79925 Singapore SABER Multiyear Country Report WORKFORCE DEVELOPMENT 2012 Status 1. Strategic Framework A growing emphasis on strategic leadership and cooperation is evident from Singapore’s early years as a developing country in the 1960s, to today as an 2010 advanced economy with well-established, effective national systems. Key features include: workforce development as integral to national economic strategy, with advocacy from all stakeholders via tripartite agreement since the 1990 early 1970s; evaluation of economic prospects was systematized over time, underpinning a highly demand-led system based on input from stakeholders and a central advisory role for business and industry; a piecemeal structure in 1970 the 1960s was restructured to ensure a high level of coordination, cooperation, system alignment and consensus on policy goals; and regular review to meet economic demands. 2. System Oversight Oversight improvements have occurred to support creation of a high quality workforce development system. Notable elements are: the systematic approach 2010 to program development formulated during the 1980s-90s, which continues to be enhanced today; efficiency is promoted through a range of measures, although the primary emphasis is on meeting economic objectives; partnership 1990 has been a core element of the system since the 1970s; major programs have been created to support workforce development although higher levels of articulation and creation of new pathways to provide broader lifelong learning 1970 opportunities are still in development; and ensuring high standards of provision and management has been a major concern since the 1980s. 3. Service Delivery A focus on workforce development’s relevance to national economic development has always been evident, with an increased emphasis on quality since the 1980s. Key developments include: relevance of training programs is 2010 high on the policy agenda, with strong emphasis on stakeholder input, which has formalized over time; since the late 1970s, stakeholder input has been supported by systematic planning, through mechanisms such as the national 1990 manpower planning process; industry has acted as a close partner in design and delivery of training to meet skills demands at the company and national level; standards of delivery have been developed and continuously enhanced 1970 through education reforms and legislative change, ensuring that, while provision is expanded, excellence remains a key goal of the system. THE WORLD BANK SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 1 Table of Contents Executive Summary............................................................................................................................................................... 3 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….... 5 Country Context …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….... 7 Summary of Benchmarking Results ………………………………………………………………………………………..... 13 Detailed Results | Dimension 1 ……………………………………………………………………………………………....... 18 Policy Goal 1 | Articulating a Strategic Direction for Workforce Development ………………………. 19 Policy Goal 2 | Prioritizing a Demand-led Approach …………………………………………………................. 23 Policy Goal 3 | Strengthening Critical Coordination …………………………………………………………....... 26 Detailed Results | Dimension 2 ………………………………………………………………………………………………... 29 Policy Goal 4 | Diversifying Pathways for Skills Acquisition ………………………………………………..... 30 Policy Goal 5 | Ensuring Efficiency and Equity in Funding …………………………………………………..... 35 Policy Goal 6 | Assuring Relevant and Reliable Standards …………………………………………………...... 40 Detailed Results | Dimension 3 ………………………………………………………………………………………………... 44 Policy Goal 7 | Fostering Relevance in Training Programs …………………………………………………..... 45 Policy Goal 8 | Incentivizing Excellence in Training Provision ……………………………………………..... 49 Policy Goal 9 | Enhancing Accountability for Results .………………………………………………………….... 53 Annex 1 | Analytical Framework of SABER-Workforce Development ………………………………………… 57 Annex 2 | Benchmarking Scores ……………………………………………………………………………………………..... 58 Annex 3 | Documents …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….... 59 Annex 4 | Informants …………………………………………………………………………………………………................... 63 Annex 5 | Participants of Review Seminar……………………………………………………………………………........ 64 Annex 6 | Benchmarking Rubrics …………………………………………………………………………………………...... 65 Authorship and Acknowledgments…………………………………………………………………………………………… 74 SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 2 Executive Summary Skills as a driver for rapid economic development in Singapore The Singapore economy has seen rapid economic growth since the 1970s. The workforce development (WfD) system has been able to move effectively to deliver the skills required to support economic restructuring, from primarily labor-intensive industry (1960-70s), through a “The system’s more capital-intensive phase (1970s-1980s) and, since the 1990s, to a policy focus on building a effectiveness in knowledge-intensive and higher value-added economy. The system’s effectiveness in delivering delivering demand-led skills has been enabled by the close tripartite partnership between government, demand-led union and stakeholders, and a coordinated approach within government. The workforce skills has been development has been central to meeting the government’s strategic economic plans and coping enabled by the with current and future change in a highly open economy. close tripartite Methodology partnership The study benchmarked levels of support for workforce development in Singapore and identified between measures that helped to progress workforce development within the framework of human capital government, development. The study piloted a new diagnostic tool (SABER-WfD) to assess Singapore’s union and workforce development for three time periods: 1970, 1990 and 2010. This case illustrates the stakeholders and progressive development of a strategic workforce development system in a small city-state with a a coordinated rapidly changing economy that shifted from a developing to advanced economy in just a few approach within decades. The tool is part of the World Bank’s initiative on Systems Assessment for Better government.� Education Results (SABER), focusing on several policy domains including workforce development. Three broad functional dimensions of workforce development policies were assessed based on a wide range of primary and secondary evidence: strategic framework; system oversight; and service delivery. The findings show that Singapore has made continuous progress on all dimensions, representing a highly advanced system by 2010 but also one that continues to adapt and innovate nonetheless. Key reform elements at the strategy level Major reforms that can be seen in the Singaporean system include: development of a strong tripartite partnership (early 1970s), providing advocacy and support for workforce development policy, implementation and delivery; development of a systematic approach to gathering and using skills demand information to inform policy (late 1970s onwards); early reform of general and technical education (1970s and 1990s) followed by reform of continuing education and training for the workforce as demands and pressures changed (1980s-2000s); and a careful focus “Careful focus on growing human capital and skills to meet rapidly changing demand whilst also maintaining a on growing strong focus on excellence and quality via reform. For example, reforms upgraded technical education provision (1970s and 1990s), particularly with creation of the Institute of Technical human capital Education (ITE) in 1992. Along with major investment in infrastructure, this consolidated the and skills to existing vocational system, transforming the image of technical education from what was seen as meet rapidly a route for lower achievers and instead providing world-class technical and vocational education changing that continues to meet national skills demand and receives international recognition. demand while also Reforms to improve the oversight of the education and training system maintaining a Systems for ensuring accountability and excellence have continued to develop over time, strong focus on supporting a high quality workforce development system that spans public and private pre- excellence and employment and continuing education and training. Funding is tied closely to national economic quality� policy goals and directions set by the manpower planning process. Early developments included: a major education review identified the need for greater attention to quality and standards (1979); school examinations were centralized and standard protocols developed (early 1970s); and further reform after the second major education review improved primary education testing and secondary level entry requirements (1991). More recent reforms include: private education standards and accreditation strengthened through establishment of the Council for Private Education (CPE) and the Private Education Act (2009); and reform of continuing education and training in the 2000s, starting with a National Skills Recognition System (1999-2004) and leading to creation of the Singapore Workforce Development Agency (WDA) and Workforce Skills Qualifications (WSQ), to support quality of provision and certification of workforce training. SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 3 Reforms to improve management of training institutions and programs Following major education reviews (1979 and 1991), a more systematic approach was taken to the management of training institutions and programs, with further reforms in the 1990s and 2000s including: introduction of performance-based measures at institutional and individual level across public service, which includes institutions and educators (1990s); reform of the National Institute of Education (NIE) to provide high quality training and qualifications (early 1990s) and later to build a stronger pedagogical research function to inform policy and practice (from 2003); recent enhancement of qualifications and requirements for adult educators such as the Advanced Certificate in Training and Assessment (ACTA) related to Workforce Skills Qualifications (WSQ) programs. The relevance of training has always been of importance, supported by development of close partnerships between education and training institutions and industry, including: industry-government partnerships like the Joint Industry Training Scheme (1980s-1990s); and close cooperation with employers by the ITE and Polytechnics as well as the universities, including feeding through to national policy as has recently occurred in the emerging area of water technology. Reflections on lessons from Singapore This study highlights how a small city-state has been able to make strategic use of workforce development in order to achieve impressive economic growth and necessary restructuring over time. A number of factors have underpinned that success, including: national policy and workforce development shaped by a strong vision for where the country needed to go; a pragmatic, strategic and focused approach to workforce development; the tripartite arrangement has provided the basis for a stable workforce, facilitating attraction of major companies, initially to grow jobs and now to develop more knowledge-based work (e.g. finance, R&D), and creating consensus on the role of workforce development in achieving national policy objectives; demand-led policy and provision that is able to shift with changing economic circumstances and future plans; rapid implementation of policy is possible due to the level of consensus, which is vital to a small, open economy that is highly subject to global fluctuations; the willingness of the government (from 1960s), to learn from other countries as well from industry in order to build national systems and industrial capacity; careful review of economic conditions helped to drive the workforce development system, with manpower planning becoming a core policy mechanism (from 1979). There have been challenges also, such as balancing a strong demand-led system – that aims to ensure a good match between skills and opportunities in the labor market – with the possibility of creating wider pathways and opportunities to support equity and individual aspirations. This aspect is, however, an area that continues to be examined and new policies are emerging. SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 4 Introduction Singapore provides an example of a small nation in (1) Strategic Framework which refers to the praxis which workforce development (WfD) has been a of advocacy, partnership, and coordination in relation primary component of economic development from to the objective of aligning WfD in critical areas to the outset. WfD has received consistent support and priorities for national development; advocacy as a result. WfD in this context refers to (2) System Oversight which refers to the preparation of the future workforce via basic through arrangements governing funding, quality assurance to tertiary level education, and up-skilling of the and learning pathways that shape the incentives and existing workforce via continuing and professional information signals affecting the choices of individuals, education and training, covering a broad span of employers, training providers and other stakeholders; activities. As will be seen in the report, the early years and of nationhood saw a much greater emphasis on basic, (3) Service Delivery which refers to the diversity, universal education and technical skills, to support the organization and management of training provision, policy of growing jobs and reducing high both state and non-state, that deliver results on the unemployment. Whereas, from the 1980s, changing ground by enabling individuals to acquire market- and economic circumstances meant that upgrading the job-relevant skills. (see Figure 1). skills of the existing workforce took on increased importance. Figure 1: Functional Dimensions of WfD Policies The system has progressed over time in line with the changing makeup of the economy, as well as the government’s strategic policy emphasis on future manpower planning. The latter is particularly evident from the early 1980s. This meant a shift from an initially low-skills, labor intensive and low value- added economy (1960s-70s), through a more capital- intensive phase (1970s-1980s) and, since the 1990s, to an emphasis on building a knowledge-intensive and higher value-added economy. That is not to say that Source: Tan et al, 2012. low skills work is no longer present, but the core policy focus is on growing the higher value-added end From the perspective of the line ministries, typically of the economy through investment in education and education and labor, strategy is about sensing, skills as part of a package of measures to promote such influencing, and responding to the external industries. ‘Knowledge work’ such as financial environment for WfD; oversight is about governing the investment, scientific and technical R&D and education activities of all stakeholders with a direct interest in now make a significant contribution to GDP. WfD activities; and delivery is about managing the Nevertheless, manufacturing remains vital to the activities of those responsible for training provision. economy at this stage. Notably, there is recognition that parts of the economy may decline or relocate in These three Dimensions constitute a closed policy- time. The WfD system is positioned as a vital making loop and, when taken together, allow for mechanism, along with productivity, technology etc., analysis of the functioning of a WfD system as a whole. to enable a positive transition for workers and the Each Functional Dimension is composed of Policy economy (Lee, 2012). Goals (see Figure 2) spanning three broad areas: governance, finance and information. Each of the A New Diagnostic Tool Policy Goals is in turn further defined by three tangible Policy Actions, making a total of nine Policy Goals and The tool, known as SABER-WfD, is a product of the 27 Policy Actions. World Bank’s initiative on Systems Approach for Better Education Results (SABER), which focuses on SABER-WfD tool uses the foregoing analytical several policy domains, including workforce framework to create a structured data collection development (WfD). 1 SABER-WfD aims to document instrument for gathering information on a country’s and assess a country’s policies and institutions in light policies and institutions for WfD. For each of the 27 of global good practice. It focuses on three broad Policy Actions, the data collection instrument (DCI) Functional Dimensions of policies: poses a set of questions relating to the corresponding aspect of the WfD system. Each question is answered by choosing from a list of closed options 1For details on SABER see http://www.worldbank.org/education/saber corresponding to stages of development. The choice is substantiated either by documentary evidence or by SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 5 information supplied and corroborated by in data collection, the SABER-WfD study accepts knowledgeable and credible informants (see Box 1). reviews and evaluations of policies and related follow As in the other countries selected for this pilot phase, up actions as evidence of implementation. Finally, to the collection of data using the SABER-WfD instrument obtain the scores for the three Functional Dimensions was led by Principal Investigators (PIs) 2. considered in the SABER-WfD framework, the scores for the Policy Goals that relate to each dimension are Figure 2: Analytical Framework of SABER-WfD aggregated with equal weights. This algorithm yields composite scores on a 1-4 scale for every level of aggregation in the data; naturally, the composite scores are rarely whole numbers. Figure 3: Rubric for Benchmarking WfD Emerging Established Some instances of Systemic good good practice practice Latent Advanced Limited Systemic good Engagement practice meeting global standards Source: Tan et al, 2012. Note that in order to conform to standardized presentation of reports under the overall SABER initiative the dimension-level SABER-WfD categorical ratings shown on the cover of this report are based on the corresponding composite scores which have been converted to the relevant categories. 3 In the rest of the report, the composite scores are presented in the form of a dial, as shown above, in order to retain the detail they reflect. Box 1: A Note on Documentary Sources This report is based on data collected through interviews and supporting information from credible informants (see Source: Tan et al, 2012. See Annex 1 for more details. Annex 4) and a desk study drawing on over 350 documents for the years 1960-2012. These include: National development plans, strategy documents, Data Processing and Scoring. For each of the 27 Policy  legislation and parliamentary debate; Actions, the information gathered by the PIs is scored  National labor market and skills studies and according to standard rubrics. These rubrics international observer reports; correspond to four stages of maturity in policy and  Profiles of management, organization and delivery; institutional development for WfD, as follows: (1)  Annual Reports of provider institutions and latent, (2) emerging, (3) established and (4) advanced. agencies; A summary description of the rubrics appears in  Existing academic analyses, archival material and Figure 3 while the details are explained in Annex 6. national media reports. A panel of reviewers was also invited to provide detailed comments and feedback; see Annexes 3, 4 and 5 for The scores on the Policy Actions form the basis for complete information on the sources). scoring the nine Policy Goals. The approach involves the application of simple weights to aggregate the scores on the Policy Actions that relate to each Policy Goal, typically 1/3 for information relating to policy concepts and design and 2/3s to information relating to policy implementation. In the interest of parsimony 3 For a given composite score, X, the conversion to the categorical 2For Singapore, the PI was Dr Arwen Raddon who is a consultant rating shown on the cover is based on the following rule: 1.00 ≤ X ≤ based in Singapore and also an Honorary Associate Researcher at 1.75 converts to “Latent�; 1.75 < X ≤ 2.50, to “Emerging;� 2.50 < X the Oxford Learning Institute, University of Oxford, UK.. ≤ 3.25, to “Established;� and 3.25 < X ≤ 4.00, to “Advanced.� SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 6 Country Context Introduction restructure the economy. Following Porter’s (1990) model, in 1970, Singapore was a heavily 'Factor The Republic of Singapore is a relatively ‘young’ city- Driven' and labor-intensive economy (Law, 2007) with state. It has a parliamentary system, based originally a largely low skills workforce. Having shifted through on the British political system. The People's Action a capital-intensive economy (1970s-80s), by 1990, it Party has led the country since 1959, when Singapore had become a ‘Investment-Driven’, knowledge- was a self-governing country within the British intensive economy, classified as a Newly Industrialized Commonwealth. Singapore claimed independence Economy (NIE) and one of the ‘Asian Tigers’. The from Britain in 1963 and, after a short time as a state government set out its goal of reaching advanced within the Federation of Malaysia, became an economic and developed country status by 2030 in the independent Republic on 9th August 1965. Strategic Economic Plan of 1991. In fact, Singapore Despite challenging early years, Singapore has since was one of the highest income countries by the late seen rapid economic and social development, shifting 1990s and is now recognized as an advanced economy, from a developing to advanced country in a matter of some decades earlier than aimed for. Whilst not a decades (Ngiam, 2011; Sung, 2006). For 2011-12, it member of the OECD, Singapore has signed up to ranks 2nd in the Global Competitiveness Index, moving various OECD protocols such as on fiscal agreements. up from 3rd place for 2009-2011 and 5th place in 2008- Growth. Singapore’s economy is heavily linked into the 2009. GDP has grown substantially since the 1960s. global economy and international transactions, as a Table 1: Annual GDP at Current Market Prices, 2010 strategic location for production, shipping and trade. Year S$ mil US$ mil There were recessions in the mid-1980s, a brief downturn in the early 2000s following the SARS 1960 2,157 705 epidemic, and the financial crisis of 2008-2009. 1970 5,876 1,920 Nevertheless, the economy continues to grow and weathered the downturns well. In 2010, growth was at 1980 25,793 12,046 an exceptional high of 14.7 per cent (from the previous 1990 70,391 38,836 year’s low base), although it has seen slow down since, 2000 162,584 94,312 with more modest growth levels of 2.1 per cent in 2011. Further slow down is expected in 2012 in light 2010 310,037 227,383 of problems in the Eurozone. GDP per capita is high Source: Singapore Department of Statistics, 2010 and continues to rise, however, costs of living are also high. Workforce development and related policy has been integral to that progress, as part of a ‘Developmental Figure 4: GDP Per Capita (constant 2000 US$) State’ approach (Ashton et al, 1999). Namely, the 35,000 government has taken a more strategic and 30,000 interventionist approach through which the market is 25,000 incentivized to work towards government objectives 20,000 and the workforce development (WfD) system is 15,000 organized in order to meet the skills needs of the 10,000 market, promoting economic development. Thus a 5,000 central feature of Singapore’s economic development 0 has been a close focus on the strategic alignment of 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 economic policy and the WfD system. The result being Singapore High income East Asia & Pacific (all income levels) that, when national economic policy shifted emphasis Source: WDI 2012 and sought to take the nation up the economic ladder, WfD policy equally sought to provide a system that would deliver the kinds of skills required both by the Productivity. Productivity has been a focus of policy on current economy and that planned for the future (Sung and off since the 1980s, recently re-emerging as an and Raddon, 2013). The following discussion provides issue of national importance and driving new policies. an overview of some key economic and social A particular concern is that, whilst growth is indicators and the structure of the current system. consistently good, productivity levels are stubbornly low, despite a range of government programs over the Economic Trends last 30 years. The 2000s saw an average productivity growth level of 1% (Straits Times, 2011). Economic Restructuring. The government has taken an active role through policy and incentives to SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 7 Demographics and Employment Figure 5: Population Pyramid 2000 and 2010 Male Female Male Female 85+ 85+ 80 - 84 80 - 84 75 - 79 75 - 79 70 - 74 70 - 74 65 - 69 65 - 69 60 - 64 60 - 64 55 - 59 55 - 59 50 - 54 50 - 54 45 - 49 45 - 49 40 - 44 40 - 44 35 - 39 35 - 39 30 - 34 30 - 34 25 - 29 25 - 29 20 - 24 20 - 24 15 - 19 15 - 19 10 - 14 10 - 14 5- 9 5- 9 0- 4 0- 4 10 5 0 5 10 10 5 0 5 10 Source: Yearbook of Statistics Singapore, 2011 Population. In 2010, the population topped 5 million, Figure 7: Total Population – Resident and Non-Resident including over 1.3 million non-residents. The female (‘000) 1970-2010 population has become greater than the male over time, with 974 males to every 1,000 females. Singapore has an ageing population, the median age shifting from 34 to 37.4 from 2000-2010 (Fig. 5). Singapore’s pre-independence history as an entrepôt and British colony created a diverse resident population (Fig. 6). The ethnic make up of the resident population has not altered greatly since the 1970s, with only the Indian and ‘other’ groups seeing a growth of 2.2% and 2.1% respectively between 1970- 2010. Source: Singapore Census, 2010 Figure 6: Ethnicity of Resident Population 2010 (%) Other Much of the growth in Singapore’s manufacturing and 1.2 low skills sectors that are less popular jobs with the Indian 9.2 resident population (e.g. food and beverage, Malay 13.4 construction, cleaning) has been supported through migrant labor. However, since productivity levels have not increased in a similar fashion over this period, if Chinese migrant labor were to be reduced radically, this may 74.1 have a negative impact on growth unless productivity measures are also able to have greater impact. Community and other events have been organized by the government with the aim of improving relations and understanding between citizens, permanent Source: Singapore Census, 2010 residents and foreign workers. Census data does not cover non-residents, including Employment. Employment rates are fairly high expatriates and foreign workers without resident amongst the working-age, resident population. In status. However, this population has grown 2010, 66.2% of the population were in the workforce. significantly since the 1990s (Fig. 7). Reports indicate Participation rates are 56.5% for females and 76.5% that 30% or more of the workforce is made up of for males (Singapore Census, 2010). The average foreign workers (resident and non-resident). This is a unemployment rate in 2010 was 2.2%. Such indicators topic of much debate at present. On the one hand, the compare favorably with other developed economies in foreign worker population is argued to depress wages Asia and globally. However, the retirement age is and cause social problems. On the other, it is argued relatively low, with individuals able to draw on their that inflation will rise and some important industries Central Provident Fund (CPF) retirement funds from will not remain in Singapore if the number of foreign age 55. Retaining older workers in the economy is an workers is cut through policy measures. important policy focus at present. The CPF is a key SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 8 socio-economic tool, representing an enforced savings control wage increases (Ee and Leong, 2011). NWC scheme which helps fund individual education, still plays an important role today in guiding wage housing, medical insurance and retirement. Both increases that are pegged against productivity and individuals and employers pay into the CPF. Thanks to economic conditions, as well as informing economic a strong social housing scheme via the Housing & policy and manpower planning. Notably, it was the Development Board (HDB) and with the CPF, 87.2% of NWC that set up the Skills Development Fund (SDF) in residents are homeowners (Statistics Singapore, 1979 to encourage investment in training and skills 2011). Among other things, these policy mechanisms upgrading (Lim, 1998). The tripartite agreement and have created what is recognized as a ‘stakeholder’ ensuing industrial relations practices (such as society, with benefits for citizens, unions, industry and agreement to reduce employer CPF contribution to government. temporarily cut labor costs in the late 1980s-early 90s) are regarded as one of the national mechanisms Tripartite Cooperation: Another reflection of the that Singapore has been able to use in order to emerge ‘stakeholder’ emphasis is the strong tripartite relatively quickly from several serious economic cooperation underpinning economic development downturn periods (Chew, 2010) and a fundamental policy and implementation since the 1970s, including source of long term social and political stability the area of WfD. The tripartite relationship has taken a (Kuruvilla, 1996). central role in Singaporean policy making and society since the late 1960s-early 1970s. This includes not Demand for Skills only a ‘symbiotic partnership’ between NTUC and the PAP party (Ee and Leong, 2011: 53), which is quite Labor Shortages: The emergence of a tight labor unique, but also a very strong advisory role for market in the early 1970s also led over time to a employers, creating a robust demand-led approach in strong reliance on importing foreign labor both at the WfD. In effect, union and employers are close partners low skills and high skills ends, initially from with government in the development of policy and neighboring Malaysia and then later from China, the practice. All parties benefit from – and are incentivized Philippines and India among others. The by – the sharing of high-level information about preponderance of foreign low-wage workers has been economic performance, trends, forecasts and futures. a policy concern since the 1970s. Whilst talent Having such information in effect creates consensus attraction at the high end is not regarded as a and a common objective. significant problem, bringing value, innovation and investment, legislative changes and tougher The background to cooperation lies in the early restrictions have been phased in since 2010 to reduce conditions of the mid-1960s, a period marked by labor the lower skills economy. and political unrest and high unemployment. The first move to tripartism came in 1965 with agreement Sectoral Restructuring. Since the 1970s, when amongst unions, employers and government on a manufacturing and industry was considered the core Productivity Code of Practice and a Charter for of the economy, there has been a significant shift Industrial Progress (Ee and Leong, 2011). In 1968, towards services. By 2007, 76% of the working changes were made to the Employment Bill and population were employed in the service sector, amendments to the Industrial Relations Act., compared to 22% in industry (WDI, 2012). As an supported by the National Trades Union Congress urban economy, agriculture and primary sectors are (NTUC). The tripartite vision was based on minimal. Indeed, the number of residents working in cooperation in order to reduce industrial action to services expanded from just over 1 million to more support the government’s industrial strategy of than 1.5 million between 2000-2010 (MOM, 2011 providing an attractive location for MNCs, inward Table 4.6). Interestingly, whilst the perception has investment and thus job growth. In WfD terms, this been that manufacturing was the heart of the meant creating a universal basic education system and Singaporean economy for many decades, the combined ramping up technical education and industrial training industries under services have always outstripped (Chiang, 1998). goods production in terms of contribution to GDP (Fig. 8 and 9). With the settling of labor-management relations (1968-70), the economy saw major growth: unemployment was falling, GDP average growth in the period was 13.7 per cent, 240 new factories provided 52,000 additional jobs (Ee and Leong, 2011). Then, by 1972, Singapore experienced rapid industrial growth and an increasingly tight labor market. The tripartite National Wage Council (NWC) was established in 1973, following NTUC recommendations, to help SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 9 International Student Assessment (PISA) review (OECD, 2011a) Figure 8: Sector Shares of GDP (%) Internal Labor Mobility: The fact that Singapore is a 80 city-state makes internal movement of labor relatively 70 easy. From 1979-1981 a high wage increase policy 60 under the National Wage Council (the Wage Correction 50 Policy) aimed to reduce reliance on low value-added 40 industry but also reduce the practice of ‘job-hopping’, 30 or individuals moving jobs frequently to gain small 20 improvements in pay and conditions (Ngiam, 2009; 10 2011). However, voluntary turnover remains a 0 concern to employers and government in Singapore as 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 in the region generally. Comparative data in the early Agriculture Industry Services 2000s shows rates in Singapore as the highest in Asia Source: WDI 2012. (Khatri et al, 2001). As well as strong retail, hospitality and tourism WfD Provision sectors, this includes significant growth in finance, Institutional Structure. WfD is separated into Pre- business services and education. Following a range of Employment Training (PET) – covering the general regulatory reforms and incentives in the 2000s, and technical education system and those who have Singapore is now one of the world’s leading financial yet to enter work – and Continuing Education and hubs. Nevertheless, manufacturing and production Training (CET) for those in the workforce, including remains an important element of the export economy, lifelong learning. PET falls mostly under the remit of particularly high-tech, high-value areas such as the Ministry of Education (MOE). Vocational CET petrochemical, electronics and precision engineering. comes under the Singapore Workforce Development Indeed, during the recession of 2008-2009, Agency (WDA) (since 2003) and academic CET comes manufacturing was both the first industry to face under the MOE. Since 2007, MOE has also played an major downturn and the first to see growth, making a increasing role in the provision of CET through significant dent in GDP and growth for 2009. programs such as part-time Certificate, Diploma and Figure 9: GDP by Industry (%) Degree-level programs delivered by the institutes of higher learning. Pathways through PET and CET are quite distinct. The following diagram shows the various pathways that can be taken through the PET system. Pupils are streamed for secondary level, with Express representing the most academically inclined stream, the Normal (Academic) stream providing extra time for students to prepare for the GCE O’ Level or to follow technical routes, and the Normal (Technical) is the pre-vocational route intended for those who would do better in a practical-focused education and training program. Places are made available within the post-secondary PET system for 28% of the cohort to enter Junior Source: Singapore Department of Statistics College, 44% the Polytechnics, 22% the ITE. In 2010, over 97% of the Primary 1 cohort progressed on to Supply of Skills Junior College, the Centralized Institute, ITE or Polytechnics. Following a review by the Committee on Education: Compulsory schooling is in place between University Education Pathways Beyond 2015 (CUEP), ages 7-16. Among the adult resident population, in the Cohort Participation Rate is to be raised to 40% for 2011 the literacy rate is 96.1%, the mean years of tertiary education by 2020, along with expansion of schooling 10.2, and 92.2% have at least secondary part-time degrees and an applied degree pathway education. Increasing numbers now have post- (Lee, 2012), although there are concerns about the secondary qualifications, with a noticeable shift over ‘over-vocationalization’ of higher education (Tan, the 2000s (Statistics Singapore, 2011). Singapore 2012). scored highly in the 2009 OECD Program for SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 10 Figure 10: Singapore PET System Source: Adapted from Ministry of Education, Singapore and updated through discussions The vocational CET system sits parallel to the PET and modules, which lead to a Statement of Attainment academic CET system, with many overlaps in reality, (SOA), through to Graduate Certificate/ Diploma level. such as Diploma level and professional training in the Polytechnics and Universities. The core of the Following targets set by the 2008 CET Masterplan, the vocational CET system is, since 2005, the Workforce publicly-subsidized CET system caters to around 80,000 Skills Qualifications framework: a national vocational resident workers. As well as the WSQ, a broad range of qualifications system. Certification covers ‘bite-size’ SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 11 privately-funded vocational and professional training for Legislative reforms have recently been made to ensure those in the workforce is available at all levels. quality among private providers. Although PET and CET have been kept quite separate under the purviews of the MOE and MOM respectively, Financing Skills Development the MOE is now looking to expand CET provision, WfD receives a high level of funding with including promoting part-time study routes and contributions from government, industry, unions and recognition of prior learning and relevant work individuals. Public funding is significant, with experience for working adults. There is now an Education coming second only to Defense in the ongoing taskforce to establish linkages between national budget. The estimated budget for FY2010 academic and vocational CET tracks and greater showed a budget of $11.4 million for defense and $9.6 alignment of policy, planning and provision. million for education. The major element of CET is It is important to note that the funded national education funded through two sources. Firstly, an employer levy, and training system caters for citizens and permanent the Skills Development Fund (SDF) and secondly the residents, with some differences in subsidies for these two larger Lifelong Learning Endowment Fund (LLEF), groups. Given the high percentage of foreign workers in which provides a fairly protected source of public the economy, this has implications for the development of funding for CET, as will be highlighted in the report. the stocks of workers in the labor force. Employers are only eligible for government training subsidies and the Issues Shaping WfD Policy For the Future WSQ program for foreign (including low wage) workers in A number of challenges are shaping future WfD policy. special circumstances. For example, during the recession Among these are the above-mentioned ageing period, foreign workers in the construction industry were population. Measures are being taken to keep older able to complete a specific range of WSQ Units of workers in the labor market and to facilitate that Assessment, although not a Certificate. Some health and through skills upgrading. Another issue is the heavy safety courses also attract subsidies. Large employers are dependence on foreign workers, particularly in low generally able to cover training costs for their foreign wage work. Restrictions have been raised on workers, but this may present a greater challenge for employment of foreign workers but there are also small-medium sized enterprise (SMEs). On-going debates measures to ensure continued attraction of high-end about this topic are somewhat beyond the remit of this talent to support the knowledge economy. However, benchmarking exercise. there remains concern about the preponderance of low-skills, low-pay workers more widely in the Figure 11: The Workforce Skills Qualifications (WSQ) Framework population and evidence of growing income disparity. The Gini coefficient rose from 43.4 in 2000 to 45.2 in 2011 after adjusting for government transfers and taxes (Gog, 2012 citing Department of Statistics). Furthermore, although the average monthly household income has risen a little for the lowest 10% of workers, it has almost doubled for the highest 10%. Table 2: Average Monthly Household Income from Work Per Household Member ($, including CPF) Lowest Highest Top 10% Over Year 10% 10% Lowest 10% 2000 315 5,801 18.4 2005 297 7,004 23.6 2011 422 10,543 25.0 Source: Adapted from WDA, Singapore Source: Gog, 2012 citing Ministry of Manpower, Report on Wages in Singapore, 2010 and Singapore Yearbook of Manpower Governance. Legislative Acts outline the governance of Statistics, 2011. PET providers as well as Statutory Bodies that are Current WfD policy in CET includes a focus on involved in delivering WfD. upgrading the skills and job options of Singaporean Education Market. A wide range of education and workers including the Professional, Managerial and training is available from public and private Executive (PME) group. Cohorts for different institutions. This covers both PET and CET, spanning education and training pathways are expanding from Primary through to University and professional following a 2012 review. Two more local universities level, with heavy public subsidies for Primary (totaling 6) will be established through expansion of education as well as WSQ programs for citizens. The Singapore Institute of Management, a private government has partnered with top overseas private University for adult learners, and the Singapore providers to build Singapore as an ‘Education Hub’. Institute of Technology. SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 12 Summary | Benchmarking Results Introduction developing in line with Singapore’s different economic development stages as it shifted from a developing to The results from the SABER-WfD Benchmarking advanced economy. process highlight that Singapore made continuous progress and significant improvements in its Figure 13: Singapore Benchmarking Results workforce development (WfD) system from 1970 to 2010. This has created a clear and coherent system Policy Goal with highly a developed policy and institutional 1. Direction Framework framework. It continues to be subject to review and Strategic enhancements, where needed, to respond to shifting 2. Demand-led policy challenges and economic demands. 3. Coordination Overview of Results Singapore’s overall scores for each of the three 4. Pathways Oversight functional dimensions in the SABER-WfD framework System appear in Figure 12. They reveal a consistent and 5. Funding sustained pattern of improvement between 1970, 1990 and 2010 in the country’s WfD policies and 6. Standards institutions. By 2010, the scores put Singapore’s WfD system at a high advanced level of development for 7. Relevance strategic framework, and at an advanced level for Delivery Service system oversight and service delivery. 8. Excellence Figure 12: Benchmarking Results – Dimension Level 9. Accountability 1 2 3 4 1970 1990 2010 Strategic Clear leadership and funding are in place to support a System Oversight Service Delivery Framework broad range of WfD priorities. Continuous 1970 1990 2010 improvements are made, with forecasting to meet Note: the above composite scores are the same as the categorical ratings future demands and opportunities, as well as rapid shown on the cover of this report. They have been converted using the reaction to newly-emerging challenges. The Skills rules indicated in footnote 3 on page 6. Program for Upgrading and Resilience (SPUR) is a useful example of a policy-driven activity that was As elaborated in the introduction, the score for each rapidly put in place with tripartite backing during the functional dimension is an aggregation of the scores economic downturn of 2008-2009. SPUR aimed to for the underlying Policy Goals associated with it (see help companies retain employees during the Figure 13). The results show that not all aspects of downturn and prepare for the recovery period. It policies and institutions for WfD in Singapore were combined funding, including absentee payroll equally developed in 1970 and that progress in the subsidies, with training and upskilling programs. subsequent 40 years has been faster in some areas The Tripartite Alliance is fundamental to the WfD than others. system. This is both in relation to policy development and, crucially, in enabling successful implementation. Landmarks in the Journey of Reform The National strategy is demand-driven and well Highlights are presented below on Singapore’s informed, being shaped by informal, formal, occasional experience in strengthening its WfD policies and and systematic analyses. Economic forecasting has institutions in the three broad functional dimensions consistently been a core activity for government since considered in the SABER-WfD framework. the 1960s, with input from a range of stakeholders and sources. The high-level manpower planning process Strategic Framework. By 2010, Singapore’s Strategic has been a particular feature of Singapore’s WfD Framework for WfD is at an advanced level. A holistic system, with specific attention to the match between approach is taken – WfD is fully integrated into demand and supply for current and future skills needs, national policy and economic strategy, as evidenced by focused on supporting national economic development its centrality in the national Economic Strategy. and competitiveness. Indeed, WfD has been a core priority since the 1960s, SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 13 Some landmark reforms and developments that Landmark reforms and developments that brought brought about significant improvements in the about significant improvements in system oversight strategic framework include: include: 1. A Tripartite Alliance – between unions, employers 1. Major education reviews of 1979 and 1991 led to and government – which was established in the reforms in a wide range of areas, with early 1970s and remains a core feature of the WfD improvements and raised standards in both system today in relation to WfD policy direction and general and vocational/technical education; development, implementation and even provision; 2. School examinations were centralized and standard 2. The early and continued creation of Statutory protocols developed in the early 1970s. The 1991 Boards have helped to create a system which is both review also led to changes to primary leavers' highly structured but also benefits from an internal testing standards and entry requirements for autonomy and flexibility. This supports a demand- secondary general and technical education. This driven approach, even as demands shift quite helped to raise the overall standard of secondary rapidly in line with economic advancement, e.g. and technical education, particularly with the Economic Development Board (EDB) (est. 1967), establishment of the Institute of Technical Industrial Training Board (est. 1973)/ Vocational & Education (ITE) in 1992; Industrial Training Board (1979)/ Institute of Technical Education (ITE) (1992), Singapore 3. From 1999-2004, the National Skills Recognition Workforce Development Agency (WDA) (est. 2003); System (NSRS) was developed, being replaced in 2005 by the Workforce Skills Qualifications (WSQ). 3. Pre-employment education and training (PET) (i.e. WSQ supports standards-based training and school, college, ITE, Polytechnic, University) has certification to meet both sectoral and generic skills always benefitted from a high level of advocacy and needs. The WSQ certifies work-related learning clear lines of responsibility and leadership. Since the against industry-identified standards and 2000s, CET now benefits from a further integrated competency-based assessment, covering 23 sectors approach. This helped enhance critical coordination in 2010 (30 sectors by 2012) and much of the to meet national WfD priorities through clarity of economy; responsibility and a clear mandate for the WDA. 4. In 2006, the National University of Singapore (NUS) System Oversight. By 2010 the System Oversight and the Nanyang Technological University (NTU) dimension also reaches an Advanced level. Whilst the were corporatized, taking on Autonomous pathways for skills acquisition element comes out University Status (previously being Statutory somewhat lower overall, opportunities for lifelong Boards). In 2009, more stringent legislative learning and particularly CET have nevertheless requirements and auditing were introduced for expanded over time. More diverse pathways are private education providers through the emerging and, moving forward, this aspect is under aforementioned CPE, being supported and enforced review. There has been significant and continued under the Private Education Act (2009). improvement in accreditation systems and standards for WfD providers in both PET and CET, helping to Service Delivery. By 2010, WfD Service Delivery scores ensure quality of provision. In particular, the creation at an advanced level. Major improvements have been of the Council for Private Education (CPE) (2009) made across the board, with particular development in enhanced the national standards and quality the outcomes element, with enhanced accountability assurance framework for private providers. Equally, for WfD results. Well-established structures are in under the WDA the national Workforce Skills place to ensure the relevance and high quality of Qualifications is underpinned by a robust training and of institutions. Industry makes significant accreditation and standards system. input into training provision, including acting as providers, such as with the WSQ. Systems supporting To support improved practice and following a period recruitment and training of staff in PET have improved of recession, the early 1990s saw the introduction of over time. Monitoring systems are in place to ensure government efficiency measures and review of credibility of training, testing and certification in PET resources through performance measurement. These and CET. A particular feature in the last decade has practices have remained in place or been enhanced been the promotion of a diversity and quality of over time. Across the board, effective use of resources training providers. to achieve desired outcomes remains a primary drive. Funding, performance reviews and targets (where Landmark reforms and developments that brought these are used) are closely aligned to national WfD about significant improvements in WfD service priorities. delivery include: SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 14 1. The ‘Singapore Education’ strategy was launched in examinations, standards and curriculum varied 2003 to position Singapore as a global and regional between institutions, basic education was lacking in ‘Education Hub’. High quality education institutions the population and technical/vocational education have been attracted to set up in Singapore through was poor. Early education was based along ethnic the Economic Development Board’s Global community lines, being provided by charities and Schoolhouse Program, leading to diversity and high community groups, fuelling racial tensions and quality provision. There are clear incentives and divisions according to the language medium of penalties in place to ensure quality and to meet schooling (Gopinathan, 1974; Gopinathan et al, 1999). WfD policy goals through partnership with private Thus one of the first WfD policies pursued by the PET and CET providers; government was basic, universal education. Alongside this was reform of the technical education system and 2. The WSQ system has an in-built framework of creation in 1968 of the Technical Education incentives and penalties, with continuous Department at the MOE, a new authority to advance monitoring by the WDA; technical education. This required rapid investment in areas such as a basic infrastructure and crash courses 3. 1979 and 1991 education reviews led to reforms to to train teachers (Chiang, 1998). In other words, enhance recruitment, training and performance of economic development would not have come about educators in the PET system. More recently, as part without the combination of a clear vision, consistent of CET reform, the Institute for Adult Learning leadership and a strong practical focus on clarifying (IAL) was created to provide capacity-building and the PET system (including lines of responsibility and a WSQ qualifications for the training profession, as mandate for action), building basic infrastructure and well as developing research on CET; investing funding to implement the policy goals. The driving force behind this emphasis was that WfD 4. Industry’s input into training provision has always needed to be aligned with economic development. For been strong and has formalized over the decades. countries in the early stages of economic development, For example, ITE and Polytechnics work closely noteworthy is that CET in the 60s-70s was with industry on technical education, and the WSQ characterized by a series of activities and authorities, has industry input at its core, with involvement but did not constitute a distinct, strategic system. CET from the identification of training standards was regarded as important in supporting employer through to provision; demand for skills and the rapid emergence of new industries, which PET can be naturally slower to 5. The structures to monitor skills demand, supply respond to. However, PET was the core policy focus and outcomes have formalized over time, with and where emphasis on building a system lay in the more systematic measures coming into place from 60s-70s. From the 1980s, the CET aspect of the WfD the mid-1970s. This includes a national Labor system took on greater importance and quality and Force Survey (est. 1974) and a manpower planning standards also emerged as a new driver for policy and council (est. 1979) that draws on a range of practice across all areas of WfD. information to forecast future skills needs and A second fundamental factor is the engagement of targets for PET institutions. stakeholders as a basic underpinning principle. As noted, the Tripartite Alliance was created (1970s) and Reflections on lessons from Singapore made it possible for later developments to occur, There are many things we can learn from the underpinning the WFD system ever since. The union- development of Singapore’s WfD system since the government relationship in Singapore represents a 1970s. The following reflects on just a few important rather distinctive element of Singaporean policy. This aspects. is not just the case in WfD but in all aspects of society, with a range of cooperatives providing services to Crucial factors that helped to build Singapore’s WfD support the cost of living and thus facilitate wage system. WfD was identified as a pillar of economic regulation. Furthermore, the labor-management development and rapid industrialization from the relationship is based on building consensus, co- outset. An OECD (2011a: 159) study on PISA results management of labor issues and knowledge-sharing. notes that education in Singapore has always ‘serve[d] From the mid-1960s and particularly from the as the engine of human capital to drive economic creation of National Wage Council (NWC) (est. 1972), growth’. The leadership had a vision about where the this method of tripartism has helped to inform policy country was going, and how WfD fit into that, creating but also ensures that it can be implemented effectively a strong advocacy for WfD. However, it is evident that by engaging all relevant partners. The partners can other factors were vital. Firstly, creation of a clear and also be involved in delivering strategic WfD programs. coherent WfD system. The system inherited from the Stakeholders are thus engaged from the national colonial government in the 1960s was piecemeal. strategy and policy development process through to There was no national system of education or implementation and provision. For example, the SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 15 backing of unions and employers has been vital to the Singapore, whilst many other EDBs around the world design, introduction and wide acceptance of the failed. From the 70s-80s onwards, overseas study Workforce Skills Qualifications (WSQ) framework, a visits have commonly helped inform policy review and major development for vocational CET (from 2005). redesign. For example, the German apprenticeship system was studied when reforming technical Another important factor has been the ability of the education in the 1990s. In the same way, learning from WfD system to shift with economic growth – both industry about skills needs and capacity building has actual and strategized – to reflect the resulting been important to WfD. When building the economy changes in WfD demands. The engagement of and industrial base in the early years, the government employers in the tripartite partnership has again been quickly recognized that the domestic industry did not fundamental to development of a highly demand-led have the necessary capacity and unemployment was a WfD system. Information is shared between the major social and political issue. An ‘open-door policy’ tripartite partners to identify current and future skills to learn from foreign companies, talent and technology issues, as well as opportunities. Thus the early stages quickly set Singapore apart from other developing of economic development strategy (60s-70s) required countries and facilitated industrial restructuring a combination of industrial training for current (Pang, 1982: 5). workers (such as EDB’s training for retrenched workers from the British army bases) alongside a Challenges faced. There are of course areas in which heavy emphasis on ‘front end’ primary education and Singapore has faced challenges or scored lower on the technical education (Chiang, 1998). The latter geared benchmarking tool, and from which we can also draw up the supply of skilled workers as well as preparing reflections. For example, implementation often for a future move up the value chain. In PET, this appears to have been prioritized over regular, resulted in a strong focus on science, math, technical systematic, and public evaluation of policies or subjects and the English language medium implementation, as indicated through aspects such as (Gopinathan et al, 1999). With rapid industrialization the effect of specific programs or funding formulae. in the early 1970s-80s, and following the first recession in the late 80s, a more systematic approach Policy reviews are often restricted to government was developed in CET. At the same time, a primary access, reducing their effectiveness as a potential education review led to technical education being learning tool across stakeholders. An emphasis on upgraded to post-secondary rather than post-primary internal government research also creates a rather level. There was heavy investment in the limited ability for research institutions and infrastructure and a transformation in the image of independent researchers outside government to link technical education in 1992 with the creation of the in with policymakers and providers to review and Institute of Technical Education (ITE). ITE caters for a enhance policy and practice or to forecast (Low et al, quarter of the secondary cohort and provides 1991). Interestingly, the recently established Council important opportunities for many young people. It has for Private Education (CPE) adopted a more been garnered with international awards in transparent approach, making information on private recognition of its work (ITE, 2012). Indeed, a education institutions publicly accessible and noteworthy aspect of the WfD system is a willingness searchable online, including their registration periods, to invest substantially in vocational education and EduTrust award tier and any enforcement action training, producing leading-edge provision and taken. This followed the New Zealand model and helps facilities at the ITE and Polytechnic level, particularly to inform individuals who are choosing where to study from the 1990s, and substantially raising the profile of but also allows higher-quality institutions to technical and vocational education (Law, 2007). distinguish themselves. Another important lesson is the obvious willingness Another challenge has been that of balancing policy and desire of the government and WfD providers to goals with providing opportunity and equity, learn lessons from elsewhere. Rather than borrowing illustrating some of the limitations of manpower policy, Singapore has distilled fundamental policy planning. Systematic manpower planning and a highly elements and re-interpreted these to meet the demand-led WfD approach have been key government’s political objectives and local socio- characteristics of the system since the late 1970s. political context. This represents a valuable lesson for However, it can be challenging to balance these other countries looking to transfer policies for practices with creation of opportunities for transfer economic development. In the 1960-70s, the learning across the WfD system, lifelong learning that spans process involved working with overseas experts to beyond immediate economic needs and meeting review possible approaches to economic development; individual demand for learning. Thus following the most famous being the engagement of Albert manpower planning and economic strategy, a Cohort Winsemius from the Netherlands. Winsemius Participation Rate (CPR) sets the percentage of suggested formation of the Economic Development secondary school leavers to enter each stream of PET Board (EDB), which remains a key agency in (technical and academic), to ensure a good match with SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 16 opportunities and industry demand. In tertiary geared up quickly to cope with any immediate education, this meant a focus on fields such as STEM demand, leaving potential for skills gaps that either and careful management of university places. There require rapid CET provision for existing workers or to was some feeling that this strategy narrowed the bring in foreign talent. Two areas presenting such a range of topics that could be studied in national dilemma are medicine and law. To avoid a forecasted universities and limited individual choice (Low et al, over-supply of medics, legislation was adopted in 1993 1991). There are recent calls to expand opportunities controlling the number of training places (Lim, 2010). for ITE students to progress to Polytechnic and However, the much-expanded medical sector now Polytechnic students to University. lacks sufficient supply of doctors. Foreign labor has been targeted, as well as policies to bring back Demand for tertiary education continues to outstrip Singaporeans studying overseas. According to reports, the places available in national public institutions. since the medical industry started expanding in 2005, Those who cannot secure places can now study with around 60% of doctors hired have been foreigners private institutions that have campuses in Singapore. (China-Asean Online, 2011). After this problem Young Singaporeans also opt to study overseas due to became apparent, the government expanded places at the competition for places, availability of chosen the NUS medical school, established a second Duke- subject and opportunities for international exposure NUS Graduate Medical School and now plans to form a (Davies, 2011; Parliament of Singapore, 2012a), medical school at NTU (Lim, 2010), though it will take reflecting a general trend in Asia more recently (OECD, time to fill the skills shortages. One of the important 2011b). In 2008, over 150,000 citizens studied and factors supporting the process is the ‘uniquely worked overseas (Parliament of Singapore, 2008). An integrated’ way in which ministries and government Overseas Singaporean Unit in the National Population agencies work together to coordinate and align policy and Talent Division informs Singaporeans studying or to meet core economic objectives (OECD, 2011a: 165). working abroad about opportunities in Singapore Policy failure as well as success can provide valuable (Parliament of Singapore, 2012b). There has also been lessons. One example was the Wage Correction Policy gradual expansion in national higher education that proposed increases from 1979-81. The aim was to provision and policy to grow areas not traditionally form part of a policy package to take Singapore’s covered within the system. Tracking shows that economy up the value chain, shifting from a labor- to around 27% of the Primary 1 cohort now goes on to capital-intensive focus, and reducing use of low-skills, enter full-time publicly-funded undergraduate degrees foreign labor. Wage increases continued beyond this at local universities. This is set to expand to 40% by period and higher than recommended, along with 2020 (Lee, 2012). Applied degrees will be a particular rising CPF payments (Library of Congress, 1989). focus, facilitated by the establishment of two more Singapore subsequently experienced recession and national universities (totalling six). It will be achieved key government figures and independent analysts through expansion of two existing institutions: 1) later identified this policy as a key contributor, among UniSim (est. 1992) a private university for adult others that the government swiftly reversed (Ashton learners and part of Singapore Institute of et al, 1999; Low, 1993; Ngiam, 2009). As noted by the Management (est. 1964 by EDB), and 2) the Singapore Economic Review of 1986, wage increases were Institute of Technology (est. 2009), which offers double productivity levels (Singapore Government, applied degrees in partnership with reputable 1986). Thus the NWC reversed the wage increase, overseas institutions. Other recent changes include a pegging increases to productivity. Despite the link strategy to attract leading international institutions to between the policy and downturn, there is also build tertiary arts provision, including Lasalle School recognition that willingness to be pragmatic and of the Arts and the Nanyang Academic of Fine Arts. In reverse policy rapidly aided return to growth. Another 2013, a new liberal arts college within the NUS, Yale- critique was the relatively late stage at which the NUS college, will matriculate its first intake. government sought to tackle the need for education beyond the primary level (1991). Early economic Manpower planning has generally worked well for growth required basic education but it became clear Singapore. Given the rapidity with which change can this hampered restructuring and placed workers at occur in the economy, it was increasingly recognised risk. The second national education review of 1991 that flexibility is required in manpower planning. For was vital in reforming not just primary but secondary example, forecasting needs to look a long way ahead, and post-secondary education and possible pathways. but students going into today’s system will not be SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 17 Detailed Results Dimension 1 | Strategic Framework4 Policy Goal 1 Articulating a Strategic Direction for WfD Policy Goal 2 Prioritizing a Demand-led Approach Policy Goal 3 Strengthening Critical Coordination 4 The composite scores shown in the dial are the same as the categorical ratings shown on the cover of this report. They have been converted using the rules indicated in footnote 3 on page 6. The categorical ratings conform to the standard presentaion of results in the SABER intiative, while the presentation in the dials reveals more detail. SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 18 SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 18 Dimension 1 | Strategic Framework Policy Goal 1 Articulating a Strategic Direction for WfD 1970 1990 2010 The first policy goal examines the level of strategic alliance that was born in this period (see Country direction within the workforce development (WfD) Context and Box 2), which has underpinned the high system across the three time periods. Overall, for 1970 level of advocacy for WfD as an economic priority ever this scores as Established, reaching Advanced status since. by 1990. This highlights a growing emphasis on strategic leadership and cooperation from the early Box 2: Establishing Tripartism years of a new and developing country in the 1960s, to  1965 – Amended Productivity Code of Practice today when Singapore is an advanced economy with  1968 –Amended Employment Bill and Industrial the national systems to match. This Policy Goal covers: Relations Act to facilitate employers’ hiring and the extent to which WfD is a priority within economic management of staff and to attract FDI; development policy; evaluation of skills needs and  1969 - National Trades Union Congress (NTUC) future requirements; the alignment of skills demand Seminar for the Modernization of the Labor Movement; and supply via policy.  1972 - National Wage Council (NWC) set up as a forum for tripartite cooperation on economic and  Advocate for WfD as priority social issues. Stakeholder approach, still a key for economic development player in economic development;  Tripartite relationship identified as key factor in At the action level, this scores as Established for 1970 rapid growth of inward investment and and Advanced for 1990 and 2010. employment in early 1970s. Continues to be central to advocacy for WfD and broader policy Overview 1970-2010: There has been concerted development. support and advocacy for WfD from the mid-1960s onwards, even when the system itself was still in Source: Ashton et al., 1999; Ee and Leong, 2011; Tan, 2004. formation. As a new nation lacking natural resources, and hastened by the announcement of an early As a ‘factor-driven’, labor-intensive economy in the withdrawal of British troops, in the late 1960s the late 1960s to early 1970s (Law, 2007), political government identified industrialization as the key leadership focused on driving up employment, economic development strategy. Over the decades, improving labor relations and meeting the national clear leadership and funding have been mobilized, via industrialization strategy. There was strong advocacy national economic strategy, to meet changing policy for PET and a growing focus on technical education. priorities and economic growth. Initially this focused Technical and vocational education was primarily on PET but, in the 1980s and particularly from the within schools, legislated for under the general 2000s, CET has also benefitted from clear Education Act until 1973, when the Industrial Training representation in the system, with creation of new Board was formed to represent and renew technical government and provider bodies to meet national CET and vocational education and training (TVET) more demand and policy goals. From the early 1970s, a broadly. Tripartite Alliance was formed, engaging stakeholders The leadership and policy framework for CET were in policy making and creating strategic advocacy for fairly ad hoc and dispersed among a number of WfD across government, employers, unions and different agencies and ministries. community groups alike. 1990: By this period, there was support for WfD 1970: There was sustained support for WfD, across government, unions and employers, building on particularly from government, although the national the tripartite system. Advocacy for WfD was systems and relations between stakeholders were in institutionalized and integrated, with a clear message the early stages of development. WfD featured as an from all stakeholders on the centrality of WfD to important strategy in early national economic national socio-economic development. Top level development plans. Noteworthy is that, although in a leadership and priorities were provided through: formative stage, the system benefitted from a national Economic Reviews of 1986 and 1990; the relatively stable government, the pragmatic attitude of Council for Professional and Technical Education policy makers and civil servants including educators, (CPTE), a national ministerial manpower planning and the existing basic but workable WfD council which drew on input from stakeholders; and infrastructure. A landmark feature was the tripartite the tripartite National Wage Council (NWC). After SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 19 weathering its first recession in the mid-1980s, across a number of ministries and statutory boards, Singapore had transitioned to a newly industrializing with these practices becoming more systematic and country (NIC), rapidly returning to growth in the formalized from the late 1970s. Systematic manpower 1990s. However, a result of the recession was planning for current and future skills needs has been a consensus among stakeholders that the CET level of leading feature of economic development and policy WfD required attention. A significant percentage of formulation since 1979 when the CPTE (later renamed workers had not obtained secondary education: the National Manpower Council, NMC) was created. something that had not been required by the low skills 1970: The government rigorously evaluated economic economy of the 1970s but which did not meet the prospects. For example, one of the key remits of the needs of economic growth and a restructured EDB was to identify and attract investment from economy. A landmark policy development in this era future growth industries and to work with other was the introduction of a suite of national CET parties to ensure that appropriately skilled workers programs (detailed later), focused on upgrading the were in place. Although, in reality, this might better be skills, education and literacy of the existing workforce, described as ‘opportunistic’, rather than fully strategic and with a clear budget. The implementation of this in this period, reflecting the ‘survival’ focus of the time. upgrading policy was enabled by all stakeholders and A confidential Second Development Plan (1966-1970) was subject to a series of evaluations and exists, and a range of ad hoc studies was carried out in improvements. vital industries. As a result, literacy, math and science became a core focus for the education system and 2010: Following the global financial crisis of 2008- funding was made available to support skills 2009, WfD remains a central priority for stakeholders development in key industries. In the late 1960s, a and policy as a means to enhance competitiveness, review of technical education was conducted. As a with advocates at all levels. WfD is integrated within result, technical skills were boosted in general the national Economic Strategy Committee (ESC) education and the first reform of the TVET system was reports of 2002 and 2010, and features in regular established in order to better meet rapidly changing ministerial speeches including the Annual Budget. It is skills demands. a central element of NTUC campaigns and activities, with a strong drive to raise awareness of the Box 3: Growth of Technical Education importance of WfD among the working population. Technical education provision was very low when the PAP entered government in 1959. By 1961 there were just two Since the 1990s, advocacy for WfD and its leadership is vocational and technical schools, but major investment led now further integrated and holistic, particularly with a to significant growth. Reforms in the early 1970s also clearer line of responsibility for CET. A high-level helped to improve the quality of the system. review under the Economic Review Committee’s Sub- Committee on Enhancing Human Capital (2002), led to Number Technical Education Students a number of key developments. The Singapore Workforce Development Agency (WDA), a Statutory 25,000 Board specifically responsible for development of the 20,000 workforce (vocational CET) was established under the 15,000 Singapore WDA Act in 2003. A CET Masterplan was created in 2008 to set the direction for the WDA, 10,000 vocational CET providers and other stakeholders. 5,000 Union and employers are key partners in the CET 0 system. There is now a clear national message about 1961 1962 1964 1965 1966 1967 the role of learning and skills for employment across the lifetime, and the link to social and economic Source: Chiang, 1998 outcomes at all levels. 1990: The national Labor Force Survey (est. 1974)  Evaluate economic prospects and other systematic manpower analyses that were and implications for skills established in the late 1970s onwards, helped inform both a Sub-Committee on Manpower within the This action scores as Established for 1970 and 1990 Economic Review and the forecasts of the Council for and Advanced for 2010. Professional and Technical Education (CPTE) which Overview 1970-2010: Evaluation of economic was established in 1979 to provide strategic, high- prospects has been core to the government’s activities level manpower planning. These activities helped to since the late 1960s. It has driven national economic create demand-driven WfD strategy and policy. Along reviews and the work of both government ministries with the MOF and MTI, CPTE had a pivotal role in and, from the early 1970s, various strategic national identifying the links between economic prospects and committees. There has been continued strategic skills requirements, connecting directly to budgets and forecasting of global economic and skills challenges implementation, and setting specific education targets. SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 20 Internal government reviews and research also since the 1990s, the NMC continues to set strategic informed national strategy. For example, attaining targets for PET provision, with clear funding to ensure developed country status was a core strategy of the implementation. This is now also being considered as 1986 Economic Review, leading to concentration on an option for CET, helping to ensure a good match raising skills and education levels at the lower end of between supply and demand. As well as the continued the labor market, whilst growing and attracting high- range of national analyses provided by ministries such end talent. The national Economic Review of 1991 led as the Ministry of Manpower, high-level, internal to major PET reforms and a new interest in on-the-job evaluations are also made across government and CET. As part of these reforms, technical education was statutory boards. Since the WfD system is generally also boosted in 1992-3 by the replacement of the regarded to work well, rather than major reform at existing Vocational and Industrial Training Board this stage there are continuous improvements and (VITB) with the Institute of Technical Education (ITE), rapid response to any gaps. For example, the financial which remains a key education institution today and crisis of 2008-2009 highlighted an unforeseen need caters to a quarter of secondary school leavers. As well for CET and employability support targeted at the as increasing funding for technical education provision Professional, Managerial, Executive and Technician and facilities in the early 1990s, this reform raised (PMET) group, which was unexpectedly hard hit by ITE’s profile, thereby helping to meet national targets the downturn. Similarly, an over-reliance on foreign based on forecasts of the existing and future technical and low-cost labor has been identified as a threat to skills needs of that time. economic and social development, with subsequent review of labor laws and talent attraction. Box 4: The Institute of Technical Education (ITE) VITB has been discussed here at length, since this was the  Develop policies to align technical education authority and provider in 1990. However, in 1992 the system was revamped and the ITE was skills demand and supply created. This was an important step in raising the profile of This action scores as Established for 1970 and technical and vocational education and developing Advanced for 1990 and 2010. internationally recognized provision. 1991 – Second national education review focused on Overview 1970-2010: Alignment of skills supply and primary education, highlighting the need for VITB to demand has been a feature of WfD policy and upgrade to a post-secondary rather than post-primary implementation since the mid-1960s and particularly institution; since the 1980s. The process has formalized over time. 1992 – VITB became the Institute of Technical Education Initially, policy was informed by mostly occasional (ITE), remaining a Statutory Board and with a remit to assessments of demand and supply and the transform technical education as a post-secondary and involvement of stakeholders was ad hoc. Since the attractive route for young people; mid-1970s, more routine and systematic analyses and 1990s-present – ITE has been vital in supporting equity and assessments have been in place. From 1979, the CPTE opportunity, as well as national policy objectives. It caters to has closely monitored supply and demand, forecasting a quarter of secondary cohort with world-class technical for future trends and opportunities. A key feature that education that is closely linked to demand; helps to ensure a good match between demand and Winner of international awards in recognition of provision supply has also been the increased involvement of and management excellence, and ITE students often win employers and other stakeholders in informing policy prizes at international skills competitions; development. 2000 – ITE introduced a ‘Total Training Philosophy’ to 1970: Economic policies successfully addressed the create a unique kind of education experience, integrating high unemployment rate of the 1960s, by focusing on theory, practice and hands-on experience; attracting MNCs and providing basic universal 2010 – more ITE graduates wish to go on to polytechnic and education. However, near full employment and a tight maybe even tertiary education, which was less common in labor market quickly emerged in the early 70s. Policy the past. New policies are being developed to open up more was informed by internal assessments, forecasting pathways, such as articulation between ITE and polytechnic such as that of the EDB and by occasional independent programs via credit recognition; research focusing on key industries. Under the 1970 2011-2012 – continued expansion of ITE to cater to new Economic Expansion Incentives (Amendment) Act, demand and further enhance infrastructure. incentives were put in place to grow a value-added Sources: Chiang, 1998; ITE, 2012; OECD, 2011a economy and policy was developed to deal with serious wage pressures. This led to the creation of the 2010: The government’s 2002 and 2010 ESC reports NWC, which provided guidelines to align pay and evaluated and set clear objectives for WfD, informed productivity. In order to raise skills levels and the by national and sector analyses and wide stakeholder supply of educated workers, PET institutions were consultation. The ESC forms every 5 years, or more expanded, including technical and secondary often as required by economic circumstances. education. Policies were subject to in-house review Although manpower planning has somewhat relaxed and, as a developing country, international bodies also SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 21 reviewed the economy, policies and education system, providing technical and financial assistance as a result. Box 5: WSQ Participation and Outcomes 1990: Both occasional and routine government assessments, as well as independent research, Total 2005-2010 informed WfD policy to meet skills demands, particularly via the Economic Review. CET policy Participants 606,365 initiated in the mid-1980s focused on raising skills and literacy levels of workers, as well as promoting Low skills participants 426,829 upgrading for productivity more widely. A number of important programs were introduced to upgrade skills Statements of Achievement (SOAs) issued 1,784,872 in the workforce and to meet changing demand for skills as the economy moved up the value chain (see Full WSQ qualifications awarded 32,556 box 13 for further details). At the same time, reforms in the PET sector included measures to: improve Source: Willmott, 2011 citing WDA, 2010 bilingual education; increase retention levels in technical education; keep young people in education Policies are usually reviewed internally and end-of- and training for at least 10 years; reposition ITE as a program. External evaluation of policy therefore post-secondary institution; expansion of the focuses on limited public documents and on visible polytechnics and response to the high demand for outcomes. tertiary education. Labor and immigration laws focused on meeting skills shortages at the top and bottom ends of the labor market. Stakeholders fed into government policy via strong engagement with ministries, Statutory Boards and the CPTE. Independent academic reviews were published on national WfD policy, but internal policy reviews were usually confidential. 2010: A range of assessments informs the policy- making process and a key feature of the system is the significant input of stakeholders in policy and provision. The close match between demand and supply is core to national WfD policy development. Although tertiary education has been restricted in the past, focused on matching demand and supply, it has been expanding in more recent times. National policy and demand has led to development of new universities both nationally and through private partnership with overseas institutions. In the 2012 National Day Rally, the Prime Minister announced an expansion of the publicly-funded university participation rate from 26% to 40% of the cohort (Lee, 2012). CET is also high on the policy agenda, with expansion of a national qualification framework, the Workforce Skills Qualifications (WSQ). SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 22 Dimension 1 | Strategic Framework Policy Goal 2 Prioritizing a Demand-led Approach 1970 1990 2010 Policy Goal 2 examines the extent to which business 1990: There was a gradual consolidation of WfD and industry stakeholders are able to influence systems in the late 1970s-1980s. From the mid-1970s, national WfD priorities and future skills supply, and priorities were identified based on a range of inputs, how far engagement is promoted and incentivized. with the establishment of routine national Overall scores are Emerging for 1970, Established for assessments and tripartite arrangements such as 1990 and Advanced for 2010. Over time, stakeholders NWC. Employers took on a more systematic role in have taken on a progressively greater role in identifying WfD priorities, with a formal advisory role identifying and delivering on national WfD priorities. as well as executive authority via representation in Policy Actions examined include: the role of business high-level bodies. For example, employers were and industry in determining WfD priorities; how far represented on the National Productivity Council that employer demand for skills and productivity are set strategy on workforce training. Equally, PET incentivized; and future skills assessment. institutions such as the VITB (ITE from 1992), had industry board members and was advised at the policy  Promote demand-driven and implementation levels by Industry Lead Bodies approach (ILB) and VITB Training Institute Advisory Committees (TIAC). The Singapore National This action scores as Emerging for 1970 and Employers’ Federation (SNEF), the employers’ trade Advanced for 1990 and 2010. union (est. 1980) was the key representative for Overview 1970-2010: Responding to industry employers within the tripartite framework. demand for skills has been a core feature of the WfD 2010: Industry continues to play a fundamental role in policy and system from the outset. In the early stages, shaping a highly demand-driven WfD approach. employers’ associations and companies had a more Important recent developments have been in CET, informal but nevertheless influential advisory role in with employers playing strong advisory roles. A some areas of WfD policy development, such as review in 2002 led to creation of the WDA and WSQ, working closely with the Economic Development providing targeted assessments of CET. Board (EDB) to identify the skills required by existing and emerging industries. Over time, new bodies have Box 6: Enhancing CET in the 2000s been formed both in industry and government.  2002: Recommendations of Economic Review’s Sub- Employers feature strongly within high-level councils, Committee on Enhancing Human Capital (Singapore committees and Statutory Boards that influence WfD Government, 2002); policy and priorities. From the mid-1970s, as well as  2003: Singapore Workforce Development Agency government assessments and research, a range of (WDA) established under the WDA Act. Statutory studies and input from stakeholders inform the Board responsible for CET;  1999-2004 National Skills Recognition System demand-driven approach. (NSRS) piloted and then expanded to cover 69 1970: A range of information helped to inform a industries by 2004; demand-driven approach to WfD, although this was in  2005 onwards: WDA developed WSQ framework to the early stages of formation. Business and industry promote and certify workforce skills through training designed as a result of sectoral needs and informally shared important information on future demand; industry trends through engagement with the EDB and  Industry Skills and Training Councils and Manpower government. Employers associations, government and Skills and Training Councils (ISTCs/MSTCs) created academic researchers conducted occasional studies, as advisory bodies, now represents 23 key sectors; such as future skills issues in the burgeoning  2008: Institute for Adult Learning (IAL) established petroleum and electronics industries. Employers and under WDA to provide training and certification for representative groups such as the Singapore CET trainers and conduct research to inform CET Manufacturers’ Association also helped to implement practice and policy. policy through their involvement in provision of industrial training organized by EDB. SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 23  Strengthen firms’ demand of the previous two decades put together (Thiam- for skills to improve Soon, 1994). In 1989, NPB launched ‘P2000’, the national Productivity Plan to be met by the year 2000. productivity A Productivity Standards Board (PSB) was created in This action scores as Latent for 1970 and 1990 and 1996 as a Statutory Board under the MTI, focusing on Established for 2010. ensuring local companies understood international benchmarking systems like ISO9000. There is little in Overview 1970-2010: In 1970, productivity was not the public domain, but it seems that reviews were a key priority. Its importance started to emerge in made of the system. 1972 when the tight labor market led to establishment of the tripartite National Wages Council (NWC). From Box 7: Singapore’s Productivity Challenges the 1980s, productivity emerged as a bigger issue, Growth with greater government incentives to engage employers in upgrading technology and related skills •1% average productivity growth in the 2000s for productivity and stronger systems to promote productivity measures. Comparatively low International Productivity ratings productivity levels means it continues to be a national concern. •Singapore ranks as having 63% of the USA’s capability in Manufacturing and 58% in Services 1970: The National Productivity Board (NPB) and •34% of Japan’s capability in Construction Council (NPC) were established in 1967 under EDB. NPC provided courses and in-house training for Issues companies, as well as consultancy to industry and government. The 1970 Economic Expansion Incentives •High use of low-wage, foreign labour (Amendment) Act included incentives to promote •60% of workers have only up to secondary level restructuring and capital-intensive industry, with educationeven now some reduction in existing incentives for labor- intensive industry. Nevertheless, productivity was a Source: Straits Times, 2011 relatively low priority until 1972. In the Economic Plan of 1970 productivity was identified as a means to 2010: In 2002, NPB and PSB evolved into the remain competitive, whilst moving away from a labor Standards, Productivity and Innovation Board, now intensive economy. However, some productivity SPRING. Routine productivity assessments are made strategies identified in the 1970 annual budget and by SPRING as well as by the ESC. Productivity has Economic Plan were stalled until later in the decade, again arisen in the 2000s as an important policy focus. due to the oil crises of the early 70s. The 2010 Budget launched a new 5-year program, the Productivity and Innovation Credit (PIC) to promote In 1972, NPC was upgraded to a Statutory Board innovative practice in industry to raise productivity, renamed the National Productivity Board (NPB). The particularly aimed at SMEs. Tax deductions are tripartite NWC was also formed, its first set of available for investment in areas such as automation, guidelines recommending that wage increases be investment in R&D and training. There are tax linked to productivity. In 1971, the EDB's Economic incentives for growth or target industries, such as Research Division conducted a productivity financial services, maritime, legal and aircraft. assessment and wage survey, which informed the Following ESC recommendations, the tripartite NWC guidelines, but there is little other evidence in National Productivity and Continuing Education the public domain of evaluation in this area. Council (NPCEC) was established in 2010, under the 1990: It has been argued that Singapore’s significant MOM and MTI. NPCEC aims to raise productivity by 2- growth in the 1970s and into the 1990s came without 3% each year for the next 10 years (AsiaOne, 2011), improvements in productivity (Krugman, 1994; Yuan, focusing on 12 key sectors. A new National 1985). From the 1980s, a range of fiscal incentives was Productivity Fund (NPF) provides incentives for introduced under the Productivity Movement, innovation, benchmarking and upgrading through targeting technology and skills upgrading. Employers cross-industry and company grants. The government could draw on the Skills Development Fund (SDF) to committed $2 million to the NPF, half of which was upgrade machinery and provide related skills training. used in 2010 (AsiaOne, 2010). Whereas MNCs were the main focus in the 1970s, from the 1980s the NPB and a Small Enterprise Bureau provided targeted assistance to SMEs. The 'SME Masterplan’ was published in 1989, aimed at  Address critical challenges in upgrading operations and training provision in SMEs. the future supply of skills This was later assessed to have had a major impact, This action scores as Established for 1970, and with funding from 1989-1994 being higher than that Advanced for 1990 and 2010. SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 24 Overview 1970-2010: Attention to future skills report. Much policy in 1990 was shaped by the supply and human capital has always been a key Economic Review of 1986, which responded to the feature of the policy framework, due to the lack of recession of the mid-1980s. The 1991 Economic natural resources. Over time, the skills assessments Review set out strategy to attain developed country have become increasingly formalized, systematic and status within 30-40 years, including the need for economy-wide, shown in the rising scores between raised education levels. The extent to which 1970 and 1990/2010. There is a notable culture of recommendations were met was reviewed within rapid implementation and WfD targets that are parliamentary debate, speeches, ministry and matched with a defined budget. statutory board annual reports, and the subsequent economic review. 1970: Routine assessments were made of key industries and future growth areas. The Ministries of Finance, 2010: The ESC retains its central function in setting Labor, Education, and Science and Technology carried the overall economic strategy, which includes out reviews related to education and skills, although identifying future skills needs and how to achieve the these are generally not in the public domain. Government supply. Various ministries carry out regular reviews agencies and Statutory Boards also reviewed skills and for future skills planning. For example, within WfD. For example, the EDB carried out formal and divisions of the Ministry of Trade and Industry, informal research, discussions and regular reading of reviews are carried out on areas such as manpower Trades magazines to identify sector developments. EDB planning, forecasting for inward investment, and identified national strategies to compete with other sunrise industries. The Manpower Planning and Policy emerging, low-wage economies in the region like Division at the Ministry of Manpower (former MOL) Vietnam and Thailand. Such strategies were quickly carries out manpower planning studies for the translated into policy and supported with funding, such National Manpower Council (NMC) as well as studies as the large investment in industrial training under the of participation rates, foreign worker and talent EDB. The Technical Education Department (TED) at the attraction policy, and the Labor Force Survey. Whilst MOE also carried out research from 1968, including a the manpower planning process has somewhat review that appears to have led to rapid reforms in the relaxed since the 1990s, targets are nonetheless set for 1970s, with technical skills being introduced into the PET providers to meet, and funding is provided to general education curriculum for a large percentage of ensure swift implementation. MOE works with data girls and boys, and the restructuring of vocational from both the MOM and MTI to forecast supply institutions. requirements and public provision of PET, including top-end professions. MOE also collects data on school 1990: A more formalized, routine assessment was and post-secondary leavers to identify flow into the made of the future supply of skills, benefitting from workforce and the different post-secondary education the addition after the mid-1970s of: the annual Labor and training pathways. General planning numbers are Force Survey; CPTE manpower planning review, which given to PET institutions, which have responsibility for identified future skills needs and suitability of supply implementing course planning and identifying areas and set specific targets with a related budget for for growth. A policy concern over the decades has implementation; the NWC which reviewed industry been the large proportion of the population that has trends and mapped out guidelines on pay; and the not benefited from post-secondary education. As well Economic Review, which set national strategy for 5 as upgrading through the WSQ, the government set years. The latter was economy-wide, with manpower targets in sectors such as childcare for workers to have issues being informed by a specific sub-committee at least Diploma level qualifications by 2015. Box 8: Rising Education Levels 70 35 60 30 50 25 40 20 30 15 20 10 5 10 0 0 Below Secondary Post Sec (non- Dip. & Degree Below Secondary Secondary Post Secondary Tertiary Secondary tertiary) Professional 1978 1996 2001 2011 a) Qualification Level of Employed Individuals Aged 15+, b) Qualification Level of Resident Population 2001 and 2011 1978 and 1996 (%) (%) Source: Singapore Labor Force Survey, 1978 and 1996 Source: Singapore Labor Force Survey, 2001 and 2011 SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 25 Dimension 1 | Strategic Framework Policy Goal 3 Strengthening Critical Coordination 1970 1990 2010 Policy Goal 3 examines how far stakeholder input and Members of stakeholder groups often chaired high-level interactions are coordinated as part of the workforce committees, councils and boards, ensuring involvement development (WfD) system. Overall scores on this in strategic matters and decision-making. The CPTE policy goal are Established for 1970 and Advanced for represented another flagship development, not only 1990 and 2010. The system has benefited from a range providing strategic manpower planning but ensuring of formal and informal structures to support coordination between policy priorities, provision and stakeholder engagement and cooperation, and a strong partners. culture of delivery on policy goals. Policy Actions covered are: coherence of key strategic WfD priorities; Box 9: Manpower Planning Creation institutionalization of stakeholder roles and • 1979 - Council for Professional and Technical Education (CPTE) responsibilities; and mechanisms to facilitate established with remit for national manpower planning and coordinating communication among stakeholders. parties involved in WfD; Goals  Ensure coherence of key • Set targets and funding for PET institutions (schools, technical education strategic WfD priorities and tertiary sectors) and, later on, Statutory Boards such as PSB. Identified policies to meet national skills targets where local provision not sufficient, e.g. high-skills talent immigration; This action scores as Advanced for 1970, 1990 and • Targets set for 5-year periods with reviews and reporting every 2 years; 2010. Changes • 2000s - recognised that flexibility required to meet changing demands Overview 1970-2010: In the 1960s, whilst there was and that institutions, with stakeholder engagement, have vital role in great political will to identify and support WfD determining how to meet skills needs. CPTE replaced by National Manpower Council (NMC); priorities, the system to enact them gained greater • NMC is informed by assessments and information from various bodies. coherence from the mid-1970s. The technical education system benefited from reforms in the 1970s and 1990s, whilst CET saw major reforms and a greater The Economic Review Committee was and remains a coordination in the 2000s. A significant early vital forum for stakeholder communication, convened development was the tripartite agreement of the 1970s. by the Prime Minister every 5-10 years, depending on It provided the basis for close cooperation and economic conditions. With stakeholder representation stakeholder involvement in shaping national strategy on both the Committee and sub-Committees, it takes and policy, but also an environment in which rapid several months to gather evidence, including public implementation has been possible due to stakeholder discussion, before reporting via a national, public report ‘buy-in’. published by the MTI. 1970: Leaders at the apex level of all stakeholder 2010: A key feature in the 2000s has been the greater groups were fairly actively involved in strategic WfD coherence developed in the CET sector following matters. Leaders were brought together through both establishment of the WDA; one of a number of reforms formal and informal means. Following social unrest in resulting from a high-level government review (see Box the 1960s, much of the focus between government, 6). Further coherence and coordination has come unions and employers was on calming labor relations through the engagement of employers, professional and stabilizing wages, as opposed to WfD and skills bodies, unions and other relevant parties in skills issues specifically. Nevertheless, the agreements that development and delivery via the ISTCs/MSTCs, and the came out of such negotiations led to a strong tripartite creation of industry, cross-functional and generic system and a level of consensus that significantly standards under the WSQ system. Also as a result, MOE benefited WfD implementation from the early 1970s and WDA are now enhancing their practices of working onwards. together on CET policy and practice. For example, MOE now works more formally with WDA on CET manpower 1990: From the mid-1970s, there was an increased planning, which tended in the past to be left to the coherence and formality of measures to bring leaders various CET authorities, due to the traditional divisions together. The tripartite relationship meant that NTUC between PET and CET. was represented within government and provided a high level of consensus between government, employers and unions around WfD and more broadly; part of a symbiotic ‘win-win’ relationship (Sung, 2006). SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 26  Institutionalize the structure Singaporean system is the level of commitment and of WfD roles and ‘buy-in’ from workers. Upgrading policies benefit not just from the tripartite partnership, but from the responsibilities engagement of workers to commit to upgrading with a This action scores as Advanced for 1970, 1990 and view to supporting the intended ‘win-win’ outcome of 2010. restructuring industry, supporting economic growth, expanding higher level jobs and future opportunities for Overview 1970-2010: The tripartite agreement has individuals (Sung, 2006). meant that legal Acts are not felt to be necessary in order to engage stakeholders in WfD strategy. Acts tend Box 10: The Skills Development Fund (SDF) to focus instead on governance of the respective parties as organizations. However, the key WfD-related Origin legislation to be introduced over this period was the • 1979 - SDF established under the Skills Development Levy Act. Obligatory payroll levy system to encourage employers to train and upgrade skills; Skills Development Act (est. 1979), mapping out the Goal responsibilities of employers to pay into a national • Grants for training, technological upgrading, improvement of in-house Skills Development Fund (SDF), which remains in place company training provision etc. Initially targeted employers with low skills/ low pay employees to ‘encourage the right kind of manpower training’ (EDB, now. 2011). Evolution 1970: Various legal frameworks stipulated the • Levy first set at 2% or $5, whichever is greater, for each employee receiving governance of parties involved in WfD. There was a $750 or less per month’ (Rodan, 1985: 18); clear division, albeit in practice rather than via legal • 1980s-90s - SDF supported strategic national WfD programmes e.g. BEST, MOST, WISE; Acts, between different areas of education and training • 1988 - 240,000 places funded, 20% of workers covered (Singapore Government, 1989d); provision, delineated between PET and CET. The MOE • 1989 - $60m committed annually for training (Singapore Government, 1989b); covered general education from primary through to • 2010 - Levy covers all workers at 0.25% for the first $4,500 of gross monthly remuneration or min. $2. Continues to support WfD strategy such as the WSQ. tertiary, the TED (under MOE) covered technical education, the Adult Education Board (AEB) (under MOE) covered adult education and over-age learners, 2010: A major development has been the consolidation and the EDB (under MOF) covered industrial training. of CET. As noted, a review of CET led to reforms, There were relatively few private providers. The including the establishment of the WDA, a Statutory various WfD authorities had a clear mandate and were Board with specific responsibility for CET. Prior to this, able to formulate budgets and request resources in a a number of bodies had some level of involvement in transparent manner. Annual Reports for most of these CET. In addition, SPRING, governed by the SPRING bodies outlined budgets and spending. Whilst Statutory Singapore Act, has a clear role and responsibility for Boards, such as the AEB and EDB, were able to tackle productivity-related initiatives and SMEs, which can policy issues rapidly and effectively, due to a high level involve training and development as part of upgrading. of autonomy, the TED’s status as a department of the As Statutory Boards, both WDA and SPRING have clear MOE provided challenges. TED ‘was not ideally placed mandates, their own budgets and the ability to request to bring industry and labour together, nor was it resources to support implementation of policy driven structured to respond rapidly to new, emerging needs by national strategy, as well as developing a range of of industries for technical manpower’ (Chiang, 1998: additional activities to foster CET. WSQ qualifications 38). In 1973 the Industrial Training Board (ITB) were incorporated into the Singapore Standard replaced TED, facilitating a more proactive role. This Education Classification (SSEC) framework in 2010. and other policy changes around 1973 were an early turning point in clarifying the lines of responsibility for  Facilitate communication technical education. and interaction among all WfD 1990: Employers’ and unions’ roles and responsibilities stakeholders in WfD were both clarified and expanded under the tripartite system. For example, from the 1980s, NTUC This action scores as Emerging for 1970, and promoted skills upgrading and acted as a provider for Advanced for 1990 and 2010. basic education programs, as part of its role in Overview 1970-2010: Over time, the structures to supporting both workers and national strategy to support interaction between stakeholders have been ensure good jobs for citizens and a competitive formalized and strengthened. From a nascent tripartite economy. The Skills Development Fund (SDF) was system in 1970, this has become the basis on which introduced in 1979, supporting a range of CET activities. communication takes place. Furthermore, more Levies have been abandoned in some countries due to systematic structures were introduced in PET and CET lack of results (Sung et al, 2006). However, given the to engage stakeholders in identification of skills needs, high level of government coordination, SDF has been an implementation of policy and even delivery. important mechanism to promote training and upgrading. Furthermore, a distinctive feature of the SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 27 1970: Entering the decade, primarily informal communication structures were in place. Moreover, WfD was not the key focus of the more formal early tripartite discussions. Social unrest in the 1960s, and concerns about Communist groups and regular strikes, the settling of difficult labor relations was the main focus. From the early 1970s, creating overlaps between the chairs and members of boards and committees helped to establish formal communication between different stakeholders in the WfD system. A number of bodies provided an effective interface between government and other stakeholders. EDB mobilized industry support and engagement in WfD projects. Such interactions were able to advance WfD priorities by, for example, bringing about partnerships to form EDB’s industrial training centers in collaboration with employers, as well as collecting important information about industry trends and skills. 1990: The structures of communication and interaction between stakeholders were formalized during the 1980s, with extensive interactions taking place. The tripartite system underpinned communication among WfD stakeholders, with cooperation and consensus around WfD as part of general industrial relations activity. There were clearer roles for government, unions and employers and cooperation on key national WfD projects such as BEST, WISE and MOST (see Box 13), as well as smaller-scale programs. NTUC had high- level representation in government, facilitating partnership and cooperation on policy issues. The government focused on 13 target sectors at this stage. 2010: There is a continued high level of cooperation between stakeholders, creating consensus on WfD policy and priorities across the sectors. For example, the WSQ – a key CET policy – has engaged business and industry across 30 sectors by 2012. Furthermore, stakeholders tend to cooperate to implement new national WfD programs. For example, the ‘e2i’ Employment and Employability Institute (see Box 14) originally started as a smaller NTUC program, but now has government backing and involves public and private providers, including lead employers. Likewise, subsidized training under the discontinued SPUR program (including e2i activities) involved NTUC, government and employers in tackling problems caused by the global financial crisis. SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 28 Detailed Results Dimension 2 | System Oversight5 Policy Goal 4 Diversifying Pathways for Skills Acquisition Policy Goal 5 Ensuring Efficiency and Equity in Funding Policy Goal 6 Assuring Relevant and Reliable Standards 5 The composite scores shown in the dial are the same as the categorical ratings shown on the cover of this report. They have been converted using the rules indicated in footnote 3 on page 6. The categorical ratings conform to the standard presentaion of results in the SABER intiative, while the presentation in the dials reveals more detail. SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 29 SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 29 Dimension 2 | System Oversight Diversifying Pathways for Skills Policy Goal 4 Acquisition 1970 1990 2010 Policy Goal 4 assesses the pathways within WfD to transfer mechanisms in place at this time. The first support learner progress and recognition at different National Junior College opened in 1970 and levels, and how far a systematic approach is taken to considered general education students from all program development. Overall scores on this policy language streams if they achieved the requisite grades. goal are Latent for 1970 and Emerging for 1990 and In reality it was highly competitive, focusing on pre- 2010. This reflects that, whilst structures are in place, university education. The main emphasis was on articulation is not necessarily incentivized and direct, competitive application by suitably qualified recognition of prior learning is still in development. individuals. Policy Actions covered are: fostering articulation across different level of WfD; promotion of life-long 1990: Articulation arrangements were ad hoc with learning and recognition of prior learning; and some level of incentives across secondary and post- standardization of policies and procedures involved in secondary institutions. Individual application renewal of publicly-funded programs. remained the primary transfer method. Exceptions included a range of automatic transfer procedures at  Foster articulation secondary level. To reduce wastage from primary education, early leavers were encouraged to enter the across levels and reformed technical education system. Also, those who programs left primary school on completion of the monolingual This action scores as Latent for 1970, Emerging for course, which precluded some pathways into further 1990 and Established for 2010. education, and those unable to progress to secondary, went into the automatic registration scheme for VITB. Overview 1970-2010: Pathways through the WfD 80% of young people leaving education at primary system have remained fairly standardized. Some level at this time took this route (Parliament of depend heavily on performance and streaming in early Singapore, 1990 column 365). The education system education. The manpower planning approach since the was highly competitive and there were some critiques late 70s has created limits on the numbers entering of the narrowing of higher-level opportunities, leading different areas of WfD, although this has been partially to identification of the need for expansion at the upper relaxed over time in response both to economic need end (Parliament of Singapore, 1990 column 363). and learner demand. As a result, incentives are not widely applied to promote movement across the In CET, major skills upgrading programs were certified system. Nevertheless, in recent decades the high using the National Trade Certificate (Box 11). This quality of students exiting the technical stream enabled motivated learners to seek articulation, facilitates progress for some to higher learning. This is although there appear to have been no formal a fairly new area for policy consideration and some agreements or specific incentives to pursue post- changes from late 2011/early 2012 are noted here, secondary education from upgrading programs such such as between the WSQ and post-secondary as WISE. programs. Box 11: National Trade Certificate (NTC) system 1970: Few arrangements were in place to facilitate Creation articulation, with little evidence of incentives. • 1973 - NTC established under ITB to certify workers’ skills learned partially or fully on the job; Vocational schools were regarded as a way to keep Use lower performing students in education. Despite • Used primarily by ITB/VITB, along with a Public Trade Test system; • Attained through full- and part-time vocational and technical reforms in the late 1960s, there remained a education courses and Apprenticeship training; • Public Trade Test meant skills developed on the job were tested to connotation of failure around the 'vocational' school nationally-recognised standards; workers could sit public exams and gain certification at Semiskilled (NTC-3), Skilled (NTC-2), and Master stream, leading the TED to remove the crafts and Craftsman (NTC-1) levels; • Common standards and recognised certification ensured rapid vocational stream and to turn vocational schools into acceptance by industry. By 1989, there were two courses provided by the Government Training Centres under EDB leading to Master technical institutions in the early 1970s (Chiang, Craftsman level. This included a course in Precision Engineering (Tool & Die Making); 1998). Once a primary or secondary pupil was streamed into the TVET pathway, they would often Evolution • From mid-1980s - national upgrading programmes like MOST (Box have little option but to end their education at 11) also led to Certificates of Competency (COC) and counted towards NTC. secondary level. As such there were few or no formal SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 30 2010: On the whole, WFD remains clearly delineated  Promote life-long into different types and levels. Manpower planning learning allows certain percentages of each secondary cohort to go into each sector of WfD, mostly following individual This action scores as Emerging for 1970 and just into application (Box 12). Other articulation arrangements Advanced for 1990 and 2010. and incentives remain ad hoc in nature. For example, ITE students applying to Polytechnics may be granted Overview 1970-2010: Lifelong learning (LLL) and credit exemption if they receive good grades in a recognition of prior learning (RPL) have gained relevant area, whilst Polytechnic graduates may be importance over time. There was little concept of eligible for University credits. This is regarded as a these in the 1970s, with emphasis on simply providing means to incentivize performance and recognize universal basic education; representing a ‘front end’ or merit. Given the high-level technical skills covered in ‘supply’ focus. From the 1980s, economic Polytechnics in areas like Engineering, some students restructuring and recession highlighted the need for gain up one year’s exemption against four-year remedial measures for the existing ‘stocks’ of workers. University programs. Indeed, Polytechnic graduates CET started to gain prominence in its own right. can apply to a 2-year 'top up' program at the Today, CET is a core element of national WfD policy Singapore Institute of Technology, completing a and the range of public and private providers Degree in two years of full-time study but without continues to grow. There are many opportunities for compromising quality or rigor. From 2013, the MOE privately-funded LLL (professional development is will also introduce two new through-train pathways or very common), and the WDA and MOE’s vocational Secondary 4 Normal (Academic) students who and academic CET systems respectively support a perform well at the N-Levels to enter the Polytechnics large framework of publicly-funded work-related CET. directly via Polytechnic Foundation Programs (PFP), RPL is an emerging area, partly shaped by the or through ITE via the Direct-Entry Scheme-to- relatively low level of articulation permissible across Polytechnic Program (DPP). the current system. 1970: Resources and arrangements to foster what we Box 12: Primary 1 cohort entering post-secondary education now call LLL were largely ad hoc. Given the high unemployment, low skills levels and social unrest of Institution 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 the late 1960s, policy focused on growing jobs and Institute of universal basic education, rather than disadvantaged Technical Education 21.3 21.9 21.0 21.0 21.2 21.0 groups. Thus the WfD focus was on ‘front end’ (ITE) provision of primary and secondary education for new Polytechnics 39.8 39.8 41.7 42.9 42.9 43.4 generations. Nevertheless, the AEB played an active Junior role in fostering LLL. Despite relatively low levels of Colleges/ 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.0 27.7 27.7 funding, AEB provided an impressive ‘parallel’, Centralized Inst. publicly-funded primary and secondary education Universities 23.7 23.8 23.9 24.8 25.4 26.0 system for ‘over-age’ individuals who did not complete (national) their education, including literacy, numeracy and Source: MOE, 2011b preparation for public examinations (Skolnik, 1976). The private Singapore Institute of Management (est. 2010 saw the introduction of new arrangements, 1964 by EDB) was also important in providing allowing selected secondary pupils to study modules professional training for mid-level professionals and at ITE level (within the existing school), or to complete managers. There was relatively little systematic Applied Subjects at O' Level designed by polytechnics, provision of careers guidance. potentially leading to Polytechnic credit exemption. Within CET, a Mutual Recognition System was 1990: CET opportunities were much expanded, established in 2008 between ITE and WDA to link the particularly via the flagship skills upgrading programs National ITE Certification (Nitec) and the WSQ. There introduced in the 1980s (Box 13). Recession in the are discussions taking place about recognition of 1980s impacted heavily on low skills workers and a alternative qualifications by other post-secondary national focus on economic restructuring led to institutions. This is a new area of dialogue and raises consensus on the need for skills upgrading among some challenges given the streaming process and those who missed out on the growth of secondary and potentially manpower planning targets, which already post-secondary education in the 1980s. A significant specify certain percentages of cohort capture. proportion of the working population, particularly older workers, was at risk during downturn or structural change. The aim was to raise most of the workforce to secondary level. SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 31 Though such programs were taken up by many and the Employment and Employability Institute (e2i). workers, in 1993, 50% of the working population was There are six WDA Career Centers located around either unskilled or without a primary education Singapore, including CaliberLink, a one-stop shop (Kumar, 1994). The National University of Singapore specifically for PMEs. E2i is a union-led program under Extension Department and Singapore Polytechnic the NTUC and its activities are fully integrated with Continuing Education Department (est. 1979) were national policy and WfD programs such as the WSQ. also created specifically for CET. Many LLL options are available and well publicized, Box 13: National Training for Basic Skills Upgrading some receiving generous public funding (e.g. WSQ)  Major national upgrading (CET) programs introduced for and others individually-funded (e.g. professional workers in the 1980s-1990s, aimed at supporting economic qualifications, postgraduate and international restructuring and social development, including: education). RPL usually occurs on an individual basis, 1. Basic Education for Skills Training (BEST) - workers although, as noted, there are now a number of with no qualifications but basic math and English, or agreements in place to facilitate credit transfer. In Primary School Leavers' Exam certificate but who 2011, MOE enhanced its CET qualifications needed to upgrade English (est. 1983); framework, with courses made more compact and 2. Modular Skills Training (MOST) – those who did not modular, to cater better to adult learners and allow complete Primary education but wanted to upgrade them to customize the pace of their learning. Under certain areas (est. 1986), certified through NTC; the enhanced qualifications framework, relevant work 3. Worker Improvement through Secondary Education experience and alternative qualifications can also be (WISE) - those who completed BEST or had primary considered for admission. MOE also increased education (est. 1987); subsidies for Singapore Citizens for its academic CET 4. Core Skills for Effectiveness and Change (COSEC) – for programs. Equally, Continuing Education and Training service sector (est. 1987). Centers (CETCs) and Approved Training Organizations  Stakeholder approach to implementation and delivery; (ATOs) can develop modules within the WSQ framework that include RPL. For example, Singapore  SDF funded, managed by NPB, plus state investment in Institute for Retail Studies (SIRS) runs an 'Assessment delivery and infrastructure; Only Pathway', in which RPL means that certain  1983-1987: SDF invested S$24 million in BEST (Singapore modules can be completed without additional training. Government, 1989c); For disadvantaged groups, MOE financial assistance  1989: 200,000 individuals engaged in CET, half studying aims to ensure that all qualified citizens can access under VITB and half under NPB. VITB had 38,000 BEST trainees, 22,000 on WISE and 17,000 on MOST (Parliament of post-secondary education, regardless of socio- Singapore, 1990, column 367). economic background. Generous bursaries are available to those in the lower and middle-income Provision for other disadvantaged groups was brackets, covering the lower two-thirds of the expanding. For example, Residential Committees population by household income and fees are kept attached to public housing ‘HDB’ areas (traditionally relatively low. More than 90% of each school cohort linked to the People’s Action Party but more recently enters post-secondary institutions, although there non-political), acted as grassroots organizations, have been questions in Parliament about the supporting unemployed residents and those facing percentage of lower income individuals going on to redundancy or social problems. Equally, under Diploma and Degree level studies, with fewer in this national legislation, fee subsidies promoted education income bracket progressing to the tertiary level of for Malay children through to tertiary level (excluding study (MOE, 2011a). There are, however, generous independent schools). Research had found the Malay bursaries for the lower income percentiles, which community to experience lower performance in the were expanded in 2011, and individual institutions are education system and higher incidence of low pay expected to target disadvantaged students through work. RPL was usually negotiable on a case-by-case their programs. basis, although the NTC and VITB Public Trade Test In CET, the Polytechnics and ITE have also set up system were important developments (Box 11). divisions dedicated to coordinating and promoting Various school- and community-based resources were CET. Numerous programs are in place, some open to available in the public and private sector to identify all qualifying individuals and others targeting training needs and opportunities. disadvantaged groups. Two notable developments are 2010: A variety of integrated systems are available for the MOM and WDA’s Workfare Income Supplement citizens and PRs to locate career and training (WIS) and Workfare Training Support (WTS) schemes, opportunities, including public and private, one-stop and delivered with e2i and the Community and online resources. Important examples are the Development Councils (CDCs). They target low wage WDA’s Career Centers, which are located in the CDCs, and older workers, a high policy priority, by providing SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 32 heavily subsidized WSQ training (up to 95%), stakeholders has become an increasingly important absentee payroll for staff attending off-site training, element of program renewal both for PET and CET. and salary supplements to promote upgrading and retain older workers. In 2010, it was estimated that 1970: PET Institutions were subject to the Education WTS would be backed by state funding of S$190 Act and/or other Acts under which they were created, million over three years. and the MOE had overall responsibility for the PET system. The MOE provided a fairly strong guide over Box 14: Employment and Employability Institute (e2i) operations in the PET system. Procedures had not  2008 - e2i officially launched. NTUC program supported by been standardized at this point, being more ad hoc and WDA, Singapore Labor Foundation (SLF) and Singapore reviewed on a case-by-case basis between the National Employers’ Federation (SNEF); institutions and MOE. In CET, the AEB formed sub-  National, publicly-funded assistance program for the committees in various areas of provision to inform its unemployed and workers at any level seeking to upgrade, programs. The EDB designed its own programs, including PMET; although it often worked with PET institutions and  Provides evaluation, training, job matching, information MOE, and the Ministry of Labor (MOL) oversaw EDB via job fairs and in-house resources in one location; plans.  Special programs target disadvantaged groups, e.g. 1990: Processes to open, adjust or close WfD Employability Camp Program for long-term unemployed. Women back to work programs funded by e2i and programs were fairly standardized at the PET level. organized within NTUC; Apart from the legislative Acts setting out basic governance, PET standards were not generally  2010-2011 - S$19 million government grants disbursed, published. Secondary institutions submitted requests including $6.3m for unemployed skills upgrading, $8.2m for worker skills upgrading, $4.5 for company to MOE, reporting on ability to meet requirements productivity-boosting activities, including gain-sharing for such as staffing and resources, with negotiation on employees. details. Notably, secondary education was quite standardized under the MOE framework and Workers assisted by e2i 2007-2011 curriculum. Although independent schools had a 60,000 53,350 higher level of autonomy to introduce new curriculum 50,000 45,985 approaches, the nature of the national curriculum and 40,466 emphasis on exam results meant that they rarely took 40,000 innovative approaches (Gopinathan and Tan, 2000). 30,000 For vocational or technical courses run by the VITB 20,600 and within secondary schools, institutions were 20,000 15,050 expected to consult relevant stakeholders. VITB and 10,000 then ITE, a Statutory Board, WFD authority and provider, had responsibility for its own PET and CET 0 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 programs and consulted closely with its own industry advisory councils. Source: e2i, personal communication In post-secondary PET, manpower planning played an important role in the renewal of programs. Targets  Set policies and meant that when one course was expanded, another procedures to renew might need to be reduced or closed. New courses were programs also introduced at the direction of the MOE when the government identified a strategic need. Such a request This action scores as Latent for 1970 and Established might arise from the manpower planning process or for 1990 and 2010. from EDB's engagement with employers to identify future skills needs. Overview 1970-2010: From the 1990s, the policies and procedures for the renewal of publicly-funded 2010: Today, ITE and polytechnics need to approach programs became clearer and more formalized. MOE regarding development of new programs, and if Manpower planning has played an important role in seeking additional funding for strategic developments. identifying areas for development but also means The public universities have the autonomy to mount there are certain flows able to move through the new programs but need to consult MOE if this requires system. The biggest change over time has been in the additional public funding. Labor market analyses CET area, following the establishment of the WDA and inform WfD provision, to ensure good employment the WSQ framework. The latter is now supported by prospects and that curriculum supports industry standardized requirements for providers and needs. As part of the manpower planning process, centralized application systems. Moreover, input from MOE works with other ministries and agencies such as MTI, MOM, EDB and industry to identify future SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 33 directions, as well as gather input from employers about labor market trends. The National Manpower Council’s national and institutional targets also shapes renewal processes. When designing and altering programs in technical, vocational and post-secondary PET, relevant stakeholders are consulted as a matter of course. If a PET program has professional standing or licensing function, such as in Engineering, professional bodies must be involved. In CET, the WSQ system incorporates a standardized process and requirements. CET providers present proposals for any major, new programs as well as changes, to the WDA. Approval takes place via the standardized course accreditation process and online ‘Skills Connect’ system. Providers determine exactly how to involve stakeholders in decisions about course development. As part of the renewal process, WDA also examines the course quality assurance system and process. SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 34 Dimension 2 | System Oversight Ensuring Efficiency and Equity in Policy Goal 5 Funding 1970 1990 2010 Policy Goal 5 examines the resources supporting the was room for additional funding applications when workforce development (WfD) system. In particular, strategic issues arose. For example, expansions were the systematization of WfD funding strategy and made in 1968-70 to the Polytechnic system and allocation, and how far partnership between University programs. International aid was received stakeholders is institutionalized and facilitated. for a number of activities in technical education for Overall scores are Established for 1970 and Advanced school children. As a Statutory Board, the AEB also for 1990 and 2010. The significant level of resources applied for funding through the MOE, covering both for WfD reflects its centrality to government strategy PET (for adults) and CET activities within that budget. and policy, but has also helped establish a strong system with effective implementation. Generous CET funding was channeled through a number of funding perhaps also means there has been less ministries, including Finance, Labor and Education. urgency for cost-cutting measures and efficiency CET funding contained strategic and ad hoc elements, drives, which may have been necessary and desirable which tended to be more reactive to the changing elsewhere. The Policy Actions covered are: fostering situation. This reflects that CET was fairly dispersed articulation across different levels of WfD; funding across different authorities and providers. For allocation tied to efficiency; and fostering partnership example, manpower development was part of the EDB between government and other WfD stakeholders. activities. The Ministry of Finance funded the EDB, including dedicated tranches of funding for WfD  Articulate Funding programs. Employers and unions also sponsored training programs, which would have added to the Strategy overall spend on WfD, although there were no formal This action scores as Emerging for 1970, Established mechanisms to promote such funding. Allocation of for 1990 and Advanced 2010. public funding was reviewed on an annual basis when agencies and providers applied to ministries for Overview 1970-2010: Over time a more coherent funding. There is no public evidence of evaluations of WfD infrastructure has been established. This the overall funding strategy. occurred in the early years for the PET level, but the CET level remained less coherent until the 2000s. The 1990: From the early 1980s, with a more strategic funding strategy has equally formalized, although approach to WfD including the manpower planning flexibility exists to allow for some legacy systems that process, the WfD funding plan was determined with deliver WfD effectively in certain sectors. Notably, CET advice from key stakeholders as well as cross-ministry funding is not channeled through one sole authority. discussion. The Economic Review and the work of the Instead, manpower is recognized as an issue relevant CPTE shaped funding strategy at both the national and across government. Funding is thus made to various institutional level, effectively providing a review of ministries and agencies for different strategic areas of priorities for funding and making resources available WfD. Nevertheless, a major stream of vocational CET from the MOF. As well as the ministries involved in funding goes via the WDA for WSQ and non-WSQ CET in the 1970s, a new Ministry of Trade and training. The Lifelong Learning Endowment Fund Industry (est. 1979) acted as a further channel for WfD (LLEF) is a major development for CET in the 2000s. funding, becoming the parent ministry for agencies such as the EDB and PSB. The Skills Development 1970: A fairly systematic approach to WfD funding Fund was in place from 1979. was in place from the mid-1960s, determined by government ministries. However, the infrastructure to As part of regular review processes, PET institutions support WfD was still being created. As such, the reported a spending plan along with overall direction strategy included a process of diverting funding, in and provision to the MOE. Although having a higher some cases quite rapidly, to deal with emerging skills level of autonomy than secondary institutions, the ITE, challenges and to build up provision swiftly. Polytechnics and Universities submitted detailed annual plans to MOE for approval. Statutory Boards Funding to Ministries such as MOE was systematic, went through a similar process when requesting and funding to PET institutions from MOE was funding from ministries. Line-item allocation, detailed similarly fairly formal and systematic, although there spending plans and incentives for performance SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 35 featured in annual budgeting practice. As part of the The funding strategy for CET is quite different. As funding strategy for CET, the SDF was well established noted, different ministries and their related agencies by 1990. The employer levy provided a significant receive an element of funding for WfD activities. This additional source of funding to promote employer includes funding for academic CET courses under the investment. The levy amount was reviewed internally MOE, such as through subsidies. The three main to inform national policy. streams of CET activity come from a) worker (via employers) and unemployed training for WSQ, b) non- 2010: WfD funding strategy is formalized across a WSQ training funded by the SDF, and c) institutions number of levels for both PET and CET. The overall funded by MOE. The CET programs conducted by national WfD funding plan for PET and CET is based on MOE-funded institutions lead to academic 'strategic importance', developed by the government qualifications, and are mostly extensions or through discussion with Ministries and stakeholders. modifications of PET programs where there is CET PET funding comes under the MOE. The education demand. Many are conducted as part-time certificate, budget has always been substantial (Box 14), second diploma and degree level courses. only to defense in 2010 as a proportion of GDP. Manpower Planning continues to shape PET targets With regards to funding, WDA’s main funding sources and funding. The manpower planning process is a come through two important sources; namely, the ministerial level meeting involving negotiations with a Skills Development Fund (SDF), and now the far larger range of stakeholders and agencies. Targets are given Lifelong Learning Endowment Fund (LLEF) which is for key areas of provision, rather than across the state-funded and regularly ‘topped up’ as part of board, impacting on some areas of institutional national strategy. This is separate from the MOE funding. PET providers submit annual performance budget for CET programs leading to academic reports to MOE as well as future funding plans, which qualifications and provided by PET institutions. are negotiated with the MOE. The MOE has the final decision over funding, but priorities are shaped by discussion with other ministries and key stakeholders. Box 15: Diagram of the financing system PET Funding Mechanisms CET Funding Mechanism SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 36 The overall WDA funding strategy, in essence entirely As well as the Economic Review, the top-level geared towards WfD, is formulated through a range of decisions and reviews of allocation of WfD funding inputs, including cross-ministry discussions filtering were through the CPTE and the MOF. National down from the MOM. Budgeting for the WSQ is priorities and the results from PET institutions were identified through 'ground-up' processes within WDA. crucial factors. For example, following policy drives in The WDA has 5 Frontline Divisions (FD) responsible the 1970s, there was mass expansion of secondary and for looking at industry sectors. Each FD determines post-secondary education in the 1980s. Resource use which sectors it engages with, the demand for WSQ was also reviewed through annual reports of PET and the budget required. As such, 'corporate planning' providers to the MOE. In CET, funding for programs at the FD level feeds up into the WDA funding strategy. such as skills upgrading and EDB activities were At the next level down, CETCs submit reviews and explicitly linked to national policy and skills funding plans to WDA for approval. For ATOs, which requirements. generally do not receive public capital funding but a subsidy per trainee, performance is reviewed prior to 2010: More targeted annual institutional performance renewal of approved status (Box 15). reviews have been in place since the mid-1990s for PET. Box 17 shows that whilst PET funding has  Allocate funds to continued to grow year on year, expenditure on areas achieve efficient results such as development peaked in the 2000s and has slowly declined since. This perhaps reflects both the This action scores as Established for 1970 and maturity of the PET system and the strong emphasis Advanced for 1990 and 2010. on public-private partnership to achieve the ‘Education Hub’ growth. With the greater Overview 1970-2010: Allocation of funds has been consolidation of the system has also come the tied closely to achieving national economic and identification of more explicit funding criteria. educational objectives. The 1990s saw a shift towards efficiency drives in government. However, perhaps In CET, subsidy funding for the WSQ is explicitly tied due to the permanently high investment in WfD, but to successful completion of units or qualifications of more importantly due to the close link made between the WSQ, and only goes to accredited providers. To WfD and achieving economic policy, the primary focus ensure efficiency, funding is targeted at areas of has not necessarily been on efficiency. Rather, the highest impact, such as sectors that employ a good priority is effectiveness and outcomes, i.e. producing proportion of citizens. The results are reviewed by the desired results. For example, since the 1980s, a WDA in relation to numbers going through and entry specific amount of PET funding has been linked into relevant employment, based on data provided by directly to targets set by the manpower planning CETCs and ATOs. The WDA carried out a study on the process. Its goal has been to match supply and demand impact of the WSQ for individuals, and IAL is carrying and to support changing national policy objectives out evaluations on different dimensions. For example such as industrialization (1970s), value-added growth Willmott (2011) analyzed the outcomes and impact of (1980s), the shift to an advanced economy (1990s), the Employability Skills Program, which caters for and retaining competitiveness and high-skills in a generic skills. In 2011, no cost benefit analysis had global, highly interdependent economy (1990s and been made of the system, although its size and the 2000s). prevalence of generic skills training make this challenging. Efficient use of funding is very important, 1970: Fairly explicit criteria shaped the allocation of but it is the achievement of outcomes that really drives funding to the WfD system, targeted at meeting the system. Where reforms are identified as necessary, national economic development goals e.g. universal they are rapidly implemented. basic education, industrialization. There was no published evaluation of the criteria for funding. However, institutions reported to WfD authorities and  Foster partnerships were reviewed when applying for the annual budget. This action scores as Advanced for 1970, 1990 and 1990: Efficiency became an important focus following 2010. major recession in the late-1980s, including ensuring Overview 1970-2010: A demand-led approach has money was well spent in the education system (Tan, been a key feature of the WfD system. Due to aspects 2002). Shortly before 1990, the government such as the tripartite alliance, structural reforms, and introduced the Management Accounting System for increased involvement of community groups, Ministries to monitor spending and outcomes as part partnership to achieve this has strengthened over of reducing public spending costs, so the costs of time. Benefits for, and investment by, stakeholders education programs would have been reviewed by the similarly grew. The Statutory Boards can be seen to MOE. play an important role in engaging stakeholders and SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 37 supporting their needs in return. The level of relationship with MNCs was also used to leverage a partnership in the WfD system reflects the emphasis stronger co-financing approach to industry training on cooperation and the adoption of what could be when compared with the situation in 1970. described as a managed market mechanism. The latter aims to support effective implementation with results Box 16: EDB’s Joint Industry Training Scheme (JITS) that simultaneously meet national strategy and Creation demand. • December 1971 - National Industrial Training Council approved EDB and TED’s proposal to run joint industry training centres under the JITS; 1970: There was a good level of partnership between the MOE and PET institutions. The TED, focusing on Activity technical education, did not manage to foster good • Precision engineering new national and sectoral growth area, led to a Tata-Government Training Centre (TGTC), providing ‘crash’ links with industry (Chiang, 1998). Reforms led to its training for ‘tool-makers, precision machinists and other skilled replacement by a Statutory Board in the early 1970s, craftsmen vital to Singapore’s rapidly industrializing economy’ (Soon, 1993: 242); partly on that basis. The AEB, however, had good links • Landmark partnership for EDB’s WfD activities, led to similar partnerships, e.g. Rollei and Phillips; with industry, covering both PET and CET. EDB also formed excellent links with industry, feeding Key feature information through to other agencies, as well as • The companies agreed to train individuals to meet their needs and developing its own programs in response to industry the same number again to go into wider industry. Provided industry-led training, built capacity by drawing on MNC capabilities, needs. The tripartite partnership was only emerging at and skilled workers to feed growth in new industries; this point, nevertheless, the unions were active in Evolution promoting recognition of differential skills levels via • Early 1980s - partnerships also formed between the EDB and wage bargaining. several national governments to train highly-skilled technologists. Stakeholders benefited from the partnerships in a range of ways. EDB and other agencies acted as Stakeholders beyond the tripartite alliance were important sources of information and funding to engaged in the system, with a particularly important update industry, providing a two-way relationship. role for community groups representing the different EDB put significant resources into WfD activities for ethnic populations. The benefits of partnership also the workforce in areas less easily covered by existing expanded. The NTUC’s representation in government PET institutions, and received applications for funding gave it an important role in decision-making and for in-house and external company training. MOE awareness of emerging issues. PET institutions made facilities available for PET and CET activities in benefited from partnership with the MOE and other partnership with EDB and other PET institutions. EDB, agencies, such as sharing expertise and personnel for the PET institutions and AEB seconded staff to provide key projects, which remains common in the training in-house for companies under EDB schemes. government. For example, in order to set up Nanyang In return stakeholders contributed a range of Polytechnic (NYP) in the early 1990s, key staff were resources for WfD, including funding, equipment, seconded from the EDB Manpower Development facilities, and technical personnel. Community groups Division. This allowed the prestigious EDB Institutes also made a significant contribution to establishing the of Technology to later transfer successfully to NYP. WfD infrastructure: the Chinese community helped Stakeholders also benefited from access to high-level create and fund Nanyang University in 1965, the first information on the labor force and economic trends, as Chinese medium university in South East Asia, merged well as feeding into future WfD policy and planning. in 1980 to create the National University of Singapore. The Ngee Ann Kongsi established Ngee Ann 2010: Much of the basic structure has remained since Polytechnic in 1963. the 1990s. However, in CET, the creation of the WDA and WSQ framework further engaged industry in the 1990: Stakeholder partnership was institutionalized system. This occurs right from the identification of via the tripartite alliance of the early 1970s. Tripartite sectoral skills needs and how WSQ can meet those, representation on committees, councils and boards through to program implementation. As well as access became commonplace, as well as union representation to substantial subsidies for training, CET providers can in government. Cross-ministerial cooperation to meet apply for funding to develop innovative pedagogies WfD goals became standard practice. Equally, covering and practices under the IAL CET Innovation Fund. PET and CET, the VITB had forged a much stronger Whilst the latter is on a small scale, this helps to build partnership with industry than its predecessor the provider capacity, both public and private. TED, and this continued with the ITE from 1992. The SDF from 1979 had helped to create more buy-in from Via partnership, funding is also made available for new employers, initially supported by fiscal incentives and industry initiatives, such as projects to attract incentivized through ability to draw on SDF to fund employees to new sectors. For example, the restructuring and technology upgrading. EDB’s government partnered with industry through e2i initiatives to promote jobs within the recently- SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 38 launched Integrated Resorts industry. Furthermore, where gaps are identified in current WfD provision, the government works with private sector providers and industry to develop new areas of capability. In the last decade, an important policy focus has been developing Singapore as a ‘higher education hub’, partnering with prestigious overseas institutions and industry to create a much-expanded range of tertiary institutions. Box 17: National Education Expenditure (PET) 12,000,000 2,000,000 1,800,000 10,000,000 1,600,000 1,400,000 8,000,000 1,200,000 1,000,000 6,000,000 800,000 600,000 4,000,000 400,000 200,000 2,000,000 0 0 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 a) Total government expenditure on education (S$’000) b) Total government expenditure on education development (S$ ‘000) Source: MOE data from data.gov.sg, accessed 2012 Source: MOE, 2011 (* Preliminary figures for 2010/11) Dimension 2 | System Oversight 1970 1990 2010 SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 39 Assuring Relevant and Reliable Policy Goal 6 Standards Policy Goal 6 considers the extent to which quality however, there were few, if any, accreditation assurance mechanisms are in place in the form of standards. Even with the public system, issues were standards and provider accreditation, and the use of noted with quality and mixed standards across competency-based testing. Overall scores on this institutions, given the diverse and shifting nature of policy goal are Emerging for 1970, Established for provision at this stage (Low et al, 1991). In CET, the 1990 and just into Advanced for 2010. The quality and AEB and EDB were subject to the terms of governance standards of providers became more important from set out in the respective Acts under which they were the 1980s and 90s. Since 2009 this has been created. Programs organized under the EDB were run particularly in relation to private providers, leading to by EDB, as well as through existing PET institutions recent reforms. Policy Actions covered are: and AEB (using MOE facilities in some cases), and in- specification of accreditation standards for providers; house programs where new capacity was needed strengthening of skills testing and certification; and quickly. As such, MOE, TED, AEB and EDB established measures to ensure the credibility of the accreditation the standards for the provision and would carry out and certification systems. visits, reviews and audits.  Specify accreditation 1990: Following major educational reform in the 1980s, and a much-enhanced WfD infrastructure, standards for training quality of provision was of growing importance. providers Standards were clearly in place for the PET level, with This action scores as Established for 1970 and 1990 the MOE primarily setting standards and carrying out and Advanced for 2010. reviews. International quality assurance standards were drawn on by the MOE when dealing with Overview 1970-2010: In the early years of state overseas institutions or professional fields such as formation, quantity was a greater issue than quality, medicine and management. Private providers from with a government drive to provide universal basic overseas, such as tertiary institutions working with education. Following a major education review in local partners, applied for a one-time registration from 1979, commonly called ‘the Goh Report’, the public the MOE to run courses. However, there were no PET and CET system have been subject to a range of published standards other than the Education Act, or quality measures and a stronger review system. those such as the Singapore Polytechnic Act, which International recognition of Singapore’s education covers basic governance, and applications to MOE system attests to the quality of provision. were considered on an individual basis. The system of Nevertheless, private PET and CET providers have quality assurance for private PET institutions was only recently come under closer scrutiny. New regarded as fairly 'disjointed and piecemeal' at this legislation has created a greater level of accountability time (Lim, 2009: 80). For TVET private providers at for major providers that do not receive public funds the post-secondary level, the VITB acted as the and 2009 saw the establishment of the Private accreditation agency. It developed an accreditation Education Act and Council for Private Education (CPE). framework for companies wishing to train to VITB 1970: From the 1960s, the MOE set standards standards and to meet certification requirements. required of PET institutions, and governance Standards were set in consultation with industry and arrangements were established through the Education the MOE. Act, or other Acts covering providers. Acts covering 2010: A new Statutory Board overseeing the WfD providers (PET and CET) were subject to regulation and quality assurance of private education occasional review. PET Institutions were also institutions, the Council for Private Education (CPE) reviewed by the MOE, the General Education was established in 2009 under the Private Education Department (GED) and TED, via school inspections Act (Box 18). With the aim of raising the quality of and reviews. At this stage, quality levels were not the private education further, CPE recently commenced priority in PET, the key focus being on building a reviewing both the registration requirements and universal basic education system, with some criteria under the EduTrust certification scheme. expansion in the post-secondary and tertiary levels. The University of Singapore was not autonomous at this time, so would have been guided more closely by the MOE in terms of standards. For the private sectors, SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 40 Box 18: Registration and Certification of Private into Vocational and Technical Education in Singapore’, Education Institutions which recommended expansion of technical education Creation to support industrialization. The main focus was thus • 2009 Private Education Act and Council for Private Education on rapidly providing a better infrastructure and (CPE) introduced; growing teacher numbers. Key Features 1990: The NTC was a key development in 1973 (Box • All private education institutions (PEIs), including many PET and CET providers, must now meet the stricter requirements to be 9). The framework continued into the 1990s. It applied registered under the Private Education Act. PEIs that can meet to a range of critical occupations, covering higher requirements can also attain the EduTrust quality mark. • PEIs’ registration periods and EduTrust award tiers, courses and manufacturing, as well as shipping and the trades; teachers are listed on CPE website, differentiating quality and manufacturing being the mainstay of the economy. facilitating learner choice. NTC was just being developed for retail and other Scope service industries by 1990. Testing involved a mix of • The Immigration and Checkpoint Authority of Singapore has theory and practice and was centrally administered made EduTrust certification mandatory for PEIs that wish to enrol and certified by the VITB as the WfD authority, even foreign students. Only a handful of PEIs that were set up to meet strategic national needs have been exempted. Other PEIs may also when the training was provided in-house by Approved seek EduTrust certification as a quality mark. Training Centers (e.g. employers approved by VITB) Current Situation and as part of the Apprenticeship system. Since the education system was well funded, cutting costs in • 2011 - About 350 registered PEIs offer courses leading to qualifications spanning Certificate to PhD level, as well as testing and certification was not a key priority at this preparatory institutions for foreign students seeking to enter time. NTC is now regarded as a predecessor of the mainstream secondary education system (e.g. students from China joining upper primary in a national school). current WSQ system, albeit a less developed framework since it did not have wide coverage. At the CET level, providers wishing to offer WSQ 2010: Following piloting, a competency-based training must obtain accredited status from the WDA. framework called the National Skills Recognition In 2011, there were 45 CET Centers and around 400 System (NSRS) ran between 1999-2004. It was piloted ATOs. Providers that do not offer WSQ or courses to with the hotel, marine and cleaning industries and overseas students do not need to obtain accreditation, spanned 69 industries by 2004. However, it was found e.g. micro enterprises or sole training consultants. that standardized, government-devised assessment plans were not as effective as they might be, since  Strengthen skills testing providers could not adapt them. A third-party evaluation was commissioned in 2004 to review the and certification effectiveness of the NSRS, including industry This action scores as Latent for 1970, Emerging for engagement. From 2003, WDA examined how 1990 and Advanced for 2010. assessment could be decentralized, studying international models. The resulting WSQ system, Overview 1970-2010: The concept of competency- launched in 2005, provided a standardized based skills testing emerged in the 1990s, but did not competency-based training and testing system. By come to full fruition until the mid-2000s with the 2010, it covered 23 sectors. WSQ. Its introduction has brought benefits, although it is also recognized that this is not a ‘cure-all’ for skills Under the WSQ, providers set the assessment plans and development challenges. Nevertheless, it allowing for industry needs. Exceptions would be for represents one of the key developments in the WfD sectors (such as security), in which WDA engages a system, providing a much-enhanced position for CET central assessment agency to ensure consistency and and new opportunities for certification outside the to meet professional licensing purposes. Another general education system. It is certified centrally to exception would be where a sector is assessed to have meet current quality standards, and does not specify weaknesses, such as curriculum development. In such IT-based testing, meaning that it does not meet the cases, quality standards are maintained by identifying Rubric criteria for an Advanced system. However, it a limited number of providers in the sector to assess represents a significant development within the training, although a larger number may be able to Singaporean context and is seen as fit for purpose at provide training, or the use of standardized this time. assessment plans. Testing is competency-based and is carried out by the training providers (with the 1970: There is no evidence of a competency-based exceptions mentioned). Certification for the learner is testing system up to 1970. The technical education provided by the WDA as the CET authority. The online system was just expanding from the late 1960s and WDA Skills Connect System supports the WSQ system only latterly emerging as a key player in WfD, having right from accreditation of providers through to been rather neglected prior to the period of full self- issuing certificates to trainees. Some level of rule after 1959 and a 1960 ‘Commission of Enquiry competency-based training and testing will also occur SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 41 outside the WSQ within PET institutions such as the tertiary level, testing and examinations were the Institute of Technical Education (ITE) that replaced responsibility of the respective institutions, with the VITB in 1992 and which tests training and certifies credibility coming through institutional governance post-secondary technical programs. and academic procedures (e.g. exams board, external examiners, academic boards, faculty process etc.).  Credibility of accreditation and of skills Training under the VITB included both certified and certification non-certified courses. Standard VITB courses met NTC standards and testing, including training and the This action scores as Emerging for 1970, and Apprenticeships provided by ATCs. VITB centers also Advanced for 1990 and 2010. conducted training and testing to meet industry- licensing standards. Stakeholders were involved in Overview 1970-2010: Legislation outlines the setting standards in a number of ways. In 1987 VITB governance systems of public education institutions. standards existed for 66 trade skills, developed by Institutional accreditation standards, as previously VITB in consultation with employers as well as NPB, noted, were introduced progressively for private SDF and industry associations. As of 1990, skills providers. Protocols were established and standards were identified and developed with standardized testing introduced from the early 1970s industry through Training Institute Advisory onwards, providing a uniform and credible Committees (TIACS), e.g. Trade Advisory Committee, examinations system for primary and secondary Wood-based TAC and Electrical TAC. A robust system education. Technical education accreditation and was in place to implement standards, and inspections certification has tended to come under the remit of the and reviews were carried out by VITB. In 1987, to help relevant authority, ensuring credibility and standards. build capacity and ensure standards of in-house At post-secondary and tertiary levels, the extent to training such as that under the ATCs, the NPB which public PET institutions maintain the level of recommended specialist development for personnel standards also forms part of regular performance carrying out workplace training (Singapore review. There is a high level of stakeholder Government, 1987). involvement in identifying standards and systems draw on international practice where relevant. ‘Improving Primary Education’, the second major national education review in 1991, led to reforms in 1970: School examinations were centralized as part of the early 1990s. These included changes to primary building a universal basic education system. The MOE leavers' testing standards and entry requirements for Examinations Division introduced standard secondary general and vocational/ technical examination protocols in 1970, and in 1971 an education. VITB was also reformed as a result, integrated examination system for the different becoming the Institute of Technical Education (ITE) in language streams (English, Malay and Tamil). This 1992 and a post-secondary rather than post-primary established the Singapore Cambridge General institution. In the 1980s, 75% those who entered VITB Certificate of Education and created a 'uniform with a primary-only education were, on graduation, standard, irrespective of the language used' unable to get work in the fields they trained for at (Gopinathan, 1974: 44). Examination standards were VITB, and 60% were unable to pass NTC-3 courses publicized and enforced as part of the reform. (Kow, 2011). Changing to a post-secondary institution, The AEB, covering PET and CET, had its own with $300 million investment in infrastructure, helped examination and certification system, as well as to raise the profile of technical education and ensured preparing 'over-age' students for public exams at that pupils were better prepared to meet the demands primary and secondary level. However, it seems that a of courses and certification, as well as employer good part of CET provision was 'stop gap', often being demand for secondary-educated workers as a uncertified and primarily to aid retrenchment or skills minimum. upgrading for immediate needs, such as that provided 2010: Key changes in the 2000s included the by the EDB. There was little emphasis on non-state establishment in 2004 of the Singapore Examinations providers. and Assessment Board, a Statutory Board under the 1990: Standardized examination processes were well MOE. SEAB was formerly the Examinations Division at established within general secondary and post- MOE. Being changed into a statutory board gave it secondary education. Accreditation standards were greater operational flexibility to meet changing local publicized and, in effect, underpinned the license to and regional needs in education. SEAB works closely operate for PET institutions, with maintenance of with MOE to ensure that national examinations are standards forming part of the annual performance aligned with the national curriculum. It also provides review. In general education, the Singapore Cambridge assessment expertise to other Asian countries, General Certificate of Education was based on UK allowing them to benchmark their students’ standards and adapted to meet MOE requirements. At performance against Singaporean education SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 42 standards. As noted, the CPE was also established, mandatory accreditation and registration for all WSQ bringing into place a major new regulation and quality providers. The accreditation standards and a list of assurance framework for PEIs at both PET and CET approved providers are published and open access on level. the Skills Connect website. Training and assessment must meet the skills standards agreed by stakeholders In CET, the major development has come through the when designing WSQ courses, and audits help ensure WSQ system. The WDA publicizes and enforces the that training meets these effectively. SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 43 Detailed Results Dimension 3 | Service Delivery6 Policy Goal 7 Fostering Relevance in Training Programs Policy Goal 8 Incentivizing Excellence in Training Provision Policy Goal 9 Enhancing Accountability for Results 6 The composite scores shown in the dial are the same as the categorical ratings shown on the cover of this report. They have been converted using the rules indicated in footnote 3 on page 6. The categorical ratings conform to the standard presentaion of results in the SABER intiative, while the presentation in the dials reveals more detail. SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 44 SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 44 Dimension 3 | Service Delivery Fostering Relevance in Training Policy Goal 7 Programs 1970 1990 2010 Policy Goal 7 examines how links with industry and ITB had a strong remit to engage industry and greater research institutions ensure the relevance of flexibility due to its Statutory Board status. workforce development (WfD) provision, and whether recruitment, retention and development standards are There were some links between research institutions in place to enhance the competence of WfD providers. and providers. Ministries housed their own research Overall scores are Emerging for 1970, Established for units and had mostly informal links with researchers 1990 and Advanced for 2010. Over time, links have in the universities, helping to inform policy been formalized and recruitment measures have been development. In PET, the MOE research unit enhanced. Policy Actions covered are: strengthening developed policy recommendations that shaped linkages between training providers, industry and practice. An Economic Research Centre at the research institutions; the role of industry in program University of Singapore (now NUS) was set up with design; and measures to improve the competence of funding from the Ford Foundation in the mid-1960s. administrators and instructors. By the 1970s, the MOF took over funding the ERC and requested projects, many focused on labor force issues  Link training, industry, and there were clear connections between research and research institutions and policymakers. This action scores as Emerging for 1970, Established 1990: Industry engagement continued to be for 1990 and Advanced for 2010. recognized as important to ensure relevance of Overview 1970-2010: Links with industry have been education and training. Business and industry were strong throughout the periods studied, being significant members of the boards and committees of recognized early on as important to ensure relevance PET institutions. Industry also partnered in areas such of education and training. Over the decades, as apprenticeships, placements and sharing industry connections between independent research and knowledge through staff, particularly for technical practice have not always been as evident. The fact that training within VITB. Industry was engaged at the much internal research within government remains faculty level when designing new programs or via confidential appears to make such links more demand for bespoke courses. It was common to have Memorandums of Understanding (MOUs) between challenging. providers like the VITB or Polytechnics and industry. 1970: Formal and informal links were in place Industry donated equipment to public providers to between training providers and industry, with help ensure that training met industry requirements. significant collaboration in some areas. For example, covering PET and CET, the AEB had good links with The ERC was closed in 1985 and WfD research industry as well as other stakeholders. AEB was functions were developed within the government, regularly called on to provide bespoke courses. such as within MTI and MOM where national studies Equally, EDB developed excellent links with industry, are still carried out. Research carried out by the helping to ensure its training programs were highly ministries was not generally shared with the wider relevant. Such connections led to the establishment of body of researchers, tending to be internal and confidential. Thus the level of linkage into practice EDB’s JITS (Box 16) and technology centers. PET institutions such as the Polytechnics had good links may be more prevalent than public evidence would with industry. Although it was reported that the suggest. Some sociologists and economists were polytechnics were, in the 1980s, 'amazed' at the conducting analyses independently, but there was a world-class facilities that EDB had built up in industry lack of formal links to training practice. The Institute training through employer and foreign government of Education (IE) had some limited research capacity. partnership, which were later integrated primarily However, at this point, there was little if any link into Nanyang Polytechnic in the 1990s. As noted, the between researchers at the IE and WfD institutions. TED, as a department of MOE, did not prove as Within Polytechnics and Universities, research carried successful in engaging employers in technical out by teaching and academic staff and administrative education. This was recognized, and the Industry functions is likely to have had a direct influence on Training Board (ITB) replaced TED in the early 1970s. program design. For example, Polytechnics and SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 45 Universities conducted graduate surveys, noting the provision. Industry advice has always played an outcomes of different disciplines and programs. important role in ensuring WfD meets demand, and it has increasingly gained a decision-making as well as Box 19: National Institute of Education (NIE): Building advisory role in areas such as the WSQ. Institutional Research Capacity for School Education • Following review of primary education, IE reformed to National 1970: From the 1960s, industry had an advisory role Institute of Education (NIE), increased teacher training and developed some research connections with schools. Level of in identifying and prioritizing publicly funded WfD. 1991 strategic research remained minimal; There was some involvement at design level, although often informally in the initial stages. This role was • NIE awarded significant funding by the government for strategic particularly evident in technical education and CET. research into school practice and educational delivery; 2003 For example, the EDB training centers set up in the late 1960s involved industry experts from overseas in • Strong focus on researching pedagogy and practice in school education with formal links between NIE, schools and relevant the design and specification of programs, including 2003- stakeholders. Boosted the status of NIE and helped enhance practice materials and equipment. However, this was not in the profession. present without its challenges, given the different specifications, equipment and demands of what were at that stage international donors (Chiang, 1998). 2010: There has been a greater formalization of links 1990: Industry had an advisory role on the technical, between most training institutions, industry and professional and CET side, via formal engagement with research institutions, with collaboration across a the VITB and tertiary institutions in particular. Within range of activities. It is a standard practice for PET the VITB, apprenticeships and on-the-job training providers to engage with industry in order to ensure schemes were used to engage employers and ensure provision is relevant and meets demand. In technical that trainees were familiar with the latest technology areas these linkages provide various opportunities, and equipment. MOUs were signed with key industry such as Polytechnic students carrying out project work partners to help share technology and resources, with to gain experience and provide solutions for trainers able to update their knowledge and students employers at the same time. The growing number of having access to the latest practice. For technical and private education institutions (PEIs) are, by nature, professional programs in the PET system, industry commonly part of the industry in which they are experts made input into program design and providers and are also are more exposed to the curriculum via faculty boards, exam boards, advisory market. Since PEIs aim to make a profit from their groups at the post-secondary and tertiary institutions. operations, delivery of sought after courses is a key The TIACs gave guidance to VITB on curriculum driver. This includes world-class institutions that have including syllabus, course structure, equipment and been attracted to partner in the 'Education Hub'. As facilities and staff training. Professional accrediting noted, in public CET, the WSQ system involves bodies had input in areas such as accounting, extensive links between training providers and medicine, law and management. For general industry as a core element of the framework for education, the MOE would periodically consult designing skills standards and the resulting WfD industry, although industry was engaged in other ways programs. at the policy direction level. In terms of research, the NIE’s strategic research into 2010: Industry has a strong advisory role in school practice was much enhanced from 2003 (Box identifying, prioritizing and designing publicly-funded 19). In CET, the Institute for Adult Learning (IAL) was programs in most training institutions. By nature, this created partly in order to provide research to inform linkage is still strongest in relation to more technical the practice of training professionals and WfD policy, and professional provision. It is a standard expectation as well as providing training and certification in CET. that PET institutions will engage stakeholders, Under an IAL CET Innovation Fund, CET providers can including industry experts, at board level but also at apply for funding to carry out WSQ-related research faculty and program level to ensure programs are projects to both enhance practice and build research industry and work-relevant. Since this engagement capacity within the providers themselves. helps to build networks and collaboration, it has significant benefits for PET institutions and is thus a  Design training with general practice and well supported. Industry advises industry inputs on priorities and is engaged in decision-making via This action scores as Emerging for 1970, Established representation on top-level committees and boards, in 1990, and Advanced for 2010. but ultimately the funding priorities are decided by MOE in line with education policy and national Overview 1970-2010: Over time, the involvement of economic direction, and aspects such as the National industry in training design has become more Manpower Council targets. formalized and is now integrated into PET and CET SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 46 In CET, industry involvement, including experts and reforms to improve quality and standards, as well as industry associations, is central to the WSQ on-going changes over the 1980s. For PET, separate framework. Industry experts, among others, have promotion routes were established for graduate and advisory and endorsement roles via the ISTC/MSTCs. non-graduate Principals employed as part of the Civil The boards and committees of CETCs and ATOs also Service. MOE normally set the requirements and involve industry experts. Indeed, some providers are established a system of succession planning for PET actually lead employers in the industry. heads. Before 1984, training for principals and vice- principals in schools was ad hoc. A more formal  Improve competence of system emerged after this time, meaning that Heads administrators and and Instructors had access to 100 hours of training per instructors year, a practice that continues today. A program of leadership training was made available at the Civil This action scores as Latent for 1970 and Established Service College, with standardized leadership training. for 1990 and 2010. There was a large budget for a variety of activities. A Overview 1970-2010: In the early years, the Diploma in Educational Administration (DEA) emphasis was on quantity of instructors rather than program was established in 1984 as a mandatory one- quality, simply to support the demand and need for year full-time course for departmental heads and vice- WfD. Following education reviews, recruitment principals, after piloting by MOE and IE in 1982 with criteria and development for instructors have been initial funding from the UNDP. This was followed by agreed upon and set out more clearly. Development the Further Professional Diploma in Education opportunities for Heads and instructors have been Program (FPDE). The MOE could also elect to send expanded and formalized to improve standards and heads for IE courses at the higher level and for competency, although the specific criteria are less overseas advanced management programs. standardized and publicized than that of instructors. For PET instructors, educational reforms of 1991 led to more stringent recruitment requirements for 1970: Fairly limited measures were in place to raise primary and secondary education instructors. competence of institutional heads and instructors. Industry experience was likely to be required for Under the Education Act, PET Institutions were technical educators. A range of development required to report to the MOE on their staff. It is not opportunities was in place for PET instructors clear whether recruitment criteria were identified by including seminars, workshops, conferences and MOE. Performance-based recruitment and retention television-based programs, e-learning for in-service were not in place at this stage. For instructors, few teachers and classroom learning. However, the quality recruitment standards existed at this time in public of training and development for teachers remained training institutions, with more emphasis on rapid under question and the government faced difficulties expansion to meet the goal of universal basic recruiting to what was seen as a lower profile education and growth of technical education. profession (Goh and Lee, 2008). Box 20: Early Teacher Training Box 21: Review of Teacher Training • Drive to upgrade teacher training via the Teacher’s Training College  1989-1990 - review of higher education by Lord (TTC) supported by UNDP 1969 Dainton (1989) and of teacher training by the IE and the College of Physical Education (1990) • TTC and Inspectorate Division MOE ran 79 in-service training programmes for nearly 7000 teachers, and the first Diplomas in commissioned by MOE; Education were awarded in collaboration with the University of 1970 Singapore;  1991 onwards - upgrading teacher education, 'new era' for the compulsory education sector (Goh and • MOE invited technical education instructors to attend re-training. Lee, 2008: 99); 'Crash course' training provided to bring technical education 1970s teachers up to speed (Chiang, 1998).  NIE able to provide university-level education and development for teachers for the first time, previously the National University of Singapore (Goh and Lee, 2008; Gopinathan et al, 1999); A variety of PET Institutions existed, some still run by  4 year undergraduate program to upgrade primary charities, churches and ethnic groups, leading to educators; diverse standards among teaching staff. As a result,  'Universitization' of teacher education (Gopinathan, there was concern about differential performance et al, 1999: 4) aimed to raise the quality as well as levels and low morale among teaching staff across the profile and professionalism of teaching staff. whole system (Low et al, 1991). Such issues were a key focus for the 1979 ‘Goh Report’, the first major Institutional performance measures were in place by education review. the 1990s. 1990: Much of the system to build competence was 2010: A number of reforms took place over the 1990s established in the 1980s. The 1979 review brought and 2000s that further enhanced this area. In PET, SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 47 around 1998, the MOE adopted a 'Currently Estimated Potential' (CEP) tool to identify future potential of high-level staff (Chew, 2001). CEP is also used for appraisal of other school staff and more generally across other public sector agencies. This added to the already established succession planning through which MOE identifies a list of individuals suitable to take over headship positions in PET institutions. The recruitment criteria for heads of PET institutions are set by the institution rather than by MOE, although changes of headship must be reported to MOE. It is explained that the driving force is the maintenance of quality and the reputation of an institution, rather than standardized criteria for leadership. Thus the right person to lead the ITE may be different to the right person to lead a Polytechnic or University. Recruitment criteria for CET heads are generally set by the CET Centers and ATOs on an individual basis; although when there are changes of leadership WDA would expect to be informed. It is felt that the CET Centers and ATOs are best placed to identify the right leadership, particularly as industry-facing organizations. Development opportunities for PET heads and instructors remain numerous. For CET heads, there is access to general provision. At present WDA hosts a WSQ forum to share best practice and enhance capability, including at the management level. IAL is looking to develop specific programs for CET and ATO heads. Trainers too are now required to complete adult educator qualifications, are covered by the WSQ as well as general PET qualifications, such as the Advanced Certificate in Training and Assessment (ACTA) and the Diploma in Adult and Continuing Education (DACE). Performance measures are more in evidence in the 2000s within the PET sector, having been introduced late in the 1990s alongside changes in the Civil Service. The Enhanced Performance Management System, which involves appraisal and performance tracking of leaders and teachers in education, was introduced by MOE in 2005 as part of routine annual evaluations. SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 48 Dimension 3 | Service Delivery Incentivizing Excellence in Training Policy Goal 8 Provision 1970 1990 2010 Policy Goal 8 considers the use of incentives to In the case of MNCs, this was regarded as an incentive promote excellence in workforce development (WfD), to invest in Singapore. Furthermore, EDB seconded including range of provision, adherence to standards training staff to companies, saving the need for and a demand-led system. Overall scores are Emerging existing personnel to take on the function. Examples of for 1970, Established for 1990 and Advanced for 2010. more TVET private training providers included Over time, increasing use has been made of incentives Singapore Institute of Management (SIM), a spin-off to shift away from a primarily public WfD system to a from EDB's management training provision in the highly diverse mix of public and private providers in 1960s, which was set up with a start-up grant from PET and CET. Adherence to standards has increased, EDB. SIM developed a number of management skills leading to the reforms already noted for private Diplomas in the 1970s. providers. The demand-led aspect has always been a key feature of the WfD system. Policy Actions covered 1990: Pre-employment TVET tended to come under are: promoting diversity of provision; incentivizing VITB and the ATCs, including companies accredited for private providers to meet standards; and motivating Apprenticeship training. TVET numbers were still demand-led provision by public providers. relatively low, and the technical stream was regarded as a more remedial measure for lower performing  Promote diversity in students, making this a less competitive area for other training provision private providers. A small number of specialist voluntary institutions existed, such as those for young This action scores as Advanced for 1970, 1990 and people with disabilities. 2010. Most PET institutions at secondary and post- Overview 1970-2010: The legacy WfD system in secondary level were state-funded or –aided. Reforms place when Singapore gained self-rule in 1959 were introduced to create grant-aid schools that were incorporated many different types of providers. part-funded by the MOE and thus applied standard Moving to a largely state-focused provision of WfD in curriculum and organizational practices. New the 1970s, incentives and legislation have since independent schools were freed up in the late 1980s facilitated growth of a range of public and private from some of the MOE requirements and able to providers. In the 2000s, Singapore has positioned charge differential fees to create a more competitive itself as an ‘Education Hub’, aiming to promote and market for students, teachers and leaders. There was a incentivize diversity and quality in education and market for private providers at the tertiary level, with training provision. local companies acting as partners for international 1970: A range of non-state providers were involved in institutions, proving popular in areas such as PET and CET from the 1960s, although, more through professional education and training. A wide range of legacy than by design. Providers included a variety of small, private training companies and independent religious, ethnic community and international schools, trainers existed by this time, often working directly even up to tertiary level with the previously noted with companies. Nanyang University (est. 1965), the latter established In terms of incentives, VITB provided support for to fill the gap in tertiary level education for the Apprenticeship development, and supported ATCs in Chinese-speaking population and later integrated into areas such as curriculum development and materials. the public system. Following the drive for universal SDF funding also helped defray many costs of CET for basic education, by 1970, only a small number of PET in-house and company-related training, including institutions in primary and secondary level were making use of consultants. It was also available to entirely private. In CET, key providers were Statutory upgrade company training personnel, building in- Boards such as the AEB, EDB and the People's house capacity. On-the-job training was an important Association. policy focus at this time, to provide job-relevant Some incentives existed to promote diverse provision training for company and industry growth. As such, in CET. For example, employers, including MNCs, could many incentives were at the company level rather apply to EDB for funding to support in-house training. than promoting larger private providers per se. However, the ability of employers to purchase SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 49 training, once approved under the SDF scheme, meant operate and continued funding, as well as being able to that the number of private training providers grew. issue certification. There is no evidence of standards Where a strategic need was identified, the government or incentives for private providers at this time. provided considerable incentives to private providers 1990: There was a wider range of private providers. via capital grants, buildings and so on, with the aim of Financial and non-financial incentives and audits were building national capacity. For example, presently in place to promote adherence to standards. Private large training organizations such as Management providers under MOE had a one-time registration Development Institute Singapore (MDIS) started as process via MOE and had to meet the national small private companies and were encouraged to standards for education unless they outside the expand through public investment, in order to meet national curriculum. Moreover, aspects such as exam demand and increase stocks of management skills. results were key performance measures. As noted, 2010: Building on the growth in the 1990s, the range private providers required ATC status, and needed to of providers is highly diverse, including many state meet standards, to offer VITB-certified training. ATCs and non-state providers. In 2003, the ‘Singapore could attract significant subsidy and defray training Education’ strategy was launched, aiming to build costs via the SDF fund and ATC training was Singapore as a regional and global ‘Education Hub’. A recognized against NTC certification under the Public range of incentives is available, including those aimed Trade Test System. The VITB carried out inspections at building national capacity by attracting leading PET and reviews of its own institutions and ATCs, and and CET providers from overseas. For example, a worked closely with ATCs to ensure standards were recent strategy has been to attract leading liberal arts met, with various types of assistance available. institutions to support the development of creative In the 1980s to early 1990s, EDB’s JITS program education and activities that have not been involved partnerships with leading companies to traditionally covered in the national institutions. provide training to meet the partner company’s skills Incentives incorporate technical support for set up needs as well as that of the industry more widely. and the ability to defray costs, as well as capital grants Dedicated training centers were set up in which and land provided by the government to attract key partner companies contributed experts and players. This both builds national capacity but also courseware and EDB covered the costs of the building, acts to create an attractive destination for furniture, equipment and operating costs. Key international students. The involvement in this multi- incentives for maintaining high standards were that agency strategy of the Singapore Tourism Board 50% of trainees would remain with the company, underlines the importance of the latter. There is no whilst 50% went into the wider industry, and evidence of evaluations of such incentives in the public subsidies were available to support training via the domain. SDF. Visits and audits were carried out to maintain  Incentivize private standards. There is no published evaluation of private providers to meet WfD providers, or incentives. standards 2010: Introduction of the CPE and Private Education Act introduced higher corporate and academic This action scores as Established for 1970 and 1990 governance standards and a regular review process. It and Advanced 2010. encouraged adherence to standards in order to Overview 1970-2010: In the 1970s, legislation and a maintain the license to operate. PEIs aspiring to meet predominance of public providers helped to ensure the higher EduTrust certification requirements may be that provision met WfD standards. Few incentives eligible to apply for government funding to help with were in place to encourage private providers. Since costs of obtaining consultancy services to improve then, as well as growth of financial incentives to their systems and processes. The results of EduTrust promote private education provision, adherence to certification are publicly visible, forming part of the standards has increasingly become part of the license profile of providers and a selling point, acting as a to operate for private providers, particularly via the further incentive to engage in the process. CPE, creating a strong incentive to meet standards. Similarly, CETCs and ATOs offering the WSQ go 1970: Most providers were state-funded by this point, through an accreditation and review process, needing believed to provide a stronger amount of leverage for to meet standards in order to maintain the license to the government to maintain standards. Public operate and to attract subsidies for WSQ training. institutions were subject to review by the MOE’s GED CETCs tend to receive capital grants and public or TED. The Education and other Acts were the key funding, and ATOs can also attract public funding governance tools and the MOE set the standards that where strategic needs are identified. The WfD PET institutions had to maintain. The main incentive authorities carry out regular reviews of providers. to maintain standards was to retain a license to SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 50 There are no formal evaluations of the incentives could occur. For example, the craft and vocational system in the public domain. institutions were reviewed, reformed and eventually closed down. Many of the technical training Box 22: EduTrust Certification institutions and bodies went through changes around The EduTrust certification system was introduced in 2009. this time. It is administered by CPE and replaces CaseTrust, formerly administered by the Consumers Association of Singapore 1990: Targets for PET were standard practice by this (CASE). Certification is obligatory for PEIs enrolling point, with the CPTE setting overall targets for places international students and voluntary for others. It acts as a within institutions and disciplines. Public-funded quality mark, promoting higher quality provision. providers were expected to meet certain targets on repetition and graduate rates, as well as employer and Certification Validity Features trainee satisfaction. Job placement rates were tracked PEIs that excel in all areas of by MOE and institutions, but not necessarily subject to 4 years management and provision, and EduTrust Star demonstrating continued targets. CET was treated separately from PET. Skills improvement upgrading programs such as BEST and WISE had PEIs that show satisfactory to national targets set at the highest policy level and EduTrust 4 years commendable performance in transferred through to providers such as VITB and management and provision PEIs that meet minimum NTUC. WfD providers were expected to meet a range requirements in management of goals beyond targets, linked to national economic EduTrust Provisional 1 year and provision and have been development and educational excellence. guided on areas for improvement before next audit Well-performing PET institutions were recognized and Source: Adapted from CPE (2012) and personal communication thus highly sought after, with competitive entry, and with key informants could be considered for independent status. WFD institutions in general were well funded and strategic  Motivate public areas could attract additional funding. On the other hand, when institutions were under-performing, institutions to respond to funding was reduced where necessary. However, demand for skills support was provided before any move to close or This action scores as Latent for 1970, Established for discontinue a program or institution. There is no 1990 and Advanced for 2010. public evaluation of the targets system, although academics analyzed the manpower planning process Overview 1970-2010: There has always been a (e.g. Cheung, 1994). strong drive for providers to adopt a demand-led approach and this remains a key feature of the system. 2010: A system of targets and broader goals is set for However, since the 1980s and the introduction of providers that receive public funding, with a robust manpower planning, the use of more explicit targets system of reviews, incentives and penalties. Such emerged. The latter has been central to WfD policy measures help to ensure that skills provided are job- and strategy for PET and has driven institutional relevant and meet employer demand as well as targets and funding. In CET, a more incentivized broader socio-economic goals. approach to meet policy goals has emerged as part of Targets are in place for public PET providers, the WSQ funding mechanism. however, the process of target-setting and manpower planning has become more flexible over time. Post- 1970: Some targets were in place, although manpower secondary institutions under MOE are given flexibility planning was not yet established. The Ministries and autonomy to set their own strategic directions in conducted confidential tracer studies to calculate the view of national policy related to the economy, sectors returns to education, tracking employment outcomes and institutions, as well as individual institutional of PET students (Skolnik, 1976). It is not clear whether need, corporate direction and targets. There are a there was a formal system in place to reward small number of areas where the government may set institutions that met targets. Government funding was more explicit targets, including those related to raised over time across the board for education. Well- manpower planning (i.e. numbers each institution performing institutions would have received increased needs allocate places for in certain study areas). For funding for strategic areas, particularly given the example, in the case of the ITE, the government emphasis on promoting mass entry to basic education. stipulates the manpower planning targets for each Equally, since the education and training system was course cluster, within some allowed variability very mixed in terms of performance, well-performing parameters. It also closely monitors institutions’ institutions were recognized publicly, creating an outcomes such as graduate employment and attrition incentive. Where institutions failed to meet rates. ITE then sets its own ‘Strategic Performance government objectives or requirements, funding Indicators’, including graduate employment rates, reductions and closure of programs and institutions SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 51 which can be important in demonstrating training program is not delivering demand-led skills, it is value and quality to the public. Private providers do unlikely that the providers will be able to claim back not have targets unless they receive some form of the subsidy, making low-demand areas unattractive public funding. However, given their market-facing for private providers and requiring public providers operations, it is felt that PEIs are by nature likely to where there is market failure. Thus e2i, as a publicly- focus on meeting demand. No public evaluation is funded company which helps to create solutions for available on the PET incentives and penalties. employment and employability, similarly needs to show that individuals going through its programs, In CET, the system of incentives to meet demand is including the unemployed, are entering the relevant clear and is, in effect, linked to funding. Individual CET work area successfully. Overall, this provides a clear Centers and ATOs agree on general targets with WDA, system of reward and penalty to support desired WfD which are monitored through various channels such as outcomes. On the downside, trainees can be difficult to quality audits and joint committee meetings. e2i also track once they leave the WSQ provider or e2i, which has targets which it agrees with WDA for successful can present some challenges. CET Centre and ATO completion of its programs. WSQ financing is based on programs that perform particularly well may be subsidy funding when an individual trainee invited to become flagship providers and receive successfully passes a unit of assessment or program, additional resources. Institutions that are less rather than targets in terms of trainee numbers. successful are supported to improve problem areas or Instead, successful completion is the main goal and have accreditation withdrawn if required. There is no this is incentivized since the public subsidy is paid in public evaluation of incentives and penalties related to tranches. Thus CETCs and ATOs have to report on the demand for skills. trainees entering and remaining in the respective occupation or sector for a certain period before the final tranche of subsidy is paid out. In other words, if a SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 52 Dimension 3 | Service Delivery Policy Goal 9 Enhancing Accountability for Results 1970 1990 2010 Policy Goal 9 examines the extent to which measures provided an important review of skills at the national are in place to improve accountability in workforce level, but it cannot be accessed or cited. development (WfD) delivery. Overall scores on this 1990: Analyses and evaluations were more systematic policy goal are Latent for 1970, Established for 1990 and carried out across a number of ministries and and Advanced for 2010. Reflecting the general statutory bodies. Even so, informal channels like formalization of WfD structures, processes to ensure individual researchers and government staff remained accountability have also increased over time. However, an important source, since there was no one key source monitoring and evaluation results are generally not that could provide an overview of the data available. An made public. important development was the 1973 Statistics Act, Policy Actions covered are: strengthening WFD governing the national collection of data by public monitoring and evaluation processes; specifying the agencies, and the annual Labor Force Survey reporting requirements of providers; and increasing the commenced in 1974. Government ministries and focus on outcomes, efficiency and innovation in service agencies continued to conduct a range of research, delivery. although much of it was restricted access. Indeed, in 1983, the government stopped funding the ERC, which  Strengthen monitoring was based within a university, and instead set up an and evaluation internal Manpower Research Unit within the MOL. The MOL released selected data through national reports This action scores as Latent for 1970, Established for (Ministry of Manpower from 1999). 1990 and Advanced for 2010. The national Economic Review continued to be the most Overview 1970-2010: More systematic monitoring impactful review of economic development and WfD. and evaluation has been established over time, with The national Economic Review Committee included a public reporting of some data from government high-level review of skills supply and demand, meeting reviews. Particular developments have come in national around every 5 years. The CPTE also provided an monitoring of skills and labor force data. However, a important review on a 1-2 yearly basis, drawing on high level of confidentiality remains with most research and information provided through the government studies and documents which weakens ministries and other stakeholders. sharing of information –a potential learning tool – not only publicly but also within government itself. 2010: Routine government surveys as well as regular internal and commissioned studies help to monitor and 1970: There was some monitoring and evaluation of evaluate skills supply and demand. For example, since skills demand and supply, although mostly ad hoc and 2009 the WDA conducted an Outcome Evaluation occasional rather than systematic. These were carried Survey on WSQ among employers and employees out across a range of bodies. Informal channels would (WDA, 2011). The Manpower Research and Statistics have been a key source of information, since the Department at MOM conducts a range of research, government infrastructure was still being developed. ranging from surveys on adult training in 2000 and Many documents were classified, meaning they could 2005 (MRSD, 2001; 2006) and on employer supported not be referenced even in reports by policymakers, and training in 2008 and 2010 (MRSD, 2009; 2011), to one- were not shared with independent researchers or the off studies such as analysis of premiums related to field public (Low et al, 1991). For example, there was a 1970 of study (Yeo et al, 2007. Thus a range of government Population Census, but few systematic surveys of skills reports are available online. Nevertheless, much of the in the workforce. The first real Manpower Survey is research, evaluation and monitoring remains regarded to have been carried out in 1969-1970 under confidential and is not necessarily shared across the guidance of the Economic Research Centre (Skolnik, government. Media releases give brief details of 1976). ERC also carried out forecasting studies with government studies that have been carried out and that projections on the workforce and institutional are not in the public domain. The Statistics Singapore enrolments, which helped to inform government policy. website provides national data, including some analyses The MOE, MOL, MOF and the Ministry of Science and of the census. Technology carried out occasional studies on different industries. The 1970 National Plan would have SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 53 Individual PET Institutions publish some data via press to the MOE and Immigration Singapore, including releases and Annual Reports. CETCs and ATOs release attendance lists and enrolment numbers. limited data about their trainees and results of Public and private institutions maintained their own satisfaction surveys. At the CET level, the research databases, but the MOE also collected training data, function of the IAL is more widely publicized. IAL has particularly on PET, to enable the preparation of responsibility for carrying out research within the CET customized reports. Providers were informed by the sector in line with adult learning, skills and productivity MOE when they were not in compliance with reporting and evaluation and innovation. It is producing a number procedures. of CET research reports and briefings, including a national skills utilization study and a review of 2010: Reporting procedures are more rigorous in some destinations of IAL graduates from the WSQ programs. areas and tied to clearer incentives. In PET, registered Rather than a consolidated website, there are a variety public and private institutions must collect, maintain of sources that can be used to access different WfD data. and report on a comprehensive range of data, including learner and employer feedback. Public institutions  Specify reporting report to the MOE, whilst PEIs report to the CPE, as requirements by training previously outlined. The range of data is greater for institutions public than for private providers. It is recognized that PEIs are good at meeting market demand, but also that This action scores as Latent for 1970, Emerging for government leverage is lower without some form of 1990 and Advanced for 2010. public funding. Overview 1970-2010: This aspect has seen In CET, CET Centers and ATOs report to the WDA on considerable improvement over time. Reporting infrastructure and governance. Some also report to the systems have been formalized and increased, being CPE as PEIs. For example, the At-Sunrice Global Chef linked as already seen to accreditation, funding and Academy, an international culinary school, is a National access to incentives. CET Institute (since 2009) offering the WSQ and other programs to an international student body. As of 2010 it 1970: The scoring for 1970 partly reflects the low level has received EduTrust certification from CPE. of evidence available on this aspect. It appears that Submission of reports to the WDA and CPE is supported public PET Institutions would have been required to by integrated online databases managed by the report to the MOE on student numbers, completion respective authorities. Compliance with reporting rates, since such data appears in publications of the procedures is incentivized in a number of ways, time. Training providers would have maintained their including: maintenance of the license to operate; own data systems. Private providers that did not funding reviews for public providers; and receipt of receive any public funding would have few if any public subsidies for WSQ providers based on trainees reporting requirements. successfully graduating from the programs and taking 1990: More systematic reporting procedures were in up work in a relevant occupation/sector. Reviews are place, with standard reporting procedures for schools also strategic. For example, increased or new sources of from 1980, including administrative data, enrolments funding might be made available where a provider or and graduation statistics. Post-secondary and tertiary program is seen to be meeting national WfD objectives institutions reported similar data to the MOE, including and deemed worthy of expansion. graduate placement, employment and wages. Polytechnics and Universities carried out post-  Increase focus on graduation surveys amongst alumni and employers. outcomes, efficiency and Equally, public post-secondary and tertiary providers innovation applied rigorous internal procedures as part of their governance (e.g. department, council, board, faculty and This action scores as Emerging for 1970, Established senate level reporting practices). for 1990 and Advanced for 2010. Unless receiving some form of public funding, private Overview 1970-2010: From a low level of occasional providers were only requested to report basic evaluation and monitoring, monitoring processes such information to the MOE, such as administrative as those to measure performance have particularly information (staffing, budgets, enrolments). PEIs also developed over time. There is now greater public access had to provide updates to the MOE such as reporting to information on WfD outcomes, including online plans for new courses, newly appointed staff and other information on graduates. Evaluation remains a less relevant supporting documents to gain approval from developed area with an emphasis on internal review, a MOE to run new courses. Under immigration law, if the tendency not to use high level evaluation until later PEI recruited foreign students, such as those from stages in programs, and confidentiality of government nearby Asian countries, mandatory reports were made studies. SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 54 1970: Evaluations and monitoring of training services met skills needs and projections, although these were were occasional at this time. Basic data were collected not made public. Low et al (1991) argued that the on administrative aspects of PET institutions, including paucity of public data in the 1980s was an issue for management, enrolments and examination results. young people trying to make informed occupational Reviews in the public domain included a TED evaluation decisions. of technical education in the late 1960s, with an audit of 2010: A range of developments occurred over the provision that brought about major reform in 1970. 1990s-2000s. Monitoring and, to some extent, Some public information was available on the labor evaluation are now institutionalized for both public and market outcomes of graduates from different WfD private providers in PET and CET. Performance audits institutions, particularly National University of are used to identify good practice, improve provision Singapore. Government data on pay differentials for and prioritize funding, although evaluations are not different ethnic groups across different institutions was made public in most cases. For private PET providers analyzed by academic authors (Rodan, 1985; Skolnik, under the CPE, regular audit is in place on a number of 1976). However, permission was usually necessarily to key indicators, including the capacity to run courses and access such data. infrastructure. However, the actual provision of programs is not reported on or reviewed (i.e. there is no 1990: There was increased focus on outcomes and audit through observation of classes or teaching efficiency by this point, leading to more routine methods as may occur in public PET). As noted, CPE monitoring of several aspects of training activity. Costs actively adopted an open policy on information, with were not always a high concern, since education was much useful information on PEIs is available for open funded very generously. The main driver was to meet access online. This includes registration periods and policy goals rather than reduce resources. However, EduTrust award tiers, as well as enforcement action recession in the mid-1980s brought about some that is taken against institutions that are not meeting efficiency measures for government and public their obligations. institutions, leading to introduction of performance monitoring. PET institutions submitted an annual plan In CET, CET Centers and ATOs regularly report on a to the MOE, with standardized reporting procedures range of standard indicators, such as successful trainee covering a range of areas. The review process included completion. The reporting is tied to re-accreditation and an annual self-appraisal system and audits every 4-5 subsidy funding. WDA conducts annual surveys to track years. The reviews were used to provide feedback to the outcomes of WSQ training, and MOM conducts providers and to prioritize funding allocations to regular surveys to monitor adult training and employer- programs and institutions. As noted, major education supported training participation. The IAL’s research reviews were published in 1979 and 1991, identifying function has carried out an analysis of methods of options and recommendations for system-level evaluating impact for the WSQ (IAL, 2011). So this may improvements in service delivery. At the school level, be an area for future development. MOE provided a set of standard procedures as a form of No recent major, national education reviews have been guidance to improve the organizational capacity and published, but there are on-going reviews in place. For capability of leadership and school management teams. example, a high level review is being made of tertiary At the same time, a major element of efficiency drives in level provision, focusing on issues such as the PET at this time was to reduce wastage and student percentage that can enter higher education and leading drop out, which the 1991 education review identified as to new policy in 2012. Full evaluation of WfD programs a problem in the primary to secondary cohort and the and provision is not routine. There is a strong emphasis technical stream. on implementation and rapid reform when issues arise. Under the VITB and later particularly under the ITE Evaluation thus tends to take place some years after post-1992 audits and site visits of its own institutions implementation, at the end of programs or when a and ATCs were carried out and reviews highlighted portfolio is handed to a new management team. It is options for improvement. For example, in the 1990s, carried out internally within government or within VITB/ ITE identified programs where there was a low providing institutions. Such activities might provide a demand and less popular trades. Developing policies to valuable learning tool, however, internal studies are not retrain and retain staff on such courses was high on the necessarily shared widely even within government and agenda of the newly relaunched ITE in 1992. are rarely published. Some information was available on the destinations of Varying levels of data on labor market outcomes of cohorts from secondary institutions via annual reports, graduates is available for most institutions. For private and the post-secondary institutions carried out providers this tends to be limited to promotional graduate surveys with some data available publicly. materials. As of 2008, the MOE publishes a table of data CPTE carried out regular analyses of the flows of online, showing employment rates and salaries for graduates coming through from PETs and whether they tertiary graduates 6 months after graduation, by faculty SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 55 and course. MOE intends potential students to use this data when making course choices, thus meeting some of the earlier critiques. Data covers NUS, NTU and SMU graduates. The Singapore University of Technology and Design (SUTD), the fourth national public-funded University, was only established in 2010 and will matriculate its first intakes in 2012. SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 56 Annex 1 | Analytical Framework of SABER-WfD Dimension 1: Strategic Framework Aligning WfD to national goals for productivity, growth and poverty reduction Policy Goal 1: Articulating a strategic direction for WfD Policy Action 1: Advocate for WfD as a priority for economic development Policy Action 2: Evaluate economic prospects and its implications for skills Policy Action 3: Develop policies to align skills demand and supply Policy Goal 2: Prioritizing a demand-led approach to WfD Policy Action 4: Promote demand-driven approach Policy Action 5: Strengthen firms’ demand for skills to improve productivity Policy Action 6: Address critical challenges in the future supply of skills Policy Goal 3: Strengthen critical coordination Policy Action 7: Ensure coherence of key strategic WfD priorities Policy Action 8: Institutionalize WfD roles and responsibilities Policy Action 9: Facilitate interaction among all WfD stakeholders Dimension 2: System Oversight Governing the system to achieve desired goals Policy Goal 4: Diversifying pathways for skills acquisition Policy Action 10: Foster articulation across levels and programs Policy Action 11: Promote life-long learning Policy Action 12: Set policies and procedures to renew programs Policy Goal 5: Ensuring efficiency and equity in funding Policy Action 13: Articulate funding strategy Policy Action 14: Allocate funds to achieve efficient results Policy Action 15: Foster partnerships Policy Goal 6: Assuring relevant and reliable standards Policy Action 16: Specify accreditation standards Policy Action 17: Strengthen skills testing and certification Policy Action 18: Assure credibility of accreditation and of skills certification Dimension 3: Service Delivery Ensuring tangible results on the ground Policy Goal 7: Fostering relevance in training programs Policy Action 19: Link training, industry, and research institutions Policy Action 20: Design training with industry inputs Policy Action 21: Improve competence of administrators and instructors Policy Goal 8: Incentivizing excellence in training provision Policy Action 22: Promote diversity in training provision Policy Action 23: Incentivize private providers to meet WfD standards Policy Action 24: Motivate public training institutions to respond to demand for skills Policy Goal 9: Enhancing accountability for results Policy Action 25: Strengthen monitoring and evaluation Policy Action 26: Specify reporting requirements by training institution Policy Action 27: Increase focus on outcomes, efficiency and innovation SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 57 Annex 2 | Benchmarking Scores Dimension 1970 1990 2010 Policy Goal 1970 1990 2010 Policy Action 1970 1990 2010 Advocate for WfD as priority for economic 2.5 3.5 4.0 Articulating development a Strategic Evaluate economic prospects and its 2.7 3.3 3.9 3.0 3.2 4.0 Direction implications for skills for WfD Develop policies to align skills demand and 2.7 3.3 3.7 supply Prioritizing Promote demand-driven approach 2.0 3.3 3.7 a Demand- Strategic Strengthen firms' demand for skills to 2.6 3.4 3.8 led 2.1 3.0 3.6 1.3 1.7 3.0 Framework improve productivity Approach to Address critical challenges in the future WfD 3.0 4.0 4.0 supply of skills Ensure coherence of key strategic WfD 3.7 4.0 4.0 Strengthen priorities Critical 3.1 3.9 4.0 Institutionalize WfD roles and responsibilities 3.7 4.0 4.0 Coordina- tion Facilitate interaction among all WfD 2.0 3.7 4.0 stakeholders Foster articulation across levels and programs 1.3 2.5 2.8 Diversifying Pathways 1.6 2.8 3.2 Promote life-long learning 2.3 3.3 3.5 for Skills Acquisition Set policies and procedures to renew 1.3 2.7 3.2 programs Ensuring Articulate funding strategy 1.8 2.8 3.7 System 2.1 3.1 3.5 Efficiency Oversight 2.6 3.5 3.8 Allocate funds to achieve efficient results 2.7 4.0 4.0 and Equity in Funding Foster partnerships 3.3 3.8 3.8 Specify accreditation standards 2.7 3.0 3.8 Assuring Relevant 2.0 2.9 3.6 Strengthen skills testing and certification 1.0 2.0 3.3 and Reliable Assure credibility of accreditation and of skills Standards 2.3 3.7 3.7 testing Link training providers, industry and research Fostering 2.5 2.8 3.5 institutions Relevance 1.9 2.8 3.5 Design training with industry inputs 2.0 3.0 4.0 in Training Programs Improve competence of administrators and 1.2 2.6 3.0 instructors Incentiviz- Promote diversity in training provision 3.3 3.3 3.7 ing Incentivize private providers to meet WfD Service 2.0 2.5 3.3 2.0 2.8 3.6 Excellence 2.3 2.9 3.6 standards Delivery in Training Motivate public training institutions to 1.7 2.8 3.7 Provision respond to the demand for skills Strengthen monitoring and evaluation 1.7 3.3 3.7 Enhancing Accountabil Specify reporting requirements by training 1.7 2.8 3.7 1.2 2.5 3.8 -ity for institutions Results Increase focus on outcomes, efficiency and 2.2 2.7 3.7 innovation SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 58 Annex 3 | References This section includes the list of references cited in the report. 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SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 62 Annex 4 | Informants Ms Tracy Lee, Quality Assurance Division, Mr Ang Hin Kee, former Chief Executive Officer, Singapore Workforce Development Agency (WDA) e2i Employment and Employability Institute Mr Eric Lee, Manager, IAL Mr James Fong, Assistant Manager, Singapore Institute of Retail Studies Mr Lim Sew Hua, Director of Administration, and Director of Centre for Professional & Leadership Ms Gog Soon Joo, Executive Director, Institute for Development, NYP Adult Learning (IAL) Mr Lin Cheng Ton, CEO of NYP International, Professor Gopinathan Saravanan, Adjunct former Founding Principal & CEO of NYP, and Professor, UniSim and former Professorial Fellow former Director of EDB Manpower Development (Curriculum, Teaching & Learning), National Division Institute of Education (NIE) Ms Sabrina Loi, Deputy CEO (Corporate) ITE Mr Henry Heng, CEO Council for Private Education (CPE) Mr David Ma, former Director Civil Service College Mr Ho Mingda, Senior Head Policy, Higher Professor Neo Boon Siong, Nanyang Technological Education Division, Ministry of Education (MOE) University (NTU) Mr PY Hwang, former Chairman of the Economic Mr Edwin Netto, former National Trades Union Development Board (EDB) (1982-1985) Congress (Industrial Relations Arbitration) and HR Manager Comfort-Delgro Mr Koh Tat Suan, Director of Learning and Programmes, Institute for Adult Learning (IAL) Professor Pang Eng Fong, Singapore Management University (SMU) Dr Prem Kumar, Assistant Dean (Curriculum - Community Leadership Development), National Ms Tan Gee Keow, Director of Higher Education, Community Leadership Institute Higher Education Division, MOE Mr Eugene Lai, Senior Head Policy, Higher Ms Tan Ying Ying, Assistant Director, Policy & Education Division, MOE Stategy, e2i Ms Jessie Lau, Policy and Strategy, e2i Mr Eric Teo, Productivity Innovation Credit Implementation Team, Inland Revenue Authority Mr Law Shuang Jie, Senior Inspector, Inspection of Singapore (IRAS) and Registration Division, CPE Professor Johnny Sung, Principal Research Fellow, Dr Law Song Seng, former Director and CEO of IAL and Professor of Skills and Performance, Vocational & Industrial Training Board (VITB) and University of Leicester, UK Institute of Technical Education (ITE) (1981- 2007) Mr Cidi Wee, College Works Group, Singapore (Private Education Institution Singapore) Mr Lee Tong Nge, Director School of Business Management, Nanyang Polytechnic (NYP) and former Director Singapore Institute of Retail Studies (SIRS) SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 63 Annex 5 | Participants of Review Seminar Name Affiliation Ms Jee-Peng Tan WB HDNED Dr Arwen Raddon WB Principal Investigator Ms Rita Costa WB HDNED Ms Gog Soon Joo Institute for Adult Learning Professor Johnny Sung Institute for Adult Learning Professor Andrew Brown Institute for Adult Learning Ms Angeline Lim Institute for Adult Learning Mr Thomas Wong Ministry of Manpower Mr Christopher Gordon Ministry of Manpower Ms Law Jiu Rong Ministry of Manpower Mr Thomas Yeo Singapore Workforce Development Agency Mr Arthur Poh Ministry of Education Mr Eugene Lai Ministry of Education Ms Janice Beh Council for Private Education Mr Law Shuang Jie Council for Private Education Ms Sabrina Loi Institute of Technical Education Ms Chua Ai Lian Institute of Technical Education Dr Law Song Seng Institute of Technical Education Mr Lee Tong Nge Nanyang Polytechnic Professor Gopinathan Saravanan UniSim Professor Hui Weng Tat Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy Dr Prem Kumar National Community Leadership Institute Ms Tan Ying Ying Employment and Employability Institute SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 64 Annex 6 | Benchmarking Rubrics Functional Dimension 1: Strategic Framework Policy Policy Action Level of Development Goal Latent Emerging Established Advanced Advocate for WfD  WfD is not prioritized in  Political and other leaders  Political and other key  WfD is fully integrated into as a priority for national economic recognize the leaders in industry provide national policies and strategies, economic development. importance of WfD for sustained support for reflecting a holistic approach 7 development economic development; WfD; economic to WfD; economic development 1. Articulating a Strategic Direction for Workforce economic development development plans assess plans formally assess and plans have identified a few and specify several WfD specify a wide range of WfD WfD priorities. priorities that are being priorities that are supported by implemented. implementation plans and budgets, these are subject to continuous evaluation and improvements. Development Evaluate economic  The concept of a demand-  A demand-driven WfD  A demand-driven WfD  A well-informed demand-driven prospects and its driven approach 8 to WfD strategy is beginning to strategy informed by WfD strategy with continuous implications for has yet to emerge. take shape but policy appropriate analyses is evaluation and improvements skills reforms are often impeded accompanied by some has been internalized as a by various difficulties. policy reforms that have standard practice. been implemented. Develop polices to  Policies are being  A few policies have been  A range of policies based on  Policies are formulated on the align skills demand developed but are not developed on the basis of occasional and routine basis of well-informed and supply based on formal occasional assessments assessments by analyses, including analyses of skills to address imbalances government and assessments by independent demand. between skills demand independent WfD organizations, and they are and supply; these policies stakeholders have been routinely reviewed and and interventions are implemented to address updated with inputs from subject to in-house skills imbalances; these are relevant stakeholders to ensure reviews. subject to routine in-house program offerings fit the reviews and independent economic climate and demands external evaluations. for new skills. 7 A holistic approach is one that addresses multiple dimensions of skills development, including: (a) aligning skills training to employers’ needs and national goals for productivity, growth and poverty reduction; (b) governing the system to achieved the desired national goals, and (c) ensuring tangible results on the ground. 8 In a demand-driven strategy, the demand for skills drives the supply of training services. Arrangements to achieve this relationship between skills supply and demand include: the involvement of employers in shaping training policies and provision, financing tied to employment outcomes, etc. SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 65 Functional Dimension 1: Strategic Framework Policy Policy Action Level of Development Goal Latent Emerging Established Advanced  There is limited or no  Business and industry play  A demand-driven  A demand-driven approach to Promote a attempt to incorporate an advisory role in approach to WfD is in WfD has been fully established demand-driven business and industry establishing and place with business and with business and industry approach inputs in establishing and implementing WfD industry providing inputs playing both advisory and implementing WfD priorities based on for setting WfD priorities executive roles supported by priorities. occasional studies and based on routine routine assessments from assessments. assessments provided by government agencies, other key government agencies, WfD stakeholders and employers, trade independent organizations. associations and labor 2.Prioritizing a Demand-led Approach unions.  Few incentives and  Incentives and services  Incentives and services  Incentives and services enabling Strengthen firms' services exist to support are in place to provide enable firms to expand firms to address skills constraints demand for skills skills development for selective support for the skills sets of workers impeding their ability to upgrade to improve technology upgrading by technology-related skills to facilitate technology technologies and productivity are productivity firms. upgrading; incentive adaptation and adoption well established; these are programs are subject to for greater productivity; routinely reviewed and adjusted occasional reviews but these measures are for impact; all key review often without adequate supported by routine recommendations are follow-up of reviews followed by implemented. recommendations. implementation of some review recommendations.  There is limited or no  Future supply of skills is  Assessments of future  Future skills supply is routinely Address critical formal assessment of assessed on an skills supply are assessed for multiple industries challenges in the the future supply of skills. occasional basis; routinely conducted for and sectors at the national and future supply of recommendations from key sectors at the international levels; skills assessments are regional and national recommendations are implemented with some levels; recommendations implemented promptly; delay, often without are implemented with responsibilities for adequate funding and little delay; implementation are clearly assignment of responsibilities for spelled out and attention is given responsibility for implementation of to the realization of monitorable implementation. recommendations are goals. made explicit but without explicit attention to monitorable goals. SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 66 Functional Dimension 1: Strategic Framework Policy Policy Action Level of Development Goal Latent Emerging Established Advanced  There is no mechanism  Coherence of key strategic  Coherence of key  Formal mechanisms Ensure coherence in place to ensure WfD priorities at the strategic WfD priorities at overseeing coordination of key strategic coherence of key strategic leadership level is the apex leadership level and implementation of WfD priorities WfD priorities among achieved through is achieved through WfD strategies are in place WfD leaders. informal processes that formal and informal and they support yield limited WfD mechanisms that yield strengthening structures of 3. Strengthening Critical Coordination outcomes. positive WfD outcomes. WfD policy development, budget allocations, and assessments of future skills demand and supply.  Roles and responsibilities  Roles and responsibilities  Roles and responsibilities  Clear WfD roles and Institutionalize the for WfD are not formally of WfD stakeholders are are well-defined and responsibilities have been structure of WfD defined, leaving the WfD poorly defined, leaving supported by legislation institutionalized through roles and authority without a clear the WfD authority with a and resources that enable legislation and the WfD responsibilities mandate. limited mandate and the WfD authority and authority has the limited resources to key stakeholders to mandate to formulate and discharge its discharge their respective request resources that are responsibilities effectively. functions effectively. needed for the relevant authorities to discharge their responsibilities in a transparent and effective manner.  No formal process exists  Informal structures exist  Formal structures exist  Formal structures Facilitate for engaging all that facilitate in key economic sectors fostering extensive communication stakeholders. communication and that support extensive interactions among WfD and interaction interaction among key communication and stakeholders that among all WfD stakeholders. interaction among the culminate in consensuses stakeholders relevant stakeholders. on WfD priorities and policies are in place in most sectors. SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 67 Functional Dimension 2: System Oversight Policy Policy Action Level of Development Goal Latent Emerging Established Advanced  No functioning  Ad hoc articulation  Ad hoc articulation  Standardized articulation Foster articulation articulation arrangements exist within arrangements exist arrangements exist across across levels and arrangements. secondary schools and across institutions at the secondary and post- programs post-secondary secondary and post- secondary programs as well institutions; only ad hoc secondary levels; a as between TVET and higher incentives are in place to program of incentives is education; a system of foster articulation across in place to foster incentives is in place to 4. Diversifying Pathways for Skills Acquisition levels of instruction. articulation foster articulation across arrangements. programs and levels of education and training.  No arrangements or  Ad hoc private resources  School- and community-  Integrated regional or Promote life-long public resources are in and arrangements based resources and national system with one- learning place to support life-long support life-long learning arrangements support stop online resources and learning, recognition of and recognition of prior life-long learning and standardized prior learning, and learning; publicly-funded recognition of prior arrangements support life- disadvantaged groups. training programs exist learning; publicly-funded long learning and with for disadvantaged training programs with recognition of prior learning; groups subject to some minimal restrictions are publicly-funded training restrictions. available for most programs provide open disadvantaged groups. access to all disadvantaged groups.  There are no set policies  Introduction, adjustment  Introduction, adjustment  Management of publicly- Set policies and to manage program and closure of publicly- and closure of publicly- funded training programs procedures to offerings; training funded programs are made funded programs are are made on the basis of renew programs providers may introduce, through ad hoc, non- based on a few explicit comprehensive and adjust or close publicly- standardized processes; and standardized explicit requirements that funded programs at will. applications for these requirements; include labor market changes must be done applications can be made analyses; applications can be personally and are vetted online and they are vetted made online and they are by ad hoc committees. by formal committees vetted by formal committees with some representation with representation from from other WfD other WfD stakeholders and stakeholders. they operate with a commitment to act in a timely manner. SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 68 Functional Dimension 2: System Oversight Policy Policy Action Level of Development Goal Latent Emerging Established Advanced  Ad hoc funding of WfD by  Systematic funding of WfD  Systematic funding of  Systematic funding of WfD Articulate funding multiple stakeholders; no is determined by WfD is determined by is determined through strategy evaluation of funding government agencies with government agencies consensus building among allocation and strategy. annual budget with advice from key government agencies and appropriations and line- stakeholders; annual key stakeholders; annual item allocations; only budget appropriations budget appropriations are occasional evaluations of are supported by detailed supported by detailed 5. Ensuring Efficiency and Equity in Funding funding allocation and spending plans; there are spending plans to foster strategy. routine evaluations of improved performance; funding allocation and routine evaluations of strategy. funding allocation and strategy are accompanied by appropriate reforms as needed.  No formal process for  A formal process without  A formal process for  Allocation of WfD funds is Allocate funds to allocating public funds for explicit criteria is in allocating public funds based on explicit criteria achieve efficient WfD. place; there are no reviews based on explicit criteria aligned with WfD priorities, results of allocation criteria. exists; there are periodic including efficiency in reviews of the criteria but resource utilization; there recommended changes are frequent reviews of the face relatively long criteria and implemented lags. recommendations are implemented in a timely manner.  Limited or no  Limited partnership with  Extensive partnership  An institutionalized Foster partnership between business and industry is in between WfD authority partnership network with partnerships WfD authority and place; partners have access and key stakeholders in open membership for all stakeholders in business to some public resources; business and industry; WfD stakeholders is in and industry; key key stakeholders partners have access to place; partners have access stakeholders provide few, contribute a small range of some public resources; to wide range of public if any, resources toward resources toward WfD key stakeholders resources; key stakeholders meeting WfD priorities. priorities. contribute a broad range contribute an extensive of resources for WfD. range of resources to meet WfD priorities. SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 69 Functional Dimension 2: System Oversight Policy Policy Action Level of Development Goal Latent Emerging Established Advanced  No accreditation  Some accreditation  An accreditation agency  An accreditation agency Specify standards have been standards have been has been established with standards reflecting accreditation established; training established; standards are with standards developed international best practices standards providers are free to offer infrequently reviewed; jointly with relevant is in place; accreditation any program. accreditation applies to stakeholders; standards standards are reviewed public institutions only. are reviewed internally frequently both internally on a regular or as needed and by independent basis; accreditation parties; accreditation and 6. Assuring Relevant and Reliable Standards applies to public renewal of accreditation institutions and non-state is compulsory for all providers receiving public institutions and public funding; renewal non-state training applies to the latter providers, regardless of only. their sources of funding.  Competency-based  Competency-based testing  A standardized  A standardized Strengthen skills testing has yet to be applies to critical competency-based testing competency-based testing testing and introduced; testing is occupations in key system is in place and system has been certification largely based on sectors; testing may focus applies to most established for most theoretical knowledge on a mix of theory and occupations; testing may occupations; IT-based and administered by practice and is focus on a mix of theory testing focuses on theory training providers administered and certified and practice and is and practice and is themselves. by independent third administered and administered and certified parties. certified by independent by independent third third parties. parties.  There is limited  Accreditation standards  Accreditation standards  A license to operate is Assure credibility attention to are established through ad established with inputs issued only to institutions of accreditation accreditation standards. hoc arrangements; some from WfD stakeholders and providers meeting and of skills support is provided to apply to all institutions accreditation standards certification encourage non-state and providers receiving determined by key WfD providers to seek public funding; credibility stakeholders; credibility of accreditation; credibility of of skills testing is ensured skills testing is ensured skills testing is ensured through explicit through standardized through explicit standardized testing testing protocols, standardized testing protocols and accreditation of testing protocols. accreditation of testing centers and random centers. audits. SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 70 Functional Dimension 3: Service Delivery Policy Policy Action Level of Development Goal Latent Emerging Established Advanced  Weak or no links  Informal links exist  Formal links exist  Formal links exist Link training between training between some training between some training between most training industry and institutions and industry institutions and industry institutions and industry institutions and industry research and research institutions. and research institutions and research institutions, and research institutions, institutions to improve training leading to significant leading to significant relevance and quality. collaboration in several collaboration in a wide 7. Fostering Relevance in Training Programs activities. range of activities such as the provision of industry internships and training, and the introduction and redesign of training programs.  Industry has limited or  Industry has an advisory  Industry has both an  Industry has a Design training no role in identifying, role in identifying, advisory and a decision- widespread advisory and with industry prioritizing and designing prioritizing and designing making role in decision-making role in inputs publicly-funded publicly-funded programs identifying, prioritizing identifying, prioritizing programs. in some training and designing publicly- and designing publicly- institutions, usually funded programs in some funded programs in most through informal contacts. training institutions. training institutions.  Few or no measures are  Recruitment of  Recruitment of  Recruitment of Improve in place to enhance the administrators and administrators and administrators and competence of competence of WfD instructors is based on instructors is based on instructors occurs through WfD administrators and minimum academic minimum academic a competitive process administrators instructors. qualification(s), with qualification(s), with based on both academic and instructors provisions for some in- provisions for in-service qualification(s) and service training and training and industry experience, with performance-based performance-based a wide range of in-service recruitment and retention recruitment and training programs and measures based on retention measures that performance-based occasional evaluations. are based on routine recruitment and retention evaluations. measures based on routine evaluations. SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 71 Functional Dimension 3: Service Delivery Policy Policy Action Level of Development Goal Latent Emerging Established Advanced  Training occurs  Training policies allow  Training policies facilitate  A highly-diverse mix of non-state Promote diversity through state some private providers participation of non-state training training providers offer training in training provision only, to operate; training is providers; training is offered within a comprehensive system provision with no incentives provided mainly by mainly by NGOs, with a system of with a wide range of incentives is to promote non- non-profit providers incentives that are evaluated in place to foster non-state state provision of with few incentives in routinely are in place to foster provision; incentives are subject to 8. Incentivizing Excellence in Training Provision training. place to foster non-state non-state provision. evaluations and the provision of training. recommendations are implemented.  No incentives are  At least one incentive  A system of financial and non-  A comprehensive system of Incentivize private in place to that is subject to financial incentives that are incentives that are subject to both providers to meet encourage non- occasional evaluation is subject to occasional and routine occasional and routine evaluations WfD standards state providers to in place to encourage evaluations is in place to and adjustments is in place to meet WfD non-state providers to encourage non-state providers to encourage non-state providers to standards. meet WfD standards, but meet WfD standards; periodic comply with WfD standards; no review system exists audits are conducted to ensure periodic audits with penalties for to ensure continued continued adherence to WfD noncompliance are conducted and adherence to WfD standards. enforced to ensure continued standards. adherence to WfD standards.  No mechanism or  Training institutions are  Training institutions are expected  Training institutions are expected Motivate public process is in place expected to meet target to meet a wider range of WfD to meet a wide range of WfD training to ensure training repetition and outcomes; some incentives and outcomes; a robust system of institutions to institutions are graduation rates but few penalties that are subject to both incentives and penalties that is respond to demand-driven. incentives are in place occasional and routine subject to both occasional and demand for skills ensure they are demand- evaluations are in place to ensure routine evaluations and driven. these institutions respond to the adjustments is in place to ensure demand for skills. that the training institutions are driven by employers’ demands for skills. SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 72 Functional Dimension 3: Service Delivery Policy Policy Action Level of Development Goal Latent Emerging Established Advanced  Limited attention is  Occasional monitoring  Routine monitoring and  Skills demand and supply are Strengthen WfD placed on the monitoring and evaluation of skills evaluation of skills monitored and evaluated monitoring and and evaluation of skills demand and supply is in demand and supply is in through routine surveys and evaluation demand and supply; an place; an overview of WfD place; an overview of WfD specially commissioned overview of WfD data is data is available only in data is available in studies; WfD data are available through government agencies. published reports and available from a informal channels only.. websites. consolidated website.  No specific data  Public institutions and  Public institutions and  Both public institutions and Specify reporting collection and reporting non-state training non-state training non-state training providers requirements by 9. Enhancing Accountability for Results are required; training providers are required to providers are required to are required to collect, training providers maintain their collect and maintain collect, maintain and maintain and submit a institutions own data bases. administrative and submit a comprehensive comprehensive list of data, graduation statistics; data list of data through an including client-feedback, to reporting is voluntary for integrated management the WfD authority using an non-state providers but information system to the integrated management they may be notified of WfD authority; timely information system; non-compliance. submission is fostered incentives, penalties and through incentives for data quality audits are compliance and performed to ensure penalties for non- timely reporting of reliable compliance. data.  No system of evaluation  Occasional evaluation  Routine evaluation and  Institutionalized routine Increase focus on and monitoring is in and monitoring of monitoring of several evaluation and monitoring outcomes, place to ensure efficiency limited aspects of key aspects of training of all key aspects of the efficiency and in delivery of training training services is in place services is in place with delivery of training innovation services. with results used to results used to provide services with results used to provide feedback to the feedback to training provide feedback to training institutions; institutions, to prioritize institutions, to prioritize information on labor funding allocations, and funding allocations, identify market outcomes of identify good practices in good practices and options graduates is publicly service delivery; for system-level available for some information on labor improvements; online institutions only. market outcomes of dissemination of labor graduates is publicly market outcomes of available for all graduates is available to all institutions. users. SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 73 Authorship and Acknowledgements This report is a product of collaborative effort The team gratefully acknowledges the time that between Dr Arwen Raddon (Principal informants gave to support this study. As well as Investigator) and the World Bank’s SABER-WfD participating in interviews and attending a validation Team led by Jee-Peng Tan, whose members seminar, a number of parties read carefully through include Rita Costa, Ryan Flynn, Kiong Hock Lee, the report and provided suggestions and comments, Joy Yoo-Jeung Nam and Brent Parton. particularly: Ministry of Education, Ministry of Manpower, Singapore Workforce Development Dr Arwen Raddon collected the data using the Agency, Institute of Technical Education, Institute of SABER-WfD data collection instrument, prepared Adult Learning, Nanyang Polytechnic, Employment drafts of the report, and finalized the report; the and Employability Institute, Council for Private Bank team scored the data, designed the template Education and Professor Saravanan Gopinathan. We for the report, provided support in formatting and hope that, in return, this will prove a useful tool for graphics, and made substantive feedback on the them. write up. The research team gratefully acknowledges the The current version of the report has benefited generous financial support of the Government of from close review and feedback from Professor the United Kingdom through its Partnership for David Ashton, an expert on workforce Education Development (PFED) with the Word development in Asia. Bank and of the Korean Government through the Korean Trust Fund at the World Bank. SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS 747 4 www.worldbank.org/education/saber The Systems Approach for Better Education Results (SABER) initiative produces comparative data and knowledge on education policies and institutions, with the aim of helping countries systematically strengthen their education systems. SABER evaluates the quality of education policies against evidence-based global standards, using new diagnostic tools and detailed policy data. The SABER country reports give all parties with a stake in educational results—from administrators, teachers, and parents to policymakers and business people—an accessible, objective snapshot showing how well the policies of their country's education system are oriented toward ensuring that all children and youth learn. This report focuses specifically on policies in the area of Workforce Development This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Government of the Republic of Korea THE WORLD BANK SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR BETTER EDUCATION RESULTS