biosecurity protocols for fish har- nautical miles vest, transport, and effluent disinfection at processing plants (see box 1.3). • Minimum distance between processing plants and farms of 1.5 nautical miles • Requires all farms with ISAV to cull fish according to its • No sharing of day-to-day equipment between saltwa- prevalence. ter farms; mandatory disinfection of larger equipment • Requires all farms with ISAV to eliminate or harvest that is shared among farms their fish in a manner that contains or treats effluent liquid waste. • Regulation of net cleaning operations • No movement of fish after stocking for grow-out • Requires quarantine for ISAV positive farms and • Daily removal and proper disposal of dead fish those in close proximity to ISAV until infected fish are removed. • Regulation of fish density in cages • Requires all farms in an infected zone be placed under • Containment of liquid waste during harvest and treat- ment before disposal increased surveillance. Implementation of a sea lice surveillance and control program • Treatment of effluent water during transport for fish known to be infected with ISAV that: • Requires farmers to report sea lice levels biweekly. • Reinforcement and control of all eggs’ disinfection • Requires farmers to treat sea lice when average abun- • No importation of eggs from countries with ISAV or pancreas disease dance exceeds six adult lice per fish. • Improved sea lice management by permitting the use • Mandatory disinfection of all processing plant efflu- ents receiving fish from a quarantine area (since 2009) of three new drugs. * High-risk diseases are classified as List 1 or 2, depending upon their virulence, prevalence, distribution, and economic importance. List 1 are those high-risk dis- eases that have to be declared to OIE or those which have not been detected be- fore in the national territory or those with distribution restricted to some defined areas in the country. List 2 includes the rest of the diseases. A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 22 C hapter 2 — C ase S tudy I : T he I nfectious S almon A nemia O utbreak in C hile in 1/48 (2.1 percent) trout farms. However, because it is dif- level of herd immunity against the virulent forms of ISAV. In ficult to detect ISAV in these carrier fish species, especially all regions where ISA has occurred in the world, including in the case of trout, they may contribute to making the Norway, New Brunswick (Canada), Maine (United States), virus endemic (Rolland and Winton 2003; Kibenge et al. Scotland, and the Faroe Islands, the non-virulent strain of the 2006; Biacchesi et al. 2007; MacWilliams et al. 2007). virus has become the predominant genotype. ƒƒ There was a reduction in the number of Atlantic salmon Measures Taken with Long-Term Effect (box 2.4) farming sites from 375 in 2007 to approximately 66 in 2009. ƒƒ As a result of using fewer saltwater leases, companies could By financing the growth of most of the major salmon farming be more selective in the sites they used. The industry now companies in Chile, banks played a critical role in the industry considers site selection one of the most important factors expansion that preceded the ISA epidemic. At the heart of the for reducing the risk of infectious diseases due to proximity crisis in 2009, it was estimated that salmon farming compa- to their neighbors. Some companies are even applying risk nies and their suppliers owed the banks a cumulative total of analysis systems to define priorities in terms of the sites to US$4 billion (Murias 2009). Cumulative debt of the farming com- be stocked. panies was about half of this and individual companies were ƒƒ There was a reduction in the demand for Atlantic salmon indebted in amounts up to US$380 million. Clearly, without smolts (due to the reduced number of active saltwater sites), which reduced the demand on freshwater facilities and may access to this financing, the industry would not have been able have resulted in the elimination of poor quality fish at the to expand as it did. freshwater life stage prior to saltwater transfer. As the full impact of the ISAV epidemic became apparent early in ƒƒ The use of good quality smolts may have improved resis- tance to several pathogens. 2009, the banks had to decide whether to cut their losses by forc- ƒƒ The industry also realized that introducing larger smolts on ing companies into bankruptcy or to continue to support them saltwater sites decreased the time in salt water and the risk by renegotiating loans. Advised by a valuation model of the 10 associated with this life stage. largest indebted companies generated by Claro y Asociados, they ƒƒ Some companies eliminated ISA infected fish more quickly chose the latter course. because they had capacity in their processing plants due to the significant decrease in overall production. A key consideration in this decision was the understanding of, and ƒƒ As the demand for diagnostic tests increased, the capac- belief in, the underlying premise of salmon farming as a business: ity and quality of the private diagnostic laboratory facili- ties improved. This increased the sensitivity and speed for detecting virus. BOX 2.4: Essential Changes with Long-Term Effect In addition to actions taken by the government, industry, and • New licenses are now for 25 years and may be relocat- ed under circumstances of responsible management companies that helped to reduce the spread of ISAV between farms, there were also key characteristics of ISAV that helped the • Licenses can be terminated if there are repeated environmental issues control of this virus in the relatively short period of time. • Zoning based on biological carrying capacity require strategic fallowings to limit disease spread and ensure ƒƒ True vertical transmission of the virus through egg contents environmental quality is limited, if it exists at all, so egg disinfection and the elimi- nation of infected broodstock is likely an effective method • Improved annual environmental assessment of sedi- ments and benthos contracted by the government of preventing the spread of the pathogen from parent to but paid by the industry progeny. • SERNAPESCA strictly controls mandatory reporting of ƒƒ It is possible that the nonvirulent form of ISAV (ISAV HPR0) ISAV and other diseases which is now endemic in Chile may be providing some R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 2 — C ase S tudy I : T he I nfectious S almon A nemia O utbreak in C hile 23 ƒƒ increasing global demand for seafood, which natural fisher- Loan renegotiations were conducted with each company by one ies can no longer meet. lead bank on behalf of all lenders. In addition to changes in repay- ƒƒ the established importance of farmed salmon and trout in ment, interest, and collateral terms, lenders also required that a markets. bank observer be placed with each company to ensure financial ƒƒ excellent salmonid farming conditions in Chile. propriety and that the companies must comply with new sanitary ƒƒ that salmon farming in other countries has recovered from ISA. rules established in the Law and those developed by INTESAL. Therefore, it was likely that the Chilean salmon farming industry Not only did the banks demand acceptance of these new rules would also recover and the value of the companies and their through covenants in the revised loan terms, but together with assets would be restored. Though not without risk, loan renego- INTESAL and the government they helped to fund a monitoring tiation rather than asset seizure and bankruptcy seemed to be program to audit the salmon farmers’ compliance. This program ran the best course; and this decision has proven correct and funda- through August 2012 and endorsed the ongoing implementation mental to the industry’s recovery. For this, the banks and those of new Aquaculture Biosecurity Regulation (RESA) rules as critical who advised them deserve much credit. Their insight, patience needs of the industry (Corniola 2010). and disinclination to panic serves as a model for new aquacul- ture industries elsewhere that might one day find themselves in Finally, as the salmon farming companies’ prospects recovered early a similar position. in 2011 and it appeared that the worst of the ISA crisis had passed, there was an opportunity for companies to try to raise new capital The banks rejected the idea of any debt forgiveness and pro- through public share offerings. The money raised would allow them ceeded over a period of several months to renegotiate loans with to pay down debt and/or to finance new inventory and capital each indebted company. This is documented in news reports improvements demanded by the new RESA rules (SUBPESCA 2011: published during this time in Chilean business newspapers and Decree 349). The opportunity seemed especially good because of on the website www.FIS.com. Loan terms were extended, grace a generally positive mood in financial markets at the time together periods were granted on debt repayment, interest rates were reset with increasing prices for farmed salmon. Several salmon farming and collateral was strengthened as companies were required to companies who went to the market early in 2011 were successful. pledge more of their assets. However, later in 2011, as global financial confidence ebbed and An especially important part of the collateral negotiations was the salmon prices declined, prospects for raising new capital dimin- passing of modifications to the GLFA, which granted perpetual ished. At least one company delayed its stock market debut due to property rights to aquaculture concessions.4 Through the Banks unfavorable market conditions (A Murias, personal communication). and Financial Institution Association (ABIF), the banks urged the In addition to the immediate disease control programs the Chilean Chilean Senate in June 2009 to pass this measure as a matter of government also formed “La mesa del salmon” (the Salmon Board). urgency without which they argued “a good proportion of pro- This group, comprising several branches of government was charged ducer firms” will disappear along with supplier companies. They with further evaluation of potentially risky industry practices, and to pointed out that the passing of this measure would also serve as propose new laws and regulations to respond to these challenges. a mortgage guarantee to activate a US$450 million line of credit to which the Chilean government had pledged 60 percent in col- Also they evaluated the experience of other countries facing lateral (A Murias, personal communication). similar problems and visited and interviewed all stakeholders con- nected with the aquaculture industry to obtain their perspectives and aspirations. Universities, research groups, and nongovern- 4 These differ from operating licenses (see below), which are temporary but have been extended up to 25 years. mental organizations (NGOs) were also invited to give their views A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 24 C hapter 2 — C ase S tudy I : T he I nfectious S almon A nemia O utbreak in C hile on the proposed changes and needs for organization, research, on fish health (for example,, net cleaning, disinfection harvest and infrastructure. practices, boat traffic between farms, inter alia). As a result of the Salmon Board initiative a panel of experts was Public access to industry information established to make recommendations on scientific and technical Because it was recognized that good stewardship was an issue matters relating to industry practices. There have subsequently prior to and during the ISA crisis, the Salmon Board established been a number of modifications to the Fishery and Aquaculture a mechanism by which production and health information from Law and related regulations. Recent (2011) specific modifications farms was available to individuals in the industry and also reported to the law that directly affect disease control include: to the general public. This was done to facilitate cooperation New licensing regime between neighbors regarding disease control and prevention as well as to encourage industry transparency. New operating licenses will not be issued for an indefinite time. They are granted for specific periods of time and subject to strict compliance with environmental and labor laws. Violation of regu- 2.4  THE RECOVERY AND OUTLOOK FOR THE FUTURE lations will lead to the termination of the lease permit. Some licen- sees that are in compliance with lease requirements may relocate, Gradual Recovery along the Value Chain subject to certain conditions, which may enable a reduction of, Implementation of the new regulations and voluntary agree- and thus better coordination among, companies operating in a ments described above have clearly impacted the industry in a particular zone under new area management regimes. favorable way in the short term and have established the basis for better performance in the long term. The effects of the changes Area management regime were first apparent in seawater production in the second part of This is a system developed from the establishment of environ- 2009 when several companies started experiencing lower mor- mental zones that allows for more effective management of talities and improved growth rates. These changes have also led health and productivity within a defined area. Area management to a much improved perception of the industry among investors has permitted coordination of fallow and harvesting periods as and the banks, which in turn has meant that capital to finance well as treatments for disease and parasite infestations, improving renewed growth of the industry has been available. environmental and sanitary status. It is now generally accepted that the recovery of the Chilean salmon Improvement and control of environmental indicators industry started in 2011 and the volume of Atlantic salmon har- The government has set standards for the reduction of escapes of vested will reach its pre-outbreak level (Asche et al. 2009) sometime fish from farming systems and audits farms against these standards between 2013 and 2015 (figure 2.10). Evidence of the recovery can to ensure compliance. The government also established more rigor- be found in several performance indicators as described below. ous environmental parameters that must be measured and met to It is noteworthy that in November 2011 SalmonChile reported ensure environmental sustainability. that the distribution per species of fish stocked in seawater was Biosecurity throughout the value chain 58 percent Atlantic salmon, 24 percent Rainbow trout, and 16 percent Coho salmon, revealing the industry’s confidence in the There are numerous independent stakeholders throughout the recovery of Atlantic salmon production. salmon aquaculture value chain, and it was necessary to work with these to ensure that all practices throughout the production Improvement in fish performance has been especially good in Atlantic process are conducted in a responsible manner. The government salmon, though advances have also been observed in the other two took steps to regulate auxiliary industries that could have an effect species. Control of sea lice and ISAV and the associated decreases in R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E a 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 15-06-2006 15-08-2006 15-10-2006 15-12-2006 15-02-2007 15-04-2007 15-06-2007 15-08-2007 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 19 15-10-2007 8 15-12-2007 19 5 15-02-2008 8 c 15-04-2008 19 6 Mortalidad mensual (%) 15-06-2008 87 19 15-08-2008 8 Trucha 15-10-2008 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 19 8 15-12-2008 8 Jan 2008 15-02-2009 19 9 Feb 2008 15-04-2009 9 19 0 Mar 2008 15-06-2009 9 Apr 2008 Coho 15-08-2009 19 1 May 2008 15-10-2009 9 Coho Salar bars) (O Gárate unpublished) Jun 2008 15-12-2009 19 2 Trucha Average total number of Caligus Jul 2008 15-02-2010 9 19 3 Aug 2008 15-04-2010 9 Sep 2008 15-06-2010 Salar 19 4 Oct 2008 15-08-2010 9 Nov 2008 15-10-2010 19 5 Dec 2008 9 15-12-2010 19 6 Jan 2009 15-02-2011 9 Feb 2009 19 7 Mar 2009 9 A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 Apr 2009 19 8 Number of confirmed sites 9 b May 2009 20 9 Jun 2009 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Jul 2009 20 0 Aug 2009 0 Sep 2009 20 1 Q3 0 Species (c) over the Course of the ISA Outbreak and Recovery (Alvial 2011) Oct 2009 C hapter 2 — C ase S tudy I : T he I nfectious S almon A nemia O utbreak in C hile 20 2 Nov 2009 2007 0 Dec 2009 Q4 20 3 Jan 2010 0 Feb 2010 20 4 0 Q1 Mar 2010 20 5 Apr 2010 0 May 2010 20 6 Q2 Jun 2010 0 Jul 2010 20 7 0 2008 Aug 2010 Q3 20 8 Sep 2010 0 Oct 2010 20 9 Nov 2010 Q4 20 10 Dec 2010 1 20 1e Q1 12 e Years and quarters FIGURE 2.10: Evolution of Salmonid Production in Chile and Projections for the Recovery (red Q2 ISAV confirmed sites during each quarter 2009 Q3 Q4 Q1 FIGURE 2.11: Average Sea Lice Load per Fish (a), ISA Confirmed Sites per Quarter (b) and Monthly Mortality for the 3 Salmonid 2010 25 26 C hapter 2 — C ase S tudy I : T he I nfectious S almon A nemia O utbreak in C hile FIGURE 2.12: Accumulated Growth Rates for Atlantic Salmon Groups Harvested in 2008–10, Expressed as SGR (a) and GF3 (b) (Alvial 2011) SGR accumulated GF3 accumulated 0.7 3 0.65 2 0.6 1 0.55 0 2008 2009 2010 2008 2009 2010 FIGURE 2.13: Productivity in Terms of Kilograms Harvested per Smolt Stocked (a) and Average Harvest Weight (b) of Atlantic Salmon, Pre- and Post-ISA crisis (Alvial 2011) Productivity (Kg. harvest/Smolt transferred) Average harvest weight (grams) 5.5 5.0 Coho s. 4.5 Atl.s. 5.0 5.222 R.trout 4.0 4.5 3.5 3.0 4.0 2.5 3.5 3.603 2.0 3.0 1.5 Peak of 2.662 1.0 2.5 ISA outbreak 0.5 2.0 0.0 ar 08 8 l 2 08 N 20 8 Ja 20 8 M 20 8 ar 09 9 Se l 20 9 N 20 9 Ja 20 9 M 20 9 ar 10 0 l 2 10 N 20 0 20 0 10 ay 0 p 0 ov 0 n 0 ay 0 Ju 200 p 0 ov 0 n 0 ay 1 p 1 ov 1 M 20 M 20 Ju 20 Se 0 M 20 M 20 Ju 20 Se 0 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 n Ja a b mortality are shown in figure 2.11. Improved growth for groups har- Antibiotic use indicates problems with bacterial pathogens. The vested between 2008 to 2010 is shown in figure 2.12, which led to an major bacterial pathogens for the Chilean salmon industry are increase in the kilograms produced per smolt stocked (figure 2.13a), Piscirickettsia salmonis (SRS), Aeromonas salmonicida (furuncu- and increased average weight of fish harvested (figure 2.13b). These losis), Vibrio anguillarum (vibriosis), and Streptococcus phocae indicators of farm performance have now surpassed pre-ISA levels, (streptococcosis). Another good indicator of better biosecurity suggesting better management throughout the production cycle. In performance is the observed reduction in the use of antibiotics on turn, this better performance has led to an increase in Atlantic salmon Chilean salmon farms. A number of companies have completely smolts stocked as shown in figure 2.14. excluded antibiotics on all or part or their operations. R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 2 — C ase S tudy I : T he I nfectious S almon A nemia O utbreak in C hile 27 FIGURE 2.14: Atlantic Salmon Smolt Transfer into Seawater include good water quality reflected in levels of dissolved oxy- per Month (a) and Number of Fish in Seawater (b), Pre- and gen at or near saturation, and healthy benthic conditions (that Post-Crisis (Alvial 2011) is, toxic conditions in the first 2 or 3 cm, normal biodiversity and Smolt transfer reactivation (million) low hydrogen sulphide levels). These parameters are monitored 15 13.2 by government according to the clauses established in the 10.1 Environmental Regulation for Aquaculture (RAMA), which was 10 modified in 2010 to include new regulations that strengthened 4.8 the evaluation of benthic sediments under farm concessions. 5 3.5 Further, all environmental monitoring now must be conducted by 0.5 0 an independent entity approved and contracted by the authority. 08 08 08 09 09 09 10 10 10 Farms are required to meet the minimum standards, otherwise 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 n ay p n ay p n ay p Ja Se Ja Se Ja Se sanctions are imposed. M M M a Number of Atlantic Salmon in sea water (million) The limits on pen density and enforced fallowing will result in a 20 reduction in waste buildup in the environment, but with these new laws will come likely changes in the industry structure with 15 13.2 companies that can absorb the cost of the new regulations doing 10 7.2 better than those that cannot. Companies with more concessions 5 0.7 (operating licenses) are also likely to have opportunities created by wider geographical diversification, while smaller companies 0 may find themselves restricted by new neighborhood rules and r2 8 l2 8 O 008 n 8 Ap 009 Ju 09 O 009 n 9 Ap 010 Ju 10 O 010 n 0 11 0 00 Ja 00 Ja 00 Ja 01 20 0 0 20 2 2 r2 l2 2 2 r2 l2 2 may need to merge or exchange licenses. n ct ct ct Ju Ap Ja b Optimism within the salmon industry is high, with recovery under the new regulatory regime predicted within the next few years (Asche et al. 2009). In addition, the sustainable production level Though no generic industry data is available presently, these with better biosecurity is expected to approach 700,000 tons. Any performance improvements are also likely to have led to lower production beyond this will require expanding the geographic production costs, especially lower feed costs due to better food farming area, most probably into Region XII. conversion rates. Some companies have estimated cost savings up to 30 percent. In turn, this means less waste production per kg The numbers of operating salmonid farms in October 2011 of fish produced resulting in better environmental performance. was 390 (Ansoleaga 2011) with over 1,041 operating licenses Of course, these cost savings have been achieved as a result of (SERNAPESCA 2009). Consolidation of licenses, allowed by the stricter biosecurity measures, which increased other costs, esti- new regulations, will favor sustainability of the industry as it will mates ranging between 20 to 25 percent. Whether or not cost allow better environmental management. Relocation of sites savings due to better fish performance offset this increase remains from Region X to Regions XI and XII will also enable a better to be documented and it would helpful to both industry and gov- balance in the use of Chile’s coastal zone. At present, the gov- ernment if this were done. ernment is supporting studies to establish the dominant hydro- dynamic characteristics of the regions on the basis of which it Outlook for Production can then estimate carrying capacity of proposed salmon sea The environmental indicators used to assess whether an aquacul- farming zones. There is general agreement that precautionary ture farm is operating within the biological capacity of its location measures should be applied until sufficient information on the A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 28 C hapter 2 — C ase S tudy I : T he I nfectious S almon A nemia O utbreak in C hile carrying capacity and dynamics of the areas is available, though The industry recovery described above stimulated a gradual reac- smaller companies are less receptive than larger ones in regard tivation of the industry starting in the second half of 2009. First, to limiting biomass. freshwater facilities had to begin producing smolts to be stocked in the sea given the better sanitary/environmental conditions. The much improved fish performance, as well as notable mar- Then, starting in 2010 additional people were required for reac- ket strength early in 2011, has encouraged visions of expan- tivated seawater operations continuing through 2011 with partial sion beyond precrisis levels. Ambitions go as high as 1.5 million or total reopening of the processing plants. tons (Eposito 2011) with annual sales of US$5 billion per year. If that happens, it will mark a new chapter in the development of Consequently, unemployment rates have come down (figure salmon farming in Chile and it will call for care and discipline by all 2.15) while the Economic Activity Index of Regions X and XI has involved if the industry is not to expose itself to the risk of another rebounded (figure 2.16). This steady growth in employment has, disease epidemic. once again, positioned these regions among those with the low- est unemployment in Chile and reemphasized the vital impor- tance of salmon farming to these regional economies. Regional Social and Economic Impacts A government program to improve port facilities and roads for The ISA crisis highlighted the strong dependency of the econo- the industry’s long-term development also created more jobs, mies of Regions X and XI on the salmon farming industry. The particularly in the Chiloé zone. The government has established first impacts were seen at the seawater farms where a reduction the National Promotion and Innovation Agency (CORFO), a sub- of workers was necessary due to the closure of many farms that sidiary plan to cofinance initiatives to improve the environmental/ focused too heavily on Atlantic salmon. This was followed by the sanitary situation of the industry through innovation. reduction or closure of several hatcheries. However, in terms of laid-off workers the most significant impact occurred in the mid- Also, a number of foreign service providers have established dle of 2008 when several processing plants, which were labor in the south of the country in response to better opportuni- intensive, had to lay off their people. ties for research, technology, and equipment related to the FIGURE 2.15: Unemployment Rates in the Capitals of the Xth Region (Puerto Montt) and XIth Region (Puerto Aysén) (Instituto Nacional d’Estadísticas 2011) Unemployment rate 2006−11 14 Puerto Montt 12 Puerto Aysen 10 8 6 4 2 0 D No 06 M Feb 006 Ju Ma 007 p– 2 7 D No 07 M Feb 007 Ju Ma 008 p– 2 8 D No 08 ar eb 2 8 Ju Ma 009 p– 2 9 D No 09 ar eb 2 9 Ju Ma 010 p– 2 0 D No 10 M Feb 010 ay 11 11 Se Aug 00 Se Aug 00 0 Se Aug 00 0 Se Aug 01 0 0 0 –F 20 0 –F 20 0 –M 20 20 p– 2 – 2 2 2 – 2 2 2 2 2 – 2 Se Aug ec v n– y ec v n– y ec v n– y ec v n– y ec v – – – – – n ar ar ar Ju M M R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 2 — C ase S tudy I : T he I nfectious S almon A nemia O utbreak in C hile 29 FIGURE 2.16: Economic Activity Index Reflecting the ISA Impact on Regions X and XI in 2010 (Instituto Nacional d’Estadísticas 2011) Regional impacts Economic activity relative Regional economic activity to the same trimester the previous year 20 150 15 140 Economic activity index Base 2003 = 100 Los lagos region 10 130 Percent 5 120 0 110 –5 100 –10 90 Jan–Mar Apr–Jun Jul–Sep Oct–Dec Jan–Mar Economic activity relative Regional economic activity 2010 2011 to the same trimester the previous year 20 150 15 10 140 Base 2003 = 100 Economic activity index 5 Aysen region 0 130 Percent –5 –10 120 –15 110 –20 –25 100 –30 –35 90 Jan–Mar Apr–Jun Jul–Sep Oct–Dec Jan–Mar 2010 2011 implementation of the new biosecurity rules. Additionally, several 3. Salmon farms are mostly corporately owned and profes- of the professionals laidoff from the producer companies due to sionally managed. Though overly aggressive farm expan- sion from 2000 to 2007 likely contributed to the ISA crisis, the crisis have created their own companies selling environmen- the industry’s response, once the problem was recognized, tal/sanitary compliance systems focusing not just on the salmon was disciplined and professional. Members of SalmonChile, industry, but also on other aquaculture ventures in Chile and other especially, showed themselves willing to learn from mis- countries, particularly Brazil, Peru, Ecuador, and Central America. takes and to take the tough actions needed to bring things back under control. 4. The Chilean banks and financial community understand 2.5  SUSTAINABILITY OF THE NEW CHILEAN and believe in Chile’s strengths as a salmon farming coun- SALMON INDUSTRY try, as illustrated by their supportive role during the crisis and the success of some public share offerings since. Key Elements for a Better Future Challenges on the Horizon The Chilean salmon farming industry has recovered quickly and The question now is: will this impressive response from all the key well from the ISA crisis and there are reasons to have an optimistic players in the midst of a crisis be sustained to ensure the indus- view about its future. They include: try’s long-term growth and viability? Some outstanding issues are 1. The importance of salmon farming to the Chilean econo- going to be hard to resolve. For example: my, which means that government is especially responsive to its needs in a way that was not always the case when the 1. The use of lakes and estuaries for producing smolts, espe- industry was smaller, or is the case in other countries where cially of Coho salmon and trout. Can this be done in a way the industry is not such an important economic sector. that maintains adequate biosecurity? 2. The intense efforts of SUBPESCA and SERNAPESCA during 2. Definition and redrawing of production zones so that they and since the crisis are evidence of this renewed interest, are hydrographically accurate. as also is the Ministry of Economy’s plan to establish a new 3. Definition of zone carrying capacity and clear guidance on Undersecretariat of Aquaculture later in 2011, or early in how space should be allocated among concession owners. 2012, with the goal of growing the industry to US$5 billion 4. Reconciliation of the requirements for synchronized in sales by 2020. production and fallowing in zones that do not fit well with A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 30 C hapter 2 — C ase S tudy I : T he I nfectious S almon A nemia O utbreak in C hile the production cycle of one or more of the three different the changes in the 2011 Fisheries and Aquaculture Law, has been culture species, or that make it difficult for smaller compa- reconstituted and now includes a subcommittee that will develop nies to maintain continuous production. recommendations on: 5. Simplification of the ownership of concessions within zones to make it easier to manage them on a single-year ƒƒ Industry governance—including information management, class production cycle. enforcement, transparency, timely communication, and 6. Creation of new approved aquaculture areas to allow coordination within government, especially relating to industry expansion while also accommodating the needs diagnostic and surveillance work. of existing users of the space. ƒƒ Production mode—setting goals and controls for future production, trying to answer the question: how much These are all matters the resolution of which, ultimately, requires salmon can Chile produce without risking another crisis? government policy, decision making and enforcement, though ƒƒ Zoning—dealing with all the issues relating to accurate government recognizes that satisfactory outcomes are only likely definition and use of production zones, including relocation if the industry, researchers, and other private sector participants of concessions where necessary and the setting of limits on work together. These types of collaborations have been highly production. successful in the response to the ISA crisis, and mechanisms are ƒƒ Research and development—identify research priorities, how now in place to allow such dialogue to continue. For example, in work on them should be funded, and how this should be March 2011, SUBPESCA appointed the Panel of Experts to: coordinated between industry, universities, and research centers. Examples include improving the efficacy of vaccines Prepare the Health Regulations for Aquaculture. and compliance with food safety and other standards in foreign markets. ƒƒ Analyze the potential for creating ‘macrozones’. ƒƒ Infrastructure—recommend improvements to facilitate ƒƒ Review methods for the smoltification of salmon and trout. farming in remote areas and to reduce biosecurity risks from ƒƒ Complement the technical and health vision of the Ministry infrastructure that is shared between zones. of Economy, while looking at the economic and social ef- fects of the measures proposed. The effective public-private dialogue that was established in the heat of the crisis is thus set to continue and suggests that This panel’s work has already resulted in the publication of pro- the more difficult longer term issues will be resolved. If there is posed modifications to the sanitary regulations in August 2011 and reason for concern, it is the challenge that government and its recommendations on smoltification at the end of September 2011. private sector collaborators will face in crafting and implement- In addition, the Salmon Board, which was originally established to ing new policy quickly enough to keep pace with the industry’s bring government and the private sector together to formulate renewed enthusiasm. R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 2 — C ase S tudy I : T he I nfectious S almon A nemia O utbreak in C hile 31 Understandably, Chilean salmon farming companies want to take achieve environmental and economic sustainability and to reduce advantage of the much improved performance they are now see- the risk of another disease crisis, the industry will need discipline to ing in their fish and to recapture markets lost in the depths of the abide by the new regulations. To facilitate this, the industry must crisis. They are eager to increase production once more. But invest- build a stronger relationship with its workers and the communities ment decisions to stock more smolts or to restock idle farms can within which it operates, so there is a local sense of ownership of be made more quickly than new policies can be developed and their product. implemented. As the public-private dialogue continues it must seek There are other challenges too. According to the former presi- to find a balance that will ensure that growth is sustainable. dent of SalmonChile, César Barros, the challenges facing the new Chilean salmon industry in the near term (2011–15) include: Industry’s Responsibilities As noted above, it is generally believed that sustainable produc- a. maintaining and preserving sustainable growth, tion of farmed salmon for Chile is around 700,000 tons, based on b. establishing a new and improved reputation for care and responsibility in environmental, employment and political the present number of licenses and fallowing periods. Monitoring matters, and environmental, health, and production indicators will determine c. recovering the market lost due to the ISA crisis. whether this is indeed the biological capacity of the system. To A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 C hapter 3 — C ase study I I : T he S hrimp A cute H epatopancreatic N ecrosis S y ndrome O utbreak in V ietnam 33 CHAPTER 3 CASE STUDY II: THE SHRIMP ACUTE HEPATOPANCREATIC NECROSIS SYNDROME OUTBREAK IN VIETNAM GEORGE C. CHAMBERLAIN  DONALD V. LIGHTNER  LE VAN KHOA  NGUYEN VAN HAO HOANG TUNG  TRAN HUU LOC  MELBA REANTASO OUTLINE 3.1 Background������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 34 History of Shrimp Farming in Vietnam. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 The Vietnamese Shrimp Farming Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Industry Associations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Vietnamese Government Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Principal Shrimp Health Issues Prior to EMS/AHPNS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.2  Description of EMS/AHPNS������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 37 3.3  The EMS/AHPNS Crisis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 First Reports of EMS/AHPNS in Vietnam. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Impact of EMS/AHPNS on Vietnamese Shrimp Farms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Impact of EMS/AHPNS on the Shrimp Value Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3.4  Discovering the Cause������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 40 3.5  Measures Taken in Response to the EMS/AHPNS Crisis������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 41 Initial Response. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Experimental and Therapeutic Use of Antibiotics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Use of Probiotics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Changes in Farming Methods and Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 3.6  Recovery and Planning for Improved Biosecurity ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 43 Measures to Remedy the Situation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 3.7  Summary and Conclusions������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 44 A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 34 C hapter 3 — C ase study I I : T he S hrimp A cute H epatopancreatic N ecrosis S y ndrome O utbreak in V ietnam 3.1  BACKGROUND required no feeding, and the shrimp, crabs, and fish could be har- Southeast Asia constitutes the largest and most productive shrimp vested and marketed locally. farming region in the world. Beginning in about 2009, a new, About 30 years ago, the first shrimp hatcheries were opened. These emerging disease called “Early Mortality Syndrome or EMS” (more produced postlarvae (PL) from wild caught broodstock, which in descriptively called acute hepatopancreatic necrosis syndrome Vietnam was mostly the Black Tiger Shrimp, Penaeus monodon. This or AHPNS) (Lightner 2012) began to cause significant production step led to the development of semi-intensive culture systems in losses in southern China. By 2010 the range of affected farms in the country. In the past decade, further advances in culture systems China had expanded, and by 2011 EMS was confirmed in Vietnam, were developed and many shrimp farming companies incorporated Thailand, and Malaysia (Flegel 2012; Leaño and Mohan 2012). EMS intensive culture systems into their farming schemes. has caused serious losses in the areas affected by the disease, and it has also caused secondary impacts on employment, social welfare, The introduction of specific pathogen-free (SPF) lines of the Pacific and international market presence. White Shrimp, Penaeus vannamei began in the past 4–5 years, and this species is primarily used in intensive culture systems. History of Shrimp Farming in Vietnam Shrimp farming in Vietnam began nearly 50 years ago when farmers The Vietnamese Shrimp Farming Industry found that in low-lying coastal areas, they could flood levied areas at The European Union SEAT Project (http://seatglobal.eu/) estimated high tide and trap postlarval and juvenile stages of penaeid shrimp, that in 2012 about 660,000 ha of ponds are being used for shrimp different crabs and several fish species. Such extensive systems farming in Vietnam, 90 percent of this in the Mekong Delta (figure FIGURE 3.1: Principal Shrimp Growing Areas in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam 102°E 104°E 106°E 108°E 110°E 104°E 105°E 106°E FEBRUARY 2014, IBRD 40787 CHINA 11°N CAMBOD IA 11°N 22°N 22°N T.P. HO HANOI CHI MINH VIETNAM DONG THAP LONG AN 20°N 20°N AN GIANG LAO Gulf TIEN GIANG PE OP LE 'S of DE M. RE P. Ton kin 18°N 18°N Gulf CAN THO VINH LONG BEN TRE 10°N of 10°N T HAI LAND Thailand KIEN GIANG 104°E 16°N 16°N HAU HAU GIANG GIANG TRA VINH VIETNAM SHRIMP PRODUCTION SOC TRANG 14°N ta el 14°N SHRIMP PRODUCTION (TONS) D BAC LIEU ng C AMBODIA 1,000 - 10,000 ko 10,000 - 50,000 Me CA MAU 12°N 12°N 50,000 - 100,000 GREATER THAN 9°N 0 50 100 Miles 9°N Area of main map 100,000 0 50 100 Kilometers Gu lf 10°N NATIONAL CAPITAL 10°N of This map was produced by the Map Design Unit of The World Bank. PROVINCE BOUNDARIES The boundaries, colors, denominations and any other information shown on this map do not imply, on the part of The World Bank T hailand GSDPM Group, any judgment on the legal status of any territory, or any INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES Map Design Unit endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. 104°E 106°E 108°E 105°E 106°E R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 3 — C ase study I I : T he S hrimp A cute H epatopancreatic N ecrosis S y ndrome O utbreak in V ietnam 35 FIGURE 3.2: Extensive (left) and Semi-intensive (right) Shrimp Farming in Southern Vietnam. Extensive Farms Rely on Water Exchange with the Irrigation System to Maintain Water Quality, but Permitting the Entry and Exit of Diseases. The Use of Aeration Permits Intensive Farmers to Increase Stocking Densities While Isolating the Ponds from the Adjacent Canals (Photos: RE Brummett) 3.1). Three general types of shrimp farms are listed for Vietnam. Shrimp farms in Vietnam generally consist of multiple ponds located Extensive farms typically use simple technologies, have relatively adjacent to a water source which in the Mekong Delta area is usually low production rates per crop, and may use little or no supplemen- a canal (figure 3.3). tal feeding during production (figure 3.2). Stocking rate on exten- A key feature of the Mekong Delta where most of the Vietnamese sive farms is between 3–6 PL/m2, and harvests vary from 250–700 shrimp industry is based is the dense system of irrigation canals kg/ha. Approximately 90 percent of the shrimp farming area in the that fill and drain the ponds. Initiated by the French colonial admin- Mekong Delta is of extensive ponds, which accounts for some 62 istration for transportation, these have evolved into a massive net- percent of total production. work that effectively connects all the farms to a single common Semi-intensive farms require more management than do extensive water resource. This connectedness, whereby the water source farms, with daily feeding and water management for maintaining dissolved oxygen and phytoplankton blooms at optimum levels. Typically, semi-intensive ponds do not have supplemental aera- FIGURE 3.3: Vietnamese Ponds Often Use the Same Canals for tion, stock at 10–15 PL/m2, and harvest 1.0–2.0 tons/ha. This system Intake and Discharge of Water. This Facilitates the Transmission of Disease among Farms (Photo: D Duggar) accounts for 2 percent of culture area and is responsible for 4 per- cent of production. The third type of shrimp farm management is done with the use of intensive shrimp culture technology. Such ponds are generally smaller than extensive or semi-intensive ponds, are fed multiple times per day, average about 0.5 ha in surface area, and have from 2 to 6 or more horsepower of mechanical aeration per pond. Intensive systems stock 20–40 PL/m2 and harvest 2.5–6 tons/ha. This system occupies 8 percent of the total culture area but accounts for 34 per- cent of total production. Most intensive production is in Soc Trang and Bac Lieu provinces. A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 36 C hapter 3 — C ase study I I : T he S hrimp A cute H epatopancreatic N ecrosis S y ndrome O utbreak in V ietnam and discharge are from and into the same canals that serve all the pilot model in Cai Ga hamlet, Hiep My Dong commune, Cau Ngang other farmers, facilitates the spread of disease, especially in areas district. Initially, the club included 10 members with the shrimp with a high density of extensive and semi-intensive shrimp farms farming area of almost 10 ha. Members of the club were given such as Ca Mau. These farms are more dependent upon flowing technical support in pond cleaning, frying selection, managing canal water through their ponds to maintain oxygen levels than of shrimp health, and disease prevention for shrimp, which led to intensive, aerated farms. greater profitability. By the end of 2008, Tra Vinh developed seven clubs with 7–10 Industry Associations members per club. Continuing success inspired the Agriculture A variety of unions, associations, and clubs support the develop- and Fishery Extension Center in Tra Vinh province to set up 10 ment of the fisheries/aquaculture sector. These include the Labour shrimp farming clubs with the participation of 90 members, Union of Vietnam’s Fisheries Sector, Vietnam’s Fisheries Association, mainly in two districts (Hiep My Dong and Hiep My Nam) and and the Vietnam Association of Seafood Exporters and Producers sent experts to the localities to transfer technology in shrimp (VASEP). VASEP is a nongovernmental organization, based on the breeding. Experts gave members of the clubs instructions and principles of volunteerism, autonomy, and equality. VASEP mem- guides on timing of shrimp stocking, seed selection, water bers include leading Vietnamese seafood producers and exporters management, pond management, and wastewater treatment. and companies providing service to the seafood sector. The asso- Members of clubs typically generate 20–25 percent higher ciation was established in 1998 to coordinate and link enterprises profits than nonmembers through assistance from experts, shar- and operations, based on mutual supports to improve value, qual- ing of information among members, and cost sharing on such ity, and competitive capacity of Vietnamese seafood, enhance cre- expenses as disease testing of shrimp seed. ating raw material for seafood export, and represent and protect Despite these mostly local efforts to organize the shrimp farm- legal interests of members. ing subsector, the vast number of shrimp farmers in the Mekong The My Thanh Shrimp Farmers Association (MTSFA) is an example Delata, an estimated 243,000 (F Murray, Stirling University, personal of a regional industry association in Vietnam. MTSFA is respon- communication), makes any kind of collective action extremely dif- sible for collecting, updating, and providing information on ficult. Compounded by confusion over the cause of the EMS, the shrimp crop, harvesting time, quality, output, and shrimp counts producers’ associations were more or less helpless in guiding their in Soc Trang province and neighboring provinces, introducing membership to avoid the disease. modern technologies in shrimp farming, informing members of food safety and hygiene standards as well as management Vietnamese Government Structures regulations, providing market information, and maintaining a Vietnam’s governing law for fisheries has been adjusted in recent list of compliant and noncompliant shrimp farming households. years and was reissued in 2004 by the president (FAO 2005). The MTSFA also collaborates with VASEP to promote the safety and fisheries law consists of 10 chapters and 62 articles; these chapters quality of Vietnam shrimp. In a meeting that the expert team had incorporate: general regulations; protection and development of with the MTSFA on July 31, 2013 there were approximately 20 aquatic resources; capture fisheries; aquaculture regulations; regula- shrimp farmers present. tions for fishing boat and fisheries services; regulations on process- At the local level, shrimp farming clubs have been established ing, trading, export, and import of aquatic products; regulations in various provinces to help improve linkage and cooperation on international cooperation for fisheries operations; regulations among farmers. The first shrimp farming club began in 2008, on governmental administration of fisheries; and regulations on when the Agriculture and Fishery Extension Center (under Tra Vinh rewards and sanctions as well as regulations on clauses for imple- Department of Agriculture and Rural Development) developed a mentation. There are also a number of decrees, decisions, and so R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 3 — C ase study I I : T he S hrimp A cute H epatopancreatic N ecrosis S y ndrome O utbreak in V ietnam 37 forth issued at government and ministerial levels on specific tasks results from commercially available kits. However, to date the pres- to support the management of the fisheries sector. ence of IMN in Vietnam has not been confirmed by a qualified labora- tory outside of Vietnam (Flegel 2012; Senapin et al. 2011). Hence while The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD) is the IMN remains suspect in Vietnam, its presence remains unconfirmed governmental agency responsible for management of agriculture, using the OIE-approved methods of reverse transcriptase polymerase forestry, salt production, fishery, irrigation/water services, and rural chain reaction (RT-PCR) and/or histopathology as given in the OIE development nationwide. Among the Ministries and Departments Diagnostic Manual for Aquatic Animal Diseases (OIE 2009b). within MARD are the Directorate of Fisheries (DOF) and the Department of Animal Health (DAH). There are three administrative A few minor diseases have also been found in cultured popula- levels within the fisheries sector including the central (national), pro- tions of shrimp in Vietnam, but these are not widespread, nor vincial, and district levels. The institutional organization of the fisheries have they had major adverse effects on the Vietnamese shrimp sector includes divisions and specialized institutions and associations. farming sector. Specialized institutions support DOF with regard to research and development. These are the Research Institute for Marine Fisheries, 3.2  DESCRIPTION OF EMS/AHPNS the Institute for Fisheries Economics and Planning, the Research Heavy mortalities during the early stages of a shrimp crop are not Institute for Aquaculture No. 1 (based in Bac Lieu near Hanoi); the unusual and there is a variety of management- and pathogen- Research Institute for Aquaculture No. 2 (based in Ho Chi Minh City related factors that can cause such losses, which are often described [HCMC]), the Research Institute for Aquaculture No. 3 (located in Nha by the catchall term “early mortality syndrome.” Trang City in Khanh Hoa province in south-central Vietnam) and the National Fisheries Extension and Information Center. However, in 2009 a new and distinctive pattern of mortalities began to be noticed, affecting both P. vannamei and P. monodon. The syn- DAH is comprised of seven regional animal health offices and 63 drome involves mass mortalities of up to 100 percent during the provincial laboratories. The main laboratory, the National Center first 20–30 days after stocking. Affected shrimp consistently show for Veterinary Diagnostics, is located in Hanoi. DAH6 in particular is an abnormal hepatopancreas, which may be shrunken, swollen, or located in HCMC and is a modern, well-equipped and well-staffed discolored; loose shells; corkscrew swimming; pale coloration; and laboratory. As a first step in planning to further upgrade these ser- slow growth. vices, a World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) Review of the Performance of Veterinary Services has been conducted, but the An Emergency Regional Consultation on EMS/AHPNS of Shrimp results have not yet been made public. organized by the Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia and the Pacific (NACA) and the Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Principal Shrimp Health Issues Prior to EMS/AHPNS Forestry of Australia (DAFF) in August 2012 recommended the fol- Prior to the emergence of EMS/AHPNS in Vietnam in 2009 or 2010, lowing case definition: the country’s shrimp farming industry was adversely affected by Acute progressive degeneration of the hepatopancreas from medial several significant diseases of P. monodon and later of P. vannamei. to distal with dysfunction of B, F, R and E cells, prominent karyomegaly The most important of these are infectious hypodermal and haema- and necrosis and sloughing of these tubule epithelial cells. The termi- topoetic necrosis (IHHN) virus, taura syndrome virus (TSV), vibriosis, nal stage shows marked inter- and intratubular hemocytic inflamma- monodon-type baculovirus or spherical baculovirosis (OIE 2009a) tion and development of secondary bacterial infections that occur in and white spot disease (WSD) caused by white spot syndrome virus association with necrotic and sloughed hepatopancreas (HP) tubule (WSSV), an OIE-listed pathogen (OIE 2012). cells. Sometimes common in the terminal phase are melanized HP Infectious myonecrosis disease (caused by IMNV) has been suspected tubules with the lumens of the affected tubules containing masses of in Vietnamese shrimp farms for the past 3 to 4 years, according to test sloughed HP epithelial cells and masses of bacteria. A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 38 C hapter 3 — C ase study I I : T he S hrimp A cute H epatopancreatic N ecrosis S y ndrome O utbreak in V ietnam At the pond level, the following clinical signs can be used for pre- show soft shells and empty guts; and such affected shrimp do not sumptive diagnosis which can be further confirmed by histopathol- float and typically may be found on the pond bottom. ogy at the animal level by using the above case definition: EMS that caused by a bacterial agent that is transmitted orally, ƒƒ Often pale to white within HP connective tissue capsule. colonizes the shrimp gastrointestinal tract and produces a toxin that ƒƒ Significant atrophy of HP. causes tissue destruction and dysfunction of the shrimp digestive ƒƒ Often soft shells and partially full to empty guts. organ known as the hepatopancreas. Through a concerted interna- ƒƒ Black spots or streaks within the HP sometimes visible. tional effort, the EMS/AHPNS pathogen has been tentatively iden- ƒƒ HP does not squash easily between thumb and finger. tified as a unique strain of a relatively common bacterium, Vibrio ƒƒ Onset of clinical signs and mortality starting as early as 10 parahaemolyticus, which seems to be infected with a phage, a virus- days’ post stocking like particle that inserts itself into and modifies normally harmless ƒƒ Moribund shrimp sink to bottom. vibrio DNA to produce highly toxic gene products that kill young The gross signs of AHPNS (figure 3.4) are evident by simple pond- shrimp. It seems to be harmless to humans. side examination of affected shrimp accompanied by a simple dis- section and examination of the hepatopancreas. These signs may 3.3  THE EMS/AHPNS CRISIS become apparent as early as 10 days post stocking of a recently pre- EMS/AHPNS adversely affects shrimp during the first 30 days post pared pond. Shrimp with AHPNS will show a pale to white HP due stocking. Hence, the disease has also been called “30 day mortality to pigment loss in the HP connective tissue capsule and a loss of syndrome.” At affected farms, the disease may become apparent in pigment storage in the R-cells of the HP; atrophy of the HP that may as little as 7 to 10 days’ poststocking or as much as 1 to 3 months later. reduce the expected size of the organ by 50 percent or more; black However, the most typical presentation of EMS/AHPNS is between streaks or spots in the HP (that represent melanized HP tubules [see 7 to 10 days’ poststocking to as long as 45 to 60 days’ post stocking. next section]; the HP may not squash as easily as a normal HP when The disease is spread when infected farms harvest the shrimps and rubbed between the thumb and forefinger; affected shrimp may discharge wastewater into the surrounding environment. FIGURE 3.4: Healthy (left) and EMS-Infected (right) Shrimp. First Reports of EMS/AHPNS in Vietnam In Healthy Shrimp Note the Full Stomach, Full Mid-Gut, and The first reports of EMS/AHPNS were released in April 2011 in Large, Dark Hepatopancreas. In the EMS Shrimp, Not Empty Gut and Stomach, and Shriveled, Pale Hepatopancreas. response to losses in Soc Trang and Bac Lieu provinces in the (Photo: DV Lightner) Mekong Delta region of Vietnam. An epidemiological survey of the entire country found that the disease had been present at least 1 year earlier in May of 2010 in Soc Trang province. Confirming this observation was a diagnostic case submitted to the University of Arizona Aquaculture Pathology Laboratory (UAZ-APL). In 2010, UAZ- APL received samples with the disease from the Lieu Tu commune, Tran De district of Soc Trang province. Shrimp producers in this area of Soc Trang province reported that, according to gross signs pre- sented by affected shrimp, the disease was present in 2009. By 2012, the disease was widespread in Vietnam, especially in the Mekong Delta, and was reported in shrimp farming areas of south- central and northern Vietnam. According to the My Tranh Shrimp R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 3 — C ase study I I : T he S hrimp A cute H epatopancreatic N ecrosis S y ndrome O utbreak in V ietnam 39 Farmers Association (MTSFA), 70 to 90 percent of farms were was expected to be about 300,000 metric tons (GAA unpublished). affected and losses were estimated at 20–80 percent of the crop (50 Assuming an average farm-gate value of US$5/kg, income/produc- percent on average). tion losses were approximately US$800–900 million in each of 2011 and 2012, not including impacts at the processing and export level. Reported losses due to EMS/AHPNS in 2010 were estimated by Officials at the World Bank Office in Hanoi estimated that 31,000 NACA and DAH to be 87,113 tons valued at US$484 million; in 2011 to 32,000 ha were affected by EMS/AHPNS in 2011. The number of the losses were estimated at 285,000 tons and valued at US$1.6 bil- affected hectares grew to 38,000 ha by mid-2012. lion; by mid-2012 losses were estimated at 201,000 tons and valued at US$1.05 billion. Five provinces were affected by EMS/AHPNS in Major losses were noted in the first stocking/crop (from February to 2010 and included: Soc Trang, Bac Lieu, Ben Tre, Bac Lieu, and Ca May) with more than 50 percent of the farms in the Mekong Delta Mau provinces; in 2011, 10 provinces were affected including: TT region affected. In the second stocking/crop (June to October), the Hue, Quang Nam, Binh Dinh, Ninh Thuan, Soc Trang, Tien Giang, situation was somewhat improved with some farmers producing Kien Giang, Tra Vinh, Bac Lieu, and Ca Mau provinces, of which four some harvestable production. The large farms in the western part reported to FAO (2013) lost production (in terms of hectarage) of: of South Vietnam were largely unaffected by the disease in 2011. In 2012, the situation had not improved, and by the end of June, ƒƒ Tra Vinh Province (6,200 ha in 2011) about US$100 million in lost production was estimated. In Tra Vinh ƒƒ Soc Trang Province (20,000 ha in 2011) in 2012 losses were also significant, particularly for P. monodon. ƒƒ Ca Mau Province (15,000 ha in 2010–11) ƒƒ Bac Lieu Province (11,000 ha in 2011). Infected areas were restocked but EMS continued to thrive. At the moment it is estimated about 20 percent (11,000 ha) of the culture By mid-2012 the disease had spread into 19 provinces including: area was infected. Higher mortality has been observed in areas Ninh Binh, Thanh Hoa, Nghe An, Ha Tinh, Quang Binh, Quang Tri, with high salinity or using intensive models. Economic loss is circa TT Hue, Quang Ngai, Binh Dinh, Phu Yen, Ninh Thuan, Binh Thuan, US$95 million, making life difficult for local people and having a Tien Giang, HCMc, Ben Tre, Tra Vinh, Soc Trang, Bac Lieu, and Ca Mau significant impact on the global shrimp supply (figure 3.5). provinces. Personnel at Research Institute for Aquaculture No. 3 Typical percentages of mortality in ponds with the disease are (RIA3) reported that Khanh Hoa province in southcentral Vietnam reported to range from 40 to 100 percent, regardless of the pond was also affected by EMS/AHPNS. The widespread nature of EMS/ type and management style. Another estimate for August 2012 for AHPNS in Vietnam, 52,000 ha, is consistent with the confirmed some affected farms in Ba Ria Vung Tau typical mortalities due to presence of EMS/AHPNS in adjacent regions of China, Malaysia, and EMS/AHPNS were 70–80 percent. Lined ponds and unlined ponds southeastern Thailand (NACA 2012). were equally affected in the affected farming areas, and both semi- Impact of EMS/AHPNS on Vietnamese Shrimp Farms intensive and intensive farms were equally affected. While no official data are available on the economic impact of EMS/ AHPNS on the Vietnamese shrimp farming industry, Vietnam’s reduc- Impact of EMS/AHPNS on the Shrimp Value Chain tion in production can be estimated from information provided Not only shrimp farmers have been adversely affected by EMS/ by members of the expert team. According to information from AHPNS, resulting in significant job losses in many shrimp farms in the members of this team, little significant impact was noted for over- affected provinces, but the disease has also resulted in some lost jobs all Vietnamese production in 2009 and 2010. In 2010, Vietnamese in companies that process, pack, and export shrimp. Likewise, feed shrimp production was estimated to be about 480,000 metric sales to regions of Vietnam affected by the disease have declined tons. However, by 2011 the disease had become widespread in the significantly. To minimize the negative effects of EMS/AHPNS, some Mekong Delta resulting in a decline in overall production to an esti- large companies in Vietnam have been importing shrimp from adja- mated 320,000 metric tons, and for 2012, the country’s production cent countries in an effort to minimize the negative effects of the A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 40 C hapter 3 — C ase study I I : T he S hrimp A cute H epatopancreatic N ecrosis S y ndrome O utbreak in V ietnam FIGURE 3.5: Impact of EMS on Global Shrimp Aquaculture Output. China and SE Asia Are the Hardest Hit, but Recent Reports of an Outbreak in Mexico Could Adjust Downward Production from the Americas (GAA unpublished) GOAL 2013 survey Shrimp aquaculture production by world region: 1991–2015 2013 is 23% below Million MT 2006–2011 expectation 4.5 Annual growth rate: 4.8% Expectation 4.0 Other 3.5 Middle East / Northern Africa Americas 3.0 India 2.5 China Southeast Asia 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Sources: FAO 2013 for 1991–2011; GOAL 2013 for 2012–2015. Southeast Asia includes Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Philippines, Myanmar, and Taiwan. M. rosenbergii is not included. disease on their processing and exports. Small processing and shrimp unemployed and were forced to leave their hometowns, near the packing companies have not done as well as the larger companies farms that once employed them, to find jobs elsewhere. Hence, the that can afford to import shrimp from neighboring countries for pro- impacts of EMS/AHPNS crisis have been both economic and social. cessing and export. While this activity is helping the processing and export industry of Vietnam for the short term, this is not likely to be a 3.4  DISCOVERING THE CAUSE sustainable practice, especially as more neighboring countries experi- Before anything truly useful could be done, the cause of the disease ence the disease in their shrimp farming sectors. had to be identified. Most of the Vietnamese institutions in aqua- Perhaps intuitively, the sale of chemicals needed to prepare ponds culture research were involved, including: Nong Lam University, for stocking has been less affected by the disease as many farmers University of Minh Thuong, the Institute for Agriculture Environment, will often attempt repeated restockings of PLs into chemically re- MARD, RIA2, and RIA 3. treated ponds. This activity has also had some positive effects on The presentation of the disease made diagnosis difficult. the shrimp hatcheries in Vietnam as they probably produced and Seemingly contradictory evidence abounded during these early sold more PLs in 2011 and early 2012. However, because the shrimp days. For example, the use of sedimentation ponds or water farmers in affected regions of Vietnam are refraining from restocking treatment in reservoirs did not alleviate the problem. Some envi- their ponds (after destroying affected ponds), the increased sale of ronmental parameters (H2S > 0.03 mg/L; NO2- > 20.0 mg/L; SO4) PLs is not likely to be sustainable. The reluctance of many shrimp were high in affected ponds, but when animals were removed farm owners to delay restocking or leave affected farms fallow has to a cleaner environment, some recovered and some died. On resulted in significant losses of employment at shrimp farms. some farms, EMS occurred even when the water was treated At the farm level, and to some extent the feed and processing with oxytetracycline (OTC), while other farms reported that the plant level, many previously employed workers have become use of oxytetracycline stopped shrimp deaths “if water color is R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 3 — C ase study I I : T he S hrimp A cute H epatopancreatic N ecrosis S y ndrome O utbreak in V ietnam 41 good.” Most problems were reported during March–July, a period EMS seemed to appear even in rice-shrimp models or in extensive characterized by rain and temperature fluctuations. ponds (very typical clinical symptoms). Interestingly, some infected ponds, after being restocked, performed quite well. In some other Because shrimp farms in Vietnam are often located on the same canal areas, ponds were prepared again with adequate treatment, but as are many other farms, the rapid spread of infectious diseases like shrimp were still dying. white spot disease is common. Hence, because of this characteristic of Vietnamese shrimp farms and because WSD has a wide range of Observation of the movement of EMS/AHPNS from China to Vietnam, crustacean vectors of WSSV, the use of certain pesticides has been Malaysia, and southeastern Thailand suggested that the agent of the common in the industry to control potential vectors of WSSV in the disease moved as a commodity between the affected locations in water used to fill ponds before stocking. Common pesticides in use these countries. The transboundary movement of broodstock and/or by the industry include cypermethrin, certain organophosphates, PLs might have been a potential source of the disease agent. Its occur- and synthetic pryethroids (carbamates). Some farmers indicated rence in P. vannamei can be explained with this scenario. More difficult that only chlorine was being used for this purpose. A typical use of to explain with this hypothesis was the occurrence of EMS/AHPNS in pesticides or chlorine would be to fill a pond with water and then P. monodon PLs and small juveniles that are produced from wild brood- apply the pesticide or chlorine to the water in the pond to achieve stock. One explanation for the occurrence of the disease in PLs and a dose sufficient to kill all potential vectors of WSSV. The pesticide juveniles produced from wild caught P. monodon broodstock is that or chlorine then dissipates to permit stocking within 7 to 10 days. the disease has become established in many provinces in the affected The use of numerous pesticides by the Vietnamese shrimp farm- areas of Vietnam, and, hence, the agent is present in the environment. ing industry led some laboratories in Vietnam working on the dis- While some shrimp recover from AHPNS, many do not. Total failure of ease to conclude that the use of cypermethrin was the cause, or the HP, especially during the terminal phase of the disease, is charac- at least among the factors responsible, for EMS/AHPNS. However, terized by massive vibriosis of the HP, leading researchers to look for independent studies run at the UAZ-APL using the pesticide over a a bacterial agent that might be present in the pond-bottom detritus. range of lethal and sub-lethal doses in chronic 28-day static renewal Pond-to-pond spread might be explained by the use of PLs that are bioassays with P. vannamei and P. monodon failed to induce lesions infected with the agent when purchased, or by the transmission of of the hepatopancreas typical of EMS/AHPNS. Likewise, additional the agent due to its lack of sensitivity to pesticides used to prepare studies with cypermethrin added to soil and tested with shrimp ponds for stocking. Vibrio cholerae is a common species of vibrio for 28 days also did not induce pathology of the HP consistent that when infected by a phage produces a potent toxin that causes with AHPNS. According to the MTSFA, EMS also occurred in ponds lesions to the mammalian intestine that are similar to those observed that did not use pesticides. Nevertheless, a decision was made by in AHPNS. Laboratory studies conducted at the University of Arizona the government to stop the use of cypermethrin. point toward the possibility that a phage V. parahaemolyticus is also Algal toxins have also been suspected as a potential agent of involved in the pathology of AHPNS (Tran et al. 2013). AHPNS. However, surveys (in 2012) of phytoplanktonic algae col- lected from ponds with the disease failed to show the presence of MEASURES TAKEN IN RESPONSE TO THE 3.5  EMS/AHPNS CRISIS phytoplankton such as dinoflagellates or certain blue-green algae known to be toxin producers. MTSFA reported to have seen EMS in Initial Response ponds that had no toxic algal blooms. In addition to the all-out research effort aimed at discovering the RIA2 and Can Tho University reviewed successful farms to share cause of the disease, the government and the shrimp industry lessons and experience. They collected samples every 3 days to undertook a number of measures to try and control the damage. monitor the syndrome and tried to identify some linkage with the In an initial response to the outbreak, the government formed a PL source (locally produced PLs survived better in the system). National Task Force, which meets the minister every second week A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 42 C hapter 3 — C ase study I I : T he S hrimp A cute H epatopancreatic N ecrosis S y ndrome O utbreak in V ietnam to review progress. MTSFA also organized farmer meetings every EMS/AHPNS. While some farmers reported reductions in losses due second week with the local officers. to the disease, others reported that the antibiotics they used were ineffective. Among the antibiotics reported being used by farmers, The government of Vietnam requested technical assistance of the willing to discuss their use, was primarily OTC, but some farmers Food and Agriculture Organization in July 2011. In response, FAO reported experimenting with other antibiotics such as enrofloxacin. fielded a rapid deployment team through the Animal Health Crisis Management Center, which made a quick assessment. Based on In Vietnam, feed companies are prohibited from making medicated epidemiological observations and other relevant field data, the feeds, probably because of the numerous instances where importing CMC-AH confirmed that an outbreak occurred (since early 2010, countries have found antibiotic residues in imported shrimp. Hence, continuing in 2011) with high mortalities among P. monodon and antibiotic use on farms is achieved by top-coating normal feed prior P. vannamei. The pattern of disease spread was consistent with an to use with a preparation of water and the intended antibiotic. The infectious agent, that is, starting in one pond in one location and aqueous mix is stirred into the feed and the feed is then fed to the subsequently spreading to several ponds within the farm, fol- pond to be treated for several days. Two companies acknowledged lowed by spread to neighboring farms. The agent was not known that they had used OTC feed for 3 days, followed by several days with in as much as the spread pattern and symptoms were not similar normal feed, and then retreating the feed with OTC and feeding the to those of any known major shrimp viral or bacterial disease. An top-coated feed for an additional 3 days. For antibiotics like OTC that FAO Technical Cooperation Program (TCP/VIE/3304) financed an are extremely water soluble, this practice is very unlikely to provide international workshop in June 2013 to identify specific and generic a significant dose of antibiotic to affected shrimp to be efficacious, actions and measures for reducing the risk of AHPND directed to especially those shrimp in the early or terminal phases of AHPNS wider shrimp aquaculture stakeholders (public and private sectors). which are likely off feed. It is very likely that the OTC mixed with feed in an aqueous suspension leaches from the top-coated feed within DAH and local authorities recommended a comprehensive proto- minutes of being fed to an affected pond. col for disease prevention (seed quality, water quality management, improvement of biosecurity, strengthen disease control) but there were difficulties in accessing farms and limited capacity of local Use of Probiotics officers in terms of aquatic disease and, by and large, farmers did Probiotics are in common use in Vietnam. Some farmers in EMS/ not follow the technical guideline issued by local authorities, at least AHPNS affected areas reported to the World Bank/Responsible in part due to lack of financial resources. Aquaculture Foundation (WB/RAF) expert team that they were successfully using probiotics to manage losses due to the Some larger companies applied chemicals to create an “algal color.” disease. At one large farm where the use of probiotics was Application of these remedies, however, did little to control the disease reported as successful, the farm produced their own probiotics. while increasing production cost, making shrimp farming unprofitable. Many of the probiotic products sold in Vietnam have Bacillus sp. as The provincial authority established a panel and instructed farmers the primary ingredient. Others have Lactobacillus sp. and Vibrio spp. not to stock and attempted to disallow PL suppliers to sell PLs. Some like Vibrio alginolyticus as ingredients. While some farmers reported 80 tons of chlorine were distributed by MARD to sterilize infected the successful use of probiotics, often neighboring farms reported ponds, which had some effect and there were fewer problems no success in their use. reported in the second crop. In general, controlled use of probiotics that would have enabled an Experimental and Therapeutic Use of Antibiotics assessment of their effectiveness was hampered by the presence Many farmers indicated that they were testing a variety of antibac- of too many products on the market and variable quality (many are terial compounds in an effort to control or prevent losses due to from overseas). R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 3 — C ase study I I : T he S hrimp A cute H epatopancreatic N ecrosis S y ndrome O utbreak in V ietnam 43 Change in Farming Methods and Strategies ƒƒ Smaller-scale, extensive shrimp farming cannot meet inter- Biofloc is an innovative, highly intense and closed system for fish national standards of sustainable aquaculture as long as they are mixing influents with effluents. and shellfish production (Avnimelech 2009). Biofloc systems have ƒƒ A complete program for environmental monitoring and been reported as being tried in EMS/AHPNS-affected regions in disease warning is lacking. Vietnam. The farmers indicated that the use of these systems may ƒƒ Overuse of chemicals/drugs is common among farmers have resulted in some improvement in production, others who (sometimes following the instructions of the suppliers). attempted to use such systems found EMS/AHPNS to occur equally ƒƒ Farmers want to buy cheap PLs and often ignore disease risk. in biofloc ponds and normally run intensive ponds. Hence, there In most provinces, there is a lack of necessary facilities for was no clear improvement in culture performance in biofloc ponds disease diagnostics in hatcheries. over normal intensive ponds. ƒƒ Farmers tend to be conservative and independent, not read- ily taking on advice from outside experts. Some shrimp farmers commented that polyculture with species such as sea bass helped reduce losses due to EMS/AHPNS, pre- Measures to Remedy the Situation sumably when fingerlings and PLs are stocked at the same time. Suggestions for how Vietnam might address these shortcomings Another strategy was to use only seawater from a pond with sea were identified through the close collaboration between the vari- bass as the source water for a shrimp pond. The two versions of this ous research teams and fish farming groups and stakeholders who strategy may have the same end result, namely the removal of vec- took part in this study: tors of WSSV from the source water, and as EMS/AHPNS develops, ƒƒ Reallocation of poorly-performing farmers to a well- the removal of moribund or dead shrimp. If predation of shrimp by designed zone with ample infrastructure. sea bass can be prevented by the two-pond strategy, the use of sea ƒƒ Research should be compatible to the local conditions of bass, or other marine or estuarine finfish, may help improve survival each province. Good models for intensive, semi-intensive, in shrimp ponds while helping to reduce risks associated with the extensive farming need to be demonstrated. introduction of WSSV with its normal vectors ƒƒ Need for education/training, particularly on disease diagnos- tics and management ƒƒ Need to develop demo-farms so that farmers can come to learn and share experience. RECOVERY AND PLANNING FOR 3.6  IMPROVED BIOSECURITY ƒƒ Need to develop L. vannamei and P. monodon that are ge- netically resistant to EMS/AHPNS. More rapid diagnostic methods need to be developed, and effec- ƒƒ Advise farmers how to treat intake water (for example, do tive management methods employed to target the pathogen in not use cypermethrine, increase pH to 9.5) its shrimp host or in the pond environment. Such methods might ƒƒ Carefully check the quality of PLs (that is, must come along include the prudent and correct use of antibiotics, the use of probi- with disease-free certificate). Farmers often look for cheap otics that are intended to compete with the agent of EMS/AHPNS, PLs so that stocking density can be higher. the consistent use of biofloc systems, and the use of polyculture ƒƒ Enhance biosecurity at farm level. using one or more finfish species that can reduce the industry’s ƒƒ Farms should have a sedimentation pond for water treatment. dependence on the use of pesticides and chemical disinfectants in ƒƒ Viet Good Aquaculture Practices (GAP) should be applied. culture pond preparation. A long-term solution is to breed lines of ƒƒ Form and maintain farmers’ association to share experience disease resistance shrimp. and support each other. Shortcomings in the current industry constrain its ability to build Management disease resistant production systems. Among possible other issues, Advances continue in the control of EMS/AHPNS via progress in the study team note that: breeding, hatchery and pond management, and feed additives. A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 44 C hapter 3 — C ase study I I : T he S hrimp A cute H epatopancreatic N ecrosis S y ndrome O utbreak in V ietnam However, the solution to the disease will likely involve an array of mixed infections, nonantimicrobial control measures, environment, management practices. polyculture technologies). Studies are examining the use of natural compounds as feed addi- 3.7  SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS tives to disrupt the quorum sensing of the bacteria. The use of pro- biotic products can modulate the pond environment and the gut The EMS/AHPNS crisis has had a very significant negative impact on microflora in shrimp toward a more favorable composition. the Vietnamese shrimp farming industry, as well as that of neighbor- ing countries that also farm shrimp. Key findings of this review of the Polyculture studies with fish such as tilapia have reduced EMS problem include: mortality in shrimp. This is thought to be caused by the blooms of Chlorella algae in tilapia ponds, which may disrupt the quorum ƒƒ The disease was recognized in China in 2009, but signifi- cant research did not begin until 2012, when it had already sensing ability of V. parahaemolyticus. spread to several countries and caused losses in excess of Most farm biosecurity and pond management measures are US$1 billion. A mechanism is needed to allocate research designed to exclude viruses, which replicate only within the host. funds before disease issues reach the crisis stage. EMS is caused by bacteria that can thrive in the environment and not ƒƒ To assure efficient, coordinated research, funds should be allocated with assistance from an expert multidisciplinary a virus. Consequently, its management requires new approaches. advisory board to help guide research and assure that the Studies at the Charoen Pokphand Foods EMS Challenge Center and most appropriate technologies are being applied. elsewhere are pointing to a number of potential approaches and ƒƒ Given the chronology of the disease, it apparently entered treatments. Vietnam from China. The most likely vector is infected brood- stock or postlarvae. The epidemiology of the disease would For example, the use of intensive, highly biosecure production sys- be more apparent if movement of animals into each country tems allows better control of the culture environment. The stocking were more thoroughly regulated and tracked. Movement of larger, nursery-raised shrimp has been effective in reducing EMS documents are health records that should be required for all incidence. Both raceways and in-pond cages have been used suc- imported animals. cessfully as nurseries. ƒƒ Major outbreaks of EMS/AHPNS have been related to envi- ronmental conditions such as salinity and pH of pond water. Black tiger shrimp seem less affected than the more widely raised Research has shown that the pathogenic Vibrio does not white shrimp by the EMS Vibrio. Black tiger shrimp tolerance of EMS grow in water with less than 3 ppt salinity, but growth in- is reportedly best in deep ponds with clean bottoms. For both white creases from 4 to 11 ppt, above which growth is unaffected and black tiger shrimp, breeding efforts are seeking animals that by salinity. Noriaki Akazawa, general manager of the inte- exhibit greater tolerance of EMS. grated Agrobest shrimp farm in Malaysia, found that shrimp mortality is greatly accelerated at high pH, while McIntosh FAO TCP/VIE/3304 (FAO 2013) contains relevant recommendations reported that the pathogen itself is unaffected by pH from pertinent to the management of the disease, including: AHPND 7 to 9. This implies an indirect effect of pH. For example, the diagnosis; AHPND notification/reporting; international trade of live high pH in Agrobest ponds was caused by dense blooms of shrimp, shrimp products (frozen, cooked), and live feed for shrimp; blue-green algae which may have also stimulated growth of the pathogen. advice to countries affected and not affected by AHPND; measures ƒƒ Additional research has identified a relationship between for farm and hatchery facilities; advice to pharmaceutical and feed pond water temperature and EMS, with outbreaks reaching companies and shrimp producers; actions on knowledge and peak intensity in the warm season. Excessive use of pond capacity development; AHPND outbreak investigation/emergency fertilizers such as molasses and urea has been found to response; and specific AHPND-targeted research (epidemiology, stimulate the growth of virulent P. parahaemolyticus. EMS is diagnostics, pathogenicity and virulence, public health implications, also heightened in the presence of bryozoans, which appear R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 3 — C ase study I I : T he S hrimp A cute H epatopancreatic N ecrosis S y ndrome O utbreak in V ietnam 45 as calcareous tubules on the pond bottom. Bryozoans filter companies that acknowledged its experimental and particulates from the water and are thought to concentrate therapeutic use for controlling EMS/AHPNS. The farmers the pathogen. Exposure to the EMS pathogen tends to be that discussed how OTC is used at their farms indicated reduced when shrimp are reared in cages suspended above the use of an aqueous top-coating method and they feed pond bottoms, and when ponds use well water instead of such feeds for only 3 days before returning to using normal, surface water. unmedicated feeds. The expert team was informed that ƒƒ Sensitive testing methods that rapidly identify EMS/AHPNS if a single 3-day treatment with OTC-medicated feed was in broodstock, postlarvae and juvenile shrimp have been not efficacious in resolving an EMS/AHPNS outbreak, then developed by Lightner and team at the University of Arizona. additional treatments with 3-days on OTC and several days DNA amplification and metagenomic sequencing of V. off would be carried out. parahaemolyticus strains that cause EMS led to the design ƒƒ The misuse of antibiotics like OTC may even be complicat- of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) diagnostic primer kits. ing the situation in Vietnam because of the manner in The technology is expected to be licensed for distribution which the antibiotic is used can lead to rapid development and commercially available in the coming months. Positive of resistance in bacteria such as members of the family broodstock or postlarvae found positive using the tests Vibrionaceae. This family includes several genera of signifi- should be destroyed or treated with approved antibiotics. cant pathogens of penaeid shrimp (for example, V. parahae- ƒƒ In Vietnam, as in many shrimp farming regions throughout molyticus and V. harveyi), and because the family contains the world, multiple shrimp farms often use common water species that cause similar pathology (for example, sloughing bodies for both intake and discharge. This makes these farms to HP tubule epithelial cells) in the intestine of mammals, highly vulnerable to disease. Improved systems are needed the family may contain the agent of EMS, assuming that to assure proper separation and treatment of intake and the disease is found to be infectious. There may need to discharge waters. be a change in regulations governing the manufacture ƒƒ No single management method has been shown to be of medicated feeds by feed companies and their use by completely effective in eliminating EMS/AHPNS. Some com- shrimp growers. The current use of top-coating of feed with panies or associations within the shrimp farming industry of aquaeous suspensions of antibiotics like OTC is unlikely to Vietnam reported to the expert team that they had devel- work and may lead to further development of drug resistant oped methods for reducing losses to EMS/AHPNS without strains of bacteria, such as shrimp pathogens like V. parahae- knowing its actual causative agent. Other groups employing molyticus and V. harveyi. different methods (or no methods at all other than kill- ƒƒ The use of probiotics is also highly variable among the ing affected ponds and restarting with new PLs), have not farms visited in the Mekong Delta area of South Vietnam. been successful. Microcosm tanks which simulate the pond While one major farm reported to the expert teams that a environment are recommended as a tool to evaluate and non-disclosed mixture of probiotics was being successfully screen a variety of management techniques in a standard- used to prevent EMS/AHPNS, other farmers in the same ized, replicated manner. district did not find probiotics to show any efficacy. These ƒƒ While the prudent use of antibiotics and probiotics may observations suggest that the types of probiotics in use in provide efficacy in reducing losses due to the disease, there Vietnam (from commercial and noncommercial sources) is a large amount of variability in how antibiotics are used are highly variable and that some types being used may and how probiotics are applied. In Vietnam feed manu- have no efficacy, while others may be beneficial. Perhaps facturing companies are not permitted to manufacture the mixture of several probiotics (which the expert team medicated feeds that contain drugs like OTC, florfenicol, was told are being produced by the farm staff ) has com- enrofloxacin, and others. Hence, when farmers intend to ponents that interfere or compete for nutrients with the use medicated feeds even as experiments to treat EMS/ agent of EMS/AHPNS. AHPNS, they use a mix of water and the intended antibi- ƒƒ The expert team was also informed by several companies otic to top-coat the feed for a particular pond. OTC was and organizations that the use of biofloc systems was effica- the most common antibiotic mentioned by those farming cious in resolving EMS/AHPNS. The pond systems shown A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 46 C hapter 3 — C ase study I I : T he S hrimp A cute H epatopancreatic N ecrosis S y ndrome O utbreak in V ietnam to the expert teams were not biofloc systems, and at best semi-biofloc ponds and normal intensive ponds. Hence, the could only be described as semi-biofloc systems. The results successful application of semi-biofloc systems was too vari- in such systems for controlling EMS/AHPNS were variable able to be considered as a method that could be applied to among farms, with some reporting improved survival and resolve the EMS/AHPNS crisis. growth and others reporting no improvement between R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar 47 CHAPTER 4 CASE STUDY III: SHRIMP WHITE SPOT SYNDROME VIRUS OUTBREAK IN MOZAMBIQUE AND MADAGASCAR PETER M. VAN WYK  GEORGE W. CHAMBERLAIN  DONALD V. LIGHTNER  RICHARD TOWNER MARCOS VILLARREAL NORIAKI AKAZAWA ADOLFO ALVIAL ISABEL OMAR LUC JOSUÉ RALAIMARINDAZA  ANA PAULA BALOI  PHILIP-PIERRE BLANC  HAMISI L. NIKULI  MELBA B. REANTASO OUTLINE 4.1  White Spot Disease���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 48 History of WSSV Outbreaks Worldwide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Etiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Symptoms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Transmission. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Carriers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Environmental Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 4.2  The Shrimp Farming Industry on the Mozambique Channel������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 50 The Mozambique Shrimp Farming Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 The Shrimp Producers Association of Mozambique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 The Ministry of Fisheries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Aquatic Animal Health Laboratories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 4.3  The Madagascar Shrimp Farming Industry���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 53 The Association of Shrimp Farmers and Fishers of Madagascar (GAPCM). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 The Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 The Laboratory for Epidemiological Surveillance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 4.4  The WSD Outbreak on the Mozambique Channel ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 56 WSSV in Mozambique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 WSSV in Madagascar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 4.5  Management of WSSV Outbreaks Worldwide������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 59 The Asian WSSV Management Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 The Latin American WSSV Management Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 4.6  Farm-Level Strategies for Controlling WSSV�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 60 Avoid Stocking during the Cold Season . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Head-starting PLs in a Greenhouse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Reduce Water Exchange. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Pond Aeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Probiotics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Exclusion of Carriers by Filtration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Microscreen Drum Filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Bag Filtration of Seawater Entering a Pond. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Install Water Distribution Canal Drain Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Crab Fencing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 48 C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar Bird Netting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Disinfection of Seawater Entering the Farm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 4.7  Hatchery-Level Strategies for Controlling WSSV�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 64 PCR Testing of Wild Broodstock. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 SPF Broodstock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 WSSV-Resistant Broodstock. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Affordability of Biosecurity Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 4.8  Status of Farm-Level Implemention of Biosecurity Plans (as of end 2013)������������������������������������������������������������ 68 Mozambique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Madagascar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 4.9  National Responses to the Mozambique Channel WSSV Crisis �������������������������������������������������������������������������� 70 Control Options. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Response of the Mozambique Government. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 4.10  Response of the Madagascar Government�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 73 Private Sector Surveillance Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 4.11  Subregional Shrimp Aquaculture Biosecurity Plan for the Mozambique Channel������������������������������������������������ 73 Implementation Strategy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 4.12 Conclusions������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 80 Cause of the Outbreak. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Contributing Factors at Farm Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Mozambique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Madagascar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 4.13 Recommendations �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 82 Recommendations for Producers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Recommendations for the Public Sector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Regional Cooperation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 4.1  WHITE SPOT DISEASE to the virus causing these outbreaks, but all were describing a dis- ease with similar gross signs and caused by a similar rod-shaped History of WSSV Outbreaks Worldwide virus (Lightner & Redman 2010). Over the next few years the dis- White spot disease (WSD) is a contagious viral disease of penaeid ease became widespread throughout Southeast Asia, spreading to shrimp caused by the white spot syndrome virus (WSSV). From ori- Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, and India, causing hundreds gins in Southeast Asia, the disease has spread throughout the world. of million of dollars in economic losses for the shrimp industry every The economic losses due to WSSV have been devastating, totaling year. At this time P. monodon was the dominant species cultured at least 8 billion dollars since 1992. in Southeast Asia, and most of the postlarvae (PLs) were produced The first known outbreak of WSD occurred in Taiwan in 1992, from wild broodstock. As it became increasingly difficult to find where farmed shrimp of three different species (Panaeus monodon, disease-free broodstock, the Southeast Asia shrimp aquaculture Marsupenaeus japonicus, and Fenneropenaeus penicillatus) all expe- industry began to switch to Litopenaeus vannamei, a species for rienced outbreaks of WSD (Chou et al. 1995). The disease spread which domesticated specific pathogen-free (SPF) broodstock were to Japan in 1993 where it was reported from farmed M. japonicus readily available. Stocking disease-free PLs improved survivals, and (Inouye et al. 1994; Nakano et al. 1994), and the People’s Republic of the economics of growing L. vannamei were more favorable since China (Huang et al. 1995). A variety of different names were applied L. vannamei could be stocked at higher densities (Briggs et al. 2005). R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar 49 Despite the absence of live shrimp introductions in the western down. Eight months later, in May 2012, there was an outbreak of hemisphere, WSSV eventually spread to the Americas. Early in 1999, WSD in Madagascar at a farm north of Morondava. This farm has WSSV was diagnosed as the cause of serious epizootics in Central remained out of service since the outbreak occurred. Two other American shrimp farms. In January 1999, WSSV first appeared in Malagasy shrimp farms were forced to perform emergency harvests Panama and within 2 months the disease spread north to Honduras and are virtually largely inactive as well. and Guatemala. By mid to late 1999, WSSV was causing major losses in Ecuador, then among the world’s top producers of farmed shrimp. Etiology Exports of shrimp from Ecuador in 2000 and 2001 were down nearly WSD is a lethal, contagious viral disease of penaeid shrimp and 70 percent from pre-WSSV levels (Lightner 2003). It has been pro- other decapod crustaceans. The causative agent of WSD is WSSV. posed that the introductions of WSSV to the Americas were the result WSSV is the only member of the genus Whispovirus, and fam- of importation of frozen shrimp products from WSSV-affected areas ily, Nimaviridae. WSSV is a large, enveloped, double-stranded of Asia and the value-added reprocessing of those frozen shrimp in DNA virus, measuring 80–120 nm in diameter and 250–380 nm coastal processing plants in the Americas (Nunan et al. 1998, Lightner in length (Durand et al. 1997). The virions are rod-shaped to 2003), or possibly through the use of imported frozen WSSV-infected elliptical in form, and have a unique flagella-like appendage at shrimp as bait by sport fishermen (Hasson et al. 2006). one end. The virions replicate inside the nuclei of infected cells without the production of occlusion bodies. WSSV targets tis- WSSV also reached Spain and Australia in 2000–01. In both cases, sues of ectodermal (cuticular epidermis, foregut and hindgut, successful containment and eradication were reported and for both gills and nervous tissues), and mesodermal (connective tissue, events, the importation and use of infected frozen shrimp as a fresh lymphoid organ, antennal gland, and hemopoietic tissue) origin feed for broodstock were implicated as the route of introduction (Wongteerasupaya et al. 1995). (Stentiford and Lightner 2011; OIE 2013). In recent years WSSV spread to new areas of the world. In January Symptoms 2011, shrimp farms in Saudi Arabia culturing Fenneropenaeus indicus WSD outbreaks in shrimp ponds are often accompanied by severe began experiencing severe mortalities due to WSSV. In an attempt mortality. Acutely affected shrimp may be lethargic or anorexic and to determine the origins of the virus responsible for this outbreak, are often seen swimming erratically near the surface of the pond researchers at the University of Arizona (UAZ) analyzed the genotypes (Crockford 2008). WSD takes its name from the characteristic white of the WSSV isolated from F. indicus in Saudi Arabia. They identified spots on the carapace, although this is not necessarily seen in all three different genotypes from different farms (Lightner 2012). Two infected shrimp. The white spots are due to deposition of calcium of these differed from the strain of WSSV that originated in Asia and salts by the cuticular epidermis. Moribund shrimp frequently later spread to the Americas. The two Saudi Arabian WSSV genotypes develop a pink to red discoloration. Mortality rates among popu- differed from the Asian genotype by having a deletion of 1,522 base lations of shrimp showing these signs may approach 100 percent pairs from a specific section of the viral DNA (ORF 94); they differed within 3 to 10 days of the onset of clinical signs (Momoyama et al. from one another in the number of repeating base pair sequences in 1994; Sangamaheswaran and Jeyaseelan 2001). ORF 125 (Lightner 2012; Tang et al. 2012). The evidence suggests that the new genotypes found in Saudi Arabia may have originated in wild Transmission F. indicus broodstock from the Red Sea (Tang et al. 2012). WSSV can be transmitted either horizontally or vertically. Horizontal The shrimp industries in Mozambique and Madagascar remained transmission occurs through the ingestion of infected tissues or free from WSD until September 2011 when a shrimp farm in organisms (Lo and Kou 1998; Durand and Lightner 2002) or by Quelimane, Mozambique, experienced an outbreak of WSD. Since direct contact with an infected individual. However, consump- then, the shrimp industry in Mozambique has been virtually shut tion of infected tissue is more than 10 times as likely to result in A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 50 C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar transmission of the virus as cohabitation with an infected individual at temperatures above 32° C, WSD did not develop in WSSV-infected (Lotz and Soto 2009). Vertical transmission from an infected female L. vannamei. However, when the same shrimp were cooled to 26°C, parent to her offspring has also been demonstrated (Lo et al. 1997). the disease would quickly develop with 100 percent mortality. Subsequent studies demonstrated that the hyperthermic phenom- Carriers enon also occurred in other penaeids (Guan et al. 2003; Gunalan WSSV has a wide host range that includes virtually all decapod et al. 2010). Recent work has shown that replication of WSSV is species and many other crustaceans (Lightner 1996; Flegal 1997; significantly reduced or stopped under hyperthermic conditions Lo and Kou 1998). All life stages may be infected, including eggs, (Du et al. 2006). These findings have helped to explain why WSD larval stages and adults (Venegas et al. 1999). Many nondecapod epizootics occur most often in the cooler seasons. In the Americas, crustaceans, such as copepods (Huang et al. 1995), isopods (Lo and that information has helped shrimp farmers manage WSD by avoid- Kou 1998; Overstreet et al. 2009), amphipods, and barnacles (Lei et ing stocking in the cool season or growing shrimp year-round in al. 2002) have also been demonstrated to be carriers. It appears that temperature-controlled greenhouses. Temperature fluctuations WSSV infections in many of the non-decapod hosts are latent infec- greater than ±3°C (Esparza-Leal et al. 2010; Tendencia and Verreth tions with no apparent pathology to the host (Lo and Kou 1998). 2011) are also conducive to outbreaks of WSD. This appears to be due to the combined effect of a reduced host immune response WSSV has also been found in several noncrustacean carriers. and an increase in the rate of viral replication at temperatures less Polychaete worms have been demonstrated to carry WSSV and are than 28°C (Moser et al. 2012). Heavy rainfall events may also precipi- capable of transmitting the virus to shrimp broodstock fed with tate outbreaks of WSSV due to the combined effect of a rapid drop infected worms (Vijayan et al. 2005; Desrina et al. 2012). WSSV can in both salinity and temperature (Tendencia et al. 2010). be found in the gills and digestive tracts of oysters in areas where WSSV is present (Vazquez-Boucard et al. 2010). Oysters have even been suggested to be sensitive bio-indicators of the presence of THE SHRIMP FARMING INDUSTRY ON THE 4.2  WSSV at low levels because they concentrate WSSV virions in their MOZAMBIQUE CHANNEL tissues (Vazquez-Boucard et al. 2010). Even marine algae (Liu et al. Shrimp farming along the Mozambique Channel began in 1989 with 2007) have been shown to carry WSSV. the construction of a pilot-scale shrimp farm in Madagascar that later developed into Aqualma, a large integrated operation that stimulated Environmental Factors regional development of the sector (Le Groumellec et al. 2011). The Temperature has an important effect (figure 4.1) on the expression industry is composed of a small number of commercial shrimp farms of disease in WSSV-infected L. vannamei. Vidal et al. (2001) found that ranging in size from 174 to 800 ha. There are currently two industrial shrimp farms operating in Mozambique with a total production area FIGURE 4.1: Effect of Hyperthermia on WSD in L. vannamei of 534 ha and five industrial shrimp farms in Madagascar with a total (After Vidal et. al 2001) production area of 2,300 ha. Unlike many regions where shrimp farms 100 are highly concentrated in a small area, the farms in Madagascar and 90 80 Injected / 32°C Mozambique are widely separated geographically (figure 3.2). Injected / 26°C Number surviving 70 60 Per os / 32°C Shrimp farming in the region is based on the rearing of black tiger 50 Per os / 26°C Inj conrol saline / 26°C shrimp (P. monodon) in semi-intensive earthen ponds of 2–10 ha. Most 40 Inoculum / 33°C / 1 hr 30 ponds are stocked at relatively low densities (7–12 shrimp/m2) with tar- 20 get production levels of 1.5–2.2 tons/ha (Le Groumellec et al. 2011). The 10 0 ponds are managed as flow-through systems, with water exchange 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 20 40 Days post initial exposure rates as high as 20 percent per day. Little aeration is employed. Pond R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar 51 FIGURE 4.2: Major Shrimp Farming Installations along the Mozambique Channel 30°E 35°E 40°E 45°E 50°E 55°E T AN Z AN I A C OMOR OS M ALA WI MALA CABO DELGADO Mayotte (Fr) NIASSA MOZAMBIQUE ANTSIRANANA Z A M BIA MADAGASCAR 15°S TETE NAMPULA 15°S ZAMBÉZIA MAHAJANGA TOAMASINA SOFALA ANTANANARIVO IM BA BW E Z IMBA ANTANANARIVO MAU R ITIUS 20°S 20°S MANICA Réunion (Fr) FIANARANTSOA 55°E INHAMBANE GAZA MADAGASCAR & MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH TOLIARA SHR IMP FAR MS AF RICA A FRICA SHRIMP FARMS 25°S 25°S SW AZ ILAND MAPUTO 0 100 200 Miles NATIONAL CAPITAL PROVINCE BOUNDARIES This map was produced by the Map Design Unit of The World Bank. MAPUTO 0 100 200 Kilometers The boundaries, colors, denominations and any other information shown on this map do not imply, on the part of The World Bank INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES GSDPM Map Design Unit Group, any judgment on the legal status of any territory, or any endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. 30°E 35°E 40°E 45°E 50°E FEBRUARY 2014, IBRD 40788 temperatures generally remain above 28°C from October to April, but sustainable products. The farms in the region have successfully during the colder winter months (June to August) temperatures can developed a unique identity for Madagascar and Mozambique drop as low as 22°C. Because of this, some farms in the region harvest shrimp in the European markets as a premium quality product. The before the coldest months of the year, and produce just two crops per farms in this region are all vertically integrated, each with its own year. However, the largest farms in Madagascar operate year-round, hatchery and processing plant. producing 2.3–2.5 crops per year. The summer months of December By virtue of its isolation, the Mozambique Channel shrimp industry to April are the wettest months and pond salinities often drop below was the only major shrimp farming region in the world that had 10 ppt during this period. The winter months are the driest months, never had a diagnosed case of any World Organization for Animal and pond salinities in some areas rise above 35 ppt. Health (OIE)-listed shrimp diseases prior to 2011. Production costs for shrimp farms in Madagascar and Mozambique are higher than in most other areas of the world due to the isolation The Mozambique Shrimp Farming Industry of the individual farms and the logistics of doing business in remote The shrimp industry in Mozambique is small, with only two indus- areas (Le Groumellec et al. 2011). In Madagascar, all electricity must trial shrimp farms currently in operation. The total production area be generated on site and the cost per kw-hr is high. Because of the in these two farms is only 534 ha. However, there is significant high production costs, the product must be sold at premium prices. potential for further development. The Ministry of Fisheries recently The shrimp farms in the Mozambique Channel region focus on pro- surveyed coastal land in the country and concluded that there ducing high quality head-on shrimp for the European market. Many are 30,000 ha suitable for development of industrial shrimp farms of the companies market their shrimp as organic or environmentally (Omar and Hecht 2011). A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 52 C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar The first industrial shrimp farm in Mozambique was built in 1994. By to be polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-tested for OIE listed viruses 2004 there were three large shrimp farms operating in the country. (WSSV, Monodon baculovirus [MBV], yellowhead virus [YHV]/gill- Production from these farms (figure 4.3) peaked in 2006 at 1,067 associated virus [GAV], Taura syndrome virus (TSV), infectious myo- metric tons per year (Blanc 2012). In 2007 the largest farm, Indian necrosis disease (IMNV), infectious hypodermal and haematopoetic Ocean Aquaculture, shut down due to technical and financial dif- necrosis/virus (IHHN/V). Aquapesca also tested 30 percent of the ficulties. Low market prices limited production output in 2008 and broodstock brought into their hatchery. 2009 and one of the remaining shrimp farms suspended production The other industrial shrimp farm in Mozambique is Sol y Mar, located for a period in 2010 when the farm was sold. Productivity was begin- near Beira. This farm consists of 58 3-ha grow-out ponds and two ning to increase when WSSV hit the country in August 2011. In 2012, large reservoir ponds (100 ha total area). Like Aquapesca, the Sol y aquaculture shrimp production in Mozambique dropped to 41.4 MT. Mar farm is stocked at low density (7–10/ha). The facility includes Of the two currently active commercial shrimp farms in Mozambique, a hatchery that is operated when PLs are needed for stocking. The the oldest (1994) and largest farm (350 ha) is Aquapesca, located broodstock are wild-caught. Prior to 2010, the Sol y Mar farm was near the town of Quelimane in Zambezia Province. The grow-out operated continuously, achieving 2.5 production cycles per year. In ponds at Aquapesca are mostly 10 ha earthen ponds that are 2010 the farm was shut down and put up for sale. It was purchased stocked at low densities (7/m ). There are two production cycles 2 by a Chinese company and was undergoing renovations when the per year, with a 2-month dry-out period from June to July. Annual outbreak of white spot disease occurred at the Aquapesca facility in production prior to 2011 was 600–800 MT/yr. Postlarvae for stocking September 2011. the farm are produced at their hatchery facility in Nacala. The major- The majority of the wild-caught P. monodon broodstock used by the ity of the broodstock for this hatchery are wild-caught. Aquapesca farms in Mozambique are supplied by Marbar Lda. Marbar has been markets their shrimp as a head-on organic product, and the organic in operation since 1997 and collects approximately 7,000 breeders per standards require that within 3 years of obtaining organic certifica- year. About one-third of the shrimp collected are sold to Mozambique tion, 50 percent of the broodstock must be domesticated. To com- shrimp farms. The rest are sold to hatcheries in Asia, mostly in Vietnam ply with this requirement, in 2009 Aquapesca began to select some and Malaysia. The broodstock collection season extends from March to of their broodstock from the grow-out ponds. There are no specific the end of November. Marbar has a multi-step process for acclimating pathogen-free broodstock available in Mozambique. broodstock and preparing them for shipment to the hatcheries. Adult- Prior to the WSSV outbreak in 2011, the Aquapesca risk manage- size shrimp are collected either from Beira in the north or Vilankulos in ment plan called for each batch of postlarvae stocked at the farm the south. After capture, the broodstock are held in a small-scale quar- antine system for several days near the collection site. If no abnormali- ties or unusual mortality is noted, the shrimp are then moved to one FIGURE 4.3: Mozambique Shrimp Aquaculture Production, 2004–12 (Sibeni and Calderini 2014) of two recirculating conditioning facilities, either in Beira or Vilankulos. Mozambique shrimp aquaculture production (MT) In the conditioning facility, the shrimp are treated with antibiotics and 1,200 1,067 fed with fresh clams and squid. Prior to 2012, samples were occasion- 995 Shrimp production (MT) 1,000 ally sent to UAZ for histology or PCR analyses. In 2012, Marbar began 800 conducting their own PCR analyses, testing for WSSV, MBV, and hepa- 693 667 600 602 topancreatic parvovirus (HPV). Only a small percentage of the animals 450 400 collected are tested, however, due to the high cost. The company relies 400 374 200 primarily on a stress-testing procedure to screen for healthy animals. 41.4 0 The Shrimp Producers Association of Mozambique (Associação 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Year de Produtores de Camarão de Moçambique; APCM) is a shrimp R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar 53 producer’s advocacy group with representation from both of Focal Point for Aquatic Animal Health for Mozambique. While the INIP the shrimp farms in Mozambique, Marbar, and the Centro de team members are well-trained in HACCP, quality control, and sea- Biotechnología. The APCM functions as the interface between the food safety, they do not have the training or equipment to serve as private shrimp producers and the public sector. The association repre- an Aquatic Animal Health Reference Laboratory. While INIP personnel sents the shrimp farms in discussions with the government regarding are anxious to acquire the expertise necessary to take a more active policies, regulation, and biosecurity. In 2009, the APCM received €1.5 role in aquatic animal health management, at present there is no leg- million in funding from the French Ministry of Economy and Finance islation in Mozambique to provide a legal framework or funding for and the French Development Agency (AFD). The funding was part of these activities. In Mozambique the Veterinary Authority is under the a Trade Capacity Building Program (PRCC) with the goal of improv- Ministry of Agriculture and INIP, the Competent Authority for aquatic ing the international competitiveness of the Mozambique shrimp animal health, is under the Ministry of Fisheries. This arrangement cre- farming industry. Mr. Blanc was hired by the APCM to administer this ates some challenges for the coordination between veterinary and project. After the WSSV outbreak in Mozambique, the PRCC funds fisheries authorities (Baloi et al. 2011). were redirected toward funding of a WSSV surveillance program and Aquatic Animal Health Laboratories are available, though there helping to manage the crisis. One of the key objectives for the PRCC is is no official government-designated laboratory for AAH services. to help strengthen the capacities of Instituto Nacional de Inspeccíon In-country diagnostic work for the shrimp farms is carried out by the Pesquera (INIP) as the Competent Authority for Aquatic Animal Health. Centro de Biotechnología, a laboratory at the Universidade Eduardo The APCM is planning to provide training for technicians at the Centro Mondlane. The Centro de Biotechnología (CB-UEM) laboratory is a de Biotechnología and INIP’s Central Veterinary Laboratory to help research and diagnostic laboratory shared by multiple departments them develop the capacity as Aquatic Animal Health (AAH) Reference at UEM. The laboratory began conducting PCR analyses on shrimp Laboratories. Representing the APCM, Mr. Blanc has played a key role in 2008. They use IQ2000 PCR kits and can test for WSSV, IHHNV, MBV, in managing the response of Mozambique to the WSSV crisis. TSV, IMNV, YHV/GAV, and HPV. The tests cost US$10/sample. The lab The Ministry of Fisheries has overall responsibility for the manage- has a capability of processing 10 samples/day or 40 samples per ment and administration of aquaculture in Mozambique. Two gov- week. Prior to the WSSV outbreak in 2011 the CB-UEM only tested ernment bodies deal directly with aquaculture: the Instituto Nacional about 150 samples per year for the shrimp industry. Most of the de Desenvolvimento da Aquacultura (INAQUA), and the INIP. samples tested were postlarvae or broodstock pleopods submitted by the Aquapesca farm. Any positive test results are reported to the INAQUA is a new agency that was created in 2008 by Decree No. Ministry of Fisheries. 28/2008. INAQUA is the designated lead agency for all govern- ment projects related to aquaculture. It is responsible for strategic Histological work and PCR analyses on shrimp with suspected planning for aquaculture policy and for proposing legislation and diseases are usually performed by the OIE Reference Laboratory regulations pertaining to aquaculture. It also is responsible for located at the University of Arizona. Some samples are also sent to managing aquaculture licenses and authorizations for commercial other international diagnostic laboratories, such as the Concepto projects. INAQUA conducts surveys and statistical analyses related Azul laboratory in Ecuador. to the Mozambique aquaculture sector. Prior to the outbreak, there was no formal national policy on aquatic animal health. INAQUA is 4.3  THE MADAGASCAR SHRIMP FARMING INDUSTRY now taking the lead role in developing a national policy to address Commercial shrimp farming began in Madagascar in the early aquatic animal health issues. 1990s with the establishment of the Aqualma shrimp farm on INIP is the agency responsible for control of quality standards for all Mahajanga Bay on the west coast. Within 10 years the industry had fisheries products. INIP is the designated Competent Authority for expanded to six farms and an annual production of nearly 6,000 food safety and in March 2012 INIP was designated as the OIE National MT per year. Annual production peaked at 8,354 MT/year in 2007 A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 54 C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar (figure 4.4). However, production declined over the next several for their shrimp from France’s Ministry of Agriculture, certifying the years due to a combination of rising production costs associ- superior quality of the product. ated with higher fuel and falling shrimp prices, the latter due to Unima’s Marima shrimp farm was the second shrimp farm in increased production in Latin America and Asia. In 2009, the dif- Madagascar to be infected by WSSV in September 2012. The farm ficult economic conditions resulted in the closure of two shrimp conducted an emergency harvest when WSSV was detected in wild farms. One of these, Unima’s Marima shrimp farm, reopened crustacean populations near the farm and was able to sell much in 2012 with the return of more favorable market conditions. of what they harvested. They have restocked at very low densi- Currently, there are four shrimp farming companies in the country ties using SPF PLs. The Aqualma farm has not been infected by operating five farms with a total production area of 2,300 ha. WSSV. The Unima group, which conducts their own PCR testing, is The two largest shrimp farms in Madagascar are both owned by engaged in a large-scale surveillance program to monitor the inci- the Unima group. The oldest and largest farm is the Aqualma farm dence of WSSV in wild crustacean populations on the west coast in Mahajanga, with a total production area of just under 800 ha. of Madagascar. The objective is to provide an early warning of the The second Unima shrimp farm is the 450-ha Marima shrimp farm, spread of WSSV in the wild before it reaches Mahajanga Bay. located in Besalampy. The Unima group operates a larval rearing The third largest shrimp farm in Madagascar is Oso Farming–Les facility in Mifuko, and leases a government hatchery in Mahajanga Gambas de l’Ankarana (LGA). This farm is a subsidiary of R&O Seafood to increase their larval-rearing capacity. They also operate a sepa- Gastronomy, headquartered in Paris. R&O Seafood Gastronomy is rate breeding center in Moramba. Unima initiated a broodstock France’s largest seafood distributor. LGA, located near the north- domestication program in 2000 to eliminate their dependence on western tip of the island, operates 42 grow-out ponds with a total wild broodstock. Since 2003, 100 percent of the postlarvae stocked water surface area of just over 400 ha. The LGA farm is organically in Unima ponds were derived from captive-bred SPF broodstock. certified under the French AB-Bio label and EU Regulation 710-2009, In addition to screening their broodstock for OIE-listed pathogens, which specifies standards for organic aquaculture products. Shrimp they also screen for some local pathogens, including two species of are stocked at a density of 11 shrimp/m2 and grown to an average microsporidians, a Rickettsia-like intracellular bacteria, an iridovirus, harvest size of 23 grams in approximately 150 days. Two crops per and a local form of Monodon slow growth syndrome. The Unima year are harvested with a 39-day dry-out period between crops. In group markets their shrimp in the European Union (EU) as a pre- keeping with organic standards, the ponds are not routinely aer- mium head-on product. In 2004, Unima obtained the “Label Rouge” ated. Daily exchange rates peak at 20 percent of pond volume per FIGURE 4.4: Madagascar Shrimp Aquaculture Production, day. LGA also stocks SPF postlarvae produced at their own breed- 2004–2012 (Sibeni & Calderini 2014). ing center. Broodstock are reared in specialized broodstock rearing Madagascar shrimp aquaculture production (MT) ponds. The breeding center is reported to be capable of producing 10,000 up to 5,000 broodstock every 2 months. LGA has a well-equipped Shrimp production (MT) 8,354 8,000 7,661 laboratory with microbiology and PCR-testing capabilities. The lab 7,332 7,278 can process up to 178 samples per day. No WSSV has been detected 6,000 6,176 4,986 4,906 4,950 to date at the LGA facility or in nearby areas. However, the com- 5,442 4,000 pany has devoted considerable resources to surveillance of wild crustacean populations in near shore waters from the northern tip 2,000 of Madagascar south to Mahajanga. In the 12-month period from 0 May 2012 to April 2013 the company has processed over 37,000 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Year PCR samples. R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar 55 The Aquamen EF farm at Tsangajoly is located north of Morondava, The Association of Shrimp Farmers and Fishers of Madagascar and is the southernmost shrimp farm in Madagascar. The Aquamen (GAPCM) is an advocacy group composed of both shrimp farm- farm consists of 110 ponds with a total water surface area of ers and shrimp fishermen. The GAPCM was initially organized as 400-ha. The production ponds average 3.6 ha in area. Like all the an association of shrimp fishing boat operators in 1994, but its farms in the region, the Aquamen facility is vertically integrated, with membership was expanded in 2001 to include shrimp farmers. The a hatchery and processing plant. The Aquamen hatchery does not GAPCM has a total of 16 members, divided into two divisions: a have an SPF breeding center, instead relying on wild broodstock. In shrimp fishing division with 11 members, and a shrimp aquacul- April 2012 the Aquamen farm became the first farm in Madagascar ture division with five members. Each of the shrimp farms in the to be infected with WSSV. The farm was shut down and disinfected, country is represented in the GAPCM. The stated objectives for the but has not yet been permitted to restock, pending submission and association are to influence the development of rational policies for approval of a biosecurity plan. managing and regulating the shrimp farming and fishing sectors in the country, to represent the shrimp industry in discussions with the The smallest farm in Madagascar is the 251-ha Aquamas farm, located government, and to defend the common interests of its members. in Soalala, 150 km south of Majajanga. This farm consists of 142 ponds The GAPCM works closely with and has received funding from its ranging in size from 0.6–2.7 ha. Like the Aquamen hatchery, the institutional partners, including the line ministry responsible for fish- Aquamas hatchery utilizes wild P. monodon broodstock. These brood- eries, and the French Development Agency. The GAPCM has also stock are not screened for viruses, but each batch of postlarvae is PCR- forged a partnership with the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) tested at the time of stocking. The testing is performed by the Pasteur to promote sustainable shrimp farming practices that promote Institute laboratory in Antananarivo. Since the outbreak of WSSV, the resource conservation and preservation of biodiversity. Aquamas facility has been experimenting with various management strategies to improve biosecurity, including chlorination of the water While the stated goal of the GAPCM is to serve as the unified voice in their supply canal and filtering the seawater through 250 micron for the shrimp aquaculture industry, in practice the GAPCM is not a screens installed in specially constructed concrete gates located at unified group. Within the group there are deep divisions and lack of the head of the secondary supply canals. Only nine grow-out ponds trust due to a long-standing rivalry between the group’s two most with a total area of about 25 ha have been stocked as part of the trial powerful and influential members: Unima and Oso Farming. The production runs with this new system. lack of unity within the GAPCM has the potential to interfere with its effectiveness and ability to develop a coordinated and cooperative The Madagascan shrimp industry is based on semi-intensive pro- response to the WSSV. duction of P. monodon in 5–10 ha earthen ponds with little or no aeration. The ponds are managed as flow-through systems with water The Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources (Minestere exchange rates peaking at about 15 percent of pond volume per day. de la Peche et des Ressources Halieutiques; MPRH) is the agency Stocking rates are generally less than 12/m ; average weight at harvest 2 with overall responsibility for the aquaculture sector in Madagascar. ranges from 20 to 30 grams; yields average 1.5 to 1.8 T/ha. Most of Within the MPRH the Directorate for Aquaculture is responsible for the farms produce two crops per year with a dry-out period between strategic planning for the aquaculture sector and for issuing aqua- crops during the coldest months. The largest farm, however, operates culture licenses and for proposing legislation and regulations for the on a continuous basis, obtaining 2.3 production cycles per year. aquaculture sector. All of the farms in Madagascar are vertically integrated, with their The Autorite Sanitaire Halieutique (ASH) is the Competent Authority own hatchery and processing plant. Unima and Oso Farms have for seafood certification and veterinary inspection in Madagascar. developed SPF breeding programs and no longer rely on wild ASH is also the designated OIE National Focal Point for Aquatic broodstock. The smaller companies use wild broodstock. Animal Health in Madagascar. A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 56 C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar Like INIP in Mozambique, ASH is the agency responsible for partly due to the lack of funding for this work. Other factors limiting control of quality standards for all fisheries products. Unlike the their involvement include the lack of staffing to collect samples, situation in Mozambique, the legal framework for AAH policy in and restrictions on reporting results to the farms of samples they Madagascar is much better defined. In 2001, the legislature passed submitted. The current rules require that all results must be reported the Development of Responsible Shrimp Aquaculture Act (Act first to ASH. This results in a time delay of about 3 weeks in reporting 2001.020) which established a permitting process and prescribed results back to the farms. Also, the cost per sample for PCR testing basic biosecurity and environmental protection practices to be fol- at the LES (US$60/sample) is high, which is a significant deterrent lowed by the industry. In 2005, Decree No. 2005-185 established a for farms to use the LES for routine testing. Unima and LGA do their National Pathogen List for animal diseases. own PCR testing at a cost of US$10/sample or less, rather than use the LES laboratory. The Laboratory for Epidemiological Surveillance (LES) came into existence through a 2006 convention between the GAPCM, the Malagasy government, and the French Development Agency THE WSD OUTBREAK ON THE 4.4  MOZAMBIQUE CHANNEL and identified shrimp disease outbreaks as one of the most important risk factors for the future development of the shrimp Soon after WSSV appeared in Saudi Arabia, it began showing up in aquaculture industry in Madagascar. The convention called for a the Mozambique Channel. In September 2011 WSSV was diagnosed national policy on aquatic health, an aquatic disease surveillance at the Aquapesca shrimp farm in Mozambique. In April 2012 WSSV program and the establishment of a national aquatic animal health was found at the Aquamen EF farm in Madagascar. In September laboratory. After the convention, the government issued Decree 2012 WSSV was found at the Marima farm in Besalampy. The geno- No. 20142/2006 and with €1.4 million from AFD, created the types of the WSSV isolated from the Aquapesca farm in Mozambique Laboratory for Epidemiological Surveillance at the Pasteur Institute and at the Besalampy farm in Madagascar were the same as one of in Antananarivo. In 2010, LES was designated by the government as the new WSSV strains found in Saudi Arabia. The genotype of WSSV the official national laboratory for aquatic animal health monitoring. isolated from the Aquamen farm was identical to the other new WSSV strain from Saudi Arabia (Lightner 2012). These results suggest In 2009, Decree No. 33423 established a National Policy on Aquatic that both strains of WSSV found in the Mozambique Channel have Health. As part of this national policy, a shrimp disease survey was a common origin with the Saudi Arabian WSSV strains. It is not clear commissioned for the west coast of Madagascar. The plan called how the Saudi Arabian WSSV was transported to the Mozambique for sampling of wild and farmed shrimp by ASH personnel and PCR Channel. It could have been transported by ocean currents or in analyses by the LES. One of the original objectives of the lab was to ship ballast water. It is also possible that WSSV-infected shrimp survey diseases in the region to establish it as an OIE disease-free zone. from Saudi Arabia were processed in shrimp processing facilities Aquamen volunteered to be the first farm sampled in the survey. The in Mozambique or Madagascar. Shrimp processing waste is a sus- disease survey began in 2010 with samples being taken both from wild pected route for introduction of WSSV into the Americas (Durand crustaceans at various locations on the west coast of Madagascar and et al. 2000). at the Aquamen farm. The sampling program was designed to detect viral diseases at a 1 percent incidence rate in the population. No WSSV WSSV in Mozambique was detected in 2010 or 2011. Funding from the AFD ended after 2010, The following is a brief description of WSSV outbreak in Mozambique and in 2011 government funding for the project also lapsed. Sampling and the actions that were taken by the various stakeholders. was discontinued in 2012 due to insufficient funds. The first outbreak of WSD occurred at the Aquapesca shrimp farm Since the WSSV outbreak began, the LES has not been an active par- in Quelimane. Following a significant temperature drop (>3°C), ticipant in the WSSV surveillance efforts in Madagascar. This is only mortalities and moribund shrimp were observed in one pond and R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar 57 in the water inlet canal. The pleopod samples of moribund shrimp among broodstock that had been captured from the Moma area were sent to the Centro de Biotecnología da Universidad Eduardo and brought to the hatchery on September 3. The shrimp turned Mondlane for PCR analysis. On September 3, CB-UEM reported the reddish, had difficulty molting, and then died. Handling stress was samples tested negative for WSSV and all other OIE-listed diseases, suspected. However, the mortalities continued until 100 percent of despite the fact that the shrimp that were sampled had visible white the shrimp had died. At least two new batches of broodstock from spots on the carapace (Le Groumellec 2011). There is some evidence the Moma area were received at the hatchery over the next several that the samples had been fixed in Davidson’s fixative rather than days. These, too, developed the same symptoms and began dying. 95 percent ethanol. This would explain the negative PCR result. By September 18 broodstock that had been in the hatchery since Unfortunately, the error allowed the disease to spread for another early August and were housed in a different area in the hatchery 10 days before it was properly diagnosed. also began dying. On September 3, managers began flushing the inlet canal. Believing On September 17 and 20 samples were collected from all brood- the disease to be bacterial in origin, the managers began feeding stock groups at the hatchery and were sent to a private labora- the shrimp with medicated (oxytetracycline; OTC) feed. However, by tory in Ecuador (Concepto Azul) for PCR testing. Results were not September 5 two-thirds of the ponds on the farm were affected. received back from this laboratory until October 27, November 5, INAQUA was notified of the disease outbreak on September 4. and November 8. All samples were positive for WSSV. On September 5 representatives from INAQUA and INIP (the OIE The laboratory operated normally despite the mortalities until focal point for AAH) visited the shrimp farm to observe the prob- September 29, 2011, when the hatchery was inspected by INIP and lem firsthand. Pleopod samples collected on September 4 and 5 INAQUA. The destruction of all stocks was ordered and initiated were sent to the UAZ OIE Reference Laboratory with a request that immediately. they be tested for Rickettsia-like bacteria (RLB). Despite the white On November 20, 2011, a shipment of wild shrimp captured from spots on the shrimp, WSSV was discounted as a possible cause the Nova Mambone area were brought to Marbar’s Vilankulos facil- due to the negative PCR result from September 3. Additional ity where they began exhibiting clinical signs of WSD. These shrimp samples were sent to CB-UEM. On September 9, UAZ reported were quarantined and pleopod samples were taken and sent to the samples tested negative for RLB. Meanwhile, WSD continued the CB-UEM and UAZ laboratories for PCR analysis. Three additional to spread on the farm and mortalities were mounting. The inlet batches of shrimp from the same area were brought to the facil- canal continued to be flushed daily. On September 12 the farm ity over the next 2 weeks that also developed symptoms of WSD. managers requested the UAZ and CB-UEM laboratories to test the On December 9 and 10 UAZ and CB-UEM both reported positive samples sent on September 6 for WSSV. Later that day UAZ con- WSSV PCR results. The Competent Authority was notified, and the firmed the samples were positive for WSSV. Flushing of the inlet quarantined shrimp were destroyed under the supervision of INIP. canal was stopped immediately. CB-UEM confirmed the diagnosis Curiously, none of the shrimp at the facility other than the quaran- on September 14 and 16. tined shrimp from Nova Mambone were tested. Nor did INIP request Destruction of the shrimp and disinfection of the Aquapesca farm PCR testing of shrimp held at Marbar’s Beira facility. was carried out between September 16 and 29 under the supervi- Following the WSSV outbreaks, Marbar has continued to collect wild sion of representatives from INIP. The OIE was notified of the pres- broodstock and sell them to hatcheries in Asia after on-site testing ence of white spot disease in Mozambique on September 22 by the using an IQ+ PCR diagnostic kit purchased for the company by the National Director of Veterinary Services. APCM. They prefer to perform their own testing due to the high cost WSSV hit the Aquapesca hatchery in Nacala at almost the same time (US$20/sample) of PCR testing at CB-UEM. However, they only test as the farm was hit. On September 4, 2011, mortalities were observed shrimp they suspect of being infected after subjecting them to a A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 58 C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar stress test involving exposure to low temperature and dissolved to the hatchery they are placed in individual holding tanks in a oxygen. Shrimp that appear weak or which have reddish coloration dedicated quarantine greenhouse. Pleopods are taken from each or necrotic lesions are selected for PCR testing. About 10 percent shrimp for PCR testing. Only shrimp with negative PCR test results of the shrimp that test positive to WSSV survive the stress tests. Dr. are transferred to the maturation building. Broodstock are not, how- Chris Schnell, Technical Director at Marbar, believes this is evidence ever, retested after spawning. that the surviving shrimp may be resistant to WSSV. Aquapesca cautiously restocked the farm early in 2012 using PLs The Sol y Mar shrimp farm in Beira was not in operation at the time produced from the PCR-tested broodstock. Initially they ran a small- WSD hit the Aquapesca farm. However, Sol y Mar stocked their farm scale trial for only 2 months. Survival was 90 percent. Encouraged three times in 2012, and each time the farm experienced major by the success of this trial they restocked the entire farm for the losses due to WSD. After stocking the farm in March, there was a second cycle. Many of the ponds were again hit by WSD, and overall period of heavy rainfall and cool temperatures in April. Soon after survival for the crop was less than 1 percent. that, there was an outbreak of WSD causing 100 percent loss of the crop. The farm was drained, disinfected, and dried out over the WSSV in Madagascar winter months of May to September. In October and November, the The following account of the WSSV crisis in Madagascar is based farm was restocked, but soon experienced major mortalities due on interviews with public sector stakeholders, including Dr. Luc to WSD. The farm was dried out and restocked again in December. Josué Ralaimarindaza, Executive Director of the Autorité Sanitaire Although WSD disease again hit the farm, this time there were sev- Halieutique, Dr. Iony Razanajatovo, Director of the Laboratory for eral ponds that did not have WSD outbreaks. The improved results Epidemiological Surveillance, and with private stakeholders, includ- may have been due to the warmer, drier weather conditions during ing representatives from the Unima group, Oso Farming LGA, and this crop cycle. Aquamas. Sol y Mar conducts its own PCR analyses on-site using an IQ+ detec- The first farm in Madagascar to develop WSD was the Aquamen tion kit. No shrimp samples were submitted to the UAZ or CB-UEM EF shrimp farm, located north of Morondava. On April 10, 2012, laboratories for PCR analysis. INIP did not supervise the destruction the Aquamen farm became the first farm in Madagascar to be of shrimp stocks following the outbreaks, or inspect the farm prior infected with WSSV. Approximately 4 months before WSSV was to restocking. detected at the farm the LES suspended the surveillance program at Aquamen and surrounding areas due to lack of funding. This Sol y Mar operates a small hatchery on-site using wild broodstock was unfortunate because it deprived Aquamen of an early warn- purchased from local fishermen. Samples of their broodstock are ing that might have allowed them to take measures to prevent or PCR-tested prior to use. Despite the negative PCR test results, the mitigate the effects of WSSV on the farm. Shortly after mortalities broodstock may still have been the original source of the WSSV were observed on the farm, the shrimp population on the farm outbreak in March. Often shrimp with low levels of infection will was sampled and tested for WSSV. Prevalence of WSSV-infected test negative for WSSV prior to spawning, but test positive after- animals was 10 percent. At the same time the prevalence in wild wards (Hsu et al. 1999). None of the broodstock was retested after populations of shrimp near the farm was 5 percent. It was also spawning. After the March outbreak, WSSV may well have survived reported (L Ralaimarindaza, personal communication) that WSSV in populations of ghost shrimp and crabs on the farm, resulting in was not detected along the coast except in the immediate vicin- rapid infection of shrimp after restocking of the farm. ity of the Aquamen farm. It is not clear when these prevalence Following the disinfection and dry-out of the farm and hatchery, data became available as there was not an ongoing surveillance Aquapesca set up a broodstock quarantine and PCR screening program in effect in May 2012. Mortalities increased and within 2 program at the Nacala hatchery. When wild broodstock are brought weeks about 75 percent of the shrimp on the farm were dead. The R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar 59 UAZ reference laboratory officially confirmed the WSSV diagnosis MANAGEMENT OF WSSV 4.5  on May 9, 2012. OUTBREAKS WORLDWIDE WSSV is the most serious pathogen of cultured shrimp. Beginning The Competent Authority ordered Aquamen to destroy all shrimp in the 1990s, almost all shrimp producing countries in Asia and on the farm without releasing water from the ponds. Aquamen was nine countries in the Americas have been infected as of 1999. also ordered to shut down their hatchery and destroy all broodstock Most recent outbreaks include that of Brazil (2005), the Kingdom and seedstock. On April 21 Aquamen began collecting and burying of Saudi Arabia (2010–11), Mozambique (2011), Brunei (2012), and the remaining shrimp on their farm. They stopped pumping, closed Madagascar (2012). Losses from the 1992–93 WSSV outbreaks in the discharge gates, and held the water in their ponds for 3 months Asia alone were estimated at US$6 billion; in the Americas, about until it had evaporated. The ponds and canals were then plowed, US$1–2 billion during the 1999 outbreak. limed, and dried out. Over 1 year later Aquamen remains closed, because the regulatory policy of the Competent Authority does The path to recovery has not been the same for Asia and Latin not permit restocking until an approved biosecurity plan has been America. The production strategies that predominate in these two submitted by Aquamen. regions have always differed. In Asia, shrimp ponds are typically 1 ha or less and stocked at densities of 50–120 shrimp/m2. Ponds In September 2012 the Marima shrimp farm in Besalampy was the are aerated continuously and water exchange rates are low. Latin next farm to experience an outbreak of WSD. In early September, American farms typically consist of earthen ponds averaging Unima’s own surveillance program collected some wild shrimp 2–10 ha and stocked at densities of 20/m2 or less. Latin American from near the Marima pump intake that tested positive for WSSV. farms use little aeration but water exchange rates of 10–15 percent/ Following their contingency plan, Marima stopped all pumping at day are common. The differences in farm design and production the farm and began emergency harvesting of the ponds. All ponds strategy have led to different approaches to managing WSD. were harvested within 2 weeks. PCR-testing of shrimp within the farm showed that some of the ponds were infected with WSSV, but most of the ponds were salvaged. The Marima ponds were dried The Asian WSSV Management Approach and disinfected and a biosecurity plan was prepared and submitted In Asia, the approach to managing WSSV is to eliminate all potential to the Competent Authority. The plan was approved and the ponds sources of infection. Vertical transmission is prevented by stocking were restocked after the dry-out period. SPF postlarvae. Prevention of horizontal transmission requires a variety of measures. By increasing the amount of aeration in the The Aquamas shrimp farm is located less than 150 km to the shrimp ponds, water exchange can be largely eliminated (Hopkins north of Marima. WSSV was detected on the Aquamas shrimp et al. 1993). Each kW of aeration can support an additional 500 farm 1 month after it was found at Marima. Aquamas immediately kg of shrimp production (Boyd 1998). Shrimp ponds in Asia often initiated an emergency harvest of all their ponds. Aquamas dried have between 10 and 20 kW/Ha of aeration, allowing them to pro- out the facility for 5 months before stocking nine ponds in March duce 5–10 MT/Ha of shrimp with little or no water exchange. The 2013 to test the effectiveness of some biosecurity enhancements low rates of water exchange significantly reduce the risk of intro- to the farm. ducing carriers of WSSV into the shrimp ponds. The low volume of As of May 2013 neither the Aqualma farm nor the Oso Farming exchange also allows for economical disinfection of the water that LGA farm have been affected by WSSV. Surveillance of wild shrimp is pumped into the farm. After filling a pond for stocking, most populations has yet to detect WSSV within Mahajanga Bay where Asian farms treat the water with either chorine (20–30 ppm) or Aqualma is located. The Oso Farming LGA farm is located nearly a crustacide (for example, Trichlorfon) to kill the crustacean carri- 500 km to the north of Mahajanga. WSSV has not been detected ers of WSSV. Many also utilize dedicated treatment ponds to treat north of Mahajanga. water used for exchange with chlorine or crustacides. A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 60 C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar The Latin American WSSV Management Approach In Madagascar and Mozambique pond water temperatures are cold- The strategy of heavily aerating ponds and eliminating water est from mid-May to the end of September (figure 4.5). During this exchange is not a practical strategy in Latin America, where ponds are time period water temperatures are likely to average less than 27°C. often 10 ha or larger. In Latin America the strategy adopted included These are the months when the risk of WSD outbreaks is highest. stocking only SPF PLs, operating only during the warm months of the Shrimp farms can reduce their risk of WSD outbreaks by not operat- year, improved filtration (200 microns) of incoming water, and bet- ing the farm during this time period. That leaves 226 days between ter management of pond bottoms and water quality. As a long-term October 1 and May 15. Allowing 21 days between crops leaves only strategy, several of the larger farms invested in breeding programs in 205 growing days per year for two crops of shrimp. an effort to develop shrimp stocks with significant resistance to WSSV. Head-starting PLs in a Greenhouse Some shrimp farms in Latin America have begun using indoor nurs- FARM-LEVEL STRATEGIES FOR 4.6  CONTROLLING WSSV ery systems (figure 4.6) to head-start their crops to regain the pro- duction days lost by avoiding the cold season. An indoor raceway Avoid Stocking during the Cold Season system provides a biosecure production environment with warm The expression of WSSV infections in shrimp are temperature depen- water temperatures. Subsequent survival in the grow-out pond will dent. High water temperature (>32°C) prevents the onset of WSD generally be improved by stocking an advanced juvenile. Litopenaeus and significantly reduces mortality of WSSV-infected shrimp (Vidal vannamei PLs are typically stocked at densities of up to 2,000–3,000 et al. 2001). WSSV infection is much more likely to cause mortality PLs/m2 and grown to a size of 2.0–2.5 g in lined raceways. Optimal when water temperatures are 27°C or less. Because of this relation- stocking densities for P. monodon nursery raceways would be lower, ship between water temperature and WSSV virulence, many shrimp perhaps about 1,000 PLs/m2 for a 50-day nursery period (Briggs 1991). farmers in areas where WSSV is endemic avoid operating their farms Four 7m 3 50m raceways stocked at 1,000/m2 and harvested with 85 during the coldest months of the year FIGURE 4.5: Annual Temperature and Salinity Variation for a Madagascar Shrimp Farm. Shaded Area Is the Time Period When Water Temperatures Are Less Than 27°C (After Corpron 2005) Annual temperature and salinity variation 32 35 31 30 30 29 25 28 Temperature (°C) Salinity (ppt) 27 20 26 Temperature 25 15 Salinity 24 10 23 Highest WSSV risk 22 5 21 20 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Month R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar 61 percent survival would provide enough juveniles to stock one 10-ha Pond Aeration pond at a density of 12/m . 2 In Asia aeration has been applied to intensify production in small ponds. Shrimp farmers in Madagascar and Mozambique have little Reduce Water Exchange interest in intensification of their culture systems. They have differenti- One of the most effective strategies for minimizing risk of WSD on ated their shrimp in the marketplace by emphasizing the quality of farms is to operate the farm with little or no water exchange. Water their shrimp which they attribute to the outstanding environmental exchange provides an opportunity for carrier organisms such as conditions in their low density ponds. The goal of aerating the ponds shrimp and crabs to enter the farm. Even filtered seawater may con- in this situation is not to intensify production, but to maintain current tain planktonic carriers such as copepods and crustacean larvae. In production levels with much lower rates of water exchange. In addi- areas where there are active WSD outbreaks, free WSSV virions in the tion, aeration should help maintain higher dissolved oxygen levels seawater will pass through even the finest screens and are capable to avoid stressing the shrimp. The addition of 5 kW/ha of aeration of infecting shrimp in the ponds (Esparza-Leal et al. 2009). Reducing should allow stocking densities to be increased from 10 to 15 shrimp/ water exchange should be a part of every farm’s strategy to reduce m2 without compromising product quality. The capital cost associ- their risk of WSSV. ated with adding 5 hp of aeration capacity to a farm is estimated at US$5,600/ha, including the cost of power generation and distribu- Water is exchanged in shrimp ponds to reduce the buildup of tion (table 4.1). The additional production would pay for the cost of organic matter and nitrogenous wastes in the pond. Simply reduc- installing aerators and generators on the farm. Much of the additional ing water exchange rates is not a viable strategy since water qual- operating cost associated with running paddlewheel aerators in the ity will deteriorate and the carrying capacity of the pond will be ponds is offset by the savings in reduced pumping costs. reduced. However, there are many studies that show that water exchange can be reduced or eliminated in shrimp ponds by aer- Probiotics ating the pond (Hopkins et al. 1993; Hopkins et al. 1995). Each kW Regular probiotic usage can improve the pond environment in of aeration can support an additional 500 kg of shrimp production several ways. Probiotics compete with pathogenic bacteria, such (Boyd 1998). Shrimp ponds in Asia often have between 10 and 20 as Vibrio harveyi and V. parahaemolyticus, reducing the counts kW/ha of aeration, allowing them to produce 5–10 MT/Ha of shrimp of the pathogenic bacteria in the water (Garriques and Arevalo with little or no water exchange. 1995; Moriarty 1998). Several studies have demonstrated a FIGURE 4.6: Indoor Nursery Raceway System for Head- Starting PLs (Photo: L. Drazba) TABLE 4.1: Employment Cost of Adding 5 hp/ha of Paddlewheel Aeration for a 400-ha Shrimp Farm. The Cost Includes the Installation of Generators and Power Lines to Each Pond. UNIT ITEM UNITS QTY PRICE TOTAL Paddlewheel aerator, 2.5 hp ea 800 $1,000 $800,000 Starter panel ea 800 $200 $160,000 Power cabling ha 400 $200 $80,000 Electrical distribution– ha 400 $2,000 $800,000 power lines 500 KVA generators– ea 8 $50,000 $400,000 (2 KVA/KW) Total Cost ha 400 $5,600.00 $2,240,000 A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 62 C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar relationship between the counts of bacteria that form green colonies on TABLE 4.2: Estimated Cost for Installing a Microscreen Drum thiosulfate-citrate-bile-salts-sucrose (TCBS) agar plates (V. harveyi, V. Filtration System with Filtration Capacity of 6 m3/sec parahaemolyticus, and V. vulnificus) and outbreaks of WSD (Gunalan UNIT TOTAL DESCRIPTION QUANTITY PRICE COST et al. 2010; Tendencia and Verreth 2011). In addition probiotics are Microscreen drum filter– 12 $50,000 $600,000 able to consume toxic nitrogenous wastes (Avnimelech 1999). 100 micron screen Probiotics are a useful tool that can help maintain healthy condi- Concrete weir and drum 12 $40,000 $480,000 tions in a pond even under restricted water exchange. Regular filter support structure probiotic usage will add about US$300/ha/cycle in operating costs. Electrical installation 12 $10,000 $120,000 Total estimated cost of microscreen drum filter and weir $1,200,000 Exclusion of Carriers by Filtration Exclusion of carriers of WSSV should be a critical component of any farm level strategy for preventing WSD (Clifford 1999). There is no Including the cost of the concrete structures needed to mount and broad agreement in the industry with respect to the size of filter direct the flow through the drum filters, the final installed cost could screen that should be used. To be effective, the water should be reach US$100,000 per unit. While this option may be the ideal filtra- filtered down to at least 200 microns. From a biosecurity standpoint, tion option from a biosecurity standpoint, the cost will be prohibi- WSSV risk decreases with screen size. That consideration must be tive for most farms. balanced against the practicality of obtaining the required flow rates and frequency of cleaning. Bag Filtration of Seawater Entering a Pond An affordable alternative to filtering the water before it enters the Microscreen Drum Filters distribution canals is to filter it at the inlet gates for each pond. Ideally all seawater entering the farm should be filtered before it is The traditional concrete inlet gate uses one or two flat 500-micron discharged into the water distribution canal. However, filtering the screens to exclude fish and crabs. Copepods and crustacean larvae large volumes of water pumped onto the farms (6–20 m /sec) pre- 3 easily pass through these screens. Using a finer 200-micron screen sents a challenge. A large amount of filtration surface area is required, in the existing frames is not a good filtration option because the and screens can become clogged very quickly. Microscreen drum screens would require constant cleaning to keep them from clog- filters provide a practical solution to these problems. Microscreen ging. In Latin America this problem has been overcome by using drum filters are mechanical, self-cleaning filters designed to filter fine 4-m long filter bags. Typically the filter bags are set up with an inner suspended solids from the water at flow rates. A drum filter consists and an outer bag. The inner bag has a course mesh (1 mm), while of a horizontally mounted cylindrical drum with fine-mesh screen the outer bag is a finer mesh, usually 200 microns. The filter bags are wrapped around it. Water enters the front of the drum and passes attached to a frame that is mounted on the pond side of the inlet through the screen. Suspended solids are deposited on the inner sur- gate. The end of the filter bags are tied off. The length of the filter face of the screen. The drum rotates slowly and solids are continually bag provides a large amount of surface area for filtration. The bags washed off the screen by a high pressure spray bar. Drum filters can are self-cleaning in the sense that trapped solids are continually be fitted with filter screens from 10–500 microns, and can handle flow washed down to the end of the filter bag by the water flow, leaving rates of up to 500 L/sec with a 100-micron screen. most of the length of the filter clean for filtration. The accumulated solids need to be emptied from the end of the bag two or three Filling a 400-ha shrimp farm in 30 days with 12 hours a day available times per day. for pumping requires a total pumping capacity of almost 7 m3/sec. To filter this flow through 500 L/sec drum filters would require 14 Materials for the filter bags cost about US$250 per inlet gate. units. The capital requirements for this filtration option are very high Assuming one inlet gate for every 5 ha of pond area, the cost would (table 4.2). Large drum filters can cost more than US$50,000 each. be about US$50 per hectare of farm ponds. R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar 63 Install Water Distribution Canal Drain Structures Bird Netting Water distribution canals on many shrimp farms are rarely drained, Birds have long been suspected as vectors for transmission of and many even lack drainage structures. Over time they are colo- WSSV. Following disease outbreaks, large numbers of seabirds are nized by a wide range of organisms, including fish, shrimp, crabs, often attracted to the affected pond to feed on the dead and dying oysters, and other crustaceans. The presence of a large biomass of shrimp. It has been hypothesized that after feeding on infected potential carriers of WSSV represents a significant biosecurity risk shrimp, birds can transmit WSSV from one pond to another either for the shrimp farm. A simple and relatively inexpensive solution to by defecating or regurgitating. A study by Van Patten et al. (2004) this problem is to construct one or more drainage gates to facili- demonstrated that while WSSV isolated from the feces of birds is tate regular draining of the distribution canal. After draining, the noninfective, regurgitated WSSV remains infective. Many seabirds distribution canal should be dried out thoroughly before refilling to regularly regurgitate nondigestible food items. eliminate potential vectors living in burrows. In areas where WSSV is endemic, many shrimp farms now cover the The estimated cost of constructing concrete water control struc- ponds with bird netting or monofilament scare lines to exclude birds tures for draining the distribution canal is about US$7,000 each. from shrimp ponds. Data from a farm in Malaysia shows that bird net- ting can effectively prevent the spread of WSSV from infected ponds to Crab Fencing other ponds on the farm. Even very large ponds can be covered with Crabs can be an important reservoir host for WSSV (Lo et al. 1996; monofilament netting supported on cables strung between support Kanchanaphum et al. 1998) and are abundant in the mudflats where posts anchored in the pond bottom (figure 4.8). The cost for covering a most shrimp farms are built. The ability of crabs to travel over land shrimp pond with monofilament netting is approximately US$2,000/ha. means special measures are needed to exclude crabs from shrimp ponds. When properly maintained, crab fencing has proven to be an Disinfection of Seawater Entering the Farm effective means of excluding crabs from shrimp ponds. Crab fences Filtration systems are effective at preventing vectors larger than are plastic barriers typically about 50 cm high erected around the the mesh size of the screen, but it is still possible for WSSV to perimeter of a farm (figure 4.7). enter a pond either as free virions or in planktonic carriers such as Crab fencing is inexpensive, costing about US$500/km of fence. copepods. Disinfection of the pond water with chlorine or ozone Crab fencing is only needed on farm perimeter levees and on levees can be an effective way of inactivating WSSV that passes through between ponds and canals. the mechanical filtration systems. WSSV has been shown to be inactivated by exposure to 200 ppm of sodium hypochlorite for FIGURE 4.7: Crab Fencing 10 minutes (Balasubramanian et al. 2006). In pond applications the OIE (2013) recommends maintaining a minimum free chlorine level of 10 ppm for 24–48 hours after filling. Free chlorine should be monitored at regular intervals and calcium hypochlorite should be reapplied as necessary to maintain this minimum concentration. An initial application rate of 30 ppm of free chlorine will usually be sufficient to maintain the required 10 ppm of chlorine for 24 hours. After treatment the pond should be allowed to sit for 4 or 5 days before stocking to allow the chlorine to dissipate. A total of 462 kg of granular chlorine (65 percent chlorine) is required to treat 1 ha of pond area filled to a depth of 1 m. Assuming Photo: D. Jory a cost of US$1.20/kg for granular chlorine, the cost for disinfecting A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 64 C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar FIGURE 4.8: Bird Netting Photo: P. Van Wyk Photo: G. Chamberlain a pond prior to stocking is US$554/ha. For a farm producing 2,000 shrimp testing positive should be destroyed. However, a negative kg/ha per crop, disinfecting the pond prior to stocking would add PCR test does not guarantee that the shrimp is not infected with US$0.28/kg to the production cost. WSSV. The viral load in shrimp with latent infections may be below the detection limit, especially if PCR samples are pooled. The stress Chlorinating the water within the shrimp pond disinfects the initial fill of spawning may weaken the host immune system allowing the of the pond, but a separate treatment reservoir is required to chlori- virus to replicate. Shrimp that test negative for WSSV may test posi- nate water used for water exchanges. If the total time required to treat tive after spawning (Hsu et al. 1999). If wild broodstock are used, it the water is 4 days, two treatment ponds will be needed to ensure a is essential that the female breeders be retested for WSSV after each continuous supply of disinfected seawater. Each of the ponds should spawn. A sample of PLs should also be stressed and PCR-tested and have a volume of four times the daily farm water requirement. If the only PLs with negative test results should be stocked on the farms. farm is exchanging 5 percent of the pond volume per day, the total volume of the treatment ponds would equal 40 percent of the volume of the production ponds. This is not a cost-effective use of pond area. SPF Broodstock The use of screened wild broodstock should be seen only as an HATCHERY-LEVEL STRATEGIES FOR 4.7  interim strategy for obtaining disease free seedstock. The long- CONTROLLING WSSV term strategy for ensuring the disease free status of seedstock is to Stocking postlarvae produced from wild broodstock is the single big- replace wild broodstock with SPF broodstock. The replacement of gest risk factor for the development of WSD in shrimp farms. Infected wild broodstock with SPF broodstock has been a key factor in the broodstock transmit WSSV to their offspring. Once WSSV becomes recoveries of both the Asian and Latin American shrimp industries established in wild populations, the use of wild broodstock in the from WSSV. In a 2006 report on the state of world aquaculture, the hatchery is likely to result in outbreaks of WSD on the farm. Food and Agriculture Organization concluded that without the importation and use of SPF broodstock, it is unlikely that Asia’s major PCR Testing of Wild Broodstock shrimp producing countries could have recovered from outbreaks If domesticated broodstock are not available, the risk of vertical of WSSV and other viral diseases, given the severe shortage of transmission of WSSV can be mitigated by quarantining and PCR healthy wild-caught broodstock (FAO 2006). testing of broodstock for WSSV and other OIE-listed viruses. For this to be effective the broodstock must be quarantined in individual The term SPF has often been misused and misunderstood. By defini- holding tanks and each shrimp must be individually tested. Any tion, SPF only refers to shrimp that are free of specific pathogens. R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar 65 FIGURE 4.9: Steps to SPF Stock Development as Developed by the U.S. Marine Shrimp Farming Program (After Lightner 2011) Candidate wild/farmed Secondary quarantine facility F0 stock of interest Produce adult negative Produce broodstock F1 generation + = discard (SPF) negative Primary + = discard quarantine of F0: test for negative + = discard pathogens/pests Breeding Primary negative center(s) and quarantine Farms hatcheries facility + = discard SPF status is not a heritable trait nor is it a lifetime condition. SPF WSSV-Resistant Broodstock shrimp can become infected when exposed to a pathogen. SPF Once a sufficient number of genetically distinct families are developed shrimp have neither innate resistance nor innate susceptibility to a for the SPF breeding program, it is not necessary to continue collec- particular pathogen. The advantage of using SPF seedstock is that tion of new families from the wild. At that point, the SPF development they are free from disease at the time they are stocked. If the patho- program transforms into a domestication program. Careful attention gen can then be excluded from the culture environment, disease will need to be paid to the families that are being created to prevent caused by that pathogen can be avoided. inbreeding. Ideally a few important traits will be selected for to improve the performance characteristics of the shrimp. The three most impor- The development of SPF broodstock is an involved and time- tant characteristics of any culture species are its growth rate, its breed- consuming process (Lotz 1992; Moss et al. 2003; Lightner 2011). This ing fecundity, and its survival in the culture system. In an environment involves collecting shrimp from the wild and transferring them to a where viral disease is a constant threat, breeding for disease resistance primary quarantine facility (figure 4.9) where they are analyzed for can substantially improve survivability in the culture system. specifically listed pathogens. If they test negative, they are trans- ferred to a secondary quarantine facility where they are spawned to For example, a selective breeding program initiated by a produce an F1 generation of captive shrimp. If shrimp from the F1 Panamanian shrimp company in 2001 has resulted in the develop- generation test negative for specifically listed pathogens after sev- ment of significant resistance to WSSV in three selected lines of L. eral successive screenings, they are transferred to a nucleus breed- vannamei (Cuéllar-Anjel et al. 2012). In trials where shrimp from ing center where they become part of the SPF breeding population. different genetic lines were challenged per os with WSSV, survival The process of developing SPF broodstock requires at least 2 years. was 23 percent, 26 percent, and 57 percent 17 days after exposure in shrimp from families selected for WSSV-resistance, compared to There are two companies in the region (Unima and Oso Farming 0 percent in unselected controls (figure 4.10). LGA) that have already developed SPF P. monodon broodstock. It would be a tremendous advantage for the region if a means can be In Latin America development of WSSV-resistant stocks has been found to make SPF breeders or seedstock from these two compa- an important part of the strategy for industry survival now that nies available to the other producers in the region. WSSV is endemic in the environment. However, the benefits of A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 66 C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar FIGURE 4.10: Survival by Family in a WSSV Challenge Study TABLE 4.3: Breeding Center Cost Per 1,000 PLs as a Function of of Genetic Lines Selected for Resistance to WSSV by a the Number of PLs Produced Per Year from the Breeders and the Panamanian Shrimp Company (After Cuéllar-Anjel et al. 2012) Breeding Center Annual Budget 100 NO. OF PLS PRODUCED/YR BREEDING ANNUAL BUDGET 90 FROM BREEDERS CENTER $500,000 $1,000,000 80 50 million $10.00 $20.00 70 100 million $5.00 $10.00 60 % Survival 200 million $2.50 $5.00 50 300 million $1.67 $3.33 40 30 20 densities, survivals, length of crop cycles, number of crop cycles per 10 year, average weight of shrimp harvested, water exchange rates, 0 Survival at termination and food conversion ratios. We also gathered information on prices received for the shrimp and costs of labor, management, feed, diesel LP-1 Neg. Control LP-2 WSSV Kona + Control LP-1 WSSV LP-3 Neg. Control consumption, and processing costs. Finally, we gathered information LP-2 Neg. Control LP-3 WSSV on investment costs and costs for various upgrades such as bird net- ting, paddlewheel aeration, generators, microscreen drum filters, and selective breeding for disease resistance generally require several so on. years of effort. The resistance to WSSV presented in the Panamanian Using the information gathered, an enterprise budget was devel- example is the result of 10 years of selection for WSSV resistance. oped for a “typical” 400-ha Mozambique Channel shrimp farm. This Selective breeding programs are expensive. Annual costs to operate model assumed no investment in biosecurity improvements. We a small breeding center would likely be between US$500,000 and US$1,000,000 per year. This makes operation of a selective breeding TABLE 4.4: Salient Features of Three Different Biosecurity center too expensive except for large shrimp companies. However Improvement Strategies Compared with a Typical Farm with the cost of PLs produced from the selected broodstock declines as No Biosecurity Improvement Strategy the number of PLs produced increases (table 4.3). For a program that costs US$1,000,000/year to operate, the breeding cost per thousand Stock SPF PLs from breeding center X X X PLs drops from US$10/1,000 PLs to US$4/1,000 PLs as PL production Drainage gates on SW X X X increases from 100 million to 250 million PLs per year. The estimated distibution canal annual demand for PLs for the entire Mozambique Channel shrimp Bird netting over ponds X X X industry is approximately 600 million PLs per year. This demand could Crab fencing X X X easily be met by one breeding center. Sharing the cost of a single Regular probiotic treatments of ponds X X X regional breeding center would be a cost-effective option for the Aeration–5 hp/ha X X farms in the region. Water exchange rate 15%/day 10%/day 0%/day 0%/day Affordability of Biosecurity Improvements Stocking density 9/m2 6/m2 13.5/m2 13.5/m2 A financial analysis was conducted to determine the affordability of Increased capacity of processing X X facilities investing in biosecurity upgrades to the farm facilities. In our inter- 200-micron bag filters on inlet gates X X views with representatives of the different farms, the team gathered 100-micron microscreen drum filters X information on typical production parameters such as stocking R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar 67 then calculated the investment requirements for implementing an expected investment cost of about US$14 million dollars different biosecurity upgrades (table 4.4). To simplify the analysis for a 400-ha farm. Despite the high cost, the profit per kg of we examined the financial consequences associated with three bio- shrimp is reduced by only US$0.12/kg. security strategies or scenarios. STATUS OF FARM-LEVEL IMPLEMENTATION 4.8  Stocking SPF PLs was a common element to all three strategies. We OF BIOSECURITY PLANS assumed this increased the cost of PLs from US$10.00/thousand Mozambique to US$14.00/thousand. Other improvements common to all plans included crab fencing, bird netting, probiotic usage, and drain At Aquapesca, there have been marginal improvements in bios- structures to allow drainage of seawater distribution canals. The ecurity. The main change in production strategy is the entire farm main distinguishing feature between Biosecurity Strategy #1 and is now dried out for 2 1/2 months between cycles, and ponds are the other two strategies is aeration. Strategy #1 assumes no aera- not stocked during the winter months. In the summer, the ponds tion is added to the ponds while Biosecurity Strategies #2 and #3 do not dry out completely, so puddles are now chlorinated. Water both include the addition of 5 hp/ha of aeration. Water exchange exchange rates have been reduced and no water is exchanged without aeration can only be reduced by lowering stocking densi- during the first 30 days of the production cycle. Incoming water ties. The addition of 5 hp of aeration per hectare should allow water is still filtered through a 500-micron screen. There are no plans to exchange to be nearly eliminated. With 5 hp of aeration per hectare install aeration to allow further reductions in water exchange rates. it should be possible to produce approximately 2,500 kg/ha without Aquapesca produces shrimp with organic certification. The organic water exchange (Boyd 1998). The addition of aeration allows stock- certification program allows only emergency aeration. ing rates to be increased from 9/m2 to 13.5/m2. Production under At the Nacala hatchery Aquapesca has implemented a quarantine this scenario would be 2,363 kg/ha, assuming 70 percent survival and PCR testing program so that 100 percent of the broodstock and a harvest weight of 25 g. Biosecurity Strategies #2 and #3 differ brought to the facility are screened with PCR testing (figure 4.11). from one another in the technology selected for seawater filtration. Water treatment at the hatchery now includes chlorination of all Biosecurity Strategy #2 utilizes 200-micron bag filters attached to water entering the hatchery. Every lot of PLs is now PCR-tested fol- the inlet structures while Biosecurity Strategy #3 uses microscreen lowing a stress test before shipment to the farm. drum filters. The costs and returns for each of the four scenarios are presented in table 4.5. These are the key conclusions drawn from this analysis: FIGURE 4.11: Broodstock Quarantine System at the Aquapesca Nacala hatchery (Photo: PP Blanc) ƒƒ Reducing stocking densities to allow for lower water ex- change rates is not a viable biosecurity strategy. The gains in biosecurity are minimal and the reduced productivity of the farm may very well make the farm unprofitable. ƒƒ The addition of 5 hp/ha of aeration should allow for a signifi- cant increase in productivity from 1.57 MT/ha/crop to 2.36 MT/ha/crop, while minimizing the need for water exchange. ƒƒ Biosecurity Strategy #2 (aeration plus bag filtration) increases productivity, reduces overall operating costs, and improves the profit margin. Net returns per kg of shrimp produced are estimated at US$1.25/kg with no biosecurity plan and US$2.00/kg under Strategy #2. ƒƒ The most biosecure strategy, in which aeration and micro- screen drum filtration is used, is very capital intensive with A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 68 C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar TABLE 4.5: Investment Analysis of Three Different Strategies for Improving Farm Biosecurity NO BIOSECURITY BIOSECURITY BIOSECURITY BIOSECURITY ITEM STRATEGY STRATEGY #1 STRATEGY #2 STRATEGY #3 Total farm investment before biosecurity upgrades $12,000,000 $12,000,000 $12,000,000 $12,000,000 Processing plant investment before upgrades $8,000,000 $8,000,000 $8,000,000 $8,000,000 Investment biosecurity upgrades $0 $864,800 $6,104,800 $14,060,000 Total capital investments $20,000,000 $20,864,800 $26,104,800 $34,060,000 Production Assumptions Total farm production pond area 400 ha 400 ha 400 ha 400 ha Stocking rate 9.0 PLs/m 2 6.0 PLs/m 2 13.5 PLs/m 2 13.5 PLs/m2 Survival rate 70% 70% 70% 70% Shrimp harvest weight 25 g 25 g 25 g 25 g Average yield per ha per cycle 1,575 kg/ha 1,050 kg/ha 2,363 kg/ha 2,363 kg/ha Growing days per production cycle 110 days 110 days 110 days 110 days Feed conversion rate (FOR) 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 Number of production crops per year 2 crops/yr 2 crops/yr 2 crops/yr 2 crops/yr Annual production per year 1,260,000 kg 840,000 kg 1,890,000 kg 1,890,000 kg Revenues $/kg $/kg $/kg $/kg Annual revenues from shrimp sales $11.00 $11.00 $11.00 $11.00 Variable Costs $/kg $/kg $/kg $/kg Shrimp postlarvae $0.57 $0.80 $0.80 $0.80 Feed (kg) $2.52 $2.52 $2.52 $2.52 Fertilizer and lime $0.16 $0.24 $0.11 $0.11 Probiotics $0.00 $0.14 $0.06 $0.06 Supplies $0.16 $0.24 $0.11 $0.11 Diesel fuel for pumping $0.38 $0.39 $0.09 $0.09 Diesel fuel for aeration $0.00 $0.00 $0.70 $0.70 Wages and benefits $1.00 $1.50 $0.66 $0.66 Processing cost $1.75 $1.75 $1.75 $1.75 Repair and maintenance $0.40 $0.60 $0.26 $0.26 General and administration $1.15 $1.73 $0.77 $0.77 Total variable cost/kg $8.09 $9.90 $7.83 $7.83 Fixed Costs $/kg $/kg $/kg $/kg Depreciation on farm investment (15 yr straight line) $0.63 $0.95 $0.42 $0.42 Depreciation of processing plant investment $0.63 $0.95 $0.08 $0.42 Interest on original capital investment $0.40 $0.60 $0.26 $0.26 Depreciation on biosecurity capital improvements $0.00 $0.10 $0.32 $0.74 Interest on biosecurity capital improvements $0.00 $0.03 $0.08 $0.19 Total fixed costs $1.67 $2.63 $1.17 $2.04 TOTAL COST $9.75 $12.53 $9.00 $9.87 Net returns above variable and fixed costs $1.25 2$1.53 $2.00 $1.13 Simple return (Net returns 4 Total investment 3 100%) 7.9% 26.2% 12.0% 6.3% R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar 69 Aquapesca understands that the long-term solution PL biosecurity ƒƒ Dividing the 10-ha ponds in half lengthwise to improve is to develop an SPF breeding facility. François Grosse, director of water circulation patterns. Aquapesca, expressed his desire for the development of a national ƒƒ Improving water quality in the ponds through extensive use of probiotics. SPF breeding facility funded by the World Bank. The breeding facility would be operated as a business, but 10 percent of the PLs would The Unima Group hatcheries already produce SPF postlarvae and have be made available to small-scale Mozambican shrimp farmers free been engaged in selective breeding since 2003 (Le Groumellec et al. of charge. This would satisfy the government’s goal of supporting 2011). Unima believes these capital improvements will allow them to the development of small-scale aquaculture. improve production capacity from 2 MT/crop to 3.5–4.0 MT/crop. The At the time of our visit in May 2013, Sol y Mar was not operating. They increase in production capacity will require increases in the hatchery are considering several modifications of the farm to improve biosecu- production capacity and processing capacity. Unima estimates the pro- rity, including the installation of 5 aerators per pond to allow the ponds posed upgrades will cost nearly US$30 million dollars for the two farms. to be operated with minimal water exchange, and the installation of a The Oso Farming biosecurity plan is a management-based plan. The 70-m deep seawater well for each of the 58 grow-out ponds. They are key elements of the plan include: also planning to clean and recontour the dikes for the ponds which will allow them to do a better job of controlling crabs in the ponds. ƒƒ Early detection of WSSV by mounting massive surveillance of WSSV in wild populations on the northwest coast of The dikes are also in need of maintenance from erosion over the years. Madagascar. The total budget for the renovations is US$2.66 million dollars. Sol y Mar ƒƒ Emergency harvesting and processing of marketable shrimp believes that by moving to a biosecure, zero or low exchange produc- if WSSV detected near the farm. tion system with 10 hp/ha of aeration they can increase their produc- ƒƒ Strict enforcement of biosecurity policies on the farm with tion to 5 MT per hectare per year. The additional revenue generated at respect to personnel. this level of production would justify the cost of the renovations. ƒƒ Stocking SPF postlarvae from the LGA hatchery. ƒƒ Breeding program to develop WSSV-resistant breeding lines. Madagascar ƒƒ Avoid stocking during the winter months. The Unima Group has a comprehensive biosecurity plan to protect ƒƒ Avoid stressing shrimp by strict management of pH, temper- their farm from WSD. The main elements of the plan are as follows: ature, salinity, and redox potential (“Oso Cube of Comfort”). ƒƒ Early detection through surveillance of WSSV infections in This biosecurity plan is unconventional and risky in that it does not wild carrier populations along the Madagascan coast and rely on exclusion of carriers through reduced water exchange, micro- near the farm. screen filtration, crab fences, bird netting, or disinfection of water ƒƒ A contingency plan when WSSV is detected near the farm supplies. The management believes that stocking SPF WSSV-resistant that calls for stopping of all pumping and immediate emer- PLs and maintaining an optimal culture environment will prevent the gency harvest of shrimp larger than 15 g. manifestation of WSD. They also believe they are only months away ƒƒ Installation of 1 mm prefilters, settling ponds, and 35- from having a breeding line with significant resistance to WSSV. micron microscreen drum filters to remove most WSSV carriers before they enter the water supply canal. The Aquamas biosecurity plan includes the following elements: ƒƒ Installation of an ozone water treatment system to kill water- borne WSSV and planktonic carriers. ƒƒ Quarantine and screen broodstock for WSSV before moving ƒƒ Construct a drainable concrete-lined canal system on top of them into the maturation section of their hatchery. the pond levees. ƒƒ PCR testing of postlarvae before stocking. ƒƒ Reducing the water exchange requirements by adding ad- ƒƒ Conversion of a 50 m 3 800 m section of the main water ditional aerators to the ponds, bringing the total aeration to supply reservoir into a chlorination reservoir. Seawater will 10 hp/ha. be disinfected with 30 ppm of chlorine; the seawater will A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 70 C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar remain in the chlorination reservoir for 4 days to allow the If the pathogen has a localized distribution in the wild, then the chlorine to dissipate. objective of the management program is containment of the ƒƒ Filtration of water through 250 micron screens mounted pathogen so that it does not spread. Policies to contain the spread on concrete gates at the entrance to lateral branches of the of WSSV may include: water supply canals. ƒƒ Avoid stocking during the cold season. 1. PCR testing of broodstock and postlarvae 2. Pond level monitoring for WSSV and destruction of shrimp A section of the farm has been modified and production trials are in infected ponds currently underway to test the system. 3. Restrictions on discharge of water from infected facilities without prior disinfection In May 2013, ASH told Aquamen they would be permitted to resume 4. Zoning to define disease-free and infected zones operations if they agreed to a biosecurity plan similar to the Unima’s 5. Quarantine and restrictions on the movement of shrimp plan (D. Chauty, personal communication). The company does not out of the infected zone 6. Regional surveillance monitoring of wild populations to have the financial resources to follow this plan. In the meantime, determine distribution and movements of the virus and to Aquamen remains closed. provide early warning to farms in disease-free zones Once WSSV becomes endemic to a region and broadly distributed NATIONAL RESPONSES TO THE MOZAMBIQUE 4.9  in wild populations, the strategy then shifts from containment to CHANNEL WSSV CRISIS mitigation. Governments can assist by conducting routine disease surveillance, training in disease management procedures, financial Control Options assistance to farms implementing biosecurity enhancements, and Based on the lessons from Asia and Latin America, there are three support to cooperative efforts to produce SPF and disease-resistant broad control options that governments have for dealing with an seedstock. Individual farms must take responsibility for implement- outbreak of white spot disease (DAFF, 2005): ing management strategies and biosecurity procedures to minimize 1. Eradication the impact of WSSV. 2. Zoning and Containment 3. Control and Mitigation Response of the Mozambique Government The appropriate response is a function of the how widely distributed After receiving notification from the CB-UEM and UAZ laboratories that the infection is in the wild population. Eradication is possible only in the Aquapesca disease outbreak was caused by WSSV, a high- level the earliest stages of introduction of WSSV to a new area, when the meeting was called on September 15, 2011 that included representa- virus is not yet established in the wild population. Eradication requires tives from APCM, INAQUA, INIP and the National Fisheries Research immediate destruction and disposal of all stocks in facilities where the Institute (IIP). The objectives of this meeting were to inform the disease has been detected, disinfection and retention of water at the Competent Authority (INIP) of the situation and to formulate a plan on infected facility, and creation of a quarantine buffer zone around the how to respond to the outbreak. A technical committee was formed facility. Widespread surveillance is required to demonstrate that WSSV with members from each of the organizations represented at the has not spread beyond the infected facility. The eradication option meeting. The committee was tasked with planning and coordinating was not applicable in the case of Mozambique and Madagascar, the response to the WSSV outbreak. The response to WSSV included because the disease appeared to originate from infected wild shrimp legislation, development of a WSSV surveillance program, setting up a detected in multiple locations in the Mozambique Channel and pos- national diagnostic laboratory for aquatic animal diseases, and training sibly originating from Saudi Arabia. for INIP personnel in diagnosis of diseases of aquatic organisms. R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar 71 The first official response to the outbreak of WSD in Mozambique WSSV technical committee recognized the need for a policy frame- was the issuing of a decree banning the transport of live and fro- work for aquatic animal health and began work on two legislative zen crustaceans between provinces. The goal of this ban was to documents related to aquatic animal health: prevent the spread of WSSV from the zone of active infection to ƒƒ Aquatic Animal Health Plan (Omar 2011), also known by noninfected areas. The Ministry of Fisheries based this policy on the its Portuguese acronym PESAAQUA (Plano de Sanidade dos recommendations contained in the Australian Aquatic Veterinary Animais Aquaticos), is closely modeled on the Australian Emergency Plan (AQUAVETPLAN) developed for controlling WSD AQUAVETPLAN disease strategy for controlling white spot by the Australian Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry disease (DAFF 2005). PESAAQUA outlines disease control (DAFF 2005). AQUAVETPLAN recommends that as soon as WSD is principles to be followed by the Competent Authority in the case of an outbreak of WSD. Included in the emergency diagnosed in a new region the following zones should be set up plan are chapters discussing various response strategies to and enforced: WSD outbreaks: confirmation of infection, destruction and ƒƒ Restricted areas—areas around infected premises or areas disposal procedures, decontamination procedure, contain- ƒƒ Control areas—buffer zones between the restricted areas ment and control strategies, and principles for setting up a and free areas surveillance plan. PESAAQUA was submitted to the Ministry of Fisheries for approval in July 2013. ƒƒ Free areas—areas that are free from infection or are of unknown status ƒƒ Health Regulations for Farmed Aquatic Animals will specify the aquatic animal health regulations that each All movements of potential vectors for WSSV, especially live and aquaculture operation must adhere to and will be based on frozen crustaceans, should be contained within the restricted and the OIE Aquatic Animal Health Code (OIE 2011). This docu- ment was presented to the Ministry of Fisheries on May 18, control areas. 2013. The ministry decided that the aquatic animal health The effectiveness of this strategy depends on the degree to which regulations should be included as part of the existing ter- the disease is established in wild populations and the geographic restrial animal health laws and that the Competent Authority should be under the Veterinary Services. While this makes distribution of the infected population. This strategy can be very sense from an organizational standpoint, the change will successful when a WSD outbreak results from a recent, point source further delay the development of a functional aquatic ani- introduction such as happens when WSSV is imported with pur- mal health authority in the country due to the lack of trained chased broodstock or PLs. The strategy of preventing the spread personnel, organizational structures and laboratory facilities of disease through restriction of commercial transport of potential with the Veterinary Services. carriers is less likely to be effective if reservoirs of WSSV have already The WSSV technical committee also recognized the need to deter- become established in wild host populations. The fact that shrimp mine the prevalence of WSSV in wild populations of crustaceans can be infected with levels of WSSV below the detection limit for along the entire Mozambican coast. The APCM technical assistant, PCR testing may allow WSSV to spread and become established with input from INAQUA and INIP, designed and implemented an in reservoir populations. In Mozambique surveillance testing con- epidemiological surveillance program. There was no money in the ducted in late 2011 revealed that WSSV was widely distributed Ministry of Fisheries budget for such a program, so the AFD funded along the Mozambican coast. However, the distribution of WSSV in it in 2011 using funds diverted from an aquaculture sector capacity the wild was unknown at the time the Ministry of Fisheries banned building project. Wild shrimp and crabs were sampled in all coastal the transport of crustaceans between provinces. provinces and sent to a private lab in Ecuador for PCR analyses. When At the time of WSSV outbreak there was no legislation in the results of the first 500 samples were reported by testing labora- Mozambique establishing policies on aquatic animal health. The tory in December, it became clear that WSSV was well established in A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 72 C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar most areas along the Mozambican coast, with prevalence reaching ƒƒ Discontinue all pumping activities and block off all drain as high as 32 percent on the coast of Nampula province. The Nacala gates to avoid releasing any contaminated water into the hatchery is in Nampula. The surveillance program continued in 2012 environment. The collection of the slaughtered shrimp from the ponds must be accomplished without discharging water with funding from the Ministry of Fisheries. from the farm. At the request of the Mozambique government, the OIE scheduled ƒƒ Destroy all broodstock and larvae. Shut down and disinfect a Performance of Veterinary Services (PVS) mission to Mozambique the hatchery. from November 10–16, 2011. The OIE PVS missions are designed to ASH has not allowed Aquamen to resume operations pending sub- assist the veterinary services of OIE member countries to establish mission and approval of a biosecurity plan. their current level of performance and to identify gaps and weak- nesses in their ability to comply with OIE international standards Except for the actions listed above, the Competent Authority in (OIE 2013). The PVS was scheduled prior to the outbreak of WSSV Madagascar has been willing but unable to respond to the WSSV in the country. The objectives of the mission were expanded to crisis. The executive director of ASH cited the following reasons for include evaluation of the ongoing WSSV crisis in Mozambique: their limited response to the crisis: origins of disease, actions of private sector stakeholders, actions of 1. Insufficient financial resources to establish a functional public sector stakeholders, and public-private stakeholder coop- emergency plan. eration. The OIE PVS mission report (Le Groumellec 2011) provides 2. Lack of financial resources to assist farmers’ efforts to fight a detailed account of the events associated with WSSV outbreak, the disease. as well as offering excellent recommendations for strengthening 3. Difficulties in finding and hiring scientists specialized in shrimp diseases. Mozambique’s ability to manage aquatic animal health issues. The 4. Lack of communication between private sectors carrying OIE examiner, Dr. Marc Le Groumellec, is a veterinarian specializing out surveillance programs and ASH makes it difficult for in shrimp pathology employed by the Unima Group in Madagascar. ASH to respond to new cases. 5. Delays in reporting of diagnostic results do not allow for 4.10  RESPONSE OF THE MADAGASCAR rapid response to new cases. GOVERNMENT 6. The remote location of farms and the difficulties in com- munication hamper regulatory efforts. Following the official declaration of infection on May 9, ASH issued a decree banning the importation of crustacean species that might Although ASH is the legal authority and is empowered to take the infect Madagascar shrimp. This was done to prevent shrimp that necessary steps to limit the disease outbreak, it is paralyzed by lack were caught elsewhere from being brought to Madagascar for pro- of financial resources. It is hesitant to impose regulatory constraints, cessing. It was also intended to prevent WSSV-infected processed because ASH recognizes that the private farms are often better shrimp from entering the country. funded and have better access to international experts to assist in managing the crisis. The Competent Authority at ASH inspected the Aquamen facility, accompanied by Dr. Marc Le Groumellec, acting in the capacity of A Private Sector Surveillance Program was established in July OIE examiner. On the recommendation of Dr. Le Groumellec, the 2012 following a proposal submitted by GAPCM for a joint effort Competent Authority ordered a program of stamping out the WSSV of the LES and the private PCR labs operated by the Unima Group infection at the farm. The specific measures Aquamen was ordered and Oso Farming LGA. Despite recognition by all stakeholders of to take to eradicate the virus included: the critical importance of such a program, the Ministry of Fisheries ƒƒ All shrimp stocks should be slaughtered, removed from the had no funds available to support surveillance activities. The pri- ponds, and buried with quicklime (CaO). vate sector has had to shoulder both the workload and the cost of R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar 73 WSSV surveillance sampling and testing. Since September 2012, ƒƒ Movement of living aquatic animals within and across Unima has collected 4,442 samples, processed 2,234 samples, and national boundaries is important for economic, social, devel- found 59 samples positive for WSSV (2.6 percent). Since March opment, and public resource purposes. The benefits of such movements must be weighed against the potential risks, 2013, the only positive samples have been collected from near and authorities should implement informed decisions. Soalala. Since May 2012, the LGA has conducted more than 37,000 ƒƒ National and regional aquatic animal health strategies, plans PCR tests on samples collected for their own surveillance program. and programs should be consistent with obligations to the Unfortunately, there is little communication between these two World Organization for Animal Health and/or the World companies, resulting in potential duplication of effort. At the con- Trade Organization (WTO) and other relevant treaties and cluding workshop of this mission on May 21–22, Unima and LGA agreements. agreed to share their PCR results with the other shrimp farms in ƒƒ Countries are encouraged to develop and formalize national the country and with ASH. aquatic animal health strategies and health management procedures that adhere to international and regional stan- dards and be harmonized on as wide a basis as possible. SUBREGIONAL SHRIMP AQUACULTURE 4.11  BIOSECURITY PLAN FOR THE ƒƒ Countries should encourage industries to use preventative MOZAMBIQUE CHANNEL measures to limit their exposure to pathogens and disease. Such measures include but are not limited to the use of In April and May 2013, FAO with financial support from the World better management practices (BMPs), health certification, Bank and AFD, convened regional workshops hosted by the Instituto specific pathogen-free and high health (HH) stocks, quaran- Nacional de Desenvolvimento da Aquacultura and the Autorité tine, and vaccination protocols, as applicable. Sanitaire Halieutique in Maputo and Antananarivo, respectively. The Recognizing that the countries share a common marine environ- principle objective for the workshops was to develop a framework ment and that serious aquatic animal pathogens introduced to the for a subregional program to improve aquatic animal health capac- waters of one country have the potential to spread and negatively ity in the countries of the Mozambique Channel (for example, EU affect aquaculture and/or the wild fisheries of another country, 2006). The following principles served as guidance in the prepara- sovereign governments have a shared responsibility to prevent tion of this program (FAO 2007). the introduction of exotic pathogens and to implement sound and ƒƒ Countries require a minimum level of national and regional sustainable aquaculture practices. The key objectives of a compre- aquatic animal health capacity in order to protect their living hensive aquatic animal health program should be: aquatic resources (including aquaculture), natural aquatic environments, and aquatic biodiversity from the negative 1. To develop a governance system that promotes biosecurity, impacts of pathogens and disease. national strategies for aquatic animal health should be de- ƒƒ Increased aquatic animal health capacity should enable veloped and national legislation regarding aquatic animal health should be reviewed to make sure it is consistent aquaculture to make a greater contribution to the econo- with international standards. mies of these countries through healthy aquatic production, 2. To promote subregional preparedness for AAH crises, indi- increased competitiveness in international markets, and vidual countries should develop emergency operational re- improved economic viability at the national level. sponse plans and train personnel in their implementation. ƒƒ Countries share a common marine environment and thus 3. To improve disease diagnostics regional reference laborato- serious aquatic animal pathogens introduced to the waters ries for diagnostic testing should be recognized; reference of one country have the potential to spread and negatively laboratories should participate in proficiency testing; costs affect aquaculture and/or the wild fisheries of another coun- should be standardized. try. Thus, countries have a shared responsibility to prevent 4. To improve disease surveillance, regional surveillance the introduction of exotic pathogens and to implement programs should be designed and personnel trained to sound and sustainable aquaculture practices. implement the surveillance programs; surveillance data A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 74 C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar should be used to contain pathogens in infected areas and results, a SWOT analysis exercise (box 4.1) was conducted during protect noninfected areas. the workshop. 5. To minimize risk from new or exotic pathogens, minimum biosecurity standards and best management practices The program elaborated at the workshop consists of eight compo- should be agreed upon and farms should be required to nents within which are 12 elements containing a total of 42 activi- meet those standards and trained in best management ties. Each component is accomplished by completing the indicated practices. activities. These include actions to be taken by individual countries 6. To promote sustainable aquaculture development and responsible investment in shrimp aquaculture each country in support of their national aquatic animal health strategies, which must create an enabling environment by providing AAH in turn contribute to successful implementation of the subregional services, disseminating information on regional aquaculture activities. Subregional activities should be undertaken jointly by practices, facilitate the formation of farmer associations, countries. A coordinating mechanism needs to be established (for and develop mechanisms for risk management. example, a Regional Aquatic Animal Health Advisory Group) con- 7. To promote the strengthening of national aquaculture institutions, governments should support students seek- sisting of regional and international experts as appropriate. ing degrees in AAH, and should invest in strengthening national diagnostic and research infrastructure. The program (box 4.2) recognizes the importance of human capac- 8. To promote regional collaboration, networking and shar- ity building, and this is addressed primarily in the form of training ing of information and resources, a web portal for AAH programs and workshops for the various areas of aquatic animal should be developed in which surveillance data and other health. Development of research capacity is also important, but this AAH information is shared; there should also be regional generally involves postgraduate training and thus is to be addressed collaboration and sharing of resources such as genetic resources, and feed. by the national governments. 9. Regular and special or emergency meetings should be held between regional stakeholders to promote regional Implementation Strategy cooperation and collaboration. The implementation strategy will be done at two levels, that is, The preparation of the subregional program for the Mozambique national level and regional level (see table 4.1). The implementation Channel involved two main activities: (1) an aquatic animal health strategy emphasizes the need for national-level action to complete performance and capacity assessment in the three countries using a number of essential activities that address national issues and an FAO survey questionnaire; and (2) a 3-day subregional meeting priorities in support of the elements of the strategy. Completion of of representatives from each of the three countries to discuss the these national activities is essential to implementation the regional results of the survey and develop the strategy. activities of the strategy, which tackle issues and priorities with a regional dimension. The FAO survey questionnaire contains 18 sections pertaining to: (1) international trade in live aquatic animals and national border As aquatic animal health management involves many issues that controls; (2) control of domestic movement of live aquatic animals are transboundary in nature, an effective aquatic animal health and other domestic activities that may spread pathogens; (3) policy protection program has to be supported by regional and interna- and planning; (4) legislation; (5) disease surveillance/monitoring; (6) tional cooperation. Table 4.6 lists a number of activities that will be disease diagnostics; (7) emergency preparedness and contingency undertaken at the regional level and activities of the regional strat- planning; (8) extension services; (9) compliance/enforcement; egy whose completion is the responsibility of the national govern- (10) research; (11) training; (12) expertise; (13) infrastructure; (14) ments. In all cases regional activities will provide guidance toward linkages and cooperation; (15) funding support; (16) current chal- accomplishing these national activities. National governments also lenges; (17) constraints; and (18) additional information. The survey have responsibilities toward completion of regional activities out- was conducted from February to March 2013. Based on the survey lined in the Regional Program. R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar 75 BOX 4.1: Results of An Analysis of Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT) to the Successful Management of Aquatic Animal Health (AAH) in the Mozambique Channel (FAO 2014) STRENGTHS 1. Organizational structure present at all levels of administration 2. Available human resources that can be trained on AAH 3. Presence of national aquaculture legislation 4. Stakeholder participation during preparation of legislation at all levels 5. Existence of fisheries research and training institutes for technology development and transfer 6. Presence of regulatory boards at the ministry level 7. Consistent government revenue collection from fisheries and aquaculture resources 8. Mozambique channel shares same ecological conditions and species, thus same AAH issues 9. Similar environmental legislations regarding aquaculture activities WEAKNESSES 1. Low priority on AAH activities of government during sectoral program financial planning and budget allocation 2. Available legislations not clearly address issues pertaining to AAH and when addressed, are not fully operational nor enforced 3. Weak competence to perform disease diagnosis due to lack of AAH laboratory 4. Low capacity to undertake aquatic animal disease surveillance and reporting due to lack of expertise, facilities, and design/methods 5. Lack of comprehensive aquafarms’  registration and database development (information system) 6. Lack of national pathogen list for Mozambique and Tanzania and subregional list of pathogens 7. Low capacity for emergency preparedness to aquatic disease outbreaks 8. Lack of national AAH action plan and strategies 9. Inadequate communication/networking on AAH issues 10. Inadequate compliance with international standards (for example, WTO SPS Agreement, OIE Code, and Diagnostic Manual) 11. Unavailability of vaccines against shrimp viral pathogens OPPORTUNITIES 1. Ongoing public sector reform process 2. Existence of public-private sector partnership in shrimp aquaculture development and existence of well-defined working modality 3. Increasing need for aquaculture sector development for the growing human population and declining capture fisheries 4. AAH is a major sustainability issue 5. Enthusiastic stakeholders willing to participate in the development of the sector 6. Increasing domestic and export market demands for crustacean products 7. Except for WSSV, Subregion is still free from major shrimp pathogens 8. Governments recognize the weakness in the AAH management and strong willingness to improve THREATS 1. Difficulty in recruiting qualified and experienced staff on AAH issues 2. Unavailability of budgetary allocation and when available, untimely disbursement of funds 3. Weather uncertainties accompanied with climate changes 4. Expected land and water resource user conflicts 5. Introduction of exotic, emerging and/or unknown shrimp pathogens 6. Weak implementation of good aquaculture practices, farm level biosecurity 7. Lack of cooperation between shrimp farmers 8. Reactive response/action to aquatic disease emergencies 9. Low priority given to biosecurity governance and AAH management A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 76 C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar BOX 4.2: Mozambique Subregional Aquatic Animal Health Program Components, Elements, and Activities (FAO 2014) COMPONENT 1—Governance Element 1: Legislation and regulation Activities: 1. Review and update of national legislation pertaining to all aspects of aquatic animal health and shrimp aquaculture 2. Harmonization of national legislation to international standards 3. Enhanced compliance to WTO SPS Agreement and trading partner requirements 4. Harmonization of implementation of WTO SPS Agreement at subregional level 5. Training on the implementation of international standards Element 2: Policy and planning Activities: 1. Develop national strategies on aquatic animal health (competent authority, national pathogen list, diagnostics, surveillance, use of veterinary medicines, emergency preparedness, prevention and management of risks from aquatic pathogens/diseases, aquatic animal health information system, responsible movement of live aquatic animals, risk analysis, capacity building, cooperation, and so forth) including guidance on development, implementation, and capacity development mechanisms 2. Regional priorities and collective action (minimum requirements and action on aquatic animal health) COMPONENT 2—Subregional Preparedness/Response and Contingency Plan for Shrimp Disease Emergencies Element 3: Emergency fund Activities: 1. Prepare a concept note to define this element and detailed mechanisms/guidelines, estimating resources for implementation referring to existing mechanism or similar mechanisms in other sectors or create a mechanism specifically for aquatic emer- gencies. Assessment of national needs for diagnostic capability by an international expert assisted by national focal points. Enhanced compliance to WTO SPS Agreement and trading partner requirements Element 4: Emergency response and contingency plans Activities: 1. Training on the design and preparation of emergency response and contingency plans 2. Preparation of operational plans and technical manuals 3. Simulation exercise at farm level and national level (including planning and actual simulation) COMPONENT 3—Diagnostics, Surveillance and Reporting Element 5: Methods, design, and costing Activities: 1. Harmonization of diagnostic methods and regional agreement on costs 2. Access to laboratory facilities that can provide quick and reliable diagnostic service 3. Recognition of a regional laboratory for reference, confirmation, and other assistance 4. Proficiency testing 5. Preparation of a regional list of pathogens 6. Design of a regional surveillance program 7. Training on implementation of diagnostics and surveillance COMPONENT 4—Prevention and Management of Risks from Exotic, Emerging and/or Unknown Aquatic Pathogens Element 6: Capacity building on best practices Activities: 1. Training of shrimp farmers/producers/operators and government on good shrimp aquaculture and biosecurity practices 2. Training on risk analysis (different levels, public and private sectors) R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar 77 Element 7. Minimum regional sanitary control Activities: 1. Minimum biosecurity checklist (farm, national, regional levels) including legislation 2. Prepare regional minimum standards for importing crustaceans (live and products) COMPONENT 5—Promotion of Sustainable Aquaculture Development and Responsible Investment Element 8: Enabling environment Activities: 1. Disseminate and exchange information about regional aquaculture practices (organic shrimp farming, certification, and so forth) 2. Promote aquaculture as a business model and provide guidance 3. Provision of aquatic animal health services and other services (extension, and so on) 4. Develop mechanisms for incentives and compensation and risk management schemes, for example, insurance 5. Coordinate effective actions to guarantee reliable business operation 6. Facilitate and assist in the formation of farmer association/cooperative/community-based organizations and provide support to relevant activities. Training on risk analysis (different levels, public and private sectors) COMPONENT 6—Assessment of socioeconomic benefits/potential and risks, technical feasibility, and environmental im- pacts of further shrimp aquaculture development in the Indian Ocean subregion Element 9: Assessment studies Activities: 1. Technical feasibility studies, EIA or risk analysis of new ventures on shrimp aquaculture 2. Socioeconomic assessment of the impacts of aquatic pathogen introduction (for example, retrospective analysis of WSSV in Madagascar and Mozambique) 3. Socioeconomic assessment of the benefits of good aquaculture and biosecurity practices COMPONENT 7—Institutional strengthening (human and financial resources, diagnostic and research infrastructure) and targeted capacity building on AAH Element 10: Institutional strengthening Activities: 1. Education on aquatic animal health (academic degrees) 2. Training (see also other sections) 3. Develop and/or improve national diagnostic and research infrastructure 4. Targeted capacity building (refer to other sections) 5. Manuals, operating procedures, protocols 6. Allocation of sufficient financial resources to aquatic animal health based on needs and priorities COMPONENT 8 – Regional Collaboration, Communication, and Networking on Information and Shared Resources Element 11: Aquatic animal health information system Activities: 1. Regional web portal for an Aquatic Animal Health Information System covering all relevant information aspects of aquatic animal health 2. Early warning system 3. GIS for surveillance data 4. Regular and special/emergency meetings (all levels face-to-face, teleconference) Element 12 : Shared resources Activities: 1. Collaboration on shared resources (feed, laboratory, shrimp genetic resources, and so on) A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 78 C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar TABLE 4.6: Summary of Mozambique Channel Subregional Strategy for Aquatic Biosecurity Showing Responsibility for Implementation (National or Subregional), Time Frame for Implementation (Short, Medium, or Long), and Priority Level (Low, Medium, or High) (FAO 2014). COMPONENT 1: BIOSECURITY GOVERNANCE IMPLEMENTATION TIME FRAME PRIORITY PROGRAM SUB- ELEMENTS ACTIVITIES NATIONAL REGIONAL SHORT MEDIUM LONG LOW MEDIUM HIGH 1. Legislation 1.  Review and update of national legislation X and regulation pertaining to all aspects of AAH and shrimp aquaculture 2.  Harmonization of national legislation to X X international standards 3.  Enhanced compliance to WTO SPS Agreement X and trading partner requirements 4.  Harmonization of implementation of WTO SPS X Agreement at subregional level 5.  Training on the implementation of interna- X X tional standards 2.  Policy and 6.  Develop national strategies on AAH X X planning 7.  Regional priorities and collective action X (minimum requirements and action on AAH ) COMPONENT 2: SUBREGIONAL PREPAREDNESS/RESPONSE AND CONTINGENCY PLAN FOR SHRIMP DISEASE EMERGENCIES IMPLEMENTATION TIME FRAME PRIORITY PROGRAM SUB- ELEMENTS ACTIVITIES NATIONAL REGIONAL SHORT MEDIUM LONG LOW MEDIUM HIGH 3. Emergency 8.  Prepare a concept note to define this element X fund and detailed mechanisms/guidelines, estimating resources for implementation referring to exist- ing mechanism or similar mechanisms in other sectors or create a mechanism specifically for aquatic emergencies 4. Emergency 9.  Training on the design and preparation of X X response and emergency response and contingency plans contingency plans 10.  Preparation of operational plans and techni- X X cal manuals 11.  Simulation exercise at farm level and X X national level (including planning and actual simulation) COMPONENT 3: DIAGNOSTICS, SURVEILLANCE, AND REPORTING IMPLEMENTATION TIME FRAME PRIORITY PROGRAM SUB- ELEMENTS ACTIVITIES NATIONAL REGIONAL SHORT MEDIUM LONG LOW MEDIUM HIGH 5. Methods 12.  Harmonization of diagnostic methods and X design and regional agreement on costs costing 13.  Access to laboratory facilities that can X provide quick and reliable diagnostic service 14.  Recognition of a regional laboratory for X reference, confirmation, and other assistance 15.  Proficiency testing X 16.  Preparation of a regional list of pathogens X 17.  Design of a regional surveillance program X 18.  Training on implementation of diagnostics X X and surveillance R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar 79 COMPONENT 4: PREVENTION AND MANAGEMENT OF RISKS FROM EXOTIC, EMERGING AND/OR UNKNOWN AQUATIC PATHOGENS IMPLEMENTATION TIME FRAME PRIORITY PROGRAM SUB- ELEMENTS ACTIVITIES NATIONAL REGIONAL SHORT MEDIUM LONG LOW MEDIUM HIGH 6. Capacity 19.  Training of shrimp farmers/producers/ X X building on best operators and government on good shrimp practices aquaculture and biosecurity practices 20.  Training on risk analysis (different levels, X X public and private sectors) 7. Minimum 21.  Minimum biosecurity checklist (farm, X X regional sanitary national, regional levels) including legislation control 22.  Prepare regional minimum standards for X X importing crustaceans (live and products) COMPONENT 5: PROMOTION OF SUSTAINABLE AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT AND RESPONSIBLE INVESTMENT IN SHRIMP AQUACULTURE IMPLEMENTATION TIME FRAME PRIORITY PROGRAM SUB- ELEMENTS ACTIVITIES NATIONAL REGIONAL SHORT MEDIUM LONG LOW MEDIUM HIGH 8. Enabling 23.  Disseminate and exchange information X X environment about regional aquaculture practices (organic shrimp farming, certification, and so forth) 24.  Promote aquaculture as a business model X X and provide guidance 25.  Provision of AAH services and other services X (extension and so forth) 26.  Develop mechanisms for incentives and X compensation and risk management schemes, for example, insurance 27.  Coordinate effective actions to guarantee X X reliable business operation 28.  Facilitate and assist in the formation of X farmer association/cooperative/community- based organizations and provide support to relevant activities. COMPONENT 6: ASSESSMENT OF SOCIOECONOMIC BENEFITS/POTENTIAL AND RISKS, TECHNICAL FEASIBILITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF FURTHER SHRIMP AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT IN THE INDIAN OCEAN SUBREGION IMPLEMENTATION TIME FRAME PRIORITY PROGRAM SUB- ELEMENTS ACTIVITIES NATIONAL REGIONAL SHORT MEDIUM LONG LOW MEDIUM HIGH 9. Assessment 29.  Technical feasibility studies, EIA or risk X X studies analysis of new ventures on shrimp aquaculture 30.  Socioeconomic assessment of the impacts X X of aquatic pathogen introduction (for example, retrospective analysis of WSSV in Madagascar and Mozambique) 31.  Socioeconomic assessment of the benefits X X of good aquaculture and biosecurity practices COMPONENT 7: INSTITUTIONAL STRENGTHENING (HUMAN AND FINANCIAL RESOURCES, DIAGNOSTIC AND RESEARCH INFRASTRUCTURE) AND TARGETED CAPACITY BUILDING ON AQUATIC BIOSECURITY (AQUATIC ANIMAL HEALTH) IMPLEMENTATION TIME FRAME PRIORITY PROGRAM SUB- ELEMENTS ACTIVITIES NATIONAL REGIONAL SHORT MEDIUM LONG LOW MEDIUM HIGH 10. Institutional 32.  Education on AAH (academic degrees) X X strengthening 33. Training X X A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 80 C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar TABLE 4.6: Summary of Mozambique Channel Subregional Strategy for Aquatic Biosecurity Showing Responsibility for Implementation (National or Subregional), Time Frame for Implementation (Short, Medium, or Long), and Priority Level (Low, Medium, or High) (FAO 2014) (continued) COMPONENT 7: INSTITUTIONAL STRENGTHENING (HUMAN AND FINANCIAL RESOURCES, DIAGNOSTIC AND RESEARCH INFRASTRUCTURE) AND TARGETED CAPACITY BUILDING ON AQUATIC BIOSECURITY (AQUATIC ANIMAL HEALTH) IMPLEMENTATION TIME FRAME PRIORITY PROGRAM SUB- ELEMENTS ACTIVITIES NATIONAL REGIONAL SHORT MEDIUM LONG LOW MEDIUM HIGH 34.  Develop and/or improve national diagnostic X X and research infrastructure 35.  Targeted capacity building (refer to other X X sections) 36.  Manuals, operating procedures, protocols X X 37.  Allocation of sufficient financial resources to X X AAH based on needs and priorities COMPONENT 8: REGIONAL COLLABORATION, COMMUNICATION, AND NETWORKING ON INFORMATION AND SHARED RESOURCES IMPLEMENTATION TIME FRAME PRIORITY PROGRAM SUB- ELEMENTS ACTIVITIES NATIONAL REGIONAL SHORT MEDIUM LONG LOW MEDIUM HIGH 11. Aquatic 38.  Regional web portal for an AAH Information X animal health System covering all relevant information aspects information of AAH system 39.  Early warning system X 40.  GIS for surveillance data X 41.  Regular and special/emergency meetings X (all levels face-to-face, teleconference) 12. Shared 42.  Collaboration on shared resources (feed, X resources laboratory, shrimp genetic resources) As many of these activities require considerable planning and finan- distinct from WSSV found elsewhere in the world. This strongly sug- cial support, more detailed proposals will be prepared separately. gests a common origin for the Saudi Arabian and Mozambique Key implementation activities include: 1) integration into national Channel strains of WSSV. The WSSV outbreak in Saudi Arabia began plans and other subregional or regional programs and, 2) focal in January, 2011, 9 months before the outbreak in Mozambique. It points or national coordinators on aquatic animal health supported seems likely that the WSSV in the Mozambique Channel originated by a regional advisory group on aquatic animal health. in the Red Sea. What is less clear is how WSSV was transported between the two 4.12  CONCLUSIONS areas. Both Mozambique and Madagascar prohibited the importa- Cause of the Outbreak tion of live shrimp into their countries, so it seems unlikely imported The first epidemiological survey that was carried out in late 2011 live shrimp were the source of WSSV in the Mozambique Channel. It demonstrated that shortly after the first outbreak at the Aquapesca is possible that WSSV was somehow transported from the Red Sea farm WSSV was already widely distributed along the entire length to the Mozambique Channel, either in ship ballast water or by ocean of the Mozambican coast, infecting both shrimp and crabs. This currents. Another possibility is that shrimp fished from the Red Sea is strong evidence that WSSV was already established in the were transported to processing plants in Beira, Quelimane, Maputo, Mozambique Channel before the first farm outbreak. or Mahajanga. The genotype of the WSSV in the Mozambique Channel is closely The widespread distribution of WSSV in wild populations of shrimp related to that of the WSSV found in Saudi Arabia, and is genotypically along the coast of Mozambique, and the use of wild shrimp as R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar 81 broodstock in the Nacala hatchery, strongly suggests that infected as open systems with high rates of water exchange. Little or no broodstock was the route by which WSSV infected the Aquapesca aeration is employed on these farms. Instead, water quality is main- farm. Further support for this hypothesis is the fact that there was tained by exchanging up to 15 percent of the pond volume per day. an outbreak of WSD in newly captured broodstock simultaneous This practice dramatically increases the risk of WSSV infecting the with the outbreak on the Aquapesca farm. Broodstock brought shrimp stocks in the ponds by horizontal transmission. Filtration of to the hatchery before the initial outbreak also developed WSD. the incoming water is primarily done for the purpose of predator Before the WSSV outbreak in September, wild broodstock were not control using 500-micron screens. This mesh size, however, allows routinely quarantined and PCR-tested prior to being introduced the passage of WSSV carriers such as crustacean larvae. The water into the hatchery. Another possibility is that the disease was intro- distribution canals on these farms are rarely drained and contain duced to the farm by infected wild crustaceans entering through considerable biomass of shrimp, crabs, ghost shrimp, oysters, and the seawater pumping system. barnacles. This reservoir of susceptible hosts and mechanical hosts increases the vulnerability of farms to WSSV outbreaks. It seems likely that the WSSV outbreak at the Aquamen EF shrimp farm also originated with either infected wild broodstock or One of the lessons learned from the viral pandemics of the last infected carriers in the seawater system. Like the Nacala hatchery, 20 years is that open systems are extremely vulnerable to disease the Aquamen hatchery relied on wild broodstock. The Aquamen outbreaks. Only by eliminating water exchange can the risk of hori- hatchery normally quarantined, stress-tested, and PCR tested their zontal transmission be eliminated. Substitution of aeration for water broodstock prior to moving them into the hatchery. But they were exchange is critical for farm biosecurity. relying on the LES to do their PCR testing. Due to lack of funding Prior to the WSSV outbreak in September 2011 no surveys of disease the LES discontinued PCR testing at the Aquamen facility several prevalence in wild crustacean populations had been conducted months before the WSSV outbreak. The lack of access to PCR test- in Mozambique. A disease surveillance program was initiated in ing may have resulted in the use of WSSV infected broodstock. Madagascar in 2010, but was discontinued the following year due Contributing Factors at Farm Level to funding issues. Disease surveillance programs provide early warn- While two of the shrimp farming companies in Madagascar have ing to shrimp farmers of the presence of pathogens in the nearby shrimp breeding programs and stock SPF postlarvae, the rest of the coastal environment, allowing them to take appropriate measures to shrimp industry in the region relies on wild broodstock. None of the minimize the potential for a catastrophic disease outbreak. The lack companies using wild broodstock employed strict quarantine and of surveillance programs in both countries resulted in the shrimp PCR screening of their broodstock prior to the outbreak in 2011. farms being unprepared when WSSV appeared in the Mozambique Reliance on wild unscreened broodstock is perhaps the biggest Channel. The two companies hit hardest by WSSV were the first disease risk factor for the aquaculture industry. Vertical transmission companies to become infected in each country. of viral diseases through infected wild broodstock provides a direct Both Mozambique and Madagascar now have surveillance pro- path for a viral disease to infect the shrimp on a farm and can result grams in place. However, neither is sufficiently funded by the gov- in widespread infection. Historically the use of wild broodstock and ernment or is as effective as it should be. The surveillance program seedstock has fostered the spread of viral disease in shrimp aqua- in Mozambique was initially funded by the French Development culture and in wild populations (Lightner 2009). The shrimp farming Agency, and organized by the APCM with input from INIP and industry globally has recognized this and begun to make the transi- INAQUA. While the program is now funded by the Ministry of tion from wild to domesticated broodstock and seedstock. This tran- Fisheries, the government still has not taken full control of the sition is critical to the long-term sustainability of shrimp farming. program. In Madagascar there is no funding available for a surveil- All of the shrimp farms in the Mozambique Channel region are semi- lance program due to the governmental crisis. The private sector intensive shrimp farms featuring large earthen ponds managed has had to carry out and fund its own surveillance programs. While A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 82 C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar the efforts of the two companies conducting surveillance activities after the legislation is approved it will take more time for the new are commendable, the lack of coordination between the two pro- organizational structure to become fully functional. grams has led to inefficiency. The surveillance data gathered by the two companies has not been available to other stakeholders in the Madagascar country, reducing the overall value of the data gathered. In Madagascar, the regulatory framework for the aquaculture indus- try is slightly better developed than in Mozambique, at least on The recovery of the industry from the WSSV epidemic is dependent paper. There is a national pathogen list for aquatic animal diseases, upon producers investing in improvements in the biosecurity of and there is a legislated aquatic animal health policy. Madagascar their operations. Farms that are currently dependent upon wild also has a designated official reference laboratory for aquatic ani- broodstock will need to invest in programs to develop domesti- mal diseases. Nevertheless, the lack of funding for aquatic animal cated SPF broodstock. Prevention of horizontal transmission will health programs has crippled ASH and LES to the point that they are require investments in aeration systems, filtration systems, crab unable to function in a meaningful capacity. When the WSSV crisis fencing, and bird netting. The total cost of these investments will be struck the country in 2012, the Malagasy government was unable to at least 5–10 million dollars for each farm. This cost may be too high mount a coordinated response to the disease outbreak. for some of the farms to bear. On the national level in each country, there were problems that 4.13  RECOMMENDATIONS limited the effectiveness of the governmental response to the At the conclusion of the Regional Workshop on White Spot in the outbreak. Prior to the WSSV outbreak neither Mozambique nor Mozambique Channel, workshop participants identified four main Madagascar had developed a comprehensive aquatic animal health areas to be addressed by the region: policy, or functional institutions in place to provide a coordinated 1. Development of national and regional biosecurity proto- response to the crisis. cols, including procedures for normal operation, proce- dures to respond to disease outbreaks, and procedures for Mozambique restart of farms following a disease outbreak 2. Transition from the use of screened wild broodstock to the In Mozambique the regulatory framework for the aquaculture use of SPF broodstock and eventually to broodstock geneti- industry is still being developed. INAQUA, the government agency cally selected for disease resistance responsible for overseeing the aquaculture industry was only cre- 3. Design and implementation of national disease surveil- ated in 2009 and when the WSSV outbreak occurred in 2011 the lance programs with collaboration between Competent agency was still in the process of recruiting personnel to complete Authorities of countries in the region and sharing of results between all stakeholders its structure (Le Groumellec 2011). INIP is the designated Competent 4. Promotion of regional cooperation between all stakehold- Authority for aquatic animal health, but lacks a reference laboratory ers by setting up technical and strategic committees to or personnel with training in aquatic animal disease diagnostics. address region-wide aquatic animal health issues such as regional breeding programs, disease surveillance, and There is a lack of legislation regarding aquatic animal health clearly regional responses to disease outbreaks defining the roles each stakeholder (Baloi and Le Groumellac 2012). The WSSV crisis made it clear to all stakeholders in Mozambique the The following are some specific measures recommended by the importance of developing a national strategy for aquatic animal Expert Team to promote aquatic biosecurity in the region: health supported by legislation. Work began immediately on draft- Recommendations for Producers ing a set of aquatic animal health regulations and a national strategy 1. Develop a Regional Breeding Center to produce SPF for dealing with WSSV and other disease outbreaks. The process, broodstock however, is time-consuming and nearly 2 years after the initial out- The replacement of wild broodstock with SPF domesticat- break of WSSV neither piece of legislation has been approved. Even ed should be given the highest priority. A single breeding R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar 83 center for the entire region would be the most economical at least 30 times higher. For a farm that has limited capital alternative. Without a base to build upon, it typically takes resources, the most biosecure option may not make sense 2 years to develop an SPF population and several addi- financially. Farms that are producing for organic markets tional years of captive breeding to achieve domestication. have other constraints on the allowable technologies However, two farms in the region already have SPF breed- that they can adopt. So clearly, one size does not fit all. ing centers that can serve as a foundation for a regional Each farm will have to develop a biosecurity plan that is breeding center. If there is cooperative effort on the part of appropriate for their situation. Collaboration between all stakeholders in both Mozambique and Madagascar, the the individual farms, the producer’s associations and the entire region could have access to SPF seedstock within a Competent Authority would be helpful in defining best year. practices to achieve a minimum standard of biosecurity. For Mozambique, the quickest route for the replacement Explore alternatives for providing financial assistance to of wild broodstock would be to permit the importation- farms for biosecurity upgrades certified SPF stocks from Madagascar. This is prohibited An outbreak of WSSV at a given farm in the region will under current law. Unless this law is modified to permit the heighten the prevalence of the disease in the environ- importation of certified disease-free stocks, Mozambique ment and increase the risk of transmission to others. will have to develop its own SPF breeding program from Consequently, it is in the interest of all the stakeholders scratch. for farms to upgrade their biosecurity infrastructure. 2. Breed for WSSV-resistance Therefore there should be a concerted effort on the part After the establishment of SPF populations in the regional of all stakeholders to identify mechanisms to finance breeding center, priority should be given to breeding for biosecurity upgrades. resistance to WSSV. The feasibility of this strategy has been Recommendations for the Public Sector demonstrated with L. vannamei. With a well-designed 1. Review national legislation pertaining to aquatic breeding program, gains in WSSV resistance of 2–5 percent animal health policy per generation should be possible. Aquatic animal health policy should be written into 3. Follow strict PCR screening procedures if use of wild national law. The law should clearly identify the institu- broodstock is unavoidable. tions responsible for overseeing aquatic animal health If wild broodstock must be used, they should be quarantined policy and should define the relationships between each in individual tanks and individually tested by PCR. Females institution. The legislation should identify who in the gov- should be tested by PCR and histology after each spawn, and ernment will assume the role of Competent Authority for PLs should be PCR-tested prior to sending them to the farm. aquatic animal health and clearly define the powers and 4. Avoid stocking during the cold season authority for that position. The laws pertaining to aquatic Outbreaks of WSD are much more likely to occur when water animal health should define policies concerning import temperatures are low. Avoiding stocking during the coldest and export of aquatic animals, quarantine and health cer- months of the year has proven to be an effective strategy for tification procedures, and responses to disease outbreaks. mitigating WSD outbreaks. The strategy is most effective when New and existing legislation should be reviewed to make all shrimp farms in a region dry out during the cold season. sure it is consistent with international standards and 5. Upgrade farm biosecurity to minimize horizontal obligations, such as the OIE‘s International Aquatic Animal transmission. Health Code. Farm biosecurity must be upgraded to minimize risk of 2. Designate a National Reference Laboratory for mortality due to horizontal transmission of WSSV. Various Aquatic Animal Health technologies are available depending on the appropriate Each country should designate a National Reference balance of risk tolerance and capital availability at each Laboratory for aquatic animal health and provide sufficient facility. The risk reduction associated with a particular funding to equip the laboratory with state of the art equip- strategy must be weighed against its cost. For example, ment for histopathology and PCR testing. Lab personnel installing a self-cleaning microscreen system to filter should receive the training needed to accurately diagnose incoming seawater to less than 100 microns before it the range of aquatic animal diseases, and labs should par- enters the distribution canal might improve biosecurity to ticipate in ring test proficiency exercises. The laboratories a greater extent than passing the water through a static should be adequately staffed to enable quick turn-around 200-micron filter bag as it enters the pond, but the cost is times on sample processing. A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 84 C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar 3. Develop national aquatic disease surveillance pro- build trust between the public and private sector and grams to OIE standards would ensure that all stakeholders are working together Disease surveillance programs should be coordinated toward a common goal. and funded by the ministry of the Competent Authority, rather than being left to the initiative of the private sector. Regional Level Cooperation Surveillance programs provide early warning of disease As an ultimate goal, the national AAH plans of Mozambique and hazards and provide producers with the opportunity to Madagascar should be integrated to form a Regional AAH plan. take early action to avoid catastrophic losses. Results of surveillance testing should be made public quickly to all The regional plan would identify mechanisms for cooperation national and regional stakeholders. A website should be between the Competent Authorities in each country. An excellent created for posting of results. The creation of a website starting point for the regional plan would be to schedule regular for surveillance data should be given high priority so that meetings (annual or twice a year) between stakeholder groups of the surveillance data from the private sector surveillance efforts in Madagascar and the surveillance program in both countries to share information and to discuss cooperative Mozambique can be rapidly shared among all stakeholders. projects. Two areas where regional cooperation will be critical 4. Develop national response plan for aquatic animal are in the sharing of surveillance data and the establishment of a health emergencies regional breeding center. Each country should develop a national response plan for aquatic animal health emergencies. The Australian The white spot crisis has illustrated that, despite its geographic isola- AquaVetPlan (DAFF 2005) is an excellent model that many tion, the shrimp aquaculture industry in the Mozambique Channel countries have used for crafting their own aquatic animal region (Mozambique, Madagascar, and Tanzania) is vulnerable to health plans. 5. Strengthen partnership between public and private epizootic disease outbreaks. It must be recognized that all of the sectors shrimp producers in the Mozambique Channel region operate on Long-term sustainability and growth of the shrimp industry a common body of water, and that the biosecurity of each farm is in the Mozambique Channel can only be achieved in a dependent on the biosecurity practices of all of the other farms and biosecure environment. National and regional biosecu- shrimp processors in the region. A coordinated regional response rity requires close cooperation of producers and national institutions responsible for coordinating and implementing to the white spot disease outbreak is needed to allow the shrimp aquatic animal health policy. The producer associations industry to return to profitability. A regional approach to biosecurity in each country (APCM in Mozambique and GAPCM in is also the best defense against future introductions of other OIE Madagascar) are the interface between the producers and listed diseases. the government ministries. Priority should be given to promoting collaboration between the producer associa- In April 2013 the FAO convened a workshop in Maputo for the tions and the government ministries in the development of national biosecurity policies and programs. A good starting purpose of developing a subregional strategy to improve aquatic point would be to schedule quarterly meetings between animal health and biosecurity in the Mozambique Channel. The the producer associations and the government minis- participants in this workshop included representatives from tries responsible for aquatic animal health. Strategic and Mozambique (INAQUA, INIP, and the APCM), Madagascar (ASH), technical committees composed of representatives from Tanzania (National Animal Aquatic Health Coordinator), and the both the public and private sector would be very produc- tive ways to identify biosecurity strategies that will benefit FAO Aquaculture Service. At the conclusion of the workshop the the entire sector. The private sector representatives would participants drafted a document outlining a strategy for improving provide the technical expertise and intimate knowledge of aquatic biosecurity and aquatic animal health for the Mozambique the needs of private sector. The public sector representa- Channel subregion. The strategy identifies policy measures to be tives would provide expertise on program organization and management, and would make sure the public interest is implemented at the national and regional level to promote aquatic represented. Building cooperative working groups would animal health in the region. While additional work will be needed R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar 85 to fill in the details, the plan provides an excellent framework for 5. Reference Laboratories should be provided with state- addressing the biosecurity needs of the region. Rather than propose of-the-art diagnostic equipment with sufficient sample processing capacity to enable timely processing of samples a separate Regional Biosecurity Plan, the World Bank Mission Expert and reporting of results. Team endorses the regional biosecurity strategy proposed by the 6. Reference Laboratories should participate in ring-testing FAO working group, but would like to recommend the following exercises to validate the accuracy and reproducibility of the additional program activities: laboratories’ diagnostic procedures. 7. Results of the surveillance program should be posted Governance quickly to a website to permit immediate access by all stakeholders. Data collected by privately sponsored surveil- 1. Legislation should clearly identify the Competent Authority, lance programs should also be posted to this website. and a National Reference Laboratory for aquatic animal Positive results should generate alerts to be sent out to the disease diagnoses. competent authority and to designated representatives on 2. Each country in the region should develop a detailed each farm. Aquatic Animal Health Plan, identifying the Competent 8. Designation of the subregion or zones within the subregion Authority, National Reference Laboratory, listed pathogens, as disease free should be based on evidence provided by key biosecurity policies, and emergency plans for disease sample evidence and in accordance with OIE standards. outbreaks. 9. Funding of the surveillance program is the responsibility of 3. The National Plans should specify how information the governments of the subregion countries. However, a on aquatic animal health will be shared between the concept note should be prepared for possible funding by Competent Authorities of all the countries in the international agencies and/or private donors detailing the subregion. costs, needs, and benefits of the surveillance program. Preparedness/Response and Contingency Plan for Shrimp Disease Emergencies Prevention and Management of Risks from Exotic, 1. Clear procedures should be developed specifying the ac- Emerging and/or Unknown Aquatic Pathogens tions farms must take when a listed disease is diagnosed, 1. The shrimp industry must make the transition from reli- including immediate discontinuation of water exchange, ance on wild broodstock to captive-reared SPF brood- procedures for destruction and disposal of existing shrimp stock. During the transition period, wild broodstock stocks, and disinfection of the farm. should be used only if they have been shown to be 2. The criteria for shrimp farms to start back up again follow- disease free by a rigorous quarantine and PCR testing ing a disease outbreak should also be clearly identified. protocol. 2. A shrimp breeding center should be established to Diagnostics, Surveillance, and Reporting produce SPF broodstock and seedstock and made avail- 1. Surveillance programs for OIE-listed shrimp pathogens able to all shrimp farms in the Mozambique Channel should be a cooperative effort undertaken by the govern- subregion. This breeding center should be developed as ments of the Mozambique subregion countries. a cooperative effort of the governments and shrimp pro- 2. A regional surveillance program should be designed with ducers. (Note: The details of where the breeding center is the assistance of an OIE-designated consultant to ensure located, how it is managed, and how it is funded should both wild and farmed populations are effectively sampled. be determined by a working group consisting of public A sampling program should also be developed for shrimp and private sector representatives from each country in processing facilities. the subregion.) 3. A regional authority should be designated to oversee the 3. As a long-term strategy, SPF broodstock at the breeding surveillance program, including sample collection, sample center should be selected for resistance to WSSV. submission, disease diagnostic work, collection and analysis 4. A minimum standard for farm biosecurity should be de- of data, and reporting of the findings. veloped by a working group to include public and private 4. National Reference Laboratories should be designated for stakeholders from each country in the subregion. (Note: each country in the subregion. It should be recognized that every farm is different and A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 86 C hapter 4 — C ase study I I I : S hrimp W hite S pot S y ndrome V irus O utbreak in M ozambique and M adagascar that biosecurity plans must be tailored to the needs and they are able to accurately diagnose all of the OIE-listed resources for each farm.) aquatic animal diseases. 5. Each farm should develop and implement a biosecurity 2. Budgets for agencies responsible for AAH should include plan. The Competent Authority should review the bio- the cost of maintaining surveillance programs, Reference security plan for each farm to make sure the plan meets Laboratories, and other costs associated with maintaining a the minimum standards for biosecurity as defined by the pro-active Aquatic Animal Health Program. sub-regional working group. 6. Prepare regional minimum standards for importing crusta- Regional Collaboration, Communication, and Networking on ceans (live and products). Information and Shared Resources 7. Legislation should include an exception to the ban on 1. Regional strategic and technical committees should be importation of live aquatic animals to allow for the importa- organized with stakeholder representatives from all coun- tion of veterinarian-certified SPF seedstock and brood- tries in the subregion to ensure regional collaboration and stock from other countries in the Mozambique Channel information sharing in the development of AAH national subregion. plans, and regional surveillance programs. 2. The regional strategic and technical committees should Promotion of Sustainable Aquaculture Development and meet on a quarterly basis to promote communication Responsible Investment in Shrimp Aquaculture (No changes between stakeholder groups and to review progress on or additions recommended.) regional AAH initiatives. 3. Disease outbreaks within the region will require a region- Assessment of Socioeconomic Benefits/Potential and Risks, wide response. Regional strategic and technical commit- Technical Feasibility and Environmental Impacts of Further tees should develop procedures for a regional response to Shrimp Aquaculture Development in the Indian Ocean aquatic animal health emergency. Subregion (No changes or additions recommended.) The expert team believes that with the addition of the recom- Institutional Strengthening (human and financial resources, mended activities, the strategy for improving aquatic biosecurity diagnostic and research infrastructure) and Targeted Capacity for the Mozambique Channel provides an outstanding blueprint for Building on Aquatic Biosecurity (aquatic animal health) recovery of the shrimp farming industry from the white spot disease 1. Training should be provided to Reference Laboratory crisis and for preventing future disease outbreaks. technicians in both PCR and histological procedures so that R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 5 — C onclusions and R ecommendations 87 CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS GEORGE CHAMBERLAIN  ADOLFO ALVIAL  RANDALL E. BRUMMETT From review of case study findings, it is clear that there are several Cooperation between groups is essential due to the nature of the key structural and behavioral attributes of the aquaculture industry shared water bodies used by closely interconnected producers. that make it vulnerable to disease. It is also clear that, while the spe- cies, production systems, and names of the participants and institu- Lessons Learned tions involved in the operation and regulation of aquaculture vary Losses to the aquaculture industry globally are estimated by Food from place to place, the science and logic that can reduce the inci- and Agriculture Organization (FAO) at about US$6 billion annually. dence and severity of disease are common throughout the industry. The infectious salmon anemia (ISA) outbreak in the Chilean salmon Conditions that lead to disease include: (1) close proximity among farming industry cost US$2 billion dollars and 20,000 jobs. The early farming operations and/or contiguous water supply and discharge; (2) mortality syndrome (EMS) outbreak in the Mekong Delta is costing unregulated transfer of culture animals, animal products, and/or gam- what are mostly small-scale producers about US$800 million per etes among farms and from sites outside of the farming area; (3) high year that they cannot afford, and this does not include the unknown levels of stress in farmed animals resulting mostly from crowding; (4) lack number of jobs lost in the rest of the shrimp value chain. Losses of adherence to on-farm sanitary protocols; (5) inadequate government from white spot syndrome virus outbreaks in Asia were estimated veterinary services; and (6) failure of farmers to share information and at US$6 billion during outbreaks in 1992/1993 and US$1–2 billion cooperate in collective action to respect best management practices. during 1999 outbreaks in Latin America. Corrective measures to avoid or moderate diseases in aquaculture Diseases are ubiquitous and pretending that it will not happen respond directly to the causative conditions: (1) regulate the density because it has not happened is not rational. Suiss-RE, a major agricul- of farms within a designated zone so as to avoid sharing of water tural crop insurer, calculates that the average insurance loss ratio for inputs and outfalls; (2) quarantine and carefully control movement aquaculture over the period 1992–2012 was 65 percent and disease of culture animals and other biological materials into the zone and accounted for 20 percent of that (in the relatively well-managed between farms once introduced; (3) adoption of best aquaculture salmon farming industry). Most aquaculture disease outbreaks have practices at farm level to reduce stress and improve animal welfare; occurred in developing countries where over 90 percent of aquacul- (4) introduce and respect basic sanitary measures at the farm level; ture takes place, reducing revenues, eliminating jobs, threatening and (5) structure dialogue among farmers and between govern- food security and undermining development goals. The generally ment and farmers to improve knowledge and compliance, while small-scale and rural nature of aquaculture in developing countries reducing free ridership. means that the vast majority of diseases go undiagnosed, untreated and undocumented, imposing an enormous burden on communi- The aquaculture industry should recognize that it will take more ties working to escape poverty. than laws, regulations, and improved practices to prevent another disease crisis. The values and attitudes of those involved in the The impressive technical and commercial success of the global industry are a crucial component of preventing a future problem. aquaculture industry has not been accompanied by matching A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 88 C hapter 5 — C onclusions and R ecommendations research, monitoring, and regulation to guard against foreseeable The overarching lesson is that successful aquaculture depends on biological risks. Government investment in veterinary services, envi- the capacity of biological systems to support it. Defining the capaci- ronmental management, and establishing a dialogue with industry ties of bodies of water is essential in order to regulate the number lags behind growth in production. of farms and to set limits on the maximum production in farming areas. Unless this is done, conditions will deteriorate leading to poor The impacts of large-scale disease outbreaks affect employment fish performance and eventually to disease. and economic growth across the entire value chain, region, and sometimes country, justifying government engagement in prevent- These lessons are broadly true of all the case studies examined. As ing and managing the health of the aquaculture sector. applied to the Chilean experience they are graphically summarized in figure 5.1. To reiterate the key points: Spread of pathogens is facilitated by high concentration of farms and poor husbandry and disease control measures. Reducing fish ƒƒ Government and industry must develop national/local R&D stocking rates and adopting best practices can reduce fish stress, programs to provide timely information to support effective regulations and enforcement. and the incidence and impact of disease outbreaks. ƒƒ Development of a biosecurity system covering all sectors A working public-private coordinated effort is needed to both avoid of the value chain. This system should target preventing and respond to disease crises. When bodies of water are shared, the entry of pathogens. The system should also consist of a contingency plan for controlling the dispersion of patho- regulations are required to ensure that all parties involved are good gens should the prevention plan fail, which includes early environmental stewards and neighbors. The larger the industry, the detection within the country. more risks there are and the harder it is to control a problem. So, it is ƒƒ The dynamics and biological carrying capacities of the critical to have a system in place to ensure sound industry practices, environments hosting aquaculture activities should be un- and early detection and rapid control of a problem if one occurs. derstood in order to prevent deterioration that leads to fish distress and disease. Among key stakeholders in aquaculture disease management is the ƒƒ This understanding should allow the establishment of financial sector. Financiers who understand aquaculture are essen- effective zone management programs and provide the tial for the industry to weather disease outbreaks. basis for coordinated actions among users, such as fallow periods, programmed treatments, surveillance programs, Rapid returns to investment in disease management are possible. and so forth. Lowering the densities of fish in a cage and cages in an area can ƒƒ Prioritize practices based on fish welfare and close moni- increase growth and survival rates to more than compensate for toring of key performance indicators such as levels of reductions in fingerlings stocked per cubic meter. sea lice infestation, frequency of antibiotic treatments for bacterial disease, mortality, growth, food conversion ratio, As aquaculture continues to grow, a new regulatory framework is and harvest yield per smolt stocked. needed. Important issues to address include: ƒƒ Reduce handling and use of drug treatments in order to improve long-term farming sustainability and market accep- ƒƒ Mechanisms to avoid overconcentration of farming activity tance of the products. in a given area. ƒƒ Good communication between all industry stakeholders ƒƒ Improved pathogen dispersion control strategies. and government must be maintained to ensure issues are ƒƒ Boundary definition of production zones. dealt with early and all parties involved are kept abreast of ƒƒ Definition of zone carrying capacity. the situation. ƒƒ Surveillance programs to detect and/or predict new en- vironmental and disease issues before they can affect the As a first step in addressing constraints to aquaculture disease entire industry. management, a review of the existing aquatic veterinary services R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 5 — C onclusions and R ecommendations 89 FIGURE 5.1: Essential Macro and Micro Components Extracted from the Handling of the ISA Chilean Case for a Safer and Long- Term Industry (Alvial 2011) STRO NG EN S FO ION RC LAT EM GU EN T RE VE Smolt quality SI evaluation N HE RE MP No fish movement, SMOLT ADULT FISH minimum fish CO handling coordinates disease treatment On land facilities with effluent and treatment Strict biosecurity disinfections Mandatory Zone management measures in the vaccination against and fallow periods logistic chain diseases detected in the next water body HARVESTED LARVAE/FRY FISH Mortality inactivation Disinfections Biosecure fish and transportation LOCAL quarantine and holding mandatory (closed wellboats and NG holding tanks) R&D ORI Strict Processing PROCESSED EGGS plants effluents requisites and Managed on land FISH NIT control of disinfection facilities or certified sources O areas LM CA FOREIGN NATIONAL O SOURCE BROODSTOCK L PRODUCT NATIO ITY NAL ANALYTIC CAPAC is recommended. The World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) mapping of production systems and their related hydrology. As conducts standardized reviews of veterinary services that can the single greatest constraint to proper disease management in identify opportunities to improve performance and capacity, and aquaculture is the lack of cohesion and cooperation among pro- collect data for cost-benefit analysis of investments in improved ducers, encouraging management planning at the ecosystem, biosecurity. rather than farm, level serves not only to define the space over which biosecurity rules should be implemented, but creates a Estimation of the carrying capacity of the watershed or water context in which farmers may be better able to understand the body in which aquaculture is being conducted requires spatial need for collective action. A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 90 C hapter 5 — C onclusions and R ecommendations Cost-Benefit of Biosecurity not an exhaustive list of best aquaculture practices, the three case Required investments in biosecurity to minimize the risk of disease studies highlight particular issues that are sometimes not relevant outbreaks will vary according to place and scale. The need for to farm practice (and therefore not easily controlled by farmers) and improved diagnostic and surveillance capacity of national vet- ignored by regulators who are happy to see an aquaculture industry erinary services is one common element among all case studies. growing and have limited resources to invest in the protection of The establishment of a national and/or regional platform for com- these investments. One might sum up by invoking the old adage: munication between government and farmers is also important, An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. but less costly. Apart from these government investments, in Chile, ƒƒ Physical isolation does not assure biosecurity. major costs for salvaging the salmon industry were associated with By virtue of its physical isolation, the shrimp industry sur- relocation and restocking of farm installations, costs borne mostly rounding the Mozambique Channel had been free from by the private sector. OIE-listed diseases. This freedom from disease resulted in many of the farms lagging behind the rest of the world in In Vietnam (and Southeast Asia more generally), the farm level the adoption of biosecure production practices such as investment needed to manage EMS is not yet known, but govern- the elimination of dependence on wild broodstock, and ment investment in affordable three-phase electricity would help the continued reliance on high rates of water exchange to lift constraints to the ability of lower income farmers to reduce their manage water quality in the shrimp ponds. When WSSV did reach the area, these farms were vulnerable. dependence on high levels of water exchange. Providing assistance ƒƒ High rates of water exchange are a major risk factor to establish a forum for communication and cooperation among for horizontal transmission. the hundreds of thousands of farmers that share a contiguous water Substitution of aeration for water exchange can be cost ef- supply will also improve monitoring of, and compliance with, farm- fective with only modest intensification of production. level and regional biosecurity protocols. ƒƒ Breeding programs to produce SPF disease-resistant stocks should be a regional priority. Along the Mozambique Channel, farm-level improvements in The reliance on wild broodstock is one of the biggest bio- biosecurity have been estimated at between US$6 and 14 million, security risks for aquaculture. However, it is not economical depending upon the level of security. A basic system includes stocking or feasible for each individual producer to maintain their specific pathogen-free (SPF) PLs, crab fencing, bird netting, probiotic own breeding center to produce SPF stocks. Development usage, and structures to allow drainage of seawater distribution canals. of a regional breeding center is a cost-effective strategy for Reducing stocking rate to allow reduced water exchange is probably eliminating the use of wild broodstock for all producers in the region. unprofitable. The addition of aeration plus bag filtration increases pro- ƒƒ Surveillance programs are critical for national biosecurity. ductivity, reduces overall operating costs, and improves the profit mar- The fact that WSSV and EMS were found in a high percent- gin. Net returns per kg of shrimp produced are estimated at US$1.25/ age of the samples taken in shortly after the first outbreak kg with no biosecurity plan and US$2.00/kg under this strategy. The suggests that the diseases may have been present in the most biosecure strategy, in which aeration and microscreen drum area for months before the first outbreak. If a national surveil- filtration is used, is very capital intensive with an expected investment lance program had been sampling the wild populations on a cost of about US$14 million dollars for a 400 ha farm. Despite the high regular basis before the outbreak occurred, producers could cost, the profit per kg of shrimp is reduced by only US$0.12/kg. have taken appropriate measures to upgrade biosecurity before disease appeared on their farms. ƒƒ Strong national aquatic animal health policies and Best Aquaculture Practices institutions are critical for national biosecurity. Some of the outcomes of the disease outbreak and, finally, recov- The absence of strong national aquatic animal health (AAH) ery reflect failure to respect basic principles of aquaculture. While policies and institutions increases the vulnerability of the R E D U C I N G D I S E A S E R I S K I N A Q UA C U LT U R E C hapter 5 — C onclusions and R ecommendations 91 region to epizootic disease outbreaks. Aquatic animal health biosecurity practices and assure that they are implemented (AAH) policies should clearly define the responsibilities of at each facility. the various stakeholders in maintaining national biosecurity, The primary lesson of these case studies is that aquaculture as well as the procedures that must be followed when a disease management goes beyond the limits of individual disease outbreak does occur. A dedicated AAH service could farms and requires a collective zone management approach. be more cost-effective than a wholesale restructuring of The salmon industry has, sometimes painfully, learned this the complete veterinary system in countries where fish are lesson and is now raising itself to a new, more sustainable, disproportionately important to the economy. level in Chile and elsewhere. Globally, shrimp farmers and ƒƒ National and regional biosecurity requires other aquaculture producers who share a waterbody with cooperation of all stakeholders. their neighbors, need to reflect on the examples of Chile, The investment required to manage farm biosecurity Vietnam, Mozambique, and Madagascar and take steps to increases with disease prevalence. Consequently, it is in improve coordination among farmers and between the the interest of all stakeholders to avoid outbreaks in the farming community and regulators so as to better manage region through implementation of biosecurity practices the ecosystems in which they operate. Only through an eco- that meet or exceed minimum standards. Weak biosecurity system approach can the industry reduce volatility, improve on individual farms weakens the biosecurity for all of the profitability, and approach greater sustainability. farms in the region. Producer associations and governments should work together to develop standards for minimum A G R I C U LT U R E A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E R V I C E S D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R 0 9 REFERENCES 93 REFERENCES Alvial, A. 2011. “Recovery of the Chilean Salmon Industry Evaluation.” Boyd, C. E. 1998. “Pond Water Aeration Systems.” Aquaculture Engineering Santiago, Chile. http://www.camara.cl/pdf.aspx?prmTIPO=OFICIOFI 18: 9–40. 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